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{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICS PUBLICATIONS\nThe following list of material, published under direction of the Committee\non the Improvement of Physics Teaching, is now ready and new material will be\nannounced in the National Education Association Bulletin as fast as published.\nComplete files are too bulky to inclose in the carton with the Proceedings.\nSuch monographs and charts as members may desire will be sent free upon request.\n\nCHARTS:\n\nTwo charts IJ^ x20 in. showing:\n\nA. Exploded\nof D'Arsonal type ammeter, showing parts and interior\nof assembled view\ninstrument.\nB.\n\nWiring diagram, showing complete connections of voltmeter, ammeter, generator,\netc., to a lamp as used in the well-known experiment showing that the electrical energy\nrequired to operate an incandescent lamp is chiefly converted to heat.\n\nMonograph 2 — Elementary Electrical Testing\n\nWeston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J.\n\nA copy of this monograph was sent with the 1913 Proceedings. It contains laboratory\nexercises which are recommended by the technical staff of this company as being thoroughly\npractical.\n\nMonograph 3 — Edison Storage Batteries\n\nThe Edison Storage Battery Co., Orange, N. J.\n\nThis pamphlet tells both how this battery is manufactured by modern factory methods and\nhow it has found special uses in schools.\n\nMonograph 4 — Experimental Electrical Testing\nWeston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N, J.\n\nThis booklet contains selected laboratory exercises as actually performed oy students in\nvarious schools. These with the letters of transmission and other comments constitute a\nrecord of work done of great value to teachers for the purpose of comparison.\n\nMonograph 5 — Mechanics of the Sewing Machine\nSinger Sewing Machine Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.\n\nA pamphlet of 80 pages containing reports from teachers respecting use of sewing machine\nas a means of teaching physics to girls, also an illustrated history respecting the development\nof the Singer machine.\n\nWall Charts — Mechanics of the Sewing Machine\nC.\n\nD.\n\nComprise 5 charts, each 36 x 42 inches, illustrating and describing the process of\nstitch formation by various types of sewing machines.\nOne chart, 40 x 36 inches, illustrating mechanism of lock-stitch machines and giving\ntechnical names of each part.\n\nDear Sir: Kindly send me without charge the publications checked:\nMonograph 2 — Elementary Electrical Testing.\nWeston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J.\nMonograph 3 — Edison Storage Batteries.\nThe Edison Storage Battery Co., Orange, N. J.\nMonograph 4 — Experimental Electrical Testing.\nWeston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J.\nChart A\n— Exploded View of Ammeter.\nWeston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J.\nChart B\n— Wiring Diagram of Lamp.\nWeston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J.\nMonograph 5 — Mechanics of the Sewing Machine.\nChart C\n— Illustrating Stitch Formation.\nChart D\n— Illustrating Sewing Machine Mechanism.\nSinger Sewing Machine Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.\nName\n\n.\nStreet\nCity^\n\nSchool\n\n.\n\n_State\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "ONE-CENl\nSTAMP\nBEi\n\nf OHt (tnrh\n\nJ. A. RANDALL,\nPRATT\n\nrOBBIGN,\nTWO-CENl\nBTAMP\n\nChairman\nINSTITUTE\nBROOKLYN. N.\n\n"}
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{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nAND ADDRESSES\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\n"}
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{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "^\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION\n\"'\nOF THE UNITED\n\nASSOCIATION\nSTATES\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF THE\n\nFIFTY-THIRD\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nAND\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nON EDUCATION\n\nHELD AT\n\nOAKLAND,\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\n191^ 16-27\nAUGUST\n\n1915\npubliabed bi^ tbe Hddociation\nsecretary's office, ANN ARBOR, MICH.\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "l'1f,„\n\nL\n\n/3\n\nComposed and Printed By\nThe University of Chicago Press\nChicago, IlllnoU. U.S.A.\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nFAOK\n\nAct of Incorporation\nBy-Laws\nCalendar of Meetings\nOfficers for 1914-15\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\n\ni\nS\n13\n15\n21\n\nGENERAL SESSIONS\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI. Hyatt.\nII. Davie\nIII. Barker\nIV. Barr\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome — Swain\nPresident's Address — Jordan\nEducational Progress of the Past Fifteen Years — Brown\nWoman and War — Snowden\nEducational Progress in New Zealand since 1900 — Cohen\nMy System of Education — Montessori\nMoral Education in French Schools — Buisson\nFinancing Public Education — Joyner\nModem Implications of Secondary Education — Nelson\nOrganization of Public Education —\nSmith\nCubberley\nOur Rural Schools — Holden\nEfficiency and Preparation of Rural Teachers — Foght\nChild Welfare and Rural Schools — Wood\nSelf-Government in Secondary Schools — Welling\nThe Cost and Labor of English Teaching — Hopkins\nThe Junior College — Lange\n.\nIndustrial Training — Young\nThe Growth and Organization of the National Union of Teachers — Crook\n.\n.\nThe Educational Situation in South Africa — Loram\nGermany's Recent Progress in Secondary Education — Appdmann\n....\nChanges in English Education since 1900 — Sadler\nSex Hygiene and Sex Morality as the Aim of Sex Education — Bailiet\n.\n.\n.\nEducation in Guatemala — Tejada\nJapanese Education in America — Inui\nPubUc Instruction — America's Work in the Philippines — Crone\n....\nThe Progress of Education in North Africa — ^Particularly in Timis — Buisson\n.\nThe Recent Educational Development in China — Nyi\nThe Teachers of America and the Problems of Asia — Gulick\nEducation in Bulgaria — Panaretof\nAgricultural Education — Waters\nEducational Progress of Continental Europe since 1900 — Farrington\n.\n.\n.\nIdeal Education the Forerunner of Universal Peace — Khan\nV\n\n33\n34\n35\n36\n37\n38\n48\n54\n56\n64\n73\n76\n82\n88\n91\n97\n100\n104\n109\n114\n119\n125\n127\n13S\n137\n144\n148\n152\n157\n166\n171\nx^S\n186\n190\n193\n199\n205\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "vi\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSome Defects in Our Legal Education — McMurray\nThe Education of the Physician — Wilbur\nShould There Be Military Training in Public Schools ?— Lochner\n....\nThe Education of the Engineer — Marx\nAgricultural Education in Normal Schools — Johnson\nA Greeting from Guatemala — Morales\nThe Deeper Problem of Education in China — Too\nHigher Ideals in Education — Thwing\nAthletics as Education and Athletics as Business — Foster .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nWay of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in School Education — Holman .\n.\n.\nDevelopment of the International Spirit thru Education — SewaU\n....\nThe Education of the World for a Permanent Peace — Andrews\nEducation for World-Living — King\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\n207\n212\n217\n223\n227\n229\n229\n232\n233\n239\n244\n246\n251\n\n(Cincinnati Meeting, 19 15)\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI. Spiegel\nII. Withrow\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome — Dyer\nThe Trap— 5rya«\nThe Protection of Professional Interests — Judd\nTextbooks — Educationally, Commercially, and Politically — Winship\nTopic: The Training of Teachers\n\n253\n261\n264\n266\n268\n269\n274\n\n.\n\n.\n\nA. The Spiritual and Professional Assets of the Normal School — Payne\nB. The Training of Teachers in Service — Kendall\nTopic: Vocational Education\n\n.\n\n279\n287\n\nA. A State Program for Industrial and Social Efficiency — Dean\n.\n.\nB. The Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry — Prosser .\n.\nC. Continuation School Work in Wisconsin — Cooley\nD. The All-Day Trades School— Warriner\nE. The Field for the Corporation School and Its Relation to the Public\nSchools — Chandler\nF. National Aid for Vocational Education — Lapp\nG. Problems of Vocational Guidance — Spaulding\nShould ^Our Educational System Include Activities Whose Special Purpose Is\nPreparation for War? —\nGarrison\n,\n.\n.\n.\n.\nSchaefer\nPinley\nTopic: School CtJMticuiA and Organization\n\n292\n296\n308\n313\n\nA. Principles Underlying the Determination of a Course of Study — Green .\nB. Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy Social Demands\nin Different School Districts? Within the Same District ?—2?t/>fey .\nC. The Demands of Rural School Districts — Miller\nD. The Pros and Cons of the Gary System — Snedden\nIs a National Standard of Education Practical ?— Taft\nThe Investigation of the Efficiency of Schools and School Systems —\nVan Sickle\nAyres\nKendall\nMaxwell\n\n319\n322\n331\n\n335\n337\n344\n350\n354\n358\n363\n373\n\n379\n384\n389\n355\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nvii\n\nReport of Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education — Minimum\nEssentials of a Course of Study — Wilson\n\n402\n\nkotjm) tables\nRound Table op State and County Suteeintendents\nTopic: State School Codes\nA. Financial Support of the Public Schools — S hawkey\nB. The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers — Yawberg\n.\n.\nC. The Selection of County Superintendents — Chancellor\n....\nD. The Determination of the School District — Blair\n\n415\n419\n423\n427\n\nRound Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population of over\n250,000\n\nThe Essence of Success in Evening Vocational Work — Evans\nIlliteracy and Industrial EflEiciency in Large Cities — Shids\nThe Education of Adult Immigrants —\nBlewett\nDougan\n\n....\n\n430\n433\n439\n440\n\nRound Table op Superintendents of Cities with a Population of from\n25,000 TO 250,000\n\nTopic: Current Methods of Dealing with the Exceptional Pupil\nA. The Backward PupU — Baylor\nB. The Mentally Defective Pupil — Cooper\nC. The Delinquent Pupil — Aldrich\nD. The Anemic Pupil — Bryan\nE. The Bright Pupil— Co//ico«\n\n445\n447\n449\n452\n457\n\nRound Table op Superintendents of Cities with a Population under 25,000\nCurrent Practices in the Appointment of Teachers — Griggs\nHow Shall the Efficiency of Teachers Be Tested and Recorded ?— Elliott\nThe Promotion of Teachers on the Basis of Merit and Efficiency — Green\nA Satisfactory Basis for the Promotion of Pupils — Rosier\n\n.\n.\n\n.\n.\n\n466\n469\n473\n477\n\nRound Table of Child Relations\nThe Administration of Compulsory Attendance Laws — Hartwell\n.\n.\nThe Issuance of Work Permits and Its Bearing on Other School Problems —\nWoolley\nThe Taking of the School Census — Davis\nSecretary's Minutes — Oakland Meeting\nCommunity Center Work — Sterling\nSupervision in the South — Brittain\nSchool Supervision in New England — Smith\nThe State Department and Educational Statesmanship — Sisson\n.\n.\n.\nPersonality in Supervision — Crabtree\nProgress of Elementary Agricultural Education in Nova Scotia — DeWolfe\n.\n.\nThe Administration of the American University — Jordan\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n485\n489\n496\n502\n503\n506\n509\n511\n516\n520\n522\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Cincinnati Meeting\nStandardization — Wise and Otherwise — Winship\nIn Memoriam — James M. Greenwood — Blewett .\n\n527\n528\n533\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "viii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONIaSSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nTopic: The Study of Edxication in the Normal School and the University\nA. The Normal-School Point of View— 5ecr/ey\nB. The Compelling of Efficiency thru Teacher Training— FocMm\n...\nTopic: Report of Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in\nSchools and School Systems\n\n539\n544\n\nA. The Aims of Education— 5/ewett\n' .\n...\nB. Reading Tests— /«<W\n.\nC. English Grammar — Maxwell\nD. Morals in the Public Schools— i'A*//t/>5\nE. The Use of Tests and Scales of Measurement in the Administration of\nSchools — Strayer\nTopic: Health Problems in Education\n\n$60\n561\n565\n574\n\nA. Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education — Wood\n.\nB. Methods of Extending the Propaganda for the Improvement of Sanitary\nConditions in Rural Schools — Dodson\nSecretary's Minutes — Oakland Meeting\nThe Purpose of a National System of Education — Pearse\nTopic: The History and Development of American Education\n\n583\n\nA. Secondary Education — Chadsey\nB. Higher Education — Brown\nTopic: Present Activities and Accomplishments\n\n.\n\nA. Elementary Education — Wilson\nB. Secondary Education — Smith\nC. Higher Education — Strong\nTopic: Future Outlook and Possibilities\nA. Elementary Education — Strachan\nB. Secondary Education — Brown\nC. Higher Education — Benton\nDEPARTMENT\n\n579\n\n584\n587\n588\n593\n599\n602\n609\n610\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n616\n616\n621\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nTopic: Kindergarten Legislation\nA. What the California Congress of Mothers Has Done for Kindergarten\nLegislation — Rowell\nB. Kindergarten Legislation in California — How We Secured It and Some of\nIts Results — Clark\nTopic: The Kindergarten and the Elementary School\nA. The Kindergarten-Primary Course in the State Normal School — Hofman\nB. Some Adjustments That Might Secure Closer Integration — Bradford .\n.\nC. Progressive Development of the Kindergarten Course of Study in the\nElementary School — Poor\nTopic: The Kindergarten and Industrial Arts\nA. The Influences of Modem Education upon Handwork for Young Children— Barbour\nB. Practical Connections between Aesthetic and Industrial Walues—Waikins\nTopic: Child Study\n\n629\n\n631\n632\n637\n641\n642\n\n647\n654\n\nA. Modem Psychology in Its Relation to Discipline— fformow\n.\n.\n.658\nB. Education in Relation to the Imagination of the Little CMd—Montessori\n661\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nix\nPAGE\n\nChild Education as a Basis for the New Internationalism —\nSewall\nThomas\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\n667\n668\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nSome Factors Making for Growth of Elementary Teachers in the Field —\nBoehringer\n\n671\n\nThe Teacher's Field in Public Health Work— Allison\nStandardization of the Rural Schools — Carleton\nThe Efficient Country School — Johnson\nCommunity Center Work — Preston\nSome New Problems for the Old School — S hawkey\nThe Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Probational in Discipline in the Public Schools —\nCrabtree\nWorking Plans for the Home Teacher — Chase\nThe New Citizenship — Andrews\nUnconscious Discipline — The Blend of the Self-acting Group — Kirk\n.\n.\n.\nWhat Becomes of the Grammar-School Graduates and the High-School NonGraduates ?— Van Norman\nThe Large versus the Small Unit for Rural-School Administration and Supervision— Clark\nThe Special Teacher — Dorsey .\nThe Organization of Intellectual Work in School — Monies sori\n\n676\n679\n683\n687\n691\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nUniversity Surveys — Cubberley\nReed College and Civic Service — Foster\nHigher Education in the Philippine Islands — Crone\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\n694\n698\n702\n706\n708\n710\n713\n717\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n■.\n.\nThe Place and Function of the High School in the American System of Education —\nBrown\n'.\n.\nThe Possibilities of the High-School Library — Hargreaves\nThe Secondary Schools of the Philippine Islands — Crone\nExtra-curricular Activities: Their Relation to the Curricular Work of the School —\nFroula\nHigh-School Efficiency and What It Means to a Community — Snyder\n.\n.\n.\nThe Organization of High Schools into Junior and Senior Sections — Claxton\n.\n.\nThe Future High School — Avery\nDEPARTMENT\n\n672\n\n723\n724\n730\n734\n737\n742\n747\n748\n\nEDUCATION\n7SS\n7SS\n757\n760\n\n.\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Cincinnati Meeting\nThe Place and Scope of Sociology in the Normal School — Keith\nThe Question of Federal Aid for Normal Schools — Bagley\nNormal-School Extension Courses in Education — Judd\nTopic: Normal-School Extension Courses in Five States\nA. History of the Extension Movement in Illinois — Morgan\nB. Extension Service for Iowa Teachers — Seerley\nC. Normal-School Extension in Ohio — Martzolff\nSecretary's Minutes — Oakland Meeting\n\n....\n\n....\n\n763\n764\n766\n771\n777\n781\n782\n785\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nTopic: Prepakation of Teacheks for the Elementary Schools\nA. The Relation of the High School to the Normal School— Ware ...\nB. What to Stress and What to Slur in the Preparation of Elementary\nTeachers — Matthews\nC. They Who Sit at Our Feet— 7CTcr*a\nA Decade of Progress in the Training of Rural Teachers— J5«r»Aa»i\n.\n.\n.\nLibrary Training in the Normal Schools — Pearse\nThe State Normal Schools and the Training of High-School Teachers— 5ceffey .\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nArt in Its Relation to National Growth — Parsons\nHome Economics Applied to Life — Van Rensselaer\nThe School Shop and Breadwinning — Miller\nVocational Education and the Labor Problem — Pearse\nVocational Education, Its Wider Implications — Balliet\nThe Social Phases of Vocational Education — Boone\nSome Social Phases of Vocational Education in the Philippines — Potter .\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n.\n\n.\n\n815\n816\n821\n824\n828\n832\n837\n843\n\nEDUCATION\n\nA. Music of Japan — Inui\nB. Hawaiian Music — Cadwell\nC. Music of the Philippine Islands — Jara\nOF BUSINESS\n\n793\n797\n801\n807\n809\n\nARTS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nForces at Work for the Betterment of School Music — Clarke\nElementary Music Education as a Basis for Secondary and Higher Music Education— Erb\nThe Teaching of Harmony in High Schools — Bumhaugh\nCollege Preparation for Teachers of Music in Secondary Schools — Glen .\n.\n.\nUniformity of Standards in Secondary Music Education — Parsons ....\nInstrumental Music and Instrument Study in the Oakland Schools — Woods .\n.\nThe Eurhythmies of Jaques-Dalcroze — Smith\nTopic: The Music of the Orient\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n786\n\n847\n848\n851\n855\n858\n863\n865\n869\n\n872\n875\n879\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nTeaching the Fundamentals of Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or Training\nStudents to Think — Stone\nPenmanship — Palmer\nFactors of EflBdency in Secondary Commercial Teaching— rrefeccn\n...\nThe Training and Field of the Amanuensis — GratU\nTopic: Linking School Work with Business Enterprises\n\nA. The San Jose Junior Chamber of CommeTC&—McMasters\n....\nB. School Savings Banks — Evans\nC. Student Finances — Barnhart\nD. The Placement Bureau— DaJfee\nE. The Student Stenographer— jB/awcAord\nF. Trade Possibilities between the United States and Australia— g«««n\n.\nG. The Night School as a Factor in Business Education— Desmond\n.\nH. Advertising and Salesmanship— 5AJBe/y\n\n883\n\n884\n888\n893\n897\n\n903\n904\n008\n010\n913\n916\n918\n021\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nxi\nPAGE\n\nFarm Statistics and Standardized Accounts — Bexell\nReport of Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation — McKinney\nThe Latin-American Field and Opportunity — Barrett\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\n925\n930\n934\n\nHYGIENE\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Schoolroom Window — Watt\nThe Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children — Terman\nSome Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for School Buildings —\nDresslar\nStandard School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands — Martinez\nThe Problem of Handedness in Education — Jones\nHealth Supervision of Schools in a Small City — Olesen\nTen Million Dollars for Sanitary School Buildings in Indiana — King\n.\n.\nDEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\n941\n942\n945\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nOrganization and Management of Playgrounds and Recreation Centers — Dickie .\nA University Playground for Women — Thomson\nAthletics in Playgrounds — Teach\nThe Distinctive Functions of Games and Gymnastics — Stewart\n.\n.\n.\n.\nPhysical Training in the Philippine Public Schools — Crone\nThe Educational Value of Playgrounds — Boone\nPhysical Education Essential — Winship\nDEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\n\n971\n972\n975\n979\n981\n984\n989\n993\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n. \"\nCorrelation of Physics and Manual Training —\nFullan\nTwiss\n\n99S\n\n951\n955\n959\n963\n967\n\n996\n1000\n\nCorrelation of Chemistry and Agriculture —\nBlack\nWooster\nProject Teaching — Randall\nWhat Can the Teacher of Geography Contribute to the Survey of Vocational\nOpportunities for Girls ?— Hoke\nTopic: Deviations for Standardized College-Entrance Courses for Girls\n\nIOCS\n1005\n1009\n1012\n\nA. Special Science for Girls in the Rural School — Twiss\n1015\nB. A Chemistry Course for Girls — Jones\n■ 1019\nC. AppUed Science as the Basis of the Girl's Education — Severy\n.\n.\n. 1020\nD. General Science for the First Year of High School — Welch ....\n1022\nThe Place of Pure Science in Our Public-School System — J^ewis\n....\n1024\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nAddress of Welcome — Cook\nPresident's Address — Plummer\nSchool Surveys — Cubberley\nSchool-Board Members — Chancellor\nIs the Board of Education an Incubus on Modern Education ?— Blight\nSchool Grounds and School Architecture — Donovan\nSchool Buildings and Grounds in the Philippines — Crone\nTenure of Office— ZJeGra/\n\n.\n\n1029\n1030\n103 1\n1032\n^o33\n.1037\n1041\n1047\nloSi\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "xii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nLIBRARY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nPAGE\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nReport of Committee on Normal-School Libraries\nReport of Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruction\nin Normal Schools\n\nReport of Committee on High-School Libraries— FaW\nHigh-School Libraries of California— 3forga»\nReport of Committee on Elementary-School Libraries— Power\nThe Basis of Selection of an Elementary-School Library— Caje\nAmerican History in Elementary Schools — Holmes\nThe Library as a Continuation School — Steiner\nBooks and Education — Sisson\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\n.\n....\n\n^*^SS\n1056\nio59\n1064\n• 1071\n1073\n1075\n1078\n108 1\n1085\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nReport of Committee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional\nClald— Allison\nSchool Surveys of Backward and Retarded Children — Williams\n.\n.\n.\n.\nThe Combined System of Educating the Deaf — Caldwell\nAn Important Function of the Home-School for Children with Permanent Mental\nDefects — Farrington\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\n1090\n1095\n1097\niioo\n\nOF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nReports of Organizations Affiliated with the Department of School Patrons\nA. General Federation of Women's Clubs — Barnum\nB. The Southern Association of College Women — Ellis\nC. The Council of Jewish Women — Long\nReport of Committee on School Health — Ward\nThe Development of the Philippine Public-School System in Co-operation with\nthe Home and in Relation to Industrial Conditions — Miller.\n.\n.\n.\nThe Mother and the Child — Montessori\nDEPARTMENT\n\n1089\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n1105\n1106\n1109\n1112\n11 13\n11 16\n1121\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nHigh-School Extension in Agriculture — Lane\nEducational Values of Work — Mills\nHow Boys and Girls Respond to Home Work in a Large City —\nPalmer\nFarley\n\n1131\n1132\n1136\n1139\n1143\n\nSchool Credit for Boys' and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in Agriculture and Home Economics — Benson\n1144\nAgricultural Education in the State of Victoria, Australia — Harrison\n.\n. 1154\nGardening and Fanning in the Philippine Schools — Foreman\n1156\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CLASSROOM\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n1161\nTeachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions — Ferguson\n.1162\nRating of Teachers— Cfo6<ree\n1165\nAbolishing the Rating of Teachers— Parro«\n1168\nVocational Education— Its Dependence upon Elementary Cultural Training —\nRoman\nny^\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\n1857-1870\n\nThe National Teachers Association\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession\nof teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStcUes.\nThe\n\nname\n\nof the association was\n\nchanged\n\nat Cleveland, Ohio, on\n\nAugust 15, 1870, to the \"National Educational Association.\"\n1870-1907\n\nNational Educational Association\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, \"National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed\nNovember 6, 1886.\nNational Education Association of the United States\n1907Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAN ACT\n\nTO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now officers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, ♦Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, *Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connectxut; *George W. Twitmyer of\nDelaware;\n*J. Ormond Wilson, *Wiliiam T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District\n'Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *FrancesMann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, *Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; *Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot,\n•Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charies G. White,\nWilliam H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, *James M. Greenwood,\nWilliam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\nNebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\n♦Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; *Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs^\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia\nby the name of the \" National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec a. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\n♦Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOP INCORPORATION\n\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia, which\nshall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property\nand funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid,\nor to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation;\nprovided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the oflScers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\na Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Associa.tion. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nexpenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the\nPermanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of\nthe Association and of publishing its annual voiimie of Proceedings, unless the tenns of the\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Tnistees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fimd, all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noffice for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia; provided. That the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and\nan office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws.\nSec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their resp>ective duties as such until\nthe expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and xmtil\ntheir successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States\"; and that the Board of Tnistees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, fxmds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided furiher. That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\nby this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the p>assage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any s\\xa\\ due or to become due, or any claim or demand.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\n5\n\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\nand contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action\nor proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued byreason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Amended at meeting of active members held in Oakland, California, August 19, 1915)\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. Teachers, others actively engaged in educational work, and educational\ninstitutions as defined in Section 2, may become active members of the National Education\nAssociation of the United States upon the payment of an enrolment fee of two dollars\nand the annual dues for the current year.\nSec. 3. Educational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library\nboards, educational publishers, and such clubs and similar organizations as are distinctly\neducational or have educational departments properly organized with a definite membership.\nSec. 3. Educational institutions as defined in Section 2 may be enrolled as active\nmembers and represented by any person regularly connected with or a member of the\ninstitution, and such representative may exercise all the rights and enjoy all the privileges\nof active membership, including the right to vote at business meetings; provided, That\nsuch representative presents a certificate showing that the person named therein has been\nregularly elected as such representative of the faculty or membership of such institution;\nbut no person shall under any circumstances have the right to cast more than one vote.\nSec. 4. The annual dues of active members are two dollars, which shall be paid\nat the time of the annual meeting of the Association, or shall be sent to the Secretary\nbefore November i of each year. An active member may discontinue his membership\nby giving written notice to the Secretary before November i. An active member\nforfeits his membership by being two years in arrears. Those who have forfeited or\ndiscontinued their membership may exercise the option of renewing the same by paying\nall arrears and getting the published Proceedings of the intervening years, or of becoming\nmembers on the same terms as new members. Active members shall be entitled to the\npublished Proceedings without coupon or other conditions.\nSec. 5. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members,\nand shall have all the rights and privileges of such members without the payment of the\nannual dues.\nSec. 6. The right to vote and to hold office in the Association or the departments\nis open to all active members whose dues are paid; the right to vote and hold office in\nthe Coimdl is open to members of the Council whose dues are paid.\nSec. 7. Any person may become an associate member for one year by pajdng a\nmembership fee of two dollars.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 8. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected, by the Board\nof Directors, corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at\nno time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues.\nSec. 9. The names of active and corresponding members shall be printed in the\npublished Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses.\nARTICLE n— ELECTION\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the\nNational Education Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active\nmembers of the Association by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of\nthe votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office imtil the close\nof the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen,\nexcept as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their\nduties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall\nnot be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for\nwhich they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected.\nARTICLE m— DUTIES OF OFFICERS\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and\nshall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association.\nIn his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence\nof all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall\nprepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association,\nand with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place\nof the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely\nfixed by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in\nthe programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the\nannual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and\nchairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all\nbills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized\nby the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the\nexpiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the\nensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication.\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and acciuate record of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and\nof the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided\nin the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the\nabsence of direction by the Execudve Committee, shall be imder the direction of the\nPresident, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same\neach month to the Treasurer, shall covmtersign all bills approved for payment by the\nBoard of Directors or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings\nof the Board of Directors or on the approval of the President acting under authority of\nthe Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records\npresent at all meetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors,\nand of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section\n9 of Article I of these by-laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary\nof the Board of Directors, and a member of the Conunittee on Publication. He shall be\nthe custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and\nthe Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his\nduties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\n7\n\nto the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the\nAssociation, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual\nmeeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all\nmoneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The\nSecretary shall not print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document\nwithout the approval of the publication committee.\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of\nthe Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall\npay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of\nthe Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds\nin his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact accoimt of his receipts\nand expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirtieth\nday of June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than\nJuly I, and when approved by said committee, they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the\nweek of the annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nThe Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithf\\il performance of his duties as may be\nrequired by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall\ntransfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed\nby Section 8 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council\nof Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power\nto fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to\nthe Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association,\nthe Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve\nall bills incurred xmder authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee,\nor the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or\nExecutive Conunittee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts\nof money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work\nof all special committees of investigation and research authorized and provided for by such\nactive members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the financial\ncondition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and\nthe Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meeting, and shall\ndo all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution.\nSec. s. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging\nfor the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Coimcil\nof Education, and of the various departments.\nThe Executive Committee shall recommend to active members at their annual\nbusiness meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research,\nthe subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active\nmembership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it\nshall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such invesdgations. When\nsuch special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the active members at\ntheir annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision\nof them; shall receive and consider all reports made by them and shall print such reports,\nand present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer,\nand the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon,\nto the active members at their annual business meeting. All such special committees\nshall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association.\nThe Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers\nof the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the\noffice of Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "g\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds\nof such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful performance of their\nduties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report\nshall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first\nregular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Itshall choose annually its own chairman and secretary.\nARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions\nof public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to\ntime, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual\nmeeting on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year\"; and in other ways use its\nbest efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education\nin general.\nSec. 2. The National Council of Education shaU consist of one hundred and\ntwenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education\nAssociation. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the\nCouncil, and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected.\nSec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time\nof the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association\nshall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall\nfill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, or district in the United\nStates shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council.\nSec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the\nannual meeting of the Association.\nSec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings\nof the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons\nwhose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary\nmembers of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association,\nwith the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its\ndiscussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council.\nSec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\na secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of\nwhom shall be regular members of the Council. The secretary of the Council shall, in\naddition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the\nAssociation a copy of the proceedings of the Coimcil for publication.\nSec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws\nfor its govenmient not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the\nAssociation; provided. That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board\nof Directors of the Association before they shall become operative.\nSec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council\nabolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting\nof the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the\npreceding annual business meeting of the Association.\nARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS\nSection i. The following departments are now (1914) in existence, to wit: The\ndepartments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary\nEducation; foxulh, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Education and Practical\nArts; sixth, of Kindergarten Edu«ation; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\n9\n\nSecondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Hygiene; eleventh,\nof Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administration; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth,\nof School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education; eighteenth, of\nClassroom Teachers.\nSec, 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each\ndepartment of the Association.\nSec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which\nmay hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be\ndetermined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation.\nSec. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs\nof these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and\nunder the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall\nbe limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session for business or informal roimd-table\nconference may be held at the discretion of the department officers.\nSec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\nand a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve\none year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their\nelection, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office\nof president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the\nPresident of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the president of the department.\nSec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the\nduties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of\nthe proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication.\nSec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception\nstated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in the\norder of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each\ndepartment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent\nwith the act of incorporation or these by-laws.\nSec. 8. A new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board\nof Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active\nmembers at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said\ndepartment, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular\nmeeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding\nannual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the\nfield of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be established. A\ndepartment already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a\ntwo-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members\nat any business meeting of the active members; provided, That announcement has been\nmade of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at\nthe preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it\nfaib to hold a regular meeting for two successive years.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— COMMITTEES\n\nSection i. On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association, unless\nappointment has already been made, the President shall appoint a Committee on\nResolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a Committee on Necrology,\nconsisting of five active members, and on the third day of such meeting he shall\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "10\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nappoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active member from each\nstate, territory, and district represented at the meeting. Each state, territorial, and\ndistrict representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active members in\nattendance from said state, territory, or district; provided. That three or more active\nmembers participate in said nomination in accordance with these by-laws; and\nprovided further. That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, territory,\nor district to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with\nthese by-laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory,\nor district, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors\non the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee\nconsisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a\ntrustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided\nin Section 6 of this article; and the conmiittee shall report its findings at the meeting of\nactive members. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated\nby the President of the Association at the time of its appointment.\nSec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories,\netc., to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held on the first day of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated\non the annual program by the President of the Association.\nSec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual\nmeeting at 9:00 A.if., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall\nnominate persons for the following offices in the Association, to wit: one person for President, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from\neach state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Directors. Itshall report to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nSec. 4. The Conmiittee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting\nof active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to\nsaid committee, without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all\nresolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time\nduring the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the conmiittee shall hold\na meeting, at a place and time to be annoimced in the printed program, for the purpose\nof receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them.\nSec. s. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the published Proceedings\na list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accompanied bymemorial sketches whenever practicable.\nSec. 6. Within thirty Azys prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do\nbusiness as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts,\npapers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and\ncompare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by\nthe Board of Trustees. The report of the said accoimtants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by\nhim submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors,\nat their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nVn— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Coimdl of Education, and\nof each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined\nby the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance\nwith these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies\nmay be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of\nthe directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\nII\n\nSec. 2. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning on\na day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily, unless\notherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business meeting of\nthe active members shall be held on the fifth day of the annual meeting at n:oo a.m.\nA regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual\nmeeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be\nheld as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session\nof the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in the printed\nprogram. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient\ntime and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to\nabove in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman,\nand shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of\nall meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by\nthe secretary thereof.\nARTICLE\n\nVm— PROCEEDINGS\n\nSection i. The proceedings of the meeting of the Association, the Council, and\nthe departments shall be published under the direction of a committee consisting of the\nPreadent, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President acting\nas chairman of the committee; provided, That in the opinion of the Executive Committee\nthe funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association\nshall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Associate members must make written\napplication to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order to obtain it.\nCorresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will receive the\npublished Proceedings without written application.\nSec. 3. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any\nof the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President\nof the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or\naddress be published in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive Committee.\nARTICLE rX— ELECTIONS, QUORUM\nSection i. The certificate of membership, in connection with the official list of\nactive members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote.\nSec. 2. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute\na quonun in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors.\nARTICLE X— APPROPRIATIONS\nSection i. Unless otherwise ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year\nshall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in\naccordance with Section 5 of Article III.\nARTICLE\n\nXI— AMENDMENTS\n\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual business\nmeeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the\nactive members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially\nproposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action\nis taken; due announcement of the proposed action shall be made in the aimual published\nProceedings.\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n12\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAS THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved\nJune 30, 1906.\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C, Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States, \"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\nofficers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this aoth day of August, 1907.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer\niKwm Shepakd, Secretary\nverification\nresolutions adopted by the active members, july lo, i907\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the charter granted by the act of Congress.\n\n1907.\n\nFiled in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS\n\n1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chairmaa.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO\n2L RiCHAKDS, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFV, Treasurer.\n\nASSOCIATION\n1864— OGDENSBURG. N.Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Cauf, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\ni86s— HARRISBURG. PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richakds, Treasurer.\n\ni8s9— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\n1866— INDIANAPOUS, IND.\nJ. P. WiCKEXSHAif, President\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860— BUFFALO, N.Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. RiCBAKDS, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1867 — No sessioo.\ni868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gkegoky, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\nJames Ckuieshank, Treastirer.\n\nr86x, i86a — No session.\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbkick, President.\nJaues CxniKSHANK, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1869— TRENTON, N.J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Ckosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Bakbek, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B. Haoar, President.\nA. P. Ma&ble, Secretary.\nW. E. CxosBY. Treasurer.\nNAUE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n1871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. PiCKAXD, President.\nW. E. Ckosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary,\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1873— ELMIRA, N.Y.\nB. G. Noxthkof, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1874— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. WnrrE, President.\nA. P. Makble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Hamis, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Maxble, Treasurer.\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1878 — No session.\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer.\ni88o— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y.\nJ. Okmond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n1881— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smakt, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\ni88a— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nG. J. Ore, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbkll, Treasurer.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Masblb, Treasurer.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n13\n1884— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Okmond Wilson, Treasurer.\n\n188s— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1886— TOPEKA. KANS.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewitt, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO, N.Y.\nNewton C. Dodchuty, President.\nIrwin Shipard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President\nJ. H. Canvield, Secretary.\nK C. Hewitt, Treasurer.\n1888— SAN FRANOSCO, CAL.\nAason Gove, President\nJ. H. Camfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewitt, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1898— WASHINGTON, D.C\nJ. M. Greenwood, President\nIiwm Shepard, Secretary.\nL C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1889— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbeit P. Maible, President.\nJ. H. Cantield, Secretary.\nE. C. HiwiTt, Treasurer.\n1800— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Cantield, President.\nW. R. Gauett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewbtt, Treasurer.\n\n1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Orah Lyte, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1900— CHARLESTON, S.C.\nOscar T. Corson, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n1891— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Gauett, President\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1893— SARATOGA SPRINGS. N.Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1893— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education)\nAlbeit G. Lane, President.\nIiwor Shepaid, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1894— ASBURY PARK, N.J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President\nIrwin Shepaid, Secretary.\n7. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n189s— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Muuay Butlei, President.\nIiwiN Shepaid, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasure.\n\n190X— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer,\nigoa— MINNEAPOUS, MINN.\nWiLLiAH M. Beardshiar, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n1904— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoaos, Treaamer.\n\n190S— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE,N. J,\nWiLLiAif H. Maxwell, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJamis W. Crabtiie, Treasurer.\n906 — No session.\n1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nNathan C. Schaeffei, President.\nIiwiN Shepaid, Secretary.\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasxirer.\nNAUE CHANGED TO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nEdwin G. Cooley, President.\nIiwiN Shepaid, Secretary.\nAiTHDi H. Chambkilain, Treasurer.\n1909— DENVER, COLO.\nLoiENzo D. Haiviy, President\nIiwiN Shepaid, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chakbulain, Treasurer.\ni»xo— BOSTON. MASS.\nJames Y. Joyner, President\nIbwin Shipaio, Secretary.\nAiTHCi H. Cbambxiuun, TreMom.\nIWI— SAN FRANaSCO. CAL.\nElla Flago Yookg, President\nIiWM Shepaid. Seoetary.\nDdiand W. Spuhou, Treasoier.\n\nOF THE UNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n191a— CHICAGO, ILL.\nCauoll G. Pxaisk, President.\nIiwiN Shepaid, Secretary.\nEatheune D. Blake, Treasurer.\n1913— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\nEdwaid T. Faucbild, President\nDuiAND W. Spungei. Secretary.\nGiACE M. Shepherd, Treasurer.\n1914— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJoseph Swain, President\nDuiAND W. Spiingei, Secretary.\n<^ACE M. Shepherd, Treasurer.\n191S— OAKLAND, CAL.\n(International Congress on Education)\nDavid Stair Joidan, President.\nDuiAND W. Springer, Secretary.\nGiACE M. Shefheio, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nTHE UNITED\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\n\nDavid Starr Jordan\nDuRAMD W. Springer\nGrace M. Shepherd\n\nASSOCIATION\nSTATES\n\nFOR 1914-15\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nStanford University, Cal.\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nBoise, Idaho\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nJoseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College\nSwarthmore. Pa.\nGrace C. Strachan, District Superintendent of Schools\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\nWalter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools\nPocatello, Idaho\nMrs. W. S. Hefferan, Chairman, Education Section of the Chicago Women's\nCommittee on Public Affairs\nChicago, 111.\nJohn W. Brister, President, West Tennessee Normal School\nMemphis, Tenn.\nIsabel Williams, Teacher, Jackson School\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nR. C. Stearns, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nRichmond, Va.\nJosephine C. Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nOlympia, Wash.\nJacob G. Colucott, Supermtendent of Schools\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nCora G. Lewis, Member, State Board of Administration\nKinsley, Kans.\nFayette L. Cook, President, South Dakota State Normal School\nSpearfish, S.D.\nHONORARY\n\nOF\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\n\nErnesto Nelson, Director of Secondary Education\nArgentina\nF. Drion, Commissioner General to P. P. I. E\nBelgium\nDon Ignacio Calder6n, Bolivian Minister at Washington\nBolivia\nStephen Panaretoff, Bulgarian Minister at Washington\nBulgaria\nGeorge Langley, Minister of Municipal Affairs, Saskatchewan\nCanada\nJ. C. Miller, Director of Technical Education, Alberta\nCanada\nLoran a. De Wolfe, Director of Rural Education, Nova Scotia\nCanada\nC. R. McKeown, Member of Provincial Parliament, Ontario\nCanada\nErnesto Montenegro, Asociacion de Educacion Nacional\nChili\nL. K. Tao, Professor, University of Peking\nChina\nJosfe Miguel Rosales\nColombia\nDon Luis Felipe Gonzales, Minister of Public Instruction\nCosta Rica\nDon Eduardo Gonzales\nCosta Rica\nJuan Chavez, Commissioner-General to P. P. I. E\nEcuador\nC. W. Crook, Vice-President, English National Union of Teachers\nEngland\nFerdinand Buisson, Commander of the Legion of Honor; Member of the Chamber\nof Deputies for the Department of the Seine; Representative of the Minister\nof Public Instruction\nFrance\nE. Chancrin, Inspector of Agriculture, representing the Minister of Agriculture . . . France\nBenjamin Buisson, Honorary Director of Public Instruction, Timis\nFrance\nFederico Saenz de Tejada, Assistant Chief of the Protocol Bureau of the Department of Foreign Affairs\nGuatemala\nNatalie G. V. de Morales\nGuatemala\nIS\nErnest Lyon, Consul at Baltimore\nLiberia\nFrederick Starr, Professor, University of Chicago\nLiberia\nMark Cohen, Editor, \"Evening Star,\" Dunedin\nNew Zealand\nEdmund Clifton, Chief of Agricultural Department\nNew Zealand\nDon Alejandro Canton, Consul-General at San Francisco\nNicaragua\nDavid P. Barrows, Professor, University of California\nPeru\nManual Roldan, Commissioner-General to P. P. I. E\nPortugal\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCharles Templeman Loram, Inspector of Schoob, Durban, Natal\nDon Adouo Bonilla San Martin\nDon Rafael Altamta y Brebea\nE. J. Beckman, Member of the Riksdag\nT. B. Eastland, Consul at San Francisco\nBOARD\n\nCarroll G. Pearse, Chairman\nJakes Y. Jotoer, Secretary\nRobert J. Aley\n*James M. Greenwood\nDavid Starr Jordan\n\nSouth Africa\nSpain\nSpain\nSweden\nVenezuela\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nMQwaukee, Wis.\nRaleigh, N.C\nOrono, Me\nKansas City, Mo\nStanford University, CaL\nEXECUTIVE\n\nTerm expires m 1918\nTenn expires in 1916\nTerm expires in 191s\nTerm expires in 1917\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nDavid Stare Jordan\nJoseph Swain\nGrace M. Shepherd\nCarroll G. Pearse\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nPresident\n^«w' Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trusttes\nMember by Election\n\nStanford University, Cal.\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nBoise, Idaho\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nLittle Rock, Ark.\n\nDurand W. Springer.\n\nSecretary\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\nDavid Stars Jordan, Stanford University, Cal. Grace M. Shepherd, Boise, Idaho\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\nDiTRAMD W. Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nLife Directors\nBiCKHZLL, Thouas W., Providence, R.I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elker Ellsworth, New York, N.Y.\nBotler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nClaxton, p. p., Washington, D.C.\nCook, John W., De Kalb, 111.\nCooLEY, Edwin G., Chicago, lU.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nEliot. Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nFairchild, E. T., Durham, N.H.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, Jakes M., Trenton, N.J.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D.. Menomonie, Wis.\n\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nJOYMER. Jakes Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W.Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPearse, Carroll G., Milwaukee, Wis.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, HartisbuTg, Pa.\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N.Y.\nState Teachers Association of Illinois.\nSwain, Joseph, Swarthmore, Pa.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\nTeachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nYoung, Ella Flagg, Chicago, 111.\n\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\n\nJohn H. Phillips, Superintendent of Schoob\nBirmingham\nC. O. Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nPhoenix\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nLittle Rock\nCalifornia\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, California Cotmcil of\nEducation\nSan Francisco\nColorado\nAnna L. Force, Principal, Columbian School\nDenver\nConnecticut\nFrank L. Glynn, Director, Trade Education Department,\nBoardman Apprentice Shops\nNew Haven\n{\nDelaware\nA. Henry Berlin, Principal of High School\nWilmington\nDbtrict of Columbia.. . E. L. Thurston, Superintendent of Schoob\nWashington\nFlorida\nW. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . . Tallahassee\nGeorgia\nM. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Education\nAtlanta\nId^\nWalter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schoob\nPocatello\nDlJnob\nWilliam H. Campbell, Examination Department, Board of\nEducation\nChicago\n* Deceased\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\nPorto Rico\n\nExecutive Committee\n\n17\n\nMilo H. Stuart, Principal, Manual Training High School . . Indianapolis\nL. H. MiNKEL, Superintendent of Schools\nFort Dodge\nJohn MacDonau), Editor, Western School Journal\nTopeka\nJ. G. Crabbe, President, State Normal School\nRichmond\nThomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education\nBaton Rouge\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono\nCharles J. Koch, First Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Baltimore\nRobert J. Fuller, Superintendent of Schools\nNorth Attleboro\nFred L. Keeler, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Lansing\nAgnes E. Doherty, Teacher, Central High School\nSt. Paul\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nW. P. Evans, State Superintendent of Public Schools\nJefierson City\nHenry A. Davee, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Helena\nFrederick M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools\nLincoln\nGeorge E. McCracken, Principal, Public Schoob\nDayton\nHenry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nConcord\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional\nChildren\nPlainfield\nAlvan N. White, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Santa Fe\nThomas E. Finegan, Assistant Commissioner for Elementary\nEducation\nAlbany\nFilancis M. Harper, Superintendent of Schools\nRaleigh\nCharles C. Root, Superintendent of Schools\nBismarck\nJacob A. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools\nColumbus\nEdwin S. Monroe, Superintendent of Schools\nMuskogee\nHallie C. Thomas, Teacher, City Schools\nPortland\nReed B. T?itrick, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHarrisburg\nIsaac O. Winslow, Superintendent of Schools\nProvidence\nD. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial\nCollege\nRock Hill\nM. M. Ramer, Editor, The Associate Teacher\nPierre\nS. H. Thompson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Nashville\nC. E. Evans, Principal, State Normal School\nSan Marcos\nOrson Ryan, Superintendent, Jordan School District\nMidvale\nGity Potter Benton, President, University of Vermont and\nState Agricultural College\nBurlington\nE. H. Russell, President, State Normal and Industrial\nSchool for Women\nFredericksburg\nElmer L. Cave, Superintendent of Schools\nBellingham\nM. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools\nCharleston\nMilton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools\nMilwaukee\nC. A. Duniway, President, University of Wyoming\nLaramie\nVaughan MacCaughey, Editor, Hawaii Educational Review Honolulu\nFrank L. Crone, Director of Education\nManila\nEdward M. Bainter, Commissioner of Education\n; . San Juan\nDEPARTMENT\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nOFFICERS\n\nOFFICERS\n\n14'atioiial Council\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nJames Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nWilliam B. Owen, Principal, Chicago Normal School\nEllen C. Sabin, President, Milwaukee-Downer College\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College\nA. J. Matthews, President, Normal School of Arizona\n\nOrono, Me.\nRaleigh, N.C.\nChicago, 111.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nRock Hill, B.C.\nTempe, Ariz.\n\nKindergarten\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAnna M. Stovaix, Supervisor and Normal Instructor, Golden\nGate Kindergarten Association\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nMyra M. Winchester, Special Collaborator, Kindergarten\nDivision, Bureau of Education\nWashington, D.C.\nAnna I. Jenkins, Director of Roosevelt Kindergartens\nPasadena, Cal.\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nl8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPresident\n\nMargaret E. Schaixenbeeger , Commissioner of Elementary\nSdiools, Department of Public Instruction\nSacramento, CaL\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, Assistant State Superintendent of\nPublic Instruction\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nMary E. Foster, Superintendent of Cass County Schools . . Plattsmouth, Nebr.\nSecondary\n\nElementary\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge E. M^pgn^T-r., Principal of High School\nDavenport, Iowa\nEiotA J. Breck, Head of English Department, EBgh School Oakland, CaL\nClaude P. Briggs, Principal of High School\nRockford, DL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nLivingston Farrand, President, University of Colorado\nBoulder, Colo.\nMelvin A. Brannon, President, University of Idaho\nMoscow, Idaho\nJohn E. Rouse, Head of School of Education, James Millikiu\nUniversity\nDecatur, HL\n\nIformal\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDwight B. Waldo, President, Western State Normal School Kalamazoo, Mich.\nTboicas W. Butcher, President, Kansas State Normal\nSchool\nEmporia, Kans.\nWatce A. Shoemaker, President, State Normal School\nSt. Cloud, Minn.\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nHenry Snyder, Superintendent of Schools\nFirst Vice-President\nPaul W. Horn, Superintendent of Schools\nSecond Vice-President . . E. C. Warriner, Superintendent of Schools\nSecretary\nMrs. Eixor C. Ripley, Assistant Superintendent of Schools\n\nJersey City, N.J.\nHouston, Tex.\nSaginaw, Mich.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nVocational Education and Practical Arts\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, California Council of\nEducation\nSan Frandsco, CaL\nVice-President\nMartha Van Rensselaer, President, American Home Economics Association, and Professor of Home Economics,\nCornell University\nIthaca, N.Y.\nVice-President\nCarl N. Werntz, President, Chicago Academy of Fine Arts Chicago, IlL\nCorresponding Secretary Florence Marshall, Principal, Manhattan Trade School\nfor Girb\nNew York, N.Y.\nRecording Secretary\nWilson H. Henderson, Extension Department, University\nof Wisconsin\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nMusic\n\nPresident\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLucy K. Cole, Supervisor of School Music, Instructor in\nMusic, University of Washington\nSeattle, Wash.\nWill Earhart, Director of Music, Public Schools\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nHerman E. Owen, Director of Music, Public Schools\nSan Jose, CaL\nBusiness\nReginald R. Stuart, Head of Commercial Department,\nTechnical High School\nOakland, Cal.\nJ. A. Bexell, Dean, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College\nCorvallis, Ore.\nAlvah B. Way, Head of Commercial Department, High\nSchool\nPetaluma, Cal.\nChild Hygiene\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary.\n\nLinnaeus N. Hines, Superintendent of Schools\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\nLewis M. Terman, Associate Professor of Education, Leland\nStanford Junior University\nStanford Univ., CaL\nErnest B. Hoag, M.D\nLong Beach, CaL\nPhysical\n\nPresident\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBaroness Rose Posse, President, Posse Normal School of\nGymnastics\nBoston, Mass.\nClara Gregory Baer, Professor of Physical Education,\nNewcomb Collie, Tulane University\nNew Orleans, La.\nMay G. Long, Supervisor of Phjrsical Training, Public Schools Everett, Wash.\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\n19\n\nScience\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJohn A. Randall, Department of Physics, Pratt Institute. . Brooklyn, N.Y.\nEllwood P. Cubberley, Professor of Education, Leland\nStanford Junior University\nStanford Univ., Cal.\nEmua Conley, State Inspector, Domestic Science\nMadison, Wis.\n\nSchool Administration\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nPresident\n.»\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n0. M. Plummer, Director, Board of Education\nNorth Portland, Ore.\nEdward C. Elliott, Professor of Education, University of\nWisconsin\nMadison, Wis.\nFrank M. Bruce, Business Manager, American School Board\nJournal\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nLibrary\nHarriet A. Wood, School Librarian, Library Association. . . Portland, Ore.\nW. Dawson Johnston, Librarian, Public Library\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nMarion L. Horton, Librarian, John C. Fremont High\nSchool\nOakland, Cal.\nSpecial\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional\nChildren\nPlainfield, N.J.\nL. R. Alderman, Superintendent of Schools\nPortland, Ore.\nSamuel B. Allison, District Superintendent of Schools\nChicago, 111.\n\nSchool Patrons\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nMrs. Philip N. Moore, Trustee, College for Women, University ofthe South\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nMrs. E. L. Baldwin, State Chairman of the Department of\nSchool Patrons\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nBural and Agricultural\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE. C. Bishop, Schools Section, Iowa State College\nAmes, Iowa\nM. J. Abbey, Professor of Agricultiural Education, University\nof West Virginia\nMorgantown, W.Va.\nF. L. Grtftin, Extension Service, Oregon Agricultural College Corvallis, Ore.\nClassroom\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTeachers\n\nNellie Minehan, Vice-Principal, Jefferson Street School\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nJane McCarthy, Teacher, Public Elementary School, No.\n164\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\nMary V. Donoghue, Teacher, Stewart School\nChicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nFIFTY-TfflRD\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOAKLAND,\n\nCAL., AUGUST\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nOF\n\n16-27, 1915\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nAt the Salt Lake City meeting of the National Education Association in 1913, the\nBoard of Directors voted that the 1915 meeting be in the nature of an International\nCongress on Education and that it be held in Oakland, Cal., in connection with the\nPanama-Pacific International Exposition. The Board authorized a Commission on International Congress on Education with a membership of thirty-five. Philander P. Claxton,\nUnited States Commissioner of Education, was chairman of this Commission, and Durand\nW. Springer, Secretary, National Education Association, was secretary.\nThe work of the Commission was carried on by correspondence except that meetings\nwere held at Richmond and Cincinnati in connection with the meetings of the Department\nof Superintendence and at St. Paul at the time of the 1914 meeting of the National\nEducation Association.\nThis Commission appointed an Executive Committee of nine members with the same\nchairman and secretary, which committee took charge of the general preliminary arrangements with reference to the International Congress. This committee selected Frederic\nE. Farrington, of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., as its executive\nsecretary having charge of the correspondence relating to the foreign representatives.\nThe following resolution was passed by the Sixty-third Congress of the United\nStates:\nResolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled, That the President of the United States is hereby authorized and\nrequested to invite foreign governments to appoint honorary vice-presidents and otherwise participate in the International Congress on Education, to be held at Oakland,\nCalifornia, August sixteenth to twenty-seventh, nineteen hundred and fifteen, in connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition.\nActing upon that resolution, invitations were sent to all foreign goverrunents\nhaving representatives accredited to the United States. Invitations were also extended\nby the National Education Association to educational associations in other countries\nasking that delegates be appointed to represent them at the International Congress.\nThirty nations were represented by officially accredited delegates, representatives\nfrom educational associations, or speakers upon the program.\nThe countries sending officially accredited delegates were: Argentina, Belgiiun,\nBolivia, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Equador, England,\nFrance, Guatemala, Liberia, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Peru, Portugal, South Africa,\nSpain, Sweden, and Venezuela.\nHonduras formally accepted the invitation, but its delegate was not present.\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSpeakers were present representing the following countries in addition to those from\nwhich delegates were present: Australia, Cuba, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, The\nNetherlands, and Persia.\nA large number of educational organizations held their meetings during the two weeks\nof the International Congress on Education in order that their members might receive\nthe benefit of attendance upon both meetings. The organizations represented in our\noflBcial program were: Association of American Agricioltural Colleges and Experiment\nStations; League of Teachers' Associations; State and National Club Leaders; National\nVocational Gmdance Association; National Council of Teachers of English; School\nGarden Association of America; International Congress of School Women; International\nKindergarten Union; Association of State Superintendents; National Association of\nExecutive and Administrative Women in Education; American School Peace League;\nNational Association of Teachers' Agencies; Conference of Textbook Authors; National\nCoimcil of Geography Teachers; National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher\nAssociations; Association for the Promotion of the Civic Education of Adiilts thru the\nWider Use of Schoolhouses; American Home Economics Association; the Religious\nEducation Association; Montessori Congress; National Association of State Universities.\nSaturday, August 21, was observed as National Education Association Day at the\nPanama-Pacific International Exposition, and Sunday, August 22, was observed as Educational Sunday by the churches of Oakland.\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nOPENING\n\nSESSION — Monday\n\nForenoon, August 16, 9:00 o'clock\n\nThe Fifty-third Annual Convention of the National Education Association was\nopened in the City Auditorium, Oakland, Cal., at 9:00 a.m., on August 16.\nVice-President Joseph Swain, president, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.,\npresided at the opening of the session.\nAfter a musical program by the Elementary School Band, Nancy Cattell, of the\nCollege of Speech Arts, Denver, Colo., read the Twenty-fourth Psahn, after which the\naudience joined in the repetition of the Lord's Prayer.\nAddresses of welcome were given by the following speakers: Edward Hyatt, state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal.; John L. Davie, mayor of Oakland,\nOakland, Cal.; A. C. Barker, superintendent of schools, Oakland, Cal.; and James A.\nBarr, director of congresses, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Cal.\nA response to the addresses of welcome was made by Vice-President Swain.\nAt this point, Chairman Swain introduced to the audience David Starr Jordan,\nchancellor, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal., president of\nthe National Education Association, and transferred to him the conduct of the convention.\nPresident Jordan delivered the presidential address of the year, which was entitled \"The\nTeacher and War.\"\nThis was followed by an address on \"Educational Progress of the Past Fifteen\nYears\" by Ehner E. Brown, chancellor. New York University, New York, N.Y.\nMrs. Philip Snowden, Liverpool, England, spoke on \"Woman and War.\"\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — ^Monday Afternoon, August 16, 2:30 o'clock\nMusic — Elementary School Orchestra\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\nStar, \"Educational\nDunedin, NewProgress\nZealand.in New Zealand since 1900\"— Mark Cohen, editor. Evening\n\n\"My System of Education \"—Maria Montessori, M.D., Rome, Italy.\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n23\n\n\"Moral Education in French Schools\" — Ferdinand Buisson, commander in the\nLegion of Honor; member of the Chamber of Deputies for the Department of the Seine,\nParis, France.\nAfter the program, the officially accredited delegates from foreign countries were\nintroduced.\nThe active members of the Association assembled by states at 5:30 p.m., either in\nthe Ballroom of the Oakland Hotel or at their respective state headquarters, for the\nselection of members of the nominating committee.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Monday Evening, August 16, 8:00 o'clock\nMusic — ^High School Band\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\"Financing Public Education\" — ^James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Raleigh, N.C.\n\"Modem Implications of Secondary Education\" — Ernesto Nelson, director of\nsecondary education for Argentina, S.A.\n\"Organization of Public Education\" — Payson Smith, state superintendent of public\nschools, Augusta, Me.; Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford\nJunior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nThe following committees were aimounced by President Jordan:\nCommittee on Resolutions\nEUwood P. Cubberley of California, Chair- P. P. Claxton, of District of Colimibia\nman\nWilliam T. Foster, of Oregon\nRobert J. Aley, of Maine\nJ. H. Francis, of California\nFannie Fern Andrews, of Massachusetts James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina\nMary C. C. Bradford, of Colorado\nAlexis F. Lange, of California\nJ. Stanley Brown, of Illinois\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin\nCharles E. Chadsey, of Michigan\nCommittee on Necrology\nJohn R. Kirk, of Missouri, Chairman\nJ. Stanley Brown, of Illinois\n\nSECOND\nFOURTH\n\nJosephine Corliss Preston, of Washington\nJames W. Crabtree, of Wisconsin\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, August 19, 9:00 o'clock\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan, who announced that the following Committee on Nominations had been appointed:\nCommittee on Nominations\nHenry J. Waters, of Kansas, Chairman\nC. C. Certain\nAlabama\nL. D. Henderson\nAlaska\nA. J. Matthews\nArizona\nGeorge B. Cook\nArkansas\nElizabeth Sherman . . . California\nZ. X. Snyder\nColorado\nMary G. Moody\nConnecticut\nClifford J. Scott\nDelaware\nW. Carson Ryan\nDist. of Columbia\nGeorge M. Lynch\nFlorida\nEmma G. Smith\nGeorgia\nIsaac M. Cox\nHawaii\nW, R. SiDERS\nIdaho\n\nEtta Q. Gee\nIda S. Baker\nE. C. Bishop\nJohn Eby\nJ. G. Crabbe\nMiss Hanson\nRobert J. Aley\nC. T. C. Whitcomb\nH. M. Slauson\nIsabel Williams\nE. E. Bass\nJohn R. Kirk\nS. D. Sargent\n\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNebraska\nE. J. BoDWELL\nNevada\nB. G. Bleasdale\nNew Jersey\nFrances E. Clark\nNew Mexico\nJohn Milne\nThomas E. Finegan . . . New York\nRobert H. Wright\nNorth Carolina\nE. J. Taylor\nNorth Dakota\nGeorge C. Maurer . . . Ohio\nJohn H. Bowers\nOklahoma\nL. R. Alderman\nOregon\nH. H. Baish\nPennsylvania\nFrank L. Crone\nPhilippine Islands\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nRhode Island\nHelen C. Putnam\nSouth Carolina\nJ. E. Walmsley\nW. Franklin Jones . . . South Dakota\nTennessee\nF. B. Dresslar\nC. E. Evans\nTexas\nE. G. Gowans\nUtah\nGuy Potter Benton. . .Vermont\nCharles K. Graham. . .Virginia\nRuth Hoffman\nWashington\nJohn C. Shaw\nWest Virginia\nJames W. Crabtree. . .Wisconsin\nJoseph E. Burch\nWyoming\n\nThe following addresses were then given:\n\"Our Rural Schools\" — Perry G. Holden, director, Agricultural Extension Department, International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111.\n\"Adaptation of Rural Education to Needs of Rural Life\" — Philander P. Claxton,\nUnited States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n\"Efl5ciency and Preparation of Rural Teachers\" — Harold W. Foght, specialist in\nrural-school practice. United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n\"Child Welfare and Rural Schools\" — ^Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical\neducation, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION — ^TnimsDAY Afternoon, August 19, 2:30 o'clock\nMusic — Elementary School Chorus\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\"Self -Government in Secondary Schools\" — Richard Welling, chairman, SelfGovemment Conunittee, 21 Wall Street, New York, N.Y.\n\" The Cost and Labor of English Teaching \" — Edwin M. Hopkins, professor of rhetoric\nand English language, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.\n\"The Junior College\" — Alexis F. Lange, head of Department of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\n\"Oriental Education as Influenced by Western Civilization\" — Frank D. Gamewell,\ngeneral secretary, Educational Association of China, Shanghai, China.\nSIXTH\n\nSESSION — ^Thursday Evening, August 19, 8:00 o'clock\nMusic — ^High School Chorus and Orchestra\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan, and the following program\npresented:\n\"Industrial Training\" — Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, HI.\n\"Vocational\nAspects Cal.\nof Home Economics\" — Ednah A. Rich, president. State Normal\nSchool,\nSanta Barbara,\n\"Teachers'\nOrganizations\" — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School,\nChicago,\nHI.\n\"The Growth and Organization of the National Union of Teachers\"— C. W. Crook,\nvice-president, English National Union of Teachers.\n\"TheDurban,\nEducational\nin South Africa\" — Charles T. Loram, inspector of\nschools,\nNatal, Situation\nSouth Africa.\n\nTHIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nSEVENTH\n\nSESSION — ^Wednesday Forenoon, August 25, 9:cx> o'clock\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\n\"Germany's Recent Progress in Secondary Education\" — ^Anton\nMunster, Germany, representing Prussion Kultusministerium; professor atH.theAppelmann,\nUniversity\nof Vermont, Burlington, Vt.\n\"Changes in EngUsh Education since 1900\" — Michael E. Sadler, vice-chancellor,\nUmversity\nof Leeds, Leeds, England.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n25\n\n\"Sex Hygiene and Sex Morality as the Aim of Sex Education\" — ^Thomas M. Balliet,\ndean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y.\n\"Education in Guatemala\" — Federico S. de Tejada, assistant chief of the Protocol\nBureau of the Department of Foreign Affairs, Guatemala, S.A.\nEIGHTH SESSION — ^Wedjiesday Afternoon, August 25, 2:30 o'clock\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\"Japanese Education in America\" — Kiyo Sue Inui, secretary, Japan Society of\nAmerica, San Francisco, Cal.\n\"Public Instruction — ^America's Work in the Philippines\" — Frank L. Crone,\ndirector, Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I,\n\"The Progress of Education in North Africa — Particularly in Tunis\" — Benjamin\nBuisson, late director of education, Tunis, N.A.\n\"The Recent Educational Development in China\" — Z. T. N)a, president. Eastern\nSection, Chinese Students' Alliance of the United States.\n\"The Teachers of America and the Problems of Asia\" — Sidney L. Gulick, Kyoto,\nJapan, associate secretary of the Commission on Peace and Arbitration, and representative of the Commission on Relations with Japan of the Federal Council of the Churches\nof Christ in America.\n\"Education in Bulgaria\" — Stephen Panaretoff, envoy extraordinary and minister\nplenipotentiary for Bulgaria, Washington, D.C.\nNINTH\n\nSESSION— Wednesday Evening, August 25, 8:00 o'clock\nMusic — ^High School Band\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\"Agricultural Education\" — Henry J. Waters, president, Kansas State Agricultural\nCollege, Manhattan, Kans.\n\"Education and Race Improvement\" — S. J. Holmes, University of California,\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\"Educational Progress in Continental Europe since 1900\" — Frederic E. Farrington,\nassociate professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\"Ideal Education the Forerunner of Universal Peace\" — ^Mirza Ali Kuli Khan, commissioner general for Persia, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Cal.\n\nFOURTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nTENTH SESSION — FRroAY Forenoon, August 27, 9:00 o'clock\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\"Some Defects in Our Legal Education\" — Orrin Kip McMurray, University of\nCalifornia, Berkeley, Cal.\n_ \"The Education\nof the Physician\"\nUniversity,\nStanford University,\nCal. — Ray L. Wilbur, M.D., Leland Stanford Junior\n\"Should There Be Military Training in Public Schools?\" — ^Louis P. Lochner,\nsecretary, Chicago Peace Society, Chicago, HI.\n\"The Education of the Engineer\" — Charles D. Marx, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\n\"Agricultural Education in Normal Schools\" — ^David B. Johnson, president,\nWinthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C.\n\"A Greeting from Guatemala\" — Natalie G. V. de Morales, accredited delegate from\nthe government of Guatemala.\n\"The Deeper Problem of Education in China\" — L. K. Tao, professor of sociology and\npolitical science. Government University, Peking, China.\nAt this time, the Committee on Resolutions submitted the following report:\nDECLARATION\n\nOF PRINCIPLES\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions begs leave to present the following report for consideration and action as the message of this organization assembled in annual convention\nas an International Congress on Education, not only to the teachers and citizens of the\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\nUnited States, but also to teachers and citizens in all those countries which have, by their\nparticipation, contributed to the success of the Congress which is now about to close.\nWe appreciate the coming of the delegates and speakers from so many nations and\nthank them heartily for their participation and words of wisdom and cheer. The messages\nrelating to educational conditions and problems in different countries have recorded much\nrecent progress in the expansion and perfecting of educational systems, and have\nrevealed clearly the growth of an educational internationalism and a conception of world\ncivilization among those engaged in educational work. The progress recorded has been\nimportant and significant and promises much for the future.\nOn the other hand, the virtual breakdown of civilization in Europe, which has taken\nplace since the last meeting of this Association, has revealed to us how ineffective after\nall have been the systems of education upon which we have in the past placed so much\ndependence, in so far as the imparting of that type of education which would tend to\npreserve and advance the higher interests of civilization is concerned. _ In an age marked\nby so great an expansion of educational activities, such great industrial and conunerdal\nprogress, such wonderful discoveries and advances in the application of science, and such\nprogress in advancing the social welfare, we see nations heretofore devoted to the arts of\npeace and the advancement of civilization almost at once lapse into a barbarism which we\na year ago would not have believed possible. Not only have the systems of education of\nEurope proved disappointing at the time of supreme test, but we cannot console ourselves\nthat the results would have been markedly different with us had this nation engaged in\nsuch a titanic struggle.\nPerhaps no greater work lies ahead of the school, in all lands and nations, than that\nof setting to work in an earnest endeavor to build up a more enduring type of civilization.\nWe have made great progress in industry, commerce, and scientific work, but littie as yet\nin establishing justice, good-will, and the reign of law among nations. Our instruction,\naside from those fundamental tool subjects which xmderlie all educational work, has been\nbased upon too narrow an outlook. Nationalism has been pushed to the front and emphasized rather than international justice and good-will. The heroes of each nation's history\nhave been those who have done the greatest rnjiuy to other nations and who have killed\nthe greatest number of foreigners rather than those who have conferred the greatest\nbenefits on mankind. Our geography has related too much to the position, growth, and\ncommercial progress of our own nation and too littie to our relations with other peoples.\nOur patriotism has been too much concerned with our rights, and too littie with our\nobligations; too much with securing advant^es for ourselves, and too littie with the\nextension of international justice and good-will. There has been too much talk in all\nnations of \"national honor\" and \"rallying to the defense of the flag,\" and too littie of\nnational obligations and responsibilities. The discipline of our schools has been too much\nthe discipline of the intellect and the body, imtempered by larger conceptions as to justice\nand good-will among men.\nThe people of each and every nation need to sink their nationalism in a larger internationalism and to learn and teach the true place of their coimtry among the nations of\nthe earth. The task would not be so diffiodt if once it were resolutely undertaken. The\npeople of different nationalities do not by nature hate one another and many illustrations\nof international friendliness manifest themselves at any opportunity. The masses of the\npeople do not want war, but peace. International hatreds are kept up by the governing\nclasses and those who profit by such hatreds, and the basis for national jingoism and future\ninternational strife is continually implanted in the minds of the rising generation in the\nschools of the different nations. In most nations today the schools are deliberately used\nby those in authority to instil into the minds of the young an exaggerated nationalism,\nwhich can be touched off into international hatred at such moment as the governing\nauthorities may desire.\nPerhaps the greatest task which lies ahead of the school in all lands and countries is\nthat of bending its energies toward the creation of a new order of international friendship,\njustice, and good-will. Upon the public educational systems of each state and nation\nlies the responsibility of enlarging the national conceptions and promoting good-will among\nthe nations of the earth. Entirely new values and standards for judging need to be\ncreated among the different peoples. In particular the school histories need to be rewritten\nand the teaching in history and geography in the schools needs to be entirely redirected.\nThe emphasis now placed on the deeds of the soldier should be shifted to those who have\ncreated the best of our civilization and rendered the most lasting benefits to mankind.\nThe emphasis now placed on wars should be shifted to the gains to civilization made in the\nintervals between wars, and war should be shown in its true light as a destroyer of what\ncivilization creates. The biologic, economic, and human waste of war should be emphasized, and the fact that war is the breakdown of law and order and civilized society should\nbe made dear to the young.\nUpon those who teach, but especially upon those who\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n27\n\norganize and administer education, rests the responsibility of creating a new national life\nin all countries — a national life which shall prize the fruits of civilization, which shall\nhonor most those who advance the larger interests of mankind, which believes in international justice and good-will, and which looks to friendly arbitration rather than to\nbrute force to settle the difl&culties which may arise between nations. The shaping of a\nnew international policy among nations, looking ultimately toward international peace\nand good-will and the preservation of the slow gains of civilization, calls for educational\nstatesmanship of a high order, and will require time for its accomplishment, but such\nrepresents the greater constructive task now before those who direct the work of instruction\nin every nation.\nIf the work of this International Congress on Education will in any material way\ncontribute to the inauguration of a movement looking toward a reorganization and redirection of the instruction given in history and geography, and a broadening of the work in\ncivics and morals; to the teaching of a new conception of friendship between nations;\nto the subordination of that love of dominion, still so prominent among nations; to a\nnew conception of national rights and international justice; to the substitution of international tribunals and the reign of law and order for the present appeal to brute force\nand so-called national honor; to the development of an international patriotism based\non the preservation rather than the destruction of the fruits of civilization; to an\nelimination of the lust for fighting and the love of military display among all people;\nto the erection of new standards for estimating the value of himian service; and will\nhelp to spread the conception of world interests, world civilization, world statesmanship,\nand world friendship and good-will in place of the present narrow nationalism in all of\nthese respects — it will have done much to hasten the day when the great himaan and\neconomic waste of war, with its accompanying international hatreds, shall have been\nreplaced by international law and order and good-will, and when the gains and larger\npossibilities of civilization will not periodically be destroyed by the lapses into barbarism\nof a portion of mankind.\nOf all the institutions working for the unification of mankind and the improvement\nof the social welfare the school stands first, and, in consequence, the importance of the\nstand to be taken by those who direct public education and those who teach in the schools\ncan hardly be overestimated. What our civilization will be a quarter of a century hence\nwill depend very largely upon the attitude assumed toward these new questions of international relationships by those who are responsible for the direction of public education in aU lands and nations.\nThe National Education Association therefore desires to put itself on record as\nfollows:\n1. The Association looks upon the war now ravaging the continent of Europe as a\ntragedy having no parallel in history. This war is working havoc among the best racial\nelements in all nations concerned, exhausting the near future, bringing impoverishment\nto the race, and throwing an intolerable burden of sorrow and misery on women and\nchildren. The Association expresses the fervent hope that the measures adopted at the\npeace settlement conference will be founded on justice, and will thereby break down\nmilitarism and free the world from the fear of another calamity like the present. The\nAssociation heartily indorses the policy of the President of the United States concerning\nboth the European and the Mexican situations. It rejoices in his eminent services to the\ncause of Peace, which is the cause of Law. To the President of the United States is\nprimarily due the fact that this Republic has remained law-abiding, despite currents of\nfear, hate, and excitement, and stands firm on the only basis on which civilization can be\nrestored or peace maintained — the foundation of Law.\n2. The Association reafl&rms its approval of the American School Peace League, the\norganization of Peace Leagues among pupils, the observance of Peace Day, May 18, and\nthe dissemination of literature bearing on international relations. The Association views\nwith satisfaction the efforts made by the American School Peace League to secure the\nco-operation of teachers in other countries, and hopes that, in the future, similar school\npeace leagues may become active forces in the educational systems of the different countries\nof the world.\n3. The Association deplores any attempt to militarize this country. It again declares\nagainst the establishment of compulsory roilitary training in the schools, on the ground\nthat this is reactionary and inconsistent with American ideals and standards. The\nAssociation expresses its approval of the poUcy of the Boy Scouts of America in keeping\ntheir useful work free from connection with military affairs.\n4. The Association believes that the promotion of international relationships in education, science, art, industry, and social service is of fundamental importance, and that these\ncan best be worked out by a co-ordination of the organized forces of the civilized world.\nTo this end, international associations should have affiliated national organizations, in\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\neach case with a central body having delegates from each affiliated nation. In the interest\nof permanent peace and of world research a reorganization of international organization\nshould follow the establishment of peace in Europe. The United States, with other\nneutral nations, has a great duty to perform in this work of reorganization.\n5. The Association feels that we have reached a time when interdependence and\nmutual imderstanding should create their proper organs of expression thru permanent\nofficials whose duty would be to report to their home governments on the work and progress\nof constructive social agencies in the country of residence. The presence of mihtary and\nnaval attaches in all embassies and legations emphasizes the least desirable factors of\ninternational relations.\nThe Association believes that the constructive side of relations among nations\nshould be emphasized, and recommends that each of the national governments which\nhave participated in this International Congress on Education should be urged to\nappoint Educational Attaches as well to their legations and embassies in foreign\ncountries.\n6. The National Education Association congratulates the Panama-Pacific International Exposition on having made the official series of congresses the central feature\nof the Exposition. The 852 congresses and conferences meeting during the Exposition\nperiod will leave a definite impression of national and world progress. It is a matter for\ncongratulation that education, with 129 distinctive congresses and conferences, has been\n.made the most prominent feature of this great series of meetings.\nIn the interest of world harmony, we believe the splendid work of the Department\nof Congresses of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition should in some form be\ncontinued as a useful means of securing a concert of action among the nations and international associations.\nIn addition to the foregoing, relating to the promotion of international peace and\ngood-wiU and the ultimate substitution of law and order for brute force — a new task\nbefore teachers and those who direct public education, and one which to this Association\nseems to be by far the most important matter brought before this International Congress —\nthis Association further desires to direct attention to a few of the larger and more significant\nmovements now under way in this country, which look^toward the improvement of public\neducation with us.\n1. Child welfare. — Most prominent of these, perhaps, is that recent and important\nmovement for the promotion of child welfare, which embraces all movements tending to\nimprove conditions surrounding the morals, health, and proper development of children.\nLike the question of world peace and international justice and good-will, the conservation\nof child life is certain to appeal to all humanitarian people. Within the past two decades\nalmost all civilized coimtries have become interested in this movement, which embraces\ninfant care, child labor, the protection of the child from injurious and contaminating\ninfluences, health supervision and instruction in schools, preventative hygiene, playground\nactivities, and the treatment of the child in accordance with the laws of his mental and\nphysiological development. Any system of public instruction which neglects the physical\nand moral welfare of children and confines itself to their mental training is certain to\nprove inadequate to meet the needs of either the individual or society. This Association\ntherefore expresses the hope that both the teachers and the parents of the nation may\ninterest themselves in and study the different movements looking toward the conservation\nand improvement of child life.\n2. Rural education. — Perhaps next in importance, and in a way closely akin to the\nproblem of child welfare, is the great problem of rural education and rural welfare which\nsurrounds and affects the lives of almost half of the people of this nation. The solution of\nthis problem demands such a redirection and reorganization of rural education as will\nenable both rural and village schools to contribute much more than they now do toward\nthe improvement of the life of the people tributary to them. A great opportunity for a\nnew type of service awaits the normal schools of this country, if they will but seriously\nturn their attention to the many important problems surrounding rural life and train\nteachers definitely for helpful constructive service among rural people. Large opportunities forservice also await those institutions which engage in agricidtural extension and\nthe promotion of the various forms of agricultural and home economics work among rural\nboys and girls.\n3. School supervision. — ^The movement for the training of supervisory officers, as\ndistinct from teachers, which has recently been begun by our imiversities, colleges, and\nlarger normal schools, is a movement of fundamental importance for the future of public\neducation with us. The problems of organization, administration, and the supervision\nof instruction are now of such importance as to demand some special study, and this\nAssociation commends to educational institutions the establishment of such courses of\ninstruction and to the states the creation of special supervisors' certificates, based on\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n29\n\ntraining and experience, which, after a certain date, shall be required of all who propose\nto engage in supervisory service.\nThis Association also believes it to be a sound educational principle that wherever a\nteacher is at work or a child is in school, be it in city, town, or country district, both\nteacher and child should have the benefit of close, personal, and professional supervision.\nThe city teacher and child are now reasonably weU cared for, but our present system of\ncoimty supervision is, in most states, entirely inadequate to meet the new needs of rural\nand village education. We therefore express our beUef that the present movement looking\ntoward an improvement in our system of rural-school supervision, and the substitution of\nsome larger administrative unit than the school district, is a movement which should meet\nwith the approval of all. We also beUeve that, whatever the details of the system which\nmay be eventually adopted, some adequate provision should be made for opening up ruralschool supervision as a career for men and women — a career for which either might be\nwarranted in making thoro preparation, and which either might hope to enter wholly on a\nbasis of merit.\n4. Teachers. — Recognizing that in the last analysis the excellence of our public schools\ndepends upon the teachers who do the actual work of instruction, this Association believes\nit is of the highest importance that this work be done under the best possible conditions\nas to the promotion of good health, comfort, and peace of mind. To this end the Association expresses itself unequivocally in favor of adequate salaries, security of tenure, a\nsuitable retirement annuity, and working conditions in which there shall be sufficient and\nhelpful supervision, and at the same time freedom from arbitrary or needless restrictions\nor requirements, and from those \"ratings\" and records which unnecessarily disturb the\nteacher's peace and make the rendering of the best service impossible.\n5. Differentiations in instruction. — The different attempts which are now being\nmade to differentiate instruction and adjust school work to meet individual needs and to\nreorganize our educational work along new lines with a view to enabling our schools better\nto meet those special-group and individual needs which we have but recentiy come to\nrecognize as important in pubhc education are movements which appeal to this Association\nas of large importance for the future of our educational work. It seems to this Association to be a thoroly sound and just principle that every child of school age in a community\nshould be provided with that kind of education which will be best adapted to meet his\npeculiar educational needs. The adoption of such an educational principle, however, calls\nfor differentiations and adjustments in schools and in courses of instruction and for a wide\ndiversification in our school work. What our schools have heretofore achieved for the\nmass, they now need to set themselves to try to accomplish for groups within the mass.\nDifferent types of schools, different emphasis in instruction for different groups, a wide\nrange of educational opportvmities, and an estimation of equivalences based more upon\nneeds and growth than upon similar accomplishments will all be necessary. A material\nextension of the school day, a larger introduction of play and constructional activities, a\nwider use of school buildings, particularly with reference to adult education, Saturday\ninstruction, and instruction in some form thruout the entire year, wiU also be necessary\nto the accomplishment of such an enlarged educational purpose.\n6. Enlarged scope and funds. — ^With us education represents one of our greatest\nnational interests, and in no other coimtry in the world have the results of a system of\npublic instruction shown forth to better advantage in the general intelligence, poise, good\njudgment, and productive capacity of the people. This Association, however, desires to\ncall to the attention of our people tiie fact that what has met their needs in the past will not\nsuffice for the future, and that each of the important educational movements so far mentioned can mean nothing less than a further enlargement of the work and function of the\nschool as the constructive instnunent of democracy. Each enlargement of function in\nturn demands increased funds, and, if our schools are to render the service expected of\nthem, our people must be prepared to give to those responsible for the conduct of public\neducation a larger and a larger proportion of public funds. The time is coming, perhaps\nin the very near future, when the enlarged scope of public instruction will probably demand\none-half of the taxes paid by our people.\n7. Co-operation of other agencies. — We recognize with pleasure the increasing interest\nwhich citizens are displaying in the work of the public schools. We commend lie action\nof a resident of California who made it possible for this Association to offer a prize to the\nperson presenting the best essay on \" The Essential Place of Religion in Education, with an\nOutiine of a Plan for Introducing Religious Teaching into the Public Schools\" and thus\nto bring the attention of teachers and patrons to a vital question. We trust that the\ninfluence of the contest may be far-reaching in its after effects, and that, as a result, some\nmethod may be worked out by which the underlying principles of religion may be taught\nto our young people, realizing as we do that the home and the church are not covering the\nwhole field. We aJso commend the action of the President of the Society for Thrift which\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nenables this Association to ofifer prizes, dxiring the coming year, for the best essays on the\nsubject of Thrift, with an outline of a plan by which it may be taught in the public schools.\nThese are movements of large educational significance, and deserve further study and\nencouragement.\n...\n• • j •\n^\n8. United States Bureau of Education. — In conclusion, this Association desires to\nby the United States\nexpress its appreciation of the co-operation extended to it in its work appropriations\nmade\nBureau of Education. This Bureau, considering the very meager\nfor its work, has recently begvm to render a service in the cause of peace and education\nas important as its scope is limited. This Association desires, once more, respectfully to\nurge upon Congress that it very materially enlarge the appropriations for the maintenance\nof this Bureau, and that it no longer delay placing the Bureau in a position where it can\nrender a service to those engaged in the care and education of children, in all of the states,\nwhich shall be analogous to 5iat which has for so long been rendered by the national government to those engaged in the care and propagation of fishes, hogs, cattle, and crops. An\nannual appropriation of not less than five himdred thousand dollars shoiild be made at once\nto this Bureau, and this amoimt should be increased as fast as additional fimds can be\nused to advantage.\nEllwood p. Ctjbberuey, Chairman, professor of education, Leland Stanford\nJunior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nRoBEST J. Aley, president. University of Maine, Orono, Me.\nFannie Fern Andrews, secretary, American School Peace League, Boston,\nMass.\nMary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver,\nColo.\nJ. Stanley Brown, superintendent, Township High School, Joliet, 111.\nJ. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nCarroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nRESOLUTION\n\nOF THANKS\n\nTO THE PRESIDING\n\nOFFICER\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions feels that it would not express the wishes of those who\nhave participated in the meeting of this Association which is now drawing to so successful\na close did it not propose a special resolution of thanks to our retiring president, not only\nfor his courteous services as the presiding officer of the Congress, but also for the splendid\nmessage to the teachers which he delivered at the opening meeting, and for the excellent\nprogram of addresses which he has prepared.\nThe Committee therefore proposes that the members of this Association extend to\nDavid Starr Jordan a vote of tharJ^ for his great services to the Association during the\npast year; that, in addition, we extend to him the best wishes of the members for many\nyears of health and strength and continued service to the higher welfare of mankind; and\nthat our thanks be extended by a rising vote of the members of the Association.\nRESOLUTION\n\nOF THANKS\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions offers the following expression of appreciation for the\nnaany courtesies extended to the officers and members of the National Education Association on the occasion of its fifty-third annual meeting:\nBe it Resolved, That this Association hereby expresses its deep appreciation for the\nmany courtesies extended:\n1. To the teachers and school officers of the city of Oakland in particular, and those\nfrom other parts of California as well, who have done so much to make the stay of the\nmembers pleasant and enjoyable, and who by their many courteous attentions have contributed so much to the success of this meeting of the Association;\n2. To the Oakland Chamber of Commerce and Commercial Club, the dty authorities,\nthe hotels, and those organizations of the city of Oakland who have contributed to the\nsuccess of the meeting by providing meeting-places, by furnishing music, by providing\nfor the needs of the officers of the Association, and by extending many courtesies to the\nstrangers within their gates;\n3. To the press of both Oakland and San Francisco, which has devoted much space\nand skill, to^eporting and interpreting to the people of the state the meaning and significance ofthis international gathering of teachers; and\n4. To the postmaster of Oakland for his thoughtfulness in providing a branch postoffice in the registration headquarters.\n5- To those distinguished educators from abroad, and to all from within our own land,\nwho have made the meeting of the Association a success by their addresses and their\nparticipation in its proceedings.\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nELEVENTH\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\nSESSION— FRroAY Afternoon, August 27, 2:30 o'clock\nMusic — Community Singing\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\"Higher Ideals in Education\" — Charles F. Thwing, president, Western Reserve\nUniversity, Cleveland, Ohio; Henry Suzzallo, president, University of Washington,\nSeattle, Wash.\n\"Athletics as Education and Athletics as Business\" — William T. Foster, president,\nReed College, Portland, Ore.\n\"Way of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in School Education\" — ^Henry Holman,\nformerly\nof\nschools.professor of education, University of Wales, and one of His Majesty's inspectors\nThe announcement was made that the judges had awarded the prize for the best\nessay on \"The Essential Place of Religion in Education, with an Outline of a Plan for\nIntroducing Religious Teaching into the Public Schools\" to Charles E. Rugh, University\nof California, Berkeley, Cal. Special mention was given to the essays by the following:\nLaura H. Wild, Lake Erie College, Painesville, Ohio; Frances V. Frisbie, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.;\nClarence Reed, Palo Alto, Cal.; Anna B. West, Newburyport, Mass.\nTWELFTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Evening, August 27, 8:00 o'clock\nMusic — High School Orchestra\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses\ngiven:\n\"Development of the International Spirit thru Education\" — May Wright Sewall,\norganizer of the International Conference of Women Workers to Promote Permanent\nPeace, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"The Education of the World for a Permanent Peace\" — Fannie Fern Andrews,\nsecretary, American School Peace League, Boston, Mass.\nOhio.\"Education for World-Living\" — Henry C. King, president, Oberlin College, Oberlin,\n\"Internationalism\" — ^John Mez, Munich, Germany.\nDavid B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill,\nS.C., President-elect of the National Education Association, was introduced and spoke\nas follows:\nI deeply appreciate the great honor you have done me in electing me President of\nthe greatest educational association in the world, an association with a splendid record\nof long years of educational achievement. In all of the great educational progress of the\npast half-century in this country this National Education Association has had a most\nnotable and honorable part. It has contributed no little to the improvement in public\neducation required to enable education to meet the needs of a growing and changing\ncivilization. It has led the way in many of the most vital educational reforms of modem\ntimes. It has helped to give a new meaning to education — that it is a preparation of\nthe individual for the duties of life in his environment.\nThere was a time when it was considered anything but scholarly or high-minded for a\nstudent to choose a course of study that might by any manner of means have any direct\nbread-and-butter value. That time is rapidly passing thanks in great measure to the\nleadership of this Association, and it is now very generally seen that a bread-and-butter\nsubject may have educational value as well as Greek or some other similar subject — and\neven greater educational value. This Association has dignified and elevated the teacher's\ncaUing, has secured a clearer understanding of the fact that the good teacher makes the\ngood school, and has helped and is helping to secure for woman the place and recognition\ndue her in all educational endeavor.\nThis Association has always stood for the higher standards and ideals in education,\nhas given its powerful aid to the acceptance of that conception of education which makes\nit include character-building as well as intellect-training, while not ignoring the training\nof the hands to work and the training of the whole child for service — the head, the hand,\nand the heart. I hope we shall never allow our interest in the very important subjects\nof industrial education, manual training, agriculture, rural schools, vocational training,\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand all others of equal importance to cause us to lose or lack interest in the most vital\nwork of the schools — moral training or character-building.\nNot among the least of the services rendered by the National Education Association\nto the betterment of the national life should be coimted its contribution to the harmonizing\nof the sections. It has offered a common ground where the educational leaders of all\nsections, the North, the South, the East, and the West, could meet together and has helped\nmaterially to bring that fraternal relationship between the sections which now exists.\nYour placing at the head of your Association one from the original secession state of Dixie\nwill be accepted as conclusive evidence that the dead past is forgotten in the National\nEducation Association and those taking the lead in the new education in the South will be\ngreatly encouraged. I am not unmindful of the great responsibility placed upon me,\ntogether with the honor bestowed.\nWe have had a great meeting, in numbers, character of the proceedings, and spirit\nof the membership, out here in the mighty West, where the wide expanse of the coimtry\nseems to give breadth of view. It shall be my earnest endeavor to have the Association\ngo forward in all of its great work this coming year, and I know that with your interest\nand S5mipathetic help we shall take no steps backward. We shall all be better in our\noutlook upon life's duties and for their performance for having been here in contact with\nthe bigness, strength, progressiveness, and inherent honesty of western life and character.\nWe shall take with us to our homes all over this broad land of ours lasting impressions of\nthe hearty good-will of Califomians and shall ever cherish in our hearts glowing memories\nof the perfect hospitality of this good people of this golden state of the West.\nPresident Jordan announced the adjournment of the Fifty-third Convention of the\nNational Education Association.\nDuRAND W. Springer, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\nI.\n\nEDWARD\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nHYATT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nSACRAMENTO, CAL.\n\nOF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nGood friends, we greet you and welcome you from the east, the north,\nthe south, the center. We welcome you down to this, the western edge,\ndown to the cool breezes and the sparkling waters of our blue Pacific. We\nwelcome you, not as the orator so many years ago with bloody hands to\nhospitable graves, but with kindly hearts to hospitable homes.\nTruly we trust that the journey brings joy and inspiration to you no\nless than uplift and pleasure to us. It ought to bring you, and us as well,\nwhat?\nWhy, renewed courage, wider understanding, a higher appreciation of\nthe dignity and worth of our profession: Our profession, that yields us no\nmoney beyond the barest necessities of life; scant honor, as men count\nhonor in the world; gray hairs and an early laying-on-the-shelf. Yet we\nhave compensations; the satisfaction of carrying the lamp. We project\ninto the future all the race has that is worth projecting, we carry it along\nand pass it from one generation to the next — not only the tales and the\nsongs of the troubadours and minnesingers, but everything the race has\nsecured from all the past — civilization. We have the satisfaction of our\nresponsibility, of knowing that if we fail even once to pass our message\nacross some interval, the great procession would stop short! And, at last,\ncomes that greatest of satisfactions to the old schoolmaster — the gratitude\nand love of those whom he has taught. These are the substantial rewards.\nLife holds nothing more worth while.\nI pray you, get all you can of the inspiration and spiritual elevation of\nthis classic meeting of the fellows of yoiu: craft, all the exhilaration and\nmomentum that comes from great multitudes thinking and expressing the\nsame ideas at the same place and at the same time. And get more! Man\ncannot live by bread alone. Take some of the pie as it is passed around.\nYellowstone, Tahoe, Yosemite, the Grand Canyon, the sea, the missions,\nthe wonderful exposition across the water, marking in such impressive way\nthe last and highest level in the corridors of tune — it is our privilege and our\nduty to get some of these, too. Not only those who come from abroad,\nbut those who dwell within our own tents owe it to themselves and to their\nprofession to do more than engage in the formal work within these walls.\nIt is the function of the siunmer vacation, of the educational meeting, to\nbroaden the soul, to quicken the spirit, to sweep out the microbes of worry\n33\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand doubt and fear, to relax the strained bowstring, and give the teacher\nbuoyancy, enthusiasm, resiliency — ^yes, that is it— resiliency — against the\never-repeated shocks of the next year's work. 'Tis the schoolmaster's chief\nstock in trade, his most valuable asset in dealing with the young — cheerful\nenthusiasm and unconquerable resilience.\nI pray you, then, do the things, and seek the places, and think the\nthoughts, and expose yourself to the influences during this, your summer vacation, that will best renew and add to your stock of hope and\nyouthfulness, that will best make all the myriad troubles that infest\nthe school-teacher's day to fold their tents like the Arab and silently\nsteal away.\nWe thank you for coming. We enjoy your presence. We hope you'll\ncome again. May Allah make his face to shine upon thee!\n\nn.\n\nJOHN L. DAVIE, MAYOR\n\nOF OAKLAND,\n\nCAL.\n\nAs mayor of this city, it is with a profound pride and pleasure that I\nextend to this convention a most hearty welcome to our city.\nMay you fully realize our appreciation in being the host for an organization whose efforts and achievements so vitally affect the welfare not only\nof this country but of the whole world.\nMen may think and talk reform, new systems of government may be\nevolved, but we have yet to discover a means of uplift that will take the\nplace of education.\nToday while a great part of the world is totally given over to the use\nof the munitions of war, we of Oakland, on the shores of the peaceful Pacific,\nare welcoming to our midst an organization devoted to the most noble\ncause of education.\nOf all the institutions conducive to our country's welfare, none has\nequaled in accomplishment the great American triumph — the public school.\nBased upon the principles of freedom and liberty, the public school has\nextended its influence and benefits to the remotest territory.\nThe men and women whose determinations vitally affect this noble\ninstitution must feel keenly their responsibility. You are the guardians of\nour future. It is by your work that our educational system is to be\nimproved. With this responsibility in guiding our welfare, may you be\nmoved to do your best for the education of our American boys and girls.\nMay the beauty and grandeur of your meeting-place make this convention\nlong remembered for its successful achievements.\nBelieving that true hospitality merely begins with the word of welcome,\nand realizing the high regard paid by all conventions to brevity, let me\nconclude by again expressing my appreciation of the honor which my\nposition affords me and reassuring you that the city is yours.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\nni.\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nA. C. BARKER, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND,\n\n35\nCAL.\n\nOn behalf of the Board of Education and the teachers and citizens of\nOakland, I extend you a cordial welcome to our city. I also desire at this\ntime to express to you our appreciation of the fact that you decided to come\nto Oakland for this meeting and that you honored California in electing\none of our most distinguished scholars as President of the first International\nCongress on Education to convene on the Pacific Coast.\nIt is an encouraging fact for those interested in the development of a\nprofessional spirit among teachers that there have gathered here today, not\nonly representatives from every state in the Union, but also many eminent\ndelegates from other nations.\nThe day is not far distant when teaching will receive in our country\nrecognition, which has long been accorded it in Europe, with the older\nlearned professions, and no body of citizens can contribute to this result\nmore effectively than the teachers themselves. Education in America is a\nstate and not a national function, each commonwealth being free to devise\nand conduct its own system. In the absence of a centralized educational\nauthority such as exists in Argentina, France, and Prussia, it devolves upon\nthe teaching profession to organize the intellectual ideals of the time and to\ndirect public opinion in educational matters.\nIt should be one of the most important functions of the National Education Association to evaluate the educational theories of the moment and\nto adapt our system to the rapidly changing social, industrial, and economic\nneeds of the times. I do not mean that this body should be a clearing-house\nfor the fads of professional educators of \"merely national fame,\" but that\nit shall give approval to the soundest educational opinion of the country.\nIt has become evident to many thoughtful persons that the curriculum\nof the past generation must be modified to meet the needs of the present\nand future. The passing of the frontier, the growth of cities, and the\nincrease of specialization in every department of human endeavor have\nrendered changes inevitable. The traditional idea of education placed the\nmain emphasis upon culture and scholarly attainment. The modern practice adds to this the vocational motive and a vital interest in human welfare.\nThe people of Oakland have long looked forward to this meeting, primarily because they are interested in education and believe in providing the\nbest possible training for the city's future citizen. Tangible evidence of this\nis shown in the liberal expenditures made in the past ten years for school\nbuildings and playgrounds and for the development of the curriculum.\nWe anticipate receiving from this meeting an increased inspiration and\nenthusiasm which will enable us to give better service to the community.\nWe trust that you may derive both pleasure and profit from your stay among\nus and that you may carry to your homes pleasant recollections of your\nvisit to Oakland.\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nIV.\n\nJAMES\n\nNATIONAL\n\nA.\n\nBARR,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Gtneral\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF CONGRESSES,\nPANAMA-PACIPIC\nNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nINTER-\n\nOn behalf of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, I bid you\nwelcome to California. It has been my privilege to help welcome the\nNational Education Association to California just five times. In this liferenewing climate of ours, I anticipate the pleasure of helping to welcome\nyou to California at least twice five additional times.\nThe central thought on which the Exposition is based is the progress\nof the world thru education. That thought is being given expression, not\nonly by means of exhibits, but thru congresses that are bringing to California the great thinkers of the world in education, science, art, and industry.\nBoth the Exposition and the event it celebrates, the completion of the\nPanama Canal, look to the future rather than to the past. For that reason\nboth the exhibits and the congresses are contemporaneous rather than historical, and deal with the things of today rather than with those of yesterday. For instance, no exhibit is considered for award unless it was produced\nwithin the past ten years.\nThe National Education Association arranged for an International Congress ofEducation at the Chicago Exposition in 1893, at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904, and finally for the present International Congress in\nOakland in connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. Of 852 congresses, conferences, and conventions to be held imder the\ngeneral auspices of the Exposition, more than 400 are distinctly educational,\nwhile 129 are devoted to the various phases of education. It is a matter\nfor congratulation, both to the Exposition and to the cause of education,\nthat the National Education Association has taken the leadership in arranging for the great series of congresses beginning this morning. I am very\ncertain that the official Educational Period, beginning today and lasting\ntwo weeks, will mark the greatest congress program on education ever held\nin America.\nYour program has been so arranged that you will have ample time to\nstudy the Exposition. To show you in a word the delightful task ahead of\nyou when you visit the Exposition, let me say that when you enter the gates\nyou will be confronted by eleven exhibit palaces with 68 . 3 acres of exhibits.\nIf you travel up one aisle and down another, without repeating your step\nat any point, you will travel in these eleven palaces almost exactly 47 miles.\nIf you visit the state and foreign sections, the Zone, and aU the other parts\nof the Exposition grounds, you will travel nearly 100 miles.\nIn the eleven palaces you will find something like 60,000 individual\nexhibits. If you seek to accomplish the impossible, and visit one exhibit\nper minute, for ten hours per day, it will take about 100 days to see the\nexhibits alone, without time for the Zone, the state and foreign pavilions,\nor the conventions. If you could have been in San Francisco since February 20 and remained until December 4, it would have been your privilege\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n37\n\nto visit an average of nine convention sessions per day for the 288 days of\nthe Exposition period. I am giving you this bit of mathematics so that\nyou may fully appreciate the size of the Exposition and the need of a wise\nselection in a study of its many features.\nI think we might agree that the Exposition is a world-university for 1915.\nThe director-in-chief, the chiefs of departments, and the officers of congresses are members of the faculty. The exhibits, in fact all California,\nconstitute a working laboratory. The world is the student body. You are\ncordially invited to enrol as members of this student body. The Exposition\nbelongs to the nation, to the world, and to you.\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESSES\n\nJOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT, SWARTHMORE\n\nOF WELCOME\nCOLLEGE, SWARTHMORE,\n\nPA.\n\nThe National Education Association of the United States has, in the\npast sixteen years, accepted for the fifth time the invitation of California\nto meet in this great state. We have in this period met twice in the City\nof the Angels. We were to have met here at the time of the great fire. We\nmet here four years ago and are now here again. The unbounded hospitality ofCalifornia, like her mountains, her valleys, her seas, and her climate,\nmust be seen to be appreciated. We are grateful for the graceful words of\nwelcome which we have heard today. To some of us it is a home-coming.\nNo one can live in this state for two years as I have done and not feel the\nthrill of your greeting.\nThis great National Education Association represents about seven\nhundred thousand teachers and about twenty-two million children. More\nthan any other organization in the United States, it has for its purpose the\nunification of education and the promotion of the whole field. Other\norganizations have for their aim the promotion of some narrow field of\neducation The National Education Association stands for them all, from\nthe kindergarten thru and including the university. The kindergarten\nteacher, the one-room country-school teacher, and the professor in the university are all equally at home and each is an essential factor in the education of the children of the Republic.\nAs we walk about this great Exposition across the Bay, which the\nenergy and brains of California have brought here from every part of the\nearth, we gaze in admiration and awe at it all, but alas, in a few months it\nwill all vanish away. But the mind of man that has achieved it all will go\non achieving still greater and greater things. Herein lies the supreme\nimportance of the work of the members of this National Education Association. Our work is not in brick and mortar, nor stone nor bronze that will\ncrumble away, but in training character and human souls that will live\nforever. Our work is in things eternal that shall never vanish. It is for\nthis reason that the managers of this great Exposition have made education\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe foundation on which their great structure is builded. A belief in education has become universal. Never before in the history of this country has\nthere been such a series of programs of such wide general interest as are\nfoimd in the great series of educational congresses held in connection with\nthis Exposition. Never before has there been such a gathering of the\neducational men and women of the United States. But for the terrible\nwar now raging across the waters, this would have been true also of foreign\nlands. We welcome the more all those who in spite of- this awful cataclysm\nhave come to us and who will contribute so much to these gatherings. We\nnot only extend hearty greetings and good will to them, but thru them to\nall the countries of the world we extend our earnest hope and prayers that\npeace will soon come to them and that they will enjoy forever a reign of\njustice and law.\nIn the light of the world-conflict engaging the energy and resources of\nthe world today, we may well pause and reflect that while educational institutions ofthe world have outlived states and constitutions and have been\nof untold benefit to mankind, they shall not wholly have fulfilled their\nmission until thru the discovery and promulgation of truth they shall give\nto all nations the international mind, which shall place justice above\npatriotism and humanity above nationality. May these international congresses be a link in the chain which shall bind nations into a universal\nbrotherhood.\nMy friends, we are proud to come here representing many nations and\nall the states of this Union, fired with the love of education, and in the belief\nthat we represent a grand army of the Republic which is mightier to save\nthan all the millions of loyal soldiers which, led by the spirit of militarism,\nare marching to destruction and death.\nMay every teacher in attendance at this Congress return to his other\nwork with a lighter heart and a clearer vision of duty. In no better way\ncan we thank California today.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE TEACHER\nDAVm\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\nAND WAR\n\nSTARR JORDAN, CHANCELLOR, LELAND STANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY. CAL.\n\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\n\nIt is said that in the schools of today t^e history of the future is written.\nIt is our fimction as teachers to preside over these writing-lessons. Too\nmuch of the world's history has been written in blood. Such history is\nbarbarism. It shows that we teachers or those who came before us have\nneglected our work, or else that we have perverted it.\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n39\n\nIt is easy to see that the present war is a war of rival militarisms. It\nis a soldier's war — too many men trained to fight, too few men trained in\nrespect of law.\nIt is said that next to the militarists and their lackeys, the diplomatists\nand the historians are at fault. A trail of blood is over human history, and\nthe historians have been fascinated by it, obsessed by it, while they have\nneglected the real substance of history, the growth of man.\nWilliam James says:\nHistory is a bath of blood. The Iliad is one long record of how Diomedes and Ajax,\nSarpedon and Hector killed. No details of the wounds they made are spared us, and the\nGreek mind fed on the story. Greek history is a panorama of jingoism and imperialism,\nwar for war's sake, all the citizens being warriors. It is horrible reading, because of the\nirrationality of it all, save for the purpose of making history, and the history is that of\nthe utter ruin of a civilization in intellectual respects perhaps the highest the earth has\never seen.\n\nThe really great deeds of humanity in Greece, as well as elsewhere, were\nnot performed on the battlefield. They have been possible only in security,\nin patience, in those places and times which have stood as oases in the desert\nof war and waste. To teach history is a part of our business. Only by\nknowing the past can we create the future. But to know the past we must\nattach ourselves to realities. The reality in life is growth and achievement,\nnot destruction. War is always the destroyer. It is likened to a great\nlava flow laying desolate the fertile fields, branching in every direction,\nscorching all vegetation, weeds with the flowers, thistles with the fruits,\nand leaving a trail of evil not removed for years or centuries.\nIf we teach history we must teach the truth. It is not right that we in\nAmerica should follow the method Bjornson describes in Norway — that we\nteach the children to believe that in every battle the enemy was two to one,\nor, if defeat was unquestionable, it was due to overwhelming numbers or to\ntreachery. There is no lesson of history in such teaching, but that sort of\nthing used to have a large place in our textbooks. It is not all gone yet,\nand on such teaching is based the great fabric of spurious history and\nspurious patriotism so potent in bringing on the ruin of Europe.\nAlong this line it has been taught that war is a positive thing, peace the\ninterval between wars, a \"pale negation,\" the \"period of fattening\" for the\ngreat struggles which decide the fate of nations. It has been taught, and\nby great teachers, that war is the nation's salutary exercise, the growingpains of a nation's discipline.\nIt is our duty as teachers to question this claim. If we find it unfounded,\nit is our business to help our children to see its fallacy. War and not peace\nis the negation. Peace is the duration of law. Law ideally represents the\nbest form of hiunan relation, the best way of doing things. Law, as we\nknow it, is our human attempt to realize in statutes what is ideally best in\nhuman nature. To frame statutes which are just and fair, which rest on the\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbest impulses of mankind, the people must work together. Laws cannot be\nimposed on us from above. We know no political \"above\" in our social\nadjustments save the mind and conscience of imiversal humanity. In our\ndemocratic understanding, there is no king and no state that can do all this\nfor us while we are asleep or inert. We, the people, constitute the state.\nIt exists for our mutual advantage, for, \"after all, this is the people's country.\" It was this thought that led Cromwell to write across the statute\nbook of Parliament: \"There is no authority under heaven save the will of\nthe people.\" This is the people's coimtry; and, however the fact may be\ndisguised, every nation is its people's country, and it is thru incompetence\nor ignorance or tradition if the people do not control. They cannot control\nwithout organization. Unless they can think, they cannot organize. It\nis our duty as teachers to help them to think.\nIt is said by those who have made a canvass of certain American cities\nthat about one man in ten is a born \"jingo,\" in favor of war for war's sake.\nPart of these are no doubt incorrigible. For the rest, we may hold the\nschools responsible.\nThe martial spirit has in the main three manifestations — the love of\npomp and glory, the joy of killing, and the spirit of domination. The least\nimportant of these is the first. The frippery of war is most apparent in\ntimes of peace, but with the advent of khaki, vmderground camps, and the\nawful artillery of today, the glamor has largely vanished from the life of the\nsoldier. The ornamentation of war is an inheritance from mediaeval times.\nYet it may endure when war's awful reality is forgotten.\nIt is said in Europe that this is an old man's war, the war of those bred\nin the school of Bismarck and Lord Beaconsfield. The yoimg men have\noutgrown the spirit which in its purpose and method is alien to their times.\nJane Addams tells us that in her toiur thru the fighting capitals she\nheaxd everywhere that this war was an old man's war, that the young men who did\nthe fighting and the dying were not the men who wanted war or who believed in war,\nthat somewhere in church and state, in the high places of society, middle-aged men had\nestablished themselves and had convinced themselves that this was a righteous war to\nbe fought to the end and the young men must do the fighting.\n\nMiss Addams quotes a letter of a soldier from Cambridge:\nThe greatest trial that this war has brought on is that it has released the old men\nfrom all restraining influences and has let them loose upon the world. The city editors,\nthe retired majors, the Amazons, and the venerable archdeacons have never been so free\nfrom contradiction. Jtist when the younger generation was beginning to take its share\nin the affairs of the world, hoping to counteract the Victorian influences of the older\ngeneration, this war has come to silence us. Meanwhile, the old men are having fielddays of their own. In our name and for our sakes they are doing their very utmost to\nperpetuate by appeals to hate, intolerance, and revenge those very follies which have\nproduced the present conflagration.\n\nThis we should remember as teachers — whatever the real truth, the\npeople on one side in the great war are just as strongly convinced of the\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n41\n\nrighteousness of their cause as those on the other. All war is based on hate,\nand all hate on lies, and the way out lies in a broader outlook which will rise\nsuperior to both. Such an outlook the younger generation of Europe was\nbeginning to achieve. The narrow nativism was giving way to what my\nSwedish friend Schwan calls the \"planetary patriotism\" — the sympathy\nand knowledge of international affairs which in its due time will make international war inconceivable.\nIt is our duty as teachers of history to help to do away with ancient\nprejudices. This is the land where hatred dies. Once out from the baleful\nshadow of ancient traditions men take new life and new hope. And the\nmost baleful of all traditions are those of fear and lies and hate and war.\nFor the glory of war is founded on lies and its atmosphere is hate.\nSays Albert Leon Guerard:\nWhile all the thousand streams of modem civilization are converging into one mighty\nriver, historical culture reverses the process. It looks backward toward the headwaters\nof each rivulet. It preserves and emphasizes differences which would disappear in the\nbroad current of modem thought. If we coxild but conjure away the incubus of historic\ntraditions, peace would be at hand.\n\nIn each human being there are instincts social and altruistic, as well as\ninstincts which tend toward combat and destruction. It is the work of\neducation to blend these tendencies into a harmonious whole, that the\negoistic instincts may be turned into elements of initiative and persistence,\nand the altruistic instincts into the bonds of society. When a man finds\npleasure in killing, or in domineering, this is an evidence, in most cases, of\nwrong education. The natural impulses of strength have been turned into\nwrong channels. That the war system of the world exists is mainly due to\nthe perversion of education. Under the guise of patriotism men have been\neducated to regard the most brutal of crimes as a service to God and as a\nduty to the state. The plea of \"military necessity\" has been set above all\nmatters of morals or of law.\nThe war spirit tends to throw aside law in every case of exasperation,\nwhether the cause be real or imaginary. This spirit grows weaker as education advances and as the realities of life replace the mystical notions on\nwhich the martial spirit largely depends. No man who is accomplishing\nanything worth while wants to interrupt his real activities by bodily conflict or by the lawlessness of war.\nFor we must always think of war as the negative element, the absence\nof restraint, the failure of law. War is the abandonment of effort for noble\nends; it is the brutal, blind defiance of all law. It is a condition in which\nnothing can be right, and in which no effort for right acts can find any\nsupport in its environment. Law once set aside gives place to sheer delight\nin destruction. The hunting of men, as Kipling has shown, may become\nthe most exciting of games. War has sometimes appeared as a magnificent\nsport — the sport of kings. As a noble game, men have tried to hedge it\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nabout with rules as in the game of football. They would save its strenuous\nfeatures and suppress its brutality. But the experiment always fails, for\n\"in war all laws are silent.\" There is no umpire and the belligerents do\nnot heed when non-combatants venture to take such a position. The three\nrules of the British schoolboy are unheeded in the rush for victory. These\nrules lie at the bottom of all that is worthy of the name of sportsmanship:\nI will not be a coward; the coward strikes first.\nI will not be a coward; the coward strikes below the belt.\nI will not be a coward; the coward strikes those who cannot strike back.\nJudged by these rules, \"military necessity\" is always a coward and never\nmore so than in the war of today. Victory is supposed to go to the nation\nthat strikes first, that strikes below the belt, and that strikes hardest at the\nreal victims of all war — the women and children who cannot strike back.\nWarlike tendencies again may show themselves in the love of domination. The primal motive of some nations is to break the will of other races.\nTo break the will of subject people gives the key to all rule which is abhorred.\nNever in all history has this policy been successful. Its logical end is absolute extermination. There is no middle ground which is permanent. The\nsubjugated race held by force is a wound in the side of the victor until it\nis murdered or liberated.\nA common defense of war is that it is ingrained in human nature, which\ndoes not change. \" So long as nature produces red-blooded men, the sport\nof war will endure.\" This thesis is maintained in spite of the fact that (to\ncontinue the figure of speech) most recent wars are made by \"blue-blooded\"\nmen, supported by professional war-traders — ^men of \"no blood\" at all. In\nother words, members of the privileged military caste bring on war backed\nup by those whose only interest is money.\nAn instinct for struggle is doubtless innate, but it can be turned to noble\npurposes as well as to destructive ends. There are a thousand lines of\neffort which demand finer courage and intenser devotion than those which\ncenter in war. The qualities inherent in human nature are for the most\npart very simple, elementary impulses. The form they will take depends\nvery largely on custom, tradition, and education. With changing conditions ofsociety the same impulses will manifest themselves variously. The\nweakest mind is the one most governed by impulse or tradition. To think\nfor one's self, to suppress impulses, to overcome tradition and convention,\nis the highest ideal of education. Human instincts change very slowly and\nby the long process of selection and adaptation. Human customs, the\nvestment of instinct, are formed rapidly and mainly by the influence of association. And a great crisis in the life of a man or a race may make a profound alteration in the mental state on which manners and customs depend.\nIn the mind of every man there exist impulses toward strife and destruction\nwhich may be exaggerated or perverted into murder, robbery, or war thru\npersistently wrong education. On the other hand, every man has social\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n43\n\ninstincts, which by proper training contribute to friendliness and mutual\nrespect between men and tribes and nations.\nA British officer writes thus:\nIf you want to kill forever the itching for war, you must try to make peace a little\nless respectable, a little more spirited. For all your fine metaphor, a self-acting machine\nis not such fun to handle as a rifle, nor a Guardian's meeting so exciting as a bayonet\ncharge. To so many thousands, active service, with all its discomforts and horrors, comes\nin the guise of a welcome relief from the uncongenial slavery of the counting-house and\nthe factory. You must inquire whether desire for adventure as compared with the desire\nfor domination does not play a much larger part then you had realized in that very complex attitude of mind which you describe rather perfunctorily as militarism, and whether\nyou cannot devise for us all some kind of a return to nature sufficiently alluring to satiate\nthe savage in our breasts.\n\nBut it is not for anyone outside of ourselves to make life and the world\nmore interesting for us. If the clerk or the hodcarrier finds his job stupid,\nit is for him to change it if he can. The teacher can help broaden his sympathies and appreciations. The reformer can strive to give him a higher\nsocial justice. But it is for him to make his own life interesting. And this\ncan be done in constructive work not in the huUaballoo of war. There is\nno enjoyment in this. At its best, it is only forgetfulness of self. The aim\nof life is not to forget, but to remember effectively and to make the most of\nwhat we can do. The peace-worker cannot be asked to make peace as\nattractive as war. He is only one of many who work in different ways to\nmake life richer and effort more effective. He is not even a \" fireman to be\ncalled in to put out the fire of war.\" He is an agent of law, \"a kind of fireproof building material\" designed to make war infrequent or impossible.\nBut until war ceases its brutalities and its taxes worry us no more, it is idle\nto expect any great abatement in the monotony of life of submerged\nhumanity.\nScience finds that in every race and every group of men there are superior strains, those above the others in physical strength, in agility, in initiative, inmental capacity, and in moral stability. These are perpetuated by\nheredity. In times of peace, they come more and more to the front, replacing, under nature's competition, the dull, the inert, the dissipated, the distorted, and the feeble. The \"fool-killer,\" natural selection personified,\nis always at work, cutting away those who cannot, or will not, master the\ngreat art of living in the world of men. This is the struggle for existence,\nand to meet its exigencies, men band themselves together. The race is not\nto the swift nor the battle to the strong but to those who can hold together.\nThe bonds of society take the sharp edge from the struggle, but when society\nis organized in rival bands, the struggle is savagely intensified. He who\nfalls in the press is soon \"trampled broad.\" Hence, other things being\nequal, in the long run the strongest nation is the most friendly one. And\nas war is always the destroyer of the strong and bold the warlike nation\nbecomes inevitably the decadent one. That is the long cost of war, a matter\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nI have many times explained, the final cause of the downfall of all empire,\nof all domination by one race of men over another.\nEvery army insists, in its enlistment, on securing men above the average\nin physical efficiency. Its ideal is the red-blooded men with dash and\ndaring, a bit of an adventurer to begin with, to be reduced to a cog in a great\nmachine by the pressure of military discipline. In general, those who fight\nbest are most likely to be killed. \"War,\" says Bishop Fitzgerald, \"is not\nthe survival of the fittest but of those who never fit.\" The demands of\nbattle and camp cut off men from parenthood in the prime of life. This\nleaves the men war cannot use to be the fathers of coming generations. By\nthe law of heredity, like the seed is the harvest, and the future of the race\nrests with those who are its actual ancestors. \"Lions breed lions,\" says the\nSpanish proverb. \"A brave man has brave sons.\" Of like import is the\nMoorish proverb: \"Father a weed; mother a weed; do you expect the\ndaughter to be saffron root?\" A nation does not miss that which it has\nnot had. If it did, it would realize that the longest cost of war is that of\nimpoverishment of the breed, the thinning out of the strong strains that\ngive a nation its personality, that create its history.\nWilliam T. Stead used to speak to the university men of Great Britain\nas the \"picked half -million, those who in the future are to conmiand and\nthe world will obey.\" If there be a half -million of these today in Great\nBritain, fully two-thirds of them are in the camp or the trenches. Threefourths of the students of Oxford are there and three-fourths of those of\nCambridge, half of these perhaps never to return. The same percentage\nholds in the universities of Germany and of France. They are all engaged\nin the self-murder which will leave the Europe of the next generation with\nless than its half-million to pick from. War is \" race suicide done by wholesale.\" The millions that have been slaughtered seem far more than the\ndeath of a certain number of men. When a man, in this fashion, mostly\nuselessly, \"gives his life for his country,\" he gives more than his life; he\ngives the lives of the great widening wedge of those who in the ages should\nhave been his descendants. I have seen the university men of England and\nScotland going off to the war. I have seen the others, two hundred thousand more or less, left at home in London to be fathers of the next generation.\nThese are correctly described by General Ian Hamilton, who states that\nan inspector could not endure the tens of thousands of \" weak eyes, incipient\ndeafness, rotten teeth, relaxed throats, hammer toes, flat feet, and knockknees\" which the army leaves behind. These infected by vice and saturated\nby drink are set aside for parenthood, while the \"picked half -million,\" just\nas life begins, are shoveled into the trenches along the Yser and the Marne.\nAll this may be necessary, for the Great War is on. But nothing more\nruinous to our race or more abhorrent to our consciences can be conceived.\nEvery war brings the death of the brave — a needless sacrifice in almost\nevery case.\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n45\n\nThat war spoils the breed is now an unquestioned fact in biology as in\nhistory. This is becoming widely accepted as the crucial argument against\nthe war system of the world, standing second only in importance to the final\nargument of the himaan conscience that murder remains murder even when\ndone on a large scale under the sanction of the state and with the blessing\nof the state church.\nIn teaching the history of the United States, let us be loyal to the truth.\nThe wisdom of our fathers shines out today with an ever-increasing luster.\nIn providing for a government by the people, of the people, for the people,\nthey provided for the strongest and most durable form of government, as\nalso the most enlightened and the most just.\nThe test of national solidarity may be found in its freedom from the\nneed of force in the conduct of its affairs. Let us imagine, if we can, a\ncatastrophe which should remove from the United States every representative of coercive power, every official of whatever rank from the President\nto the last notary public, every representative of army or of navy or of\nchurch or of school, every policeman, every authority of every kind.\nSuch a loss might create widespread bewilderment or profound sorrow.\nIt would have no relation to anarchy. Except among certain unassimilated\nforeign populations in large cities, it would lead to no violence, to no riots.\nThe functions of national life would go on as before, all of them, and\nunchanged. One by one communities would come together and provide\nfor the election of officers.\nLet us apply the same test to other nations. In the France of Napoleon III we are assured that without force society would not endure ''for\na quarter of an hour.\" What would be the result of such a change in Germany today? No one can tell. The German is endlessly patient, even\nunder needless burdens. What would he do, if burdens were all suddenly\nthrown off, if Strengstens Verboten, the motto of Prussian order, were suddenly found to have no force behind it ?\nThe lesson of democracy is therefore the lesson of the United States.\nIt teaches the true source of power. It is no new lesson. The people of\nthe United States are merely European people who have had some additional experience, have learned some things in their travels, perhaps forgetting some others equally important. In like manner the choicest\nthoughts and worthiest ideals of America are thoughts and ideals long before\ntreasured by the advanced minds of Europe,\nAnother lesson from America is that of effective federation. The\nUnited States is composed of forty-eight self-governing states, each an\nentity within itself, managing its own affairs, with its own officials, and its\nown laws, controlled by the nation in those interests only which it shares\nwith its sister-states. Some of these states are as populous and wealthy as\nthe kingdoms of Europe, but each is a jurisdiction, not a power. None\nmakes war alone, either by force of arms, or by force of tariffs, or by force\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof discrimination among nations. While there is all machinery for settling\ndisputes between states, such disputes almost never arise, because no state\nhas the right to use its force to promote private business.\nThe states in a federal union exist solely as jurisdictions. The small\nones have no fear of the large ones, and those not touching the sea suffer in\nno way from their restricted position. A \"power\" hampered as is the state\nof Illinois would chafe against its limitations, and its militarists would talk\nof fighting their way to the ocean. But viewed as a jurisdiction, surrounded\nby similar jurisdictions, the people of Illinois have no consciousness of\nlimitation.\nAnd this should be our ultimate conception of a nation. Its boundary\nline should represent merely the limit of jurisdiction. That jurisdiction\nceases does not imply need of violence between the people on the two sides\nnor require fortification for the purpose of repelling violence. The Canadian boundary is an example of this meeting of nations, not as powers, but\nas jurisdictions.\nThis four-thousand-mile line, ranging thru all kinds of territory and all\nsorts of conditions, has for a hundred years not known a fortress, a soldier,\na warship, or a gun. It is a peace boundary, the limit of the jurisdiction\nof one self-governing nation, the beginning of that of another.\nIn our teaching of history we must discard the boast that \" the United\nStates has fought four foreign wars, victorious in every one.\" It is only\nhalf true and the half which is true is recorded to our discredit.\nWe can now admit that there were two sides in every controversy and\nthe courage and patriotism shown in the war of the Revolution were not all\non one side. Among the despised and hated Royalists were some of the\nbravest spirits of America, well deserving the name they chose for themselves, \"loyalists,\" in its highest meaning. We can recognize that our\nRepublic began her independent life under the two greatest of handicaps —\nwar and slavery. The traditions of war tended to make the peaceful abolition of slavery impossible. And each war leaves a legacy of hate and sows\nwidely the seeds of other wars. He reaps wild harvests who sows dragon's\nteeth, and our country — the \"land where hatred dies\" — can claim no exemption. We say to our students that the Pacific, greatest of oceans, should\nbe the scene of the greatest of deeds in the coming century. To this we all\nagree, but to most of us it brings up some vision of wholesale destruction,\nsome heroic stemming, somewhere, of the great flood which in hysterical\nimagination we call the yellow peril.\nBut the great deeds of civilization will not be deeds of strife. We no\nlonger look for heroes on the battlefield. Some of them are there, throwing\naway for an uncertain cause, handed down from the Dark Ages, the strength\nthey might have spent for humanity.\nThe great deeds of the Pacific are already begim, the buildmg of the\ngreat Canal, the sanitation of Panama and Manila, the Red Cross struggle\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n47\n\nto control the marauding rivers of China, the salvation of the tropical world\nfrom the curse of the hookworm, yellow fever, typhus, and cholera.\nEven the feeding of Belgium, the greatest international charity ever\nattempted, may be claimed for the Pacific, for the master-mind who conceived and controlled the work is an honored citizen of California, a graduate\nof Leland Stanford Junior University. We should never let our students\nbelieve that war in itself breeds heroism. Heroism, with all other noble\ntraits, is bred in the bone. It is strengthened by practice. To be just,\nself-restrained, and self-sacrificing in small things is to prepare one's self\nfor the greater. And heroism in war is the lightning flash of our common\nhumanity as shown against the darkest and most hideous background our\nimagination may conceive.\nIn the journals of Europe, the wars in the Balkans were in turn called\nthe heroic war, the squalid war, the mad war, and the sad war. All wars\nare all of these in turn, or even at the same time heroic, squalid, mad; and\nof all, the final end is sad.\nWhat is patriotism ? Someone asked this question a few years ago of\na group of high-school boys. This was the answer: \"Killing Spaniards!\"\nThis is not a truthful answer. Patriotism never was and is not now \" Killing Spaniards.\" This may have been once the spirit of adventure, or it\nmay have been something very much worse, but it is not patriotism.\nPatriotism has nothing to do with killing anybody. It has nothing to\ndo with the war spirit. Patriots have been called on by their nations to\nkill or to be killed. But this is only when the nation is in trouble thru\nsomeone's blunders and crimes.\nPatriotism has no more to do with war than it has with earthquake or\npestilence. To follow the drum is not patriotism. The patriot is the man\nwho loves his country, who knows what his nation stands for and believes\nin it, who would make his nation friendly and helpful to all other nations,\nand who would give his life, if necessary, that his nation may stand for\nrighteousness. The martial spirit belongs to the mediaeval world, the evil\nperiod when fighting was the chief business of men, and loot the chief incentive for fighting. The growth of science, the development of invention, the\nspread of religion have given us a new world in which war is a stupid, wicked,\nand wanton interruption. To all the fabric of civilization, the martial\nspirit brings havoc and ruin. And the greatest losses in war are those\nvirtues we call manly and virile. Virility depends on the inheritance of\nstrength and on the persistence in the struggle of life — the struggle against\nevil thoughts and evil conditions, against prejudice, hatred, and violence.\nIt is in no way fostered by drums or flags, and it has nothing to do with\nthe killing of men, either individually or collectively. It is one of the\nnoblest of Germans, Carl Schurz, who said, \"My fatherland I would support\nin righteousness so long as it is in the right. If it is in the wrong, then\nabove everything let us bring it to the right.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWar was once universal. Every feudal baron had his private war.\nEvery city kept its own defensive army. We have driven war to the\nboundaries of nations. We have outgrown it everywhere else, but, concentrated on these fateful boundaries, it is bringing civilization to ruin. We\nhave made it so costly that business vanishes wherever war advances. The\nwhole world was paying the bills of Napoleon, Bismarck, and the Czar;\nevery nation of Europe was in debt waist-deep when the great war began.\nThe tenth generation will see its debts unpaid.\nBut each great world-sin has vanished at the height of its most conspicuous achievement — slavery, the Inquisition, witchcraft, crusades;\ndoubtless cannibalism also perished when it seemed most surely triumphant.\nIt may be so with war also; it must be so unless we await a still greater\ncalamity. Great evils find their end when people can see them for what\nthey are. Above all nations is public opinion — the verdict of \"the heart\nand mind of imiversal humanity.\" Patriotism is but another name for a\nwise, patient, sane, and enlightened public opinion. Wars have their start\nwhere patriotism fails, where public opinion does not exist, and where men\nare trained to obey without thinking.\nTake away the zest for glory and its harvest of mouth-filling lies; take\naway the private profit which rises like a pestilence from every war —\nactual or threatened; let men think for themselves a little more than they\ndo now, and the patriotism of civilized man will stop every war before it\nbegins. For every war must stop finally where it ought to begin, with an\nagreement. The patriotism that means harm to other people is not the\nreal thing; it is a poisonous exhalation from the battlefields of the past.\nThe interests of civilized men and nations are one and inseparable.\nThe welfare of one is bound up in the welfare of all. Whatever harms one\ndisturbs the well-being of every commonwealth. \"Above all nations is\nhumanity,\" and true patriotism is hmnanity's service. This is \"Planetary\nPatriotism,\" the wholesome result of the widening of our intellectual\nborders, the enlargement of our souls.\nOur Republic has been called the one great international country. Let\nus do our part to keep it so — not in blood alone, but in spirit as well.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nELMER\n\nE. BROWN,\n\nPROGRESS\nCHANCELLOR,\n\nOF TEE PAST FIFTEEN\n\nYEARS\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nYORK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nIf we are to speak of progress, we must have some consciousness of a\ngoal. For the purposes of this discussion, we may assume that it is the\ngoal of education to prepare all men to live as co-operative human beings.\nThere are many kinds and degrees of co-operation. It is local, national,\nand universal. It is industrial, political, religious, and it is plain family\nlife and neighborliness. In every case, every man must play his personal\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF PAST\n\nFIFTEEN\n\nYEARS\n\n49\n\npart. So the end of education is individual as well as social. It involves\nan increase of personal appreciation as regards those things which make\nfor use, for beauty, and for righteousness; it involves also the kindling of\npersonal devotion to the impersonal law of truth. The end of our goal, as\nwell as its beginning, lies in these personal values; for human co-operation,\neven up to its widest development, is a striving that use and beauty, truth\nand righteousness may prevail among men, that they may be followed\nintensely and freely by men acting in endless diversity and acting also in\nperfect unison.\nSome will prefer to state this aim of education in terms of democracy.\nMost of us would readily accept such a statement if it be made sufficiently\ncomprehensive. It should include the democracy of nations as well as\nthat of individuals. But let me say in all seriousness, that the goal of our\neducational progress is not democracy and it is not aristocracy, unless you\nemploy either one of these terms in so wide a sense that it shall include the\nother. Our goal is a society which shall seek after the best by seeking out\nthe best in every man; it is a society in which there shall be equality, in\nthat every man shall have a chance to bring out the best that is in him and\nto use it for the common good.\nAmerican education had become fully conscious of its world-relationships before the close of the nineteenth century. It had also developed a\ngood measure of conscious independence. But the period between our\nSpanish war and the great war now waging in Europe is the period in which\nthis nation has really taken its place in the family of nations. In education,\nas in many other fields of activity, these fifteen years constitute a period\nin which consciousness of world-relationships has taken on a reasonable\nand workable form. It is the period in which we have been outgrowing\nsubserviency on the one hand and arrogant provincialism on the other. It\nis the period in which we have made the greatest progress toward an attitude of self-respecting international co-operation.\nThis is really the end of an era of which we are speaking; not the first\nfifteen years of the twentieth century, but the last fifteen years of the age\npreceding the great war. Whether we shall be drawn into that war or not,\nthere can be little doubt that it marks a turning-point in the history of the\ncivilized world. How far, then, had the last efforts of American education\nbrought us on our way before this conflict of the nations thrust upon us\nthe problems of the coming age ? And now, these years leading up to the\ngreat war — what have they done for us, as preliminary to the real worldeducation that is yet to be?\nI have been unable to summarize even the salient features of this\nprogress under less than fifteen heads — as many as one for each of the years\nto which this summary relates.\nI. There has appeared a new conception of universal education. In\nthe nineteenth century, universal education was generally understood to\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{General\n\nmean the education of all the children of all the people in the rudiments\nof scholastic learning. Now it is fast coming to mean the education of all\nof the people, of all ages and conditions, not merely in those rudiments, but\nin preparation for all of their needs to which education may be made to\nminister. A corollary of this conception is the belief that every interest\nin life is to be furthered by education. We are coming to find an educational\naspect and need in every human undertaking.\n2. There has taken place an enormous lateral expansion of educational\nactivities and activities closely related to education. We can hardly begin\nto enumerate these marginal concerns, which have directly afifected our\neducational development: libraries and lecture courses, playgrounds, community centers, and the so-called \"wider uses,\" the movement for the\nprevention of child labor, the campaign for health in a score of forms, scouts,\nand campfires, and moving pictures, athletics, pageantry, dancing, and\ndramatics; any one of these and many others might fairly call for more\nextended treatment than this review of mine can give to the whole range of\neducation.\n3. Within the narrower field of the school, there have come variation\nand division. Increased attention has been paid to exceptional children, a\nlittle attention to those exceptionally bright, and a great deal of attention\nto those exceptionally dull. Our coimtry schools have fairly begun to\nclaim a kind of teaching fitted to the needs of country life. Our girls have\nbegun to receive some measure of teaching directed to the improvement\nof girl life and the life of the home.\n4. As regards vocations, the change that has taken place is nothing\nless than revolutionary. Even in the last decade of the nineteenth\ncentury, it was difficult to secure serious attention to the problems of\nvocational education. The purely \"liberal\" character of public and\ncollegiate education was guarded most jealously. In some of the states,\nit was said that the only place where a boy could learn a trade in a\nregularly organized or public school was in an institution for juvenile\ndelinquents. Now all questions relating to education for the trades and\nother vocations are followed with the deepest interest; vocational guidance is receiving some serious consideration; state systems of vocational\nschools have appeared, at least in embryo; industrial and commercial\ncorporations are conducting schools of a most interesting character;\ncontinuation schools are receiving marked attention; and the dovetailing\nof school and shop, as under the \"Cincinnati plan,\" is leading to most\ninteresting results.\n5. \"Social Service\": the words are written at large across these fifteen\nyears. While they represent a great deal of vague sentiment, they represent\nalso some definite educational developments.\n6. There has developed on American soil a new statement of educational\ntheory. It has arisen under the many-sided leadership of William James,\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF PAST\n\nFIFTEEN\n\nYEARS\n\n51\n\nJohn Dewey, and G. Stanley Hall. The nineteenth century saw its beginning, but it has come to its mature expression in the twentieth.\n7. A new and significant attempt has been made to apply to education\nthe methods of exact measurement and of statistical analysis and comparison. Professor Thorndike has given the main impetus to this new movement, and he has been strongly seconded by numerous co-workers. At\nthe same time, answering to the initiative of Professor Meumann and other\nEuropean leaders, there has appeared a more searching and constructive\ntype of pedagogical experiment.\n8. A more complete organization of state systems of education has been\nundertaken in a number of our American states. Some of these have had\nto do with the higher education, as those in Iowa and Florida; some with\nelementary, secondary, and vocational education, as those in Massachusetts,\nNew Jersey, and California; or with the whole range of education, as that in\nthe state of New York. These movements have been accompanied by a substantial advance in the service rendered by the Federal Bureau of Education;\nand by the development, on a large scale, of the so-called educational survey,\nas exemplified by the university and normal-school survey in Wisconsin, the\nstudy by a state commission of the educational system of Illinois, and the\ninquiry conducted by the Carnegie Foundation in the state of Vermont. Numerous surveys of city-school systems have also been made, of which that conducted byProfessor Hanus in the city of New York is the most conspicuous.\n9. Private activities and private endowments have been poured with\nlavish hand into our public education. There has been a continual flow\nof gifts for libraries, colleges, and universities, accentuated by the opening\nof the Rice Institute in Texas, and by Mr. Carnegie's many gifts of library\nbuildings; but, in addition to these, we have seen a series of extraordinary\ngifts for the establishment of educational institutions of a new and independent character: the General Education Board, the Rockefeller Institute\nfor Medical Research, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Carnegie\nFoundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and the Russell Sage Foundation. It is an unmistakable fact that our educational advancement of the\npast fifteen years has been profoundly influenced by these establishments.\nIt has been, in the main, an influence for good. The still more general and\nlargely endowed corporations for public purposes which two of these\nfounders have more recently established give assurance that this will be a\ncontinuing influence in our national life.\n10. This has been the \"standardizing\" period in our educational history. The brunt of the battle for standards has been borne by the state\nuniversities in their relations with public and private high schools; by\ncertain state departments of education, notably that of the state of New\nYork; by the Carnegie Foxmdation for the Advancement of Teaching; and\nby various educational societies, as the Association of American Universities,\nand the Council for Medical Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nOur rapid expansion has necessarily produced a great amount of sapwood, which time alone can solidify into sound educational timber. This is\na danger, but in some measure it has been offset by the critical attitude\nof ovu- standardizing agencies. Such standardizing does little or nothing\nto help oiu: best work or our best institutions. But even the establishment\nof levels of common respectability is of itself a useful service. How effectively has the method of publicity, making use of such standards within the\npast few years, relieved our medical education from some of its worst abuses!\n11. There has been an extraordinary increase in high-school attendance.\nWhile the total registration in elementary and secondary schools has\nincreased 32 per cent, the registration in our public and private high schools\nhas increased 87 per cent, and is now not far from a total of 1,400,000. It\nis a significant fact that, in the meantime, great numbers of the high schools\nhave been advancing as regards their length of course and their requirements for graduation. They are now generally four-year schools. Some\nof the most interesting of recent discussions have related to schools of this\ngrade, their length of course, their relations to schools below and above, and\nthe place of vocational studies in any general scheme for their development.\n12. Our advance in education for the fine arts and for art appreciation,\nfor morals and religion has been painfully slow and uncertain. Nevertheless, the period under consideration has seen undertakings of considerable\nimportance in all of these fields, some of which have had passing mention\nunder other heads.\n13. The main lines of our provision for the training of teachers had\nbeen sketched out in the nineteenth century. But our training schools have\nbeen greatly improved, and the demand for training teachers and supervisors has become more general. Our pedagogical literature has been\nlargely re-written in a more scientific and scholarly spirit than that which\nhad been dominant up to the later years of the nineteenth century.\nProfessor Monroe's Encyclopedia of Education is typical of this change.\n14. It is in this period that the people of the United States have\nseriously undertaken the education of distant and dependent peoples.\n15. A distinct advance has been made in certain types of educational\ninternationalism. Among the most interesting of these are exchanges of\nuniversity professors and the growth of such societies as the cosmopolitan\nclubs in our colleges and the School Peace League in the elementary schools.\nThose who are aware of the world-statesmanship that finds expression\nthru our various missionary societies will feel the appropriateness of adding\nthe growth of co-operation among the institutions of higher education\nconducted by missionary bodies in non-Christian lands. The great Congress ofArts and Science held in conjunction with the Louisiana Purchase\nExposition at St. Louis and the series of Pan-American Scientific Congresses,\nare added evidence of the advance of education into an international or\neven an ecumenical stage of its development.\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF PAST\n\nFIFTEEN\n\nYEARS\n\n$3\n\nSo runs an imperfect list of things accomplished and things undertaken.\nHow much of this is progress ? How much is pioneering along misleading\ntrails ? How much is gain that has been bought with loss ? The time has\nnot come to answer these questions with any certainty. I am confident\nthat ultimate balance will be found on the side of the good; but I do not\nquestion that there have been losses as well as gains. In any case, we shall\nnot be so much interested in these matters as sheer history as we shall be\ninterested in their bearing on the new age that is before us.\nThe period we are considering has, in some ways, been altogether\nwonderful. So far as invention and discovery are concerned, it has shown\nno slackening of the great pace which the nuieteenth century has set. The\nage of world-exploration has culminated within this half-generation with\nthe discovery of both of the poles of the earth. The realm of the air has\nbeen twice conquered, by the aeroplane and by the wireless telegraph.\nThe motor car and the submarine, while not unknown to the nineteenth\ncentury, have revolutionized warfare at sea and transportation upon the\nland. The terror of yellow fever, of meningitis, and of half a dozen other\ndiseases has been broken, if not destroyed. The discovery of radium has\nopened a new lead into the central mysteries of the physical universe.\nNew combinations of sanitation, mechanical device, and industrial organization have made possible the Panama Canal and other engineering works\nthat may compare with it in magnitude. The age is not an ignoble one\nwhich has such achievements as these to its credit, even tho a great part of\nits mechanical and industrial gains have just now been turned into the work\nof deliberate and wholesale destruction.\nBut again, we feel that we are in the early dawn of civilization, and we\nlook forward to the next succeeding work of education and the part it is\nto have in bringing on the new day and the work of that new day.\nAs it would appear to us now, there are three capital and overshadowing\nissues that must be met on the threshold of that coming age. These are,\nfirst, the issue of justice and good- will among nations; secondly, the issue\nof justice and good-will among the different races of men; and thirdly, the\nissue of justice and good- will as between the different classes of our industrial\nsociety. It is no part of my purpose now to discuss these three paramount\nissues. We are to consider rather what relation our education is to have\nto the determination of those issues.\nAnd let us say in all frankness that the educational systems of Europe\nhave proved disappointing because of their apparent lack of influence in the\npresent crisis of world-affairs. Schoolmasters, school systems, universities,\nand all, have simply been swept along by the stream of national belligerency. We have no reason to suppose that the case would have been greatly\ndifferent if our own land had been involved in the conflict.\nAn ancient cartoon, discovered, I believe, at Pompeii, represents a\ndragon harnessed to a chariot, while a tiny butterfly, sitting on the chariot\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nrail, is holding the reins. It may have been intended to represent Seneca\nas the teacher and guide of Nero. For the present age, it represents education, the higher life, the spiritual life, attempting to direct and tame a world\nof violence.\nLooked at with the ironical insight of this Roman cartoon, the problem\nof educational progress becomes as imperative and strenuous as war itself.\nMethods and materials are not unimportant nor are the forms of administration. But the great thing is the question whether we can frame institutions of education sufficiently powerful to mold our national life and guide\nit in ways of righteousness. With all of its bigness, our education will be\ntoo petty an affair, imless its results shall come out beneficently and decisively intimes of national stress and strain. It is the function of a national educational association to plan, from the ground up, a national system\nwhich shall be equal to the demands of any national emergency as well as\nequal to the daily needs of the nation.\n\nWOMAN\nMRS. PHILIP SNOWDEN,\n\nAND\n\nWAR\n\nLIVERPOOL,\n\nENGLAND\n\nThis is the first time it has been my high privilege to touch upon the\norganized educational movement in this country. What I think and feel\nabout it I will express in one short sentence: To see you is a means of\ngrace and to know you, thru your leaders, is a liberal education.\nIt is entirely fitting that questions of peace and war should be discussed at a gathering of this character. As it is certain that ignorance in\nthe large sense of that word is the great inclusive cause of war, so is it true\nthat education, in the true meaning and only just impUcation of that\nterm, is the real and abiding remedy.\nIt would be inevitable that these matters should be spoken of even\nwere they not suitable. The war has become an obsession for all feeling,\nthinking persons. AU their thought and theory are related to it. None\ncan escape an interest in it and few, a sense of, at least, a partial responsibility for it. Bad poUtics, selfish diplomacy, and cruel commercialism\nhave played their part, but it is to the negative goodness of good men and\nwomen quite as much as to the positive badness of bad women and men\nthat we must look for the responsibiUty for war and for the things which\nmake for war.\nHad Jane Addams been present to give this address, as it was hoped\nshe would be, she would most eloquently have voiced the special relation of\nwomen to this greatest of all hiunan calamities. For myself, altho ten\nyears of public life have been spent in urging the just claims of women to\nindustrial Uberty and pohtical freedom, I am all the time conscious that,\nin the bundle of human life, men and women are boimd together for weal or\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWOMAN\n\nAND\n\nWAR\n\n55\n\nwoe. Men and women together suffer from war, are both responsible for it,\nand side by side aspire to make the dreadful thing forever impossible.\nBut the sufferings of women are in many ways special and peculiar. Men,\nat least, escape the horror of feeling their own bodies loathsome to them\nbecause of what has happened to them at the hands of the conqueror.\nSomeone has finely said that \"truth is the first casualty in war\"; and\nnever was a greater untruth spoken than that war is waged for the protection of women and homes.\nIn Europe today millions of women are mourning their dead or weeping\nover ruined homes. Facing a lonely future, they are compelled to undertake the double burden of child-rearing and bread-winning under an\nindustrial competitive system which knows no mercy for the weak. Out of\ntheir scanty means they have to pay for the ravages of war. See the\nconscript woman's hard, lined face, old at forty, doing the work that shall\nset free her men to learn their dreadful trade of killing. See also the field\nof selection limited and competition increased in the woman's distinctive\nsphere of race-building, so that the weak and feeble become the fathers of\nthe generation that is to be.\nAll this is woman's case against war. What is her responsibility for it\nand what her share in the making of permanent peace ? No part in the\npolitical guilt which has led to this war can be directly charged to women as\na whole, since in Europe they are almost entirely without political power.\nIt is in the nursery their responsibility lies. They have given to their children martial toys and books; they have sometimes dressed them in soldier\nclothes, imitating these fashions in their own garments; they have spoken of\nsoldiers and their deeds in language which could not fail to give the impression that the life of the soldier is \"the lordliest life on earth\"; they have\nfailed to teach the lessons of peace in the schoolroom; they have responded,\ntoo eagerly for wisdom, to the commanding strains of a miUtary band.\nA great English divine once said that wars would cease when women\nhated the cruelties of war more than they loved the courage of the soldier\nand the trappings of militarism.\nIt is for women, as for men, to teach the young by example and precept,\nthat the gay and glorious exterior of war is but a mask to hide the grinning\nskeleton within. And as the young brains develop, and the young minds\nbegin to think, it is the business, perhaps more particularly of the woman,\nthe mother, or the teacher, to show that war in these days is not due to the\nurge of noble ambition, tho the fighters believe it to be so. Most of the\nyouths and men who are giving their lives in this most wicked war believe\nthat they die in the cause of freedom, and, since they believe it, all is well\nfor them. But the appalling fact remains, which men and women must\nrecognize if wars are ever to cease — that modern wars are due to the dreadful ambition of kings and kaisers, or to the still meaner ambition of plutocrats and poUtical adventurers.\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGeneral\n\nLet it be the business of thinking men and women to impress upon the\nmind of youth that war never settles anything — \"For how can war but\nendless wars still breed ?\"; that nothing has ever been achieved or can be\nachieved by war that could not have been achieved and cannot be accomplished byother means if men would will it so; that there is enough in\nthe strife against bad social conditions, against crime and vice in all its\nforms, to develop all the perfection of which men and women are capable;\nthat it takes far more courage to be wilUng to be thought a coward for the\nsake of principle, than to fight; that mihtarism cannot be destroyed by\nmilitarism; that only good can destroy evil, and that the divine purpose of\nhmnan brotherhood is an ideal worthy of man's highest endeavor.\nI am by temperament and by intellect an optimist, and yet there are\ntimes when, in contemplating the actuality, the fact of this great calamity,\nmy spirit has been clouded and I have felt it useless to go on preaching the\ngospel of decency of thinking and living; but the mood vanishes on second\nthought. \"God's in his Heaven\"; the vast purposes of the infim'te mind\nremain imbroken, so all must be well with the world. And, in Browning's\nphrases:\nIt's wiser being good than bad;\nIt's safer being meek than fierce;\nIt's fitter being sane than mad;\nMy own hope is, a sun will pierce\nThe thickest cloud earth ever stretched;\nThat at the last returns the first\nTho a wide compass round be fetched;\nThat what began best, can't end worst,\nNor what God blest once prove accurst.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nMARK\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN NEW\n\nCOHEN, EDITOR, \"EVENING\n\nZEALAND\n\nSTAR,\" DUNEDIN,\n\nSINCE\nNEW\n\nigoo\n\nZEALAND\n\nYou must bear in mind that when New Zealand was given constitutional\ngovernment she had a central body styled the general government and a\nniunber of smaller political entities known as provincial governments.\nThese latter — a modified form of state — ^were ruled by a superintendent,\na provincial executive, and a provincial council, possessing restricted powers\nof legislation; but these provincial legislatures had complete control over\nsuch matters of importance as the administration of crown lands, immigration, and education. Settled as New Zealand was by independent agencies\n— mostly of British origin — having either a racial or a reUgious foundation,\nit naturally followed that the administration of education assumed a distinctly provincial \"color,\" which was more or less sectional rather than\nnational or \"colonial.\" In the course of years, there was a sharp conflict\nfor mastery between the central and provincial governments. Tho provincial governments passed out of existence in 1876, provincial boimdaries\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEW\n\nZEALAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nSINCE\n\n57\n\nIQOO\n\nwere practically maintained intact for many years later and the administration ofeducation retained its provincial characteristics, producing a very\nhealthy rivalry between the several districts. In 1877, legislation was\npassed and a central Department of Education was created with a responsible minister of the crown at its head. Their handiwork was, however,\nsubjected to fierce criticism from the secularists, or rather the antidenominationalists, and from the provincialists who sat in parliament. In\nthe end, the former succeeded in making a revolutionary change and stamped\non the incipient scheme of national education the leading features, which\nit retains to this hour, and which make our education free, secular, and\ncompulsory. It is only fair to say right here that the administration of\neducation by the new authorities was marked by wisdom, enthusiasm, and\npublic spirit of a high order and a generous rivalry between the various\nprovinces was evolved. I must here startle you with a few figures (Table I)\nto convince you that the parliament of New Zealand and the people following the lead of parliament have never been niggardly in financing the\nnational scheme. I shall take five yearly periods, the figures quoted being\nin every case to the nearest £1,000.\nTABLE I\n\nzgoo\n\nPrimary (including native schools\nand training colleges)\nSecondarj'\nContinuation and technical\nHigher\nIndustrial\nSuperannuation\nTotal\n\n£467,000\n12,000\n3,000\n5,000\n19,000\n£510,000\n4,000\n\n190S-6\n£611,000\n\n37,000\n\n4S,ooo\n34,000\n31,000\n£763,000\n\n1913-14\n\n1911-13\n£ 892,000\n\n£1,095,000\n162,000\n\n91,000\n52,000\n30,000\n14,000\n40,000\n£1,119,000\n\n63,000\n\n£i,47S,ooo\n73,000\n49,000\n\nS,ooo\n\n33,000\nThus with a population of 1,070,000 (includiag about 50,000 Maoris),\nwe are near spending over one and a half millions sterling on education.\nIn a word, we are spending over £27 per head of our population for the\nsupport of national education, compared with\n\nEngland\nScotland\nUnited States\nNew Zealand (on primary)\n\ns\n13\n10\n18\n19\n\nd\n2\n7\n7\n3\n\nThese figures exclude new schools and additions not contributed out of\nthe public funds. Tho New Zealand has been fortunate in having as the\npolitical head of the education department men of commanding personality,\nI must, in truth, award the pride of place to the late Richard John Seddon,\nwho has left the impress of his great mind on the educational history as well\nas on the imperialistic side of New Zealand's affairs. That he, a practically\nunlettered man, should have taken such a whole-souled interest in public\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\neducation and should have been the moving force that compelled attention\nto educational reform at a time when his mind was preoccupied with matters\nof grave imperial concern is to me one of the most amazing features of our\npublic life. But so it was. In 1901, he appointed a Royal Commission\non Salaries and School Staffs, which was immediately followed by legislation\nthat has paved the way for the institution of a colonial scale of salaries and\nhas removed many anomalies. In some educational districts, however, the\nboards had bmlt up \"ring fences,\" which it was impossible either to scale\nor to slip thru, against the employment of teachers trained or employed in\nadjoining districts; in others, salaries barely sufficient to keep body and\nsoul together were paid, while at the same time teachers were expected to\npossess high-grade certificates; and in some quarters the service was\nseething with ill-concealed disaffection, resulting in wholesale retirements.\nThings had come to a pretty pass when the 1901-2 Commission presented\nits report, which showed that the teachers' grievances were many and real.\nMr. Seddon was a man of action and the succeeding session produced immediate and appreciable relief. He also instituted a Teachers' Appeal Court.\nIn 1906, a measure of superannuation was given to teachers, which, tho not\nso liberal as that accorded to the police, the railway service, and the branches\nof the public service, was a tardy recognition of the right of the public\nschool-teacher to be grouped with and to be dealt with as equitably as any\nother department of state. In this relation the Royal Commission on\nEducation of 191 2 reported as follows:\nMembers of the education service who did not elect to become contributors to the\nSuperannuation Fimd before the coming into effect of the Amendment Act of 1908 were\npermanently shut out from the benefits of the fimd. Under the original act, they had the\nright to become contributors without loss of back service whenever they found themselves\nfinancially able to comply with the conditions imposed by the Superannuation Board.\nThis right was withdrawn, without notice, and much hardship therefore has been inflicted\non many old and faithfid servants of the state. The Education Committee of the House\nhas twice recommended that a further opportimity should be given to teachers and others\npermanently employed on January i, 1906 to become original members of the fund.\nYour Commission indorses this recommendation, and suggests that legislation be enacted\ngiving the persons referred to above the right to become original members of the fund on\npayment of back contribution together with interest on such contributions calculated at\nthe rate of 5 per cent per annum; the privilege to be limited to one year. It is also\nrecommended that retiring allowances be paid on the three best years of salary, or on the\nlast three years, at the option of the contributors. It was further recommended that the\ngovernment actuary be asked to ascertain the amoimt of increased contribution required\nfrom men in service to secure for widows an allowance of £26 a year, instead of £18, as\nat present; and that when this is obtained a referendum of male contributors to the fund\nbe taken as to their willingness to contribute the additional amoimt required.\n\nIt affords me very great pleasure to be in a position to tell you that,\ndespite many predictions that have been proved to be false, the Teachers'\nSuperannuation Fimd continues to grow at a satisfactory rate. At the\npresent time, the balance at credit stands at over £300,000 while the annual\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEW\n\nZEALAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nSINCE\n\nigoo\n\n59\n\ncontributions by the subscribers exceed £400,000. The subsidy by the\nstate, which was originally £7,000, has now been increased to £17,000 per\nannum. The fund has been so wisely administered by its board of management, to which the teachers elect their special representatives, that today\nit yields from investments alone the splendid smn of £13,000 per annum.\nIt provides a net annual income of about £70,000 and the charges on the\nfund are about $22,000 a year. So far the attempt to deal equitably with\nthose teachers who, tho not in the service on January i, 1906, or on October 10, 1908, were permanently employed in 191 2 has not been successful,\nbut the hope is confidently expressed that our parliament will yet see its\nway to deal out even-handed justice, and will allow these teachers, who are\nready and willing to pay back contributions, plus interest at 5 per cent as\nfor January i, 1905, to count service as from the latter date. And we hope\nto induce parliament to increase the allowance to teachers' widows from\n£18 to £26 per annum, subject to male contributors agreeing to increase\ntheir contributions to enable that to be done. Notwithstanding these concessions to public opinion, there has of recent years been such a steady\nadvance in the cost of living in New Zealand, especially since the financial\ncrisis in this country in 1907, that the teaching profession has felt the strain\nequally with other sections of the community, and has joined with them in\ndemanding substantial relief. At the same time, there was voiced both\noutside and inside of parliament fairly substantial complaints that the\nquality of the education imparted in our schools suffered by comparison\nwith less ornate and less burdensome syllabi; that there was a want of\nco-ordination between the various divisions of state education; that there\nwas overlapping; and that the taxpayer was not getting value for his money.\nTo set these doubts at rest, and to pave the way for further reforms, the\nMackenzie government in the winter of 191 2 set up a Royal Commission\nto investigate these charges. Instead of two and one-half months, the\nCommission ought to have had at least four months in which to do its work,\nand its inquiries ought not to have been restricted as they were to visiting\nonly the centers of population. The Royal Commission was directed to\ninquire into alleged grievances on the part of the teachers, to simplify the\nsyllabus, so as to secure \"continuity of instruction\" thruout the national\nscheme on lines that would retain a maximum of local interest, and to insure\ncomplete responsibility in every grade of educational activity. But above\nall, in recommending reforms, the Commission had to be most careful that\nthe execution of these reforms did not intrench too largely on the public\npurse. These weaknesses among others were found to be inherent in the\nsystem: complexity of the central administration; a difficulty in securing\nsatisfactory management in small education districts; a want of uniformity, aim, and method among the inspectors; unsatisfactory methods\nof appointing and promoting teachers; an indefinite and complicated\nsyllabus; unsuitable school buildings and equipment, likewise inadequate\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nplaygrounds; lack of co-ordination between primary and higher branches\nof education; want of facilities for rural training. On the other hand, the\nCommission found, with the utmost satisfaction, that the ofl&cials of every\ngrade were devoted to duty; that our local authorities rendered splendid\nservice without fee or reward; that the inspectors and teachers were\nzealous and of high attainments; that a considerable measure of success\nhad been attained in the appUcation of modern methods of education to\nthe problems of everyday life, and that there was \"a readiness on the part\nof the people to take advantage of the national system, as shown by the\nhigh percentage of attendance maintained particularly in those portions of\nour Dominion where climatic £ind other conditions are unfavorable.\" Thus\nlast year the total attendance was 172,108 in December, 1913, and the average attendance for the whole year 151,242, being records for the Dominion.\nThe Royal Commission made a series of drastic recommendations, which\nI shall not recount in detail, but I shall make passing references to the\nprincipal ones.\nThe first recommendation was the institution of a National Council of\nEducation to be presided over by the minister as ex-officio chairman and\nto be assisted by the following four official representatives within the nomination ofthe minister: a director of education; a supervisor or director of\ntechnical education; two representatives of our chief producing industries;\nand ten other elective members as follows: one representative of the board's\ninspectional stafis; one of each of the five new education boards; two of\nthe certificated primary school-teachers; one of the certificated secondary\nschool-teachers; one of the senate of the university.\nThis Coimcil was to meet half-yearly, and at such other times as the\nminister might deem necessary, and its duties were thus defined: (i) to\nreport to the minister and advise him upon methods or of developments in\nstate education in other coimtries which, in the opinion of the Council, can\nbe advantageously introduced into the Dominion; (2) to report to the\nminister on any question relating to national education; (3) to report to\nthe minister on all questions relating to the administration of national\neducation within the Dominion, as well as to the co-ordination of all\nbranches of such education; (4) to prepare a uniform code of regulations\ndealing with guiding principles but omitting details referring to school\ncurricula, school attendance, the staffing of schools, etc., and making provision for the payment of inspectors' and teachers' salaries; for the erection\nand equipment of schools; for the cost of transferring teachers; for the\nconveyance and board of pupils; for grants of scholarships and free places;\nfor the control of training colleges; for the maintenance of higher education;\nand for the control of other institutions administered by the department.\nA report was to be made annually in July to parUament.\nThe government of the day — there has been a change of administration\nwhile the Commission was considering its report — referred this report to\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEW\n\nZEALAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nSINCE\n\nIQOO\n\n6l\n\nthe Parliamentary Committee on Education, which took further evidence\nand made other recommendations that were embodied in legislation last\nyear. The election of the first Coimcil was held in May last, and it was\nespecially gratifying to find that that body includes several of my colleagues\nof the Commission of 191 2, besides a number of coworkers whose lifelong\nlabors in the cause of education entitle them to seats on this advisory body,\nwhich if rightly handled will be capable of giving material assistance to the\nminister and will be of immense help in shaping the future educational\npolicy of our country.\nAnother recommendation of this Commission was to reduce the number\nof existing education boards from thirteen to five, making their districts\ncoterminous with those of the university colleges as far as practicable. It\nwas also recommended that these new boards should have greatly extended\npowers and enlarged responsibilities — be given, in fact, the complete control over education within their several spheres of activity. And similarly\nit was recommended that the school committees should have conferred on\nthem additional powers and be given an assured finance thru the medium of\nthe consolidated revenue. It was further recommended that the inspectors\nshould continue to be the employees of the education boards and be entirely\nresponsible to the latter; and that their emolument should be increased to\na minimimi of £400 and a maximum of £650 by yearly increments of £10,\ntogether with a liberal scale of traveling allowances. But parliament, while\nadopting this salary scale, decided to transfer the inspectorate to the control\nof the education department so that from January i last these ofl&cials\nhave been entirely controlled by the central authority and are under the\nimmediate supervision of the new director of education. Thus another\nlink between local and central administration has been snapped. Little by\nlittle, local administration, which in past years has done so much for the\ncause of national education in New Zealand, has been sapped and undermined, and there are many who share my opinion that it is only a question\nof time when the process of conversion will be complete, and when the\nentire administration of education in our land will rest in the department.\nThe question of the retention of the boards proved such a bone of contention that the parliamentary committee was not able to solve it to its\nsatisfaction and it was remitted to another Royal Commission whose report\nhad not been made public when I left New Zealand, but I shall not be surprised ifit recommends that the number should be nine, which will\nobviously mean a rectification of educational boundaries.\nTho the Commission of 191 2 reported against those who asserted that\nthe primary-school children were not so well grounded in the three R's as\nthe children who passed thru our schools twenty-five years ago, the disaffected were neither insignificant nor non-observant. But the weight of\nevidence went to show that the boys and girls of today are \"just as well\ngrounded, and are, moreover, more resourceful and more self-reliant than\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Gentnl\n\nscholars of a decade since.\" There was a chorus of unanimous approval of\nthe syllabus introduced into our primary schools by the late inspectorgeneral of schools, who has just retired from the service on a well-earned\npension, and who as an educational reformer has done yeoman's service,\nwhich will yet be acknowledged, tho all may not accept his methods as\nsalutary. But the aim and scope of the present scientifically designed\nsyllabus are generally indorsed. StUl, in my judgment, it is not sufficiently\nelastic and this view is borne out by the Commission, which was strongly\nof opinion that \" the time has come when it is advisable to make alterations\nand modifications, in order to impress on all concerned the paramount\nimportance of paying the utmost attention to those essentials which in a\nprimary-school course should ever be the first consideration.\" For example,\nhad the syllabus been less complex, I would have strongly pressed for the\ninclusion of a systematic course of civics. What has happened in Europe\nand in Great Britain, and in a lesser degree in the British overseas\nDominions, has only stressed the need for a sane patriotism, which must\nhave its origin in the pubUc schools. I am as strong as anyone in this vast\naudience in emphasizing the profound virtues of peace, but I will not accept\na peace-at-any-price. No peace that is not built on justice and honor can\never be lasting, and a peace patched up by motives of expediency or brought\nabout by cowardice or fear is worse than any war, because the national\nhonor, which is and should always be the highest consideration, has been\ndragged in the dust in order to insure a transient settlement. If the duties\nand responsibilities of true citizenship can be taught in our public schools,\nas I am aware they are taught in France with excellent results, even an\nalready overloaded syllabus will have to submit to further pruning, if need\nbe, to make room for their appearance on the daily time-table. In this\nrelation I am reminded of some wise words spoken in England recently by\nthe lady principal of a great hospital, who said:\nWhat is needed is a complete change of attitude on the part of teachers and taught\nalike — a shifting of the center of gravity, so to speak, from the individual, or the little\ncommunity of school, to the large community — the state itself. We have been warned\nby an acute and philosophic observer that the result of the war will be an extension of the\ndirect control and authority of the state. If that is the development in store for us,\nunless the autocracy of the state is to result in a soulless and irksome tyranny, the intelligent and volimtary co-operation of all citizens is essential, and training in citizenship is\nof more importance than ever to us all. What, then, are the chief aims in impressing on\nour children the duty of citizens toward the state ? What meaning are they to put into\nthat august word \"patriotism,\" which, incredible as it may seem to our allies, has already\nacquired a tinge of discredit in certain quarters. Three causes have hindered England's\nnational welfare. These are: Contempt for work, and that knowledge which can only\nbe gained by steadfast work; an inordinate appreciation of wealth; and a lack of discipline— especially of self-discipline — which has made us slow to subordinate personal\naims, personal advantage, and personal ambition to the common good.\n\nIs this true indictment ? Can it be honestly said that any or all of these\nevils are absent from our schools ?\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEW\n\nZEALAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nSINCE\n\nIQOO\n\n63\n\nYou doubtless know that New Zealand has put herself in line with those\nolder nations that are persuaded by the stern logic of facts that to be\nprepared for war is the best way to avert war. Thus compulsory military\nservice is the law of our land, and I am very proud indeed of the part I took\nin bringing about the demilitarization of our school cadets, and the placing\nof the lad over fourteen years in the ranks of the senior cadets where he\nremains until he is eighteen and then, if medically fit, passes automatically\ninto the defense force. Then he must fight for the defense of the country\nagainst external foes, but will be a soldier of the Empire only if he voluntarily offers so to do. From twenty-five to thirty he remains in the reserve.\nIn recognition of the splendid past service of the officers and lads constituting the junior cadets we recommended and this has since been done:\nThat the teachers who have so willingly given up their time and devoted so much\npersonal attention to forwarding the movement should receive commissions either in the\nterritorials or in the senior cadets. We see no reason why the junior cadets, besides being\npermitted to wear a uniform dress in keeping with their altered conditions, should not\ncontinue to engage in squad and company drill and other manoeuvres consistent therewith, should not practice shooting with miniature rifles, and should not where possible\nadopt the best of boy-scout methods. These methods are designed in the main to upbuild\ncharacter; and whatever makes for the strengthening of the moral as well as the physical\nside of boy nature must ultimately produce good, honest, upright, and God-fearing citizens.\n\nHow keenly we watch educational methods in the United States and\nhow eager we are to adapt them to our own circumstances is seen in two\nrecommendations mentioned in the report. We recommended, in the first\nplace, the abolition of the existing system of scholarships; that, instead of\ncompulsory examinations for free places at secondary institutions and technical schools, the head teachers of all schools approved by the inspectors\nin the district should \"accredit\" their pupils for promotion; that free-place\nholders should be required to attend at a secondary school for at least two\nyears; that no grant for a new school should be given unless it was provided\nwith at least four acres for a playground; that Wisconsin's system of\nconsolidated schools should be followed and be applied to high as well as\nto primary schools.\nOne recommendation may appear to some of you to be of a somewhat\nstartling nature, but I regard it as forecasting a useful if novel experiment:\nBoards of education should be encouraged to nominate periodically one inspector,\nor one primary school-teacher, or one secondary school-teacher, or one technical schoolteacher, who, in recognition of zeal shown in his or her work, shall, if the Council see fit,\nbe given one year's leave on full pay, for the purpose of studying schemes of national\neducation in force in other parts of the world.\n\nBy the adoption of this valuable suggestion and by the extension of the\nscheme of the exchange of teachers in various parts of the British Empire,\nit is hoped that the various branches of our educational service will be\nencouraged to give their best service to the state and be rewarded accordingly. Ihave neither the time nor the intention to encroach on your\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Genera\n\npatience by traversing a number of other equally important recommendations made by this Commission. Suffice it that I tell you in a hurried way\nthat we are paying great attention to the development of agricultural\neducation on sound lines, that we are incorporating vocational teaching\ninto the curricula of our secondary and technical schools, and that we are\nseriously considering the expediency of raising the school age for leaving\nthe primary school to fourteen years. This may well be done if we extend\nthe kindergarten age to six years instead of five. Economic conditions are\npressing for the adoption of these reforms, but I must not tarry to discuss\nthem.\nNow what is the broad, general outlook? A continuous shifting of\nresponsibility from the parent to the state; a feverish desire on the part of\nour yoimg people to \"make good\" in the industrial field so that they can\nearn the increased wage that wage boards and arbitration courts have\nbrought within the reach of those who aspire to be tradesmen, but are\nrather jacks of aU trades; a shirking of work; the practice of \"ca-canny\"\nmethods; a contempt for dignified labor in some quarters; a growing love\nfor unclean sport, for sensation, and for life out-of-doors. I am not a\npessimist, but I must frankly confess that travel and observation have not\ninspired me with hope for the futvu-e unless — ^There's the rub! What\npanaceas will this congress profound for arresting the growth of evils that\nadmittedly are sapping the foundations of family life and are inimical to\nthe practice of that righteousness which alone can exalt and preserve any\nnation ? And what part, I ask, is the public school to play in the social,\ndomestic, and civic regeneration that is the crjdng need of the present hour ?\n\nMY\nMARIA\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nMONTESSORI,\n\nMJ)., ROME, ITALY\n\nMy system is to be considered a system leading up, in a general way,\nto education. It can be followed not only in the education of little children\nfrom three to six years of age, but can be extended to children up to ten\nyears of age. It is not a simple theory, but has been experimented with\nand put into practice. Its results constitute a scientific proof of its value.\nAltho the first part of my experiment deals only with children between\nthe ages of three and six years, nevertheless it must be considered as a\n\"directive system\" for the education of all children having attained the\nschool age. In fact, my last experiments, not yet known to the pubUc,\nhave been made on children up to ten years of age, and the same directive\nsystem has proven satisfactory. The results were of still higher importance than in the first case with smaller children because richer in practical\nevidence both in the formation of character and in the attainment of\nknowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMY\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n65\n\nThe fact on which it was possible to estabUsh my system is the psychologic fact of the \"attention\" of the child, intensively chained to any\nexterior object or fact, which proves in the child a spontaneous, altho complex activity of its entire little personality.\nIt will be of some interest to relate here the episode that made me decide\nto plan out a special method for the education of children.\nI was making the first experiments in San Lorenzo (Roma), trying to\napply my principles and part of the material that I had previously used\nin the education of backward children.\nA little girl, about three years of age, was deeply absorbed in the work\nof placing wooden blocks and cylinders in a frame for that purpose. The\nexpression of her face was that of such intense attention, that it was almost\na revelation to me. Never before had I seen a child look with such \"fixedness\" upon an object, and my conviction about the instability of attention\nwhich goes incessantly from one thing to another, a fact which is so characteristic ilittle\nn\nchildren, made the phenomenon the more remarkable to me.\nI watched the child without interrupting her, and counted how many\ntimes she would do her work over and over. It seemed that she was never\ngoing to stop. As I saw that it would take a very long time, I took the\nlittle armchair on which she was sitting and placed child and chair on the\nbig table. Hastily she put the frame across the chair, gathered blocks and\ncylinders in her lap, and continued her work undisturbed. I invited the\nother children to sing, but the little girl went on with her work and continued\neven after the singing had ceased. I counted forty-four different exercises\nwhich she made, and when she finally stopped, and did so absolutely independently from an exterior cause that could disturb her, she looked around\nwith an expression of great satisfaction, as if she were awakening from a\ndeep and restful sleep.\nThe impression I received from the observation was that of a discovery.\nThe same phenomenon became very common among those children, and it\nwas noticed in every school in every country where my system was introduced; therefore it can be considered as a constant reaction which takes\nplace in connection with certain exterior conditions that can be well estabUshed. Each time a similar \"polarization\" of the attention occurred, the\nchild began to transmute itself completely; it became calmer, more expressive, more inteUigent, and evidenced extraordinary interior qualities, which\nrecalled the phenomena of the highest mentality. When the phenomenon\nof polarization of the attention had occurred, all that was confused and\ndrifting in the conscience of the child seemed to assume a form, the marvelous characters of which were reproduced in each individual.\nThis reminded one of the Ufe of man that may be scattered indiscriminately in a chaotic condition, until a special object attracts it and gives it\na fixed form, and then only is man revealed unto himself and begins to live.\nThis spiritual phenomenon, which may coinvolve the whole conscience of\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe adult, is therefore but one of the ever-present aspects of the \"formation\nof the inner life.\" It is met with as a normal beginning of the inner life\nof children, and it foUows the development so as to come within the reach\nof research as an experimental fact.\nIt was thus that the soul of the child gave its revelations, and, guided\nby these revelations, there arose a method where spiritual liberty became\ndemonstrated.\nThe news of this fact rapidly spread thruout the world, and it was\nreceived at first as a miracle. Then little by little, as the experiments were\nrepeated among the most diverse races, the simpUcity and evidence of the\nprinciples of this spiritual treatment were recognized.\nWhen you have solved the problem of controlling the attention of the\nchild, you have solved the entire problem of its education. The importance\nof a scheme to concentrate the attention is self-evident. Professor William\nJames, the renowned authority on psychology in America, points out to\nus how there exists in children that exterior variability of attention that\nmakes it so difficult to give them the first lessons. The reflective and\npassive character of the attention, by which the child seems to belong less\nto itseK than to any object that may attract its attention, is the first thing\nthat the teacher must conquer. The ability incessantly to recall a wandering and scattered attention, always ready to vanish, is the real root of\njudgment, character, and will; that system of education that succeeds in\nbringing this faculty to the highest degree should be the ideal and standard\nsystem.\nTo be able to choose objects that will interest and hold the attention\nof the child is to know the means of aiding it in its mental development.\nAll things which naturally arise and hold the attention with considerable\nsteadiness are those which represent a \"necessity\" for the child. Toward\nthese things its attention is directed in a natural, almost instinctive way.\nAll other things that attract its attention do so only lightly, transitorily,\nand for a very short period of time. Thus the newborn child has a series\nof unco-ordinate movements, but the complex movement of sucking, which\nis in direct proportion to its need of food, is performed with regularity,\nco-ordination, and steadiness. We must recognize that something like this\nis needed for its psychic development.\nConsider the little girl only three years of age who performs the same\nexercise fifty times. A crowd is roaming about her, a piano is playing,\na chorus is svmg, and nothing can distract her from her deep concentration.\nIn a similar way, the baby holds on to the breast of the mother without\nbeing interrupted by any exterior agent and lets go only after its need is\nsatisfied.\nHow shall we choose the means of development by experiments?\nSince a constant and i>eculiar psychic reaction is an estabUshed fact, it is\npossible to determine some stimulating (reactive) agents or objects that\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMY\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOK EDUCATION\n\n67\n\ncan aid the spontaneous development. Tl\\e character of this reaction itself\nmust be the guide to the choice of these objtcts which are to constitute the\nimplements or tools for this scientific work.\nEach one of these instruments must be built with every detail to answer\nthe purpose. As the lenses of the optician are made in accordance with the\nlaws of refraction, the pedagogical instrument must be chosen to correspond exactly to the psychic manifestations of the child.\nSuch an instrument could be compared to a systematized mental test.\nIt is not, however, established as an external criterion of measurement\nwith the purpose of estimating the instantaneous psychic reaction which\nit produces, but on the contrary it is a stimulus which must be determined\nby the psychic reactions which it is capable of producing and maintaining\nin a permanent manner. It is the psychic reaction which determines and\nestablishes the systematic mental test and the psychic reaction which serves\nas the sole means of comparison in determining the tests. It is a polarization of the attention and the repetition of the acts to which it corresponds.\nWhen a stimulus corresponds in this way to the reflex personality, it serves,\nnot to measure, but to maintain an active reaction. Therefore it is a stimulus of inner formation. In fact, it is upon such activity, aroused and\nmaintained, that the associative organism begins its inner elaborations in\nrelation to the stimuli.\nIt is not as a scale for weighing personality that this science comes into\nthe old sphere of pedagogy as it was in the case of the experimental psychology introduced in the school up to the present time. It is a science\nintended for the purpose of \"transforming\" personality, thus taking the\nplace of a true and real pedagogy. While old pedagogy in all its different\ninterpretations had for its point of view and starting-base the conception\nof a \"receptive personality,\" which was supposed to receive tuition and\nallow itself to be passively transformed, this scientific direction presupposes\nan active personality, reflective and associative, whose activity manifests\nitself thru a series of reactions derived from systematic stimuli chosen by\nexperiments. This new \"pedagogy\" belongs therefore to the series of\nmodem sciences not of old speculations. But the method that embodies\nit, that is to say the attempt, observation, retrying, taking notice of new\nphenomena, the reproduction of said phenomena and utilizing them, places\nthis new pedagogy among the experimental sciences.\nNothing is more interesting than these experiments. By them we can\nestablish, with the greatest precision, all necessary exterior stimuli definite\nin their qualities and quantity. Small frames, for instance, of different\nforms, arouse only a temporary and transient attention in a child three\nyears of age; but, gradually enlarging the size of the frames, you will reach\nthat limit at which the attention is steadily held, the activity stimulated\nby them will be permanent, and the exercise set up in it becomes a factor\nof development.\nThe experiment is repeated on several children and we\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncome to the point where we can establish the right size of a series of objects;\nin the same way you can proceed to determine the color and all other qualities of your material. In order that a quality be \"felt\" so intensely as to\nhold the attention, a sufficient size and intensity are required in the stimulus.\nThese can be determined by the degree of psychic reaction in the child in\nthe same way that you establish which is the smallest size of colored surface\nwhich can attract the attention of the child upon the colored tablets, and\nso forth. The quality, then, is determined by the psychic experiment and\nthe activity that it provokes in the child, who remains absorbed for a considerable length of time working on the same subject. It is while in this\nstate that the phenomenon of interior development and auto-formation\ntakes place.\nOf the qualities of the objects one must be picked out which stimulates\nprincipally the highest activities of the intelligence; this is the quality that\nenables the child to verify mistakes. In order to create a process of autoeducation, it is not sufficient that the stimulus arouses an activity, it must\nat the same time direct it; the child must not only be occupied for a long\ntime on an exercise, but it must continue on it without making mistakes.\nAll the physical or intrinsic qualities of the objects must be determined\naside from the immediate reaction of attention provoked in the child, also\nthis fundamental characteristic of permitting the control of error, that is,\nto summon the active collaboration of high activities, such as comparison\nand judgment. For example, one of the first objects which attracts the\nattention of the three-year-old child, the solid insets (a series of little cylinders\nof various dimensions which are taken out and replaced), contains the most\nmechanical control, because in making one mistake in the replacing of the\ncylinders, one of them is left without a place. Hence a mistake is an\nobstacle which can be surmounted only by correction, otherwise the exercise can proceed no farther. Furthermore, the correction is so easy that\nthe child accomplishes it by himself. The little problem which has unexpectedly sprung up before the child like a jack-in-the-box has interested him.\nIt may be noted, however, that the problem which has arisen is not of\nitself a stimulus to the interest — does not urge the child on to the repetition\nof the act, or to progress. That which interests the child is not only the\nsense of handling the objects, but the conscious acquisition of a new power\nof discrimination, that of recognizing the difference of dimensions among\nthe cylinders, the difference which at first he did not perceive. The problem arises only in relation to the mistake — ^it does not accompany the normal\nprocess of development. An interest simply stimulated by curiosity in the\nproblem would not be that formative interest which draws its sources from\nthe needs of life itself and which, therefore, directs the construction of the\ninner personality. If it were only the problem which led the soul along,\nit might lose its own spontaneous order as every other external cause which\nstrives to lead life astray on false paths.\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMY\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n69\n\nOn the other hand, the experunental criterion for determining the number of objects is quite different. When the instruments have been constructed with great precision, they provoke an auto-exercise so orderly and\nresponding to the facts of inner development in such a way that at a certain\npoint a new psychic picture is revealed, a sort of upper plane in the complete development.\nThen the child spontaneously abandons the objects, but not with signs\nof fatigue, altho he is carried along by new energy and his mind is capable\nof abstraction. At this stage of development the child turns his attention\nto the external world and observes it in an orderly manner, according to the\norder which has been formed in his mind along with the preceding development, and he unconsciously begins to make a series of measured and logical\ncomparisons which represents a real spontaneous acquisition of knowledge.\nThis is the stage henceforth known as the Period of Discovery, discovering\nwhich evokes in the child enthusiasm and joy.\nThis higher stage of development is most fruitful because of its later\ngrowth. It is necessary that the child's attention should not be detained\non these objects when the delicate phenomenon of abstraction begins. For\nexample: The teacher who should at such a moment call the child to renew\nhis activity with the object would in so doing retard his spontaneous development, would put an obstacle in his path. When that enthusiasm which\nleads the child to uplift himself and to experience so many intellectual\nemotions is spent, then one road to progress is closed. The same mistake\nmay be made thru an overabundance of material since it may distract the\nattention, may cause the use of the material to become mechanical, and\nmay cause the child to pass by his psychological moment without seizing\nit or even being aware of it. These extra objects (materials) are useless\nand amid them the soul may lose itself. What must be accurately determined ishow much material is necessary and sufl&cient to respond to the\nneeds of the inner life in its development. The observation of the child's\nexpression and of the manifestations of his activities as a whole are the\nguiding factors in determining the quantity.\nPerhaps I insist too much on this point in order to reply to the many\nimportant objections and suggestions which have been made to me, because\nthere are those who think that the form alone of the problem is able to\narouse the interest.\nIn the second series of objects used to educate the eye to dimensions,\nthe control of the error is not mechanical but psychological. The child\nhimself, since his eye is already taught to recognize differences of dimension,\nwill see the error if only the objects are of fixed dimensions and highly\ncolored. For this reason the succeeding objects contain a control of error\nin their very size and vivid colorings. A control of error of quite a different\nkind and of a much higher order is found in the material used for the multiplication table where the control consists in comparing the work itseK with\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe answer, a comparison which necessitates a marked effort of the\nchild's intellect and will and which henceforth places him amid true\nconditions of a conscious auto-education. The seeming distraction is\nrevealed in its real essence by the happy expression of the children's\nserious faces animated by the keenest joy. The child, to all appearances,\ndoes nothing, but only for a minute; shortly he will speak and will tell\nus what is taking place within him and then an outburst of activity\nwill carry him on a roxmd of continuous explorations and discoveries.\nHe is saved.\nOn the other hand, here are other children who experienced the same\nprimitive phenomena, but they were surrounded with too many objects.\nAt the moment of maturity they felt themselves seized, forced, actually\n\"boimd with cords\" to earth. A diminution of the intensity of the attention given to new objects, instability, and hence weariness are made manifest by the cessation of inner activity. The child gives way to lower\ntendencies, foolish laughter, and disorderly acts. He asks for more objects\nand still more objects, because he has remained imprisoned in the \"vicious\nwhirl of vanities\" and he no longer feels the need of gaining reUef from his\nennui. Such is also the fate of an adult who, in Ufe's chaos has committed\na like error — he becomes imdisciplined, weak, and \"is in danger of losing\nhimseK.\" If someone does not help him and, tearing away all imnecessary\nobjects, point out to him \"his heaven,\" it will be difficult for him to have\nthe energy to attain it by himself.\nThese two extreme types give an idea of the criteria by which one\ndetermines in an experiment the \"quantity\" of the objects used for development. The \"too much\" weakens and retards progress. This has been\nproven again and again by all my collaborators. If, on the other hand, the\nmaterial is insufficient and the natural auto-exercises are tmable to lead up\nto that state of maturity which raises one, there is no outburst of that\nspontaneous phenomenon of abstraction which is the second step in that\nauto-education which goes forward in infinite progression.\nThis same fimdamental phenomenon of intense and prolonged attention\nleading to a repetition of acts guides one in finding the stimuli which are\nsuitable to the child's age. A stimulus which causes a child of three to\nrepeat an act forty times in succession may cause another child of six to\nrepeat the same act only ten times; the object which quickens the interest\nof the three-year-old cannot quicken the interest of the six-year-old child.\nHowever, the child of six is capable of far greater attention than the threeyear-old, when the stimulus is in direct relation to his activity. If the child\nof three has a maximum power of repetition, say of forty times in succession,\nthe six-year-old is able to repeat an act in which he is interested two hundred\ntimes. If in the case of a three-year-old child the maximum period of continuous work on the same object is half an hour, for the six-year-old it may\nbe more than two hours.\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMY\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n71\n\nThus tests give positive psychic characteristics which can ahnost be\nmeasured according to age. Analogously, since there are for the various\nages materials for progressive development upon which the various personaUties can react differently, it is possible to determine with scientific precision the level of the average psychical development according to age,\na precision which I consider the famous Binet and Simon tests are far from\nattaining. A relationship is established between the inner needs and the\nstimuli.\nThis is a suggestion, however incomplete and insufficient, of the \"possibiUty\" of experimentally determining the means for psychic development.\nThey can really be estabUshed and with such precision as to bring into\nexistence a real relationship between the inner needs and the stimuli, just\nas there exists a relationship of form between the insect and the flower.\nThat is to say, there remains in the organization of the external means for\ninner development \"a material imprint,\" and this is that of which the soul\nhas need in its path, in its course, in its flights. The material part does not\ncontain the imprint of the whole soul, as the imprint of the foot does not\ngive the imprint of the whole body, as the aviation field is not the place\nfor the extensive course of an aeroplane, but is only a piece of terra firma\nnecessary for the flight, and is also the resting-place, the refuge, the shed\nto which the aeroplane must always return. Thus, in the psychic formation, there is a material part necessary in order that the spirit may lift\nitself, and there the spirit must seek support, rest, and refuge. Without\nthis, it cannot grow and rise \"freely.\"\nIn order that this material may be a real support, it must reproduce\nand contain within itself those forms which correspond to the needs of\nmaterial help. Thus, for example, in the first part of the psychic life, the\nmaterial corresponds to the primitive exercising of the senses and is determined in quality and quantity by the sensorial needs supplied by nature,\ncorresponding to the exercise of the activity sufficient in order to mature\na superior psychic state of observation and abstraction. Vice versa, nothing\nin the material corresponds to the successive course thru the world which\nthe infantile spirit completes with such rapture, making great acquisitions\nof knowledge. Then we see the spirit crying out for exercises of a higher\norder and behold the same primitive phenomenon of the attention, which\nhenceforth is exercised on the alphabet and on the material for arithmetic,\nrepeating in a more complex form the methodical exercises of the intellect,\nby correlating the auditory impressions with the visual and motor impressions in the written and spoken word, and in the positive study of quantity,\nproportions, and number. Then the same accompanying phenomena are\nmanifested which are the concomitants of patience, of constancy, and, at\nthe same time, of vivacity and joy, and characteristic of the spirit when the\ninner energy has found its outlet. The field in which it can exercise itself\ncomfortably and quietly enlarges and the spirit which becomes organized\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "7«\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin such a way under the guidance of an order which responds to its natural\norder, becomes strong, grows flourishingly, and manifests itself in equilibrium, serenity, and cahn, which then gives that wonderful discipline characteristic ofthe conduct of our children.\nThe practical consequences of such a system of education are: the easy\nand spontaneous solution of pedagogical problems considered impossible\nto solve; the reaUzation of ideals thought to be Utopian.\nFrom such a system there comes forth a school where the children work\nfor themselves — that is, they are free. In this freedom they work much\nmore than heretofore has been customary in school, not alone without\nfatigue, but with renewed nervous forces, and they attain culture more\nrapidly and more efficaciously — that is, they surpass the ordinary level.\nIn fact, children can learn to read and write at four and one-half years of\nage generally, and in the elementary schools they save from one to two\nyears. This educational problem, which today science propoimds, is\nsolved, tho it was considered among the insoluble questions such as the\nfourth dimension, perpetual motion, and the squaring of a circle. The\nproblem is to lessen effort and at the same time increase output. In fact,\nthe overworking of pupils has forced hygiene to insist on less work, whereas\nsocial progress requires that the schools produce men even more cultured.\nFurthermore, children brought up imder our method acquire a salient\npersonality, a peculiar formation of character, and they are capable of perfect discipline, a thing which solves the problem of liberty. For liberty,\nas it has been tried up to now, brought about either disorder and lack of\ndiscipline or a lessening of scholarship. In truth the solution of the question\nof freedom depends entirely on finding the means which will serve as an\naid to spontaneous psychic development, to character and to intellectual\nculture. In this manner auto-education is also attained, a thing which is\nimpossible unless we determine with precision the means necessary for the\nchild to educate himself — that is, to develop his own activities.\nFinally, in such a way is a true positive science of education initiated,\nwhich up to the present has not been given by pedagogical anthropology nor\nby German experimental psychology with its applications to the school in\nthe branch called \"scientific pedagogy.\" Such sciences have studied the\npersonality of the pupil but have not changed it, they have pointed out and\nanalyzed the errors of the school, but they have not reconstructed. Besides,\nif from these sciences there had really arisen a scientific pedagogy capable of\ntransforming man, as the other positive sciences have transformed the\nenvironment, it would not have left educators and the public so indifferent;\nit would have aroused a popular interest since children and the schools are of\ncommon interest to all mankind.\nThe scientific pedagogy, as imderstood thus far, does not indeed present\nanything but the ideal for establishing pedagogy on the lines of positive and\nexperimental science in accordance with the progress of the time and not\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN FRENCH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n73\n\nthe realization of such an ideal. In fact, the scientific laboratory of experimental pedagogy cannot be other than the school itself, where the children\nlive and are transformed. I believe that my system of education is founding this laboratory where the first germs of a science of man are visible\nbecause of the precision of systematic means, and also because of the effect\nupon human development.\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN FRENCH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFERDINAND BUISSON, COMMANDER IN THE LEGION OF HONOR;\nMEMBER\nTHE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF THE SEINE,\nPARIS, FRANCE\n\nOF\n\nHere I am, having come from far away, as you know, and having left\nFrance in such a perilous and tragic moment that several of you, I am sure,\nwill be surprised to see me here. Not less surprised am I myself to be\npresent at this Congress. Of course, however magnificent and attractive\nbeyond all anticipation your great San Francisco Exposition may be, it would\nnot have been enough at the present hour to induce me to cross the Atlantic\nand traverse the whole width of the United States. For, as you may well\nunderstand, a Frenchman just now has neither eyes nor ears for all the\nmarvels displayed by this wonderful city, so short a time after her miraculous resurrection. But our souls, our thoughts remain yonder with those\nwho are fighting, with those who are dying for us.\nIf, therefore, I have come hither, it has been in order to obey the express\nwish of my government, the wish of my country. Indeed France, in spite of\nthe noise of the guns, has not been deaf to a voice which might have been\nlost in the tumult of war; I mean the voice of the American government and\nof this great National Education Association of yours inviting the teachers\nand educators of our Old World to join you here, happy educators of the\nNew World, in order once more, on this solemn occasion of the PanamaPacific Exposition, to pay homage to education and to emphasize the great\nhopes which the world democracy attaches to it.\nYes, ladies and gentlemen, even in these gloomy days she is traversing,\nFrance has been willing to answer your call and not only has the French\ngovernment decided to send to you an official representative, but also the\nFederation of the French Teachers' Associations has manifested the desire\nto accept your teachers' brotherly invitation. Thus I stand before you as\nrepresentative both of the Education Department and of the Teachers'\nFederation of France, the latter body niunbering more than one hundred\nthousand members.\nAllow me, therefore, assembled teachers and educators of this, the\ngreatest and most advanced republic of the world, to salute you in the\nname of our minister of public instruction, M. Sarraut, and in the name\nof your brother and sister teachers of France, whose director I had the\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhonor to be for many years, and whose friend I feel still more honored\nto remain forever.\nIn their name and in the name of all those in France who are acquainted\nwith the wonderful achievements and progress of your admirable system\nof national education, I congratulate you and thank you for having so\nhighly and so triumphantly proved to the world that to make free men is the\nbest means to make free nations.\nI have been asked to speak to you on some aspect of French education,\nwith the liberty of selecting my own subject. In the limited time allowed\nme, I unhesitatingly select what seems to me the most characteristic and\noriginal feature in the whole school system of our republic, for we have\nplaced at the basis of education what we call the lay teaching of moral\ninstruction, la morale laique.\nNow you will ask me the real meaning in these words, la morale\nlatque.\nSome people believe, or affect to believe, that this is an anti-religious\nconception. They have been influenced by the accusation of the polemists\nwho have called the elementary school a godless school. It is not so. The\nmain idea of our republic, roughly indicated as early as the time of our First\nRepublic and fully realized by the Third Republic, is that the nation having\nbecome the sovereign of her destinies, must take care of her future, and, as\nwe say, \"rest secure of the morrow.\" She must be certain that none of her\nchildren will remain a social good-for-nothing. She must manage so that\neach one of them may receive the minimimi of culture without which a man\nwould not be fitted to fulfil his functions as a citizen.\nWhat is this minimum ?\nIs it enough to provide a child with what you ironically have called the\nthree R's? You have answered \"No!\" We answer the same, with\nrenewed emphasis. But besides the various new subjects which have\nbeen added to the elementary-school program, there is one and the most\nimportant of all, we think — the teaching of universal morality. There is,\nin our opinion, an A B C of the conscience just as there is an A B C of science.\nAnd the early teaching of those primordial elements of morality have been\nconsidered by us as not less indispensable than those of language and calculation for all children. The state in France does not believe that it may\nabandon this function of teaching morality, this duty of moralizing childhood, so to speak, to the parents, to the families, to the churches, or to other\nprivate institutions. Our state considers that it is a national duty to transmit pure, intact, and complete these first notions which are at the basis of\nall the moral and social order.\nLet us consider what such a view implies.\nIs it therefore true that it is possible to constitute an elementary teaching\nor moral code suitable for all young children without distinction and without\ndanger of running counter to any religious conviction ?\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN FRENCH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n75\n\nIs it true that there are rules of conduct so common and general, so\nimperative and at the same time so banal, that the humblest school is\njustified in prescribing them as practical axioms to the teaching of which no\nparents can have the least objection ?\n\"Yes, it is true,\" says France, and now for more than thirty years the\nelementary-school program, which no longer includes religious teaching, has\nfound a place for moral instruction. Several times at successive general\nelections a large majority of voters has highly approved of this teaching\nof morality — in the words of Jules Ferry, when he was minister of public\ninstruction, \"the teaching of the principles of the good old-fashioned\nmorals which we have received from our fathers and which we honor ourselves in observing in our life without discussing the philosophical basis\ntherefor.\"\nHe went on to say.\nTeachers, in this function, you replace the father of the family. Speak then to his\nchild as you would like your own child to be spoken to. Speak with force and energy\nevery time you touch an accepted precept of common morality, but speak with care and\nwith the greatest reserve when you see that you might rim the risk of hurting some religious\nconviction of which you are not the judge. Ask yourselves before giving utterance to\nany moral law whether what you are about to say might offend or displease any honest\nman, and if any head of a family might have objection to the views you express. If you\nthink he would, then abstain; do not speak. If, on the contrary, you are sure no honest\nman would object to what you are about to say, speak out, speak bravely, for that wisdom\nyou are teaching the child is not your own wisdom, but the wisdom of the human race,\none of those ideas of imiversal order which centuries of civilization have introduced\ninto the patrimony of mankind.\n\nIn doing so the teacher is awakening in the child's mind the idea of what\nis good, of what is right and wrong, whose aim is to induce the child to love\nright for right itself. Le bien pour le Men. If the French teacher does not\nspeak of God in teaching morality, it is because he fears that if he spoke of\nGod the Roman Catholic priests or the Protestant pastor, or the Hebrew\nrabbi might accuse him of having spoken incorrectly. But if he does not\nspeak of God, he makes the heart of the child feel Him, and he reveals to his\neyes that universal religion which may be called the religion of the good. In\nthis way our school, far from being godless, teaches all children to love the\nbeautiful, the true, the good, the right, \"which are,\" said Bossuet, \"something of God or rather God himself.\"\nLadies and gentlemen, what is the value of this education ? You may\njudge it at the present hour. A great crisis more tragic than could ever\nhave been foreseen has arisen to put this education to the test, to estimate\nthe price and value of this moral teaching.\nIn the first place, note, if you will, the behavior of our teachers. They\nare, just as you American teachers are, resolute partisans of that grand\nideal of a peaceful civilization which President Jordan set forth so eloquently this morning. In fact, our French teachers have been denounced\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand upbraided for that love of peace of which they have made public confession. It was insinuated that they were even sacrificing their love of\ncountry for their love of mankind. Their answer to this charge, as you\nyourselves know, has been expressed in no uncertain terms. We have seen\nthese avowed pacificists in the very front ranks of those who have laid down\ntheir lives in the defense of France. No other group of our people has\nsacrificed its members more lavishly; no other class of men occupies a\nlarger place in the roll of honor of the heroes of the war. Had the survivors\nof this noble band, who are still fighting heroically, heard the eloquent\naddress of President Jordan this morning, they too would surely have\napplauded his generous appeals for the triumph of peace, but they would\nnone the less surely have added that their grand hopes for the future could\nnot make them forget their even greater responsibilities in the present.\nPeace indeed is what they are wishing and working for, but a righteous\npeace withal, for an unrighteous peace would be merely crushing justice\nunder the heel of brute force.\nBut this frightful war gave another and more striking confirmation of\nthe true value and eflScacy of the moral teaching in our ^cole laique. What do\nwe see in France during the past thirteen months ? Men who had previously\nbeen far apart, in education, in opinions, in creed, have found themselves\nstanding together on common groimd, side by side, facing peril, facing\neven death itself, and there they have judged one another. At the moment\nwhen one was unhesitatingly ready to sacrifice his life, he saw the other, his\nneighbor, perhaps his adversary in former times, quite ready to do the\nsame. So that those two men, who thought there was apparently nothing\nin common between them, found on the contrary that they both had the\nsame patriotic faith, the same capacity for devotion to the country. Jew\nand Christian, lay teacher and Catholic priest, socialist and conservative,\nhave not only poured out their life blood for their country, but have, so to\nspeak, communis dans Vheroisme.\nThey have found the same and only word which sums up for all what\nthey have felt and done — duty. And this very word is also the word\ntaught by our school, by our lay ethics. Everyone is free to add to it what\nhis heart, his reason, his faith suggests to him. The lay school does not kill\nfaith; it kills only hatred.\nFINANCING\nJAMES Y. JOYNER,\n\nSTATE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF PUBLIC\nRALEIGH, N.C.\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThe right of every child to have an equal chance to develop, thru\neducation, every power in him for his own sake, for the state's sake, for\nthe nation's sake, for humanity's sake, is recognized today as inherent and\ninalienable in our democracy.\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nFINANCING\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n77\n\nThe education of all the children of all the people for efficiency, culture,\ncitizenship, and service is happily recognized as a chief function of every\nAmerican state and community. The financing of an adequate system of\npublic education has, therefore, become one of the most important problems\nof state and municipal government.\nIn the consideration of this problem three questions arise: the scope\nof the system of education to be financed; the raising of the funds therefor;\nthe distribution of those funds.\nTHE SCOPE\n\nOF THE SYSTEM\n\nIn recognition of the inherent right of every child in a democracy —\nthe child of one talent as well as the child of ten talents — to have an equal\nchance to develop every power in him for citizenship and service, the ideal\nsystem of education should be continuous and complete from kindergarten\nto university, absolutely free to all, providing all sorts of education for\nall sorts of people, adapted to the varied talents, tastes, and capacity\nof each.\nSuch a system of education is, of necessity, expensive, and the attainment of it must of necessity be a gradual and somewhat slow evolution\naccording to the ability of each state and community, co-operating, to\nmeet the expense thereof. In the logical and equitable evolution of any\nsystem of public education, adequate financial provision should first be\nmade for that thoro instruction in elementary education, which constitutes\nthe foundation of all education, reaches the greatest number of children, and\nis within the capacity of all normal children. Secondary education, including high-school instruction, cultural and vocational, should next be provided to reach the next largest nimiber of children and to raise the general\naverage of intelligence and efficiency among the masses. Lastly should be\nprovided university and other forms of education, special, technical, professional, etc. If the wealth of the state and the conmiunity, however, is\ninsufficient to provide adequately for all at the same time, secondary education should not be provided at the expense of elementary education and\nother forms of education should not be provided at the expense of elementary\nand secondary. It is desirable, however, to develop all these parts of a\ncomplete educational system siniultaneously and symmetrically as parts of\nan organic whole. The system must not be all feet, all body, all head,\nfor neither can say to the other, \"I have no need of thee,\" and neither\nshould be compelled to wait for the other to get its full growth before it\nbegins to grow — all should grow together harmoniously, symmetrically,\norganically.\nThe development of these different parts of a complete educational\nsystem beyond the elementary must necessarily vary in rapidity and extent\nas well as in methods of financing, according to the varying wealth of\nstates and communities.\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nRAISING THE FUNDS\n\nThe methods of raising the funds for public education should be based\nupon the democratic principle of the equalization of a common burden in\ndischarge of a common obligation for the conmion good. This common\nburden and common obligation is threefold — state, county, and commimity,\nor district. The only efficient and equitable method in a democracy of\nbearing such a common burden and discharging such a common obligation isof course public taxation. Out of the threefold burden, obligation,\nand benefit logically and equitably grows a threefold method of taxation for financing public education — state, county, and community or\ndistrict.\nThe unequal distribution of wealth among the different counties of the\nsame state necessitates a state tax on all the wealth of the state for the\nbenefit of all the children of the state and for the equalization of educational\nadvantages to them. By such a tax all the strong of all the state help all\nthe weak of all the state, the burden can be borne according to the ability\nof each to bear it, and the benefits can be distributed according to the needs\nand the right of each. The unequal distribution of wealth among the\ndifferent communities or districts of the same county necessitates a coimty\ntax on all the wealth of all the coimty for the benefit of all the children of\nthe county and the further equalization of educational advantages to them.\nAll the strong of all the coimty help all the weak of all the county, and all\nthe weak help themselves — the burden is distributed in discharge of the\ncommon obligation of all the citizens of the county to all the children of the\ncounty in proportion to the ability of each to bear it, and the benefits can be\ndistributed according to the need and the right of each child.\nThe state and the county rate of taxation for public education should be\nfixed, uniform, and mandatory, the proceeds of the former going into the\nstate treasury for distribution thru the county treasury and the proceeds\nof the latter remaining in each county. The proceeds of the state and\ncounty school tax should be distributed first so as to provide as nearly as\npossible the same minimum of educational opportunity in term, teacher, and\nequipment in elementary education at least in every school district in every\ncounty. After any county shall have levied the required uniform rate\nfor its public schools, it should receive from the state public-school fund the\nbalance needed to bring each of its public schools to the same minimum of\neducational requirement and opportunity.\nIn other words, equity and the equalization of educational opportunity\nrequire that the state and county school funds shall be used first as an\nequalizing fund. Each legal school district in each county, after paying\nthe same mandatory rate of state and county tax for education, is equitably\nentitled out of the state and county school fund to the same minimum of\neducational opportunity, so far as its environment renders this possible.\nThe community or district tax should be voluntary and should be used\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nFINANCING\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n79\n\nexclusively for the further improvement of the district school, supplementing\nwhat may be provided from state and county fund.\nProvision should also be made for voluntarily voting an additional\ncounty tax for the further improvement of the county schools. After\nbearing their just part of providing by mandatory state and county taxation\na reasonable minimum of educational opportunity in every school district,\nboth the county and the community or district should be free to vote\nvoluntarily such additional tax as they please for any additional improvement of their own schools and should be encouraged to do this by state\nsubsidies and other means for the stimulation of self-help. I believe this\nthreefold method of taxation — state, county, and conmiunity — for financing\npublic education is much to be preferred to the single method of state\ntaxation, because it recognizes the threefold obligation, the threefold\nburden, and the threefold benefit; it stimulates self-help and local responsibility; itappeals to local pride and interest; and it encourages economy of\nadministration.\nExcept in the few states in which the wealth of the state is sufficient to\nprovide adequately without burdensome taxation for financing properly\nout of the common state school fund all parts of a complete public-school\nsystem, it is, in my opinion, wiser to provide separately, and usually by a\ndefinite separate tax proportionate to its needs, for each part of the system.\nThis will avoid friction and the accusation that one part of the educational\nsystem is being robbed for another part. Harmful criticism and friction are\nsure to arise, often not without justice, if any considerable part of the school\nfund is used for secondary, higher, vocational, and other kinds of education\nbefore adequate provision has been made for the elementary schools.\nThe usual and perhaps the most equitable method of financing secondary\nand vocational education is by special state appropriations offered as\nsubsidies to county and community schools complying with certain prescribed conditions, based upon duplication of such subsidies by counties\nand communities by voluntary taxation or donation.\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF\n\nFUNDS\n\nEqualization of educational advantages and equality of educational\nopportunity is of course the fundamental principle that should control\nthe distribution of all public-school funds raised by public taxation. The\nunequal distribution of wealth, as we have seen, necessitates, for the\nequalization of the burden and the advantages of education, state and\ncounty taxation whereby all the strong of the state and the county help all\nthe weak of state and county and all the weak of state and county help\nthemselves, each in proportion to his ability.\nThe unequal distribution of population necessitates the distribution\nof both funds upon some other basis than that of total or school population.\nEqualization of advantages must take into consideration term, house,\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Geoeral\n\nequipment, attendance, number and qualifications of teachers. State and\ncounty funds for public education must be distributed so as to secure, as\nnearly as possible at least, an equal minimum of educational opportunity\nin all of these — first in elementary education, then in secondary education,\nthen in other forms of education. A little consideration makes it almost\nself-evident without the necessity of detailed explanation or argument that\nany equitable distribution of school funds must be based upon the number\nand qualification of the teachers employed and the average attendance.\nIn conclusion, let me illustrate most of the fimdamental principles for\nfinancing public education by the concrete example of the methods of\nraising and distributing public-school funds in North Carolina, the state\nwith whose school system I am most familiar and with the shaping and\nadministration of which I have been closely and continuously connected\nas state superintendent of public instruction for fourteen years.\nThere are three units of taxation for public education — state, county,\nand school district or community. The school district includes towns and\ncities and its territory may be as large or as small as the county board of\neducation, consisting of three appointed members, shall determine, subject\nhowever to a minimum of school population in densely populated territory\nand to a minimum of area in sparsely populated territory, with discretionary\npower to make this minimum of territory and school population smaller on\naccount of natural barriers — streams, mountains, swamps, etc. The state\nand county tax for the elementary public schools is a fixed, uniform, mandatory mill tax. About one-third of the funds from the state tax is apportioned to the counties per capita on school-census population, to decrease\nthe burden of providing the required minimum of four months, the school\nages being from six to twenty-one years. This is sent to the treasurer of\neach county to be apportioned by the county board of education as a part\nof the county school fund, and is added to the county school fimd raised in\neach county by the mandatory coimty school tax. The county board of\neducation is required to determine annually by itemized estimate the\nadditional amount needed to provide a minimum school term of four\nmonths in each school district of the country, rural and urban, after fixing\nthe number and salary of teachers in each, and to levy if necessary an\nadditional county tax sufficient to provide this minimum term of four\nmonths in each, provided the required additional special county tax for this\npurpose shall not exceed fifteen mills.\nTwo-thirds of the fimds from the mandatory state school tax is set aside\nas an equalizing fund. Each county board of education submits to, the\nstate board of education an itemized statement of the number of teachers,\nsalary, and term provided out of the general state and county school fund in\neach school district, accompanied with a sworn statement that a minimum\nterm of four months in each district has been provided by law and that the\nspecial additional county tax, not to exceed fifteen mills, where necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nFINANCING\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n8l\n\nhas been levied and collected for this purpose. Then each county receives\nfrom the state equalizing fund a sufficient amount to lengthen the school\nterm in each district to the same minimum of six months or as near thereto\nas the fund will provide. This method of distributing the state and county\nschool iund derived from a uniform mandatory state and county tax\nsecures a uniform school term in every school district in the elementary\nschools, based upon the number and the salaries of the teachers actually\nemployed. This minimum term last year in North Carolina was 104 days\nand the average term for the state was 122 days. The state equalizing\nfund will, of course, increase with the increasing wealth and property\nassessment of the state and may confidently be expected to provide a\nminimum of six months in a few years. Counties, cities, towns, townships,\nand school districts can provide for lengthening the terms, for increasing\nthe number and salaries of their teachers, for adding high-school and\nvocational instruction, and for such improvements as they desire by voting\nadditional special county, township, and district tax — one or all — for these\npurposes. In this way, the sense of local responsibility is strengthened and\nlocal pride, initiative, and interest are stimulated.\nMore than one-third of the school districts, all the larger towns and\ncities, and some entire counties and townships are supplementing their\nschool funds by such special taxes for the improvement of their own schools.\nThe state fund for secondary and vocational education is provided by\nstate appropriation derived from the general tax for state purposes and\nincluded in the required levy annually. The distribution of this fund is\nunder the control of the state board of education and is limited to rural high\nschools and farm-life schools, which are of course vocational. They cannot\nbe established in a town of more than one thousand inhabitants, the number\nthat may be established by state aid is limited to four in a county, and the\nappropriation to each regular high school and each vocational school or\ndepartment of a high school is limited to a fixed maximum amount according\nto number of teachers, attendance, and grade of work, and is conditional\nupon the duplication by county and district of the amount received from the\nstate, and upon their supplying certain required equipment in buildings,\nland, laboratory, etc. Everyone of these schools is free to every child in\nthe county.\nThe state university, two colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, one\nnormal college, and seven normal schools are supported by direct annual\nappropriation, provided, of course, out of the state tax for general state\nexpenses and included in the annual levy.\nThis North Carolina plan for financing public education is far from\nperfect and falls far short of a perfect application of the fundamental\nprinciples discussed in the first part of this paper for raising and distributing\npublic school funds so as to secure equalization of burden and benefit in\neducation. I have thought it worth while, however, to outline the plan\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nsomewhat in detail in the hope that it might serve to illustrate concretely\nthe equity and wisdom of conformance to these principles in so far as it\nconforms to them and the unwisdom and inequity of the violation of them in\nso far as it falls to conform to them.\n\nMODERN\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\nERNESTO\n\nNELSON,\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nDIRECTOR OF SECONDARY\nFOR ARGENTINA, S.A.\n\nEDUCATION\nEDUCATION\n\nIn considering the situation of the secondary school, one cannot fail\nto note that this branch of pubUc education is undergoing a gradual but\nnevertheless marked crisis in most countries, particularly where the secondary school still retains much of its former character and function as a\npreparatory institution in colleges and universities.\nIn what follows, I refer to conditions prevaiUng in the world at large\nas far as I have studied them by observation and thru educational Hterature.\nIn this connection, I must say I think no country in the world has put the\nsecondary school on a better basis to respond to the demands of democracy\nthan the United States. I confidently expect, therefore, that in dealing,\nas I do, with the secondary school of tomorrow the American educator will\nbe able to look at this subject from the point of view that traditional\nconditions are actually giving way to newer ideals of education.\nThe traditional alliance between the secondary school and the university\nhas tended to make the former subservient to the latter by thrusting upon\nthe school the task of imparting the specific information upon which the\nuniversity is to build the professional culture.\nIn the secondary school of today, therefore, knowledge-getting is still\nthe prominent activity, throwing into shade all other activities more vitally\nconcerned with the character-forming end of education. Informations are\nwhat you may call the building blocks of our present systems of secondary\neducation. Information is the factor that conditions the pupil's progress\nthru school and is so far the only test universally accepted as a measure\nof the amount of education given or received. The curriculum, the textbook, the recitation method, the marking system, and the examination\npaper are the most important pieces of our educational machinery. And\nthis costly and formidable machinery is not concerned, as one would think\nit ought to be, with the self-development of the student and the testing\nof the real progress of his personaUty, but solely with standardizing, circulating, and testing the amount of information a person has to receive in\norder to be worthy of the privilege of being educated by the state.\nIn former times, the kind of learning the schools would bestow upon\nthose seeking culture was that based on the power of memory to retain the\ninformation given by books. Later on the educational reformers pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMODERN\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n83\n\nclaimed the need of appealing to the thinking powers of the student, and\naccordingly proper methods were instituted to convey information. Knowledge was then still an end to be sought. We now live in an era when education is considered an activity the full import of which is derived from the\nfacts discovered in our psychological discoveries. The average teacher and\neven the average person knows that the acquisition of knowledge can no\nlonger be an end in itself; that altho knowledge may be the result of a\nproper method of education, it does not in itself satisfy all the conditions\nof the process of education, and that, far from that, if its acquisition is the\nonly goal aimed at, it may bring results that are positively harmful to the\ncause of education.\nIs the secondary school of today a tangible exponent of such an evolution of educational thought ? I am afraid it is not. If such were the case,\nthe present machinery of the school would be concerned with the real end\nof education, the training of the mind, the power to use facts and information, and to combine them in new ways for new knowledge and for\nself -creation.\nI am far from belittling the fact that all education presupposes the\ngetting of information and that science has necessarily to be the subjectmatter of any kind of educational activity. But if there can be no education without knowledge-getting, unfortunately there is a considerable\namount of knowledge-getting that does not promote a corresponding\neducational activity. In the words of John Dewey:\nAny examination of the prevailing modes of instruction will show that the mere bulk\nof matter communicated in books and lectures tends to swamp the native and active\ninterests operative in intelligent behavior and in the acquaintanceship it brings. There\nthis matter remains imassimilated, imorganized, not really imderstood. It stands on a\ndead level, hostile to the selective arrangement characteristic of thinking, matter for\nmemorizing rather than as genuine realities intelligently appreciated. Such an external\nsecond-hand body of information is not only useless but positively harmful.\n\nI have come to the conclusion that the trouble with the secondary\nschool is that it has not shifted its conception of the essentials of education\nin the same manner as the average man and woman of the twentieth century\nhave shifted theirs. We all believe that the educated person is he who,\nin Fichte's words, \"is an independent ego, a self-active, self-determined,\ncreative personality, the master of himseK and his environment,\" while\nthe secondary school, thru its practices, still clings to the old superstition\nthat places above these things the mere retention of facts and the ability\nto prove this memorization in stereotyped examinations.\nInasmuch as practices designed chiefly for the purpose of getting knowledge may be detrimental to education, and inasmuch as sound educational\nactivities are invariably followed by the acquisition of genuine knowledge,\nthe thing to do is so to organize the school activities that knowledge of the\ngenuine kind may come as a result of the performance of such activities.\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn other words, if education is an inner process and not an outward result,\nthe obvious need is to organize that process. Up to now the school\nauthorities have been busy organizing knowledge, not education. The\nschool program of today is made up of carefully distributed information\namong the successive stages of school work. We have yet to devise a system\nof activities of really educational significance. The laboratory method has\nbeen a step in that direction, but an immense amount of such organization\nto make it consistent thruout remains to be done in all departments of\nlearning.\nAs things are today, the only educators worthy of the name are the\nmanual-training teachers, the drawing teachers, and the teachers of physical training. They are not concerned with the transmitting of information\nfor its own sake. They preside over an activity — the performing, on the part\nof the pupil, of a set of actions which science and experience have shown\nto be of educational value to the child. They let nature do the rest. It\nwould be utterly absurd to compel the children to submit themselves after\nevery school year to an examination in either manual or physical training,\nfor this would at once deprive such activities of their educational value.\nThe temptation would be too great to attain the standards sought for at\nexamination time by short cuts, that is, without the performing of a previous\neducational activity. Results, not processes, would be the real goal, and\nthe whole work would be robbed of its educational significance. Dogmatism and authority would be the controUing elements and an array of\ntextbooks teUing how to perform the tricks by time-saving and educationsaving devices woidd be welcome by teachers and pupils. The gymnasium\nwould be turned into a circus and the manual-training shop into a factory.\nI think that the most pressing want in the field of secondary education\nis to devise a system of educational activities covering the same groimd of\nlearning that corresponds to our present curriculimi. When we have\naccompUshed this, we will have a system of education which will be the\nintellectual counterpart of the many systems devised for the building up\nof the hmnan body; for, strange enough, altho many nations claim to\npossess their own systems of physical education, none has so far organized\na system of intellectual education.\nWhen we have organized a system of occupations that will bring out\nthe latent individual powers of the pupil, the syllabus, the textbook, and\nthe teacher will be endowed with higher and nobler fimctions. The syllabus\nwill consist of a list of activities that the student will have to perform in\norder to acquire that very same amount of information that we now try\nto eUcit from him at recitation time and which he is obliged to get directiy\nfrom the books. The syllabus will organize all the elements of constructive\nwork and research which the student should accompUsh in order to develop\nhis personaUty, to train his powers of observation, and to exercise his\njudgment, as well as to acquire a working knowledge of the facts of science.\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMODERN\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\nOP SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nS^\n\nAlong with the syllabus, the textbook will no longer be the medium for a\nclandestinely transferred knowledge. It ought to become a guide, a tool,\nwith which the student may become an active agent inteUigently reacting\nbefore the reaUties, which the school will make a business to bring to his\npresence.\nTo be sure, there is much important knowledge that pupils cannot\npossibly acquire by themselves. But, as Dewey remarks, \" this transmitted\nmaterial is Ukely to be fruitful in just the degree in which it is conveyed\nin connection with those activities in which the pupils acquire something\nthru their observations and reflections.\" Therefore the business of the\nreformed textbook will be to interweave the transmitted information with\nthe facts actually discovered by the pupil. Such books will therefore be\nsomething more than laboratory manuals, for they will bring together sets\nof facts wisely correlated with the activities engaging the pupil's observation,\nwhile in the humanistic arts they will open before the student lines of\npersonal research and opportunities of self-expression.\nFurthermore such books would enhance the humanistic value of science\nas an intellectual discipUne. They would develop the mathematical mind,\nthe historic sense, the literary faculty, and the philosophical spirit rather\nthan supply the memory with ready-made principles, facts, and criticism,\nand a pedantic vocabulary. In short, teaching would stand for the promotion ofscientific method, which is far more important than the possession\nof the unrelated abstractions that are furnished by the average textbook\nof today.\nAs for the teacher, he will welcome an evolution that will exalt the\nsocial service he renders. Now he is too much of a warden, keeping track\nof the hard labor assigned to his charges. New educational systems will\nraise his position to a higher plane. He will be, for it will then be possible\nfor him to be, a comrade, whose task will be to encourage, to quicken, to\nstimulate, and to promote free action. Thus he will preside over the most\nvital stage of the intellectual process, that of turning the acquired knowledge\ninto a permanent possession, a part of a correlated whole. As it is now, that\nphase of the process takes place outside of the school and it is left to the\nabiUty of the pupil to get the information from books.\nWhen this change in the conception of education takes place, the meaning of the school as a preparation for life will fully present itself to our minds.\nThe present failure of the secondary school to fit the young men and women\nfor the battles of life is making reformers lay the blame for it on the curriculum, on the ground that the kind of knowledge imparted by the average\nschool of today is of Uttle use in everyday life. Therefore, our attention\nis being called to vocational activities as more apt to develop in the pupils\nthe qualities that are at premium in the social market.\nI have already referred to the growing demand made upon the secondary\nschool as to making it a natural continuation of the primary school. It is\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\na cherished ideal that the secondary school be the finishing college for the\nmajority of the people at the same time that it is a truly preparatory institution for higher studies. But if the secondary school is ever to accompUsh these ideals it will be thru changing its educational practices. The\nmethod of education which emphasizes knowledge-getting as the chief\ncondition of continuance in school is, by its very nature, incompatible\nwith the idea of a secondary school devoted to the education of all the\npeople, simply because the process by which the secondary school eUminates\nthe so-called imfit is an artificial one founded on the abiHty of the candidate\nto bring the memory into play and to submit to an unnatural way of getting\ninformation. Such is the basic reason why the percentage of failures is\nso great.\nAn educational process, to be considered natural and applicable therefore to any normal being, has to be founded exclusively upon the fulfilment\nof such activities as are exercised with zest and are accompanied by a\nconsciousness of their worth.\nThe truth — a disconcerting one in this era in which the blessings of\neducation are sung everywhere — is that secondary-school methods are\nbased, not on organized incentive, but on organized restriction. No tax\nis imposed on ignorance anywhere. It is only when one wants to get\neducated that one sees himself confronted with rules and regulations\nbarring his path to the goal. All freedom is denied him. He is told what\nto study and when. He may choose to be ignorant of everything above the\nprimary school and he will not be molested. But if he does not care to\nfollow the stereotyped scheme of the official curriculum, he will hardly be\nable to find instructors for the things he particularly cares to learn. The\nremarkable position of the secondary school as an agent of organized restriction is simply a consequence of its failure to confer the kind of education\nto which the general consensus attributes the greater value.\nAn unexpected consequence follows from the above bearing on the\npart taken by the state in the discharge of its educational duties. As it\nis now, and as secondary education is largely a privileged road, the state's\nposition is that of a bestower of a privilege which is conceded to certain\nindividuals as long as they prove to be worthy of it, a fact which is to be\nascertained at the end of each school term.\nBut if the secondary school is to be considered an educational institution\nfor all the people; if its practices are to be directed to raising the common\nintellectual plane; if, in short, secondary education is to acquire such\nimportance as regards the increasing of the individual efficiency that its\nacquisition will become a democratic right, then it will be the business of\nthe state to edticaie, as it is its duty to make provision for everything that\ndirectly bears upon the life and health of the people. The state should be\nheld accountable for any failure of the individuals to be educated as the\nstate is now to be blamed for any undue increase in the mortality list.\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMODERN\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n87\n\nThe change outlined above will necessarily affect the method of testing the efficiency of educational activities. As it is today, education is\nmeasured by the amount of information a person has accumulated. It is\nup to the individuals to show that they are entitled to the privilege bestowed\nby the state. But if education becomes a right, a right to be better qualified\nfor any human activity, a right to have one's power developed in the proportion allowed by one's limitations, then it is on the educator and not on the\neducated that the blame is to be laid for any inefficiency in the results\nobtained.\nOn the other hand, to exclude from the benefits of education the very\nones that are more in need of it would be as illogical as if the infected people\nin an unhealthy district were excluded from the action of improving agencies.\nThe preceding analysis tends to define the type of secondary school\nthat would respond to our present views in education. Its work should be\nfounded on an organization of educational activities calculated to train\nand develop the individual powers while imparting the information that is\nessential to entering upon professional studies. Promotions thru such\nschools should be guided by the principle that no one should be denied the\nright to study any subject provided he has accomplished all the activities\nthat make further work advantageous. This requirement is the only one\nthat has real educational significance. All other academic barriers that\nexist today are the results of the school's servitude with regard to the university, such as the one which prevents the student from continuing his work\nin any subject if he has not accomplished certain work in other subjects.\nSuch arbitrary measures ought to be removed. Connections between the\nsecondary school and the college should be such that neither would be the\nservant of the other. However, the colleges should decide how much of\nthe educational work provided by the secondary school may be accepted\nas an entrance requirement.\nEducation in a democracy should be the entering gate to all walks\nof life. As it is, secondary education has an accepted meaning as a preuniversity activity. This conception has given an unfortunate meaning\nto the expression \"educated class,\" conveying the idea that such a class is\nmade up of those who can afford the privilege of being educated. And\nthis privilege is bought not only by money and time but by submission to\nobsolete methods of instruction. If we investigate still more closely into the\nsocial significance of education, we shall discover that education is sometimes\nstill a sign, an identification badge, and that the years spent with books are\ncomparable to the work of preparing one's self in the ritual of a masonic\norganization. Both provide us with a grip and a password that open many\na door. Here we find the reason for the still prevalent contempt for\nactivities other than those that are the outcome of the present spectacular\neducation. Here also lies the reason of the eagerness with which the\nuniversity diploma is sought.\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWe have to level up the dignity of all labor by bringing education to\nthe common foundation of all human undertaking. We have to give\neducation its full chance, we have to make it the coefficient that enhances\nall human values. We have to divest it of its traditional function as a\nfactor of social antagonism and individual pride and to make it really a\nfountain for all souls, the promoter of sympathy and co-operation.\n\nORGANIZATION\nI.\n\nPAYSON\n\nSMITH,\n\nSTATE\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nAUGUSTA, ME.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSchool organization is a means and not an end. It would be well to\nremember this fact when we create our plans and schemes of education.\nThe object of school machinery is not merely to be: it is to serve. There\nhas lately been a surprising, and on the whole probably favorable, growth\nin systematic school organization. But it would be the part of wisdom not\nto place too great confidence in this for results. School laws, concentration\nof authority, imiformity of procedure — these may not be trusted\nactually to do a work over which at best they can have but an indirect\ninfluence. While we are constructing our courses of study, while we are\nrefining and prescribing our methods of instruction, while we are inventing and patenting our standards of measurement, may we not well bear in\nmind that these things will never serve in the cause of education except as\nsooner or later in one way or another they finally find expression in some\nindividual school and in some individual life ?\nPublic education in these American states is a big thing — quite the\nbiggest in our national life. Probably there is nothing else that is so imiversally expressive of our ideals of democracy as our scheme of public\neducation. True we have no national system of education in the continental sense, but we do have educational ideals that are so generally held\namong the people, educational plans and policies that are so common to all\nthe states, that the term \"American education\" lacks nothing whatever\nin its concrete significance. If we were to state in a few words the aim of\nthis American education we might perhaps agree on something like this:\nThe American people propose thru their public schools to insure a high\ntype of citizenship and thru that citizenship to perpetuate the essential\nintegrity of their democracy. Wherever, therefore, your steps may lead\nyou in America, whether into the little communities that in the bulk comprise so much of our nation or into the centers of population, you will find\nthe people co-operating with some greater or less measure of zeal for the\nsuccess of this the greatest of our public enterprises. To those who administer the schools is intrusted the task of directing this large general purpose\nof the people to the achievement of the civic and social aim I have sug-\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n89\n\ngested. It is my purpose to mention only one phase of this problem of\norganization.\nI have said that the aim of our system of education is a social one, that\nwe hope thru it to insure a better citizenship — a higher social state. But\nwhile the aim is social, let me emphasize that the means must be individual. There is no way of improving the mass save by improving the\nunit; there is no way in which we can get a better citizenship save as we\nget better citizens. That, it seems to me, is the one principle we must\naccept and respect if we are to make a success of our schools. It is the\nbusiness of the American educator so to organize education that there shall\ncome into the life and experience of each individual, so far as may be, precisely those forces, influences, and opportunities that will help him to be the\nmost effective unit he can possibly become. Mass education must and will\nfail to do for American life, American civilization, and American democracy\nthe task set it to perform, and my plea is for the exaltation of the individual and for the speedy elimination from our educational doctrine of the\ntenet that education can be reduced to a machine process, that it can be\nconducted on the factory plan.\nDo I make an unfair statement of much of our recent educational history when I say that it shows chiefly a record of attempts to generalize in\nmethod and policy ? Have we not vainly hoped that uniformity of courses,\nuniformity of method, imiformity of standards would give us an effective\neducation ? Are there not everywhere schools organized on the assumption\nthat children are alike, whereas the one outstanding fact about children is\ntheir diff erentness ? Out of this false assumption that children can be\ngrouped to an educational end on some basis of similarity of age or of\nsupposed intellectual attainment has come the mischief of the graded school.\nUpon this arbitrary method of the first classification of children has been\nconstructed all the fabric of dull uniformity. Because of it we have considerably crowded out the opportunity for individual initiative, spontaneity, and progress. Not seldom does one find courses and standards that\nare so definitely fixed that for a child to exceed the specified amount of knowledge at a given time is to be branded as a freak and not to attain it is to be\nset down as a probable failure. To keep the step — that is the prime virtue.\nTo be sure, some of these predestined failures sometimes surprise us and\nrefuse to fail. But that is because the world later gives them the chance\nthat the school failed to accord.\nI read in the school statistics of my own and other states that many\nthousand children annually fail of promotion and repeat the work of a\ngrade. I read also in those statistics that so many thousand children have\ntaken the first or second degree in the formation of the deadly habit of\nfailing. School systems, not a few, regard themselves as ejficient if the\npercentage of these faUing of promotion is reduced to 5, or 4, or even 3 per\ncent. But do such figures show efl&ciency or^do they show weakness where\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "QO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nweakness is most costly ? I see in percentages such as these the dismal fact\nof insufficient individual opportimity and the dismal prophecy of a handicapped and submerged element of citizenship of a later generation. I would\nask first, therefore, for school courses organized on the basis of individual\nneeds. I know that experiments have been tried to reduce the waste which\ngrows out of the attempt to make courses alike, but may we not some day\ngrasp the essential principle? It is not enough that we make our efforts\nalong the line of devising means to pull up the delinquents within measuring\ndistance of the group. Why not subordinate the group or the mass? Is\nthere, for example, any good reason why all pupils should be expected to\nknow exactly the same things in history, or that they should have covered\nprecisely the same groimd in arithmetic, or have read exactly the same\nstories within the same weeks or months? Is there not vision enough in\nour American education to give, for example, to the child who has the historical sense or taste a freer rein than to him who lacks it, and without discredit to either ? Is there any good reason why, as in not a few schools,\nall other educational opportunity shall be denied to one to whom algebraic\nequations are and must remain a dark and solemn mystery ?\nRather must school organization ultimately turn its attention to giving\nto each child his own opportunity and not that of another. And if there\nis any virtue in this first proposition of mine, I would ask you to consider\nalso whether we may not more sanely and more justly measure the progress\nof children. I know this is a time when we are paying much attention to\nthe establishment of standards and to the measurement of school progress,\nbut even tho a heretic, I must register my objection to these if they are to\nbe employed otherwise than to the service of individual education. Education should not primarily set up competition between one child and\nanother. Its first function is to place the child under the conditions of\ntraining which will lead him to the conquest of his own life; to help him\nto be the supreme individual he has a right to be.\nThe measurement of the child's progress should, like the plan of his\neducation, be based upon a study of what he himself is and not on what an\nalleged but non-existent average might indicate he ought to be. It should\nrecognize his powers, his tastes, his talents, his limitations — but perhaps\nwe may go slowly in defining these last.\nAnd finally, in the working out of this educational problem of ours, in\ncreating and conducting a system of education whose function shaU be to\nproduce civic and social growth thru individual opportunity, may I urge\nthat school organization while recognizing the right of the individual child\nshall also recognize the necessity of giving the largest j>ossible freedom to\nthe individual teacher ? I am aware of the need of supervision; I recognize\nthe place of plans and records and reports of progress. I have no\ndoubt done my guilty part toward devising these, but they are incidentals\nand extremely minor incidentals to the work of teaching. We have our\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n91\n\nnotions, all of us, as to the importance of this, that, or the other subject in\nthe school curriculum, but may I submit that the need of the American\nschool today is not for better teachers of reading, or of English, or of Latin,\nbut that it is for better teachers of children, for men and women who understand that the final test of their teaching skill will not be on the presentation of a military campaign or the lucid demonstration of a theorem: it will\nbe as to whether or not thru these or other means they are able to get within\nthe mind, and heart, and soul of a child and help him to the fullest realization ofhis own powers, to the end that he may make the contribution\nof his life and his service in his own way to the enrichment of our American\ncitizenship and to the betterment of his own world.\n\nn.\n\nELLWOOD p. CUBBERLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nSTANFORD\n\nFor a quarter of a century after the formation of our Union, nothing\nwhich could be regarded as more than the merest beginnings of state school\nsystems existed. Even in New England, where a good beginning had been\nmade in the seventeenth century, the educational enthusiasm of the people\nhad largely died out, and the schools had fallen into decay. For some\ndecades after the establishment of our Republic this condition and attitude\ncontinued, and chiefly for the reason that there was little at the time in the\npolitical, economic, or social life of our people which made education at\npublic expense seem important. Gradually, but very slowly, this attitude on the part of our people began to change and to give place to an\ninterest in schools. Such interest, tho, was largely local, for almost everywhere, with us, the school arose as a distinctively local institution, and to\nmeet local needs.\nEach little district unit was created a \"body politic and corporate,\"\nand endowed with certain legal powers. For the management of the school\nthe people elected three school trustees, and they, guided by the people in\nannual and special district meetings, managed these little schools as best\nthey knew how. In the days before modern school systems had been\ndeveloped, when there were no printed courses of study, no trained teachers,\nno supervisory ofl&cers, no standards for work, no sanitary regulations,\nand almost no organized body of school law or pedagogic knowledge, the\ncitizens of these little district units handled the schools in a manner which\ngave reasonable satisfaction to the people they represented.\nIn time the different states began to manifest a deeper interest in education. The national land grants for education awakened interest in the\nstates to the westward, the many humanitarian movements which arose\nafter about 1830 had their effect, and the development of many new political\nand social problems after about 1840 awakened our people to the danger\nof an uneducated electorate. All of these helped on the movement for\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsome state action in the matter of general education. Tax-supported\nschools now began to be demanded both as a right and as a political necessity, and much argimient was advanced on both sides of the question.\nGradually the people of the different states were won over to the idea of\ntax-supported schools, and by 1850 education had been adopted as a pubUc\nfunction in every northern state.\nHaving accepted education as a state fimction, it was necessary to\nprovide some form of state oversight and control. To see that schools were\norganized as required by law, to apportion the proceeds from taxation\nand the income from funds, to see that the money was not illegally spent,\nto collect and tabulate statistics, to stimulate school officers and teachers,\nto exhort the people to establish and maintain their schools, both state and\ncounty school officers were created by the different states. For some\ntime the duties of these officers were almost entirely clerical, statistical,\nand exhortatory, and, except on the exhortatory side, not essentially\ndifferent from those of a county auditor or clerk.\nThe creation of the offices of state and county school superintendents\naccordingly came early in our educational history. Their creation came\nat a time when full manhood suffrage had but recently been attained, and\nwhen the belief in the wisdom of the people as expressed in elections was at\na maximum. The selection of these officials by nomination and election by\npopular vote then seemed the natural method to follow, and as such it was\nfollowed m almost all our states. District, township, county, and state\nschool officers, as created, were placed in the elective column, along with\nsheriffs, auditors, coroners, and clerks.\nSince these earlier days we have just been describing, the whole aspect\nof public education has changed. New social, political, and economic needs\nhave created entirely new conditions in our national life, to meet which we\nhave only public education as a remedy. New world-relationships have\nbeen developed and the early isolation swept away. New methods of\ntransacting both public and private business have been introduced, and\nthe need for larger units of administration and administrators of larger\ngrasp have become evident to most of our people. Public education has\nbeen transformed into a great state interest. In consequence, permission\nhas been changed to obligation, functions formerly intrusted to small\nadministrative units have been transferred to larger ones, the state has been\nforced to make new and more extended demands on local communities,\nand entirely new problems in organization, administration, instruction,\nsanitation, and child welfare have recentiy been forced to the front. The\ndifferent state school codes have become bulky, and school legislation has\ncome to demand a knowledge and an expertness of judgment which it\nformerly did not require. The exhorter and the institute worker have\ncome to be needed less and less, and the student and trained administrator\nmore and more.\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n93\n\nWithin the past decade and a half, very important and very significant\nprogress has been made looking toward a better organization and administration of our systems of public education, and a great expansion of the\nschool as an instrimient of democracy has taken place. From a mere\nteaching institution, the school has been raised to a foremost place as a\nconstructive agent in our democratic life. New aims in instruction have\nbeen set up; new subjects of instruction have been introduced; new types of\nschools have been organized with new ends in view; and an important\nbeginning on those necessary adjustments and differentiations to meet\nindividual needs, which we formerly did not think possible, has been made.\nSo rapid has been this change in direction and purpose that there are still\nmany communities and many school people who have not as yet caught\nthe significance of these fundamental changes in the direction of the school.\nThe school, in its development, has too often outrun the thinking of those\nwho direct it.\nThe recent development of a rather critical rural-life problem has made\nnew demands for rural leadership, as yet almost entirely unsatisfied, from\nthose responsible for the progress of rural education. The recent development of a public-health movement has called attention to the long-neglected\nhealth needs of the children in our schools. The many recent studies of\nindividual capacity and the normal rate of progress for different children\nhave revealed a large field for scientific study as to how we may better\nadapt our instruction to the varying capacities and needs of children.\nFinally, the recent attempts to survey and measure school systems and to\ndetermine the efficiency of instruction along scientific lines have alike\nserved to develop a scientific method for attacking administrative problems\nwhich promises to compel us soon to rewrite the whole of our theory of\nschool administration in terms of these new units and scales for measuring\neducational progress and determining educational efficiency. All of these\ndevelopments point unmistakably in the direction of the evolution of a\nprofession of school administration as distinct from the work of teaching on\nthe one hand and politics on the other.\nIn but few places, however, has our administrative organization kept\npace with our educational development along other lines. On all sides —\nstate, county, city, and district — we still find an administrative organization suited to earlier conditions and needs, one under which administrative\nprogress is almost painfully slow.\nTurning first to state educational organization, what conditions do we\nfind ? Probably no position within the gift of the state has greater possibilities for constructive statesmanship than the position of superintendent\nof public instruction in one of our American states. As a position it is,\npotentially, a more important one than that of president of the state university. That it is not so is a matter of common knowledge, and it is not\nso largely because the office has for so long been cursed with the blight of\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npartisan politics, and because political expediency rather than any educational standard has been the measuring-stick used in selecting candidates\nfor the position. In some of our states, it has settled down into merely a\nretiring job for the old and reasonably successful practitioner in the ranks.\nAs a result, few of our states today reveal, in their educational and legislative history, any evidence of having followed, for any length of time, any\nwell-thought-out educational policy.\nThe state oversight provided has been clerical and statistical, rather\nthan professional, in its nature and purpose; legislation has been remedial\nand of a patchwork t5^e, rather than constructively reorganizing; and\noften the state oversight has been of such a laissez-faire nature that the\nschool systems resulting have been merely a loosely integrated collection\nof local and largely independent schools, instead of a state system of education in any real sense of the term. The conception of the state as an active,\nenergetic agent working constantly and intelligently for the improvement\nof educational conditions thruout the state, instead of acting as a statistical\nagent and a compulsory tax collector and distributor, is one which until very\nrecently has been present in but few of our American states.\nTurning next to county educational organization, the conditions are\neven worse. The position of superintendent of schools in a county is,\npotentially at least, a more important position than that of principal of the\nhigh school or city superintendent of schools in the county seat school\nsystem, and the position should call to its services those who rank as among\nthe best trained men in the state, yet almost everywhere the office has been\nregarded largely as a temporary political job, open only to those residents\nof a coimty who are willing to consider political candidacy. In but few of\nour states has the office as yet been given any educational standing. In\ntwenty-nine out of forty-one states having such an officer, he is nominated\nand elected from among the body of the electorate, as a sheriff or a coroner\nwould be, in eighteen of the twenty-nine states he is elected for but twoyear terms, and in two states he is actually prohibited by the constitution\nfrom holding the office longer than four years. In other words, the coimty\nsuperintendent of schools, a man who ought to enter the work as a life career\nand with the idea of working up in the service, is by the people regarded\nmerely as another county political officer and treated accordingly. It is not\nsurprising that county superintendents of schools have often lived up to\nwhat is expected of them, and that the rural-life problem which has developed about them has become of such large dimensions that it can be solved\nnow only by a new type of educational organization and service.\nThe low salaries paid by the people to the superintendents, the expense\nand trouble necessary to secure the office, the public notoriety and the\nhumiliation of defeat, the short tenure and the inability to accomplish much\nin states where the district system has to be dealt with, and the high protective tariff levied against brains and competency from the outside by the\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n95\n\nlocal residence requirement for the office, have all united to keep the best\nmen in the teaching work out of the office. Men of competence can sell\ntheir services in a better market.\nIn twenty-eight of our forty-eight states, the superintendent has to deal\nwith the district system of school administration within the county, a\nsystem which has been condemned by educators generally for half a century,\nand one which for conservatism, waste, and general inefficiency leaves all\nother plans far in the rear. Almost every effort for the improvement of\nrural education in the district-system states is blocked by the short-sightedness of the district school authorities and the people they represent. As one\nwriter has well put it, \"the district system is democracy gone to seed.\"\nThe absurdly large number of school trustees required — from thirty to\nforty-five thousand in some of our states — makes any attempt at their\neducation seem almost hopeless, and they change faster than a superintendent can train them in their duties imder the law. There is no educational\nor business need for such an army of school officials, and any efficient\nsystem of county school administration is impossible so long as the district\nsystem is retained.\nTo put education in our counties on any satisfactory basis, to provide\nthe type of education needed by rural children, and to make possible the\nelimination of the rural-school problem, certain fundamental changes in\norganization need to be made. These involve the abolition of the county\nas the unit in school administration, and the complete elimination of party\npolitics from the management of the schools. Never before in the history\nof our school systems has there been such need for men of insight and\ncapacity, adequate professional education, and large executive skill for the\nmanagement of our rural and small village schools. Not until such men can\nbe obtained, and then given as free a hand as a city superintendent of\nschools in a well-managed city now has, can we expect much headway to be\nmade in the solution of those important and pressing problems surrounding\nlife and education for those who live on the farm and in our small villages.\nCounty school supervision ought to enlist the services of the most able\nand the best trained of those engaged in educational work. To expect to\nsecure the services of such under the present method of local nomination\nand popular election, except by chance, is to nourish a delusion. The same\nis even more true when applied to the office of superintendent of public\ninstruction.\nNearly all of the important progress which has been made in education\nin America in the past quarter of a century has been made in our cities, and\nit has been made there because the cities long ago aboUshed their districts\nand began to administer their schools as a unit, cfeased to elect their superintendents from among their own number and went into the markets of the\nwhole country to secure the best trained man or woman their money would\nseciure, and then gave the superintendent they employed a relatively free\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhand in the management of their schools. Until our county school systems\nand our state school systems can be reorganized along the Unes of the best\nof our city administrative experience, we can do little toward reorganizing\nand redirecting rural education or evolving a constructive and progressive\neducational poUcy for our states.\nTho the chief educational progress of a quarter of a century has been\nmade by our cities, much still remains to be done by many in perfecting\ntheir educational organization. In many cities the vicious ward system\nis still retained, and unwieldy large boards of education are still elected, and\nthese try to manage the schools by means of a large number of standing\ncommittees. In such systems the superintendent of schools is likely to be\nreduced to subjection, while the board of education attempts to handle\ndetails which no board is competent to handle. In altogether too many\nstates our laws still repose all power in the hands of the board of education.\nA board of education of twelve to fifteen, composed of citizens from all\nwalks of life — ^merchants, clerks, lawyers, blacksmiths, and men of no\nparticular occupation — ^would constitute an average city board of education.\nThese divide up into committees on courses of study, teachers, textbooks\nand apparatus, janitors and sanitation, promotions and graduation, kindergarten, elementary schools, etc. To the pubUc, they seem to be very busy\nand to do their work reasonably well, for the reason that the whole matter\nof standards of work in public education is as yet so new that the public\ndoes not know whether or not the board of education is doing what it\nshould. What it does may be very bad for the schools, but the public has as\nyet little means of judging the value of what the board does. Educational\nmalpractice is as yet difficult for the layman to recognize.\nThe case may be made clearer if we imagine the same board to have\nbeen elected, not to manage the schools, but to manage a municipal hospital,\nand then have them divide up into committees and attempt to manage the\nhospital in the same way that they now manage the schools. The committee on courses of study would be replaced by one on medical treatments,\nthe committee on teachers by one on doctors and nurses, the committee on\ntextbooks and apparatus by one on drugs and surgical instruments, the\ncommittee on janitors and sanitation by one on nurses and sanitary work,\nthe committee on promotions and graduation by one on operative cases,\nthe committee on kindergartens by one on maternity wards, and the committee on elementary schools by one on children's diseases. Now assmne\nthat these committees and the board as a whole attempt to exercise the\nsame degree of control over the details of management of the hospital that\nbgards of education now too often exercise over the schools, giving directions\nto the superintendent, nurses, and doctors as they now do to the superintendent of schools, the principals, and the teachers, and we can easily\nimagine the resulting chaos, yet the mismanagement which would take\nplace in the case of a hospital would not be greater than that which often\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOUR\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n97\n\ntakes place today in the management of some of our city school systems.\nIn the case of the hospital, the results are visible and easily brought within\nthe comprehension of the people; in the case of a school system the results\nare more concealed, and not so easy to bring within the understanding of\nthe electorate. Yet a good city superintendent of schools makes about as\nthoro preparation for his work as does a physician or surgeon, and is about\nas competent in his line as the doctor is in his.\nTo remedy such conditions, certain further reorganizations in the\nadministration of our city school systems need to be made. Large boards,\nand boards elected along ward lines, should be replaced by boards which\nhave been elected from the city at large, and which are small enough to\nmeet around a single table. Standing committees of the board of education\nshould be prohibited by law. There is little or nothing which a standing\ncommittee can do which cannot be done better by the executive ofl&cers the\nboard employs. These executive officers should in turn be guaranteed\nmuch larger powers of initiative and advice, and many functions now\nexercised by boards of education should be turned over to them entirely.\nThen, under the direction of officers who have trained themselves carefully for their work and made it a profession, we shall be able to do much\nmore for our children than we can now under the plan of everybody or\nanybody trying to direct what has become a piece of expert service.\nIn state, county, and city alike, the demand is for intelligent professional\nleadership, that our people may receive greater return for the money they\nput into their schools, and that the children in them may receive a better\neducation than they are now receiving. The important steps in the\nprocess of securing such lie along the lines of the reorganizations which\nhave been pointed out in this paper — viz., the erection of larger administrative units, the complete elimination of politics in the selection of experts,\nand the concentration of larger authority in the hands of those who will\nreally represent the interests of the children.\n\nOUR RURAL\nPERRY\n\nG.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nHOLDEN,\nDIRECTOR,\nAGRICULTURAL\nEXTENSION\nINTERNATIONAL HARVESTER\nCOMPANY, CHICAGO,\n\nDEPARTMENT,\nILL.\n\nOne of the chief est concerns of the country today is the improvement of\nits rural schools. Two-thirds of our citizens receive their life training here,\nyet the cities of the United States spend annually upon their schools $31 .00\nper child while the rural districts spend less than $13 .00 per child for school\npurposes.\nNo one will question for a moment that the farm child is entitled to\njust as good educational opportunities as the city child, but our obligations\ndo not end with our duties to the individual child. Education is more\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{Gtneal\n\nthan an individual or even a community matter; it concerns the city, the\nstate, and the nation as well. We cannot Ughtly push aside the riiral\neducation question with the thought that it is \"up to the farmer — he can\nhave what he wants.\" The truth is that it is up to all of us to help in dead\nearnest. I beheve that both the state and the nation must do much more\nthan they have done in the past to help the rural people improve their\nschools.\nTo bring about nation-wide improvement in our rural schools,\nthere must be agitation and education. The people must be stimulated to\nwant better rural schools and to be wiUing to pay for them. No one will\ndoubt that our rural schools have made advancement, but the progress on\nthe whole has been so slow that when compared with the world about us\nthey appear to be going backward. I have seen many wonderful and\ninspiring illustrations of what a rural school, under good leadership, can\ndo to reorganize and vitaUze the Ufe of a whole community.\nBut these are mere instances. The facts are that the rural-school\nsituation in the United States as a whole is far from what it ought to be\nand often is bad beyond description; not generally actively bad but negatively bad— the result of no interest and of neglect. I do not beheve that\nmost people have any conception of the real school situation. Three years\nago I did not, but since that time we have held nearly eleven thousand\nmeetings in various parts of the United States — ^more than two thousand\nof which were in the rural schoolhouses — and now I know that the rural\nschools need your help and my help and the organized help of every force.\nLet me catalog a few of the things upon which we are aU agreed.\nI beheve there is a pretty general feeUng, by those who have given the\nmatter serious attention, on the following questions:\nThe country school is our greatest educational problem today.\nThe rural schools, the country over, are not keeping pace with the dty schools.\nThey do not now meet the needs of the rural communities.\nCertainly we are all agreed that the country schoolhouses, out-buildings, surroxmdings, the school equipment, decoration, light, water, headng, and sanitation are\nnot only far from perfect, but, on the whole, are wretchedly bad.\nThe teacher ought to be a part of the life of the commimity. As things now are she\nis often city raised and city taught, with little or no interest in the affairs of the commimity. Frequently she goes out to her school Monday mornings and back to town\nFriday nights or out each morning and back at night.\nThe children should be taught in terms of home problems and homemaking. At\npresent the rural school exerts little influence on the social or business Ufe of the community, schools being regarded as something apart from real living.\n\nI am certain that we will agree also that if the rural schools are left to\nthemselves, there wiU be httle real progress. The gap between them and\nthe city school will widen.\nIt is evident that it will require organized effort, and lots of it, if the\nobstacles of precedent, prejudice, jealousy, and added expense are to be\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Seaions]\n\nOUR\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n99\n\novercome to the extent that the movement will become nation wide, but,\nfellow-educators, it can be done. There must be a general all-roimd\nuplift movement. It is not that these people do not want improvement\nin their rural schools. They know that something is needed but they do\nnot know just what to do or how to go about it. They feel that children\nas now taught are educated away from instead of toward rural Ufe. The\nrural people will respond to leadership. This is shown by the work done\nin Page Coimty, Iowa, by Jessie Field; in Wright Coimty, Iowa, by O. H.\nBenson; in Cook County, 111., by E. J. Tobin; and by hundreds of other\ninstances. W. B. Smith, of Mississippi, popularly known as \"Com Club\nSmith,\" started an educational movement which is revolutionizing the\nSouth, when, as county superintendent of schools, he organized the Com\nClubs, of Holmes County, Miss.\nYes, there are obstacles and plenty of them, but the time is ripe. The\npeople will respond. What we need now is action, people who will\ndo something, contribute something of time and labor and love to the work.\nThere should be a national rural-schools campaign started and on such a\nscale that it will be the one thing talked about, read about, preached about\nthruout the land — not only in the country but in the cities. Why not?\nWe cannot get legislation without public sentiment, and without public\nsentiment we cannot change long-estabhshed customs, no matter how\ngreatly out of joint they may be with the needs of today. Make the movement popular and everyone will be helping, \" climbing into the band wagon.\"\nThere will be no end of people who will really think they originated the\nidea, started the plan, and that is exactly what is needed.\nHow should such a campaign be organized? It can be done; that\nmuch I know. Within five months this rural-school question could be\nmade the most talked about and read about problem in the United States.\nAnd why shoiddn't it be? It is not the farmers' problem only; it is the\nproblem of all of us — of the farm and city, of the state and nation.\nMuch has been done by this Association and much has been written\nby master minds which will serve to direct and guide us in the work of\nreconstruction of the rural schools and rural life. None can anticipate\nthe difficulties to be encoimtered nor just how we shall reach the promised\nland.\nWe need a real Moses to lead us out of the wilderness and I believe he\nis here somewhere among us, but if not, we can find him. One thing is\ncertain, each of us must do his part.\nAs a starting-point, I suggest the appointment of a rural-school commission. Such a commission, appointed by the United States commissioner\nof education, the President of the United States, or someone else high in\ninfluence and authority, could focus public attention on the rural-school\nproblem, get everybody thinking about it, talking about it, and writing\nabout it, and thus create the public sentiment necessary to arouse action.\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBut action must be intelligently directed. Here also the commission\ncould help. It could investigate the activities of the various organizations\nnow working for rural-school improvement and get the various forces working together so that there is no waste of money, time, or energy.\nThere is much to do. Let us get at the task soon. It is not fair to\nthe country child to keep him waiting long. Let us hasten the time when\nour country boys and girls shall have just as much money spent for their\neducation, just as good buildings and equipment, just as efl5cient teachers\nto lead them, and just as good an opportunity in every way as our dty\nboys and girls.\nEFFICIENCY\nHAROLD\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nW. FOGHT, SPECIALIST IN RURAL-SCHOOL PRACTICE, UNITED\nBUREAU\nOF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON,\nD.C.\n\nSTATES\n\nWhen our forefathers first began their westward and southward march,\nleaving the transplanted European civilization behind them, they hved the\nlife of typical pioneers. Theirs was an emotional existence as they lived\nalong the frontier struggling against the wilderness. In reUgion theirs was\nthe day of the camp meeting and the emotional revival. In education it\nwas the day of the primitive, three R's school, and the schoolmaster who\nboarded aroimd. The school laid no claim to being the central educational\nforce in the commimity. It was a primitive institution ofiFering a frugal\nstore of learning, but sufficient for the simple needs of the times. For\nthen, the home produced and manufactured all that was necessary for\nsustenance from day to day. Then the home taught the children to spin\nand to weave and to work in wood and in iron — it was the day when the\nhome gave the head, heart, and hand education that in our time has fallen\nto the lot of the rural school.\nTeachers of the pioneer schools depended for success more on brawn\nthan on brain. Occasionally the teachers were well prepared, altho often\nthey were men who had failed in other callings.\nBy the year 1800, pioneering came to an end in the old Atlantic East,\nand, by 1830, beyond the Appalachians and southward to the Gidf, the\nhousehold-economy farmer took his place, seizing upon the land as his permanent heritage. Now, before our great westward expansion had begim,\nthe family group reached its highest development. At this time, too, the\ndistrict school, as it is known to us in prose and poetry, reached its highest\npoint of development, but even at this time it continued as a three R's\nschool, giving the mere rudiments of an education. It was usually taught\nby a man teacher and if nothing more could be said in its behalf it answered\nat least the needs of the times. It was the center of the simple, social\ninterests of the time. At the school the lyceum, the singing school, the\nspelling bee, and the like were held, and yet, aside from these things, it was\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nloi\n\nnot what we should call a good school. It is true that our forebears are\nincHned to harken back to the early day when they were young as the time\nof the ideal school. Distance and time seem to have lent their enchantment, for certainly one would have Httle difficulty in proving that even the\naverage one-teacher school, as we have it today in charge of an immature\ngirl teacher with her sUght comprehension of the needs of rural hfe, is in\nmost respects superior to the school of long ago. But changes for the worse\nsoon came to this early district school, explainable in the great industrial\nrevolution that seized upon the nation in the late forties and continued\nwith an ever-increasing momentum during and after the Civil War.\nWith the invention of labor-saving machinery, the agricultural system\nof the nation took a tremendous forward stride, upsetting the intrenched\nagricultiu-al ways of the old East. People there sundered old home ties,\ndrawn away by the call of the great West and its virgin lands. Then in\nthe seventies, our provincial towns as by magic became great industrial\ncities. Men moved west and into the industrial centers. Rural Ufe had\nentered upon its transitional stage — a period of exploitation and speculation which put an end to the old household-economy period in our national\nagriculture. The immediate family no longer was the center of agricultural\nUfe. As a nation we had come to the end of our \"shut-in\" period of agricultural existence.\nAgriculture on a commercial or world basis had begun. The district\nschool had seen its best days and the man teacher who had been a permanent\nleader in the community was obhged to leave the profession to take his\nplace in the new industrial activities open to him. And so began the period\nof school retardation. A smaller school in charge of an immature teacher\nwith little or no professional preparation and less comprehension of the\nneeds and problems of rural Ufe came into the commimity. No wonder that\nthe Roosevelt Commission on Country Life in 1908 found the rural schools\nretarded and justly blameable for much of our poor agriculture and the\nmoving away from the farms to the cities.\nBy 19 1 5 the nation is, consciously or unconsciously, striving to put an\nend to the soil exploitation which has long been undermining our most\nsacred heritage — the land — and is beginning to organize a system of scientific\nagriculture. Forces are at work everywhere. A great propaganda is\ncarried on at the present time by national and state government, by rural\nsociologists and educators of aU kinds. One thing now is clear — Uttle can\nbe accomplished for scientific farming and for a remimerative, wholesome, and contented rural Ufe until a more enUghtened leadership shall gain\npossession of rural communities. This must come from within the ranks of\nthe farmers themselves. This new agricultural age, then, demands a new\nkind of farm community school and a new kind of teacher.\nThe reorganization of the prevaiUng system of rural schools aims to\nprovide, within reach of aU country children, carefuUy graded elementary\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nschook and a sufficient number of rural high schools adapted to the particular needs of the rural commiinity, in order that people in the country\nmay procure a broad farm culture and the fimdamentals of a scientific\nagriculture without going away from home. Thru this means the schools\nshould be enabled to produce the trained leadership required to put the\nrural population fully abreast of the many new problems in country life.\nMany factors enter into the problem of remaking the rural schools, such as\nwell-prepared teachers, a satisfactory unit of organization, close and intelligent supervision, and redirected course of study. Of these, none is more\nimportant than the first.\nIt is certain that the trained leadership needed in rural districts cannot\nbe fuUy reaUzed until a staff of teachers, professionally trained, imbued\nwith correct vision and real power, estabUsh themselves in the rural districts\nas permanent teachers and commimity builders.\nThe old order of things is passing when educators would argue in meetings Uke the present that no special preparation should be required of\nteachers who go into rural communities. There may yet perhaps be a few\nteachers in our midst who insist that a reasonable measure of academic\nand professional preparation is sufficient for any rural teacher. This may\nbe true enough so far as the universal elements of an education are concerned, but it is quite another thing when it comes to rooting the school to\nthe soil and making it answer the needs of the community where it is maintained. We prepare teachers for kindergarten work, for Enghsh and\nLatin, and for other subjects. Why not also for rural schools, where the\nproblems are many and increasingly complex ?\nThat the rural teachers now at work in the schools are deficient in preparation isproved in a study made recently by the United States Bureau of\nEducation.^ This investigation covered every state in the Union and was\ncarefully planned and carried out. The results were, in many respects,\nstartling, and yet not unexpected. The tabulations resulting from the\n' investigation show, among other things, that 4 per cent of all the teachers\nnow at work in the riu*al schools have had less than eight years of elementaryschool preparation; that 32.7 per cent have had no professional preparation whatever; and that only one- tenth of i per cent of these teachers report\nattendance at schools making a speciality of preparing teachers for rural\nschools.\nIt takes an army of 365,000 such teachers to supply the needs of rural\ncommimities. One-third of them, or 122,000, have httle or no professional\npreparation. The reason of this unfortimate situation is too evident\nto need an explanation. Briefly, salaries have been too meager. Ruralschool teachers instruct about 53 . 7 per cent of all the school children of the\nnation, but they have been getting only 45 . 5 per cent of the money spent\nfor salaries. The average salary for all teachers is a pittance, being less than\n*BMlUti» No. 4S>, X914.\n\nEfficiency and Preparation of Rural-School Teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEFFICENCY\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n103\n\n$500. The salary of rural teachers is considerably below this figure. In\na general way, the amount of salary received by any teacher is a measure,\nfirst, of his efficiency, and, second, of the value in which his services are\nheld by the community. It is undeniable that the nation has placed too low\na value on the rural teacher's services, with the result that it has had to be\nsatisfied with mediocre teaching. In addition to this, living conditions in\nthe country have been full of hardship to the average teacher who under\nthe old system has been city reared and city taught. Then, again, there\nhas been no future for the average aspiring person in teaching a one-room\nschool. Everything, as a matter of fact, has mihtated against rural teaching as a Ufe profession, since our national transition period first got imder\nway.\nThe change from amateur to professional teaching may be hastened\nin several ways: (i) Salaries should be increased enough so that a teacher\nwith family may live on his income without worrying how to make ends\nmeet. Provision should also be made by legal enactment for a hberal\nsliding scale of salaries, fixing the teacher's income in direct ratio to length\nof service in the same commimity. This is only fair, since teachers of the\nright sort will unquestionably grow in value to the community year by\nyear. (2) The entire school plant should be reconstructed to answer\npresent needs and be attractive and sanitary. This would be another\ninducement for the teacher to spend his best years in the open coimtry.\n(3) The community should be obUged by legal enactment to erect a teacher's\ncottage close by the modern school building and, preferably, upon the same\ngrounds. (4) Teachers' colleges, normal schools, and other schools with\nteacher-training courses should be encouraged to organize distinct departments in rural Ufe and rural teaching from which to draw teachers prepared\nand willing to undertake work in the new farm schools.\nThe average rural teacher remains in the profession less than four years\nof 140 school days each. This means that the entire personnel must be\nrenewed every four years, or that about 92,000 new teachers must be provided annually. The question arises, at this point, Where shall these\nteachers get their preparation ? The study by the government into teacher\npreparation mentioned above discloses that the largest immediate supply\nof rural teachers comes from the training departments of the high schools\nand the county training schools in many states. Next in point of numbers\nstand the normal schools, then the schools of education in colleges and universities, and, finally, the state agricultural colleges.\nDuring the year 1913-14, the 284 pubHc and private normal schools of\nthe country enrolled 94,455 students and graduated 19,438. It is quite\ncertain that most of the latter found positions in the towns and cities.\nSimilar conditions prevail in schools of education in the universities and\ncolleges. The agricultural schools have done good work in preparing\nteachers of agriculture in secondary schools and teachers for some of the\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstrongest consolidated schools; but it remains that the great majority of\nthese 92,000 new teachers must either go into the field imprepared or the\ninstitutions now in the field offering rural-teacher preparation must make\nprovision for vastly increased training faciUties. The hopeful thing is that\neducational leaders in these schools are beginning to reaUze their opportunities and responsibihties and are doing their utmost to meet the emergency.\nIn 1908, only one or two state normal schools had separate departments\noffering specific courses for rural teachers. At the present time, at least\n42 such departments have been organized and 37 other normal schools offer\nexcellent general courses for rural teachers. At least 50 normal schools\nhave good departments offering instruction to teachers of agriculture, many\nof them being prepared to do this work thru a very complete farm\nequipment. Thus the normal school, which is the natural professional\nschool of our country, is organizing to do what it can for rural teachers.\nMeanwhile, twenty states are offering rural-teacher training in coimty\nnormal schools or in separate departments affihated with first-class high\nschools or as a part of the regular courses in these high schools. The total\nnumber of these departments or classes is now 1,089, ^th more than 11,000\ngraduates the present year. There are many teachers in oiu: midst, to be\nsure, who view the professional invasion of the secondary school as unwise,\nbut at this time it is a question of expediency rather than of wisdom that\nconfronts us. Probably the use of the high schools for this piu^pose marks\nonly a step in the evolution of teacher training in our coimtry. In time, no\ndoubt, the normal schools will be able to readjust themselves and increase\nin niunber sufficiently to look after rural-teacher preparation to the exclu-.\nsion of other institutions.\nThis paper, unfortunately, is too limited in point of time to allow of\nanything like a complete discussion of this important subject of teacher\ntraining. This much may be said in conclusion, therefore, that there will\nbe no solution of the rural-life problem thru school education imtil we are\nable to place in rural commimities a staff of professional teachers fully\nabreast of the needs of our new agricultural life, as in this way only can the\nopen coimtry get the much-required leaders who are ultimately to bring\nabout the reorganization.\n\nCHILD WELFARE\nTHOMAS\n\nAND RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nD. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nEducation is the discovery and development of personality — of all the\nelements and qualities of personality which are needed for the business of\nlife. The present conception of education delegates to the school the task\nof standardizing and organizing all of the measures involved in the complete process of child nurture and cultivation. Nothing can be left entirely\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nAND\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n105\n\nto instinct, to nature, or to the home in the comprehensive and complex\nprocess of preparing the young for life. Standards and methods even of\nnutrition, of clothing, of housing, of recreation are reasonable concerns\nof the school.\nThe school for vital reasons should not do the work of the home, but\nthe essential education of the child requires the closest co-operation between\nschool and home and the mutual sharing by home and school and other\navailable helpful agencies of all features requisite for the effective cultivation and preparation of all the children. The school is the logical, the\nuniversal, the strategic agency, thru which the best intelligence and standards of human culture may and must be applied for the rearing of the young\nof the race.\nEvery vital value in life and education is integrally bound up with and\ndependent upon health, biologic fitness, and general human welfare. In\naccordance with these principles the educational program is accepting many\nfeatures not thought of a few years ago, and appreciated and accepted often\nwith reluctance by many at the present time.\nIn not a few particulars and especially in phases of education relating\nto the general welfare of children, the city schools have made much more\nrapid progress than have those of the country. Unprejudiced study of\nconditions and statistics results in exposing facts and conclusions both\nstartling and significant.\nAbout half of the 20,000,000 school children in the United States are\nattending the rural schools. Country children attending the rural schools\nare less healthy and are handicapped by more physical defects than the\ncliildren of the cities, including all the children of the slimis. And this is\ntrue, in general, of all parts of the United States. The most important\nreasons for the physical inferiority of the rural-school children are the\nfollowing:\nArtificial selection, during the last half-century especially, has drawn\nmuch of the best human stock from the country to the cities. Before that\ntime, the tide in the movement of population apparently carried more good\nhuman material to the rural regions than away from them. This claim\nreceives striking coincidental corroboration from vital statistics.\nUp to 1 910, the death-rate in New York City was greater than in rural\ndistricts of New York state, as was naturally expected in conformity with\nthe traditional and still prevalent belief that the country furnishes conditions more favorable to health than does the city. Since 1910, however,\nthe death-rate in rural New York has been greater than in New York City,\nand conditions in New York state may be taken, on the whole, as typical\nof the country in general. It is apparent that within the last decade the\nactual and vaunted physical superiority of country people and children over\nthose living in the city has been reversed and now it is confidently affirmed\nthat for the entire population city dwellers are more healthy than those\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwho dwell in rural districts; city life is more healthful than that of the\ncountry.\nIt is just as true, however, and startlingly significant in view of the\npreceding statements, that most of our best human material for the cities\nand for the nation must still come from the country. If rural America is\nstill to be a satisfactory nursery for himian life, it must be made healthful\nand attractive. It must furnish a generous fraction of the best of the\npopulation and it must provide conditions favorable for the cultivation\nof the best, at least so far as the biologic and all the fundamental quahties\nof life are concerned.\nThe problem, then, of brioging about suflGlcient improvement in the\nhealthfulness of rural life to provide a worthy birthplace and nursery for\nthe best human stock is not simply a problem of the rural school, of the\nfarm, or of rural life in general, but it is a great, pressing problem of the\nnation, affecting national safety, national prosperity, and national perpetuity. Itis the problem dealing with conservation of the most essential\nand most endangered of all our national resources. It is a problem which\nmust enlist the services of the national and state as well as local and volunteer agencies. There is apparently no more vital problem of fundamental\ncharacter and national scope calling for solution at the present time.\nThe second reason for the physical inferiority of country-school children\nand of country people in general is that the science and art of himian living,\nof conserving and improving human health and general human welfare\nhave advanced much more rapidly in the cities than in the coimtry districts.\nThe problems of safety and comfort as affected by congestion of population\nand many other conditions of urban life have thrust themselves upon hiunan\nattention and have received much consideration. The art of himaan care\nhas progressed much more slowly in the country. The father in the city\nspends, on the average, a larger percentage of his income for the welfare of\nhis children than does the father on the farm. The farmer relatively raises\neverything else more carefully, and, as a rule, more successfully than his\nchildren. Coimtry children deserve as much health and happiness as city\nchildren. Country children are entitled to as careful cultivation as the\ncrops and live stock receive.\nThe third condition which helps to explain this astonishing inferiority\nof the country child is the environment. The country home and the\ncountry school are, on the average, less sanitary and healthful than\nthe city home and the city school. It has been assumed that because the\ncountry child has all the facilities of the country, he is, of course, surroimded\nby fortunate and wholesome conditions. But the possession of all outdoors isfar from enough. The farmer's home is, as a rule, insanitary in\nmany respects. It is often terribly un ventilated and the dwellers in the\nhouse are fed many hours a day with bad air. Country water and food are\nless wholesome than water and food in the city. The standards of living\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nAND\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n107\n\non the American farm, when tested by the accepted principles of sanitation\nand hygiene, are alarmingly defective.\nThe rural school, from the standpoint of health and general fitness for\nits important use, is the worst type of building in the whole country,\nincluding not only all types of buildings used for human beings but also\nthose used for live stock and all domestic animals. Rural schools are, on\nthe average, less adequate for their use than prisons, asylums, almshouses,\nstables, dairy-barns, pigpens, chicken-houses, dog-kennels are for their\nuses. The healthfulness and attractiveness of the rural school and, even\nmore, the health and general welfare of the country children are absolutely\nessential to the entire well-being of the children themselves and to the\nvery life and welfare of the nation as a whole.\nEssential provisions for the welfare of rural-school children should\ninclude sanitary and attractive schoolhouses and groimds. Our Committee on Health Problems in Education has issued an eight-page\nreport entitled \"Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools.\"\nForty thousand copies of this report have been distributed thru the courtesy\nand co-operation of the United States Bureau of Education. Within four\nmonths after these reports were distributed we had requests for twentyone thousand additional copies. Our national commissioner of education\nhas asked for seven hundred and fifty thousand copies of this pamphlet to\nsupply the needs of the rural-school districts in this country. Thru a generous gift from the Elizabeth McCormick Fund in Chicago, enough money\nhas been provided to print this larger edition. These pamphlets will be\ndistributed during the coming year.\nIt is fully evident, however, from the requests for information and guidance already received by our conmiittee, that the spreading of these reports\nwill start more work for us than it finishes. Our committee has prepared\na 20-chart winged-frame exhibit whicii is installed in the space provided\nfor the United States Bureau of Education in the Palace of Education in the\nExposition grounds in San Francisco. These charts, by the use of statistics,\nstatements, photographs, and other graphic means, attempt to present in\ncogent form vital and timely suggestions for the provision and improvement of measures intended for the promotion of the health and welfare of\nschool children in the United States. Copies of this exhibit will be supplied\nfor state fairs and other favorable centers of publicity.\nThe second essential for insuring improved conditions for country-school\nchildren is that their teachers should be better trained and better paid.\nRural-school teachers have a wider range of professional duties than have\nteachers in city schools. They must, from the nature of circimistances,\nhave a broader knowledge and assume larger responsibility than the more\nspecialized and supervised city teachers to insure to the country-school\nchildren all the factors needed for their general well-being. Rural teachers,\nin general, have received much less in professional preparation than those\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIGencral\n\nwho teach in the cities and their financial rewards are also much less. This\nproblem states itself very succinctly. The means for its solution will come\nslowly but they should come as soon as possible.\nIn the third place, health examinations, including dental inspections\nshould be provided each year for all children in rural schools. These\nchildren are certainly of as much potential value to society as the children\nof the city slums; their health examination and care are just as essential\nand as feasible with suitable adaptation of available and possible agencies.\nIn the next place, the school regime must provide sufficient health care,\nincluding practical health instruction based on actual inculcation of all\nhealth habits for their own care, and for their helpful service in assisting\nand often leading in the health care of the school, of their own homes, and\nof the community in which they live. Country-school children also need\nwell-adapted warm school lunches quite as much as do children in city\nschools. It is fully evident that country children in the aggregate suffer\nas much as, if not more than, city-school children from malnutrition and\nfrom improper food, which amounts to partial starvation.\nAgain, provision must be made by the school, by the community, and\nby the state for correction and removal of all remediable, injurious physical\ndefects. Measures and methods employed successfully in the cities for\nthese purposes often cannot be applied in the same way in the rural schools,\nbut rural children must not be so woefully neglected as is the case at present,\nand ways and means, adequate and acceptable, must speedily be found and\nput into operation to free the children in the country schools from removable\nhandicaps. Our committee is impressed with the present opportunity and\nobligation to foster certain experiments actually to demonstrate ways by\nwhich country schools may be improved in healthf ulness and attractiveness\nand ways by which the health and welfare of country-school children may\nbe improved in the most expeditious and efficient manner practicable under\nall the circumstances. We are also anxious to obtain authoritative reports\nof all instructive and helpful efforts in this field in order that we may assist\nin interpreting, and in making these available for the guidance of the entire\ncountry.\nThe problem of advancing the art of human culture in the coimtry is\nmarkedly different from that of the city. In the latter the best ideas are\nmore readily brought into contact with all of the people. For many in our\ncities, deprived thru poverty of the material necessities of life, intellectual\nand social as well as physical, a bounteous philanthropy frequently supplies\nthe lack. In the country, on the other hand, the farmers must be persuaded to use their own resources to provide adequately for the welfare of\ntheir famiUes and, most of all, for their children.\nTo carry this proposal for child betterment directly to the coimtry household would be inadvisable and ineffective and would often arouse resentment. In this phase of hmnan education, the direct approach to the home\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSELF-GOVERNMENT\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n109\n\nis much less feasible in the country than in the city. The school is, however, the agency endowed by every circumstance for the accomplishment\nof this great special task of a higher civilization.\nSELF-GOVERNMENT\nRICHARD\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nWELLING, CHAIRMAN, SELF-GOVERNMENT\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nSCHOOLS\nCOMMITTEE,\n\nThe Self-Government Conunittee again thanks you for the invitation\nto present its case to this gathering of specialists in education. Twelve\nyears ago, I addressed the Association on \"Training for Citizenship in the\nSchools.\" Again, in 191 1, I was permitted to restate the case, and two\nyears later our Committee sent Henry Neumann, whose address on \"Moral\nValues in Pupil Self-Government\" appeared to arouse great interest.\nIndeed as la3anen we are always much complimented by the interest shown\nin what we have to say at these meetings, but we still find many school\nofficials in practice apathetic or actually opposed to the self-government\nidea. Our point of view is merely that of citizens of more or less experience\nin political movements, who are deeply interested in the public schools.\nIf there is any plan for training the young for citizenship in a democracy\nthat does not utilize some form of pupil co-operation in the government of\nthe school, we have not heard of it, and yet only four times during thirteen\nyears has our subject found a place on your program and then only at our\nurgent request.\nIt seems, therefore, fair to assume that the principle has but a feeble\nhold upon the imagination of your program-makers. Perhaps they tend\ntoo much to take for granted that it has won its place in the general scheme\nof American education. Such is far from the fact. Permit me then a brief\nreminder of the main principles for which we contend. We believe that\nthe pupils of a school, by helping in the running of their own young community, best learn the meaning of membership in a civic society. The law\nof the school becomes less of an alien imposition when as members of a school\ncommunity they help frame the regulations that intimately concern them.\nInstead of being a hero, the rowdy becomes a real offender and meets with\nthe scorn of his peers. Active, willing participation in the responsibility of\none's group is one of the most serious demands of democracy.\nUnder the old autocratic system it may be easy to secure the outward\nsemblance of order, but this is not education for life in a democracy, and\naccordingly there must be not only the community sense but also some\nmachinery, however simple, to develop the executive energies of the democratic soul. For example: In Indianapolis whenever machinery becomes\nnecessary to give effect to a school decision, committees appropriate to the\npurpose are chosen by the pupils themselves. At Gary, there is a student\ncouncil.\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[G«nei»l\n\nThe spirit of forbearance and co-operation makes not only for good\ncitizenship but for world-peace and for membership in that larger worldcivilization which most nations share and from which no nation cultivating these principles need fear being outlawed.\nPupil co-operation in the management of various vocational activities\nas practiced in the Gary schools must also tend to breed that conmiunity\nspirit from which some day we may hope to see a wise and sane collectivism\nin the state.\nIn order to carry out these principles, Dr. Housh, of the Los Angeles\nhigh school, says:\nA principal must thoroly believe in self-government, even when it seems to prove a\nfailure, and must convert his teachers and board of education. Moreover, he must trust\nthe pupils, but know all the time what they are doing; must support the officers, but,\nmore important than anything else, must make the members of the school feel the importance .ofbeing permitted to govern themselves.\n\nMere dramatization of civics need not be feared. If a jimior republic\nhas too many oflScials, cut down the number, provided only that the commimity spirit is not lost.\nAlso it should not be forgotten that a system, however cumbersome,\nwhich effectively regulates a child's activities, is no longer drama but reality\nin that child's experience. In the golden words of Arthur William Dunn,\nof the United States Bureau of Education, the important thing is to secure\n\"a point of view, an attitude, an interest, and a motive.\"\nThese principles, according to our best information, are practiced in but\na small fraction of the secondary schools. They fare best in the elementary\nschools, and, while one would naturally expect them to reach their full\ndevelopment in the secondary school or at least in the college, such we do\nnot find to be the fact. The demand for our literature is almost never\nfrom high schools.\nStanding between the elementary school and the college, the secondary\nschool is apparently influenced in its social and moral tone far more by the\ncollege than by the elementary school. The aristocratic and often snobbish\nor narrowing tendencies of the college may be recognized in the fraternities\nand petty cliques of the high school. Add to this that only a small percentage ofgraduates from the elementary schools are able to push on thru\nthe high school and this may further explain why the simple democratic\natmosphere of the elementary school is so seldom found in the high school.\nA recent statement of the United States Bureau of Education advises\nus that \"the failiire of many high-school principals to respond to the\nrepeated requests for information sent from this bureau keeps the reported\nsecondary enrolment for the whole country some thousands below the\nactual number.\" This shows the difficulty of getting accurate statistics.\nIf the United States Bureau of Education receives only partial replies, the\nSelf-Govemment Committee which I represent has even greater difficulty.\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nSELF-GOVERNMENT\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\niii\n\nWe wish indeed we could substantiate the statement of the Bureau of\nEducation in the report for 19 14 that every New York City high school\nhad some form of self-government.\nA recent questionnaire reveals that only six or seven out of twentyseven are thus equipped, and it is our belief that in the country at large\noutside of New York progress in some form of self-government is at best\nvery slow. The high-school principal seems to be oppressively occupied with\nnew problems and complexities of administration, and if, as Dr. Housh has\nsaid, his entire staff have not an active faith in the principle of selfgovernment, our committee can hardly do more than present the matter\nat intervals to his attention.\nWe have also maintained lecture courses on various types of selfgovernment by the school principals themselves who spoke from their own\nexperience, and the New York City Board of Examiners at our request now\nasks searching questions on the subject of self-government in the examination which they hold for those aspiring to become principals.\nBut why do the colleges set so poor an example to the secondary schools ?\nWhat is the college attitude on self-government ? Both pertinent inquiries\nfor the purpose of this paper.\nFrom the United States Bureau of Education report on the \"Present\nStatus of the Honor System in Colleges and Universities,\" (1915) at a\nglance we see that most of the colleges have not so much as grasped the\nproblem of self-government. The ancient war between student and teacher\nis assumed to be still in progress. The \"honor system\" (applied only to\ncribbing at examinations) does not even aim to reach that vast list of outrages, euphemistically described as \"pranks\" by those who think the student incapable of a loyalty beyond his immediate group. These may\ncontinue to be perpetrated in the ancient war game between student and\nteacher. If caught in any of these \"pranks,\" the student perhaps 21 years\nold and still in the nursery attitude toward discipline, may be placed on\nprobation, denied his degree, or sent home to be spanked. Apparently,\nhowever, the close surveillance of the proctor, standing near by to see that\nthere is no cribbing at examinations, has so irritated the student, and the\nmany mysterious victories of the dunce or loafer in successfully passing\nexaminations have so irritated the professor that both student and professor\nhave been willing to declare an armistice on this one subject of cribbing.\nThe \"honor system\" is merely an armistice to refrain from a particular\nkind of fighting. The student may still be an outlaw on all other matters\nof conduct. He does not materially enlarge his group loyalty by this one\npromise; \"You stop watching me and I'll stop cheating.\"\nAccordingly President Van Meter, of Goucher College, Baltimore,\nreplied to the Bureau's inquiry;\nThere is a students' organization which takes cognizance of student conduct in all\nits reaches\nI do not like the honor system. It has a suggestion in it that under a\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nspecific system there are principles controlling conduct which need not control it apart\nfrom that system.\n\nProfessor Griffiths, of the University of California, replied:\nOur students' self-government is far larger and more comprehensive in its scope. It\nmeans that the responsibility in all matters of student discipline rests with the students\nthemselves.\n\nAnd yet out of ii6 colleges replying to the questionnaire about this\npartial armistice, in all but twenty-two cases the action to be taken on the\noffender rests with the faculty and not with the student body!\nTurning next to many of the college smaller group activities, for example,\nthe hazing and the secret societies, what can be said of them ? At best the\nexample is an imfortimate one for the high school to follow. Selfgovernment is the one sure antidote to those snobbish and impossible\nbarriers and class distinctions which the children tend to raise during the\nsecondary-school period of their lives, but which are earlier and officially\nfixed for them in Germany.\nOne exception in this imdesirable college social viewpoint happily may\nbe noted: College athletics. Here the high standard of clean sport and\nand the efficient management on self-government principles make for character, discipline, and community pride in the school.\nThe English schools, Eton, Winchester, Rugby, Harrow, both in their\nathletic concerns and in the large measure of self-government they have\nfor so many years enjoyed, also furnish in many particulars an example for\nour secondary schools. Some of England's political instinct amounting as\nBagehot says, almost to genius, seems to show in her school as well as in\nher colonial government. Would that today she had cared for her elementary schools as well as for her so-called public schools.\nIn order to learn what to avoid in moral and civic training, we have\nonly to turn to Prussia. The ego-centric gymnastics often taught there\nare especially to be avoided. They tend to megalomania and at best are\nnot socializing. Military drill is harmless only when the student has been\nfirst taught to realize his citizenship in a democracy. Character training\nof the \"make-or-break\" military type practiced in Germany is useful only\nto furnish good subjects for a monarch. Twelve hundred and twenty-one\n(i,22i) child suicides between 1883 and 1905 (more than one each week)\nin Prussia alone tell us of the price paid (Professor Eulenberg's figures).\nWe may weU shrink from the barbarous lengths that corporal punishment isliable to reach, but we must either develop a commimity sentiment\n100 per cent strong, or fall back on corporal punishment as practiced in\nGermany,\nAmericans have relaxed the harshness and, substituting nothing for it,\nare tolerating in many places a mild form of anarchy.\nAs already remarked, the poor German children are dehberately sorted\ninto classes, and, as F. H. Swift describes it in a recent article of the\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSELF-GOVERNMENT\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n113\n\nEducational Review, \"their as yet undiscovered and undeveloped natures\nare early assigned to caste-determining schools where they are turned into\nmachines.\"\nCompare this with the measures continued into the high-school\nperiod taken by William Wirt in the Gary schools to discover aptitudes.\nV. A. Huber, in his exhaustive work on English universities, says:\nEnglish scholars live too much in and for the world, so that it is hardly possible for\nthem to develop that species of almost monomaniacal love for the subject of their investigations. Their stand is an entirely different one; it is not derived from the subject itself\nbut from the opinion of the society to which they belong.\n\nUnder the German system neither scholars nor laymen acquire a sense\nof values and the result is a community of ill-balanced citizens, each a\nmachine in his own specialty, and the whole liable at any time to become\nan outlaw nation.\nThe Indian poet and philosopher Tagore, who has had a secondary\nschool in India since 1902, with a self-government system based on that\nof our George Junior Republic at Freeville, N.Y., says:\nWhether educational institutions of both the East and the West should turn out men\nor machines, or just operators of machines, is one of the gravest problems of the world\nthat needs immediate solution\nI decided to found a school where the students\ncould feel that there was a higher and nobler thing in life than practical efl&ciency.\n\nLest these quotations suggest the ideal of contemplation without action,\nit should be explained that the Western ideal of social service is one of\nTagore's special aims, both taught and practiced, and his students also excel\nnotably in athletics, tennis, cricket, and football.\nIt is over twenty years since William R. George founded his Junior\nRepublic, never more thriving nor more true to its principles than today\nunder Mr. George's inspired management. It has served as a model for\nother republics in other states, and its self-government principles are practiced in a large number of elementary schools but in comparatively few\nsecondary schools. Especially are they in force in some of the state universities which have not stopped to palter with the anaemic honor system\nalready referred to. Also they are being applied by Warden Osborne at\nSing Sing.\nWhy, then, does Dean Russell, of the Teachers College of Columbia University, decline our invitation to give the lecture course in self-government,\nthe course already referred to, where school principals lecture from their\nown experience? And why is the self-government principle not more\ngenerally accepted by teachers ?\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE COST AND\nEDWIN\n\nM.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nLABOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF ENGLISH\n\nHOPKINS,\nPROFESSOR\nOF RHETORIC\nAND\nUNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE,\n\n[General\n\nTEACHING\nENGLISH\nKANS.\n\nLANGUAGE,\n\nSomething more than a year ago, a committee representing the Modern\nLanguage Association, the National Council of Teachers of English, and\naided by the National Education Association, and the United States\nBureau of Education, published a report on the cost and labor of English\nteaching in secondary schools, establishing the facts that the labor is\ngreater than that of any other school subject, and that its cost is less, and\nshowing that these facts are more than adequate to account for the unsatisfactory results of English training of which so much complaint has in recent\nyears been made. This report has been published privately and by the\neducational authorities of several states to the nimiber of thirty thousand\ncopies, and is still being distributed.^\nAs a result of the publication of the report, the National Council of\nTeachers of English, in November of 1913, adopted the following resolutions:\nThe National Council of Teachers of English approves the steps taken by the North\nCentral Association to limit the number of pupils assigned to English teachers in high\nschools, and requests the Association and all similar accrediting bodies to recommend for\nimmediate action that schools in which the maximimi number of pupils assigned to a\nsingle English teacher exceeds 100 be not accredited in English; and it also requests the\nAssociation and all similar accrediting bodies to take further action at as early a date\nas seems expedient to reduce this maximum to 80, with due provision, as at present\nrecommended, for necessary time for conference and theme reading counted as teaching\ntime.\nIt is the sense of the National Council of Teachers of English that in order to secure\nsatisfactory results in college English it is essential that the maximmn number of students\nin Freshman English composition assigned to a single instructor should in no case exceed\n60; and that when such an instructor has classes in other subjects, a corresponding reduction should be made in the number of pupils assigned to him in English composition.\n\nThese resolutions should have the indorsement of the National Education Association and of all other educational bodies and authorities, and\nshould receive the widest possible publicity, in order that the fimdamental\ncauses of the so-called failure in the teaching of English in the schools\nnamed may be made universally known and that as a further result they\nmay in time universally disappear.\nIt has never been possible to disprove or even to question the statements and immediate conclusions of that report, because they are all\nconservative. Three years ago, the chairman of the committee at our\nNational Education Association meeting in Chicago, in presenting some of\nthe results of the work done to that time, said that the data in hand indicated not only that 80 pupils to a teacher was the maximum nvunber consonant with successful English teaching in any high school, but that the\nactual maximum was above 200, and the actual average about 130. These\n'For copies address E. M. Hopkins, Lawrence, Kans., inclosing five cents in stamps.\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCOST\n\nAND\n\nLABOR\n\nOF ENGLISH\n\nTEACHING\n\n11$\n\nStatements were at once flatly contradicted by one of the audience, who\nasserted that in his state it would be impossible to find a single high school\nin which as many as 130 pupils were assigned to a single English teacher.\nAs a matter of fact, the state named had furnished more data than any\nother; but it was not necessary to call attention to that point, for before\nthe speaker had taken his seat, a perfectly furious lady from the same state\nobtained the floor, and testified that she had charge of 160 pupils in\nEnglish.\nThat state was not California, but apparently in California the conditions of English teaching are sometimes far worse than those named as\naverage conditions in the report. For instance, in one of the best reputed\nCalifornia high schools, in this immediate vicinity, the teacher of English\nhas charge of 180 pupils instead of 80, teaches 6 hours a day instead of the\nrecommended maximum of 4 hours, spends all his time outside of class in\nreading papers or in conference, and pays from $5 to $15 a month out of his\nown pocket for additional help in his work, because his own time and\nstrength are insufficient. In the same high school, a teacher of history,\ndoing what should be regarded as full duty for any teacher, carries without\ndifficulty all the work assigned him, earns $25 a month out of school hours\nby reading papers for the University of California, and is prominent in the\neducational and civic activities of his locality; while the English teacher is\nblamed for not being thus active. Such conditions as these indicate why the\nconomittee I have named, after having spent six years in its particular task,\nis stiD at work, purposing to spend as many years as may be necessary to\nmake its survey exhaustive in all schools, and hoping ultimately to remove\nan educational injustice that is little short of monstrous, and to make\nEnglish teaching count, as it should, for more than any other teaching in\nthe curriculum.\nSuch facts as these I have stated were responsible for the beginning of the\nsurvey six years ago, but not solely: further causes were the general economic interest in the improvement of efficiency, and the general complaint\nof the results of English teaching. The genesis of the present situation in\nEnglish may be found in the change from memory training to laboratory\ntraining that was made perhaps thirty-five or forty years ago. When\nthat change occurred, no attempt seems to have been made to ascertain\nthe physical conditions necessary in the application of new methods, as is\nalways done in business or in scientific training. If in business or in science\na certain quantity and quality of finished product is wanted, it is a matter of\ncourse first to ascertain the number of cubic feet of space, the nimiber of\nhours of time, the number of workmen, and the amount and kind of raw\nmaterial that will be required. Or, if the material and the product are the\nknown terms in the problem, the space, the time, and the number of workers\nare ascertained before the work is undertaken. Of course, other factors are\ninvolved, but these are fundamental for the simple reason that nobody can\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwork for more than twenty-four hours a day, and that no two persons can\noccupy the same space at the same tune.\nThe unfortunate results of ignoring fundamental physical conditions\nin the laboratory teaching of English were so obvious that finally a number\nof English teachers went to work to study the problem upon its physical\nside. They began with the study of the amount of labor necessary to\nobtain specific results in high school and college; but tho they addressed\nthemselves to the study of that one thing only, they found it necessary to\nstudy almost everything else at the same time in order to obtain the necessary light upon that one. In order to make a beginning, they assumed the\nordinary degree of training for the teacher, the most conmion equipment\nin books and apparatus, a reasonable degree of co-operation on the part\nof the other teachers, the most ordinary home and social environment, the\nordinary number of pupils, the most familiar approved methods, and the\nresults most commonly desired, and then ascertained how many hours' time\nwould be needed under these conditions. Having found that number of\nhours, they divided it by the actual number of teachers engaged in the work\nand discovered that in order to reach desired results every one of those\nteachers would be compelled to spend from twelve to twenty-four hours a day\nin instructional duty, the actual average not far from eighteen hours a day;\nor almost two and one-half times the amount of labor required of any\nother teacher or public servant.\nThe committee then endeavored to devise a means of defining the conditions inthis work so that the amount of labor for one teacher should not\nbe excessive. If the number of labor hours daily be fijxed in accordance\nwith the general standards of business or professional life, and if all other\nterms in the problem remain unchanged, it can easily be shown that the only\nway of keeping the labor within proper limits is to limit the number of\npupUs assigned to a single teacher. The number of recitation hours does\nnot materially affect the problem, because in laboratory teaching each\npupil must have individual attention, and it does not especially matter\nwhether he receive that attention in class or out of class: the important\nthing is that every pupil must have a proportion of the teacher's time.\nAs already stated, the mathematical conclusion reached by the committee\nwas that no high-school English teacher should ever be assigned more than\n80 pupils, and that no college teacher of composition should ever be assigned\nmore than 60.\nVery naturally, the next question which suggested itself was, What\nwill it cost to increase the number of teachers so that this limit in the number\nof pupils assigned to each need not be exceeded ? The cost of the present\nteaching of high-school English was ascertained in an independent survey,\nand found to be not only less than that of any other laboratory subject, but\nless than that of any other secondary-school subject whatever; whether or\nnot it is worth less than any other school subject is a point that need not\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCOST\n\nAND\n\nLABOR\n\nOF ENGLISH\n\nTEACHING\n\n1 17\n\nenter into this discussion. Then the effort was made to find out what it\nwould cost to handle it on a scientific business basis, establishing improved\nconditions at all points, while reducing the nimiber of pupils. After the\nproblem was worked out theoretically, the results were verified by actual\nexperiment, and it was found that the necessary increase would probably\nrange from 25 to 50 per cent; but that even after this increase the cost of\nEnglish teaching would still be far less than that of any other laboratory\nsubject, and not more than the present cost of subjects that are far less\nimportant than English.\nHaving answered the cost question for secondary schools, the comparative cost of the college teaching of English and other subjects was then\nstudied. This work is not yet completed, but all the necessary material is\nnow in hand, and it already appears that the conditions in colleges are in\nthis respect precisely analogous to those of high schools.\nBut when the cost-and-labor question was answered for secondary\nschools and colleges, it still remained unanswered with respect to a far\nlarger part of the educational system — the elementary schools. The task\nof making an elementary-school English survey was so very great that the\ncommittee hesitated to undertake it until it was assured of the active support of the United States Bureau of Education. Then it went to work and\nhas now been engaged in this part of the field for about two years; it\nwill require at least two years more to bring the task to completion. I\ncannot here explain the enormous labor and the intricate mechanism of the\npresent investigation; but ten or fifteen thousand co-workers are now\nactively engaged in it and tentative results are beginning to appear. Apparently, altho these statements are based merely upon general indications, the\nconditions of the elementary-school teaching of English are far worse than\nthose of either high school or college. In high school or college, the maximum number of pupils recorded as assigned to a single teacher does not\nexceed 250; whereas, in elementary-school teaching, the maximum nimiber\nassigned to a unit teacher seems to lie somewhere between seven and eight\nhundred, tho data yet to be computed may change this very considerably.\nThe comparative cost of teaching grade subjects cannot yet be stated,\nbecause the computation has not extended to that point. Nevertheless,\nthe fundamental difficulty in the grades appears without question to be the\nsame that it is in other schools: too many subjects and too many pupils\nfor a single teacher. Teachers in the lower grades are almost unanimous\nin stating that these are the reasons why their work is ineffective; while\nthe teachers of the higher grades are equally unanimous in asserting that\ntheir work is ineffective for the same reasons, and because their pupils reach\nthem without having received adequate training below. All these results\nare stated subject to correction, but it is probable that essentially these\nstatements will stand. In the general report of the committee, the proofs\nas well as the facts will, of course, be set forth.\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "llS\n\nJVATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIf time permitted, I might qualify, explain in detail, and state and\nanswer objections. I might enlarge on the almost unparalleled difficulties\nattending the work, difficulties based partly on the carelessness or the opposition of educators who have themselves no immediate personal interest\nin the problem, but more especially on the simple fact that it is impossible\nto find out anything without asking questions, and that the labor and\naffliction of asking thousands of questions of thousands of persons, and of\nanswering those questions, would be almost beyond belief, were it not that\nmost of us have had some experience of the kind. Moreover, when after\npainful effort one thing has been done, one single question answered with\nrelative accuracy, a thousand other questions at once demand attention.\nThe work is unending and the difficulty of it seems to increase in geometrical\nratio as it proceeds. The only apology that can be offered by one who\nundertakes work of this kind is that nobody has as yet invented any way of\nconducting it other than by question and experiment; and that if we\nare to substitute definite knowledge of educational facts and conditions for\ntheories based upon mere guess work, it can be done in no other way.\nSo far as English is concerned, the National Council of Teachers of\nEnglish has now undertaken a systematic study of the field of English education on both its physical and its psychological sides, and its work is being\naided by state and national organizations and authorities. As already\nexplained, it is a work that can never be finished, but a work that already\nshows results of the highest importance, more than enough to pay for all\nthat it has cost. Of course, help and more help is always urgently needed;\nand any English teacher who is not hopelessly overburdened with his work,\nas very many such teachers are, can by aiding in the survey do something for the benefit not so much of himself personally as of the general\ncause of English education.\nThe general ultimate end in view is merely to secure universal publicity\nfor the facts as they are, in order that in time this publicity may result in\nchanging conditions for the better. But publicity is slow, and one way of\naiding in the work is to organize for the dissemination of special information\nin particular localities where it is especially needed, as has already been done\nby English organizations in many states, and as might profitably be done\nin all the remaining states.\nAfter the facts become generally known thru a campaign of publicity,\nit may be hoped that in a generation or so, if not sooner, better things may\nb^in to appear. Meanwhile, those who work for the benefit of the next\ngeneration, or the generation after that, have as their reward the consciousness that they work for a cause, giving time, labor, and substance, hoping\nonly for the future of their pupils and their schools. This statement is not a\npessimistic one; it is merely a frank admission of the fact that changes for\nthe better usually come slowly and as the result of long-continued and\nimselfish effort. Certainly there is no danger that we shall go too fast.\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nJUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nII9\n\nThe teaching of English, like all other teaching, is crusted over with tradition, and our utmost efforts cannot possibly remove the crust with too\ngreat speed, whatever be our enthusiasm and our energy in the advancement of teaching reform.\nTHE JUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nALEXIS F. LANGE, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION,\nOF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIn 1907 the California legislature passed an act enabling the highschool board of any high-school district to add two years to the traditional\nfour-year high-school course. In 19 10 the Fresno High School was so\nextended — the first one. By the end of 19 14, there were ten such extensions,\ncommonly known as junior colleges, with an enrolment of about eight hundred\nstudents. Now there are twelve. Meanwhile, this so-called \"California\nidea\" has been institutionalized several tunes over elsewhere. How many\njunior colleges there will be five or ten years hence, in California and other\nstates, will depend less, it seems, on good intentions than on economic\nability to carry them out. At any rate, this automatic brake on the juniorcollege movement may be trusted to prevent violations of the speed limit.\nNow the coupons on thru railway tickets usually declare that they are\n\"not good if detached.\" It is so with the evaluation of the upward extension of the high school. The rise and progress of the junior college needs\nto be looked upon as an integral phase of a country-wide movement toward\na more adequate state system of education; a twentieth-century system,\nmade in America; a system that shall function progressively so as to secure\nfor the nation the greatest efficiency of the greatest number. The evolution ofthe junior college is causally connected with the other constituent\nphases of the whole process of reorganization and adaptive changes. It\nis inseparable from three of these: (i) the adjustment of the university,\nin the Germanized sense, to secondary education; (2) the reorganization\nof secondary education, to make it more effective, for all alike, during the\nwhole period of adolescence; (3) the movement to equalize educational\nopportunities by the creation of lower and middle systems of vocational\ntraining. In the light of this situation, the junior college appears neither\nas a unique Pacific Coast \"sport,\" nor as somebody's mechanical device,\nwhich must be fitted, somehow, into an immutable inherited mechanism.\nThe junior college is a normal development within a state school system in\nthe making, and this, in turn, is itself being shaped largely by factors and\nforces that are national and even world-wide in scope. The relative\nnovelty of this development finds its explanation in the fact that in more\nways than one the multiform process of educational readjustment has progressed faster and farther in California than elsewhere and is thus presumably fully justified by the privileges and responsibilities of leadership.\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nTo speak first of the university aspect of the junior-college movement,\nthe University of California has been trying, since 1892, to reshape itself\naround two organizing ideas, two ideas \"one and inseparable.\" One was\nand is that, for theoretical and practical considerations alike, the university\nproper should begin in the middle of the inherited four-year college scheme;\nthe second was and is that the work of the first two years is, as a matter of\nhistory and fact, all of a piece with secondary education and should, therefore, be relegated as soon and as far as practicable to secondary schools.\nThis trend of thought and preaching and practice resulted gradatim in the\njunior certificate to mark the distinction between university and secondary\neducation, in the policy of placing all professional schools on a basis of not\nless than two years of non-professional college training, in making the\nstudies of the last two years of the high school and the first two of the college\nlargely interchangeable, and, last, but not least, in publicly exhibiting the\nrequirements for the junior certificate in terms of unified six-year curricula.\nBy 1908 the high-school teachers of the state had become generally aware\nof the fact that what was to be known soon as the junior college idea had\nbeen essentially put into practice at Berkeley and several of them were\ntrying to utilize locally the precept and example of the state university.\nBut this propaganda would probably not have gathered momentum\nvery fast without President Jordan's dynamic articles and addresses urging\nthe amputation of Freshman and Sophomore classes to prevent university\natrophy, and urging the relegation of these classes to the high school. His\nadvocacy of its upward extension made the public \"sit up and take notice\"\nand thought and prodded schoolmen into taking the initiative. What\nhad been a Berkeley idea at the beginning had become a California idea,\nand the spectacle of Berkeley and Stanford climbing the Golden Stairs\ntogether, hand in hand, made its appeal with great persuasiveness. Moreover, while Berkeleyans had been in the habit of speaking of six-year high\nschools, Dr. Jordan gave general currency to the name \"junior college,\"\nand this proved much more potent in suggestible communities.\nThis twin-sister university movement, however-^which, by the way,\nhas become fairly national by this time — does not fully account for the\njunior college. Two other movements coalesced with it. One had its\nsource in the now dominant conviction on the part of leaders in educational\nthought that for the great majority of boys and girls undergoing secondaryschool training the American four-year high-school course begins too late\nand ends too early. The result is a truncated and ineffectual, nonfunctioning education, for most high-school graduates. A remedial readjustment, ithas been seen for some time, must consist in the lengthening,\nfor iall concerned, of the course for adolescents. In states without complete\nstate school systems, i.e., without state universities, efforts to this end are\nstill generally confined to the re-forming of the last two or three years of the\nelementary school. In California the upward extension of the high school\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nJUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nI2I\n\nwas from the first urged along with the other, in the educational interest of\nthe great mass of high-school graduates who cannot, will not, should not\nbecome university students. Such extensions, it was argued, might and\nshould make it possible for the small minority to enter a university, in the\nnarrower sense, at the end of two years; but the controlling educational\npurpose should be to provide for a reasonably complete education, whether\ngeneral or vocational. The other movement had its source in the increasingly imperative need of vocational training, first of all for those whose\neducation for general social efficiency is not prolonged beyond the elementary school, and secondly, for those whose general education ends with\nthe four-year high-school period and who are not headed for one of the professions, inthe restricted sense. With reference to this need, too, as far\nas the latter class is concerned, an additional two years came to appear\ndesirable and necessary for \"finishing courses\" in applied science of one\nsort or another, according to local means or demand. Mr. Olney, for\nexample, in trying to persuade the school board and people of Fresno to\nsanction his junior-college plans, laid great stress on a department of agriculture, on a department of domestic art and science, and on a department\nof applied political science. Moreover, it seemed clear, from the university\npoint of view, that such departments might render a great service to the\nuniversities and to thousands of young people by diverting these from the\nuniversity and thus preventiag their becoming \"misfits\" for life.\nTo the best of my knowledge and belief, such was the genesis of junior\ncolleges in CaHfomia. As contributory factors should be mentioned the\nlong distances from most points in CaHfomia to the state university and\nStanford, the absence of small colleges, which dot the landscape of other\nstates, and the state requirement — unique thus far in this country — of a year\nof graduate study for high-school teachers. Of coiurse, the rapid multiplication of junior coUeges, since the first one was estabhshed at Fresno, is\npartly owing to intercommimal bell-wether-and-sheep relations combined\nwith the spirit of emulation.\nIt is of course an inevitable phase of development that as yet not one\nof the junior colleges produced by the confluence of the three movements\nI have spoken of has fully foimd itself. Growing-pains cannot be escaped;\nself-direction is naturally not achieved at once. But even now the uncertainty that exists relates rather to matters of organization and method\nthan to fundamental conception and aim. It is coming to be generally\nunderstood that the junior college cannot serve its complex purpose if it\nmakes preparation for the university its primary object. For the great\nmajority of junior-college students, coiu*ses of instruction and training are\nto be of a piece with what has preceded; they are to be culminal rather\nthan basal; they are not to result in a \"deferred education.\" The junior\ncollege will function adequately only if its first concern is with those who\nwill go no farther, if it meets local needs efficiently, if it turns many away\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "12 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{General\n\nfrom the university into vocations for which training has not hitherto been\nafiforded by our school system. Hence it will of necessity be as nearly\nautonomous as its place in the public-school system of the state permits;\nand its structure will normally exhibit two types of departments: (i) departments designed to promote general social efficiency; (2) departments\ndesigned to furnish complete training for specific — or vocational — efficiency.\nIt is not so certain, however, that this conception and aim will be steadfastly adhered to in practice. The term \"junior college\" implies a senior\ncollege, i.e., preparation for the university; the line of least resistance\nis to duplicate uncritically Freshman and Sophomore courses. To think\nthat the imiversities are doing high-school work is not nearly as satisfying\nas to think that the jimior college is to do university work. The practical\nvalue of university approval is so great that there is great willingness on the\npart of jimior-coUege teachers to perform the cUnging-vine act. Thus far,\nfortimately, the state university has not sought to bend the jimior college\nto its uses. As far as it has acted at all, it has acted chiefly as guide, philosopher, and friend. As such it has been groping after a sympathetic\nimderstanding of the whole situation, has tried to assist junior colleges by\nemphasizing the need of vocational departments and by warning against\nsacrificing the educational interests of the local majority, and has refrained,\nwisely, I think, from even pretending that it was in a position to issue a\nnew set of commandments or a book of revelations. A imiversity bulletin,\nnow in preparation, will, I trust, embody and illustrate this attitude in\na helpful way.\nOne of the problems of organization is that of the relation of the junior\ncollege to the four-year high school. Three tendencies are noticeable:\nOne is to separate the junior college as far as possible from the high school,\nto create a special faculty, to develop new forms of student activities and\nsocial Ufe, to emphasize new points of view, and so on. Another tendency\nis to differentiate as little as possible, that is, to treat the jimior college\nstrictly as the upper division of a six-year or even eight-year high school.\nAccording to a third view, the advantages of both types of organization\ncan be secured and the disadvantages of each avoided by applying the principle of unity in variety. A special faculty, yes, but not one without a\nshare in the work of the grades below the collegiate division; a imified\nprogram, yes, but also new attitudes and methods; a distinct college life,\nbut not a separate one, nor a mere imitation of the large university-college\n— Berkeley, for example. The need of differences between the collegiate\nand the four-year part of a six-year high school is not created by any other\ninstitution. It exists because the students of the college division have\nnormally passed the middle point of adolescence; it exists, further, not\nbecause some wiU go to a imiversity afterward, but because most of the\ngraduates will presumably not do so. As far as I can see, the actual situation isgenerally being faced in accordance with this third view, which,\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nJUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n123\n\nI need hardly say, seems to me to do justice to all of the factors entering\ninto the problem.\nAnother problem is, of course, that of the quality of the teaching stafif.\nIt is generally recognized that the work of junior-college grades is beyond\nthe quaUfications of the rank and file of high-school teachers. The juniorcollege teacher must not be inferior, with respect to advanced scholarship,\nto the university instructor. And there is a general disposition to act on\nthis working principle. But, of course, such a standard cannot be insisted\non at once and everywhere. Meanwhile it seems certain that the universities may safely admit junior-college graduates to full Junior standing\nwithout fear of a lowered standard. According to statistics recently\ngathered by Recorder Sutton, of the state university, the scholarship average of those coming from jimior colleges is several fractions higher than the\ngeneral university average. There are good reasons why this should be\nso. Hitherto junior-college classes have been small; they have been\nhomogeneous, and so have been able to start in on a higher level than is\npossible for the heterogeneous mass of university Freshmen; they have\nbeen in charge not of the least experienced but of the most experienced\nteachers of their respective institutions; they have been less exposed to\nuniversity side shows; they have come to their university Ufe and work\nwith great expectations, with freshness and enthusiasm. It seems significant in this connection that several good students who completed the first\nyear's work at Berkeley are taking their second year at Los Angeles, on the\navowed ground that they have better educational opportunities there.\nAs far, then, as universities are concerned, there need be no misgivings\nabout standards of scholarship. There is every prospect that within a few\nyears the non-professional work of the junior colleges will be in the hands of\nteachers, who, in addition to matured experience in secondary education,\nhave had from one to three years of graduate university study.\nThis brings us to the problems of afl^iation. At Berkeley we retain\nthe term \"accrediting\" for the relation between the four-year high school\nand the university, but use the term \"affiliation\" to express not only our\nsense of the right of the junior colleges to their own Ufe, liberty, and happiness, but especially the fact that they are co-ordinate with our own lower\ndivision, which, of course, we cannot aboUsh and probably would not if\nwe could, lest the standard of preparation for university work be lowered.\nOur modus operandi has been and is to treat graduates of junior colleges\nas we treat students who have completed two years in other institutions of\ncollegiate grade. Other things being equal, they are given full credit toward\ngraduation. This act is regarded not as a department but as a general\nuniversity function. Then the student makes his peace with the department or departments in which he desires to take major or university courses.\nHere no difficulty is experienced as long as the work done in a junior college\nappears acceptable as a fair equivalent as to quantity, quality, and purpose\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor department prerequisites. But if a junior-college department has\naimed primarily at general social efficiency while the corresponding university department looks upon its prerequisites as speciaUzed preparation\nfor specific efficiency, more or less professional, then the question arises:\nWhich shall do the adjusting, the imiversity or the jimior-college department? One thing is clear: No university department must be allowed to\ndirect or prescribe for the corresponding junior-college department. My\nown strong conviction is that the junior college can and should be something better than a conglomerate of departments pursuing a hodgepodge\nof aims. To forestall such a development, the university will have to do\nmore adjusting in its lower division than the junior college should be\nexpected to do. I should add that this process is going on at Berkeley and\nthat in most of our departments no revolutionary changes are involved.\nOf course this does not apply to junior-college graduates from vocational\ndepartments. If these desire to enter the College of Agriculture or the\nCollege of Engineering, they cannot expect to escape paying a price for\nhaving changed their minds. They must comply with the requirements\nof professional curricula. Preparation for a vocation is only to a limited\nextent preparation for more preparation. This view is now pretty well\nunderstood and accepted by junior-college principals. Indirectly it will\ndoubtless tend to emphasize the scientific bases of vocational courses in\njunior colleges and to prevent their degenerating into mere drill and skill\ncourses. On the other hand, the junior colleges, as an integral part of an\nautonomous state high-school system, will doubtless become an increasingly\npotent factor in completing the adjustment of the university to the college\nby basing all professional departments on at least two years of non-technical\nstudy and training.\nIn conclusion, there is nothing in the present situation to shake one's\nfaith in the junior-college movement. 'Tis a long way to Tipperary, but\nwhen the junior colleges get there they will be found to promote efficiently\nthe public welfare in a number of ways. They will enable the universities\nto concentrate their efforts more and more on imiversity work proper.\nThey will relieve the state imiversity of a large part of imiversity extension\nservice. They will offer thousands of young people from sixteen to twenty\nyears of age the advantage of being taught and trained in small groups not\nfar from home. They will make it possible for thousands who are unable\nto attend a university or college to round out their general education.\nThey will reduce very materially the cost of college and university education. They will provide \"finishing\" vocational courses in agriculture,\nin the industries, in commerce, in applied civics, in domestic science, etc.\nThey will constitute educational centers of a high order, whose influence\nfor good will extend in many directions over large areas of the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nELLA FLAGG\n\nYOUNG,\n\nTRAINING\n\n12$\n\nTRAINING\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe subject of industrial training has been so fully presented in the\nmeetings of this Association in the past that it would be idle to attempt at\nthis time a discussion of its large phases. Time is too brief to consider the\neffect of a division of pubUc educational funds on economic or vocational\ngroimds and to pursue the question, asking if that division would lead\neventually to a division on theological grounds. The subject of two kinds\nof education in public schools is of too recent origin to receive impartial\ntreatment, both being systematic elaborations of methods of mind with\ndifferent backgroimds or foregrounds — the cultural system having traditional subjects in the backgroimd, and the vocational system having\nindustrialism and efl&ciency in the foreground.\nThere are, however, minor conditions that have not become commonplaces. The two to which attention is invited are usually assumed by the\nschool to lie outside its domain. They will in time determine its method in\nindustrial training. The first was suggested to me by a report made to and\nadopted by the lUinois State Federation of Labor last October. That report\nwas prepared by a committee of which I had the honor to be an advisory\nmember. Not being a member of a labor union, I inferred that the invitation was due to my relation to the pubhc schools. That report dwelt upon\nthe desirability of a system of vocational training which would not prepare\nboys and girls for work carried on in Umited areas of space and restricted\nto a few automatic movements.\nThe labor people called this division of labor extreme speciaHzation.\nI think the term \"speciaHzation\" not rightly used. In those small reaches\none does not speciaUze; the work is not specialized; it is simply divided\ninto exceedingly small parts. It is not necessary for me before an audience\nof teachers to enlarge upon the effect, mental and physical, of Hmiting boys\nand girls between fourteen and eighteen years of age to movements which\nday after day have no aim excepting dupHcation of a few particular\nmovements, without variation, in order to feed or take from a machine.\nDecrepitude and decay come early in Ufe to those who are limited (either\nphysically or mentally) to activity in small areas and without complexity\nof movement.\nIn the latter part of that report, the labor people stated that there must\nbe a solution of the question of labor which would save their children from\nruination in these Hmited divisions, and then the report turned to the pubhc\nand said : \" We appeal to the pubUc to help us. \" As I have thought it over,\nit has seemed to me that no part of the American pubhc could respond to\nthat appeal more sympathetically and more effectually than this great\nbody of teachers, those who are engaged in educating boys and girls before\nthey enter upon trade training.\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWhile granting that we have our definite work, we all beUeve that it\nmust comprehend a larger and greater aim than that which is covered by\nperformance of duties assigned us. \"Teacher\" is too inclusive a term for\nactivity in prescribed lines. The aim of teaching is striving to form character. Then teachers must influence conditions so positively that those\nchildren whom they teach and whose characters they aim to help form shall\nnot be trained for labor that bUghts the powers, labor utterly lacking the\nbroadening influence of activity that develops and strengthens character.\nWe as teachers should be constrained to come out from our narrow academic\nfields and see to it that the early education of those children and their\nvocational training shall not be a preparation for life which reduces the\nhuman being to the level of an automatic mechanism.\nAs we do that, it may be well to turn for a moment to our own field and\nto ask whether it is possible that in canying out the ideal of education in\nthis country and in the development of large elementary schools, large high\nschools, colleges, and imiversities, we also are being Umited in education by\nthose same narrow reaches to which the labor people say their children are\nlimited in the industries of the world.\nIs it true that some teachers spend years teaching the same Uttle reach\nof learning, teaching reading, the beginnings, getting no farther than the\nsjonbols, never knowing to what their efforts lead ? Is it true that often in\nhigh schools men and women teach subjects — pieces of a subject — algebra,\nfor example, year after year and year after year, never taking pupils beyond\nthe elementary operations, never knowing to what their instruction leads,\nand whether it leads to anything ?\nOur responsibihty to society requires that we look out into the world and\nknow whether conditions warrant our beUeving that we are lajdng foimdations for the upbuilding of hvmianity; whether we are being limited by\nmental movements with children or youth only, during six months or eight\nmonths or nine months of the lives of group after group of the same age.\nMy second point pertains to the education of girls. Speakers on woman\nand her work are fond of saying: \"Woman's work has been taken from her\nand she has followed it out into the world.\" It seems to them as if they have\nuttered a very important and truthful statement.\nThere are not six people in this house who have been familiar with the\nhousehold in which woman's work began with the raw material and extended\non thru imtil it reached the garment. There are not three people who are\nacquainted with women who followed their industrial work out into the\nworld when it was taken from them. Woman has not followed her work.\nThe work has been taken from her, but she is not doing it in the world\noutside the home.\nIn the training of girls it is generally forgotten that the great mass of\nwomen must do some industrial work. In the school, industrial training\nof girls is limited almost entirely to cooking and sewing, and with much com-\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n127\n\nplacency we sit back and say: \"See, we are preparing them to be homemakers,\" while we know well enough that a third of them at least will never\nhave the opportunity to be homemakers. We teach them sewing, we\nteach them cooking. Do they go out into the world and manage the great\nrestaurants, the kitchens of the great hotels ? Certainly not. Men cook in\nthe large establishments. Girls are taught to serve in the dining-room.\nDo they serve in the hotels and restaurants ? Were you served this evening\nin the large hotels of this city by women ? No. Men served.\nAnd so with sewing. Girls are taught to sew. But if you or I want a\ntailor-made dress, we look around and find a man to make it.\nEven in the exercise of the two occupations which industrial education\nassigns to woman as hers by imquestionable right, she is not permitted to\nfollow her work out into the world. There are some lines of designing and\nmiUinery to which she is admitted, but after all, in the great industrial\nworld woman seems to have nothing to do, excepting to wrap bundles and\naddress them, to make boxes, and to do small things like that. I grant\nthat it is difficult to know what women can be taught, what the girls can be\ntaught that will enable them in this world of machinery, of electricity, to\nfollow their work into the world; until we find out what they can do, let us\ncease talking in a wiseacre way, saying her work has been taken from her\nand she has followed it. Let us help her to follow it. Motherhood is great.\nThe care of the home is great. But after the children are reared what are\nour girls who have become middle-aged women to do ? After they have\nbecome mothers, what work can they do in the world if they have not\nmoney enough to spend their leisure hours at the woman's club ? What are\nthey going to do ? We must make a study of two things: first, how to help\nshape conditions that will surround our boys and girls when they leave us\nand go into the trades; and second, how to conduct our courses so that they\nmay make true the statement that woman's work has been taken from her\nand she has followed it out into the world.\n\nTHE GROWTH\n\nAND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL\nUNION OF TEACHERS\n\nC. W. CROOK, VICE-PRESIDENT,\n\nENGLISH\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNION\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nElementary education in England began at the commencement of the\nnineteenth century under the care of the British and Foreign Society and\nthe National Society (Church of England), when the rival systems of\nLancaster and Bell were introduced, principally as a means of conducting\nlarge schools with the fewest possible number of adult teachers.\nThe minutes of 1846 offered state pay, and civil-service pensions to certificated teachers in state-inspected schools, and introduced the pupilteacher system. State aid followed to training colleges for teachers and\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmany were established, all under voluntary control, but all receiving the\ngreater portion of the cost of their upkeep from the state.\nUntil 1870 all the elementary schools in England and Wales were under\nvoluntary management, Church of England, Wesleyan, and Roman Catholic being sectarian, while those of the British Society were undenominational.\nThe different types of school were rivals with one another and the same\nrivalry existed amongst their teachers. Few teachers' associations were\nformed and the few were limited in membership to one denomination.\nAmong the chief consequences of this disunion were the complete withdrawal of teachers' pensions in 1862 and the introduction of drastic codes\nand individual examinations which the disunited teachers were powerless\nto oppose or modify.\nThese facts, combined with the introduction of the Elementary Education Act of 1870 which established Board schools under public control,\ncompelled the more thoughtful of English teachers to see the absolute\nnecessity of becoming united, and in September of the same year the\nNational Union of Elementary Teachers was begun. The graphs on p. 129\nshow its growth from that date to the present time.\nThe following are among the most important matters which the Union\nhas either carried out entirely by its own influence, or which it has had a\ngreat share in bringing to a successful issue:\nThe reintxoduction of the pension-minutes of 1851 for pre-1862 teachers.\nThe Superannuation Act of 1898.\nIts improvement in 191 2.\nThe introduction of local complementary pensions in London, Liverpool, Birmingham,\netc., bringing up the total teachers' pension to the civil-service basis.\nThe right of a teacher to be heard either in person or by a representative before dismissal, now allowed by many but not all local education authorities.\nThe safeguarding of the interests of teachers when local boundaries are altered.\nThe right of teachers to imdertake or refrain from undertaking extraneous duties\noutside school hours.\nThe limiting of the authority of managers of non-provided schools (i.e., schools not\nunder the direct control of the locality) to dismiss on religioxis grounds only.\nThe right of teachers to take part in parliamentary elections and to be elected on\npublic bodies (except the education committee in their own area).\nThe co-optation of teachers to the education committee in their own areas. There\nare at present 360 of these teacher members.\nThe abolition of the individual examination of scholars and the substitution of\ninspection.\nThe freedom, within the limit of essentials, of the teacher to form his own school\ncurriculmn and time-table and to classify his children.\nThe abolition of annual entries by His Majesty's inspector on the teacher's\ncertificate.\nThe abolition of school fees in practically all elementary schools.\nThe introduction of free meals to necessitous children.\nThe introduction of medical inspection and after-care.\nThe raising of the age and standard of exemption from school — the leaving age is\nnow foiirteen, but children may imder certain conditions leave at twelve or thirteen on\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE NATIONAL\n\nUNION\n\nOP TEACHERS\n\n\"oH\n\nJ— r— 1— I— I— I— [— r— T— I— [ { I— I— r— I— *<■\n■■ I -Sfc — — ■ — -^- ■ I I !■■ — ^ ..^^ I \" — — — \" ■ ■■■— ■—\" -■ ' I\n_^ ^.H ^^ I ■ »■■ ■^_Hi i^» —»■ .1^1 » ^ » iiMi ■ ■■ II ■ ■ ■\"-'- ■^— r\n\nol.\n\n2-3\n\n— I— I— I— oI— I— 1 I 1— I— I— toI— OI— «nI— oI— I— i\nv> in ■^\n\n« ^\n\nSo.\n00.\n\n■figs\n\n06.\n\nog.\n\nS JS5 *\"* .9 ■g.'t!\n\n^\n\n,a \"^ Qts\n\nv8\n\newv\ntn\n\n?5\n\nt>. t>.\n\nSfi\n\nNO\n\na\n\nUl Ml *'\n\n\"I\n\n3 c« >\n\n0 ■• - «\n\n3 -^ a ei u '•^ *\nOK) ^:9|3\n!l5a\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "I30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npassing a qualifying examination whose standard varies in different places. It is generally\nfar too low in rural districts.\nThe gradual raising of the half-time age. It is now twelve. The next step is the\ntotal abolition of half-time.\nThe abolition of annual examinations of schools.\nThe bill restricting street trading and out-of-school employment of children.\nThe gradual opening of the inspectorate to primary teachers.\nThe abolition of a teachers' register which separated primary from other teachers\nand the introduction of the present comprehensive register.\nThe formation of the Benevolent and Orphan Fimds.\nThe formation of the Teachers' Provident Society.\nThe formation of the new War Aid Fimd for Teachers.\nThe adoption and improvement of scales of salaries.\n\nThe Union is organized in the following way:\nEach member of the Union joins a local association, which generally\nconsists of all teachers working under the same educational authority, tho\nsometimes other teachers join from various motives. The local associations\nare grouped into twelve electoral areas. These are arranged geographically, and are: North England, Lancashire, Yorkshire, North Midland,\nSouth Midland, East Anglia, South England, West England, Wales, London, Middlesex, Extra-Metropolitan, and Essex Extra-Metropolitan. The\nrural associations in these areas, which for administrative purposes are\nunder the control of the county education authorities, are grouped also into\ncounty associations and select representatives to attend their meetings.\nEach of the twelve electoral areas chooses annually as many members\nas its number of individual members entitle it to elect, the total number\nof the executives so elected being thirty-six. Lancashire and London\nelect five each, Yorkshire four, North England, North Midland, South\nMidland, South England, and Wales each has three, while Essex, East\nAnglia, and West England have two, and Middlesex has only one.\nBesides this, a treasurer and vice-president are elected annually, by all\nthe members. The present treasurer, George Hamilton, has held that\noffice since 1874. The vice-president becomes president and ex-president\nin succeeding years. The president, vice-president, and ex-president in\nany year are ex-officio members, but remain as one of the number allowed\nto their respective areas.\nExcept this year for the first time, the associations send representatives\naccording to their numbers to an annual conference at Easter. The place\nof the conference is decided each year by the vote of the associations.\nThe conference is the ruling body of the Union. The executive reports\nannually to it and has to carry out its resolutions. Every association has\nto send conference resolutions, and these are sent out at the beginning of\nthe year for six of them to be voted upon for precedence of discussion. The\nplace on the agenda is determined entirely by the number of votes each\nresolution receives, except that the executive has the right to select the first\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n13 1\n\nsubject for each public session. The public sessions are devoted to propaganda work, whUe private sessions are reserved for internal domestic policy.\nThe conference lasts from Easter Monday morning to Thursday afternoon.\nThe evenings are given up to social functions and meetings of sectional\nbodies. One afternoon is taken up by a luncheon to, and meeting of the\nexecutive with, representatives of educational authorities. The same afternoon is utilized for sectional meetings for the reading of papers on educational topics. The annual meetings of the Benevolent and Orphan Council\nand of the Teachers' Provident Society take place in the conference town\nduring conference, and the presentation of purses by associations to the\nBenevolent and Orphan Fund is one of the most interesting functions. The\npublic is admitted to the public sessions.\nThere are generally about two thousand representatives present, and\nprobably about five thousand teachers and friends altogether visit the\nconference towns. The last conference was at Lowestoft, in 19 14. The\nnext should be at Blackpool in 19 16.\nThe last three conferences have been somewhat enlivened by the\nwoman's suffrage question.\nThe work of the executive. — This is carried on by the following standing\ncommittees:\nFinance and General Purposes\nParliamentary and Superannuation\nLaw\nTenure\nEducation\nThe Organization Committee\nExaminations Board\n\nThese consist of members of the executive only.\n\nBesides these there are :\n\nSecondary Schools Committee\nRural Schools Committee\nEvening Schools Committee\nLondon Committee\nMiddlesex Extra-Metropolitan Committee\nEssex Extra-Metropolitan Committee\n\nThe executive also sends representatives to the committees of many outside bodies such as:\nThe Workers' Educational Association\nThe League of Empire\nThe Victoria League\nThe Joint Scholarships Board\nThe English Association\nThe Child Study Association\nThe Half-Time Council\n\nAll the seven principal committees meet twice monthly, except the\nTenure Committee which meets once. Their reports and all general motions\nand correspondence are made monthly to a full executive.\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe Finance Committee. — Of the 12s. annual subscription, 35. 6d. is\nallocated to the general fund, 45. 6d. to the Sustentation Fund, 25. for parliamentary purposes, and 25. for legal purposes. The Finance Committee\ncontrols only the first of these. It deals also with questions of eligibility\nfor membership, contracts for stationery, etc., the estimated cost of new\npolicy, oflice, staff, etc.\nThe Sustentation Fund, which now amounts to £65,712, is for the purpose of sustaining members who resign or are dismissed from office thru the\nadvice of the Union. The principal cases it has dealt with are the West\nHam and Hereford campaigns, where a large number of teachers were\ncalled out in the first case owing to what the Union considered a breach\nof contract, in the second because the Hereford County was one of the worst\npaying counties in England and refused to consider the necessity of formulating an adequate scale of salaries. The West Ham struggle ended in a\ncompromise, but owing to subsequent action, the West Ham scale of\nsalaries has been considerably improved. The Hereford campaign resulted\nin the adoption of a much improved scale of salaries.\nThe Parliamentary Committee works thru parliamentary correspondents,\ntwo of whom, of different political color, are generally appointed in each\nlocality, and interview members of parliament, or candidates for that position, whenever the Parliamentary Committee advises. At present it also\nsupports two members of Parliament, a Liberal and a Labor member, and\nhas adopted three Conservative candidates and one other Liberal candidate for the next election.\nAll questions of superannuation are dealt with by this conmiittee, but\nwork on this subject is necessarily suspended owing to the war. The point\nlast before the committee was the initiation of a pension scheme for teachers\nin secondary schools. The committee also has a legal representative at the\nHouse of Commons, who watches all bills brought in by local authorities in\norder to see that teachers receive the same pensions as other officials, and\nthat no teacher is injured professionally or financially by any transfer of\nareas. All acts of Parliament dealing with education in any aspect also\ncome first under its purview.\nThe Law Committee deals with all legal cases affecting teachers in their\nprofessional work. Actions for breach of contract, wrongful dismissal,\nlibel, personal damages thru neglect of committees, etc., are considered.\nLast year an average of 125 cases came before the committee at each\nmeeting and advice was also given in 1,190 other cases.\nThe Tenure Committee deals with all cases affecting the tenure of the\nteacher. Wherever possible, and this is generally so, a teacher before being\ndismissed is heard by the educational committee concerned, and a legal\nrepresentative, one of our two standing counsels, generally attends to state\nhis case and to advise hiyn generally. Whenever any trouble likely to affect\nthe teacher's tenure of office arises, some representative of the Union, either\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNION\n\nOP\n\nTEACHERS\n\n133\n\na member of the executive or one of the stafiF of the legal department, visits\nthe district and makes inquiries. These frequently lead to a great lessening\nof local friction and to a settlement of the difficulty.\nThe Law and Tenure departments have the advice of two permanent\nstanding counsels (barristers) and also, if necessary, take the advice of the\nmost prominent leading counsel, and carry important test cases to the\nhighest court.\nThe Ediccation Committee is the hardest worked of all the committees.\nIt reviews all regulations and suggestions of the Board of Education and\nall the regulations of local education authorities so far as they refer to\neducation. Such questions as sick-pay regulations; corporal punishment\nrules; interference of His Majesty's inspectors with time-tables; school\nreports; medical inspection; provision of meals; scholarship scheme;\nregulations for evening, secondary, technical, and junior technical schools,\netc., constantly feed its agenda. Conferences with other bodies are\narranged by this committee.\nThe Organization Committee watches the increase or decrease in membership ofthe various associations and, in the latter case, decides upon the\naction required. It also arranges all deputations to local or county associations, except that the three officers — president, vice-president, and\nex-president — are free to attend any association to which they are invited.\nThe committee also draws up all the membership-campaign circulars. An\nexperiment toward decentralizing some of the work of these committees\nhas been suspended during the war.\nThe Examinations Board prepares syllabi for the examination of scholars\nin evening schools and issues certificates and diplomas on the results. It\nalso conducts special examinations, such as those for the Sanitary Institute and for the Plumbers' Association. Last year 11,606 papers were\nexamined.\nThe work of the other committees is sufficiently explained by their\nnames, except that the London, Middlesex, and Essex committees are\nreally county associations meeting at Hamilton House, our headquarters.\nBesides these committees and this representation on outside bodies,\nconferences are frequently held with other bodies on matters affecting both\nthem and teachers. Recent examples of these are: A conference with the\nswimming association on the teaching of swimming in schools; with the\nteachers in schools for the deaf on the training of teachers for such schools;\nwith the Medical Council on the duties to be performed by doctor, teacher,\nnurse, and office in connection with the medical inspection and treatment of\nchildren; and with the Farmers' Union on rural education. All four have\nhad highly satisfactory results, and that with the Medical Council has\nresulted in the issue of a valuable joint memorandum which wiU do much\nto increase the efficiency of this work. Frequent interviews and correspondence with the Board of Education also take place.\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGeneral\n\nAll these committees and the committees of the Benevolent and Orphan\nCcimcil and the Teachers' Provident Society meet at Hamilton House, a\nbuilding just completed under the direction of the Teachers' Provident\nSociety at a cost of £40,000. The building is supervised by a House Committee consisting of representatives of the three bodies, and is named after\nour treasurer, George Hamilton.\nAs the numbers and percentage of membership grow, so with equal\nsteps grow the work and influence of the Union. At present the main\npoints of policy now being either planned or put into force are:\nThe lifting of the Board of Education's teaching certificate to the status of a degree,\nand the inclusion of all elementary teachers in the recently formed teachers' register.\nThe abolition of the acting teacher's certificate which formerly fully qualified without\na course of training in a training college, but which since 1910 does not qualify for a head\nteachership.\nThe increase of scholarships and free places in secondary schools. The final policy\nhere b the entire freeing from fees of all state-aided schools.\nThe transference of a much larger share of the cost of national education from the\nlocalities to the state. At present the state pays only 45 per cent of the total cost of\nelementary education, and in London only 27 per cent.\nThe staflSng of every school with fully qualified teachers. At present only two out\nof three teachers in English and Welsh schools possess the Board of Education teaching\ncertificate, and there are 50,000 unqualified teachers employed. In Scotland only one\nin 40 is unqualified.\nDrastic reduction in the size of classes. At present a certificated teacher is allowed\nto have sixty children in his class in the elementary school, and this is quite a recent\nimprovement, for a few years ago classes of seventy and eighty were quite common. The\nUnion urges a reduction to a class of forty as urgent and a further reduction as essential.\nAn open door to the higher offices in the educational world, such as teaching in secondary schools, inspectorates, and directorships of education, to all capable teachers.\nA general improvement in the salaries of teachers. The following are the average\nsalaries paid to certificated teachers in English elementary schools in the year 1913-14:\n£\n5\nd\nHead Masters\nHead Mistresses\nClass Masters\nClass Mistresses\n\n179\n1 26\n130\n96\n\n10\n18\n4\n\n-\n\nThe public control of all state-aided schools.\nThe right of the teachers to appeal against dismissal to an impartial tribimal, outside the local educational committee.\nThe extension of compulsory school age to sixteen and the formation of day continuation schools for adolescents.\nThe extension of the complementary p>ension movement to all local authorities. This\nis practically what has been adopted for Scotland.\nThe provisions of more floor space and of playing fields for children in elementary\nschools. This last is insisted upon for secondary schools, but is practically ignored for\nchildren in elementary schools.\nThe abolition of the half-time system.\nThe extension of the open-air school for ailing children.\nThe extension of the system of school climes for the treatment of physical defects\nfoimd in school children.\nThe adoption of the Necessitous Children's Act by all local authorities.\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSITUATION\n\nIN SOUTH\n\nAFRICA\n\n135\n\nOrgan of the Union. — The organ of the Union is the Schoolmaster, which\nwas formerly under the ownership of a private company. The paper is\nnow the property of the Union, which is gradually buying out the old shareholders. Itwill become the absolute property of the Union in five years\nfrom the present date.\nThis is an attempt to give a brief outline of the work and aspirations\nof the National Union of Teachers. It is necessarily incomplete, but I\nhope that some idea of our organization may result from its reading.\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL\nCHARLES\n\nT. LORAM, INSPECTOR\n\nSITUATION\n\nIN SOUTH\n\nOF SCHOOLS, DURBAN,\n\nAFRICA\n\nNATAL, SOUTH AFRICA\n\nIn the year 19 10, when the four states of South Africa voluntarily\nsurrendered their separate governments, and, by forming the Union of\nSouth Africa, gave our coimtry its place among the self-governing dominions of the British Empire, a new spirit was bom in our land — the spirit of\nSouth African nationaUty under the British crown. A brief retrospect of\nthe history of our country with its tale of racial strife and warfare will\nindicate how slow and painful the process of labor has necessarily been, yet\nrecent happenings in South Africa have demonstrated in no uncertain way\nthe loyalty and viriUty of the spirit of the youngest of Britain's daughters.\nTo foster this spirit by educating our young people to the responsibiUties and\nopportunities of their citizenship is the task to which the South African\npeople, British and Dutch ahke, are concentrating their energy, skill, and\nmoney.\nThe difficulties of the task are very great. Imagine a country one-third\nthe size of the United States, peopled by a million whites, half British, half\nDutch, and over six miUion blacks, with few large towns but innumerable\nvillages, with large farms of from two ta four thousand acres, with great\ntracts of prairie land as yet only partially opened up by railways, and you\nwill have some idea of our land.\nIn such a country educational problems must be many and difficult.\nHow to maintain a national system without the dangers of bureaucracy, how\nto secure popular local control without pohtics, how to establish a national\nuniversity without infringing upon the rights of existing institutions, how\nto secure the equality of the English and Dutch languages as required by\nour constitution, what kind of education to give the native peoples, how to\nprovide an agricultural and technical education comparable with the vast\nresources of the country — these are but a few of the problems confronting us.\nMany of these problems are yours as well as ours, and we, Uke you, are\nimpelled to tackle them boldly because of our beUef in education. One of\nthe surest and one of the most comparable methods of gauging the attitude\nof a nation toward education is to consider the status and salary scales of\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nits teachers. In South Africa the schools are government institutions,\ncontrolled in the case of elementary and high-school education by the four\nprovincial coimcils, and in the case of higher education by the government\nitseK. The teachers are the servants of the states, and as such have\nsecurity of tenure, pension, or superannuation rights, and receive annual\nincrements of salary. While the cost of living in South Africa is nowhere\ngreater than it is in New York City, and in most cases is considerably less,\nthe salaries compare very favorably with those paid in Europe and America.\nA second indication of South Africa's belief in education is its satisfactory provision for rural education. Centrally controlled systems such as\nours enable us to supply the coimtry with schools as good as those of the\ntown. The rural schools are erected, equipped, and maintained by the\ncountry. If there is any difiFerentiation made, it is in favor of the coimtry\nwhere the staffing basis is one teacher for twenty-five pupils and not one\nfor thirty-five as in the town. We have no such thing as a seven- or eightmonth year. Even our schools for the aborigines, the Zulu, Kafir, and\nBasuto people, have a ten-month school year, buildings approved by the\nstate authorities, and in most cases trained and certificated native teachers.\nStill further evidence of South Africa's faith in education is afforded by its\nanxiety to learn from others. The Union government has foimded a number\nof oversea scholarships to enable selected educators to proceed abroad to\nstudy foreign school systems. At this moment, there are South Africans\nin Great Britain, Holland, Canada, and the United States examining the\ndifferent systems of education in the light of South Africa's needs. It is my\npersonal beUef that it is the United States with its sound basis of democracy,\nits sturdy insistence on local rights, and its variety of school systems which\nhas most to teach us, both in what to follow and in what to avoid.\nIn certain respects, particularly in thoroness of methods of instruction,\nin high ideals of scholarship, and in what I might, for want of a better expression, call academic reserve. South Africa stands high, but in others, especially\nin flexibiUty and aptabiUty of systems, we have much to learn from you.\nWe need your critical and pragmatic attitude toward education, your\nunwillingness to accept subjects and methods of instruction merely because\nyour forefathers did, and your constant trying out of subjects and systems\nin the Ught of twentieth-century conditions. Every visitor to this country\nmust be struck with the flexibihty of your systems and the ease with which\nthey have been adapted to new and changing conditions. Yom- technical\ncolleges and imiversities have particularly interested us of South Africa.\nIt is significant that for some years many of the mining engineers on the\nSouth African gold fields were Americans, trained for the most part in the\nuniversities and colleges of California. Altho we have made good our\nweakness in respect to mining, we have still a great deal to do in the way\nof provision for technical education before we shall be able to train the\nyouth of our coimtry to do the work of the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGERMANY'S\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n137\n\nWe need the American business man's belief in higher education as\nsomething of practical and commercial value, a beUef which leads your rich\nmen to found institutions of higher learning as legacies for their fellowcitizens. We need more men with the wisdom and foresight of our own\nCecil Rhodes.\nFinally, we need to realize that the subject of education is worthy of\nthe ablest minds of the nation. When your William Jameses and your\nJohn Deweys, your Stanley Halls and your ex-President Eliots, rise to\ndevote their abilities to the education of the school cliild, you set an example\nnot only for us but for the whole world.\nWhen, however, you have taught us all this, we have still the greatest\nlesson to learn, and that is that any lasting system of education must be\nbuilt upon the peculiar character, institutions, and needs of the people\nfor whom it is intended. We South Africans may learn much from our\nstudy of foreign school systems and more from our visits to other countries,\nbut it is away in far South Africa with its grand and romantic history, its\nextraordinarily complex social organization, and its inevitably great future\nthat the South African educational system must be evolved.\n\nGERMANY'S RECENT PROGRESS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION\nanton h. appelmann, munster, germany, representing prussian\nkultusministerium; professor at the university of\nvermont, burlington, vt.\nIn speaking of Germany's secondary schools, one is likely to think of\nthe old Gymnasium with its nine years of 41-42 weeks each and a weekly\nschedule for the student of about 30 hours ; of the system admitting students\nat nine years of age beginning with Latin as the first foreign language and\nteaching it for nine years, French in the third class for seven, Greek in the\nfourth for six, and EngHsh or Hebrew in the seventh for three years. The\nother subjects are religion, German, mathematics, history, geography,\nnatural sciences, singing, drawing, and gymnastics. I need not go into\ndetail, but can refer to the work of James E. Russell on German Higher\nSchools and to the report of Frederic E. Farrington on \" European Systems\nof Secondary Education\" in Paul Monroe's Principles of Education.\nPeople thinking of only this type of German school and overlooking\nthe progressive change which has taken place inside of this system have\nsuperficially judged the German system as reactionary and stagnant.\nThis is hardly fair or true.\nIn reality the German school government has been constantly introducing in the Gymnasium many new ideas, reforms, and modern methods.\nTo note the progress, one need only compare the present Gymnasium with\nthe Fursten- or Landesschulen which have retained in some measure the\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncharacter and the best features of the old classical Gymnasium. Moreover\nthis Gymnasium represents but a certain percentage of all the secondary\nschools. Besides it, there is the Realgymnasium which, taking Latin,\nFrench, and EngUsh as the only compulsory foreign languages, lays more\nstress on other subjects; and then the Oherrealschule, which takes only\nFrench and EngHsh, leaving out both Latin and Greek and emphasizing\nespecially mathematics and natural sciences. These Real-Institutions,\nwhich Friedrich Paulsen and Theobald Ziegler ardently championed, now\nenjoy almost all the privileges of the Gymnasium with the one exception\nthat the graduates of an Oherrealschule are required to pass a sort of make-up\nexamination in Latin before entering upon certain advanced studies, such\nas philology or theology.\nMore progressive than these Real-Institutions are the Reform-Institutions\nof which there are two kinds: those of the Altonaer and those of the Frankfurter System. Both are the same in that instead of with Latin, they begin\nin the lowest class with French, an easier study for children. They differ\nin that the Altonaer System adds EngUsh in the third year, and after this\ndivides into the Oherrealschule which needs no other foreign language and\nthe Realgymnasium, which then (in the fourth year) adds Latin. The\nFrankfurter System, taking only French in the three lower classes, divides\nin the fourth year into Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, both of which\nadd in this (fourth) year Latin, and in the sixth year Greek for the Gymnasium and EngUsh for the Realgymnasium.\nAltho there have been other innovations besides the fundamental\nchange in the system of foreign-language study, yet the required courses\nremain essentiaUy unaltered. I hardly need say that these Reform-Institutions enjoy aU the privileges of the schools heretofore mentioned, the\nmost important of which is that their graduates, after having passed the\nAhiturienten (Baccalaureate) examination may enter imconditionaUy any\nGerman or foreign university.\nMany of the secondary schools thus far mentioned have added to their\nsystem a so-caUed Vorschule (junior school), which enables the child to\nenter the Gymnasium immediately upon reaching the required school age\nof six years, thus doing away with the preUminary three years of elementaryschool work and the transfer by examination to the secondary school.\nThis Vorschule-System is being encouraged by government and mimidpal\nauthorities, particularly in those city schools in which almost all the students\ncome from the immediate surroimdings.\nGreater than this external progress in the system, is the progress from\nwithin, evident in the method of teaching and in the teacher himself, who\nis entirely different from the older type. Formerly the Ahiturient studied\nthree to four years in a university, passed his state's, and sometimes also\nhis doctor's examination, and was ready for teaching. Now he must study\nmore than four or five years at different imiversities. The student of\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGERMANY'S\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n139\n\nmodem languages, moreover, should spend one or more semesters abroad;\nthe student of ancient languages will, if possible, study for a while in Rome\nor Greece. In most cases the Doctor's examination is passed before the\nmuch harder Staats-Examen. Until recently the young pedagogical student\nwent, after these examinations, thru one trial year. This has been\nincreased to two, the Seminar and Probe (trial) Jahr. Such a seminary\nyear means that about eight candidates are assigned to certain secondary\nschools where they visit classes every day and receive instruction in practical pedagogy and methods from especially appointed experienced educators. Only in the second half-year do the candidates teach a few hours\nimder the supervision of the teachers. In the next, the trial year, the\ncandidate himself gives a few hours of independent teaching and besides\nthat writes two theses on some pedagogical or methodical topic. After\nboth of these years have been satisfactorily passed (secret certificates are\ngiven) the candidate is ready to enter the profession. These two trial\nyears were reversed last year so that the Prohekandidat (trial year candidate) may first discover by experience some of the many difficulties in\nteaching, and in the following year learn how to master them. As to applied\nsubjects, it should be said that the famous singer, the great artist, and the\npowerful athlete are now more than ever unadapted to secondary-school\nneeds. Whom the government needs, wants, and appoints is the scientifically\nand pedagogically trained teacher. This is particularly true of gymnastics.\n\"Safety first\" has become the watchword in public Ufe, \"Health\nfirst\" in school work. Sanitary and hygienic arrangements are given strict\nattention and teachers are required who know what health is and means.\nThis has eUminated the coach from Germany's secondary schools and I\nhope it will eUminate him for all future time. The coach may have his\nplace in clubs and teams but he is out of place in the educating school.\nA teacher is needed. Even the old physical instructor, who sometimes\ntaught a few unimportant lessons in addition to his own subject and who\noften met with discipUnary difficulties, could not fulfil the new requirements. He had to be and will be replaced by the regular teacher and even\nby the older professor. The government accomplished this by encouraging\n— yes, even requiring — the student of pedagogy to add to his other facultates docendi that of gymnastics, which is done in this way: the strong\nstudent, who has finished his fourth semester of university study and has\nsubmitted a certificate of health and conduct, must pass a severe examination inathletics. Then he enters the course, for which the government\npays the tuition fee and which consists of three parts, taken in three, or\nsometimes two, consecutive semesters. He usually begins in a summer\nsemester and gets instruction in field sports and games and also in swimming.\nPart of the time is devoted to the practical side, the rest is given to the\ntheory and the science. The candidate must learn all' about first aid,\nrescue from drowning, the methods of resuscitation, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe hardest course is the third and last, the one in gymnastics proper,\nbecause it not only requires a genuine and well-grounded proficiency in\nathletics but also a detailed knowledge of anatomy, hygiene, pedagogy, and\nmethodics.\nTrial lessons and written and oral examinations end the course.\nBut the government has done still more for the improvement of its\nteaching staflf. It has provided means for the exchange of teachers which\nnow is established with France and, thru the Carnegie Foundation, with\nthe United States. This will, I hope, be stUl more encoiuraged and extended\nafter the war, that it may help to promote the mutual imderstanding between\nnations and individuals, this most important factor for the establishment\nof everlasting peace.\nThe government fiirthermore grants large smns for scholarships to the\nmodern-language instructor to study abroad — in France, England, America;\nto the classical teacher to visit Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor; to the\nGermanist, mathematician, scientist, historian, and physical instructor\nto attend smnmer schools, important meetings, and scientific excursions.\nWherever these studies cannot be pursued during vacation, leave of absence\nwith full pay is gladly granted.\nSupplementing these improvements in the teaching staff, the government has shown a very progressive attitude in some remarkable decrees.\nThe fall of 191 1 brought the famous, at that time with the teachers illfamed, Extemporale-Erlass (class-test decree). To the great joy of many\nparents it practically abolished the class test so cordially hated by all\nstudents. In its stead the students now write at the beginning or at the\nend of each recitation a short exercise of a few minutes covering the lesson\njust learned, or the corresponding previous recitation. Immediately after,\nthe teacher writes the correct sentences or problems on the blackboard;\nthe students correct their papers carefully; and the instructor looks them\nover at home. These tests are not to be graded.\nFor some time the phonograph has been used in various educational\nsubjects, and in recent years the school government has been seriously\nconsidering how and to what extent the cinematograph might be used.\nIt is evident that instruction in history, geography, or physiology would\nimprove and gain by its adoption. Even the teaching of languages would\nprofit much by the use of moving pictures. It was an educational inspiration when an American moving-picture theater in a few hours recalled to\nmy mind Homer's Odyssey, the study of which had taken at least as many\nlaborious years of my youth. May the moving pictures soon replace the\nlantern slides with which many teachers now try to shift as best they can.\nIn reviewing briefly the changes which ministerial decrees have brought\nabout in different subjects we may begin with German. Formerly the\nlittle Gymnasiast was told to write a \"Description of the hero's house in\nour story.\" Now he writes about \"Our house,\" \"Our dog,\" \"Our coimty\nfair.\" Formerly: \"How did Hannibal cross the Alps?\"\nNow: \"My\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGERMANY'S\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n141\n\ncrossing the Alps,\" \"My trip to the Bohmerwald, the Rhine, Hamburg.\"\nFormerly: \"What is great and small, what good and bad in Wallenstein's\ncharacter?\"\nNow: \"What I like in Wallenstein.\"\nHistory in secondary schools which used to mean the conning of wars,\ndynasties, and dates has had to give way to the historical study of sociological, commercial, and political development of nations, to the study of\ncomparative history, profiting by the example of other countries.\nThis same trend may be seen in all the subjects of the curriculum.\nAs is well known, our secondary schools are not coeducational. I have\nconfined myself to a discussion of boys' schools, but I should state that the\nmodern girls' school, in its systematical structure, varies but little from the\nboys' school. As to the progressive methods, all of them have found their\nway into the girls' institutions in the same if not a stricter degree.\nMy picture of Germany's secondary education would hardly be complete ifI should not at least touch upon those more or less private schools\nor school communities which differ essentially in their various systems,\nas well as in their methods, from the regular governmental type, but which\nare recognized by the government in so far as that students are allowed to\nfulfil in them their compulsory school work, and in so far as that the government exercises at least a certain control over them. That, vice versa, the\nschool authorities watch closely the work of these schools and have drawn\nand will draw many a good lesson from them can hardly be denied.\nThere are first the Deutsche Landerziehungsheime (country educational\nhomes corresponding very nearly to some of the high-class boarding schools\nin this country) and then such partially related schools as the Freie Schulgemeinde (free-school community) and the Odenwddschule. The life and\nclasses of these schools are conducted as far as possible in the open air.\nAll of them have the character of the Oherrealschule in that Greek and Latin\nare elective and in that the sciences are emphasized and taught from the\nstandpoint of their value to real hygienic living. These schools are coeducational incontrast to all the governmental schools. All of them have\nintroduced student self-government in a pronounced degree. The Freie\nSchulgemeinde, for instance, with its Gemeinde (community) and Kameradschaft (comradeship), where the feeling of responsibility is highly developed\nand where the teachers and students have the same equal right in voting,\nis in its organization not unlike such American institutions as the George\nJunior Republic. The Deutsche Landerziehungsheime consist of three\nparts, each situated in a \"beautiful part of Germany, in shadowy woods on\nthe tops of historic mountains. The four lowest classes are located in\nIlsenburg in the Harz Mountains, the three middle classes in Haubinda\nin Thiiringen. This particular course admits only boys, the girls having\nto attend a special school from which they may enter the three highest\ncoeducational classes in Bieberstein in the Rohn. The pupils live in little\ncottages surrounding the institution. There are about ten pupils in a\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nso-called family under the supervision of a \"father \"-teacher. The girls\nhave their \"mother,\" a lady teacher who acts as chaperon. The entire\nexpense for each pupil in these schools is between $300 and $500.\nSpecial interest is being aroused in Germany by the so-called Hauslehrerschule (private-tutor school) started in 1910 by Berthold Otto in\nGross Lichterfelde, near Berlin. As a great fundamental principle he\ndemands larger freedom of movement for teachers as well as for students.\nThe teacher shall not stand before his pupils as an arrogant sage but as a\nman who is seeking after knowledge himself and who needs the help of his\nwilling students.\nPlans for conducting courses and hour plans in their old strong form\nare unknown in Otto's school. Every hour may develop itself out of itself.\nK it happens that for any reason the students do not like to sit in the classroom or to have the lesson provided for this hour, the instructor goes out\nof doors with them and something, perhaps a colored picture-card of\nNiagara Falls, which somebody happens to take out of his pocket, suggests\na discussion of this natiural wonder and the geography and history connected with it.\nBut the real outward sign and the deeper source from which this whole\nnew kind of teaching arose, is the so-called Gesamtunterrichtssiunde\n(general information lesson). In a large empty hall, benches are placed\naround the wall upon which the boys and girls, about thirty, are seated\npromiscuously, and among them the teachers and visitors who are present.\nAt the middle of one side of the room is Berthold Otto, the president of the\nsociety. He calls his daily session to order and asks for \"business to come\nbefore the meeting.\" In a parliamentary way they discuss what each one\nhas on his mind and wishes to have spoken about. Almost always the\nstudents themselves explain to each other the current questions and it\nnever sounds as the word of a teacher when one of the instructors takes\npart in the discussion.\nIn the hour when I was there they talked a great deal of the construction of airships. One of the boys had once seen a hydroaeroplane; another\nat once requested a detailed description, whereupon the first confessed it\nhad been some time since he saw it and then he had not had much interest\nas he was still going to a \"common\" school. Then it was a Uttle girl's\nturn, who, simply in her joy of knowing something too, stated that the mayor\nof Charlottenburg had died — it had been in the newspapers. Now the\nlife work of that man was considered and many a vague idea of municipal\ngovernment, taxes, etc., began to acquire sense and meaning in this little\nsociety.\nAs ideal requirements Otto has in mind: (i) a child's imlimited right\nof asking questions at home as well as at school; (2) aboUtion of examinations; (3)later beginning of teaching in reading and writing and in its place\nGesamtunterricht and plays for the first school years; (4) no foreign Ian-\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nGERMANY'S\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n143\n\nguage before the fifth year; (5) natural development of the teaching lesson\nout of the natural development of the pupil. The students choose for\nthemselves what they want to learn and doing this in their inborn imitative\ninstinct they are guided by contemporaries or by the will of the parents or\n(what Otto probably does not permit) by an adroit leading of the teacher.\nOtto does not think his methods mere theoretical experiments, but\nwants to see them introduced into the regular governmental school, in so\nfar as the authorities are progressive enough to have them properly carried\nout, and this will come more and more. The Saxon school government\nhas allowed some teachers to conduct the lower classes according to Berthold\nOtto's reforms and they have had splendid results. This speaks for the\nprogressiveness of the school government as well as for the real value of\nideas and methods which, to an outsider, may appear at first glance as they\ndid to that physician whose first impression was \"astonishment mixed with\nhorror\" (Guggenheim). Whoever desires more detailed information will\nfind it in Otto's various publications.\nBrief mention should be made of the Waldschtde, a forest school for\nsick and frail children. The schools are annexed to elementary as well as\nto secondary schools. The children come in the morning, get all their meals\nas the physician prescribes them in the open air, and besides that they can\nrest and play and swim as is best for their health. In the evening, they\nreturn to their parents' homes. The small classes make individual instruction possible, and since instruction is restricted to the most important subjects the student loses little time by dropping out of his regular school for\na year or more. The schoolroom is a frame structure offering abundance\nof light and air and is erected near the city in a forest, park, or open field.\nThe city of Charlottenburg started this system which we now find in many\ncities. Those parents who can afford it pay a small amount toward the\nexpenses for the board of their children.\nThese are the most important features of the present status of Germany's secondary education. To be sure, not all the ideas and methods\nare new, original, or typically German. Out of many of them speaks the\nspirit of Rousseau or Pestalozzi, Basedow or Herbart. America gave\nmany a good suggestion for school buildings and school equipment, and\nSweden, for instance, showed new methods of physical education. But is\nnot this just what we want ? Internationalism in education, improvements\nand betterments wherever we can find and adopt them, in order that the\nstudying youth of today, who will be the ruling and teaching men and\nwomen of tomorrow, may be led on to the highest possible efficiency.\nGoethe had his lifelong dream of a \"Pantheon of the world literature.\"\nIt has not been realized and probably never will be. Poetry and literature\nbear and naturally must bear a national — yes, even a local — character;\nscience, learning, education are international, cosmopolitan, and the more\nthey become so the more efficient they will be. I believe and hope that\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwith the co-operation of the educators and the assistance of all the countries,\na building for which this great nation can claim to have laid the cornerstone\nby assembling this International Congress of Education, may be erected:\nthe Pantheon of Education with common or at least similar international\nideas and ideals out of which must grow what we so bitterly are lacking\nnow — the mutual understanding between nations and peoples.\n\nCHANGES\nMICHAEL\n\nE.\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nSADLER,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSINCE\n\nVICE-CHANCELLOR,\nUNIVERSITY\nLEEDS, ENGLAND\n\n1900\n\nOF LEEDS,\n\nModem England owes a great debt to other nations for educational\nstimulus. At an international congress, appropriate opportunity is given\nfor gratefully acknowledging this debt. And in these days of trouble,\nobligations should not be forgotten. On the contrary, we find solace and\nencouragement in remembering them: solace, because they remind us of\nhappier days; encouragement, because they convince us that relationships\nof mutual service will hereafter be renewed.\nTo England from every one of her sister-nations there has come an\neducational inspiration during the last twenty years. And what is true of\nthis recent period in our history has also been true of each earlier period of\ncritical transition in human outlook and ideals. Just as in the days of the\nRenaissance and of the Reformation, England felt the kindling power of\nforeign influence, so has she felt it in these latter days about which I have\nbeen invited to make a communication to this congress. France and Italy,\nBelgium and Holland, the three Scandinavian kingdoms, have all exerted\nsome characteristic influence upon English educational opinion and practice\nsince 1900. But, apart from what we English owe to our feUow-coimtrymen\nwithin the United Kingdom and in the overseas dominions of the British\nEmpire, our chief debt in the sphere of educational thought and administration has been to the United States of America and to the German Empire.\nIt is hard to say which of the two has influenced us the more. Of the two,\nthe American educational ideal is the more akin to our own. But the\nGerman has had for us, during recent years, a salutary message. And I am\nglad to find that in all that I have written about German education during\nthe last twenty years, there is nothing that at this hour I would wish unsaid.\nBut, tho it is possible to trace in the recent development of English\neducation these marked currents of foreign influence, English schools and\nEnglish teachers are very far from having been dominated by them. On the\ncontrary, our English education has its own tough tradition, its own\ningrained characteristics, its own flavor, and its own distinct purpose and\nduty in the work of the civilization of the world. My mind glows when\nI think of its high service to the ethical standards of the race and of its\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSINCE\n\nigoo\n\n145\n\npower of renewing its youth in response to the changing needs and destiny\nof our people. It is conservative and yet open-minded; bound by ancient\nobligations and yet free in its acknowledgment of new duties; colored\nby the convictions of many different social groups, and yet sensitive to the\nclaims of national unity. At its worst, it may be distracted by conflicting\nideals and hampered by confused administration. But at its best (and its\nbest is not rare), it is distinguished by a noble fairness of mind, by an\ninbred love of liberty, by obedience to conscientious conviction, and by a\nreadiness to acknowledge the two sides of truth.\nWith us in England the last fifteen years have been years of educational\nrevolution. The stream of change began to run strongly thirty years ago.\nBut the current has run more swiftly since the present century began. This\nis not equally true of the other countries which are joined with England in\nthe United Kingdom. My hearers are aware that English education is\nvery different in its organization, and not less different in its traditions,\nfrom Scottish education, or Irish, or even from the Welsh. Today my\npurpose is to speak of English education alone. And of English education\nit is true that the last fifteen years have been years of sweeping change and\nof an extraordinary ferment in opinion. Looking backward, we may conjecture that, in obedience to some deep instinct, England was putting her\nhouse in order against the coming storm. Or perhaps the same forces of\nintellectual and moral unrest, which have issued in a world struggle, showed\ntheir presence in an upheaval in our educational thought and consequently\nin far-reaching changes in the fabric of our educational administration.\nIn this paper it would be out of place for me to enter into details. To\ngive a minute account of the changes in English education since 1900 would\nneed a volume. But it will better serve the purpose of this congress if I\nattempt to give in brief outline the salient features of the reconstruction\nwhich has been achieved.\nThree great things have happened: (i) the machinery of English educational government has been reconstructed; (2) a new conception of the\nservice which education can render to the nation has been formed; and\n(3) the center of gravity in English educational purpose has changed.\nAllow me to take these three points in succession.\nI. Since 1900, the whole structure of educational administration in\nEngland has been remodeled. At the center, it has been unified. In the\ncities and counties it has been assimilated with the main fabric of local\ngovernment and has been spread consistently over the whole country.\nEven in England itself, the significance of this change has hardly been\nrealized. But its consequences already influence every family and touch\nevery purse. The effort to carry out this stupendous reorganization has\noccupied the thoughts of our central and local administrators to such an\nextent that for a time, tho only for a time, our educational energies have been\nabsorbed to an excessive degree by problems of machinery.\nBut the effort\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhad to be made and has been carried thru successfully and with surprisingly\nlittle disturbance in the national life. Year by year the results of our\nnew educational administration will become more striking. The change\nhas necessarily been accompanied by a great increase in the number of paid\nofficials. But English education has not been bureaucratized. On the\nwhole, it has kept itself free from the taint of arrogant officialdom, and,\nwhere it has been most human, it has been most serviceable and most\nsuccessful. Its freedom from the stiffness of bureaucratic control has been\ndue to the devoted, unremunerated service of thousands of men and women\nof good will and high disinterestedness. These servants of the public have\ncarried over into the new system the best traditions of the older, and much\nless highly organized, English schools. And, in response to the closer\norganization of the administrative side of our education, the various\ngroups which constitute the army of teachers have organized themselves\nmore effectively than before, preserving in this way tmder the new conditions the teacher's moral freedom and independence of undesirable political\nrestraints. This rapid movement of concentration among the various\nbodies of teachers has culminated in the establishment of a Teachers'\nRegister and of a Teachers' Registration Council. The last-named body\npromises to become to the teaching profession what the Medical Council\nis to the doctors, namely, the accredited organ of a semi-autonomous profession, recognized and to some extent regulated by the authority of the\nstate. A supple organization, preserving group-autonomy within a framework of national unity, is the keynote of the English social changes of the\nday. Of that organization, a free but self -disciplined temper is a necessary\npresupposition. Such a temper must be fostered by the schools. In order\nthat it may continue free, the schools and the teachers must have liberty.\nIn order that it may be disciplined, the schools and the teachers must\nthemselves submit to reasonable organization.\n2. Since 1900, English people have realized that education generously\nplanned is a vital necessity to a modem state. The distinctive marks of\nEnglish education, as compared with the systems of most other European\nstates, have been its duplications and its freedom from state control. No\nother European country, except perhaps Russia, has so many alternative\ntypes of school and imiversity as we have. English education is social in its\nfundamental purpose. Therefore, as England preserves a great variety of\nsocial ideals within the outer framework of its national life, we have a\ncorresponding complexity of schools, each attached to one or other of our\nsocial outlooks. Further, to a considerable degree, every type of school\ntends to produce a tjqje of mind. This system is interwoven with our\nsocial history. It is deep-rooted in our past. It is what we prefer. It is\nthe nursery of a certain kind of group-independence and of a certain kind\nof group-initiative. It is conservative. It maintains established codes\nof principle. But, on the other hand, it is very expensive. It involves\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSINCE\n\nIQOO\n\n147\n\nintellectual waste. Nevertheless it is national, if by the word \"nation\"\nyou mean an aggregate of groups united in the defense of certain fundamental necessities but free to develop infinite varieties of opinion and of\npreference. To link the different social groups, with their several educational institutions, into a unity of national organization without destroying\nthe elasticity of their varied life has been the aim of English educational\nstatesmen during the last fifteen years. And because we were weak in our\nsense of the state, it is the national side of educational organization that\nthey have emphasized. In response to their argimients and efforts, the\nEnglish people have acquired a new feeling of the national duty of every\ntype of school. Since the reign of Queen Elizabeth, England has never\nhad so strong a national self-consciousness as she has today. And this new\nfeeling of national duty is reflected in the schools. Once realize that education isa national thing and you find artificial barriers due to obsolete class\ndistinctions intolerable. Free passage from the bottom to the top there\nmust be for every boy and for every girl who has capacity to seize and profit\nby educational opportunity. This means schools everywhere, and everywhere passages of communication between grade and grade thruout the\nwhole fabric of the school system. In so far as this easy communication\ncan be established by administrative devices, it has been generously secured\nin English education by a liberal supply of scholarships, many of them\ncarrying adequate allowances for maintenance. But in so far as this easy\ncommunication from top to bottom in the educational and economic life of\nthe community depends upon psychological conditions — that is, upon the\ncustomary way of looking at life and its opportunities for the energetic\nindividual — all one can say is that in England the change in social outlook\namong the poor and the rich, among employers and employed, has been\nrapid during the last fifteen years, and has been profoundly influenced by\nAmerican feeling and by the habit of mind which is general in the selfgoverning overseas dominions of the British Empire.\n3. The point of view of the administrator in regard to the essential\npurpose of education has shifted very noticeably since the century began.\nIt has become more liberal, less mechanical, more humane. Into the\nschools of the people, the tradition of self-government is passing from the\nolder schools of the wealthier classes. Arnold of Rugby is the educational\nhero of the English primary school-teacher of today. Sir Robert BadenPowell, founder of the Boy Scouts, is the Arnold of contemporary England.\nEnglish educational administrators at the present time realize that healthy\nbodies are as a rule the accompaniment of healthy minds. The health\nservice in our schools grows more important year by year. And for this we\nowe much to German example. But we cling, and cling rightly, to the ideal\nof the self-contained house as the most conducive to healthiness and solidarity of home life. In this, we are in my judgment wise. But the independence of the English home makes it a long business to introduce into family\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGeneral\n\nlife the new standards of personal hygiene which the school medical officer\ninforces by inspection and the school-teacher encourages by instruction and\nexample. Steadily, however, the significance of physical well-being, with\nall its consequences in housing reform and in changes in diet and ventilation,\nis dawning on the minds of the masses of the English people. A sense of\nthe need for change in the hygienic conditions of our factory life and of\nindustrial employment in England is one root cause of our labor unrest.\nThe influence of our new education spreads the ferment of new ideals of life.\nAnd that ferment will in turn produce a further inevitable change in the\nEnglishman's conception of the values and methods of education.\nSEX\n\nHYGIENE\n\nAND\n\nSEX MORALITY\nEDUCATION\n\nAS THE\n\nAIM\n\nOF SEX\n\nTHOMAS M. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe need of sex education is almost universally recognized among\nthinking people today. It is solely a question as to matter and method,\nand the agency or agencies thru which it is to be done. Some maintain\nthat it is wholly a problem for the parent and that the only thing we need\nto do is to educate the parents. Parents have a large responsibility in the\nmatter, but it cannot safely be wholly left to them. Many parents are\ntoo poorly educated to be able to comprehend the scientific facts which\nneed to be presented to adolescents; many, especially fathers, are by\nnature imfitted to do it; many have not the delicacy of feeling and purity\nof mind to do it effectively. Others maintain that it is for the parent and\nthe church together to give this education. But it has been left to these\ntwo agencies for nearly two thousand years and they have failed. There\nare certain aspects of it which many parents can be held responsible for,\nand this sort of education needs the reinforcement which comes from religion; but it needs above all a scientific basis which makes a universal appeal,\nand the school must find a way of doing its part of this work. The school\ncaimot escape this responsibility.\nI. We must make a distinction between sex instruction and sex education. Instruction is only a means to education; while education is the\nend. German writers speak even of \"educative instruction,\" implying\nthat there may be instruction which is not educative. Sex instruction is\nonly a part of sex education, and specific instruction as to the scientific\nfacts and laws of sex in human life is only a comparatively small but a most\nvital part of such education. There are writers on this subject who seem\nto assmne that such education consists exclusively of instruction as to the\nfacts and laws of sex.\n\nThey speak of \"sex science\" and \"sexology.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSEX HYGIENE,\n\nSEX MORALITY,\n\nAND\n\nSEX\n\nEDUCATION\n\n149\n\n2. The aim of sex education is twofold: it has for its purpose hygienic\nliving and moral character and conduct. Sex hygiene and sex morality\nare its objects; all other purposes are subordinate.\n3. The biological and physiological facts in regard to sex in the human\nsphere should, therefore, be taught solely as reasons for hygienic and moral\nliving. They should not be taught merely as scientific facts, but as scientific\nfacts having important implications and applications. The instruction\nshould suggest at all points the moral law. This should be the fundamental principle of selection of subject-matter.\n4. The basis of such education must, therefore, be scientific and not\nmerely dogmatic, either in a philosophical or in a theological sense. Such\nscientific instruction cannot be too strongly reinforced by religious motives,\nbut these must not be made its chief basis. They have failed in the past.\n5. The less children and youth think of matters of sex the more wholesome their lives are; therefore one aim of sex education must be to reduce\nsex consciousness to a minimum. This can be done in various ways:\n(i) By satisfying not prurient but normal curiosity, and children until their\nminds have been contaminated have no prurient curiosity. The questions\nwhich little children ask should be truthfully answered, but not in a way\nto stimulate further curiosity. In this respect sex instruction must differ\nfrom all other science teaching. Curiosity ceases when it is satisfied.\nWe are curious, not about what we understand, but about what we do not\nunderstand. Knowledge reduces curiosity as food reduces appetite, unless\nit is imparted in a way to suggest further mysteries. (2) By protecting\nchildren and youth against the immoral influences of low shows, evil companions, and bad literature. (3) By giving them plenty of wholesome\noccupation in the form of play, amusement, athletics, and work. Idleness of mind or of body is unwholesome in its effect.\n6. It follows from this that in specific sex instruction, everything must\nbe avoided which tends to arouse the sex impulse or prurient curiosity.\nThis principle, if correct, condemns considerable information now given\nin some books on sex written for the young by persons of high motives.\n7. Sex education, having for its aim right living, must deal with the\ncontrol of conduct. The sex instinct, like many of our other fundamental\nracial instincts, needs not to be developed but to be controlled. Sex education must therefore utilize all the various factors of control, of which\nknowledge, as we shall see, is only one. Chief among these factors are the\nfollowing:\ni) Habit. — ^This is the earliest effective one and should be especially\nemphasized in sex education during the preadolescent period. It should\nbe emphasized all thru adolescence along with the other factors. The habit\nof clean thinking and clean living early established makes clean living comparatively easy later in life.\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "ISO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n2) Feelings. — The sex impulse is controlled by the feeling of modesty,\nor sense of shame. This feeling should therefore be cultivated; modesty\nin dress, in behavior, and in language should be inculcated; and children\nshould be protected against the influences which tend to weaken or undermine this feeling. Among such influences are the conduct and language of\nvicious companions; low shows; many of the pictures in our daily papers\nand in some of our magazines; and the disgraceful posters which offend\nour eyes at almost every turn in some of our city streets.\nIt is controlled, furthermore, by the feelings of respect and of selfrespect; by the feeling of chivalry; and by the sense of the dignity and the\nsacredness of the human body — all of which sex education must seek to\ncultivate.\n3) The sex instinct is controlled by high ideals of manhood and of\nwomanhood. These are most forcefully presented in literature, both\nsecular and sacred. The ideals of womanhood as portrayed by Sophocles,\nShakespeare, and the Bible are among the most powerful factors of control.\nMoreover, high ideals of love between the sexes as depicted by the greatest\nliterary artists of the world is a most powerful controlling and transforming\nforce in the lives of adolescent youth.\n4) Knowledge. — It is needless to say that knowledge alone is not\neffective in controlling conduct; but to assume that because of this fact it\nis of small value as a factor of control is to mistake its function. While\nthe feelings and the will are the mainsprings of action, intelligence has the\ndouble fimction of guiding action, and of apprehending truths and conceiving situations which arouse the feelings and the will.\nIt is here where sex instruction finds its place in sex education and it\nmay properly cover a wide field.\na) The reproduction of life in plants and in the lower forms of animal\nlife should be emphasized in the upper grades of the elementary schools as\na part of nature study. The child should be impressed with nature's\nmarvelous ways to secure the perpetuation of life. The child at this period\nwill not, and it is not desirable that he should, connect this information\nwith the thought of sex in the human sphere; but such knowledge will give\nhim an emotional attitude of wonder toward the process of reproduction\nwhich will form a basis for the wholesome reception of the truths which\nhe must know later in regard to his own life.\nh) The child's questions as to the origin of human life should be answered\ntruthfully as soon as they are asked. This allays curiosity and makes the\nchild immime against contamination by the influences of the street. This\npart of sex instruction is the fimction of the mother, and it is the business\nof the school, at the \"Mothers' Meetings\" now so common in most schools,\nto teach her how to do it.\nc) The knowledge which children need to guard them against injury to\nhealth and morals at the age of puberty must be given them in season to\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nSEX HYGIENE,\n\nSEX\n\nMORALITY,\n\nAND\n\nSEX\n\nEDUCATION\n\n151\n\nserve its purpose. This is the duty of the intelligent parent and of the\nteacher. It is needless to say that such knowledge should in all cases be\nimparted individually and privately.\nd) In the courses in biology, hygiene, and ethics, instruction should be\ngiven in secondary schools covering the simple facts of heredity, and in the\nlater teens such facts as to the social diseases should be made known to the\npupil as will guard him against their dangers. This latter instruction\nshould be given in the course in ethics and its full ethical significance be\nimpressed upon the mind of the pupil. It should never be given to mixed\nclasses, and in many cases only privately. Instruction at this period should\nalso aim to protect the child against the wiles of the quack doctor.\ne) The sacredness of the family should be deeply impressed upon the\nmind of the pupil in the class in ethics, and he should be made to realize\nthat the highest and holiest manifestation of sex is found in the love of\nfather and mother and brother and sister in the sacred precincts of the home.\n/) In the biology class, emphasis may profitably be laid upon the evolution of the higher sentiments, and the relation may be pointed out, as Fiske\ndid years ago, between the dependence of the young and parental care, and\nin consequence the evolution of maternal and paternal love. Biology may\nthus reinforce the teaching of ethics as to the significance of the family and\nthe home.\n5) Conscience. — On the basis of this knowledge, the strongest possible\nappeals must be made to conscience, as the highest and normally the\nstrongest single factor of control in mature life.\n6) Religion. — The foregoing factors should be given all the reinforcement which comes from the deepest religious impulses and motives. This\nis especially the function of the church.\nPRACTICAL\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nThe following practical suggestions may be made in the light of the\nforegoing:\n1. The problem of sex instruction in school is one for the teacher and\nnot for the physician. It is easy enough for any well-educated person to\nmaster the scientific facts and laws involved; the real difficulty is one of\nmethod, selection of matter, and time and order of presentation, not of\nmedical knowledge.\n2. Hence such instruction should be given by one of the regular teachers\nof the school who teaches other subjects as well, and who is fitted by\npersonality to create the right atmosphere for such instruction and who\npossesses the tact and good sense required. It is a mistake to appoint\nphysicians to go to the schools and give such instruction.\n3. There should be no special course in \"sex education.\" AU sex\ninstruction should be given in the courses in nature study, biology, and\nethics.\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n4. It should be quietly given by exceptional teachers in these courses,\nand at first necessarily on a limited scale and in a carefully guarded way.\n5. No announcement should be made beforehand that such instruction\nis to be introduced, and no formal permission should be asked of the board\nof education. It is better to get the \"nine points of the law\" first. A\nboard of education is often perfectly willing to wink at a new feature of\neducation which its members privately believe is right when it would not\nbe willing to assimie formal responsibility for it imtil it has been proved a\nsuccess.\nTo appoint physicians to give such instruction and ask the board of\neducation for a special appropriation to pay them, and then announce in\nthe public press what it is proposed to do, is the most effective way I could\nconceive of making such instruction impossible. Yet this blunder has\nactually been made in one of our large cities.\n6. Such instruction should never be attempted by all teachers or by\nteachers generally; it should be given in each school by the principal or\nby one or several regular teachers, designated by him, who are by personality and training best fitted to give it.\n7. The schools generally are not ready to undertake the more intimate\nphases of such instruction. The teachers are not competent to give it,\nand public sentiment is not ready for it. But it is time that educators\nstudied the problem. They will have to meet it.\nBut in a few high schools, as for example in New York City, where there\nare exceptional teachers, every phase of this subject is today taught effectively. Such \"experiment stations \" will work out the pedagogical problems\ninvolved and other schools will follow.\n8. The, one phase to emphasize at present in all schools is that of\ninstructing mothers, in the \"Mothers' Meetings\" after school hours, how\nto give such instruction to their own children. All communities except\nthe most backward are ready for this step, and it is the most effective way\nto create a pubHc sentiment which will permit the teaching of the subject\nin school. At these \"Mothers' Meetings,\" physicians and cultivated\nmothers who are not teachers can render valuable aid to the school.\n\nEDUCATION\nFEDERICO\n\nIN GUATEMALA\n\nS. DE TEJADA, ASSISTANT CHIEF OF THE PROTOCOL BUREAU\nDEPARTMENT\nOF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, GUATEMALA, S.A.\n\nOF THE\n\nFor many years after independence from Spain had been consiunmated,\nGuatemala remained submerged in the darkest night of ignorance. The\nmajority of the governments which followed one another from 182 1 to\n1870 did not bestow due importance on the problem of the education of\nthe masses; teaching was restricted in those far-off times, as during the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN GUATEMALA\n\n153\n\ncolonial epoch, to reading, writing, moral duties, and behavior, the doctrine\nof Christianity, and the four rules of arithmetic. The idea prevailed that\ninstruction could be imparted only by severity and thus the most cruel\npunishments were inflicted for the slightest faults of the scholars. The\npoor did not learn even this much; only the children of the well-to-do\ncould attend the schools existing in those times.\nWith the political and social movement brought about in 187 1, proclaiming the enUghtened principle that education ought to be laic, gratuitous,\nand obligatory, the modem school sprang up. The governments that held\nsway from that date until 1898, altho it is true that they gave some attention to the matter, were careless, and there was one ruler, who, thru a\nregrettable error, suppressed with a stroke of the pen this indispensable\nbranch of the pubHc service. Fortunately for my country, in 1898 there\nwas called to undertake the functions of President of the Republic, first in\ndue course of law, and then by the unanimous vote of the people, a poUtician\nof lofty conceptions. Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, who, inspired\nwith the idea of erecting on indestructible foundations the happiness and\nwelfare of the nation, as his first step ordered the immediate reopening of\nthe schools. \"The first thing that every individual and every community\nshould attend to,\" said this eminent statesman, \"is its education and public\ninstruction, as the elements which give birth to moral life in man and in\nsocieties.\"\nAmong the Indian-Spanish nations an apostolate has been necessary\nfor the propagation of the benefits of education. The governments, so as\nto make it a reality, have had to strive against the opposition of the indigenous races, the apathy of the Creoles, and the egotism of the moneyed\nclasses — the first named constantly endeavored to make a profit from the\nmanual labor of the children and refused to send them to the schools; the\nsecond paid no attention to this all-important problem; and the third had\nno interest beyond that of its own descendants. Consequently, there being\nno private initiative, it was incumbent on the state to direct and develop\nit and to give it impulse.\nStruggling against many difficulties, the illustrious president of Guatemala, Estrada Cabrera, since 1898 has decided to devote his entire energy\nand his eminent talents to the great work of the education of the people.\nThe schools were reopened, and many new ones were established of both\nelementary and secondary education, as well as of higher grade. Since the\nyear above mentioned, schools exist in the most remote localities, rural\nschools for agricultural laborers, night schools for workmen, schools for the\nfine arts, for telegraphy, commerce, tachygraphy, stenography, agriculture,\netc., all due to the same prolific and beneficent initiative.\nThe law of pubHc instruction, promulgated forty years ago, tho suited\nto that time, ceased to be so later on, and President Estrada Cabrera\nemitted a new one in consonance with the tendencies of modem pedagogy\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand the brilliant destinies which the future augurs for Guatemala, as conceived byits actual ruler, thru the education of the people, in its three pedagogic and rational aspects — education and physical development, education\nand moral culture, education and mental attainments.\nEstrada Cabrera has given a palpable proof of his love for Guatemala\nby estabUshing in the capital, out of his own private resources, the first\npractical school for youths, on the fine Boulevard of the Reform. This\nconsists of a handsome palace and several annexes built in the same style\nas the principal edifice. On the same model, practical schools for youths\nhave been erected in all the capitals of the departments; all count with a\ncompetent stafif, and in addition to science such mechanical arts as carpentry, cabinet-making, printing, book-binding, and blacksmith's work are\ntaught; they have grounds for physical exercise and games — ^gymnastic and\nmihtary — which represent in modem commimities the development of\nstrength combined with elegance of form and the grace of movement to\nwhich the Greeks accorded the most fervent admiration, and which the\nLatins did not despise, while the one conquered the world by their art\nand the other ruled it by the wisdom of their laws. The motto of the illustrious president of Guatemala is \" to give reality to the pedagogic prescription of educating simultaneously and in harmony the physical, moral,\nintellectual, and aesthetic faculties of the individual so that he may be able\nto comply duly with his mission in the struggle for existence.\"\nPresident Estrada Cabrera, whose rest is labor, has persevered without\ncessation in his prohfic task of bestowing benefits on the coimtry, and with\nthe noble desire of elevating the formerly little appreciated efforts of the\nteachers, the propagators of the divine spark of inteUigence, stolen by\nPrometheus from heaven, by Decree 6oi of October 28, 1899, he founded\nthe Festivals of Minerva, denoting the last Sunday of October of every year\nas the date for a solemn, popular, and general celebration thruout the\nRepublic, dedicated exclusively to extolling the education of the young,\nand to placing in high reUef the work of the masters, the humble heroes of\nciviUzation.\nIn the scholastic festivals, which since then have been observed with\ngreat eclat and pomp in all the coimtry, and which have impressed themselves greatly on public imagination, prizes are distributed and valuable\nrewards are given to those teachers who have most highly distinguished\nthemselves by their zeal in imparting education to the people, and to the\nchildren who excelled in behavior, application, and proficiency during the\nscholastic year. Professors of acknowledged reputation hold conferences\nrelative to different branches of knowledge. There are also held scholastic\nexhibitions of agriculture, mining, cattle, etc., which bring to view every\nadvance realized in the various orders of himian activity, and serve as a\nprofitable objective lesson for the pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN GUATEMALA\n\n1$$\n\nThese brilliant tourneys of intelligence last for three days, and all the\nvital forces of the country take part therein — commerce, industry, the\nbanks, agriculture, the intellectual classes, the working people, etc. Natives\nof European and American nations who reside in Guatemala, and, imder\nthe protection of peace and the liberal institutions which prevail, have\nfoimd work, weKare, and riches, have erected in honor of the juvenile\nstudents elegant and artistic pavilions on the field of Minerva, where the\ncelebrations take place. This field stretches out over a splendid plain to\nthe north of the city of Guatemala, terminating at the superb and monumental edifice of the Palace of Minerva, a work of great intrinsic merit,\ndedicated by Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, the educator of the\nnation, to the children of the coimtry.\nIn all the capitals of the departments where, as already stated, magnificent practical schools for youths and young women have been established,\nthere have been erected Palaces of Minerva, similar to the one in the city of\nGuatemala.\nWhile among other nations it is considered the proper thing to make a\ndisplay before natives and foreigners of materials for war, and of all the\nfighting forces of which the country can dispose, Guatemala, since 1898,\nhas prided itseH and boasted of the processions of boys and girls, the pupils\nof the schools, colleges, and academies, in the festivals of Minerva carrying\nflags — it is true, the flag of Guatemala, but symbolizing in infantile hands\na token of fraternity presented to the titular genius of the Fatherland,\nin the palace of science, of moral law, and of public safety. What a noble\nspectacle for the Guatemalans, who in unison with their honored president\nare upholders of peace by legality and of legality by peace.\nConvinced of the transcendental scope and the lofty aims of the Festivals\nof Minerva, eminent and famous thinkers of the United States and of American and European countries have rendered to the noble crusade imdertaken\nby the illustrious president of Guatemala, the most sincere, the most\nspontaneous, and the most merited applause. He prepared the furrow, he\nscattered the seed, and he is now beginning to reap the crop; the laurel for\nhis pensive brow, the national gratitude and sympathy, has taken a concrete form, and has placed a handsome bust in bas-relief of Estrada Cabrera,\nthe benefactor of education, in the Palace of Minerva.\nIn the year 1898, the first of the administration of Estrada Cabrera,\nthere were 934 schools of elemental education in existence, with an attendance of 29,871 pupils. In 1913, there were 1,849 ^ the exercise of their\nfunctions, an increase of 915 schools. In 1898, there were inscribed 29,871\nscholars; in 1913, 61,163. ^^ yo^ know how many schools we have today ?\nA total of 1,820 — in fact, one for every thousand inhabitants; the total\nattendance is about 65,000, that is to say, 63 per cent of the population.\nIt means that we lead Latin America, along with Uruguay and Argentina.\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWith the patriotic wish that the geography of the country should be\ntaught in the most practical manner possible, the educator of the masses,\nLicentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, commissioned the famous engineer,\nFrancisco Vela, to make a true and vivid representation of the country\nin a striking and animated way, by means of a monumental map in relief\nof Guatemala, on a site in the immediate neighborhood of the Palace of\nMinerva.\nAnother creation of the indefatigable protector of popular education in\nGuatemala, Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, is that of practical schools\nfor young women, which regularly comply with their functions in the capital,\nand in the departments, provided with competent teaching staffs, both\nnative and foreign, and furnished with implements and necessaries of the\nmost complete and up-to-date type. The buildings are real palaces, very\nsimilar to those erected for the practical schools for boys, which have already\nbeen referred to. In these intellectual centers of education, besides arts\nand science, tuition is imparted in all physical exercises appropriate to the\nfemale sex, practical moral duties, needle and fancy work, entertainments\nand amusements proper to good society, feminine arts of constant application, such as washing and ironing, sewing, pastry-making, bread-baking,\nthe making of artificial flowers, dressmaking, domestic economy, morality,\nand poUteness; the fine arts, such as music, painting, and singing; and\ntachygraphy and stenography.\nA great evolution has taken place in the system of education in Guatemala during the last fifteen years, and particularly in that relative to\nfemales, which represents so important a role in the development and\nhappiness of the human race.\nThe instruction and training of the army has also been the object of\nconstant vigilance on the part of the actual ruler of Guatemala. There\nare schools for cultivating the inteUigence, and gymnasiums for developing\nthe muscles, so that if the country should require the co-operation of the\ncitizens in some unforeseen and unfortunate emergency it will find them fit,\nas the real human elements for the strife, from their true sense of patriotic\nduty and their physical and physiological aptitudes. A palpable proof of\nour statement is the MiHtary Academy, founded by our enUghtened president, the Supreme Chief of the Army, in an extensive, elegant, and striking\nbuilding, constructed purposely, on the Boulevard of the Reform. Nothing\nis lacking there in the moral, intellectual, or material sphere for the perfect\nmilitary education of the yoimg cadets, who on leaving the estabUshment\nas graduates serve in their turn as instructors to the army. The curriculum\nof studies in the Military Academy includes the careers of military, civil, and\ntopographical engineering. This center of instruction has much analogy\nwith the school of West Point of which the United States is so justly proud.\nAs agriculture is one of the principal sources of the wealth of the country,\nthe eminent ruler of Guatemala, with the desire to see the cultivation of the\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n157\n\nsoil carried on in accordance with the latest developments of science, has\nalso established agricultural schools on a well-matured and essentially\npractical plan, similar to the one adopted in all the educational institutions\nof the country, in which the edifying spirit of inteUigence is imparted to the\nchildren and the young by oral, objective, and reasoned instruction.\nThe government of Estrada Cabrera, all the time in search of wider\nhorizons for the young, and desirous of drawing closer day by day the intimate relations that have always been cultivated between the people and\ngovernment of Guatemala, and the people and government of the United\nStates, promulgated a law in 1899 making obligatory the study of the\nEngHsh language in the elementary schools of the country. President\nEstrada Cabrera created also an English Academy for professors.\nIn addition to the superior establishments for professional education,\nwe have commercial schools; schools for tachygraphy, stenography, and\ntelegraphy, and lately established schools for wireless telegraphy; for fine\narts, normal and professional; swimming, etc.\nIt is but right to point out that the estabUshment, protection, and\ndevelopment of nearly all these mstitutions are owing to the inteUigent,\nassiduous, and untiring efforts of President Licentiate Manuel Estrada\nCabrera, to the co-operation of his highly efficient government, and to\nthe support, which, without distinction of poUtical party, or of reHgious\nfaiths, all social classes of Guatemala have given to their beloved and\nesteemed ruler.\nGuatemala, fellow-delegates, tho insignificant in extent of territory and\nnumber of inhabitants, aspires thru the education of its people, its love of\npeace, and its unfaltering respect for the rights of others, to be great and\nprosperous, following in the wake of the marvelous coimtry of Washington,\nthe emporium of the wealth, and the sanctuary of the liberties of all the\nnations of the globe.\nJAPANESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN AMERICA\n\nKIYO SUE INUI, SECRETARY, JAPAN SOCIETY\nSAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nOF AMERICA,\n\nThe Pacific Ocean, some one has said, will either divide us or imite us.\nWith a contracting world, a world that is getting smaller every day, our\nstarting-point in the discussion on the solution of any problem will necessarily be based upon the presumption that the Pacific Ocean will be the\ntheater of imified action, co-operation, and mutual sympathies.\nIf there is anyone in the audience who has the erroneous idea that the\nattitude of the people on the Pacific Coast toward Orientals is getting worse,\nI should Uke to correct it. True, Japan is a greater nation than before,\nand therefore, for some people, a much better subject for notoriety or\n\"grand-stand play\" without incurring any political damage, as the Japanese\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndo not vote; hence the Japanese question is given much greater publicity.\nBut within the last few years, the feeling of the people on the Pacific Coast\ntoward the Japanese, with the exception of one or two places, has changed\nwonderfully for the better. What, then, is the real problem ?\nIt was America that first invited Japan to open her doors to the world.\nIt was America that introduced Japan to Western civilization and ideals\nsixty years ago. Before that time Japan was sleeping an uninterrupted\nsleep of 250 years in one stretch — I mean so far as her contact with the\nWestern world was concerned. She preferred to live by herself. She was\ncontented with the progress she was then making. She was satisfied with\nher achievements in the arts of peace. She did not care to open her doors,\nbut you sent Commodore Perry and told her: \"Now, Japan, it won't do for\nyou to remain so long in seclusion. Why, this is the last half of the Nineteenth Century! Japan, you must wake up and seize your opportunity;\nyou must open your doors!\"\nWhat could we do? We simply had to open our doors for Western\ncivilization. You then said: \"We will send you teachers, missionaries,\nadvisers, merchants.\" So we submitted to the inevitable and welcomed\nthem. Again you told us: \"Japan, you had better send your students,\nmerchants, teachers, mechanics, and farmers to America.\" We did so,\nwere received, and, as a result, 95,000 of us are now in this country. But\nafter some stay here, we have learned of a pecuUar poUtical institution, of\nstate and national governments; we have learned of extraordinary confusion and a heterogeneous mass of human races; we have found out some\nof the sad experiences of the Irish in Boston, of the Jews in New York, of\nthe Germans in Philadelphia, of the ItaUans in New Orleans, and of the\nChinese in San Francisco; we have learned that each succeeding race has\nhad to suffer similar exploitation, embarrassment, and discomfiture. And\nfor the last five or six years, the Japanese have had their turn and have\nbeen forced to face the volley of these arguments.\nHowever, we appreciate the history and the spirit of America. We\nappreciate also the peculiar political institutions of this coimtry. We appreciate the strength and weakness of democracy and have appreciated not\na little American friendship and kindness in returning to us the Shimonoki\nindemnity, in the release of exterritoriality, in the recognition of Japan\nas a member of the civilized nations, and, above all, America's moral and\nfinancial support at the time of the China- Japanese war and the RussoJapanese war. Not only that, but we appreciate the fundamental principle\nof sovereignty; that it lies with America to say who shall come to her\ncountry and who shall not.\nIn the case of the Chinese, you actually shut your doors against them\nby exclusion laws. In fact, you slammed your doors at the Golden Gate.\nWe do not care, as an independent nation, to go thru the same experience\nof humiliation as did the Chinese. So we thought it better, more politic,\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n159\n\nmore expedient, more friendly, and, above all, more neighborly, to shut\nour doors in Japan so that we could not get out. This is what you call\n\"The Gentlemen's Agreement.\" Japan herself agreed not to send any\nmore laborers to this country.\nIf you compare the statistics within the last seven years, you will find\nthat there are now in this country several thousand fewer Japanese than\nthere were several years ago. About five Japanese have been going back\nto about three and a haK or four coming in, and those four are coming back\nmostly for a second time, while the rest are immediate relatives, wives, and\nchildren of those who are already here with sufficient means to support\nthem.\nIn 1908, for instance, there were 103,000 Japanese in this country and\nthree years after the Gentlemen's Agreement went into effect that number\nbecame 91,000 and the record of 1908 has since never been reached. Even\nlast year, when many came to this coast on accoimt of the fair, it reached\nonly the ninety-nine thousand mark; but this number seems to be only\ntemporary, as indicated by the movements of the Japanese in June, 1915,\nwhen 415 more went to Japan than came from that country. Therefore,\nwhile the immigration question is one of America's greatest problems, so\nfar as Japan is concerned there is no immigration question; for Japan is\nrestricting her emigrants in Japan.\nAllowing the population of the United States to be about ninety-five\nmillion, the Japanese constitute only one-tenth of i per cent. California\nhas about 65 per cent of this number. The question with the Japanese,\ntherefore, is not what to do with Japanese immigrants, but rather, what to\ndo with those already here under the jurisdiction of the United States:\nwhat to do with one-tenth of i per cent of the American population — or,\ni^ per cent of the inhabitants of California.\nSome have called the problem a political one. But I have failed to\nfind it so, altho it has often been a \"politician's\" question. Some have\ncalled it an economic question. The impatient wage-earners have cried\nthat the Japanese work so cheaply that they lower the standard of living\nand wages. As a matter of fact, if they had postponed their complaint\nuntil 1910, they would have found out from the special commission of the\nstate appointed in 19 10 to investigate the Japanese labor condition that\nan average Japanese agricultural laborer was getting as much as any other\nlaborer engaged in the same grade of work. Then there are still others who\ncall the question racial. But to my mind it is largely a question of assimilation and education, in which we are particularly interested this afternoon.\nThe natural question now arises: How much of the Japanese do we have\nto make over ? What kind of education does he need ? Close observation\nreveals the fact that in essentials there is a unity between the American and\nthe Japanese; in nonessentials there may be some similarities or differences\nbetween them. As, for instance, politeness : your politeness consists mostly\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "l6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin praising and elevating others, but leaving yourselves where you are;\nJapanese politeness consists in leaving others where they are and hiuniliating\nor belittling ourselves. Altho the form may be different, they both believe\nin the essential, poUteness.\nAgain, we often ridicule the Enghshman's lack of humor, but every\nnation has a humor of its own. If the Englishman \"cracks\" a typical\nEngHsh joke, you may not appreciate it as quickly as you ought to. For\ninstance, a few years ago I was in England and gave that American illustration of the distinction between an optimist and a pessimist with that\nfamiliar story of the doughnut. You say, an optimist sees the doughnut,\nand the pessimist sees the hole. They did not even smile and I repeated\nit again and again in vain. But next day in the dining-room of my hotel,\nI found out that English doughnuts did not have any holes! So you see\nthe trouble was not in the lack of humor in the Englishman but rather with\nthe shape of the doughnuts.\nWhatever is wrong here is wrong in Japan. What is immoral in Japan\nis not moral here. Politeness, modesty, generosity, thoughtfulness, kindness, truthfulness, filial piety are the universal virtues tho we may express\nor perform them in different forms or manners. So when it comes to a\nbasic question of morals, principles, and ideals, we do not need to expect\nvery much of a change in a Japanese. Even in the fundamentals of the\nreligions of the East and West, we find a great deal of similarity.\nAssimilation of the Japanese consists largely in the education in nonessentials such as customs, habits, manners, and ideas (not ideals), all of\nwhich can be taught comparatively easily thru language. The question,\ntherefore, is largely one of sociological and not biological assimilation.\nI believe with Edward Steiner, an eminent immigration authority, who\nsays, \"Blood is thicker than water, but language is thicker than blood.\"\nThe Japanese is fast acquiring the English language, American habits, and\nAmerican customs. Miners perhaps need the spoken language least of any\nlaborers among whom statistics are taken. In the Report of the Immigration Commission, Vol. XXIII, p. 155, you will find that Japanese compare\nvery favorably with any nation in their ability to speak English.\nPer Cent\n47.2\n34.2\n23.3\n22.7\n18.8\n17.0\n14.0\n9.0\n\nNo. of Persons Interviewed\n447 Japanese\n225 Finns\n479 Slavonians\n214 Slovaks\n245 Poles\n193 Montenegrins\n175 North Italians\n485 South Italians\n\nWhile this does not cover all cases, many would agree by saying that the\nJapanese are perhaps the most ambitious race in the study of the English\nlanguage and in efforts to gain broader knowledge.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN AMERICA\n\nl6l\n\nThere are today no less than fifty English language schools for Japanese\nin this country, seventeen of them right here in this very city, while many\nmore Japanese are taking private lessons. Perhaps I am not very much\nmistaken when I say that 70 per cent of those who come to this country\ntoday can read or write English.\nBesides this education in the English language, within the last few years\nthere has been a great awakening on the part of the Japanese to the realization that they need a wide and systematic education as to American habits,\ncustoms, and institutions. There are no less than fifty Japanese associations\nall along the Pacific Coast. The Japanese Association of America is the\nmother of thirty-four of them and it might be said that it is the center of\nJapanese public opinion. For the last few years \"assimilation\" has been\nthe watchword of the Japanese communities everywhere. Two years ago\nwhile the anti-alien land law was being discussed at Sacramento, a convention was called by the Japanese Associations of America and they\ndiscussed the situation.\nInstead of showing any resentment, contrary to what one might expect,\nthe delegates of the convention took upon their shoulders the faults or\nshortcomings that belonged to them. Instead of \"fighting\" the bill, they\nvoted $30,000 to educate the Japanese on the Pacific Coast. Ever since,\n\"the campaign of education\" is a household phrase in Japanese communities. Indeed, as there was no proper translation for \"campaign of\neducation\" they invented a new word, keihatsuundo, which you hear today\non the lips of almost every Japanese on the Pacific Coast. Since then such\nmen as S. Ebara, member of the House of Peers and president of the Tokyo\nYoung Men's Christian Association, Y. Hattori, ex-member of Parliament,\nS. Shimada, Speaker of the House, and K. Tsunajima have been invited to\nco-operate with the Japanese workers on the Pacific Coast in their endeavor\nto give that gospel \"when in Rome, do as the Romans do\": learn to speak\nas Americans, think as Americans, feel and act as Americans. This year\nD. Ebina, an eminent Congregational divine, and his wife, and Y. Kanamori,\none of the most influential leaders of Japan, were invited to help in this\nwork. With the co-operation of these people and many others, the Japanese\nAssociation of America expects to carry on a campaign which may be\ngrouped imder four heads as follows:\n1. General social education. — Such subjects as American political institutions;\nAmerican social conditions; customs, habits, ideas, and ideals of Americans; American\nhome and religious life; relation between America and Japan.\n2. Moral education. — For example, responsibility to the commxmity as a neighbor;\nobligation of contract; suppression of gambling.\n3. Sanitary education. — Under this head it is not necessary to say anything except\nthat emphasis will be placed on the sanitation of camp life in particular.\n4. Industrial education. — Under this head the usual work of chambers of commerce,\ncommercial clubs, agricultiural associations will be undertaken.\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "l62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe greatest stress, however, will be laid on the giving of information\nconcerning the industrial and economic organizations of America and the\ngeneral uplift of business morality. Already the Japanese Central Agricultural Association and Business Men's Association have been organized to\nundertake the fourth department of the campaign.\nSuch an organization as the Japanese Interdenominational Board of\nMissions has been hard at work to suppress gambling and to reform shiftless\npeople, altho we have found very few of them among the Japanese.\nA new force has come to help this work. Two years ago the Japanese\nAssociation of American College Graduates was organized. The association, as the name indicates, is composed of Japanese college men who are\nAmerican bred. Knowing as they do their native land as well as their\nadopted country, they feel very keenly the necessity of this campaign.\nHeretofore, most of the Japanese graduates of American colleges have gone\nback to Japan. Indeed, they are making a creditable showing for their\nAlma Maters. But members of this organization felt that there was just as\nmuch need, if not more, for them in this country among Japanese communities as interpreters and connecting links between the Japanese and\ntheir American neighbors.\nThere are today 576 Japanese students in 168 different colleges and\nuniversities. Together with those in other higher institutions of learning,\nthere are 1,151 Japanese students who are pursuing higher education in\nAmerica. No doubt many more who would have gone to Germany,\nEngland, or France will come here, at least for some years to come, on\naccount of the war. When these students begin their active lives of usefulness in this country and interpret America to the Japanese, a greater\nwork will have been done.\nSo much for the education of 85,000 adult Japanese. Then what about\nthe education of 14,142 children? All of this number, with the exception\nof 1,497 are American bom. They are Americans, tho very young, and a\nvery small percentage of them indeed have as yet reached the school age.\nAs we have already noticed, the Japanese as immigrants came to this\ncountry only ten or fifteen years ago and their wives have been coming here\nonly for the last six or eight years.\nThere are today 293 Japanese children in American high schools and\n3,008 in the grammar schools scattered all over the Pacific Coast. San\nFrancisco, for example, claims about 10 per cent of these children. They\nare fairly well distributed among the different schools and no one school\nhas, as I imderstand it, much more than 10 per cent of this number. We\nhave no need to worry about them, as they are in the midst of the great\nsystem of assimilation, the melting-pot of all races, the American public\nschool.\nThe only feature that I might mention, which is, however, common with\nall other nationalities, is the presence of thirty-nine Japanese schools\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\n\\\n\\\nSessions]\n\n'\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n163\n\nwhere they teax:h the Japanese language, geography, and history one or\ntwo hours a day as supplementary school work.\nThese children are so well Americanized in some cases that they often\ndo not know how to spell the names of their cousins across the Pacific,\nwho often write to them in English. By this I do not mean to say that\nwe teach Japanese to these children with any sense of retaining the language\nof their parents, but rather we teach them, as a second language, that\nlanguage which they need most besides their mother-tongue, which is\nEnglish, as you teach German or French in some other schools. We\nteach them Japanese because all of us realize that, as neighbors of the Japanese across the Pacific, we shall have more to do with them than with any\nother nation. I hope some day that the study of the Japanese language and\nhistory may be undertaken, at least in the schools of the Pacific Coast, onetenth as much as the Japanese schools are teaching English to their children.\nThese thirty-nine schools have another duty to perform; that is, to teach\nJapanese children, born in Japan, sufficient English to enable them to join\nthe proper classes in the regular public schools and hasten them in the\nprocession of human races to the melting-pot.\nThus, there has not been any Japanese policy of education of their\nchildren except to leave it with you and to offer what little we could to help\nyou. If you would call this a policy, our policy for the children has been,\n\"Native land above all\" and not Vaterland uher (dies/\nRoughly speaking, this is what we are doing for the Japanese on the\nPacific Coast. Now you may be interested to know what the Japanese\nleaders in Japan want us to do. Do you suppose that these Japanese,\ninvited to co-operate with us, would come and say: \"Do not forget your\ncountry, your Mikado, or your ancestors\"? Let me give you my honest\nand sincere answer. Japan is living, she is moving, moving onward with\nthe current of most modem thoughts and ideas much faster than you can\nimagine. True, twenty or thirty years ago every Japanese who left that\ncountry literally carried a large Japanese flag in his heart; so large was it\nthat he had no room for any affection for any other nation. But things\nare different today. I can give you no better illustration than to quote\nwhat Count Okuma, the present Prime Minister who is so dearly called \" the\ngrand old man of Japan,\" said to the Japanese emigrants to Brazil:\n\nYou are going to seek your fortune and happiness in a strange country. You are\nto belong to that country. You are in duty bound first and last to do your best in that\ncountry, for that country, and with that country. You are, therefore, advised not to\ncompare the things of your home country and those of your adopted one with any sense\nof contempt and criticism; first of all adapt yourselves to the new country, and then and\nthen only, see if you can introduce the best that Japan can offer.\n\nI. Abe, of Waseda University, spoke these words to a Japanese tourist\nparty who visited that country a year ago:\nYou are aware of the Japanese theory of marriage which signifies the death of the\nbride to her parental family and birth in her adopted one. You, who are leaving one\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "l64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfamily of nations and are to wed another, will do well to intrust your future entirely to\nyour adopted coimtry with the same spirit as the Japanese bride.\n\nH. Eitaki, former Japanese Consul-General at Honolulu, said to the\nJapanese residents there at one of their meetings:\nWhile Japan can be much richer, yet she is not quite so poor as anxiously to await\nyour money. It is a good thing to save money but better still to invest it and see what\ngood you can do for yourself and your country, which now is America.\n\nY. Ozaki, former Mayor of Tokyo and present Minister of Justice,\nJ. Soyeda, and many other eminent scholars and statesmen have all sounded\nthe same keynote of cosmopolitanism among the Japanese, just as tho one\nman wrote all of their manuscripts. This simply shows the trend of the\ncurrent of thought among the Japanese today.\nBuddhism has often been spoken of as an obstacle in the assimilation\nof the Japanese. I do not care to use the term \"even Buddhists\" in connection with Buddhists. For they too are fast becoming influenced by this\ngreat current of thought of world-citizenship. Archbishop Asahi, of the\nJapanese Buddhist Church, who is an old man of eighty- three and had the\ndistinction of shaking hands with Commodore Perry at the age of twentyone, a man whom you would naturally expect to be the model of conservatism and seclusion, gave a Japanese audience this advice a few days ago:\n\"Love your wife, love your work, and love your community.\" In other\nwords, he advised the Japanese to love San Francisco, love California, and\nlove America. Thus Japanese leaders of today have dedicated the future\nof Japan to the proposition that the test of a great nation is that her people\ncan make the world their home wherever they go.\nWhile I make this admission, I am not here to prophesy whether\nJapanese will make good Americans. But this we know, that as early as the\nseventh century, when the Chinese civilization came to Japan, Japan\nadopted and assimilated Chinese literature, Chinese arts, Chinese religion\nand institutions within a short time. Again in the middle of the sixteenth\ncentury, a few decades after the triumphant religious expedition of that most\ndevoted and energetic teacher, Francis Xavier, about one million Japanese\nhad been converted to Christianity. This rapid change of conditions in\nJapan characterized the way in which modem European and American\ncivilizations have been welcomed in Japan since 1853. And might I not say\nwithout any hesitation what Japan has done ? Within the last fifty years\nat least she has become Westernized and Americanized much faster than\nany other nation in the history of the world.\nNow how about the Japanese in this country? While today it is\nimpossible to find a pure race anywhere on the face of the globe, it is true\nthat the Japanese are a mixture of all the Far Eastern races, and can\neasily adapt themselves to almost any clime or civilization.\nWhile I am not quite ready to accept the statement of Henry Ward\nBeecher, who said, \"Let them come, we will swallow them all,\"\n\nI do\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nAMERICA\n\n165\n\nwant to say that America has the greatest power of assimilation of all\nnations in the history of the world. We have noticed this fact, that\nJapanese children bom in this country are, on the whole, taller and their\ncomplexions fairer than their parents. This is especially true of Japanese\ngirls, due no doubt to the food and climatic conditions.\nThe writer has a friend who has a little boy five years of age. Upon\ncoming home from kindergarten one day, he was crying very hard. When\nasked the reason the boy earnestly replied:\nPapa, today they were talking about a war between America and Japan. Papa,\nyou were born in Japan; you are a Japanese; I was bom in this country; I am an American. Iam afraid I will have to fight you!\n\nMany Japanese are naturalized in Canada. When war was declared\nagainst the Germanic Allies, some thousand Canadian- Japanese volimteered\nto fight for the cause of their adopted country.\nAnd yet I do not mean to draw conclusions as to the assimilability of\nthe Japanese. How can you tell whether a nation will become assimilated\ninside of ten or fifteen years ? That is the length of time we have been here.\nYou used to say the Germans v/ould never forget their Fatherland even\nafter they were here two or three generations. You know now they make\ngood American citizens. You used to say the same thing about the Irish:\nyou used to say that they were good fighters but they would not make\ngood American citizens, but when these good fighters come to America they\nnot only make good American citizens but become so assimilated they even\nturn into peace oiO&cers.\nSo, friends, we do not know whether we will make good Americans or\nnot, altho we have some notion on this point. All we can say at this time\nis this: Such societies as the Japanese Association of America, the Japanese\nAssociation of American College Graduates, the Japanese Interdenominational Board of Missions, and the Japan Society of America, of which I am\nsecretary, are doing their best to make the Japanese in this country — at\nleast on the Pacific Coast — some day, when given a chance, the best Americans possible. All we ask of you is, Are you willing to give us a fair chance\nto do so ?\nIf you welcome Europeans with open arms and Orientals at the point\nof the finger; if you welcome Europeans with confidence and Orientals with\nsuspicion; if you give the Germans the right to participate in politics and\nmake the Japanese pawns in the political chess game; if you allow Italians\nthe right to own land and become permanent residents and compel the\nJapanese to lease land for no more than three years at the most, force him\nto move about the country with his blankets on his shoulders without\nbeing able to make a home for his dear little boy or girl, who by birthright\nis an American citizen, the solution of one of America's problems is bound to\nbe unnatural, liable to be unfair, possibly un-American, and even unchristian. Al we ask is a fair understanding and a fair chance.\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "l66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nLet me repeat again, we know our weakness, we are doing our best to\ncorrect it. Will you, the makers of future America, will you, you whose\nhands are to mold the clay of the future citizens of this great Republic, will\nyou help us and co-operate with us ?\nI come here with this plea not as a delegate of the Empire across the sea\nbut as a resident of your own Golden State, and as one who knows the heart\nof this nation. I have come to know within the thirteen years of my\nresidence in this country that \" Uncle Sam has, now and then, bad manners,\nbut an awful good heart.\" I come here with these facts, not as a representative ofa foreign country but as a product of one of your own state\nuniversities and one who believes in American education. I come here\nwith this plea and these facts for we have come to believe that proper\neducation with the right attitude of heart, the American attitude of heart,\nwill solve many a question.\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION— AMERICA'S\nPHILIPPINES\n\nWORK\n\nFRA^TK L. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION,\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.I.\n\nIN THE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nAltho the American army occupied Manila in August, 1898, three years\nwere required to bring all parts of the coimtry under the control of the\nAmerican armies. The military authorities had established schools thruout the Philippines as rapidly as they extended their control, and less than\nthree weeks after the occupation of Manila seven schools were opened and\na teacher of English installed in each. By June i, 1899, 4,500 pupils were\nenrolled in the public primary schools of Manila. The schools opened\noutside of Manila were taught by soldiers detailed for the purpose; it may\nbe said that the American army advanced into the country with a musket\nin one hand and a school book in the other. Many of the soldiers detailed\nfor this work chose later to remain in the service of the civil government,\nand in the list of the most efficient teachers now found in the Philippine\nservice are to be found a number of these soldier teachers.\nThe present system of public instruction in the Philippine Islands is\nonly a part of the great governmental program to make effective the\ninstructions contained in the letter addressed by President McKinley to\nthe Philippine Commission. In these instructions President McKinley\nstated that the Commission should bear in mind that the new government\nwas not to be designed for our satisfaction or for the expression of our\ntheoretical views, but for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the\nPhilippine Islands. While all of the work undertaken under the new\ngovernment, in health, public works, science, agriculture, or other lines, was\nconceived in a spirit of toleration and a desire to be of real service to the\nFilipino people, the work done along the line of public instruction has come\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICA'S\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nON PHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n167\n\nnearest to the heart of the Filipuio people and has served perhaps better\nthan any other thing to convince them of the benevolent intentions of the\nAmerican people.\nThe early American administrators in the Philippines were unhampered\nby tradition, and since they were working among a people accustomed to\nlook to the government for direction to a greater extent than here it was\nnatural to expect that the Philippines should become a great experimental\nground.\nThe early American teacher in the Philippines was as unhampered by\ntradition as his fellow-workers in other fields and was in a position to adapt\nhis instruction to the pecuUar educational needs of the Filipino people. It\nwas clearly seen from the beginning that it was neither feasible nor desirable\nto attempt to make Americans out of Filipinos. It was clear that it was\nthe great duty of the educator in the Philippines to hold fast to all that was\nbest in Philippine character and civilization and to supplement it with the\nbest we had to offer.\nNo considerable number of American teachers arrived in the Philippine\nIslands before the middle of 1901. By the end of that year there were\nnearly a thousand American teachers on duty thruout the Philippines.\nThe task they faced was a difficult one. Few of the teachers had any\nknowledge of Spanish, which was spoken by the educated classes in the\nPhilippines, and none excepting the soldier teachers had any knowledge\nwhatever of the local dialects. The difficulties presented by difference of\ncustoms and habits of thought appeared for a while to be almost unsurmountable. The few school buildings which had been inherited from the\nSpanish regime were for the most part in such a condition as to be unusable.\nMany had been used by the Philippine or American army as hospitals,\ncommissaries, or even stables.\nLet it be said to the great credit of the American teacher that he set\nto work to solve the many problems with an earnestness which has seldom\nbeen equaled and never surpassed. He began to win his way; and in a\nfew years the Filipino people had come to give the moral and financial\nsupport necessary to develop the great system of public schools which now\nreaches every inhabited island and the most isolated mountain settlements,\nenrolling 600,000 pupils, taught by 10,000 teachers in 4,300 schools.\nOne of the first great tasks of the American teacher was to train a force\nof Filipino teachers. Often the teacher devoted half of the day to teaching\nhis primary school and another half to teaching bright young men and\nwomen who were ambitious to become teachers. It is literally true that\nthe early Filipino teachers learned one day what they were to teach the\nnext. As fast as Filipino teachers were developed, they were sent out to\nneighboring hamlets and this was the real beginning of the present publicschool system. American teachers at first handled the lowest primary\nclasses, which they turned over to Filipino teachers as fast as they were\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "l68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nprepared. Now the American teacher is to be found in higher elementary\nand secondary grades and in work of a supervisory character. Now of the\n10,000 teachers in the service less than 550 are Americans.\nIn every section of the country since 1908 or 1909, there has been an\ninsistent demand on the part of the people for more public schools, and a\ngreater number of pupils have presented themselves than could be accommodated. Itmay be said that there is no compulsory education in the\nPhilippine Islands and the attendance of more than a half million is entirely\nvoluntary. Due to a lack of sufficient resources, the schools cannot provide\nacconamodations for all the children of school age in the country, but there\nis every reason to believe that the people and their representatives will see\nto it within the next few years that the schools shall be in a position to provide for every boy and girl in the Archipelago.\nPrimary, intermediate, and secondary instruction are conducted by the\nPhilippine Bureau of Education, while the University of the Philippines\nis managed by a Board of Regents. The University of the Philippines was\nestablished long after the public-school system, and, while there is the\nclosest harmony between the two, the university authorities have left the\npublic-school system free to work out its own problems.\nThose in charge of the Philippine public schools believe that it is the\nfunction of a public-school system to prepare every boy and girl for the\nhappiest, freest, and most efficient life possible in the sphere to which his\nactivities will probably be conJ&ned.\nIn accordance with this theory, those charged with the direction of the\npublic schools worked out a balanced curriculum which embraces academic,\nindustrial, and physical education. Since a great majority of the pupils\ndiscontinue their studies either before or at the conclusion of the first four\nyears, a primary course has been prescribed, the principal object of which\nis the preparation of those who quit school for the life which they will\nprobably follow. Many subjects are placed in this course which would\nnaturally be deferred until later if the great majority could avail themselves\nof the benefits of higher instruction. In this primary course are found\nhygiene, civics, physical training, good manners, right conduct, and such\nhandicrafts as embroidery, lace, basketry, gardening, and woodworking.\nMuch of the instruction is necessarily simple, but it is the best that can be\ngiven pupils of their stage of development, and the majority, who drop out\nof school early, must secure this simple instruction or none at all. Since\nthe various handicraft courses are especially adapted to the locality, and\nsince there is differentiation of work for boys and girls, these courses are\nparticularly adapted to local and mdividual needs. Pupils who complete\nthe primary course are almost without exception ambitious to continue\ntheir studies into the intermediate course, which seems to be a sufficient\nanswer to those who would maintain that a complete primary course would\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICA'S\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nON PHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n169\n\ndiscourage pupils from going farther by leaving them with the impression\nthat nothing further remained for them to learn.\nFollowing the primary course is a three-year intermediate course; and\nknowing that the great majority who enter these courses will stop either at\ntheir conclusion or before, an attempt is again made to prepare the student\nfor the life which he will probably follow if he does quit at this period.\nFarming, trade, domestic science, commercial, and teaching courses have\nbeen provided in addition to the general courses which are given in the\nmajority of the intermediate schools of the Islands. These special courses\nprepare the pupil to become a farmer, cabinet-maker, carpenter, machinist,\nblacksmith, clerk, or primary teacher. The girl is prepared for housekeeping and homemaking and for supplementing the family income thru\ncertain home industries such as lace, embroidery, basketry, and others of\nlike nature. Even in the general courses much industrial work is prescribed. It will be noted that no pupil can pass thru the primary and\nintermediate courses without having received more or less thoro industrial\ninstruction. It is believed that those who may continue their studies in\nthe high schools and colleges are not done an injustice by being compelled\nto take these courses which are framed primarily for the benefit of those\nwho cannot continue farther.\nIt may be expected that thru these courses they will complete the higher\nstudies with a greater understanding of and sympathy for the great mass\nof their people who must work with their hands, not to mention the benefits\nwhich come as a result of manual training, so called.\nIn the secondary grades, opportunities are again offered for specialization, courses in surveying, commerce, navigation, agriculture, trade, and\nnormal-school work being offered in addition to the general courses which\nresemble those given in the American high schools. In the University of\nthe Philippines are found the colleges of liberal arts, medicine, agriculture,\nveterinary science, engineering, law, and schools of fine arts, forestry,\npharmacy, and education. While the university maintains the highest\nideals of scholarship, it has freed itself in great measure from the traditions of\nthe past and has adapted its instruction more and more to the life needs of the\nFilipino student. Working in close harmony with the University are the\ngreat scientific bureaus of the government — agriculture, science, and forestry.\nPublic-school work in the Philippine Islands is highly organized, executive control centering in the Director of Education, who is responsible for\nthe conduct of the public schools and has the authority necessary to make\nhis control effective. The islands are divided into thirty-seven divisions,\nover each of which there is a division superintendent of schools who is the\nrepresentative of the Director of Education. Each division is in turn\ndivided into districts over which are placed supervising teachers, and representatives ofthe Director of Education and of the division superintendent\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "170\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof schools. Principals of high schools are responsible to the division\nsuperintendent, while those of the intermediate schools may respond directly\nto the division superintendent or to the supervising teacher, depending upon\nthe importance of the school in question. Practically all of the divisions\nare supplied with division academic, industrial, and athletic supervisors,\nwho work under the immediate direction of the division superintendent.\nWhile in theory the system described is an autocratic one, in practice\nit is quite the contrary. Teachers enjoy much greater participation in\neducational affairs than in many other systems apparently much more\ndemocratic. The knowledge on the part of the teachers that their opinions\nare listened to with respect, that just complaints will be heeded, that they\nwill be given due credit for what they accomplish, has done much to permit\nthe esprit de corps which has been the greatest single factor in promoting the\nefficiency of public-school work.\nPeople have come to look to this business-like organization, extending\nto every part of the Archipelago, for direction in many different lines. If\nthe Bureau of Health desires to invite the attention of the people to the\nmethods of preventing epidemics, the public schools are called upon to\ninstruct the children, who in turn convey the information to their elders.\nIf the Bureau of Forestry or Agriculture or Lands wishes to reach the\npeople with the least delay, their needs are made known to the school\nauthorities. A great corn campaign was undertaken by the public schools\nwhich during the past year has enrolled nearly fifty thousand boys, almost\nhalf the enrolment of all the com clubs in the United States. Thousands\nof demonstrations were conducted by domestic science teachers and their\nclasses, and in every section of the country the people have learned to\nprepare palatable and wholesome com dishes. This has helped to interest\nthem further in the production of com. Within the past three years the\nproduction of com has increased 75 per cent and has resulted in a saving\nof two million dollars to the Filipino people.\nLast year during the month of December a week was set aside as Cleanup Week; at its close the country was perhaps cleaner than it had ever been\nin all its history. Most of the work was done by Filipino teachers and\npupils.\nEnglish has been the language of instruction from the beginning; it is\nnow the official language, and no thinking Filipino contemplates the possibility ofreplacing it with any other. It is already spoken to a far greater\nextent than Spanish.\nAs a result of the athletic program undertaken by the Philippine public\nschools, which now touches vitally nearly 100 per cent of the pupils enrolled,\nthere is a noticeable physical improvement everywhere and a turning away\nfrom vicious amusements.\nThe credit for the establishment of the system of public instruction in\nthe Philippines must not be confined to Americans, but due recognition\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN NORTH\n\nAFRICA\n\n171\n\nmust be given to the great force of Filipino teachers who have served faithfully and loyally, often at salaries woefully insufficient; and also to the\nFilipino people who in a brief period of fifteen years have come to accept\nthe public-school system built along American lines and who have shown\ntheir willingness to make any necessary sacrifice to insure the support of\nthe public schools.\nThe people give unqualified support to the public schools. Not only\nhave they been willing to vote public funds for this purpose, but they have\nbeen willing to construct the school buildings in most rural schools of the\nislands without cost to the government, besides annually making large\ncontributions of money, land, labor, and materials where public funds are\ninsufficient to provide for the proper support of the public schools. There\nhas been in the Philippine Islands a great intellectual awakening, and it\nmay be truthfuly said that no other country has in a brief period of fifteen\n'\nyears progressed so far.\nTHE PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN NORTH\nPARTICULARLY IN TUNIS\nBENJAMIN\n\nBUISSON, LATE DIRECTOR\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nAFRICA—\n\nTUNIS, NORTH\n\nAFRICA\n\nTunis, I am afraid, is not a very familiar name to some of you, tho you\nmust all know that it is a city situated near the ruins of ancient Carthage.\nCarthage, like San Francisco, was burned down, and also like San Francisco\nhad a magnificent resurrection from its ashes, but the Vandals and the\nArabs thoroly ruined it a second time, and for centuries it has been only\ninteresting by its very ruins.\nTwo years after the establishment of the French Protectorate in Tunis\nin 1883, we obtained from the Bey an additional treaty promising to make all\nthe necessary reforms. Of course, the reforms of the educational system\nwere among the most useful and were started at once.\nI speak of Tunis and Morocco more willingly than of Algeria because\nI know them better, and also because in Algeria, where French rule has\nprevailed for nearly a century, public instruction is now organized very\nmuch as in France itself.\nTunis, in respect both to the government in general and to the question\nof education in particular, has been a peculiar experiment and I hope I\nmay say a successful one. Our originality, tho, was not quite our own; we\nhave been following the steps and examples of the British in India and\nEgypt. The principle was not to annex, but simply to protect — to proceed\nnot by suppression but by adaptation of the existing institutions. We\nkept the Bey and the two principal Viziers with our French secretaries of\nstate and we also kept some of the Arab sheiks or Mussulman professors\nwith our French teachers and professors. We kept and enlarged the good\nArab college, but we created a French college. We also created a good\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nclassical high school, a French lycee for boys, and a high school for European\ngirls; also a large school of agriculture and a high technical college. Very\nsoon excellent work was being done by these different institutions which are\nnow in a flourishing condition.\nThe French college, of which I was a director, had, besides an academic\nand technical high-school side, a most important normal section, receiving\nFrench teachers already trained in normal schools in France, who came to\nTunis to practice for some months or years in our model French-Arab school\nand learn the elements of the spoken Arabic before going to the schools of\nthe interior. The Arab normal students, trained in the Arab college, also\nlearned with them how to teach, and perfected their knowledge in French\nand other necessary branches. Most interesting was the work I had to do\nin this college, which became an experimental ground for bringing together\nyoung men of different creed, race, and nationality, and from it were sent\ninto the different parts of the country a good many excellent teachers,\nFrench and Arabic, who have done very useful work. I made use in this\ncollege of what I had found best in the Anglo-American pedagogy. I introduced something of the English public-school system of discipline as I had\nseen it in the Eton, Rugby, Charterhouse, and Harrow schools, the older\nboys being trusted to train the younger ones by example and precept to\nloyalty to their school and to self-restraint. I introduced as a help in that\nway the famous game of football, quite imknown before in Tunis, so beneficial for the physical and moral health of boys. I also found in this\nmilieu of Christians, Jews, and Mussulmen a very good means of neutral\ndiscipline in the teaching of lay ethics, morale latque, of which my brother\nhas spoken here at length. Of course, we had no difficulty about religion\nas we did not try any propagandism. I sat often with the Mussulman\nsheik, teaching Arabic grammar in Arabic to the Arab students, and he\nalso was eager to quote to them from the Koran and from the Arab proverbs.\nWhat was most proper to teach them was tolerance and even brotherhood\nwith Christians and Jews.\nIn 191 2, after the establishment of the French Protectorate in Morocco,\nI was sent on a mission to Morocco to inspect all existing schools and report\non a plan to better and increase them. I was stopped in my inspection\nby the insurrection which broke out at Fez in May of that year. After\nmy return to Tunis, when I was retired on the pension list, my successor in\nthe French college of Tunis was selected to come to Morocco to be director\nof public instruction there. He still occupies that high position, so it seems\nthat the Tunisian system of education has been well appreciated by the\nFrench government and we cannot but feel somewhat proud of it.\nWhat our results have been could be best shown by statistics, but I\ndo not like to bore you with many figures.\nI shall only say that in European schools in Tunisia, we have more than\n30,000 pupils of whom nearly half are girls. Of these pupils, 24,000 are\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nNORTH\n\nAFRICA\n\n173\n\nin public schools and only 6,000 in private schools. In the boys' schools,\nalmost two-thirds are Arabs and Jews. French and Italian children are\nabout in equal numbers.\nA very small number of Arab girls come to our European schools for\ngirls, but about ten years ago a special school for Arab girls was successfully started in Tunis, and other schools of the same type have been established in Tunis and in other cities and towns. Of course, the Arab girls\ncome only until they are eleven or twelve years of age at the most. They\ncome veiled to school and do not take off their veils until they are inside\nthe school walls. They learn sewing, embroidery, domestic economy,\nhygiene, with some French, reading, writing, arithmetic, and also Arabic\nand Koran. My ripe age allowed me to visit the delightful little haremschool, and three years ago I had the privilege to hold there with the director\nof public instruction and several lady teachers an examination in which\nseveral Arab girls (between eleven and twelve years of age) passed successfully the required standards in French, geography, history, arithmetic,\nand Arabic.\nSmall as it is, this new feature in education seemed to us full of hope.\nThe fact that a certain number of Arab girls are brought in their early\nyears in contact with French women whom they soon learn to respect and\nlove will help a great deal to diminish, if not to suppress, fanaticism,\nwhich is always the dangerous obstacle to the progress of civilization in\nMohammedan countries. These young girls, when married, will take\npleasure in teaching themselves and their young children to talk and even\nto begin to read and write French and that will be so much time saved in\nthe school afterward. Tho we have built and opened French or FrancoArab schools almost everywhere, we have not made instruction in them\ncompulsory and we have kept the old Koran schools. My time being so\nlimited, I cannot speak long of the reforms we have brought in these\nKoran schools for boys. Those schools, the same as prevailed since the\nMiddle Ages in all Mohammedan countries, have been often described.\nWe have about 1,300 of them in Tunisia with 1,310 teachers and 24,000\npupils. The master sits in the midst of ten children with a long stick in\nhis hand to keep them busy at work, dictating to them verses of the Koran,\nvery often to each pupil a different verse. They afterward repeated each\none his verse in loud voice until they knew it by heart. It was a dreadful\nnoise and confusion. We introduced the blackboard to teach the small\nchildren in groups the elements of reading and writing, and to save time.\nThen we grouped the children to learn the same verses together instead of\nwriting and learning each one his own verse individually. We had an\ninspector appointed to better the conditions of hygiene and to improve the\nlighting of the rooms and also the method of reading. We also created a\nspecial normal school for the training of these teachers of Koranic schools —\nthe same has also been attempted lately in Morocco and those reforms are\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nexpected to have a good effect in killing fanaticism, that is to say the traditional horror of the Moslem for the Christian.\nAnother reform connected with higher instruction or the Koranic\nuniversity was also attempted in Tunis. The Arab imiversity is located\nin Tunis, as in Cairo, Fez, and Constantinople, in the middle of the Grand\nMosque. Professors or sheiks sit at the foot of one of the many colunms\nsurrounded by twenty, thirty, fifty, or more students. They read on\ngrammar, the Koran, rhetoric, logic, jurisprudence, Hadith (or memorable\nsayings of Mohammed), theology, right pronunciation of the Koran and\nconnected matters. Science was left out of the program. An association\nwas started to make up for that omission. It was formed by the broadminded Mussulmen and called the Khaldounia, after the great Mohammedan and Tunisian historian Ibra Khaldoun. The annex university was\nintended to teach the students of the Grand Mosque the matters missing\nin the Koranic imiversity program — history, geography, mathematics,\nhygiene, natural science, and especially French.\nThis also is an innovation which promises to bear and has already borne\ngood fruit, tho in ways not approved of by a good many old conservative\nMoslem professors, and even by those Europeans who do not like to help\nIslamism to evolute but prefer to let it live or die as it is.\nBefore concluding I wish to call attention to three features which may\nseem original and which are peculiar to our system. They are: (i) our\nsystem of school post-offices; (2) our system of cheap boarding schools\nfor the children of small European farmers dwelling far from regular schools;\nand (3) our system of half-time schools, for the supervised apprenticeship\nfor Arab boys in cities and towns.\nWhen we do not find enough children to warrant the establishment of\na regular school, we send a schoolmaster who at the same time does the\nwork of a postmaster. He opens a class which at first is attended by only\na few boys, but his influence on the parents as postmaster soon brings them\nto send their children to the class even from far away. When the school is\nfull, it is divided from the post-office and a proper schoolhouse is built.\nThis has been found very useful and has saved unnecessary expense both\nto the educators and to the post-office department.\nAs for the cheap boarding schools, they are intended to help small\nFrench or European farmers who are living within a long distance of all\nschools and have not the means of sending their children to the more\nexpensive boarding schools of Tunis. The fee for board and instruction is\nvery low and children belonging to large families are even received on\npaying a half or a third of the fee.\nThe third feature I have mentioned as special to us is the organization\nof apprenticeship for Arab boys in special schools of half time: that is\nto say, they come in the morning to school and in the afternoon go to work\nin the shops of different patrons in the city. A free or very cheap lunch\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRECENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nIN CHINA\n\n175\n\nis provided to them and special inspectors visit the shops to be sure that the\nboys are really well trained by the master of the shop, who gets also an\nindemnity for the pains he takes in the training of the apprentice. This\nsystem, which has been in operation now for six or seven years in carpenters',\nlocksmiths', tailors', shoemakers', and watchmakers' shops, has given\nsatisfaction, and it encourages the Arab parents to train their children\nfor a manual profession instead of sending them to school too long until\nthey lose all taste and capacity for a manual profession.\n\nTHE RECENT\nZ.\n\nT.\n\nNYI,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nEASTERN\nor THE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nSECTION,\nCHINESE\nUNITED STATES\n\nIN CHINA\n\nSTUDENTS'\n\nALLIANCE\n\nThe attempt of this paper is to trace the development of the Chinese\neducational system since 1900. The writer proposes to discuss the subject\nunder five headings: (I) Turning-point of the Chinese educational system,\n1905; (II) development of a new educational system from 1905 to 191 1;\n(III) reconstruction since the establishment of the Chinese Republic;\n(IV) progress made since the reconstruction; (V) Chinese educational\nproblem of today.\nI.\n\nTURNING-POINT\n\nOF THE CHINESE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nThe choice of 1905 as the starting year of this discourse is by no means\narbitrary. It is chosen because the year 1905 marks the turning-point\nof the Chinese educational system, changing from the old to the new. For\nit was in that memorable year that a most significant and sweeping educational reform was finally carried out after years of delay and hesitation,\nand thus was laid the foundation for unlimited future educational development in China. The great event referred to was the abolition, by an\nimperial edict, of a time-honored institution, the imperial literary examination. This stroke of vermilion carried China forward five hundred years.\nn.\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nA\n\nNEW\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nFROM\n\nI905\n\nTO\n\n19II\n\nThe interval between 1905, the year which witnessed the abolition of\nthe imperial literary examination, and 191 1, the year which marked the\nend of the Manchu Dynasty, was the period during which China began to\nconstruct a modern educational system. We will consider only the main\nsteps that were taken by our government in the construction of the Chinese\neducational system along modern lines in that brief space of time.\nI. The formation of the Ministry of Education. — In December, 1905,\nthru the joint recommendation of the Department of State and the Department of Education, a Ministry of Education was created and made one\nof^the eleven great executive departments of the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nIn 1906, in accordance with the instructions promulgated in the edict,\nthe Ministry of Education was organized. It had at its head a president,\ntwo vice-presidents, two first-class secretaries, two second-class secretaries,\nand four third-class secretaries. The ministry was divided into five departments, namely, the Department of General Supervision, the Department\nof Technical Education, the Department of Publication, the Department\nof Industrial Education, and the Department of Finance, and each department was subdivided into three bureaus. Each department was presided\nover by a senior secretary and each bureau by a junior secretary, and on\nthese officers, assisted by twelve national inspectors, devolved the general\nadministration of the new educational system.\n2. Spirit and aim of the modern educational system. — For fear that with\nthe organization of the modern educational system the traditional spirit\nand aim of education might be neglected, a special decree was promulgated\nin which the aim of the modem educational system was set forth. The\ndecree says:\nFor the development of the minds of the young generation, the following virtues\nshould be inculcated in the aim of education, namely: (i) loyalty to the Emperor;\n(2) reverence to Confucius; (3) devotion to public welfare; (4) admiration for the\nmartial spirit; and (5) respect for industrial pursuits.\n\nThe first two virtues to be cultivated were essentially the same as the\naim of the old education having for its purpose the perpetuation of\nthe Dynasty. To the masses and many of the conservatives of the day,\nthe prevailing conception was that loyalty to the Emperor is the means of\ndeveloping patriotism, and reverence to Confucius is the way to morality.\nThe fourth virtue, admiration for the martial spirit, is a radical departure\nfrom traditional education and conception, for soldiers in China as a class\nwere despised and looked down upon as of no caste. This virtue was added\nevidently because of the defenseless condition of the country. In order\nto make a strong nation capable of maintaining her own existence and of\nfreeing herself from foreign aggression, the government thought the only\nway was to remove the ban on militarism by a revival of the martial\nspirit. The last one, respect for industrial pursuits, is inserted obviously\nbecause of the changing condition of the world as well as the pinch of\npoverty which necessitated the change of conception regarding manual\nlabor. Scholars in those days scorned any form of manual labor. This\ncontinued to be the aim of education untU the outbreak of the revolution\nin 1911.\n\n3. Survey of educational condition in China. — Being conscious of the\nprecarious condition of the existing educational institutions in the country\nand in order to gather accurate data as basis of guidance for the formulation\nof new educational policies, the Ministry of Education in 1907 instructed\nthe provincial commissioners of education to make a thoro survey of the\nexisting educational conditions in their respective provinces and to report\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRECENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe result of their finds.\nin the investigation:\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nIN CHINA\n\n177\n\nThe following outlined headings were called for\n\nThe physical environment; the census; the racial, intellectual, moral, and religious characteristics of the population; their customs, modes of life, and state of\nculture; their financial ability, including the total amount of taxes collected and\nthe various forms of local taxes available; and the status of education, such as\nthe number of pupils, the method of support, and the amoimt of funds avEiilable for\neducational purposes.\n\nThis investigation, however imperfect it may have been, is one of the\nmost statesmanlike steps that has ever been attempted by the Chinese\nadministrators of education, and it marked the beginning of scientific\ninquiry in China.\n4. The organization of the Central Educational Council. — In 191 1 an\nimportant auxiliary educational agency was organized by the Ministry\nof Education with the expressed sanction of the government. The new\nagency was known as the Tsung Yang Chias Yu Hui, or the Central Educational Council. The function of the council is purely an advisory one and\nits duties are similar to those of the Comite Consultatif in France. It was\ncalled into being for no other purpose than the gathering of knowledge,\nexperience, and conclusions that had been reached thru the deliberation of\nthe educators in the country. With these data, the Ministry of Education\nhoped to derive much help and suggestions in formulating a sound educational policy for the nation. The council, having its seat in Peking, was\nto hold its session of thirty days in summer. The discussions of the council\nwere to include all problems relating to public education from the rank of\nmiddle school to those below it. The term of office was to expire in three\nyears. The members of the councU were made up of the Ministry of\nEducation, the Ministry of Home Affairs, the Ministry of War, the Metropolitan Board of Education, Provincial Board of Education, national and\nprovincial inspectors, provincial educational associations, heads of schools\nimder the immediate supervision of the Ministry of Education, and heads\nof normal, middle, and elementary schools.\n$. The first modern school system. — Long before the year 1905, the\nmovement of establishment of a modern system of education upon a national\nbasis claimed the attention of the government. In 1901, several edicts\nwere issued advocating the new education. In 1903, a special commission\nheaded by Chang Chih Tung, Chang Pai Hsi, and Sun Chia Nan was\nappointed by the Throne to draw up a detailed plan for a system of national\npublic education. After a careful study, the commission recommended to\nthe government the following system of education:\nIt provided, as the basis of the system, kindergartens for children\nbetween the ages of three and seven; the lower primary schools for chUdren\nabove seven years of age; the higher primary schools for children below\nfifteen years of age; the middle schools for children between the ages of\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfifteen and nineteen; the provincial colleges for students above nineteen,\nand the universities, at the top of the system.\nFor ambitious students to do special research work, graduate schools\nof research were provided, and for the training of teachers, three grades\nof normal schools, namely, the higher normal, the lower normal, and\nthe normal for industrial training. This, in brief, is the program laid\ndown in 1903 and carried out in 1905, the year which witnessed the abolition\nof this imperial literary examination with a few modifications.\nTo meet the urgent demand of the time, many special schools also came\ninto existence. They were the school of political science and law, school\nof medicine, schools for the study of Mongolian and Tibetan languages,\nschools for the preservation of Chinese culture, and Tsing Hau College\nfor the preparation of the students to be sent to the United States as the\n\"Indemnity Fund Scholars.\" These were in brief the various schools\nfound under the control of the Ministry of Education previous to the outbreak of the Chinese Revolution. There were numerous other schools\nopened by private funds and mission schools financed by the various\nmissionary enterprises — all these filled in their particular need of the day.\n6. Status oj education before the Revolution. — ^The Third Annual Report\nof the Ministry of Education in 191 1 gave the following statistics in regard\nto the educational condition of the year 19 10:\nThere were in China 52,650 schools of different type, including normal, vocational,\nand technical schools with a student body numbering 1,625,534, a teaching force numbering 89,766, and a corps of administrative officers mmabering 95,800. Besides there were\n69 boards of education, 722 local, provincial, and national educational associations, 1,588\neducational exhorting societies, and 3,867 public lecture halls. The total income for\neducational purposes was Taels 23,331,171 and the total expenditure Taels 24,444,309.\nThe educational property owned by the Government amounted to Taels 70,367,882.\n\nThere were, besides many Chinese students studying abroad, not fewer\nthan 5,000 students studying in Japan, of which half are subsidized by the\ngovernment, 140 Chinese government students studying in the United\nKingdom, and 150 more supported by private fimds, 70 government\nstudents in Belgium, 80 in France, 60 in Germany, 10 in Austria, and 15\nin Russia. The nmnber of Chinese students studying in the United States\nin 1910, according to the report of the Chinese Students' Alliance of North\nAmerica, was 600.\nIn regard to the quality of the work done by the schools in that short\nperiod, some idea might be gained by the prizes won in the various educational exhibits held in different parts of the country. In the Nanking\nIndustrial Exhibition held in 19 10, 900 awards were made to the products\nof the schools. A similar collection of educational articles was sent to an\nexposition in Italy, and there again many prizes were awarded for excellence\nand high standards.\nIn summarizing this period (i 905-11) we need scarcely say more\nthan this: The new education was successful in view of the tremendous\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRECENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nIN CHINA\n\n179\n\ninfluence it exerted upon the intellectual life of the people. No one can\ndeny that it was the new education which was scattered broadcast that\nhastened the great Chinese Revolution of 191 1 and it was the abolition of\nthe imperial literary examination that tolled the death-knell of the Manchu\nDynasty.\nIII.\n\nRECONSTRUCTION\n\nSINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT\nREPUBLIC\n\nOF THE\n\nCHINESE\n\nSoon after the republican government was organized in Nanking,\nJanuary 9, 1912, a dispatch was issued by Sun Yat Sen to the republican\ngovernors of the provinces commanding the reopening of the schools. It\nembodied a temporary policy governing popular education. It demanded\nthat all the textbooks used should be in conformity with the republican\nspirit. It abolished the practice of awarding official degrees to the graduates\nof the primary and middle schools and shortened their course of study.\nIt urged that military drill be taken in place of physical exercises and\nemphasized the importance of manual training in primary schools. Furthermore two radical measures were advocated: (i) Co-education in the primary\nschools; (2) elimination of Chinese classics from the curricula of the primary\nschools. The temporary policy also laid special emphasis upon the improvement of the mind of the general public by introducing social education,\ni.e., education thru quasi- or semieducational institutions, such as public\nlectures, exhibits, libraries, newspapers, moving pictures, and so forth.\nThis was necessary since the formal education would not be accessible to\neveryone for some time to come. This measure was later taken over by\nthe new Ministry of Education and a special bureau was created to take\nspecial care in this important phase of education.\nWhen Yuan Shih Kai was elected president of China, one of his very\nfirst acts was the formation of a new Ministry of Education with its seat\nin Peking in the former building occupied by the Department of Education\nunder the old regime. In his first educational ordinances, his new scheme\nof organization was fully outlined. The ministry has at its head a minister\nof education who will in general take charge of all educational affairs. Aside\nfrom those assistant officials that are common in other ministries, provision\nwas made for sixteen inspectors and ten experts in arts and sciences. There\nwere also provided one general council and three bureaus for carrying on\nthe work of the ministry. The duties of this general council are to have\ncharge of all school matters such as teachers of public schools, educational\nassociations, investigations of educational problems, school hygiene, and\nrepairs and building of schools. The three bureaus are: (i) Bureau of\nGeneral Education, (2) Bureau of Technical and Professional Education,\nand (3) Bureau of Social Education. The Bureau of General Education\nhas full charge of matters pertaining to normal schools, middle schools,\nprimary schools, kindergartens, and schools for defectives.\n\nChildren's\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "i8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Ckncral\n\nschool attendance and the selection and certifications of teachers are also\nunder the charge of this bureau.\nThe Bureau of Technical and Professional Education has charge of\nall matters relating to the university and college, the higher technical\nschools, the sending of students abroad, the national observatory, the\npreparation of the annual government almanac, the academy of doctors,\nthe association for the unification of the mother tongue, the examination\nand certification of medical doctors and pharmacists, and the conferring\nof degrees.\nThe Bureau of Social Education has charge of all matters relating to\nthe correction of public ceremonies, libraries, zoological and botanical\ngardens, fine art museums, exhibitions, music, and other similar affairs\nconcerning popular education.\nOne of the most important events after the organization of the ministry\nwas the convening of the Emergency National Conference in Peking at\nthe invitation of the minister of education, Tsai Yuan Pei. The conference\nopened on July 12 and was formally closed on August 11, 191 2. Ninety-six\ndelegates were present. All were either graduates of normal colleges in\nChina or abroad, or educators of some renown. While in session, the conference discussed more than forty-three bills connected with educational\nproblems, of which number twenty-three of the most important were\napproved in their original or modified form.\nOne of the fundamental changes that have taken place as a result of\nthe Revolution was the change of emphasis in the aim of education. Instead,\nof loyalty to the Emperor, reverence for Confucius, devotion to public\nwelfare, admiration for the martial spirit, and respect for industrial pursuits,\nall of which aim at making loyal subjects, the aim of education is now to\npay special attention to the development of morals in the individual or the\nproduction of virtuous character. This development of virtuous or moral\ncharacter is to be supplemented with technical and military training and\nto be completed with a cultivation of the aesthetic powers.\nSince the establishment of the republic, the school system has been\nslightly reorganized and new curricula have been introduced. We will\nhere give a very brief resume.\nCLASSmCATION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nI. The lower primary school, consisting of a four years' course, leading up to\n(i) The higher primary school, or\n(2) The lower-grade industrial school (three years' course)\nII. The higher primary school, consisting of a three years' course, leading up to\n(i) The middle school\n(2) Elementary normal school (one year preparatory work and a four years'\ncourse), or\n(3) High-grade industrial school (three years' course)\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRECENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nIN CHINA\n\nl8i\n\nIII. The middle school, consisting of a four years' course, leading up to\n(i) The university\n(2) Special schools (with one year preparatory and from three to four years'\ncourse), or\n(3) High-grade normal school (with one year preparatory work and a three\nyears' coxurse)\nIV. The university, with three years' preparatory work, and from three to four years*\nwork in a special department.\n\nP. W. Kuo, dean of the Government Teachers' College at Nanking,\nin summarizing the changes made in the new curriculum, said that the\nchanges have been along three general lines: the elimination of Chinese\nclassics as a subject in itself, the introduction of new subjects of study having a social and industrial significance, and the relief of the overcrowded\nprogram. These steps in his opinion are in keeping with the progressive\nideas of modern education and should therefore be encouraged.\nFor the government of the various phases of the school system, new\nrules have been drawn up and put into force during the first two years of\nthe republic. The following are included in the new rules: school uniform,\nschool ceremony, transfer of pupils from one school to another, school\ngovernment, school year, school terms and vacations, school fees, students'\nrecords, and textbooks. However, we shall not attempt to describe these\nrules in detail.\nIV.\n\nPROGRESS\n\nMADE\n\nSINCE THE RECONSTRUCTION\n\n1. Emphasis laid on primary education. — ^When the new educational\nsystem was first organized in 1903, the attention of the government was\ncentered on the universities, provincial colleges, colleges of languages, etc.,\nto the neglect of the primary schools — in short, the system started at the\ntop. Now, however, instead of preparing a few scholars for ofl&cial life,\nthe stress is laid upon giving the mass of people at least the elements of the\n\"three R's.\" Wherever means are available, elementary schools have\nsprung up like mushrooms.\n2. Improvement in textbooks. — Great advancement has been made in\ntextbooks for elementary and high schools. Since the establishment of\nthe republic, especially after the reconstruction of the educational system,\nmuch needed revision has been made and many textbooks have been published. They are both better in the quality of the contents and cheaper\nin price.\n3. Compulsory education. — On October 19, 1914, Liang Ch'i-chiao,\nthe noted reformer of 1898, presented two important proposals before\nthe Council of State for consideration. One was compulsory service in the\narmy (conscription) and the other was compulsory education. Both these\nmeasures will probably not be realized for some time yet as they entail\nenormous expenditure of money.\nBut it is an encouraging and healthy\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "i82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsign of the day when these vital problems are beginning to be considered.\nPopular education, the basis of democracy, must be accomplished even at\nthe expense of the army. As a beginning toward its final realization, the\nBoard of Education has issued an order for the establishment of half-day\nschools and night schools to give neglected and poor children a chance to\nget common education. The course extends over three years and the nimiber of hours a week is eighteen. The required subjects are ethics, Chinese\nlanguage, arithmetic, and physical training.\n4. Encouragement of education. — As our government treasury is pressed\nfor money for running expenses, naturally not very liberal sums of money\ncan be devoted to education. In 1913 the government appropriated only\n$5,207,215 for education. In order to encourage voluntary contribution\nof more money, the government is never slow in giving recognition to those\nwho contribute money for the advancement of education by conferring\nupon them the Chiaho Decoration or Tablet of Merit. Recently Chen\nHsuan Kai, of Hupeh, initiated a movement for the establishment of\na college, and contributed $40,000 as a fund. When the news reached the\nstate department, our president in a dispatch conferred upon him the\nChiaho Decoration of the Fourth Order.\nAbout the same time Chang Chien and Chang Sha, brothers, also\nreceived government recognition for promotion of education and other\nenterprises in their native district, Nantung.\nContributors of money are not the only ones that have received government acknowledgment. Men that render meritorious service in the field\nof education have also conferred upon them the same honor. Only very\nrecently a number of teachers, professors, and school administrators were\nawarded the Chiaho Decoration for services done in the schools of the\ncapital.\n5. The present status of education. — According to the latest statistics\npublished by the Board of Education, there are at present 35,998 government schools of all grades with 875,760 students. These figures do not,\nof course, include the private schools and mission schools. At any rate,\nthey are disappointingly low. The chief agencies that are responsible\nfor the situation are: (i) the second revolution, and (2) lack of funds.\nPrevious to the second revolution, the three sister provinces, Hupeh, Himan,\nand Kiangsi, had more than 10,000 schools whereas they now have about\n3,000. In view of the general retrogression of education in the coimtry,\nit is refreshing to note that in the province of Chekiang, instead of a general\ndecrease in number of both schools and students, there is a great increase\nboth in the number of schools and students in the last three years. A\ncorresponding advance was also made in school expenditures. This is\ndue chiefly to the richness of the province, it being the chief silk- and teaproducing region of the republic, and also the high intellectual standard\nof the population.\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nRECENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nV.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nIN CHINA\n\n183\n\nTODAY\n\nWhat are the educational problems awaiting immediate solution so that\nall the bars and the hindrances to progress may be removed and further\nadvancement may be facilitated and made possible? In view of their\ntremendous significance to the future progress and prosperity of the Chinese\nRepublic, we shall mention a few of the most important ones peculiar to\nour conditions and shall indicate possible lines of solution.\nOne of the first problems that claim our immediate attention is how to\nfinance the new school system. When China was under the old order of\nthings, all she needed was a certain fixed fund to feed the imperial literary\nexamination system and to pay a few government officials who kept the\nsystem going. It was a system to give the educational facilities to a handful. With the changed order of things, the question is entirely different,\nfor it involves not only an enormous outlay of money, but also a huge army\nof trained men, many times the staff of officials employed under the old\nsystem, for the policy of the new education is to extend itself to all the\n440,000,000 of people who live in China. Our government is in a dilemma,\nfor the difficulty of raising the large sum necessary is great beyond measure.\nThe ultimate solution of the problem of financing the new school system\nwill have to depend upon the levying of a special tax for the support of\nschools as American and European nations have done. Until this is done,\nthe existence of our schools will be precarious and the new system of\neducation will be weak and all its functions ineffective.\nAnother problem is that of estabUshing for our language a uniform\nalphabet, which would materially assist those learning to read and write in\nChinese. In the past few years various ways to overcome this difficulty\nhave been suggested, and as to the success of them time only will tell.\nWe shall here list only some of the most important ones for consideration:\n(i) to simplify words, and modes of expression; (2) to do away with blind\nmemorizing by introducing the rational and natural method of teaching\nthe meaning along with words or characters; (3) to teach Mandarin, the\nmost universally spoken dialect in China, and to publish textbooks and\nnewspapers in it; (4) to introduce a phonetic language system, such, perhaps, as one already invented by H. V. Ku by transforming the eight\ndiagrams of Fuh-Hsie; (5) to Romanize a selected list of the most common\nChinese words, say from 600 to 1,000, for popular education. Of all these\nvarious means the introduction of phonetics probably will solve the problem\nmost satisfactorily.\nThe use of Romanized Chinese under the present conditions is undoubtedly the best method of teaching Chinese to foreigners who go to China\nfor various purposes and occupations. The Standard Oil Company has\ndecided to use this method in teaching its employees for the China field.\nIt is of interest to note that the same method will be used at Columbia\nUniversity in the course of Chinese that will be given there next year. The\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "l84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nintroduction of Romanized Chinese among the Chinese people generally\nis attended by such difficulties as not to be practicable. The people are\ntoo tenacious in their own language and culture to accept the alphabet of\nthe Western nations.\nIn this connection let us raise the question, Is it most desirable to accept\none of the alphabets in use, or would it be the part of greater wisdom for\nthe Chinese to invent a new alphabet of their own that will be more scientific than any alphabet now in use by the West? The latter course is\npreferable. It will respect the innate prejudices such as are common to all\npeople who have a great civilization at their back and the change can then\nbe brought about in a remarkably short time. It will be fine poetic justice\nwhen the day comes when it shall be decreed that China, in the matter\nof a phonetic system, is the progressive, up-to-date, scientific nation, and\nthat Western nations will be \"put to it\" either to use their antiquated\nphonetic systems, or to adopt the new Chinese system, or else to invent a\nstill better one.\nBesides the difliculty of language, there are the difficulties of supplying\nthe system with teachers. It is estimated that, to make education anything like universal, China needs at least a million schools in place of\n36,000, with a teaching force of at least a million and a half.\nEven with the 36,000 modern schools, the nation finds it no easy task\nto obtain enough competent teachers to fill them. The various sources\nresorted to by the government to get proper teachers to meet the urgent\ndemands are the following: (i) graduates of missionary schools, in a way\nthe best available source to feed the new schools; (2) the ranks of literati\nwho have kept themselves up to date by reading up the translated books of\nthe West; (3) foreign teachers from abroad, especially for the higher\ninstitutions of learning; and (4) returned students from abroad. When\nChina has organized her revenue system and the lev)dng of a special tax\nfor educational purposes is provided, the recruiting of teachers should come\nfrom her own normal schools, or universities, and colleges with special\ncourses or departments of educational pedagogy.\nAnother problem of the moment has to do with the educational work\nimdertaken by the missionaries, both Roman Catholic and Protestant.\nThis work was originally undertaken for the training of native clergymen\nor for the education of the children of their converts. This work, altho\nbegun in a hiunble way, has lately assumed such an influence over the\nprogress of education in China that it attracted the attention of our government. We have no exact report of the combined educational force of the\nCatholics and Protestants, except that it has been estimated that there\nare at least 100,000 pupils enrolled in the mission schools in China.\nThe persistent question of today is. How can the mission schools be\nmade an integral part of the Chinese educational system so that there may\nnot be two systems working side by side with points of differences in the\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRECENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nIN CHINA\n\n185\n\nsource of support, in the matter of control, in the things emphasized, in\nthe method used, and in the ideal emphasized ?\nAs to the ultimate working out of a system of recognition and control,\nJapan's experience may be utilized to great advantage. In Japan a Christian school may take any one of three conditions in relation to the government: (i) There is certain government sanction to carry on one phase of a\ncertain definite kind of educational work; (2) the mission school is recognized tobe equivalent to a certain government grade as fulfilling the government requirement and is permitted full religious freedom; (3) a school is\nmade an integral part of the government system subject to all requirements\nand conditions and consequently enjoying all the privileges of a regular\ngovernment school — this implies that all religious teaching and services\nare prohibited. At any rate some sort of control and recognition of mission\nschools should be adopted by the Chinese government so that the graduates\nturned out by the missions will be still \"thoroly Chinese in spirit, fully\nin sympathy with the best thought and feeling of their own country, and\nnot creatures of new (and peculiar) kind, ill adapted to the environment\nin which they must by force of circumstances live and work.\"\nThis cursory treatment of the educational development in China since\n1900, a complete change from the old to the new, tho by no means thoro\nand complete, is enough, we hope, to give an indication of our government's\nearnestness and determination to organize a system of education that will\neventually give educational facilities to her millions. The system, as it\nexists today, has yet in it defects and imperfections which need elimination,\nerasing, modification, and retouching. Even among the foremost of\nmodern industrial nations, the program of education is subject to constant\nimprovement, change, and readjustment in order to bring it up to the\nstandard of the day and to the requirements of the times. It is, therefore,\nbut natural at this early state of development when we are adjusting ourselves to the existing circumstances and new conditions, that there is found\nin our schools \"ineffective administration, unskilful teaching, and lack\nof discipline,\" but these and other shortcomings, tho apparently serious\nat present, will in due time, we are confident, be remedied without much\ndifficulty, as better teachers, new methods of teaching, and modern equipment are introduced. All that China needs and asks is time — sufiicient\ntime to regain the strength that she has lost in the transformation, sufficient\ntime to decide what of the old order of things should be done away with\nand what should be preserved, and what new elements of Western civilization should be sifted off and what should be adopted for our best interest —\nin short, to develop a civilization that will be an amalgamation of the\nbest of the East and the West and not a substitution of the old by the new.\nTo the great educators of the world, China looks for encouragement and\nsupport in her effort of constructing a modern school system and in her love\nof peace.\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "i86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE TEACHERS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF AMERICA\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTHE PROBLEMS\n\n[General\n\nOF ASIA\n\nSroNEY\n\nL. GULICK, KYOTO, JAPAN, ASSOCIATE SECRETARY OF THE COMMISSION ON PEACE AND ARBITRATION, AND REPRESENTATIVE OF THE\nCOMMISSION ON RELATIONS WITH JAPAN OF THE FEDERAL COUNaL OF\nTHE CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA\n\nLast summer at Miimeapolis, the National Education Association established aCommittee on Foreign Relations to \"investigate and report\nupon the desirability of introducing into the school materials and methods\nintended to educate the children in an intelligent and sympathetic understanding oforeign affairs.\"\nSince the passing of this important resolution, the great European\ntragedy has overwhelmed the world with astonishment and dismay. This\ntragedy throws important light on America's Asiatic problems, for it has\nsuddenly been shown, as by a lightning flash, how important it is that the\nentire people of each nation should be given adequate and accurate international information and should be controlled by a desire for fair international dealings and by a spirit that demands justice and righteousness\nin international relations. Correct and adequate international news and\na right international spirit are the only basis upon which permanent peace\ncan be established and the true life of the world go forward.\nThe experience of the last year throws lurid light on the consequences\nof international ignorance, deliberately misguided by a censored or a controlled press, and inflamed by incomplete or falsified international news.\nIt is increasingly clear that modem nations cannot be led into war unless\nthey are first deceived by those cliques and classes whose interests are promoted by war.\nIt is therefore manifest beyond possibility of a moment's doubt that\none of the pressing duties now resting upon American educators for the\npromotion of the permanent peace of America with all nations and especially for the solution of America's problem of establishing right relations\nwith Asia is to give to the rising generation of American citizens such an\nadequate understanding of the principles of right international relations\nthat they will, when grown to manhood and womanhood, refuse to be\nswept off their feet and deceived by distorted and inadequate international\nnews, but will demand and will secure the truth. The youth in our schools\nshould be enabled to understand the real causes, cost, and results of the\ngreat wars of modern times. They should be instructed in the principles\nof the new patriotism and the new coiurage demanded by the new era upon\nwhich the whole world has irrevocably entered — a patriotism that recognizes how closely interlocked with our own true welfare is the true welfare\nof all our national neighbors, East and West, North and South; a patriotism,\nmoreover, that will give justice to other lands and races with no less zeal\nthan it demands justice and right for our own land and that sees in the\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessioDsl\n\nAMERICAN\n\nTEACHERS\n\nAND\n\nTHE PROBLEMS\n\nOP ASIA\n\n187\n\nstars and stripes of Old Glory the prophecy and potency of the United\nStates of the World.\nThe new courage must also be sedulously taught to American youth.\nThe courage not merely to march to the cannon's mouth and to face bullets\nand bayonets without flinching, but the even greater courage to insist on\ntruth and justice in every relation of national and international life.\nIn this democratic land of ours, responsibility for right international\nand interracial relations rests upon every individual citizen. Adequate\nfulfilment of this responsibility calls with special insistence for this new\ntype of courage corresponding with the new type of patriotism. Only the\nwide possession by our citizenship of this new patriotism and this new\ncourage can carry forward to permanent success the great American experiment of true democracy.\nUnless these characteristics are widely cultivated and developed among\nour people, our democracy, overcome by the same forces that destroyed all\nancient democracies, will inevitably and necessarily drift into militarism.\nBut militarism is the complete antithesis and contradiction of democracy\nand finally its sure destruction.\nThere are ominous signs of the dread disease of militaritis having\nalready infected no small portion of the nation. Even the fear of war is\ndisastrous, for it causes international suspicion and animosity and induces\nincreasing armaments, naval and military. Great, therefore, is the responsibility of educators in establishing and maintaining world peace and in\ncarrying to permanent success the great American experiment in democracy.\nDuring the past year, moreover, impressive evidence has been given the\nworld of the new Asia, with which we have to reckon. Unlike Africa, Asia\nis no longer a negligible quantity among the nations and races. Asia is\nawakening. She is possessing herself of the instruments of modern material civilization with its marvelous mastery of the mysteries of nature and\ncommand of its titanic forces. Asia may no longer be scorned and ignored\nby the Caucasian. Asia is learning how to argue at the point of the\nbayonet.\nThe new Europe that is to arise out of the present tragic chaos and the\nnew Asia that is already on the horizon constitute together factors of as yet\nunestimated potency in the creation of the new era upon which mankind\nis now entering. The United States, however, stands in a relation of\npeculiar opportunity between the nations and races of the East and the\nWest. To both we may render invaluable aid, if we seek, not peace-atany-price, but justice-at-any-price and good-neighborliness-at-any-price.\nIf America contracts Europe's dread disease and holds that getting our\nrights and securing our selfish national advantage is the main goal of\nnational effort and that adequate preparedness for instant war is to be our\nmain reliance for securing those rights and advantages, then will militarism be irrevocably fastened not only upon us but upon the whole world.\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "l88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIf, on the contrary, we are more zealous to give justice to every nation\nthan we are to secure our rights, if we seek first and foremost to be helpful\nand truthful and just in our relations with the nations, not only will we\nescape militarism ourselves, but we will show in a practical way to others\nthe real road to permanent peace.\nIn our relations with Asia, it is particularly important that we adopt\nthis policy of justice and true neighborliness. That great section of the\nhuman race has suffered grievous wounds inflicted by the ruthless and\ngrasping and aggressive nations of Christendom. America has the opportunity now either to heal the wounds made in Asia by centuries of\nCaucasian greed and injustice, or thru lack of sympathy with Asia and\nappreciation of her problems and thru absorbed attention to our own\nselfish racial and national interests, and by our own scornful attitudes of\nrace pride and prejudice and deeds of injustice, we may make those\nwounds still deeper and perhaps incurable.\nShall China be forced into occidental militarism as has Japan or shall\nshe be given full justice without being compelled to fight for it? That\ndepends largely upon America's attitude and action.\nThe solution therefore of Asia's problems no less than those of America's\nrelations with Asia depends in large measure on America herself. But if\nAmerica is to solve these problems, it is of the highest importance that\nAmerican educators shall make their essential contribution.\nThe rising generation of American citizens needs prompt and adequate\ninstruction in these matters of such vital importance to the welfare of the\nworld. They should be taught to respect those great nations of the Orient\nthat constitute one-half of the human race. The color of their skin, they\nneed to learn, is a matter of climate and gives no indication of character,\nability, or attainment. The quality of their civilization, moreover, is not\nto be estimated by their ability to kill with bayonets and battleships.\nOne of the outstanding problems of the present century is beyond\nquestion that of establishing righteous and helpful relations between the\nnations of Asia and of Christendom. This problem cannot be solved on\na basis of race pride, prejudice, scorn, and disdain. Only thru mutual good\nwill and respect will its solution be possible.\nNo more effective methods are available for the establishment of this\nspirit and the promotion of this attitude among the responsible citizenship of our land than accurate and adequate instruction of the rising generation ofAmerican youth in these matters of such paramount importance\nand momentous character.\nWith special pain would I call the attention, not only of all educators\nbut of all the responsible citizenship of our land, on the one hand, to the\nlong-standing disregard by our national legislators and federal executives\nof our treaty obligations to China, and, on the other hand, to the humiliation inflicted upon Japan by recent differential race legislation. These\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nTEACHERS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF ASIA\n\n189\n\ninternational wrongs should be speedily righted. Only as they are righted\ncan the relations of America to China and to Japan be regarded by ourselves\nno less than by them as honorable and friendly. The early rectification\nof these wrongs, moreover, is essential if America is to be regarded as\nseriously interested in the establishment of world-righteousness as the\nbasis for the permanent peace of the world. It is indeed as President\nWilson has so well said, speaking not long ago of our relations with South\nAmerican countries, \"You cannot be friends at all except upon terms of\nhonor, and we must show ourselves friends by comprehending their interests, whether it squares with ours or not.\"\nThe statement just made that the United States has long disregarded\nits treaty obligations to China is of such a character that at least a word of\nproof seems desirable. A full statement would consume more time than\nis now available. I accordingly confine myself to a single sentence\nfrom the judgment of Judge Field of the Supreme Court of the United\nStates:\nIt must be conceded that the act of 1888 [the Scott Act dealing with Chinese exclusion] isin contravention of the [Chinese] treaty of 1868 and of the supplemental treaty of\n1880\nThe question whether our government was justified in disregarding its\nengagements with another nation is not one for the determination of the cotirts\nThis court is not a censor of the morals of the other departments of the government.\n\nThis seems to be a confession that acts of Congress and decisions of the\nSupreme Court, even in contravention of treaties, may be good law even\ntho they are bad morals. Dr. Dernberg, defending Germany's disregard\nof inconvenient treaties, argues that the United States takes the same\nattitude toward treaties as does Germany, and cites this very decision of\nour Supreme Court in support of his contention. Is America to let the\nmatter stand permanently as it is? Can we for a moment think that\nChina is satisfied ?\nWith regard to Japan, it should be made clear to all that she does not\nask for free or for any privilege of labor immigration, as her voluntary yet\nrigid inforcement of the Gentlemen's Agreement shows. In consequence\nof that rigid inforcement, adult Japanese laborers in the United States\nhave diminished by about ten thousand in the past eight years. What\nJapan asks and asks earnestly is freedom from humiliating differential\nrace treatment.\nConsiderable study of this whole Asiatic question has convinced me\nthat the just demands of California for protection from dangerous Asiatic\nimmigration and the equally just demands of China and Japan for courteous\nand friendly treatment are not irreconcilable. There is a method of so\nadjusting our laws as to provide for all that California needs and also for\nthe earnest requests of China and Japan. This, however, is not the time\nor place for the explicit statement of the proposal. I must refer you to my\nbooks and pamphlets dealing with this matter.\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "IQO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn the light of these facts and considerations, is it not important that\nthe National Education Association should diligently address itself to the\ngreat problem confronting our nation and seek to make its own peculiar\ncontribution thru the education of the rising generation to the rectification\nof great national wrongs and the promotion of those attitudes of mind and\nheart and will so essential to national and international justice, to the permanent success of democracy, and to the peace of the whole world ?\nI venture to suggest to the Association and to its Executive Committee\ntwo resolutions:\nResolved, That the National Education Association regards as of paramount importance the adequate instruction of the children and youth in the public schools in regard\nto the nature of right international relations and the means for their establishment.\nSuch instruction it regards as a vital factor in their preparation for wholesome and intelligent citizenship.\nResolved, That this Association request its Committee on Foreign Relations,\n1. To prepare and issue as promptly as possible, for the use of teachers in elementary\nand secondary schools, a smtable manual of suggestions as to methods and material for\ninstruction in regard to the international relations of the United States.\n2. To arrange for a critical examination of all important readers and all textbooks\non history and geography dealing with nations and races, with a view to the nature of\ntheir implications and postulates in regard to international and interracial relations and\nto the nature of the impressions left upon the minds of the children and youth in regard\nto war and peace and their heroes and to the development of a spirit of national and racial\nrespect, fairness, and good will.\n\nPersonally, may I not urge all members of this Association and all\neducators thruout the United States, (i) to familiarize themselves with the\nfacts regarding American infringement of its treaties with China and the\nhumiliation to which Japan has been and still is being subjected; (2) to\ntake such steps as may be wise in their respective localities to promote an\nintelligent public opinion in regard to these matters; and (3) to exert such\nmoral and social influences as may lead to national legislative action that\nshall remove the blot from our fair name and place our relations with China\nand Japan on a basis that provides for their interests and self-respect no\nless than for ours.\nEDUCATION\nSTEPHEN\n\nPANARETOFF,\n\nIN BULGARIA\n\nENVOY\nEXTRAORDINARY\nAND\nTENTIARY FOR BULGARIA, WASHINGTON,\n\nMINISTER\nD.C.\n\nPLENIPO-\n\nIn talking about Bulgaria, one should bear in mind that she is the\nyoungest state on the Balkan Peninsula and in Europe. Prior to 1878,\nBulgaria was a simple Turkish province and its inhabitants were deprived\nof all political rights and privileges. They were downtrodden Turkish\nsubjects ruled by a government whose chief concern was to oppress them\nand to drain the country of all its material resources. No help or incentive\nwas afforded them for material, intellectual, moral, or any other advance-\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN BULGARIA\n\n191\n\nment. Commerce, industry, education, and other enterprises which make\nfor the progressive civilization of a nation were not encouraged, nay, were\nquite impossible under existing circumstances. Even under these adverse\nand discouraging conditions, however, the people were keen on education\nfor they felt strongly that in education lay their future salvation. Communal schools were maintained without any state help by the people, who,\nin addition to the taxes they had to pay to the government, voluntarily\nand cheerfully taxed themselves with a special school tax.\nUp to 1835, Greek was the language of the schools of the country, for\nBulgaria had the great misfortune to become politically subject to the\nTurks and spiritually and ecclesiastically subject to the Greek patriarch\nin Constantinople. The bishops and archbishops in whose hands the spiritual welfare of the people was placed were Greeks, alien to their flock in\nlanguage and race, and inimical to its nationality. It is difficult to say\nwhich of the two yokes that the Bulgarians had to bear was the most galling\nand pernicious. While the Turk was satisfied with getting out of the\ncountry as much as he could thru taxation and extortion, leaving supremely\nalone its nationality and language, the Greek bishops not only mulcted\nthe people but were intent upon denationalizing and Hellenizing it. The\nBulgarian language was proscribed from the schools as well as from the\nchurches. It was really in the early sixties of the last century that Bulgarian schools with the Bulgarian language as a medium of instruction\nbegan to spread and multiply.\nBut since 1878, when Bulgaria was liberated from Turkish rule and erected\ninto a semi-independent principality, education has progressed by leaps and\nbounds. Its management and direction are in the hands of the state under\nthe guidance and supervision of the ministry of public instruction. According to the Constitution of Bulgaria, primary education is free and obligatory,\nwhile, for the instruction received in the colleges and the university, a small\nfee is charged. Every village that has forty houses or more must have a\nschool, while smaller units are grouped together with a common school.\nWherever you see in a Bulgarian village a nice-looking building standing\nprominently in view, you may be sure that it is the schoolhouse.\nIn the primary and in the high schools, as well as in the university,\ncoeducation exists. Attention is paid not only to the education of the\nboys, but to that of the girls also, and both the boys' and the girls' colleges\nor gymnasia are full to overflowing. In some of the larger towns, the\ngovernment is obliged to maintain more than one high school and college\nin order to meet the ever-increasing demand for education. Illiteracy is\ndiminishing year by year, and Bulgaria stands today at the head of all the\nBalkan states as the state with the least percentage of illiterates. In the\nUniversity of Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, with its three faculties of law,\nphilosophy, including philology and literature, and mathematics, onethird of the students are women.\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBesides these institutions, Bulgaria has made provision for commercial\nand professional schools. Under the Turkish regime, no such schools\nexisted, nor were there any agricultural schools. There are now two such\nschools, where young men are given an opportunity to learn better methods\nof agriculture, dairy farming, stock breeding, etc. Diu-ing the summer\nvacations, the students are sent out among the villagers to instruct them\nin these various methods. It is surprising to see how ready the peasants\nare to profit by this instruction. The introduction of modem and improved\nagricultural implements, as ploughs, reaping, threshing, and wiimowing\nmachines, to replace the former primitive implements is an evidence of the\nprogress that has been achieved in many parts of the country.\nNormal or pedagogical schools have also been established to prepare\nteachers, both men and women. In the capital of the country, there is an\nart and a musical school, in both of which good and creditable work is\nbeing done. Classes for teaching cooking, sewing, dressmaking, and\ndomestic economy have been started in Sofia for the girls. Kindergartens\nare to be foimd in some of the principal towns, and one of them in Sofia is\nunder the management of an American woman.\nBulgaria is one of the Balkan countries where America and American\ninstitutions are best appreciated and valued. Thru Robert College, in\nConstantinople, and other American schools in Bulgaria, where hundreds\nof Bulgarians have studied, as well as thru the education which many Bulgarians have received in the United States, the spirit of American institutions has found entrance into the country. The graduates of Robert\nCollege have been prominent in various pursuits of life, as political leaders,\nteachers, merchants, etc., and have had a large share in molding the destiny\nof their country. The present ruler of Bulgaria, King Ferdinand, spoke\nnot exaggeratingly when he called Robert College \"the nursery\" of Bulgaria's public men. Whatever defects critics of American education may\nsee in it, it cannot be denied that it does impart to those who have been\nbrought up in it certain characteristics which are lacking or are not so\nprominent in the graduates of the educational systems of Europe, and\nespecially of those in the Near East. American education stands for\nindependence of thinking, for self-reliance, self-help, and self-control, for\nthe honor and dignity of honest work, and for the inculcation of morality\nand spirituality as the surest and soundest basis of character.\nWhat Bulgaria owes to American education was officially acknowledged\na few months ago by the Bulgarian government. Two American institutions oflearning, one for boys and the other for girls, that have existed\nin Bulgaria for many years, were recently officially recognized by the\ngovernment and granted the privilege of giving diplomas equivalent to\nthose given by the state schools. In making known this decision to the\nlady principal of the girls' school, the Bulgarian minister of public instruction expressed in an official letter the gratitude of Bulgaria to the United\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n193\n\nStates for all the good these American schools have done to the country by\nthe intellectual, moral, and spiritual training they have afforded the youth\nof Bulgaria, and the assistance they have rendered to the country in its\nefforts for greater progress and more enlightenment. The letter is of\ngreat significance, for it is the first ofi&cial recognition by a Balkan state\nof the educational work done by citizens of the United States in those parts\nof the world. It is significant also of the broad tolerant spirit that animates\nthe Bulgarian people, who are ready to welcome with gratitude what is\nbeing done by people alien to them in race, language, and religion, but akin\nto them in human sympathy and kindly feelings, for the uplifting, progress,\nand culture of Bulgaria.\nAGRICULTURAL\nHENRY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJ. WATERS, PRESIDENT, KA.NSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL\nMANHATTAN,\nKA.NS.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe principal purpose of agricultural education is to teach people to\nthink straight on all matters pertaining to agricultural production and\nrural life, and this applies to the city people as well as to the country people.\nWe fall into an error when we assume that we are the first to have to\nmeet the problem of the high cost of living. The problem is as old as\ncivilization and has intruded itself as a serious factor into every civilization\nthat has preceded ours. Plenty of food for everyone at a low cost is the\nnewest thing under the sun and it also has been among the most transitory\nof things.\nWe have dealt with the problem of too few people on the farm and its\nresult, high cost of living, as tho it were a matter in which the farmer alone\nis concerned. In truth, he is the only person in all the country who does\nnot suffer from this cause. A situation in which there are too few producers\ncannot help being highly satisfactory to those who are engaged in production, just as a situation in which there were too few grocers would be entirely\nsatisfactory to those engaged in the grocery business. Such a situation\nwould be unsatisfactory to the user of groceries, just as the present situation\nis unsatisfactory to the consiuners of agricultural products, the people of the\ncity. It is therefore the man who buys the products of the farm who is\nprimarily and almost solely interested in having a sufficient number of\npeople on the land. He is quite as much interested also in the kind of\npeople who till the soil as he is in the number of such people.\nWhat city people should he taught about agriculture. — It is almost as\nimportant that we teach agriculture in the city schools as that we make it\na part of the course of study for country children. City children should\nnot be required to study the details of plant and animal production, but\nthey should be so taught that they will have an interest in, and a general\nunderstanding of, these basic industries. City children should be made to\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nrealize that they are dependent upon those who till the soil, not only for\ntheir food and clothing, but also for the materials which form the basis of\nmost of the city's industries. Of the raw material used in American manufactures, one-half of i per cent is derived from the sea; 5 per cent from the\nforests, 13 per cent from the mines, and 81 per cent from the farm. The\nchildren of the man who answers the call of the factory whistle should be\ntaught that not only the clothes which their father wears, and the food contained inhis dinner pail, but also most of the materials which provide him\na chance to work and afford the family a living come from the farm.\nThose engaged in transportation should understand that it is the soilproduced material which affords them nine-tenths of their employment.\nMerchants should be taught that nearly all the goods they buy and sell\ncame originally from the farm. The children of the banker ought to know\nthat a large part of the value represented by every dollar which reaches the\nbank vault was produced in the country. They ought also to know that\nin the long rim it makes as much difference to them how much of each\ndollar remains in the country with which to build the right sort of family\nlife as it does how much of the dollar reaches the city with which to support\na city civilization.\nThe city children ought to be taught that, tho the farmer has undertaken the most important task of any class, that of providing the world\nwith its food, clothing, and the raw material for its industries, he never has\nhad, and probably never will have, much to say regarding the conditions\nunder which he will perform that task. City children should understand\nthat the way in which society determines the conditions surrounding the\nfarmer will determine the standing and progress of both the city and the\ncountry. They should be trained to appreciate the limitations of farm production and to realize that conditions which they impose that are not to\nthe best interests of the country people will not in the end be for their own\nbest interests. They should early learn that no civilization has withstood\nthe effect of the decay of its rural people.\nWastes are a tax upon the cost of living. — Wasteful ways of doing business\nand extravagant ways of living are a tax upon the cost of living which somebody must pay. Either the consumer must pay more for what he eats —\nand he already groans under the burdens of the high cost of living — or the\nfarmer must take less for his products altho he already is the lowest-paid\nman in the world.\nThe American farmer is a business man and not a mere laborer. He\nhas invested in land, equipment, and working capital an average of approximately $8,000, an investment such as fairly classes him with the business\nman of the town. He is entitled, therefore, to an income comparable with\nthat of the average business man — an income which wiU enable him to\nsupport his family as well and to enable him to pay as much toward the\nsupport of the school, the church, roads, and the cultures of life as do the\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n195\n\nproprietors of grocery stores, drug-shops, meat markets, and of other\nbusiness enterprises requiring no larger investment and no greater intelligence.\nIf society cannot pay the price for food which will yield to the farmer\nfair income, it is time society was looking into its ways of living and of\ndoing business with a view to efifecting such economies as will make this\npossible.\nHigh acre-yields go with low man-yields. — City people have been thinking too much in terms of acre-yields and too little in terms of man-yields.\nThey have not yet learned that as the acre-yield has gone up — the world\nover and in all ages — the man-yield has gone down. For illustration, the\nyearly farm income for all the land in cultivation in Japan is $71 an acre,\nin the United States it is $15, and in Kansas it is $13.50 an acre. The\naverage annual income of the farm family in Japan is $235, in the United\nStates, $1,000, and in Kansas, $1,560. To take another Dlustration, the\naverage acre-yield of wheat in Germany is nearly 31 bushels, in France it\nis more than 29 bushels, and in the United States it is 14^ bushels. The\naverage yearly income of the farm family in Germany is $580, in France\nit is $670, and in the United States it is $1,000.\nIntensive farming, therefore, is not the simple and easily applied\nremedy for all our present ills. Intensive agriculture is adapted only to\nconditions where lands are high and labor is cheap. It is essentially hand\nfarming. It uses little labor-saving machinery. It produces comparatively little livestock and has not afforded an income sufficient to provide\nmany conveniences for the farm home.\nIntensive farming developed to a moderate degree has produced the\npeasant class of Europe, \"the man with the hoe.\" In Saxony, Belgium,\nand Brittany, where intensive agriculture is more highly developed than\nelsewhere in Europe, the farm woman frequently serves as a draft animal\nand is hitched alongside a dog. Carried to its full limit, intensive farming\nhas produced the Chinese and Japanese farmer, the tj^pe that can out-labor\nand under-live any other type of farmer in the world.\nExtensive agriculture develops the highest form of rural civilization\nbecause it gives an income above the actual physical needs of the family.\nIt afifords the means for procuring the broader cultures of life. It is the\nkind of agriculture that uses much machinery and raises much live stock,\nand these in themselves develop the highest type of husbandman.\nSo long, therefore, as society is not made to suffer undue hardships on\naccount of the high cost of living, a reasonably extensive system of agriculture isbest for everybody. So long as a country can get along with\nfarms of reasonable size, it is inadvisable to try to force upon that coimtry\nan intensive type of farming. Indeed, no country has ever adopted this\ntype of farming until forced to do so by the demands of the people for food\nand for an opportunity to work.\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nSociety demands cheap food, and, in so far as cheap food may be provided without imposing burdens upon future generations thru the waste\nof our resources and without imposing undue burdens upon the people on\nthe land, the demand is a reasonable one. Low cost of living, however,\nbought without permanent capital of soil, mine, and forest, is temporary\nand wasteful. Low cost of living, purchased with the manhood and\nwomanhood of the rural communities, is dearly bought and destructive\nof our best asset,\nA sound system of agricultural education, therefore, stands squarely\nfor high man-yields as well as for high acre-yields and seeks to prevent a\nrural class from growing up in America, a class that is different from, and\nantagonistic to, the city class. Every obstacle to the free intermingling\nand intermarrying of the country and town people must be removed. It\nmust not be true that the town girl would rather marry a drug clerk or a\ncity omnibus driver than marry an industrious young man with a farm.\nConditions imder which the best women are not content to live will not\nlong attract good men.\nTeaching thrift. — ^Agricultural education seeks to put the children and\nthe back yards and vacant lots to work, producing food to assist in reducing the cost of living, and to teach these children thrift, a quaUty so lacking\nin the American people. Agricultural education teaches the boys in the\ncountry how to market their products and should teach the girls of both\nthe city and country how to buy for the family. It should impress upon\nevery housewife the relation her purchases sustain to the development of\nlocal industries and should seek to eliminate much of the waste that we\ncommit daily when we eat in California food canned in New Jersey and\nwhen they eat in New Jersey food caimed in California. In Kansas, the\nleading broom-corn state of the Union, we send our broom corn to Michigan\nto have handles made.\nApply the laws of nutrition to raising children. — Agricultural education\nis contributing much to our knowledge of how to feed children, for, after\nall, the feeding of children so that they may reach man's estate well developed and strong follows the same laws of nutrition as have been developed\nfor the feeding of pigs, and colts, and calves, only we have worked out\nthe scientific feeding of pigs and colts and calves.\nEducation the basis of rural sanitation. — The country must be made\na more healthful place in which to live. It is of comparatively little\nimportance whether or not city people imderstand the laws of sanitation\nand become interested in the enforcement of these laws, for organized\nsociety determines the sanitary arrangement of the home and the workshop,\nand forces the people to keep their premises clean. In the rural commimity, everything depends upon the education of the individual. There\nis no rural lawmaking body analogous to the city council or city commission. There is no inspecting agency corresponding to that of the city\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n197\n\nhealth officer, city dairy commissioner, or city plumbing inspector. Thus\nthe one-room rural school, poor as it is, has burdens laid upon it that are\nlarger than are the burdens laid upon the city school, efficient as it is.\nImportant as is the education of the city children in respect to their\nattitude toward country people and country problems, this training is,\nafter all, of secondary importance when compared with the education of the\nfuture farmer with respect to the methods he shall employ and with respect\nto his duties and obligations to society. He must be made to realize that\nhe has undertaken a most important task and that he must discharge his\nduties efficiently.\nWhat the country children should be taught. — Consequently, country\nchildren will need to be taught how to produce high acre-yields without\nbringing upon themselves the evils of the intensive methods of other\ncountries and of other times. They must be made to realize that their\nright to own land is an artificial right which society may withdraw if they\ntill the soil inefficiently or wastefuUy. They must be taught how deep to\nplow, when to sow, and when to reap, and how to produce plants and\nanimals that may better serve man's uses.\nWhere agriculture should be taught. — It is a narrow view which limits\nthe scope of agricultural education to the field of activity covered by the\nagricultural colleges of the country. All such colleges laboring never so\ndiligently and efficiently will not be able to train even the leaders required.\nThe other colleges and the normal schools must help. The resources of the\nhigh schools of the country must be employed. When all of this is done,\nthe problem will be very far from being solved, because only a few of those\nwho are to farm ever attend a high school, a normal school, or a college.\nIt is only when a satisfactory system of instruction in agriculture is\nintroduced into the school which the future farmers are attending, the oneteacher rural school, that we shall be planting generally the ideas which\nwill ripen into better systems of farming. But this education must not\nstop with the farmer's children. It must extend to the farmer himself\nand to the other members of his family and must continue thruout the\nfarmer's active life. The supreme test of a system of agricultural teaching\nis made when we apply it to the man on the farm.\nEarly attempts to teach agriculture were unsuccessful. — It is true that\nthe early attempts at teaching agriculture were not highly successful, altho\nthese attempts were made long after education in other lines had become\nwell established. The failure was principally due to the fact that the\nfanner himself knew more about farm practice than did the teacher. This\nquickly led to the establishment of agricultural experiment stations, research\ninstitutions in which the appUcation of science to agriculture was studied,\nwhere the reasons for the most successful farm practices were discovered,\nand where new and improved practices were devised. Thus for the first\ntime in the history of education, a deliberate attempt was made, thru\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "igS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\na well-co-ordinated system of scientific research, to create a body of knowledge in relation to a subject which it was deemed important to teach, but\nabout which so little of a definite nature was known that it could not be\ntaught successfully.\nIt is true that scientific research has been a part of the activity of most\ninstitutions of higher learning since the close of the Napoleonic era, or when\nvon Humboldt, as minister of education of Prussia, sought by this means\nto rebuild Germany's prostrated industries; but there had not been before\nan organized, co-ordinated, and compulsory system of research as a definite\npart of a great educational program.\nThe success of the investigations in agriculture, especially in America,\nhas been a wonderful stimulus to research activity in other lines.\nContinuation teaching in agriculture. — ^As might have been expected, the\nfirst result of this suddenly stimulated activity in research was the accumulation of agricultural knowledge more rapidly than it could be absorbed\nby the farmers and adopted into their practices. A way had to be devised\nin which to get the man on the soil, who is largely muscle-minded and eyeminded, to adopt these new methods. As a result, a system of extension\nteaching, thru farmer's institutes, press articles, and farm demonstrations,\ngrew up. It is only within very recent years — indeed, since the passage of\nan act of Congress by which the federal government joined with the states\nthru the agricultural colleges — that the effort to carry this knowledge to the\npeople has become general and effective.\nThus, new as is the system of agricultural instruction, and halting as\nwas its progress at the outset, it has already marked two distinct and\nimportant departures from educational traditions — one in the organized\nsystem of research thru which a body of knowledge pertaining to the\nsubject was created, and the other in an organized system of extension or continuation teaching thru which parents as well as pupils were\nreached with this new-foimd knowledge. Both of these departures have\nalready exerted a large influence upon general educational thought and\npractice.\nA stable rural people. — ^Agricultural education seeks to establish a permanent agriculture, and it recognizes that the first essential of a permanent\nagriculture is an intelligent, progressive, and contented people. To bring\nabout such a condition among the rural people, it is necessary that these\npeople have, as has already been stated, an income equal to that of city\npeople in its power to procure the real satisfactions of life. Every attempt\nto keep up the country stock and to resist the power of the city to call the\nbest the country produces on any other basis than this is unsound. Nearly\nevery civilization that has preceded ours has tried the experiment and has\nfailed.\nBut back of all questions relating to the securing of an income either\nthru greater eflficiency as a laborer, or thru securing a fairer share of what\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF EUROPE\n\nSINCE\n\nIQOO\n\n199\n\nthat labor brings, stands the equally important question of the utilization\nof this income or the coining of it into higher standards of family life.\nRural people must be brought to realize that the country is not merely\na place in which to work while accumulating the means with which to live\nin town. They must be shown how to expend the farm income in such\na way as to give as satisfactory a life in the country as that which the town\naffords. The occupation of farming and life in the country need to be\nidealized, for it is what a man thinks of himself and his work which counts\nfor most. A people never rises above its ideals.\nIn recent years the laboring man has become greatly interested in the\ncause of labor. He is easy to organize, easy to lead. He has learned the\nadvantage to him and to the cause of labor of bestowing upon those of his\nown class whatever prizes he has to bestow. It was only when the laboring\nman had respect for labor that he was able to cope successfully with his\nage-old enemy, his employer.\nThe producer, the man on the soil, has not yet learned this elementary\nlesson in self-preservation. He is difficult to organize, impossible to lead.\nHe idealizes every occupation except his own. To him the open country\nholds no romance. To the farm boy, the heroes are all in the city. As\na result, the world accepts the farmer at his own estimate of himself.\nThus, opportunity for the rural people equal to that of the town people\nand the power and inclination to live up to this opportunity, or to phrase\nit more tersely, income and idealism, are the principal elements out of which\na stable and satisfactory rural civilization will be built. To build such\na civilization is the only possible excuse we can ofEer for devising and\nmaintaining a system of agricultural education.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS OF CONTINENTAL\nSINCE IQOO\n\nEUROPE\n\nFREDERIC\nERNEST\nFARRINGTON,\nASSOCIATE\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION,\nTEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nWithin the brief limits assigned to this paper, it is manifestly impossible\neven to touch upon all the significant steps of progress educationally which\nhave been taken in continental Europe. It has seemed better, therefore,\nto center the attention upon France and Germany, the two foremost states\nof Western Europe, and even here much must be left unsaid. It should be\nborne in mind that this chronicle has no reference to events subsequent to\nJuly I, 1914.\nFrom the period of Greek intellectual and material supremacy even\ndown to the present, we can trace the movements of the educational pendulum as it swung ponderously to and fro between two widely separated\nextremes — one characterized by the primacy of the rights of the individual,\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe other by the dominance of the interests of the social whole. Just as the\nnineteenth century was fundamentally an age of individualism, so the\ntwentieth century bids fair to be characterized by the subordination of the\nindividual to the group. Nor does the educational world alone reflect this\nchanged order of things; it runs thru the various aspects of human endeavor,\nand verily pervades all our political, social, and ethical life.\nEven monarchic Europe has felt the impulse, altho in those older lands\nkaleidoscopic changes are practically unknown, and innovation ever\nadvances with measured pace. Whether this trend away from individualism be called socialism, or collectivism, or paternalism, or government control, itmatters little for our present purposes. It is significant to note,\nhowever, that it invariably means wider opportunity for the masses of the\npeople to rise above the level of the generation just preceding, and for some,\nat least, to lift themselves to the level of the classes above.\nIf one were called upon to select the large domain of education in\nFrance and Germany which has been the scene of most significant change\nduring the past fifteen years, the finger would point unhesitatingly to the\nmiddle reaches of the scale — the field of secondary education. This very\nterm \"secondary education\" demands a word of explanation, for secondary\neducation on the continent connotes something quite different from the\nsame term with us. In the United States, we have a secondary course of\nfour, five, or six years superimposed upon an elementary course of eight,\nseven, or six years, the important fact to note being that — so far as our\npublic-school system is concerned — ^primary education is invariably introductory to secondary education, and that primary and secondary education\ntogether constitute two stages of a vertical scale. In Europe, on the other\nhand, the two exist side by side for at least a portion of the course, with no\nnecessary sequential time relationship between them. The European secondary school is a fee school, while ours is a free school. The latter is a\nschool for the masses; the former is a school for the classes, with class\ndifferentiation in the last analysis determined by the economic position of\nthe parents. Neither of the great European nations under consideration\nappreciates the meaning of educational democracy in the American sense of\nthe term, altho each country has its system of scholarships in secondary\nschools, which offers some opportunity for the really brilliant child of the\nlower social strata to rise to the top. Yet the assertion of an American\ncritic a few years ago that not one boy in ten thousand who completes the\ncourse in the German elementary school ever goes on to the university is a\nsufficient commentary on the democracy of the system in that country.\nWith relatively few exceptions the members of the directing classes in\nall w'alks of life are recruited exclusively from among the former secondaryschool pupils, while the elementary-school population is the source of supply\nfor the rank and file and for the non-commissioned officers of the great armies\nof industry, agriculture, and commerce.\nDespite the growing demand for\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF EUROPE\n\nSINCE\n\nigoo\n\n201\n\nthe Einheitsschule in Germany and the effort to eliminate the preparatory\nclasses in the French secondary schools — a movement which the distinguished gentleman who represents the French minister of public instruction\nat this congress has done so much to foster — there is slight reason for believing any such changes imminent. Altho the external relations between secondary and elementary education have not been fundamentally modified\nsince the opening of the present century, internally secondary education in\nboth France and Germany has undergone radical changes.\nDuring the nineteenth century two large educational problems were constantly before the public eye, one primarily, perhaps, civil and political, but\naffecting the educational organization none the less, and the other purely\neducational in the technical sense of the term. The first was the ancient\nquestion of state versus church control, and the second the more modem\nproblem of the relative values of humanistic and realistic training, or, if\nyou choose to express it in other words, classical versus scientific learning\nas the basis of a liberal education.\nFrance and Germany have wrestled with both these great questions,\nand each has solved its problems in its own way. England and our own\ncountry have likewise struggled with the same vexed problem of secondary\neducation, but in neither England nor the United States have the solutions\nbeen so satisfactory as in the two continental nations. In France, Germany, and America, we may fairly say, paraphrasing the words of an eminent French writer, that scientific humanism has won the right of sitting\nside by side with literary humanism.\nDespite the marvelous progress of scientific research and the undisputed\nintellectual power of scientific investigators, classicism was so thoroly\nintrenched in the academic world that science subjects were always looked\nupon as of subsidiary importance. Classical subjects and classical subjects\nalone provided the ladder which led to the plane of the cultivated mind.\nAs the nineteenth century drew to a close, signs of a change became apparent.\nGermany in 1901 and France in 1902 reorganized the scheme of secondary\neducation so that science' became recognized, oflicially at least, as on a\nparity with the classics — not that classicism was overthrown, but merely\nthat its primacy was abolished. Henceforth it must share its prerogatives\nwith the modern subjects.\nUnder the new dispensation in France, there is only one Bachelor's\ndegree, the former degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science\nhaving ceased to be granted. Faithful pursuance of any one of four different courses — ^Latin-Greek, Latin-modern languages, Latin-science, or\nscience-modem languages — will prepare the individual for the Bachelor's\nexamination. Success here offers the only open sesame to university study.\nAnybody with this coveted distinction, whatever the legend upon its face,\nmay enter freely into any faculty of university study — arts, science, law,\nor medicine. The Latin student has no oflficial advantage in his favor; the\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nscience student has no official handicap to overcome. Each French secondary school offers all four courses indicated above, with such flexibility that\nthe pupil may transfer from one course to another with the minimum\namount of loss. In France, then, one finds free choice of courses with fixed\nstudies within each course.\nPrussia, on the other hand, has attempted to reach the same end, altho\nin a somewhat more cumbersome fashion. At least a decade before the end\nof the century, it was evident that changes were impending in this conservative state. Much of the monopoly enjoyed by the old gymnasial trust, so\nto speak, was due to the system of privileges reserved for the graduates of\nthe Gymnasium — one of the three classes of nine-year secondary schools.\nAdmission to the university faculties of theology, law, and medicine was\nreserved exclusively for graduates of this type of school, as was likewise\nunrestricted admission to privileges of study in the philosophical faculty of\nthe university. Supported by this immense power of privilege, is it any\nwonder that the classical school pure and simple attracted the most intelligent among the German youth, since it provided the only gateway to positions among the professional directing classes? True, there were other\nnine-year secondary schools — the Realgymnasien and the Oberrealschulen —\nbut the most the graduates of the Realgymnasien could look forward to was\nuniversity study in the philosophical faculty in preparation for modemlanguage and science and mathematics teaching, while preparation for\nscience and mathematics teaching was the only university privilege open to\ngraduates of schools with non-classical courses. While the reform of 1901\nin Prussia was not quite so radical nor so sweeping as that in France of the\nfollowing year, nevertheless it meant much for Germany, for it marked the\npassing of the old gymnasial dominance. Henceforth graduates of the semiclassical Realgymnasium and the modem Oberrealschule were to be admitted\nto imiversity study, with the modicimi of restrictions. Officially, at least,\nscientific studies were on a parity with humanistic studies as a background\nof general culture.\nA coroUary, so to speak, is found in the remarkable spread of the socalled \"Frankfort plan\" schools in Germany. In discussing the French\nreform, attention was called to the fact that the various types of secondary\ncourses were found in the same school. Germany has not generally recognized the validity of this principle; but maintains, on the other hand, that\neach school should stand for a very definite type of work. In Germany,\ntherefore, selection of a certain course means selecting a certain school.\nThere is consequently less opportimity of changing from one course to another\nin case the course first selected does not prove to be a wise or fitting choice.\nInasmuch as the German boy enters the secondary school when he is nine\nyears of age, this necessarily implied a selection of life work at that age —\na problem which presents manifest difficulties. In order to avoid the\nnecessity of this very early choice, the Frankfort plan was devised. In a\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions] EDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF EUROPE\n\nSINCE\n\nigoo\n\n203\n\nword, a school organized upon this basis offers a Gymnasium and a Realgymnasium course (a classical and a semi-classical course) with certain\nadjustments between Latin and French so that there is only a single course\nfor the first three years, and the bifurcation begins when the pupil reaches\nthe age of twelve. Subsequent modifications introduced during the period\ncovered by our survey have made it practically possible to defer this choice\nuntil two years later, so that the final selection is made when the boy is\nfourteen years old. When one recalls that out of approximately 500 Gymnasien and Realgymnasien in Prussia in 1911, 128 were organized under this\nFrankfort plan, and that the scheme had then been in operation less than\ntwenty years, it is evident that this modern tendency is finding ready\nacceptance.\nOne point stands out very clearly in a study of European secondaryschool organization, and that is that foreign practice is altogether against\nthe elective system in secondary schools, at least as we know it here. There\nis absolute freedom of choice of school in Germany and of course in France,\nbut once the choice is made, the educational authorities believe that they\nknow better what the youth should study than does the youth himself, even\ntho parental preference should come to the rescue.\nOne cannot leave the question of secondary education without referring\nto the reorganization of girls' secondary schools in Prussia in 1907, since\nthat is only one phase of the general emancipation of woman which knows\nno country nor clime. Several years before, university doors in Germany\nhad been opened to women, but this privilege was not quite all it seemed,\nsince it still rests with the individual professor to determine whether or not\nhe will admit women to his own classes. As time goes on, more and more\nuniversity teachers are admitting, if not welcoming, the members of the\ngentler sex to their classes. Today many German girls' secondary schools\nhave their university-preparatory departments, with the familiar three-fold\norganization into classical, semi-classical, and modern sections, thus practically paralleling the boys' schools. Yet these privileges have been won\nonly thru the heroic efforts put forth by a group of devoted and indefatigable\nworkers.\nContinental peoples nowhere look with favor upon the advent of woman\nas an economic factor. They are jealous of her threatened competition,\nand grudgingly supply her with the intellectual weapons with which to fight\nthe economic battle. When one recalls that the secondary school on the\nContinent is the intellectual cradle of the directing classes, one can readily\nunderstand the reluctance to sanction the development of girls' secondary\nschools, at least in so far as they prepare for the university. Woman's work,\nit is said, is not man's work, so that girls' secondary education should differ\nfrom boys' not only in amount but also in kind. It should aim to prepare\nits pupils for the duties they must ultimately perform. Hence the emphasis\nupon homemaking, child care, and the like.\n\nGirls' secondary schools in\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFrance likewise dififer fundamentally from those of their brothers. In this\nlatter comitry public secondary education for girls did not exist prior to\n1880. In many respects this has been a decided advantage, for there was\na fortunate absence of the traditional practices which have provided many\na stumbling-block to needed reform in educational circles everywhere. One\nshould note in passing that in no other country in the world does the girl\nenjoy the educational advantages in secondary or higher education which\nare open to her in the United States.\nNo survey of European educational progress would be complete without\nat least a passing reference to vocational education, for this field of work\nhas probably registered more striking advance than any other. This again\nis a problem which must be considered in respect to general social and economic conditions, for here the economic world is most closely related to the\nschool. Germany has been remarkably successful in working out these\nrelationships, as the trained educational observer of the German school\nsystem has been quick to see, and as the foreign competitor of the German\nbusiness man has been quick to realize. Co-operation has been the one\nword which explains it all — co-operation between the government on the\none hand and the producer, the manufacturer, the distributor on the other\nhand — co-operation between the educational authority and the business\nman. This co-operation has been one great contributing factor in the transition from Germany the agricultural state in 1882 to Germany the industrial state in 1907. During these twenty-five years the agrarian population\nsuffered an absolute decline in numbers of approximately 8 per cent, while the\nindustrial and the commercial population increased 64 per cent and 82 per\ncent, respectively. With these figures before us, it is not surprising to note\nthat during the generation from 1880 to 1910, Germany's per capita foreign\ntrade exactly doubled in value, while that of the United States, which to\nmany casual observers seems to have made enormous strides, increased less\nthan one-sixth.\nDespite the striking exceptions which immediately rush to mind, we in\nAmerica are still toiling too much along the individualistic lines of the nineteenth century. We have not yet put into general practice the co-operative\naction of the twentieth century. As far as types of vocational schools are\nconcerned, France can probably match Germany in every field, if indeed she\ndoes not surpass her in some fields. It is the nation-wide prevalence of the\nGerman vocational schools, however, which gives her the advantage. In\ntwelve of the twenty-six states of the Empire, continuation schools are\ncompulsory by state law, while, thanks to the provisions of the Imperial\nIndustrial Code, local authorities in other communities may establish such\nschools if public opinion warrants, and then attendance may be made compulsory. As a result there is scarcely a city of any size in the Empire which\ndoes not have its compulsory continuation school, which takes pupils at the\nconclusion of the elementary-school course, holds them until the age of six-\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nIDEAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nPEACE\n\n205\n\nteen or eighteen, and then sends them forth with some specific preparation\nfor their life work, equipped not so much to be better breadwinners as to be\nmore efficient members of the community in which they live. Under the\nconditions of the apprentice system which still prevails in Germany, this\nresults in the organization and training of an industrial army every whit as\neflFective in its field as the military machine which has long attracted the\nattention of the world.\nIf I were to attempt to embody in a single word the secret of European\neducational progress during the past fifteen years, that one word would be\nco-operation. Let it sink deep into your consciousness, for I am confident\nthat it is the largest idea we can gain from European experience.\n\nIDEAL EDUCATION\nMIRZA\n\nTHE FORERUNNER\n\nOF UNIVERSAL\n\nALI KULI\nKHAN,\nCOMMISSIONER-GENERAL\nPACIFIC\nINTERNATIONAL\nEXPOSITION,\nSAN\n\nPEACE\n\nFOR\nPERSIA,\nPANAMAFRANCISCO,\nCAL.\n\nHumanity, from the dawn of history, has progressed under the guidance\nof prophetic teachers from a state of infancy thru the various stages of\ndevelopment leading to its maturity. Even as an infant passes thru the\nperiod of childhood and reaches full development at maturity, so humanity —\nGod's idea of man — has had its various stages of growth, and, in spite of\ngreat obstacles, has shown an uninterrupted trend toward its higher destiny.\nHumanity is the arena in which the drama of the oneness of God is\nbeing enacted. That is, in the oneness of humanity, achieved on this\ntangible, visible plane, we shall have the true picture of the oneness of the\ninvisible God. The r61e played by God in nature, in visualizing the divine\nprinciple of oneness, finds its climax in the part taken by God in history.\nIn spite of all obstacles to the contrary, the course of himianity, in the\nlong run, has never been impeded by retrogression. Civilization itself,\nbased as it has been upon the triumph of man in the face of obstacles, is a\nvital proof of the progressive nature of humanity.\nThe greater the unity resultant of the united effort of a section of the\nprogressive mankind, the greater has been the power of the spiritual teacher\nwho inspired that community, for only spiritual training has effected the\nlasting unity which could resist the inclemencies of world-conditions.\nThe prophets of God, whose gospels were the result of a well-founded\noptimism, aimed at the unity of man because of their due knowledge of the\nprinciple of human unity, which in the mind of God had ever been an\naccomplished fact. To give that principle a visible form was therefore\ntheir aim. Each world-teacher accomplished that plan in conformity with\nthe limited capacity manifested by his people. The message of each was\nlikewise in keeping with the requirements of his own particular section of\nthe human world.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nGod applied his original plan for the unification of Israel thru Moses, of\nthe Gentiles thru Jesus, of the Parsees thru Zoroaster, of the Hindus thru\nthe Buddha, and of the other sections of humanity thru other world-teachers\nand prophets. This was a preparation for the creation, on this visible plane,\nof the Larger Man — that is, God's idea of humanity — who would finally\nfulfil the oneness of God by the formation of a united mankind.\nToday, which to the wise and thoughtful is the day of the maturity of\nthe human race, God will accomplish that noble plan. In the voice raised\nin all parts of the world in favor of peace, and in the efforts extended by the\npeace-loving element in the world's population, which constitutes the positive, affirmative principle of the hmnan body politic, we find a potent,\nmanifest proof that the Day of Peace has dawned, and is steadily, tho\nslowly, breaking thru the dense clouds which temporarily impede its course\nto the meridian of its glory.\nAltho the effecting of a world-brotherhood is the determined plan of\nGod, it is for the membership of the human family to co-operate in its\nrealization. The means, therefore, to be employed should be of the nature\nof that adopted by the past prophets for the unification of their respective\npeoples. That means, however, should be enlarged and perfected to meet\nthe requirements of a more developed humanity and to be applied in a more\nuniversal cause. The lasting unity of man cannot be achieved by the\ndevelopment and strengthening of any one section exclusive of others. The\nmeans to be used should be all-inclusive, in order to insure the welfare of all\nbranches of humanity, exclusive of none.\nIn our effort to unify the world, we must therefore take the lessons\ntaught by the past great religions in achieving the moral and spiritual\nuplift of their respective peoples, for no unity of a people existing in a\ncivilized state could be independent of moral and spiritual character. The\nbuilding of such character has been the task of every true religion.\nAs our aim today is the creation of a world-civilization based upon a\nworld-imity, we must enlarge our conception of religion to teach the dimensions of a world-religion — the religion of humanity. Such religion should\ninclude the truth of all religions, and exclude all patriotic, national, and\nracial bias. It should inculcate the oneness of the world of humanity, the\nindependent investigation of truth, the original oneness of all religions. It\nshould work for unity and show partiality to no man, either for religious or\nfor racial reasons. It should aim toward the training of man in all the\nthreefold aspects of his being — the physical, the intellectual, and the\nspiritual — ^but it should teach that the physical and the intellectual should\nbe made subservient to the moral and spiritual development of man. It\nshould be in accord with science and reason, and thus prove a reconciliation\nof true science and true religion. It should inculcate the equality of men\nand women, their equal responsibilities, tho in various fields of usefulness,\nand their equal opportunities before the law. It should inculcate in the\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nDEFECTS\n\nIN OUR\n\nLEGAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n207\n\nyouths, from the earliest grades of the primary school upward, an ability to\nsee in themselves, not only a part of their own community, nation, country,\nand religion, but an integral part of the human family which is fostered by\nthe one God, the Father of all. It should teach man to aim toward universal\npeace, not toward a peace which would unite only his own particular peoples.\nIt should advocate the development of all races of both sexes as being essential to an ideal civilization. It should not neglect the economic and material\nneeds of man while aiming to gratify his spiritual needs, because in man the\nmaterial and the spiritual are inseparable.\nPersia's contribution toward these principles during the last seventy\nyears has been noteworthy in a remarkable degree, for by the inculcation of\nsuch principles the teachers of this New Day from Persia have successfully\nbrought about the unification of many millions of men and women thruout\nthe world, who are bound together by the tie of such undying ideals. With\nthe progress of these principles, and their application to a larger world, the\nunity of man, and a better state of society foretold by the prophets of the\npast, will eventually be realized thruout the world.\nWhile under the guidance of divine teachers the world is progressing\nmorally toward that state of happiness, the most successful political and\nindustrial steps taken by any nation toward human betterment are those\nrepresented by the federal and industrial institutions organized in the\nUnited States, the greatest republic of all time; for these American institutions, intheir domestic and international relationships, are impregnated\nwith the spirit of justice, altruism, and broad humanity which is embodied in\nthe religion of humanity already referred to, because they exhale the fragrance of the noble sayings of the Persian prophet of these modern times:\n\"Ye are all the leaves of one tree and the drops of one sea\"; \"Great glory\nis not his who loves his country, but rather his who loves his kind.\"\nAmerica is therefore the field in which the seeds of the world-religion\nare given an opportunity to germinate, which will extend to the peoples of\nall climes the bounties of the religion of humanity. May we not, therefore,\nlook upon America as the nation which is specially chosen by the Almighty\nto assist in man's progress upward and to bless humanity with the fruits of\nuniversal peace ?\nSOME\nORRIN\n\nKIP\n\nDEFECTS\n\nMCMURRAY,\n\nIN OUR LEGAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nCAL.\n\nEveryone is prone to think that most of the troubles of the world are\ndue to the fact that matters in his immediate social group are not going\nquite right. The business man, for example, knows that if only government\nwould let business alone, all would be well; the teacher, that the ills of\nsociety are in large part due to the salaries paid in that profession; and\nMoliere's dancing-master was sure that if everyone would take to dancing,\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhumanity's evils would be over. In urging the need of superior training\nfor the lawyer, therefore, I must confess to some apprehension lest my\nvocational predilections cause me to have an exaggerated belief, both in the\nimportance of the lawyer in modern society, and in the importance of a\nproper education for members of the bar.\nImpartial witnesses of the highest character, however, bear testimony\nto confirm my belief. President Wilson, a few years since, said: \"There\nnever was a time when his [the lawyer's] advice was more needed than it is\nnow in the exigent processes of reform, in the busy processes of legislation\nthru which we are passing with so singular a mixture of hope and apprehension.\" And President Lowell, of Harvard University, has said, in\nspeaking of the lawyer's function with respect to constitutional law in our\ncountry: \"Every American lawyer is in a sense a statesman by virtue of\nhis profession, and may at any time find himself called upon to take part\nin deciding questions destined to leave a lasting mark upon the government of the country.\" And, again: \"It is upon that profession that we\nmust chiefly rely for the preservation of constitutional principles in this\ncountry.\"\nForeign jurists and publicists who have studied our institutions corroborate the distinguished Americans whom I have just quoted regarding\nthe bar and its functions. Mr. Bryce, now Viscount Bryce, says: \"The\nbar has usually been very powerful in America, not only as being the\nonly class of educated men who are at once men of afifairs and skilled\nspeakers, but also because there has been no nobility or territorial aristocracy to overshadow it. Politics have been largely in its hands.\"\nAnd the most philosophical foreign observer who has written about our\ninstitutions, Alexis de Tocqueville, sees in the legal profession an element\nof vital importance to the preservation of liberty. He says: \"Without this\nadmixture of lawyer-like sobriety with the democratic principle, I question\nwhether democratic institutions could long be sustained; and I cannot\nbelieve that a republic could hope to exist at the present time, if the\ninfluence of lawyers in public business did not increase in proportion to\nthe power of the people.\"\nEven tho we take a more modest view of the lawyer's work than do\nthese eminent men, we must still concede that the legal profession is equal\nin importance, so far as concerns the welfare of society, to the other great\nprofessions. As private adviser in matters concerning the personal and\nproperty rights of the citizen, nay, concerning even his conduct in the most\nintimate and delicate relations in life, as judicial officer, whose duty it is\nto administer, and, in cases not covered by statute or precedent, to declare\nthe law for the first time, as legislator upon whom devolves the greater part\nof the labor of improving our laws by legislation, in all these fields the\nlawyer's work affects the most precious possessions and heritages of our\npeople.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nDEFECTS\n\nIN\n\nOUR\n\nLEGAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n209\n\nIt is, therefore, a matter of considerable moment that the bar of the\ncountry should be possessed of high ideals, that it should be independent\nand courageous, that the character and attainments of its members should\nbe such as to command respect. All of us know lawyers who more or less\nnearly fulfil this ideal, and the history of our legal profession has, on the\nwhole, been one upon which its members may look with satisfaction. But\nit must be admitted that there are tendencies in our life which have disastrously affected the lawyer's profession.\nLike many other of our institutions, we borrowed from England the\nideas concerning the organization and training of our bar. One who reads\nthe history of that country cannot fail to be impressed with the predominance, thru a great portion of time, and particularly in the eighteenth\ncentury, of the aristocratical principle in its polity. The profound and\neloquent writings of Burke set forth the philosophy of the state from the\nviewpoint of the aristocratical principle in a form which has not yet been\nmatched by any champion of the democratic principle. Montesquieu\npointed out that the actuating principle of an aristocracy is honor, and as we\nread Burke we seem to see the truth of the French philosopher's suggestion.\nIt has been characteristic of English custom, of English law, of English\ninstitutions, to trust largely to merely moral principles, to the sense of honor,\nin government and administration. Mechanical devices for securing\nliberty or efficient administration have never been much in favor with the\nEnglish school of political thought. Leave things to gentlemen, and they\nwill be done well — that has been in the past, if it is not in large part at\npresent, the theory of English government. \"A cynic might even suggest\nthat the easy working of English constitutionalism proves how beneficial\nmay be in practice the result of democracy tempered by snobbishness.\"\nI am glad to say that this sentence is not my own, nor was it written by an\nAmerican. I quote it from one of the most eminent of modern English\nconstitutional scholars, A. V. Dicey, of Oxford University, a man by no\nmeans entirely in sympathy with the modern democratic movement.\nThe English bar, like other English institutions, was organized and\ntrained upon the aristocratical principle. It was not an accident that\nuntil very recently the only requirement deemed necessary to qualify a barrister to practice was to eat a few dirmers in the Temple, nor that Dr.\nJohnson justified the custom as being as satisfactory a system as could be\ndevised. The division of the profession into two classes, solicitors and\nbarristers, the fact that admission to either branch of the profession and\nthe discipline of members of the bar are even to the present day not matters\nof state concern, but are left to the bar — these are but additional illustrations\nof the aristocratical theory of government.\nThe legal education of the English bar has always been dominated by\nthe belief that what is really essential is that the barrister should first\nof all be a gentleman, in the English sense; secondly, that he should have\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe education of a gentleman; and lastly, that he should pick up his legal\nknowledge in a haphazard manner, chiefly thru practical experience in the\npursuit of his profession. What is true of legal education is, of course,\nequally true of other professional education. English engineers and physicians have had to learn their professions in the same unsystematic way in\nwhich the lawyer has learned his.\nAlong with other ideals of education, this English tradition has been\nhanded down to us. The ^American college, in general, perpetuated the\ntheory of the English university, with perhaps somewhat more emphasis\nupon the pedagogical side. The English university gave its students an\nopportunity to gain a broad culture if they would; the American college —\nperhaps because of its prevailingly Puritan origin — laid down a discipline\nwhich he must follow whether he would or not. Both English university\nand American college had as their ideal the training of men for general\npower of thought and expression.\nThe ideal of the American college was a fine one, as indeed was that\nof the institution from which it inherited its traditions. The training of\ngentlemen in the best sense of the word, the training of citizens whose\npowers of thought and expression enabled them to assume positions of\nleadership in politics and other affairs of life, was a most worthy task and\none which we cannot now afford to neglect. But in performing such work,\nnoble as it is, higher education had not exhausted its functions. Science\nmust have its place — nay, must occupy the position of chief importance —\nin the modem scheme of education. And not merely pure science, but\nscience in its daily applications. The practical importance to the state of\nscientific agriculture, of trained physicians, electrical engineers, and chemists, isnot likely to be underestimated by modem society. And so long\nas the applied sciences flourish, there will be found sufficient support in\npublic opinion for the maintenance of the research work which is the life\nblood of science.\nTho the development of the university as distinguished from the college\nhas been a matter of rather recent history, now that we have adopted the\nimiversity ideal, the training of professional scientific men has been taken\nup with great readiness by our people. It has appealed to our practical\ngenius and also to our democratic notions. That the farmer boy should\nbecome a scientific agriculturist seems fitting and proper in the nature of\nthings. And I believe that nothing could be more abhorrent to present\nAmerican feeling than such an organization of our higher education as would\nhave rendered impossible the services to science of William Thompson and\nCharles Darwin had it not been for the fortunate circumstance that they\nhappened to be men of wealth.\nWhy have not the training of the lawyer and the raising of the standard\nin his profession kept pace with the other branches of scientific training and\nthe raising of standards in other professions ? Why is it that most of our\n/\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nDEFECTS\n\nIN OUR\n\nLEGAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n2ii\n\nlaw schools are still private institutions, insuflSiciently endowed? How is\nit that even in our great universities, the law school is usually regarded as\ndealing with matters outside of the university field, that it is looked upon\nnot, it is true, in the same way as the courses in household economy and\nfolk-dancing, but still in a sense as an interloper? Why do university\nadministrators and the educational public in general maintain an attitude\nindicating a certain distrust toward the law school, while such distinguished\nforeign observers as Josef Redlich, of the University of Vienna, and A. V.\nDicey, of Oxford, have found in some of our schools of law themes for high\npraise, even matters for imitation — honors rather grudgingly bestowed by\nEuropean experts on American university work?\nI think both the praise and the qualified suspicion spring in part from\nthe same cause. The narrow English tradition which in general regarded\nthe law as a genteel occupation by which a man of talent could gain wealth\nand social position but not as a science worthy of study for its own sake was\nto a certain extent carried over into our country. The American colleges for\nthe most part did not attempt the teaching of law, and where they did,\nwith a few very notable exceptions, they taught it as a profession, and not\nas a science. True it is, the practical sense of the American recognized\nthat some special training was necessary to qualify a man for practice,\nand that law ought to be taught, not left to a haphazard method of acquisition. Hence the American law school. But the ideal of our law schools\ncontinued to be professional, not scientific. The best of them have perfected the training of their students in analytical power, and in knowledge\nof the English and American law so as to elicit the Austrian and English\nprofessors' praise for the thoroness of their work. Professor Langdell's\nintroduction of the case method was an event of the first importance in\nthe history of American law, in the history of higher education, and in the\nhistory of pedagogical method. But, notwithstanding the signal merits\nof this method, it failed to recognize the broader claims of the law to a place\nin cultural history; it taught the law as a system organized and perfected\nby English and American courts and legislatures, not as a subject also\ndemanding investigation in a purely scientific spirit.\nDemocracy does not feel particularly interested in fostering a plan of\neducation for the bar, merely preserving and continuing the English tradition which placed professional training entirely in the hands of professional\nmen. So long as the education which the law school offers is given for the\npurpose of qualifying a man to draw a sufficient pleading, to conduct a\nproper cross-examination, or to warn a client against a flaw in a title, just\nso long will even an enlightened public opinion continue to lack interest in\nthose internal problems of the bar, which to the serious-minded lawyer seem\nso grave. The public cares very little whether a lawyer is familiar with the\nrule in Shelley's case, whether he is well read in the case-law of this state,\nwhether he is or is not courteous in his relations with courts and other\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlawyers, nay, even whether he is or is not conscientious in his financial relations with his clients. The interest in these things belongs to the client\nwho deals with the lawyer, or to the social group in which he finds himself. The community is only to a slight degree and in an indirect manner\naffected by these things.\nBut the community is interested, and vitally so, in having a body of\nmen trained in the law as a science, with sufficient knowledge of its history\nand tendencies to be able to interpret statutes and decisions broadly, with\nsome sound ideas as to the nature and purpose of law. Modem society\ndemands that the lawyer be something more than an animated bookworm.\nIn addition, it demands that a certain number of properly trained minds\ndirect their attention to constructive and critical legal work — the sort of\nwork that President Wilson spoke of in the quotation in the earlier part\nof this paper.\nThe universities have not as a rule attempted to supply these needs.\nProfessor Hohfeld, of Yale University, says:\nHave our university law schook been giving full recognition to what Mr. Wilson\ncalls the conscious struggle for change and readjustment which characterizes oiu: era?\nAnd are they doing all that they reasonably might by way of guiding this struggle toward\nthe conservative, fundamental, cind lasting betterment of our legal institutions ? More\nparticiilarly, are our university law schools giving adequate recognition to the constructive\nscience and art of legislation, the latter having clearly become, at least for the present, the\nchief agency in the evolution of our legal system ?\n\nI venture to say that when the law schools raise their ideal from that of\nequipping practitioners to that of training jurists, public opinion will be\nfound ready in support. Juristic science was the parent of the mediaeval\nuniversity; the revived study of the Roman law in Bologna not alone\ncreated the university but opened the way to the new hiunanism; the\njuristic faculty will again take its position by the side of the other sciences\nwhen it recognizes that it, too, is teaching a science, a subject fraught with\nthe utmost importance in human affairs, a subject which demands to be\nstudied with scientific aims, with scientific method, and with the broadest\nbackground of culture.\nTHE EDUCATION\nRAY LYMAN\n\nOF THE PHYSICIAN\n\nWILBUR, M.D., LELAND STAISTFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nThe rapid strides made in medical education in the United States in\nthe past fifteen years are due not alone to the general increase of opportunity\nand interest in medicine by universities. The right track has been found\nand progress along a blazed trail into a well-made road is comparatively\neasy. The work of Pasteur, Lister, and others took medicine out of the\nempirical period, replaced opinions with facts, and made the modern medical\neducation requisite.\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nPHYSICIAN\n\n213\n\nThe general plan accepted for the education of the physician includes\ngraduation from the high school, two to four years in the university, where\nwork in physics, chemistry, and biology and a modern language is taken,\nand four years in the medical school with a recommended or required\nhospital year. Many short cuts have been proposed to escape this rather\nlong and expensive period of preparation for a profession. It has been\nurged that it is imfair to the poor boy, that it gets a man into his life's work\ntoo late, and that a broad general training is not needed. Many still fail\nto see the great community responsibility of the practicmg physician and\neven some medical educators view medicine more as a trade than as a profession. Some medical institutions have gone so far in response to legislative requirements for physicians as to put in a hybrid year in the medical\nschool in which work in physics, chemistry, and biology is concentrated.\nWe have had the remarkable spectacle of a president of the American\nMedical Association, perhaps somewhat influenced by his own associations,\ndefending this absurd makeshift.\nThe best opportunity for the correction of existing conditions in medical education interfering with early graduation lies in proper elementary\ninstruction. There is no doubt that our elementary schools waste a considerable amount of time for the student who is of average or above the\naverage intellect. A certain amount of telescoping of this elementary\nwork, with the avoidance of repetition, and with sound instruction, should\nmake it possible for the average individual to graduate from the present\nhigh school at least by the age of seventeen. If the high schools can be set\nfree from the direct influence of the university, this will probably be much\neasier of accomplishment.\nThe double function of the ordinary high school should be borne in\nmind. It has to provide for the student who plans to go no farther in\neducational work and for the student who plans to take up a profession or do\nother work of university grade. The work for these two classes of students\nshould be differentiated at some definite period.\nIf the number of years leading up to the high school could be reduced by\none by a proper readjustment of the curriculum, and there could be added,\nin at least the larger centers of population, a so-called advanced high school\nor senior high school, or perhaps a junior college of two years, it would then\nbe possible for large numbers of students to receive one or two years'\nadditional training which could be recognized by the universities and more\ndefinitely controlled by them, and which also could be something of a tryout for those still unsettled as to their educational future. This would\nnecessitate a distinction between collegiate work and the more advanced\nuniversity work associated with higher scholarship, professional training,\nand research. The carrying out of such a plan would free a large amount\nof university funds for more advanced work and would at the same\ntime broaden greatly the scope and opportunity of education in many\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncommunities. It would also bring a much higher grade of teacher in\nassociation with large numbers of our yoimg people. In such senior\nhigh schools the work in physics, chemistry, biology, and the languages\nrequisite for medical instruction, as well as for other professional study,\ncould be readily carried out. The present attempt to force the ordinary\nhigh-school student thru the class of work which is prescribed by the university inpreparation for courses to be taken there undoubtedly has a very\ndeadening efifect upon the high-school curriculum. This is particularly\ntrue in regard to the courses in English, which are almost universally\nunattractive and dull, except when placed in the hands of some brilliant\nand inspiring teacher. Even such a teacher is likely to be handicapped by\nthe prescribed work outlined by the universities. A proper training in\nEnglish and English composition is of the greatest importance to the\nprospective medical student, and it is unfortunate that this line of work\ncannot be made more attractive and more practical. Languages are\nusually taught at the wrong period of life. They can be most readily\nlearned between the ages of five and fourteen. Instead they are, as a rule,\nreserved until the high-school or university period, when they are taken\nup from the standpoint of grammar and conjugation and made consequently\nas much of a task as possible. Some schools should be daring enough to\nreadjust their courses so that children may obtain the modem languages\nat an early period of life and be able to interest themselves in French,\nGerman, and other literature during their teens. As a matter of fact, it\nmakes little difference what the prospective medical student takes in the\npresent high school if he comes out of it with a real knowledge of English\ncomposition and the ability to work.\nThe university training of the physician should last for a period of two\nto four years, preferably three or four. Certain subjects are absolutely\nnecessary in order that the medical curriculum may be taken up without\nhandicaps. A certain amount (one year) of physics, chemistry, and biology,\nand one or two modern languages, is generally recognized as the minimum.\nMost important of all is that advanced work should be done in at least one\nstudy. The great variety of opportimities in medicine, the various specialties— ^public health, research, etc. — need men of various training. It is of\nadvantage to the medical school to have one student who is an expert\nchemist, another who is an expert physicist, another a classical scholar,\netc. Only by knowing at least one thing well can the medical student get\non as he should in the latter part of his training and in his future life. In\nthe university, some definite effort should be made to enable the student to\nobtain a knowledge of psychology and of sociology. He is to deal with the\nhuman animal in its complex relationships in society, not with figures or\nstresses and strains or other things capable of being reduced to the terms of\nmathematics. It is also most important that university training should give\nthe student some knowledge of books and of journals, of the value of a\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPHYSICIAN\n\n215\n\nlibrary, and some idea of how to go to the original sources in working up a\nproblem; and that he should develop a proper suspicion of the printed\nword and not depend upon it too absolutely. It is most desirable that a\nstudent during this period should keep in mind the necessity of living a\nsound and healthful life, and developing a healthy body. A healthy body\nis an absolute requisite for the physician. A large part of his training is\nthat of the senses; of the eyes, ears, nose, fingers, and of the body in general.\nIn order to obtain the highly technical skill required in operations and in\ndiagnosis, all of his senses must be alert and trained. The lecture system\nin the medical curriculum has been minimized more and more and the\nstudent no longer gets the major portion of his instruction thru his ears to\nbe tried out practically upon patients after graduation, but he receives thru\nthe laboratory period and thru the clinical period a thoro individual training in his perceptions and in judgments based largely upon the senses. It\nis particularly because of this that the prospective medical student should\ninterest himself in outdoor sports of various sorts and in clean living. Not\nonly are athletics of great value from the standpoint of physical well-being,\nbut also if properly conducted in the university and elsewhere they are of\ngreat importance in encouraging a proper sporting sense and a sense of\nfairness, and in the development of the power to associate readily with\nothers so necessary for the give-and-take life of the ordinary physician.\nRegular habits of exercise should be established early in school life, and\noffer one of the best defenses of our youth against vice and dissipation of\nall sorts.\nThe medical curriculum should be made up of a combination of laboratory and clinical work carried on for the most part by personal instruction —\na return somewhat to the old preceptor idea so that the art as well as the\nscience of medicine may be learned. It is a great tribute to the individual\ninitiative and ability of the American that we have so many remarkably\nsuccessful men trained by a faulty system. The great expense associated\nwith a proper teaching of medicine is the most important factor in crowding\nout the commercial medical school responsible for this system. The student has become painfully aware of the fraud practiced upon him when the\nonly thing done in preparation for his coming is to add a new chair to a\ncrowded lecture room.\nIn order to turn out a practitioner from the medical school, interne\nyears in the hospital have been more and more encouraged until at the\npresent time in some states they are required by law, and some medical\nschools are now requiring a year of hospital work before granting the degree\nof Doctor of Medicine. This will undoubtedly become universal as soon\nas the hospitals in this country are brought to a realization of the necessary\nstandards for the adequate care of the sick and the continuous training of\nthe practicing physician, and the medical schools and universities feel their\nfull responsibility.\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfGeneral\n\nIf the medical student graduates from the high school at seventeen, he\ncan at twenty-four or twenty-five be ready to begin the actual practice\nof medicine independently, having had two or more years in the university,\na four-year medical course, and a hospital year. In this way we can be\nassured, if his teaching has been thoro, that he has had considerable technical\ntraining, and that his senses are in a condition where they can safely be\ntrusted to recognize and evaluate the many symptoms of disease.\nIn the past attempts to elevate the standards of medical education along\nthe foregoing lines, constant resistance has been met whenever the amount\nof time required for a medical course has been increased. Particularly it\nhas been urged that the time so spent is unnecessary and that it is an injustice to the poor boy. We must not forget that the poor boy must have a\nfairly complete and usable medical education when he begins the practice\nof medicine. He has only his brains and body for capital and no money to\nfall back upon. He must be able to meet on an even basis those who have\nmore money and perhaps better training. The man with means can make\nup for a poor medical education; the man without means has such a handicap that he can only do so with the greatest difficulty. Postgraduate work\nis very likely to be delayed, and won early only at the cost of great effort\nand sacrifice. With medical scholarships and the opportunities open in\nthe universities and medical schools for self-help, we constantly see students graduating in medicine who have taken care of themselves by their\nown efforts practically thruout the entire course. With assistance they\nno doubt could have gone farther in some of their work. The industrious\nboy deserves help at every step, even from the state if need be.\nThe great need of the social point of view on the part of the physician\nand its slow development in youth must also be kept in mind in this connection. We must realize that the man who takes up medicine as a profession needs maturity and enthusiasm, for, at the best, he is almost sure to\nlead a hard and irregular life — a happy one only when undertaken by those\nin love with that type of work. The practice of medicine is a very unsatisfactory way in which to make money and no one should be encouraged to\ntake it up from that standpoint. Sound training in medicine with ordinary\njudgment and industry secures almost invariably a satisfactory living,\nbut never wealth.\nIn conclusion we wish to urge that the prospective physician be encouraged to make an early choice of his life work so that he may obtain at least\nthe requisite basic minimum of scientific work required for taking up the\nmedical curriculum while devoting his time to those broadening studies in\nvarious fields, both in the high school and in the university, which are so .i\nneedful in his future life work. This broadening or cultural work should\npermit some really advanced work in some one or more lines and should\nnot consist entirely of introductory courses, as it is likely to do under the\nusual conditions prevailing in many of our universities.\n-\n\nf\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\n217\n\nWith the physician becoming more and more of a social agent, it\nbecomes a duty for educators to help the premedical and medical student\nto become the individual and community guide that he should and can be\nif the ideals of our profession are realized.\nSHOULD\n\nTHERE\n\nLOUIS P. LOCHNER,\n\nBE MILITARY TRAINING\nSCHOOLS?\n\nSECRETARY,\n\nCHICAGO\n\nPEACE\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSOCIETY, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nNot long ago, in making an inspection tour of the numerous camps of\ninterned British, French, German, and Belgian soldiers that dot the map\nof little Holland, I chanced to dine with an English officer about whose\ndaring feats as aviator I had read in American newspapers last November.\nWe were discussing political ideals and institutions as affected by the world\nwar, and my British friend was vociferous in proclaiming how the Allies\nwould crush Prussian militarism. \"The world will never be a safe place\nto live in,\" he said, \"until we have beaten the Germans to their knees.\nThere is not a Britisher worthy of the name but will shed his last drop of\nblood for the liberation of Europe from Kaiserism.\"\nThis was familiar language to me. I had heard it over in France at\nthe outbreak of the war a year ago, when even the anti-militarist socialists\nvied with the most conservative of Bourbons in denouncing German\nimperialism as the greatest foe of peace, and in their official organs admonished the \"comrades\" to make every sacrifice, even to the abandonment\nof their peace principles, to secure its dethronement.\nI had heard it again and again in this country, notably in the language\nof men like Charles M. Schwab, whose company is being so visibly blessed\nfor assisting in overthrowing German militarism that Bethlehem steel\nshares stand at 500 and are soaring higher daily!\nI was, then, not surprised at my English friend's lofty tone. But I was\nnot quite prepared for what followed. I happened to venture the opinion\nthat I was not at all sure but that the Allies, in the process of wiping out\nGerman militarism, were prone to lose sight of their own democratic ideals.\nHe turned to me sharply, and with a bang his fist came down as he said with\nwarmth and fervor:\nYes, thank God, this war will end democracy in England. Socialism, trades imionism, syndicalism, and all idle prattle about liberty and democracy will be a thing of the\npast when once we get conscription. The state has been altogether too lenient with all\nthese cranks and faddists. But there will not be a ghost of a show for them after the war.\nMy British friend was not so far from right when he made this prediction. Jane Addams, returning from an investigation of European conditions which it has fallen perhaps to no other person to make, tells us:\nThe longer the war runs on, the more the military parties are being established as\ncensors of the press and in all sorts of other places which they ordinarily do not occupy;\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe longer the war goes on, the more the military power is breaking down all of the safeguards ofdvil life and civil government, and consequently the harder will it be for civil\nlife and for the rights of civil life to re-establish themselves over the rights and powers\nof the military.\n\nWe find, then, this curious anomaly: the most stupendous war in history, ifWe are to accept the view most current in America, is being fought\nin the name of democracy and avowedly in opposition to militarism — a\n\"war to end war\" is the phrase applied by Ally and Teuton alike — yet\nwithin the warring countries democracy is being more and more overshadowed bythe very militarism which each power is seeking to destroy\nin the other. The Allies, to crush German land militarism, are raising the\nmost gigantic armies ever assembled and are superseding civil law by\nmartial law in their respective countries (and martial law is no law at all —\nonly the will of the military officer) ; the Germans, to destroy British sea\nmilitarism, are building so many submarines and battleships that, should\nthey be victorious and smash the English navy, their own marine equipment\nfor war will be quite as much of a menace to the freedom of the seas as they\ndeemed England's to be.\nIn other words, each country, in seeking to destroy the military ideal\nin the other, becomes virtually conquered by that very ideal in the process.\nAs an Englishman put it to Dr. Jordan in London last fall: \"I fear the\nconquest by the Prussian spirit more than the conquest by her armies.\"\nMore than that. So internationalized is human society today that a wave\nof reaction sweeping over one part of the human race is bound to touch\nthe whole human family. Hence this hysteria in America. Hence this\nrunning for cover, for \"protection\" that doesn't protect, for \"insurance\"\nthat doesn't insure, for increased armaments and additional naval bases.\nWe, too, are in grave danger of becoming converts to the philosophy\nof force.\nThere you have the background for the efforts now under way to establish military training in our public schools. It is part and parcel of this\ngeneral swinging back of the pendulum to the ideals of a century in which\nthe g\\m patriots would not have commanded nearly as much notoriety as\nnow. Already the legislatures of Ohio and Massachusetts have been stampeded into the appointment of commissions to consider the advisability\nor feasibility of introducing such military training into the educational\nsystems of their commonwealths. Members of the Board of Education\nof New York City have lately been repeatedly approached to introduce\nsuch training. Providence, R.I., has even voted a definite budget for\nmilitary instruction in its schools, thereby out-Prussianizing Prussia, for\neven in militaristic Prussia they have not sunk to the level of teaching mere\nchildren how to kill. A determined effort will be made in other states and\ncommunities to secure similar action unless we can recover our sanity and\nagain face forward instead of backward.\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\n219\n\nThe physical and moral aspects of this question must be apparent to\nany educator who seriously reflects upon the problem. It is not on these\nself-evident objections that I wish to place the emphasis. Rather would\nI indict the introduction of military training on two grounds: First, it\nwould be a confession that we are about to abandon the American ideal of\ndemocracy and to substitute for it what has become popularly known as\n\"Prussianism,\" or the military ideal. Secondly, since no nation lives unto\nitself, a radical departure from our traditional military policy, such as the\nintroduction of preparation for war in our school curricula would involve,\nwould mean a radical rearrangement and realignment of all the great powers,\nand might easily set in motion a wave of militarism scarcely less calamitous\nthan the great war itself.\nThere are, I suppose, as many definitions of what the American ideal\nof democracy is as there are theories about the tariff. Most people are\nagreed, however, that it is the very opposite of autocracy and militarism.\nAsk any one of the many thousands upon thousands of immigrants from\nmilitary-ridden Europe as to why he came to this land of opportunity, and\nhe will tell you, among other things, that it was because he \"did not raise\nhis boy to be a soldier\"; because to him America meant the land of individual liberty, the \"land of the free and the home of the brave,\" because\nhe wants his progeny to grow up free from the crushing burdens of military\nservice and war taxes that so stifled individual initiative in the old country.\nAsk the foreign observer who comes to our shores to study our life and\nour ideals what it is that distinguishes us from the Europeans, and he will\nalways enumerate, among other points, the absence of the military. I recall\nan incident that occurred in Washington two years ago. Some two hundred foreign students, representing thirty different countries, had gathered\nat Cornell University in an international congress to deliberate upon problems common to students of all nationalities and to advance the ideal of\nuniversal brotherhood. From Ithaca they traveled to Buffalo, to Niagara\nFalls, to Philadelphia, to New York, to Baltimore, to Annapolis, and finally\nto Washington. I was sitting in a cafe one noon with several Italian\nstudents, when suddenly one of them sprang up excitedly and pointed out\nof the window. \"At last I see an American soldier,\" he said. \"I had\noften heard in Italy that you are a non-military nation, but I never\ndreamed that I would travel thru five of your largest cities before meeting a soldier.\"\nGeorge Washington in his famous \"Farewell\" address emphasized* the\nincompatibility of militarism and democracy: \"Overgrown military establishments are, under any form of government, inauspicious to liberty, and\nare to be regarded as particularly hostile to republican liberty.\" No one\ncan question that these establishments in every nation today, our own\nincluded, are overgrown — that is, swollen beyond all reasonable proportions\nthru fear or misapprehension of others.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIGencral\n\nHere, then, are the two ideals: The so-called Prussian ideal, which makes\ncitizenship and soldiery synonymous; the other, the democratic ideal, which\nexalts pacifism as the highest form of patriotism, and which regards the work\nof the soldier as the very last resort after the failure of law and justice.\nThere is no doubt in my mind as to which ideal the great body of\nAmerican teachers favor. There is no doubt as to which the rank and file\nof the common people favor. The very fact that the sympathies of the\nUnited States, broadly speaking, ar-: on the side of the Allies because,\nrightly or wrongly, they see in a German victory the triumph of the military\nideal, shows how devoted we are to the democratic, pacific ideal. And\neven those in our coimtry who sympathize with the Teutonic powers in\nthis struggle do it because they believe that a sweeping German victory will\nrid the Fatherland once for all from the dangers surrounding her, and, in\nthe words of Congressman Bartholdt, will enable Germany to disband her\narmy and abolish conscription at the close of the war.\nIf, then, we are all taking sides one way or the other, our technical neutrality notwithstanding, because we want to see the world freed from the\nmilitary ideal, is it not just a little bit inconsistent, to say the least, to\nwant to enthrone that ideal in the very cradle of liberty, the American public\nschool ? Are we to be regarded as sincere if we ourselves do not practice\nwhat we preach ? If Prussianism is an undesirable thing, then why instil\nit in the hearts of our youth ?\nIt is a current statement in the trenches of Europe that this is really an\nold men's war, that the splendid young men of this generation are forced\nto fight for ideals of an older generation, for ideals which they no longer\nshare. John R. Mott, Jane Addams, and others who have been abroad\ntell us that the young men vow that when this war is over they will see to\nit that their new ideals of international co-operation supersede these older\nnotions. Are we to be more backward than the man in the trenches?\nWhile Europe is bitterly regretting that it ever succumbed to the military\nideal, and is pathetically trying to shift the blame for this war one upon the\nother, shall we adopt that outworn ideal in our presumably up-to-date\neducational system by installing military training? Even the Prussian\neducational system does not provide for military instruction in the common\nschools. Shall we outdo Prussia? Ramsay MacDonald well pointed out\nthe dangers of militarism in a recent speech in Birmingham. Said the\ndistinguished member of Parliament:\nGreat Britain is nearer militarism than ever it has been in its existence. Of course,\npeople say it is only temporary, but let them not make any mistake about that. When\nthey go into militarism for temporary pxirposes they have to abandon the view which\nis at war with militarism. If they submit to conscriprion in any shape or form now the\narg\\mients in favor of conscription will continue after peace.\n\nAnd so it will be with the idea of military training in public schools. At\nfirst it will be a voluntary matter for the children. Then it will be compul-\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\n221\n\nsory. Then it will be extended into the high schools, the colleges, and the\nuniversities in ever-increasing measure. Soon it will appear advisable\nthat the young men who are unable to go beyond the grammar school be\ngiven the same opportunity for \"patriotic\" service that their more fortunate\ncomrades have at the high school or colleges, and workingmen's and business men's military training will be provided. Do you not see whither we\nshall then be drifting, whither, in fact, we are already drifting? A few\nlegislators controlled by gun-makers and munitions manufacturers, a few\nbig papers subsidized or at least swayed by the same influences, a potential\nenemy dangled long enough before our eyes — and conscription is only a\nquestion of time. And once conscription is introduced — well, I let General\nLeonard Wood speak. Said the general in the course of one of his recent\nattempts to militarize our colleges and universities, \"If we had conscription in this country it would stop all this pacifist talk in twenty-four\nhours.\"\nBut perhaps I am seeing things in too pessimistic a light. Supposing\nmilitary training in public schools were an unqualified blessing to the\nyoungsters taking it. Still I would oppose it, particularly at this time of\ninternational unrest. In our modern state of interdependence, no nation\nany longer lives unto itself. Whatever is said or thought or done in one\npart of the universe becomes part of the world-thought or the world-mind.\nEven war among so-called civilized nations is no longer possible between\ntwo isolated countries, but, as we now learn by horrible example, has\nbecome so internationalized as to draw almost a dozen countries into the\nholocaust.\nIt follows that any new governmental policy, especially a military one,\nintroduced in one country is bound to be felt thruout the world. We have\nabundant proof that this is true. When our fleet sailed around the world to\nshow everybody we could \"lick them to a frazzle\" it became responsible\nfor the inflated naval programs of several South American sister republics.\nOur huge military appropriations make similar appropriations in Japan\nalmost inevitable — and Japan has no money to pay for them; only debt.\nWhen the German Emperor decades ago uttered his famous Unsere\nZukunft liegt auf dem Wasser, he brought about an almost revolutionary\nrealignment of the European powers, and soon converted the traditional\nenmity between France and England into friendship. When France two\nyears ago in \"self-defense\" against outside threats extended her military\nconscription period from two to three years, she drew out an instant response\nfrom Germany in that that country levied a heavy income tax upon her\nrich people so as to swell her \"defensive\" war chest. When Russia showed\nspecial signs of activity in the Baltic region, the Swedish people implored\ntheir king to increase the armaments of their country. And so on. The\nmilitary program of one country is invariably bound up with that of the\nwhole civilized world.\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nAnyone with any imagination whatever can foresee what would happen\nif the most cherished shrine of hberty and democracy, the American schoolhouse, were to become infested by the military ideal. The world, already\nsorely shaken in its faith in the peace ideal, would see its last ray of hope\ndisapp>earing. A wave of mihtarism scarcely less calamitous in its potentialities than the great war itself would follow. The laborers, the socialists,\nthe reUgionists, the men of good will everywhere who in their respective\ncountries have been pointing to our unfortified frontier of 3,800 miles on\nour northern boundary, to our arbitration and \"cooling ojQf \" — or one year's\ndelay — treaties, to our freedom from land mihtarism, and to our comparative \"unpreparedness\" as living demonstrations of the better way, will go\ndown in defeat before the jingoes when America, too, succumbs to the ideal\nof force.\nDo the educators of America want to take upon themselves the tremendous responsibility of helping our coimtry become a prime factor in perp>etuating the system that has been the imdoing of Eiu-ope ? Not if I read\naright the history of American education. The American teacher has\nalways been arrayed on the side of progress. He will not fail us in these\ntroubled times, even tho all the forces of darkness are at work to draw us\noff the path of truth and Ught.\nIt is not an easy task to stand out boldly against the eflForts to drag\np>atriotism down to the level of the war system. It is far more popular to\ncry \"preparedness\" and to denounce peace propaganda than it is to remain\nsane and calm in the knowledge that the world will not forever remain at\nsixes and sevens, but that ultimately the reaction must set in and a period\nof soberness must follow. To be a pacifist nowadays is to incur the stigma\nof \"moral flabbiness,\" of \"degeneracy in moral fiber,\" of \"physical and\nmoral cowardice,\" to cull but a few choice phrases from the vocabulary\nof those who would rush us into war.\nBut do not let that worry us. As a dear old German professor said to\nme in Berlin last May, when we were discussing the grave world situation:\nOur time, too, is bound to come despite all that you see round about us. And then\nI look forward to our yovmg men and women from the imiversities, to our teachers and\neducators, taking the lead in ushering in the era of a world united, of co-operation where\nthere is now antagonism, of mutual understanding and good will.\n\nOne of our best known Americans has said, \"Not once in a thousand\nyears is it possible to achieve anything worth achieving except by labor, by\neffort, by serious purpose, and by willingness to run risks \" May the people\nof good will everywhere not look in vain to the American teacher to accept\nwillingly the risk of impopularity in setting himself or herself like a wall of\nadamant against the attempt to militarize our priceless heritage — the free,\nliberty-inspiring public schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE EDUCATION\nCHARLES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nENGINEER\n\n223\n\nOF THE ENGINEER\n\nD. MARX, LELAND STANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY,\n\nJUNIOR\nCAL.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nEngineering schools are of comparatively recent origin in this country;\nthey are less than a century old. Troy Polytechnic was founded in 1824,\nthe Sheffield Scientific School in 1847, the Lawrence Scientific School of\nHarvard in 1850, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1865.\nThen followed a more rapid development, and now we have a large number\nof such schools doing excellent work, it is true, but still falling short of the\nbest French and German schools in the character of the product turned out.\nFor this engineering educators are being criticized; they are being told that\nthey attempt to teach too much, thus giving the men a mere smattering of\ninformation. On the other hand, they are told that they do not teach\nenough, and that they are sending out men who lack training in broad\nhumanizing subjects, men deficient primarily in a knowledge of their own\nlanguage, let alone a knowledge of such modern languages as French,\nGerman, and Spanish. Our men are accused of knowing nothing of history,\nbusiness law, or economics. Unfortunately this is true in many instances,\nbut in a four years' curriculum the engineering educator cannot find time\nto make up these educational deficiencies — deficiencies which to my mind\nexist in far too large numbers after a course of preparatory training in our\nhigh schools. Having had experience in teaching which extends over thirty\nyears, I feel justified in saying that our engineering students go out into\nthe world lacking in many things in which they should be prepared, because\ntheir high-school training has been defective. I think as engineering\neducators we have the right to expect that students who have spent from\nthree to four years in the study of their mother tongue should come to us\nprepared to write and speak English correctly; they should not come to us\nas most of them do now with a disgust for the study of English. In my\nopinion no engineering school of high grade should be called upon to exact\nof its students that additional time be given to the writing of English themes,\nand yet, at the present time, it is absolutely essential that such additional\ntraining be given.\nProfessor Burr, of Columbia, in a recent paper on \"Training and\nEngineering Practice,\" well says:\n\nIf the duties of an engineer bring him into the administration of affairs, it means that\nhe must constantly be brought in contact with his fellow-citizens in the community in\nwhich he discharges his duties. Under such circumstances, he must have the power of\ncommunicating with them gracefully and effectively in such a way as to please and persuade them. He must have a reasonable command of language and such a faculty of\npresenting his propositions and his reasons for supporting them as will be persuasive and\nconvincing.\n\nWe have a right as engineering educators to insist that our young men\ncome to us with this ability after four years of high-school work in English.\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nBut they do not, and to my mind it is the duty of the members of the\nNational Education Association to see that this improvement in the teaching of English is brought about. As I said before, the absolute importance\nof this work is recognized, and the necessity that our engineering students\nbJiVell trained in English is imperative, but the engineering school should\nnfcS^ called upon to remedy this defect.\n^\" Wm*^s to modem languages as part of the requirement of a general\ned^edtidh.XJt cannot be denied that a knowledge of one or two modern\nl^^iSi^f ^^^d be eminently desirable as part of the preliminary training\noF^il^A^rf^eSf However, I have serious doubts whether it is worth while\nf(^f^'6tt?\"fe'ttilife?fts to spend any time at all in the high school on modemli*^fe^s$fi^, unless the courses can be so arranged that at least two years'\n^Sj^^^^-'ift^^^dern language is required, so that the student can come to\niffe^^Jvfth?^ tftorS^eading knowledge. Most of our students now bring in\ntftStf^liflidi^lSiffil^nce requirements some modem language, but here too,\naS'^ift ^f(?as@ ^teiglish, the student has acquired as a rule a distaste rather\ntJ^iS^lil^fii^^^B)^8te language work. Graduates of French and German\npi^^fklc^J^l^liifMfeSfbifife'-to the engineering school at about the same age\nt«a?^f^om^%*h^fflie*i^^^^^^nile have at least a reading knowledge\n(^^h|y^ddfeiWJlShpi^^4^«Hit?^Mtf Ji4ve studied. Have we engineeri^^u^t<»fe ^?fCilSi^^ig}?«?Mrefi^,««^Mite9)«tet our young men who\n\nHa^%iiM96a^^y0S^M^?^^^!i¥^^r%1|}^^difS^IiPaS(^^ to us with\ntKfei^h^'''^(5l^i'4^^-^#h6'''^d6^l(^%y#ie<ft'%t^^StShl^\n\nus to\n\nirf^t iM>amilimkvt§iri^^mAy-\\iJS[i^^rm'm>s^'k3^^^n\nsMa^4^^S9a?!fim^^H§gW4ifctf%ik\n«*^^^^i^5Pffi^Work, who\nthe have\ntime\nda^0^tfWaife%<ifk^^ fee-M^^k^6oP?f 'f)ra€^c«ny^^^tddP Here, again,\nI^^ lfiafi3tBiiiii^^I'«cSbiH^|)M^|3tf«ra^s^^fi^-baff-»s&Mlders which it\nsff6iflti^l¥V^fe6H? ^u-gaoi isxiJom liodi lo xhuis s»rlJ ni siaa\n2^ ^teJPebfefg fef-iift^lK^inX^^^^siHi^^fif^t^f&J^g^ratory mathe-\n\nrimia^ trMS@^l9)^«ifeia^rffi| Mwk^, fl[Jf(5fer'^klPte^r^ there is\nni^f^3sa!i^m1f^tekac^aWH^fJa^ffift^ai^i)flcffiy^^^WJ?3^'H¥gnoa\n\ni^m^^^^m:<^if^^&^'me4^\\il6m^ ^l a ^smii Jnaaaiq sdi i^ ,i9y bnB\n\nIf our high schools can send us young men well trafiS^dSifl^lSignfef?,^\nltecg,^'Gman,\"tt:\"!9fJiMislfJ'^mgtdb^,\"aiMdffi«^<^iA<^ntl^\nwith preferably a two years' course in phy§^(^^iSiej^t^;''^^'m^'^\n\n^M^ tme\" Jiiia'#4)ftMi^fei«¥aH?rifoMat(6wf ^^^vm^^^ff^^ fcktj^^H'^^iid.\n\n\\iyi^vae9fisds£^vsiilljyr. ae marfj ■giuiioqqiJd idl enoa&oi eiri bnjj gnobieoqoiq sid gnijnogsiq\n\nApace with engineering development, or rather because of it,-3f^\"fiiM'^\nwaay^^aoo^ ofrc^OgHieiariag dp^isdl^ba |lli-lilftii)}AgiBfiin^iilffKriiiia<sWnly\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOP THE\n\nENGINEER\n\n225\n\nwork of Redtenbacher first of all, was also elevated from a craft to the\ndignity of a science; mining and electrical engineering followed, and then\nthe ramifications of these main divisions in many specialties. Is it the\nduty of the engineering school to attempt to turn out specialists in these\nvarious lines, or should it confine itself to giving in the undergraduate\ncollegiate curriculum that general training for making engineers, which we\nare now askiag our high schools to give us in the shape of a general training\nfor making men? In spite of the tendency of some of our engineering\nschools to give such subdivided courses, I am in favor of the general preparatory engineering course. It is true that the demand for experts in\nspecial lines is steadily growing, but it is also true that expert knowledge\nwhich is worth anything can be built only upon the basis of a broad technical\ntraining. The various lines of engineering are so interwoven that no man\nwithout some knowledge of the allied fields can today be a truly successful\nengineer in his own line. To give a specialized training in civil, mechanical,\nand electrical engineering in a four years' course is a physical impossibility,\nsince, in addition to giving the technical work, time must be found in the\ncourse for rounding out the general education. The endeavor of the engineering teacher must, therefore, be to give a thoro course in those scientific\nsubjects which underlie all the engineering professions; mathematics,\nmechanics, analytic and applied, must form a foundation on which the\ngraduate can later build. The elements of mechanical and electrical engineering can be given to civil engineering students and vice versa. Studies\nin economics, business law, and civics should be given and required of all\nengineering students. I place these subjects in the technical school because\nI believe a certain maturity of mind is needed to get the full benefit of the\nwork, and because the importance of economic studies for the proper solution of many engineering problems is now only beginning to be realized.\nSlowly with our own cultural development the need of the trained expert\nis recognized. Many of these problems, national, state, and municipal, are\nof an engineering character. Technically trained men are needed to solve\nthem, but they must not be technically trained along narrow lines. The\nengineer who is called to administer the affairs of a large city — and I am\nglad to say this tendency is growing — must possess more than mere engineering knowledge. He must have that, of course, but he must have, in addition, administrative and executive ability, imagination, a broad outlook,\nand the ability to deal with men as well as with materials. I believe that\nwith inspiring teachers of economics, men who can present on broad lines\nthe industrial and social problems which are pressing for solution, we can\nsend out our technical students prepared not only to do their work along\nnarrow engineering lines, but also prepared above all others for doing\nsome of the most important work which now needs doing. Engineering\nscience is responsible for many of the problems which have arisen in connection with our modem industrial development.\nEngineers should\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntherefore feel the responsibility of solving these problems. Engineering\nefficiency has been emphasized, our men are being trained to obtain it,\nbut more than ever before the value of human life is recognized as well as\nthe necessity of treating man, not as a mere tool, but as a human being.\nEngineers have been among the leaders in such work and our young men\nmust have their attention called to this in their undergraduate days.\nIf, then, we can only give to our students the basal technical training to\nwhich I have referred, with such additional roimding out of their general\ntraining as I have just mentioned, then the question naturally arises. Why\nnot lengthen the college course by one or two years ? That would seem to\nbe desirable and two suggestions have been made. One is that before the\nstudent takes up his technical work he take a three years' general preparatory course and follow that by a three years' course on purely engineering\nlines. Some of the engineering schools, notably Columbia, now have this\nrequirement. I myself have in the past advocated this, at least for some\nof our leading engineering schools. The main objection is an economic one.\nI agree with what Professor Swain, of Harvard, says in discussing Professor\nBurr's paper on \"Training and Engineering Practice.\"\n\nTo quote;\n\nI do not believe there are many engineering students who can afford to spend six\nyears in getting their education. Exiucation is so much dependent upon practical experience that the engineering graduate, no matter what course he pursues, must be prepared\nto begin at the bottom of the professional ladder. He should emerge from the engineering\nschool possessed with intellectual humility rather than intellectual arrogance, and realizing that without experience his engineering judgment will be of little value.\n\nWhile subscribing to this statement, I do not believe that this fouryear course is all that our engineering schools should offer. Opportunity\nshould be given for carrying on advanced work and for extreme specialization, when once the student has found himself in practice and when the\nneed for this special training shows itself. But not every institution need\noffer, nor is qualified to offer, such graduate courses, and here I find myself\nagain in accord with the views expressed by Professor Swain. Research\nand advanced work that is worth while require a type of instruction and\nmeans that are not within the power of many engineering schools to provide.\nIn engineering especially the difficulty in securing thoroly well-qualified\nteachers even for imdergraduate work has been great. The leaders in\nthe profession — and those are the men who alone should teach our future\nleaders — can be found in but few places. Those institutions Jire fortunate\nwhich can command even a part of the time of such men and to those\ninstitutions our students should go for graduate work.\nI believe that our engineering schools today are doing good work,\nall things considered. Discontent is usually a sign of progress, and, if this\nbe so, engineering education will improve as rapidly in the next decade as\nit has in the past century, for it is being studied and subjected to criticism\nfor its defects by engineering societies, educational bodies, and last, but\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n227\n\nnot least, by the Carne^e Foundation. Let us hope that when all the\nfacts are brought together, carefully tabulated and analyzed, it can be\nshown that after all engineering education is not in so perilous a state as\nmany seem to think and that the engineers who have been graduated from\nour engineering schools in the past, in spite of their defective training, have\ncontributed their share to improving the conditions of mankind, have been\ngood citizens and doers of humble tho often of heroic deeds.\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nDAVID B. JOHNSON, PRESIDENT, WINTHROP NORMAL\nROCK HILL, S.C.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND INDUSTRIAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThere is no one subject that is receiving greater attention from statesmen, educators, and the people at this time than that of agriculture, and\nit deserves all that it receives and more,\nAltho the prosperity of every other calling, of the country itself, depends\nmainly upon the prosperity of the farmer, the wealth producer of the\ncountry, his interests have been overlooked in legislation and in the organization of courses of study, schools, and educational institutions until comparatively recent years. Now the leaders of thought and action are\nrealizing the importance of the farmer to the state and that the welfare of\nthe whole country, urban and rural, is involved in the welfare of the agricultural people who constitute such a large proportion of the whole population.\nAgricultural conditions may be improved best and most surely by\nimproving the rural public schools by consolidation and otherwise, but\nespecially by providing for the teaching in these schools of those subjects\nbearing upon rural life, by closely relating these schools to the life of the\npeople served by them, and by educating the children for country life\ninstead of away from it.\nBesides the economic value of the study of agriculture in the schools,\nit is claimed that the experience of some countries of Europe and of those\nsections of our own country where it has been taught longest in the schools\ngoes to prove that its introduction in the rural schools has caused a movement of the population toward the country from the city and has raised the\nage of leaving school from two to three years. Instruction in agriculture is\ngiven in the schools of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Holland, France,\nBelgium, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Canada, New Zealand, Australia,\nIndia, Japan, and the South American repubUcs.\nAs a result of the example of other countries, of the splendid work of the\nUnited States Department of Agriculture thru its bulletins, its farm demonstration work, its special agents, its boys' and girls' clubs, its com contests,\nand its other practical and far-reaching agencies, of the practical teaching\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand experimentation of the agricultural colleges and agricultural experiment stations, and of the advocacy of the leaders in every calling, agricultiire\nin one form or another is now being taught in tMs coimtry, not only in the\nagricultural colleges and many normal schools but also in some five hundred\nagricultural high schools and public and private high schools and academies\nand in the rural pubHc schools of many states and territories.\nThis remarkable growth in agricultiuul instruction in the public schools\nof the United States has occurred mainly since 1897. It is only a question\nof time, and a short time at that, before all the states, especially in the\nagricultural South, will reqiiire the teaching of agriculture in all of the\npublic schools.\nNow what is the place of the normal school and how can it aid in this\ngreat movement ? My answer is that teachers must be prepared properly\nfor this most desirable agricultural work if it is to succeed, and the normal\nschools must give this preparation. Teachers specially trained are absolutely necessary for the successful organization and conduct of the ideal\nrural school. The main fimction of the normal school is to prepare teachers\nto teach the subjects fixed by law and demanded by the best interests of the\npeople and by public opinion. If agriculture is one of these subjects, as it\nalready is in many states and will soon become in all, it must prepare teachers\nto teach agriculture, just as it now prepares teachers to teach arithmetic,\ngrammar, history, geography, etc. The introduction of agriculture into\nthe rural schools with any chance whatever of success waits upon the proper\npreparation of teachers for this work.\nIt is not a question now as to whether or not normal schools want to\ndo this work. The conditions already demand that they shall and the\nmain question with them now is how shall they do it.\nThere can be no conflict between the normal school and the agricultural\ncollege in this work any more than there can be conflict between the normal\nschool and the medical college, because the normal school teaches physiology\nand hygiene and such like subjects. The normal school does not pretend\nto prepare scientific agriculturists any more than it is preparing physicians.\nAgriculture is taught in the normal schools of Eiu-ope, where this subject is required in the public schools. Since 1879, it has been taught in\nevery normal training school in France.\nWork in elementary agriculture was begun at Winthrop Normal and\nIndustrial College of South Carolina on a small scale eighteen years ago.\nA teacher of elementary agricultm-e is now employed, who teaches college\nstudents in college classes and also in connection with the work in the training school, where the children are instructed chiefly by means of school\ngardens. A textbook is used for the college students and for the higher\ngrades of the training school, accompanied by experiments and work in\nthe propagation house and the school gardens. It is the intention to\nstrengthen the work very materially in the near future. A bulletin on\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "•\n\n\\\n\\\n\nSessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEEPER\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN CHINA\n\n229\n\nschool gardens has been prepared by the college. At the Practice Home,\nestablished at Winthrop College this year for the better preparation of\nhomemakers, provision is made for practical gardening, bee culture, dairying and poultry raising.\nThis work of giving teachers preparation for teaching elementary agriculture isconsidered so important by the public at large and is of such\nmagnitude that there is a widespread movement to have the national government extend aid to it in the state normal schools just as it has already\ndone in the agricultural colleges for the training of specialists.\nA GREETING\nNATALIE\n\nG. V. DE\n\nMORALES,\n\nFROM\n\nGUATEMALA\n\nACCREDITED\nDELEGATE\nMENT OF GUATEMALA\n\nEROM\n\nTHE\n\nGOVERN-\n\nThis country offers a great contrast to other countries. While in the\neastern nations of the Old World the terrible war overwhelmed the people\nwith plunder and blood, this powerful country invited all its sons and the\nsons of all nations to a great feast of peace and progress, to its wonderful\nExposition in this beautiful land of California, the land of sunshine, of\nflowers, and of poetry. Thru this great Exposition, we come to a realization\nof the noble ideals of human solidarity, and in this International Congress\nof Education we see one of the principal agencies working in behalf of the\nwelfare of the children of all countries of the world, upholding the ideals of\npeace which we, the teachers, must spread in our great work for the welfare\nof mankind.\nBefore I leave this beautiful country which I love and admire, I desire\nto express my feelings of sympathy and thanks to the people of the United\nStates for the cordial welcome we have received. In this regard, we are\nespecially indebted to the National Education Association, that select\ngroup of thinkers to which we are proud to belong, and to its honored\nPresident, David Starr Jordan, whose kind words of welcome and friendship I shall never forget. I shall take his greeting to my country as a\nmessage of peace and prosperity.\n\ni\n\nTHE DEEPER\nL. K. TAO, PROFESSOR\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN CHINA\n\nOF SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE, GOVERNMENT\nUNIVERSITY, PEKING, CHINA\n\nNobody can at the present moment refrain from talking about war.\nWhen we have a big gathering like this, our imagination will naturally\nstretch itself toward the other side of the Atlantic, where a golden land of\nlaw and order inhabited by different peoples, industrious, and humanely\ninnocent, is now consecrated to the spirit of Mars. Lives of thousands are\nwiped out at a single instant while each believes that he is serving his\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "23©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfatherland. Tens of thousands condole at the loss of their kith and kin —\nthe loving creatures of their hearts. Is it not a fact that the great part of\nthe intense hatred that is being generated among the belligerent nations is\nnot to a great extent contributed to by the indescribable sorrow that they\nsuffer for the dead ?\nThis being realized, it is indeed a felicitation and a high honor to the\nAmerican democracy that in the midst of this turmoil, which must directly\nand indirectly affect every particle of humanity on this planet, such a\nCongress as this International Education Congress should be held to discuss\nquietly and unconcernedly the science and art of life and peace: such\nsubjects as prepare men for life, instil in them a higher ideal of life, and\nhelp them in finding out the means to attain that result.\nI do not propose to describe the educational progress of the past in\nChina, for that has already been well done. The dry bones of statistics,\nthe dull narrative of educational development, the laudation of everything\nthat is novel — if all these are not viewed in their right spirit and from a right\nperspective by a penetrating mind, they yield dangerous tho valuable data\nto those who believe change is progress — these i>ersons are becoming abundant in the East as they were once in the West. In view of this, I now propose to present a problem — a problem that may perhaps invite your\nattention and provoke thought.\nFirst of all, we have to bear in mind a truism, a truism that is frequently\noverlooked by Westerners: That is, China is not a part of the Western world.\nThat country was not affected by the achievements and influences of the\nancient Eg5^tians, Greeks, Jews, Romans, and some of the less civilized\nraces — the achievements and influences which we now arbitrarily call\nWestern or modern civilization. The Chinese people have their peculiar\ntraditions, customs, beliefs, and hence behavior, and if you take the exclusively Western viewpoint, they might seem grotesque and barbarous. The\nlatter term we generally attach to things differing from our own. Whether\nsocial or poUtical, religious or educational, our institutions were adapted\nto our fundamental, if somewhat primitive, needs. Apart from the contact\nChina occasionally had during a very remote period thru commerce,\nexploration, or pilgrimage with the Romans, the Persians, and the Hindoos,\nthe Chinese cultural process may be spoken of as always evolving on its own\nline, assimilating little of what is compatible with it. That the archaic\nChinese system of education was ineflicient, prescientific, stiff, and undemocratic cannot be gainsaid, and I do not attempt in any way to justify it. It\nis noteworthy, however, that it was entirely a product of that kind of society,\nand, up to a certain extent, it had served its purpose: not a few scholars\nwere made, numbers of administrators were trained, literature and poetry\nwere perpetuated, and learning was universally admired. In short, the\narchaic educational system of the Chinese was efficient in the community\nand at the same time kept the community from the evils of disruption.\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEEPER\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nCHINA\n\n231\n\nThe nineteenth century was a most wonderful century, for marvelous\nthings had been achieved or done in those hundred years. To the Chinese,\nthe once isolated, self-esteemed, inactive, but ever-successful race of an\narchaic civilization, nothing is more wonderful than the advent of the\nWesterners. Their mechanical skill, material wealth, active and evangelistic spirit, not to say the more fundamental things such as science, philosophy, and religion, have bewildered and humiliated, if not actually\nawakened, the Chinese mind. The coming into contact of two utterly\ndifferent cultural processes is always attended with far-reaching results.\nConflict is bound to come and must be accompanied by victory on one side\nand submission on the other. To cope with the new situation, the change\nof the old order was hailed. Above all things the educational program\nmust be recast, for to face the invading civilization we must adopt the\ntraining methods of the invaders. Social matters are more complicated than\nwe can generally conceive and here lies the danger of hasty and reckless\nimitation of alien educational methods without any reference to the social\nbackground. In other words, national education must take into consideration social conditions, for an educational system must fit the society and\nat the same time hasten its improvement. This, I think, is the crucial\nproblem that is being presented in China.\nFor the last twenty years, there has been a perceptible increase of the\nnumber of schools and school population. In a country like China, where\nthe proportion of literates is low and milHons have never been put in any\neducational institution, the opening of new schools can only be construed as\na most welcome sign. Yet they are not all successful, tho at the present\ntime we are still too early to make any prediction. Fancy the children of an\nagrarian population whose training in the art of agriculture has been always\nin the field put into a school building where words and textbooks are taught\nwithout any reference to their future occupation and their proper environment. Reading and writing are to the child but the means of which vocational training is the end. The mechanical way of reading textbooks is\nof little use when an adequate training for life is necessary. The Chinese\nshopkeep>ers have very httle schooling, and have always been apprenticed\nin stores for a number of years. Now when there is set up a commercial\nschool of which the curriculum is deficient in practical methods of trading,\nwe are not astonished to know that doors are shut to its graduates and\nthat the children of the peasants learn their trade in the old-fashioned\nway.\nTime would not allow me to go over all the concrete facts. Another\ninstance may be referred to, further to illustrate my point.\nThe effort of foreign missionaries along the line of education must be\ncounted as one of the greatest educational influences in China. Their\ndevotion is as admirable as their enthusiasm is strong; the consequence is\njust as great. Thousands are taught to master a foreign language and to\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nknow something Western. Yet in this, as in the two cases I referred to\nabove, regrettable, if not disastrous, eflFects are to follow. The missionaries\nare handicapped, on the one hand, by the fact that they are foreigners carried by a strong religious fervor — overenthusiastic of Christian morals and\nassailants of native traditions; and on the other hand, by their ignorance\nof current, advanced theories and methods of education in the West. After\nstaying for a number of years abroad, most of them lose touch with the\nnew thoughts of their own land. How possibly can the educational system\nfit to the society if the leaders are ignorantly antipathetic ?\nIf my words are doubted, the works on China by missionaries and the\ntheological doctrines they preach and teach may serve as glaring examples.\nIs it any wonder that social rebels are turned out from missionary schools\nwho are not in sympathy with their own social traditions and yet fail to\ncomprehend completely and fairly the essentials of the foreign culture to\nwhich they profess allegiance ? I do not wish to belittle the influence of the\nmissionaries in promoting education in China — their influence is ever predominant. Nor am I blind to the pioneer works they have done. Still\nless dare I to pronoimce any apathetic criticism of their loyal, indefatigable\nspirit. What I want to emphasize here is its defects rather than its merit.\nTime has come, I think, for the government to determine a constructive,\nprogressive policy of national education whereby the inconsistencies which\nI have tried to illustrate may be brought to an end. The Chinese lack\nadministrative ability, but experience and time may educate them. And\nthe government will, by its supreme f>ower and extraordinary opportimities,\ncentralize knowledge and distribute it to different educational centers with\na view to the improvement of our educational system. For this purpose,\nthe amassing of available past experiences, whether they were successes or\nfailures, is necessary. Traditions and morals, customs and beliefs, which\nare native in origin, beautiful and sublime in meaning, and national in spirit,\nmust be preserved. Education must be standardized. Thus the problem\nof education in China is not religious nor merely is it the scarcity of educational institutions. It is social in the sense that education must be appropriate to the society, must tend to promote and not to destroy its weKare,\nand must preserve social heritage.\n\nHIGHER\nCHARLES\n\nF. THWING,\n\nIDEALS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nPRESIDENT, WESTERN\nCLEVELAND,\nOHIO\n\nRESERVE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe first higher ideal may be called a higher ideal of the practical. The\npractical has its more and its less noble side. To that less noble side, let\nno one be blind or deaf. But there is danger also that to the nobler relations of the practical, himaanity will be indifferent. There is danger that\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nAS EDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nAS BUSINESS\n\n233\n\none will become so absorbed in the outer that he will forget the inner; so\nabsorbed in raising corn in the valleys that he will not look up to see and\nfeel the sky-kissing peaks. The nobler ideal of the practical should rest\nupon these results: clear seeing; pure feeling; right choosing; intellectual\nlaboriousness. A type of this higher ideal of the practical is found in Lord\nKelvin, who appHed the highest scientific skill to a most important concern\nof daily life. His compass makes the sea safer to every mariner. This type\nmay be found also in WiUiam T. Harris, one of our United States commissioners ofeducation. A great philosopher, the most distinguished Hegelian\nin America, he also was concerned with details of schools in Alaska.\nThe second higher ideal in education is found in a broader ideal in religion. Religion represents man's relations to ultimate being. That ultimate being one is inclined to interpret with narrowness. We have often\nlimited that being to a God whose goodness was in turn Umited to a small\npart of the human family. God has also been too often interpreted in\nthe terms of feudahsm. He should be interpreted in the most comprehensive intellectual and deepest emotional terms of democracy. The type of\nthis high idealism as seen in a broader conception of religion is best found\nin Phillips Brooks.\nThe third ideal in education relates to a deeper conception of the worth\nof personality. Personality is what one is— it is *' you.\" It is distinguished\nfrom what one is thought to be and from what one wishes to become. It is\nyour actual being. It is the creature which God has made. It is the\nmaterial plus the immaterial. It is body plus spirit. It is that which\nthinks, reasons, judges. It is that which lives, aspires, hates, rejects,\ndespises, exalts, plans, and hopes. It is that which refuses or accepts. It\nis that which declares the eternal \"Yes\" or the eternal \"No.\" It is that\nwhich exults at the right or is gnawed with the tooth of remorse at the wrong\ndone. Education in its high idealism has to adjust itself to a deeper ideal\nof the significance of personality. The t5^e of such high idealism is found\nin two living Englishmen who have a certain close relation to America —\nJames Bryce and John Morley. Of all Americans, perhaps Emerson is the\nmost fitting representative.\n\nATHLETICS\nWILLIAM\n\nAS EDUCATION\nT. FOSTER,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nAND\nREED\n\nATHLETICS\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAS BUSINESS\n\nPORTLAND,\n\nORE.\n\nAthletics are conducted either for education or for business. The old\ndistinction between amateur and professional athletics is of little use.\nWhen athletics are conducted for education the aims are these three; (i) to\ndevelop all the students and faculty physically and to maintain health;\n(2) to promote moderate recreation, in the spirit of joy, as a preparation for\nstudy rather than as a substitute for study; (3) to form habits and inculcate\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nideals of right living. When athletics are conducted for business, the aims\nare these three: (i) to win games — to defeat another person or group being\nthe chief end; (2) to make money — as it is impossible otherwise to carry on\nathletics as business; (3) to attain individual or group fame and notoriety.\nThese three, which are the controlling aims of intercollegiate athletics, are\nalso the aims of horse racing, prize fighting, and professional baseball.\nThese two sets of aims are in sharp and almost complete conflict. Roughly\nspeaking, success in attaining the aims of athletics as education is inversely\nproportional to success in attaining the aims of athletics as business.\nIntercollegiate athletics today are for business. The question is pertinent\nwhether it is a legitimate function of schools and colleges to promote\nathletics as business.\nNearly all that may be said on this subject about colleges applies to\nsecondary schools. The lower schools, as a rule, tend to imitate the worst\nfeatures of intercollegiate athletics, much as young people in fraternities\ntend to imitate the empty lives of their elders that fill the weary society\ncolumns of the newspapers.\nIf the objection arises that intercollegiate athletics have educational\nvalue, there is no one to deny it. \"Athletics for education\" and \"Athletics\nfor business\" are general terms used thruout this discussion in the sense\nalready defined. Exceptions there may be. Only the main tendencies are\nhere set forth. The whole discussion is based on my observations at no\nfewer than one hundred universities and colleges in thirty-eight states\nduring the past five years.\nOpposed to the three educational aims are the aims of athletics as\nbusiness — winning games, making money, and getting advertised.\nTo achieve these ends the dominant ideal is excessive physical training\nfor a few, especially those who need it least, to the neglect of the many,\nespecially those who need it most. The coach is the embodiment of this\nideal; it is the first article of his creed; he succeeds in the work of managing\nathletics for business to the extent that he neglects athletics for education.\nThe ends of intercollegiate athletics are best served by the neglect of those\nin greatest physical need.\nIn our country, we often quote the remark of the Duke of WeUington,\nthat Waterloo was won on the playing grounds of Eton. It is well for us to\nobserve that the Duke of WeUington did not maintain that Waterloo was\nwon on the grandstands of Eton.\nA graduate of Cambridge University, England, on a visit to Syracuse\nUniversity inquired how many crews there were.\n\"Three, possibly four,\" was the answer.\n' *Is that so ? \" said he. ' ' At Cambridge, in my day, we had one hundred\nand five.\"\nAt some colleges, all students are required to pay fees for the support\nof intercollegiate athletics. The bills are rendered and collected by the\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nAS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nAS\n\nBUSINESS\n\n235\n\ncollege, with tuition and laboratory charges, but students are not required\nto participate in games for their own benefit. Thus in such colleges,\nathletics for business are compulsory; athletics for education are elective.\nIf our universities had grown up with the ideal of athletics for education, they would not have been content with athletics by proxy. What do\nwe find? One university with two thousand women students and no\nplayground for women, another university with five thousand students and\nless than forty acres of campus — in fact, only a few large universities in all\nAmerica with fields sufficient for conducting athletic games in the interests\nof the bodily health and development of all their students. When we add\nto all this the fact that the ideals of athletics for the select few are antagonistic to the ideals of athletics for everybody, we understand why, as a\nmatter of fact, intercollegiate athletics have failed to promote the interests\nof athletics.\nBut intercollegiate athletics are everywhere defended on the ground\nthat only by such contests can interest in athletics be maintained. The\ntheory is that boys from sixteen to twenty-five years of age cannot be\ninduced to play out-of-door games for fun or for their bodily development,\nbut will play if there is any hope of \"making a Varsity team.\" This theory\nis flimsy. In the first place, it is an affront to youth. A boy, unspoiled by\nathletics for business, would rush that theory off the gridiron.\nIn the second place, the theory is inconsistent with known facts. A\ncompetent coach can quickly eliminate the greater part of a student body\nas unfit for his purposes.\nAltho the present system of athletics by proxy has had imbounded\nopportunity to demonstrate what it can do for the entire student body,\nand has proved, on the whole, a failure, athletics have had no fair opportunity inAmerica to demonstrate what they can do without the hindrance\nof business aims. This alone is a sufficient reason why a few institutions\nshould experiment. No theory of education at variance with popular practice can ever be tested while institutions are confined to imitation. The\nfact that all schools pursue a given policy in athletics — or in anything else —\ndoes not prove them right. We all know that, but we find it difficult to act\nin accord with our belief. The history of education is one long story of\neducational procedure universally accepted as sound by one generation\nand condemned by another. Doubtless the schools of this generation\nteach various matters — besides our absurd spelling — which will some day\nbe discarded. Doubtless we are worshiping some false gods: one of these\nmay be intercollegiate athletics. Why not overthrow it and see what\nhappens ?\nReed College has ventured to do so, by adopting this settled policy:\nOut-of-door games in moderation for all students and faculty, especially\nthose who need them most, instead of the excesses of intercollegiate athletics\nfor a few students, especially those who need them least. This plan for\n\nj\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nathletics was adopted by Reed College in 19 10, when there were no buildings,\nno students, no faculty, no alumni, no traditions.\nLast year every student in Reed College, men and women alike, with\nbut six exceptions, took part in athletics for recreation, health, and development. Last spring 60 per cent of the men of the coUege played baseball in a\nseries of intra-mural games; 95 per cent were engaged in some form of outof-door games.\nAbout 74 per cent of the men and about 60 per cent of the women took\npart in some form of athletics five or six days out of six. All but seven of\nthe total of 234 students took part in athletics at least two days out of the\nsix.\nHow much does it cost the student body to enjoy athletics by participation instead of by proxy ? Let us ask first what it costs students to pay for\nintercollegiate games in institutions famous for grandstand athletics —\nincluding membership tickets, subscriptions, and special assessments — to\nsay nothing of takmg trips and making bets to \"support the team.\" Is\nit less than five dollars per student? In some colleges it is more than\ntwenty dollars. At Reed College last year there were series of football\ngames, basket-ball games, baseball games, track meets, tennis tournaments,\nhandball toiu-naments, games of volley-ball, gymnastic exhibitions, a tugof-war, and other athletics. There were not a dozen students in the college\nwho failed to participate in these games. In payment for all this, the\naverage amoimt collected from the students and exp>ended, according to the\nreport of the treasurer of the athletic association, was sixteen cents.\nNo money for trainers, coaches, banners, badges, silver cups, or other\ntrinkets; no money for training tables, railroad fares, and costly uniforms\nto be carried away as trophies; no money for advertising, grandstands,\nbrass bands, and rallies. The \"necessities\" of athletics for business would\nhave cost the Reed College athletic association sixteen dollars per student\ninstead of sixteen cents.\nFortunately, it is the unnecessary expenditures that pile up the burdens\n— \"the fooUsh squandering of money,\" as Coach Courtney says. The\namount that need be spent annually on athletics in the interests of the\nhealth, recreation, and character of all the students is comparatively small.\nThe economical poUcy is athletics for everybody; the wasteful policy is\nathletics by proxy.\nAlmost invariably the arguments of students in favor of intercollegiate\ngames stress the business aims and ignore all others. Win games ! Increase\nthe gate receipts! Advertise the college! These are the usual slogans.\nAfter all, how important is this end for which such sacrifices are made ?\nTo hear the yeUing of twenty thousand spectators, one might suppose this\naim to be the only one of great importance in the life of the imiversity. Yet,\nwho wins, who loses, is a matter of but momentary concern to any except a\nscore or two or participants; whereas, if there is one thing that should\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nAS EDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nAS\n\nBUSINESS\n\n237\n\ncharacterize a university, it is its cheerful sacrifice of temporary for permanent gains— in Dr. Eliot's fine phrase, its devotion to the durable satisfactions of life.\nThe making of money thru intercollegiate athletics continues a curse not\nonly to institutions, but as well to individual players. Only innocence or\nblindness need prevent American colleges from seeing that the rules which\naim to maintain athletics on what is called \"amateur\" basis, by forbidding\nplayers to receive pay in money, are worse than useless, because, while\nfailing to prevent men from playing for pay, they breed deceit and hypocrisy.\nThere are many ways of paying players for their services. Only one of these,\nand that the most honorable, is condemned. Hundreds of boys know that\nthey are paid to win games and keep silent; they are hired both as athletes\nand as hypocrites.\nThe sporting editor of one of the leading daily papers said recently:\n\"It is well known that the northwestern colleges are at present simply outbidding one another in their desire to get the best athletes. Money is used\nlike water. It is a mystery where they get it, but they do.\" No eligibility\ncommittee knows where all the money comes from or even has the right to\nquestion motives. But the objectionable motives themselves can be eliminated by one act. With the subordination of winning games as the chief\nend in athletics, falls also the money-making aim and its attendant evils.\nAll the serious evils of college athletics center about the gate receipts,\nthe grandstand, and the paid coach. Yet the aim of nearly every college\nappears to be to fasten these evils upon the institution by means of a costly,\nconcrete stadium or bowl and by means of more and more money for coaches.\nWhen the alumni come forward to \"support their team\" they usually\nmake matters worse.\nThe extent to which interest in athletics is deadened by paid coaches\nwas shown last spring when a track team from one university, after traveling over two hundred and fifty miles — at the expense of the student body —\nto compete with the team of another institution, took off their running\nshoes and went home because the coaches could not agree on the nimiber\nof men who should participate in the games. Could there be a more abject\nsacrifice of the educational purposes of athletics ? Consider the spectacle.\nA glorious afternoon in spring, a perfect playground, complete equipment in\nreadiness, two score of eager youth in need of the health and recreation that\ncome from sport pursued in the fine spirit of sport. Could anything keep\nthem from playing? Only the spirit of modern American intercollegiate\nathletics and the embodiment of that spirit, the paid coach, who knows\nthat he can commit but one crime — that of losing a contest.\nThe conflicts frequently arising between faculties and students over\nquestions of intercollegiate athletics are the natural outcome of the independent control of a powerful agency with three chief aims — winning games,\nmaking money, and getting advertised — which are antagonistic to the\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nchief legitimate ambitions of a university faculty. No self-respecting\nhead of a dep>artment of psychology wotdd tolerate the presence in the\nuniversity of persons working in his field in no way subject to him and with\naims subversive of the aims of the department. No professor of physical\neducation should tolerate a similar condition in his department. It is one of\nthe hopeful signs in America that several of the men best qualified to conduct\nathletics as education have declined to consider university positions\nunless they could have control of students, teams, coaches, aliunni committees, grandstands, fields, finances, and everything else necessary to\nrescue athletics from the clutches of commercialism.\nI have a copy of the letter of one of the ablest teachers in America,\ndeclining to accept a certain university position under the usual conditions,\nbut outlining a plan whereby, as the real head of the department of physical\neducation, he might begin a new chapter in the history of American athletics.\nHis plan was rejected, not because it had any defects as a system of\neducational athletics, but solely because it would cause a probable decline\nin victories, gate receipts, and newspaper space. That university continued the traditional dual contest of coaches and physical directors with\ntheir conflicting ideals. Recently I received a letter from the professor of\nphysical education who did accept the position, himself one of the ablest\nathletes among its graduates, declaring that he would no longer attempt the\nimpossible in an institution that deliberately prostituted athletics for\nconunercial ends.\nA few of the more notable coaches of the country are aware of the\npossibilities of athletics controlled by the faculty for educational piuposes.\nMr Courtney, a Cornell coach, spoke to the point, when he said:\nIf athletics are not a good thing they ought to be abolished. If they are a good\nthing for the boys, it would seem to me wise for the university to take over and control absolutely every branch of sport; do away with this boy management; stop this foolish\nsquandering of money; and see that the athletics of the University are run in a rational\nway.\n\nHave I exaggerated the evils of intercollegiate athletics? Possibly I\nhave. Exceptions should be cited. But I am convinced that college\nfaculties agree with me in my main contentions. My impression is that\nat least three-foiu^ths of the teachers I have met the country over believe\nthat the American college would better serve its highest purposes if intercollegiate athletics were no more. At a recent dinner of ten deans and\npresidents, they stood up one by one and declared confidentially that they\nwould abolish intercollegiate athletics if they coidd withstand the pressure\nof students and alumni.\nIs it therefore necessary for all institutions to give up intercollegiate\nathletics permanently ? Probably not. Let oiir colleges first take whatever\nmeasures are necessary to make athletics yield their educational values to\nall students and all teachers. If intercollegiate athletics can then be con-\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSUPREME\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n239\n\nducted as incidental and contributory to the main purposes of athletics, well\nand good. But first of all it must be decisively settled which aims are to\ndominate — those of business or those of education. And it will be difficult,\nif not next to impossible, for a college already in the clutches of commercialism to retain the system and at the same time cultivate a spirit antagonistic\nto it. Probably the quicker and surer way would be to susj>end all intercollegiate athletics for a college generation by agreement of groups of colleges, during which period every effort should be made to establish the\ntradition of athletics for education. If an institution could not survive\nsuch a period of transition, it is a fair question whether the institution has\nany reason for survival.\nTypically American tho our frantic devotion to intercollegiate athletics\nmay be, we shall not long tolerate a system which provides only a costly,\ninjurious, and excessive regime of physical training for a few students,\nespecially those who need it least. The call today is for inexpensive,\nhealthful, and moderate exercise for all students, especially those who need\nit most. Colleges must sooner or later heed that call: their athletics must\nbe for education, not for business.\n\nWAY\n\nOF APPROACH\n\nHENRY\n\nHOLMAN,\n\nWALES,\n\nAND\n\nTO THE SUPREME\nEDUCATION\n\nFORMERLY\nONE\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nIDEAL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nOF HIS MAJESTY'S INSPECTORS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nUNIVERSITY\nOF\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nNo intelligent observer of social development can have failed to realize\nthat the last few years have seen the almost universal development of\npolitical, industrial, religious, and other disintegrating forms of human\nimrest, which are the historical preludes to great and vital changes in social\nstructures. Among the elements of this world-ferment of unrest and\ninstability, the ferment in education has not played the least part, and it is\nalready evident that it will take a foremost place in the readjustments\nwhich will result. And this is not surprising, for what all such upheavals\ndo spasmodically, and often with cruel violence, education does continuously and peaceably, that is, it shapes the destiny of man.\nTo get the greatest efficiency from a school system, it must be national;\nto be national, its ideals must appeal to the average man; to appeal to the\naverage man, the ideals must be convincing and practicable; and to be\nconvincing and practicable, the ideals must be based upon sound and exact\nknowledge, and formulated in language which can be understood by the\npeople. Herein is involved the true relation of the educational experts to\nthe schools, thru the average man; and until this is clearly recognized and\npractically realized educational progress will be severely handicapped.\nThe great duty, one may say, of the scientific educationists is to find the\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndeepest and soundest truths for the educator; while the chief duty of the\neducational poUtician and administrator is to convince the general public\nof the high practical value of these and the necessity of realizing them thru\nthe schools. The main purpose of this paper is to endeavor to suggest\nhow this issue may be met.\nNow it is quite obvious to the student of education that, thruout the\nages, individuals, commimities, and nations have sought to achieve or\nperpetuate their ideals of life in and thru their schools. It is in this way\nthat the evil of training children as tho they were miniature, or rather\nmimic, men and women has arisen. During the last few years there has\nbeen in England a growing public agitation which, based upon a vague\nfeeling of discontent with the results of school education, is gradually\nassuming the form of a definite demand for some radical changes in our\nschools.\nThe result of this movement has been that education is today, what\nit has never been before in England, an affair in which the man in the\nstreet concerns himself. Most of the leading daily newspapers in the\ncountry give a comparatively large amount of space and attention to education. The Times has pubHshed an educational supplement monthly\nduring the last two years, and pohtical and other public speakers enlarge\non the matter. Unfortimately neither the man in the street nor the newspaper writer often knows much about the subject.\nBut not only has the general public been actively concerning itself as\nto school aims, but educationists and teachers have shown an unprecedented\ninterest in the discussion of new ideals and ways of teaching. The use of\nhandwork in schools has made very considerable strides; the writings and\nwork of such men as Herbert, Stanley Hall, Dewey, etc., have led to reforms\nin school work; experimental pedagogy is fast becoming a hving influence\namong the more enHghtened and progressive teachers; and individual\nefforts in investigation and experiment are beginning to be made. The\nMontessori method has given rise to such keen pubUc discussions that\novercrowded halls and overflow meetings have been frequent — things\nhitherto unknown in public meetings for educational discussion.\nIt is not surprising that in all this pubHc and professional ferment there\nshould be much breaking loose from ancient moorings, much unsettlement\nand unrest, and much anxious seeking for some sohd foot of earth, so to\nsay, upon which to rest the feet. Educational aims and ideals are in the\nmelting-pot, and there is likely to be a veritable chaos of conflicting suggestions and assertions. Groups of parents, more or less manipulated by\nteachers, start schools to carry out their own views of what education\nshould be; individual believers in some form of socialism or anarchy do\nthe like; and even serious social workers, and educationists, associate\nthemselves with individuaUstic and titled amateur enthusiasts in conducting smnmer courses, conferences, and private schools, on the plea that the\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSUPREME\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n241\n\ntimes are critical and that solutions of our difficulties must be found. All\nthis is, of course, by no means without certain good results, and is mentioned mainly as evidence of the present condition in affairs of education.\nIf the foregoing be true to fact, it is apparent that never was there a\ntime when clear and definite views on the highest ideals in education were\nmore generally needed, and, therefore, no time more opportune for the\nconsideration of the question whether a supreme ideal for school education\ncan be helpfully formulated and applied. Unless we can formulate and\nget the public to accept some clear and commanding ideal, the progress of\neducation is likely to be spasmodic, unscientific, and unsound.\nIt will be noticed that the question is here limited to school education.\nThere will, in fact, be two vital and limiting conditions which must be\nborne in mind thruout this paper; first, that by school education is meant\nsystematic education from the age of three, at the very earliest, to the age\nof sixteen; and, second, that by \"supreme ideal\" is meant, not a final or\nabsolutely perfect ideal, but the best possible here and now, according to\nthe best knowledge and means available. It is only by keeping our minds\nclear on these two points that we can hope to discuss the subject profitably.\nFundamental differences between the education of an average child\nwho cannot, except in a tentative way, and to a limited extent, order his\nown life in any sound and safe way, and the average adult who should be\nreasonably able, and reasonably free, to do so, are generally ignored by\nwriters on education. The result is that we get the perpetuation of the\nold fallacy, tho it is in a new form, of treating children as adults who have\nnot yet grown up. As examples of this we may mention: the requiring\nof originality, invention, self-expression, etc., in infants' schools; expecting\nchildren to take fully responsible parts in the establishment and conduct\nof communities organized on the lines of the ripest forms of adult evolution;\nletting school children take the lead in town improvements; and requiring\nthe young ones to fill their minds with the reasons for peace, and against\nwar. Again let it be said that certain forms of these things are not without\ntheir elements of good for children; but if Professor James was right when\nhe said, \"I think I have seen college students unfitted ever for philosophy\nfrom having taken that subject up a year too soon,\" how much more likely\nis it that children may be similarly incapacitated for later life by our\nbeginning the teaching of adult subjects to them from half a dozen to a\ndozen years too soon. Yet even progressive teachers who condemn such\nthings in classical schools cultivate them in the most modern schools.\nBut the most serious instance of the evils of the imposing of adult forms\nof development upon children is in the teaching of religions as a means of\nchild culture. Let it be noted that the term \"religions,\" and not \"religion,\"\nis used, for these are very different things. Religions are particular philosophies oflife, organized into systems of prescribed forms of faith and\nworship, while religion is, at least in the minds of most intelligent and\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthoughtful people, a basic element, in any and every philosophy of life. It\nis impossible in the time at our disposal fully to discuss so grave and disturbing an issue as this, notwithstanding that it is most urgently in need\nof full discussion. In England this issue has been the most constant and\nthe most disastrous obstacle to national progress in education and is so at\nthe present moment. Two challenging criticisms must, however, be offered\nhere, and these are: first, that it is quite unnecessary to settle the final\nissues of philosophies of life before going on with practical education, and,\nsecond, that philosophies of life are not the concern of children as such.\nThis brings us to one fundamental element in any possible supreme\nideal for school education. It must primarily and mainly be concerned\nwith the actual interests of the child as such, understanding by \"interests\"\nthose things which the child desires and strives after instinctively because\nof the needs of his nature, and not with his possible interests when he is\ngrown up.\nA second element obviously follows from the one just mentioned. The\nideal should embrace all the substantial interests of the child, as such, for\nonly by attending to all of these can we hope to get a reasonably complete\ndevelopment of his whole being, which is a complex, interrelated, and interdependent imity. This takes us to the very heart of the matter, for if\nwe can make clear to the average man what is the real nature of the child,\nand what, in consequence, are the inevitable limitations of sound education\nduring school life, we shall not be likely to have much difficulty in getting\nhim to accept a reasonable form of educational ideal.\nHere, as in so many realms of thought, the scientific thinker will find\nhis safest starting-point in what is the almost universal usage with the\naverage man, the regarding of himian nature as a trinity in unity, i.e.,\na human being is regarded as made up of body, mind, and spirit. For our\npresent purpose, we shall return as nearly as may be to Plato, and define\nthe spiritual part of man as that part of him which concerns itself with\ndeciding what is his highest destiny and how best to order his conduct so\nthat he may achieve it. We shall, therefore, speak of physical, intellectual,\nand moral education.\nWe ought to find it easy to demonstrate to the plain man that in the\nmeasure in which we are successful in developing all the child's chief physical,\nintellectual, and moral powers to their fullest and best forms during childhood— and this is the supreme ideal of school education — in this measiu-e\nhe has been best prepared for developing himself as a good churchman,\ncitizen, artisan, etc. Then, and not till then, is it likely that the true sense\nof responsibility for education will be found where it ought to be found —\nin the mind and heart of each and every citizen.\nBut the public will, very properly, demand to know something of the\ndetails of what is involved in \"developing all the child's chief physical,\nintellectual, and moral powers to their fullest and best forms during\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nSUPREME\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n243\n\nchildhood. To decide these details, we must call in the anthropologists,\nbiologists, physiologists, and psychologists, and ask them to give us the\ngreatest possible amount of information as to the best that is known\nthereon, so far as this can be said to be generally approved among the best\nauthorities; and we must ask the scientific pedagogists and practical educators to show us the best methods and means for realizing what is involved.\nIn these matters, the public must be prepared to leave itself in the hands of\nthe experts, in the same sense and to the same extent as the average private\nperson places himself in the hands of his medical adviser.\nWe can, however, say, in general terms, that, with the help of such\nknowledge, we shall be able to educate or assist in the self-development of:\n(i) the body in such a way that it shall be healthy and strong, highly\nskilled and efficient for practically carrying out the desires and resolves of\nthe individual, and capable of readily receiving and fully enjoying and\nutilizing all sorts of physical experiences; (2) the mind, so that it shall think\nsanely and wisely about all the experiences of the individual and thus relate\nhim to his environments in the most happy and helpful ways; and (3) the\nmoral nature, so that the individual shall appreciate all that is highest and\nbest in human life and endeavor, and shall order his conduct accordingly.\nTwo vital limitations are necessarily attached to the realization of these\nresults: first, they can be realized only in so far as, and to the extent that,\nthe individual is endowed by nature with the power to be developed and\nits capacity for development; and, secondly, that during childhood only\ncertain powers can be developed and these only to a certain extent. For\nexample, reason, as the ordinary adult understands it, does not exist in the\nchild nor does sex. Thus the scientist tells us that it is absurd to talk of\nteaching science to a child; and this is largely true, but it is not less true,\nand it is vitally essential to recognize, that true reasoning and scientific\nthinking have their preparatory stages, and if these are not properly provided for, the later stages seriously suffer. Similarly with regard to religion, politics, sex, etc., the child has to be prepared for these, and unless\nthis is done wisely and well we shall be likely to get agnosticism, skepticism,\nanti-sociability, sex-perversion, etc., in their worst forms. This is a grave\nmatter and demands urgent and serious attention. We have already\nlearned, thru painful failures, that the teaching of certain stages of certain\nsubjects should not be begun in the infants' schools, or in the lower part of\nsenior schools, because the child is not yet ready for them, and is hindered\nand injured by attempting them. It seems that we have yet to learn this\nall-important truth with regard to religion, politics, sex, etc. We should\ntake care that we do not learn this, accidentally, thru disastrous blundering, but deliberately, by means of scientific investigation and experiment.\nAt the bottom of all this lies the old fallacy of treating children as adults\nwho have not yet grown up, but are otherwise quite capable of thinking\nand acting in the same way.\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWe have said that two vital limitations are necessarily attached to the\neducation of children, and it remains to be said that one other limitation\nought in equity to be attached to it, namely, that there should be a deliberate and definite attempt to avoid, as far as possible, prejudicing, thru\nschool education, the views and convictions of the individual when he or\nshe comes to adult age. There are, of course, parental and poUtical, as\nwell as educational, reasons for this. With the two first of these we are\nnot now concerned. Of the third, we can say that the educational objection to such prejudicing of the mind in favor of certain views and convictions is,in principle, the same as prejudicing the physical education of\nthe individual. One result must be a very inadequate and one-sided form\nof development, which as a matter of fact may not eventually be utilized\nand will always be an obstacle if not a barrier to other forms of physical\ndevelopment. But another, and still worse, result will be that individual\nand collective human progress is thereby prejudiced. Probably much, if\nnot most, of the progress possible for each generation is lost thru the young\nadult not having had his powers, as a whole, properly prepared, and kept\nsufficiently unprejudiced to judge life's problems fully and fairly, and to\ncarry out his judgments with adequate skill and force. One of the chief\nremedies for this is a clear conception of what is the supreme ideal in school\neducation and a generous devotion to the task of realizing it. This is, at\nleast, one means by which a man may save his soul aHve, and thus fulfil his\npart in the efforts by which humanity seeks to achieve its highest destiny;\nfor it will help him, by the most scientific means, to make the best of himself as a child, and leave him as a man, free and wise, to do what can only\nbe done when he is a man, and by himself. No man is well educated who\nis not as highly qualified and as free as it is possible for him to be to decide\nfor himself what he will do with his self and his inner life; and this is the\nfirst and last justification for the search after the supreme ideal in school\neducation.\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF THE INTERNATIONAL\nEDUCATION\n\nSPIRIT THRU\n\nMAY WRIGHT SEWALL, ORGANIZER OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF\nWOMEN WORKERS TO PROMOTE PERMANENT PEACE, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nThe first requirement in the education of childhood and youth thruout\nthe world is such a revision of the definition of patriotism and such modification of the methods employed in the inculcation of this virtue as will lift\nthe sentiment out of racial, national, and territorial boundaries into what\nmay be termed the sense of international relationship or the spirit of internationalism.\nThe necessity for the development of this spirit arises from present\neconomic conditions and from the fact that industry, commerce, science,\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nSPIRIT\n\n245\n\nart, and even social life are now internationalized to such a degree that\nchanges in the relations of nations are responded to by fluctuations in the\nemployment and in the wage of the individual laborer and the petty\nshopman, as well as in the affairs of capitalists.\nThe old patriotism to a pitiable degree still extant breeds pride, arrogance, and a habitual overestimate of the qualities of one's own country\nwith a corresponding disdain for ''foreign\" peoples and institutions.\nThe objection that the development of the spirit of internationalism\nis an ideal too exalted to be realized is answered by the testimony of history.\nInternationalism, a sense of human solidarity, is no farther removed from the\nlocalized patriotism which characterizes the present stage of man's social and\npolitical development than is patriotism, as we know it, removed from the'\nconception of tribal relationship and tribal obligation out of which it grew.\nThe necessity for the development of the spirit of internationalism is\nmore or less imperative in different countries according to the degree to\nwhich the population of each country is already composite. As the population of the United States is more composite than that of any other country,\nand as the elements which enter into it have been more rapidly and even\nsuddenly brought together here than elsewhere, so the need for inculcating\nthe spirit of a fellowship of international scope and quality exists in a higher\ndegree here than elsewhere.\nAltho a marked improvement has been made, both in the textbooks of\nnational history taught in schools and in the spirit of historical instruction,\nit remains true that the history of most countries, both as written and as\ntaught in the schools, tends toward the development of jingoism.\nThe most imperative need in the schools of the United States and,\npresumably, to greater or less degree in the schools of all other countries\nis a textbook which will supplement and illuminate national history.\nFor years I have been urging the need of a book that tells the simple\nstory of the successive immigrations into the United States from all other\nlands that have contributed to its population. In such a book the story\nof each new inflow of the tide of immigration should be prefaced by a sympathetic analysis of the character of the people coming hither and by a\nclear statement of what each nation to which these peoples respectively\nbelong has contributed to the sum total of human quality, development,\nand achievement.\nFacts prejudicial should not be suppressed, but emphasis should be\nplaced upon the good qualities instead of upon the defects of the contributing peoples. The causes leading to the immigration with a statement of\nthe contribution made by each inflow to the industrial development of\nthe United States, to its art, its literature, its social customs, and its ideals\nshould be sympathetically presented.\nThe inevitable effect of having the youth of the country study a book\nof this kind written and taught in the spirit indicated would give to each\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nelement in the population a proper self-respect and fill all with an appreciative regard of one another which would eliminate jingoism from the\nthoughts and speech of patriots and give all our citizens that sense of\nproportion which is the only cure for an egotistical provincialism.\n\nTHE EDUCATION\nFANNIE\n\nFERN\n\nOF THE WORLD\n\nFOR A PERMANENT\n\nANDREWS,\nSECRETARY, AMERICAN\nLEAGUE, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPEACE\n\nPEACE\n\nThe force of public opinion. — ^The civilization of the future depends on\nthe pubUc opinion of today. This alone can save for humanity what is\nleft when the present cataclysm has passed by. What men and women\nthink about this war wiU decide to a great extent the future of the war\nsystem. The terror of this catastrophe which should be burnt into our very\nconscience demands immediate and persistent action by men and women\nthruout the world. There should be, and there is, a clear, definite course\nto be taken at this critical moment, and each succeeding moment becomes\nmore and more critical and renders action more and more imperative.\nThere is no sense in the plea that while the war continues we can do nothing.\nThree distinct questions face us today. First, how can the war be stopped ?\nSecond, what shall be the terms of settlement ? Third, what plan shall be\nadopted to prevent future wars ? We should try to answer these questions.\nAn informed public opinion should express itself in a definite policy. This\nis the obvious safeguard for the future.\nHow can the war be stopped? — ^Let us consider the immediate question\nwhich confronts the civiUzed world — how can the war be stopped ? I fully\nrealize how delicate any discussion of this question is and how ill-timed and\nfutile it seems to the great mass of people, but can anyone review the past\ntwelve months' carnage and look with indifference on any suggestion or any\nhope which may break the deadlock in this ghastly struggle? We are\ninformed by the press that each nation will fight to the finish, and therefore\nnothing can be done until one side or the other gives in. It is true that the\nbelligerents have refused President Wilson's offer of mediation, altho every\nnation now fighting signed the Hague Convention for Mediation by Neutral\nPowers; and this pohcy of non-interference is well sustained by oflicial\nutterances from the foreign offices. But is each nation determined to fight\nto the last man? I must say that my experiences in Europe during the\nmonths of April and May lead me to believe that this is not an absolute\npolicy. There are some conceivable circumstances which might lead the\nnations to accept negotiations for peace. I have not gathered this impression from the European press or from general expressions of opinion. These\nideas were brought to me from men and women who analyze thoughts and\npassions and situations. One striking fact stands out, that in all the bellig-\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nEDUCATING\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD\n\nFOR\n\nPERMANENT\n\nPEACE\n\n247\n\nerent countries there are two parties — the mihtary, which respects nothing\nbut force, and which is determined to crush the enemy at all costs, and the\ninternational, which deplores the slaughter of human life, and which seeks\nto conciliate the world thru organized justice. The latter sentiment is\nstronger than one can realize in the face of this world challenge; but it is\nthere, and it is the only hope which the world has for eliminating the sudden\noutbreak of war; moreover, it is the only hope which the world has for\nsecuring a peace founded on justice. As J. Ramsay Macdonald says:\nThat there was a strong peace and international sentiment in Germany alongside\nthe patriotic one I have always believed. Now we are finding that this is so. It ought\nto be met. It is not responsible for militarism or for military policy. It wishes for peace.\nBy and by it will be able to secure peace — whilst the soldiers are still in the trenches.\n\nNo better proof could be given to show that international good will\nexists in the midst of this world-madness than the conduct of the soldiers\nthemselves. Reports from the front show on both sides a human hesitancy\nwhen it comes to the actual point of killing. Karl Liebknecht, the distinguished German socialist, declares:\nNowhere have the masses desired this war. Why should they, then, murder each\nother to finish it ? It would be a sign of weakness, it is said, for any one people to suggest\npeace. Well, let all the people suggest it together. The nation which speaks first will\nnot show weakness, but strength, and will win glory and the gratitude of posterity.\nAlready among the German workers there is far greater opposition to the war than is\ngenerally supposed, and the louder the echo of the cry for peace in other countries the\nmore vehemently and energetically will they work for peace here.\n\nThis international sentiment makes a united appeal in this chaotic time.\nIt condemns the contention of the militarists that the enemy must be\ncrushed. No nation can be crushed; all history proves that a virile people\ncannot be wiped from the map. This conviction ought to find a ready assent\nin a generation so advanced in philosophy, science, economics, and ethics.\nBut the nations can become exhausted, bankrupt; and if this is to be a war\nof exhaustion, why go to the limit ? The plan, put forward by many of the\nmost influential thinkers, for a conference of neutral nations which shall\noffer continuous mediation as long as the war lasts, presents one method of\nopening negotiations among the warring nations. Since this plan, however,\nhas been before our administration for nearly a year, there seems to be\nsome reason why it is not feasible. I came home from Europe feeling convinced that some more effective method than this must be devised to bring\nabout peace negotiations. One is very conscious in talking with the citizens of European neutrals of a well-founded timidity about any official\nexpression of opinion. I got this impression, not only from representative\ncitizens of the neutral countries, but from some of the members of the\ndiplomatic corps at The Hague whose opinions I sought when the resolution\nproviding for a conference of neutral nations was brought before the Resolutions Committee of the International Congress of Women. At the\nmoment of this writing, however, the Dutch Anti-War Council, composed\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof some six hundred Dutch organizations of widely varying interests, is\nasking the Dutch government to call a conference of neutral nations.\nThe suggestion to create an unofficial mediation commission has been\nindorsed by important observers of international conditions, and if any\naccurate judgments can be made at all at this time, this commission, if its\npersonnel bore sufficient influence and confidence, might be able to secure\ninformation as to the demands of each government and to transmit them to\nthe others. Certain it is that the need for some definite knowledge as to what\nthe nations are fighting for is of first importance. The Union of Democratic\nControl is asking the British government to define the terms upon which\nGreat Britain is willing to make peace, and demands that these be made\nknown to the Allies and to the enemy. Arnold Bennett declares that the\npublication of the terms of peace might prevent an imnecessary continuance\nof the war. \"It would indeed be tragically absurd,\" says he, \"for the fight\nto continue because both sides were in ignorance of each other's feelings.\"\nSo long as the terms of peace are unknown, the military leaders of the\ntwo factions are able to incite resistance by representing those terms as so\nobjectionable and disastrous that sacrifices, however great, and resistance,\nhowever prolonged, would be preferable to their acceptance. This is the\nview expressed by the Union of Democratic Control. \"A pubUc pronouncement by the Allies,\" says this body, \"as to the conditions which it is their\nintention to demand would deprive the German military leaders of this\nvaluable moral asset.\"\nWhat shall be the terms of settlement ?— From the foregoing, it is obvious\nthat discussion on stopping the war is neither ill-timed nor futile, and this\nfact leads very directly to the second great question before us — What shall\nbe the terms of settlement ? Shall the peace settlement be made behind\nthe scenes and by the same group of men who made the war ? An informed\npublic opinion should express itself on this matter. As the democratic\ncontrol of foreign poUcy is in the platform of every organization meeting\nduring the past year to work out a plan for a permanent peace, the people\nshould insist that the democratic control of foreign policy should begin at\nthe peace settlement conference, that this settlement should not be made\nby a group of diplomats, but by men acting under instructions from their\nparUaments, and they should further insist on their right to know what\ntheir parliaments intend to do. This necessitates prolonged study and\ndiscussion on the part of the people.\nA clear distinction should be made between the form of settlement which\nwould compel a continuation of militarism in every country and one which\nwill break down militarism and free the world from the fear of another\ncalamity like the present one. People should realize that the kind of settlement made at the close of the war will determine the condition of civilization for generations, and therefore it is necessary to formulate principles\nwhich will not defeat the purposes of progressive justice. It is impossible\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nEDUCATING\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD\n\nFOR\n\nPERMANENT\n\nPEACE\n\n249\n\nat this time to draft a specific treaty of peace, but it is possible to stipulate\ncertain lines of action which should be followed. If the peace settlement\nis to be based on justice, two principles must be adopted: (i) No transference of territory shall be made contrary to the wishes and interests of the\npopulation; (2) no power shall seek its own aggrandizement. The war\nwould end today if the public opinion of the world were solidly against\naggrandizement and the transference of alien people against their will. In\nfact, the war would never have started if the peoples had been clear as to\nthe effect of these practices.\nHow to prevent future wars. — With the breaking down of secret diplomacy, by making this peace settlement conference a representative body\nresponsible to parliaments, the world is prepared for a conference of the\nnations which should be called immediately after the peace settlement to\nwork out a plan of organization which shall provide for the permanent\npeace of the world. There can be no complete security for peace until the\ncauses of war are eliminated and a new political organization established.\nPeace will come only when the peoples of the world recognize the fallacy of\nthe prevailing ideas concerning the relations of governments, and when,\nwith the acquirement of right ideas, the peoples demand a political machinery to make them effective. The determination to secure a permanent\npeace among the nations involves a world-wide education of the people in\nthese two directions. They must understand — the common people must\nunderstand — how wars are brought about, and they must see the logic and\nthe justice of a world-organization in which the welfare of the people is\nunderstood to demand peace rather than war. This is a struggle between\npeoples and governments, a struggle between democracy and autocracy,\nand it involves two processes — the disillusiormient of the people themselves,\nand the forcing of their ideas on those who are in a position to put them into\neffect. The opinion that, to secure a permanent peace, one nation or the\nother must be crushed in this war, is a striking phase of the illusion which\ndominates the world. Each side in the struggle openly claims to be fighting\nfor a durable peace. Under such conditions, is it not imperative that something should be done to eliminate the old ideas which render possible this\ncontradictory spectacle of futile conflict ?\nThe idea has begun to dawn upon the masses, as it has upon many of the\nthinkers of the world, that the \"nations are passive clay in the hands of\ntheir goverrmients.\" The peace of Europe was in the hands of some twenty\nindividuals. They could make war; and the millions who were to fight and\nto suffer could not stop it. It is the governments only who are rival units,\nI not the nations. This will continue to be the case so long as the abstract\nentity, the state, is recognized to be distinct in its interests from the men,\nwomen, and children who inhabit it. \"Co-operation between nations,\"\nsays Norman Angell, \"has become essential for the very life of their peoples.\nBut that co-operation does not take place as between states at all.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "25©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe great step in world-reform depends on making the welfare of the\nstate coincident with the welfare of the people. The world will never be\ntruly civilized imtil patriotism implies the co-operation of all peoples for\ntheir common security and welfare. Until this is so, there can be no true\nprogress in civilization and therefore no free development of peoples.\n\"When love for one's country,\" says Mr. Crane, \"is expressed in hate of\nanother's country, what was a grand sentiment is twisted into a dangerous\ndelusion.\" G. Lowes Dickinson says: \"A man of science may be a patriot,\nbut his patriotism has nothing to do with his science. He goes to learn\nwhere he can learn best, and to work where he can work best; and the result\nof his work is a treasure not for his country alone but for mankind.\"\nThe true situation would regard the several states of the civilized world\nas fellow-workers, supplementing and aiding each other in the progress of\ncivilization. James Bryce says: \"Every race and nation must learn it\nought not, even in its own interests, to desire predominance or seek to\nenforce its own type on the world. It must recognize that it exists not for\nits own good but for the good of its neighbors.\"\nHuman solidarity. — If the people had ruled the world, there would have\nbeen no war. It is even argued that if Europe had remained sane for twenty\nyears longer, such a conflagration as the present could never have broken\nout; that the international organization among the peoples and the consequent power of order and good will would have been sufficiently strong to\nhave overcome such a convulsion as this. One writer says that the declaration of war at this time was a crime against hmnanity for the very reason\nthat good will had come to be such a distinguishing feature of human society.\nThe solidarity of himian purpose was strikingly illustrated in the International Confidential Meeting at The Hague which I attended the first\nweek of last April, when thirty men and women of twelve different countries\ncame together to work out a plan for the permanent peace of the world.\nInternational jurists, statesmen, and economists, coming from Germany,\nBelgium, England, Austria, Hungary, meeting with equally distinguished\nrepresentatives from the neutral nations almost in the midst of the terrible\nconflict, presents a spectacle which will be valuable in history to illustrate\nthe existence of good will in the midst of international anarchy.\nNo stronger word on the solidarity of peoples has been uttered than by\nHans Wehberg, associate justice of Diisseldorf.\nNever before in history has the feeling to work together come in such solemn manner\nto all those who earnestly desire the agreement of peoples. Representatives of international law in all cases ought especially to draw nearer together, because of the recent\nevents more than ever before, to promote the ideals that seemed in danger of breaking down.\n\nThe meeting of the International Congress of Women, convened two\nweeks after the International Confidential Meeting at The Hague, is peculiarly important as showing that the good will which had always characterized the international gatherings of women could be sustained in the face\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR WORLD-LIVING\n\n251\n\nof a threatened collapse of civilization. The women who initiated the Congress were firm in their conviction of the solidarity of women; they reasoned\nthat those who had been meeting together year after year to discuss measures\ncontributing to the welfare of human beings could decide on some unanimous\naction concerning this world-catastrophe. The central idea in this international gathering, shared equally by the representatives of the belligerent\nand neutral nations, voiced the cry that this catastrophe must never be repeated; that this must be the last war; that human wisdom and foresight\nmust devise practical means of ridding this agitated world of legalized,\nwholesale human slaughter; that the keenest intelligence of all countries\nshould concentrate itself on the solution of this world-problem.\nThe duty of the United States. — ^Any plan which has in view the education of the world for a permanent peace must consider the human reconstruction which is sure to follow the war. An iron law will compel those\nnow engaged in mutual destruction to seek one another again. The day\nwill come when the peoples of the world will work once more in common.\nThis reconstruction will not be the task of any one nation, of any one\npeople. The world wUl face it together. It may be that our country will\nassist in shaping events which will lay the foundations for a higher civilization. The United States must play its part. The development of the\nAmerican ideal is dependent on the way in which this country reacts on\nthe military, economic, and moral condition of the world. The upheavals\nin Europe have already affected our conception of future ideals and have\nthrust upon us a responsibility for civilization which we must inevitably\nassume. If civilization breaks down in Europe, we shall suffer just as\nvitally, altho not so directly, as Germany, Great Britain, or France. The\nunique position of the United States, however, gives her the leadership in\nestablishing a new form of world society which will lay the foundations of\na higher world life. Every citizen of our country should be conscious of\nthis new obligation and should understand the method by which the United\nStates may render this service to the world and in so doing protect herself\nin the free development of her national ideal. The United States has the\nopportunity of organizing a world league of peace, and each and every\ncitizen, acting with careful intelligence, should assist in creating this new\norgan of human society whereby human justice can have full sway.\n\nEDUCATION\nHENRY\n\nCHURCHILL\n\nFOR WORLD-LIVING\n\nKING, PRESIDENT,\n\nOBERLIN\n\nCOLLEGE, OBERLIN, OHIO\n\nThe present world-situation is inevitably a time of heart searchings;\nfor this terrible war is an arraignment of our inteUigence and our morals —\nour education and our reUgion. The subject assigned me is therefore\nplainly called for.\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{General\n\nTwo reasons, among others, suggest the necessity for education for\nworld-living. In the first place, thru improved methods of transportation\nand communication and thru the press, the world is unified and the peoples\nmingled as never before in the history of men. No education is adequate\ntoday that does not enable men to enter inteUigently into the life of the\nworld. In the second place, what is taking place among men is the gradual\nspread of Western civilization over the world. It deeply concerns all who\ncare for civilization at all that, not simply the external trappings of that\ncivilization, but its higher characteristics and its spiritual roots should be\ncarried over the world.\nEven these reasons alone indicate that an education for world-living\ndemands much: a world-wide vision, the conquest of race prejudice, intelligent and unselfish co-operation on a world-wide scale, and those moral and\nreligious convictions that form the spiritual roots of all that is best in\nWestern civilization.\nWhat kind of education do such demands require ? We may take one\nout of many lines of approach to our question. At least, education should\ngive us the thoughtful man, in the widest sense of that term. Worldliving needs the thoughtful man. We must think enough to know ourselves,\nour tasks, the means we are using, and the ends we seek; enough to see\nwhat civilization, democracy, education, reUgion, mean; enough to feel and\nto pmpose them whole-heartedly, to their last inference, and without selfcontradiction. The present war is a demonstration of need at every one\nof these points.\nIn a similar way, education for world-living demands the thoughtful\nman in several other senses also: as the man who discerns and obeys the\nlaws of life; as the man who has inner integrity; as the man who sees\nthings in proportion; as the man who is considerate; as the man who\nenters into the great intellectual and spiritual achievements of the race —\ncoming, that is, into personal sharing in the scientific spirit, the historical\nspirit, the philosophic mind, aesthetic appreciation, the social consciousness,\nand religious discernment and commitment. We have talked about these\nthings. We have not insisted that education means personal sharing in\nthem. The present world-situation shows failure at all these points.\nOur education and our religion show themselves to be inconsistent, provincial, self-contradictory, and self-condemned in all these respects. It is not\nthat the true ideals of science and Christianity are insufficient. It is that\nwe have never thoroly applied them, that we have lacked that utter inner\nintegrity without which the highest can nowhere be achieved. Education\nfor world-living must give us the radically thoughtful man.\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nCINCINNATI\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nMEETING,\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nFEBRUARY\n\n23-27, 191 5\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nEVENING\n\nSESSION— Tuesday, February 23, 1915\n\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in\nthe Cincinnati Music Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio, at 8:00 p.m.. President Henry Snyder,\nsuperintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J., presiding.\nThe session opened with an invocation by Rev. Edward Mack, of the Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nUnder the directorship of Joseph Surdo, the combined orchestras of the Woodward\nand Hughes High Schools gave the following selections:\nOverture — \"Poet and Peasant\"\nSuppe\n\"Meditation\"\nGoUschalk\nAddresses of welcome were given by Frederick S. Spiegel, mayor of Cincinnati, and\nJohn M. Withrow, president. Board of Education, Cincinnati, Ohio, to which response\nwas made by Franklin B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam Lowe Bryan, president, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., presented a\npaper entitled \"The Trap.\"\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, February 24, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Snyder at 9:30 a.m., in the Cincinnati\nMusic Hall.\nThe following program was presented:\n1. \"The Protection of Professional Interests\" — Charles H. Judd, director, School\nof Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n2. \"Textbooks — Educationally, Commercially, and Politically\" — ^A. E. Winship,\neditor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.\n3. \"The Training of Teachers\":\na) \"The Spiritual and Professional Assets of the Normal School\" — Bruce R. Payne,\npresident, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.\nb) \"The Training of Teachers in Service\" — Calvin N. Kendall, state commissioner\nof education, Trenton, N.J.\nc) \"The Training of Rural Teachers\" — Fred L. Keeler, superintendent of public\ninstruction, Lansing, Mich.\nd) \"The Training of Superintendents\" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal\nSchool, Milwaukee, Wis.\nGeneral discussion.\n4. \"Vocational Education\":\na) \"A State Program for Industrial and Social Efficiency\" — ^Arthur D. Dean, chief,\nDivision of Vocational Schools, State Education Department, Albany, N.Y.\n253\nA motion was made to the effect that steps be taken to carry out the suggestion of\nCharles H. Judd whereby the Department of Superintendence shall devise plans by means\nof which the organization may learn at frequent intervals thruout the year something of\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nthe educational activities of different sections of the country and by which the interests\nof superintendents and of the department may be protected.\nIt was voted to refer this matter to the Committee on Resolutions.\nPresident Snyder appointed the following committees:\nCommittee on Resolutions\nCharles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.\nBen Blewett, superintendent of instruction, pubUc schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nJames Wilmer Kennedy, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J.\nCharles H. Judd, director. School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nCommittee on Nominations\nWilliam M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nT. H. Harris, state superintendent of education, Baton Rouge, La.\nL. D. Harvey, president. Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.\nJames M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J.\nW. E. Hoover, sup)erintendent of schools, Fargo, N.D.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, Febsuary 24, 19x5\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:00 p.m., in the Cincinnati Music Hall, and the\nfollowing program presented:\n\"Vocational Education\" {continued):\nb) \"The Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry\" — Charles A. Prosser,\nsecretary, National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, New York, N.Y.\nc)ation\n\"Continuation\nSchool\nSchools, Milwaukee,\nWis.Work in Wisconsin\" — \"R. L. Cooley, director of Continud) \"Vocational Training for Women\" — M. Edith Campbell, director, Schmidlapp\nBureau for Women and Girls, Cincinnati, Ohio.\ne) \"The All-Day Trades School\" — E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools,\nSaginaw, Mich.\n/) \"The Field for the Corporation School and Its Relation to the Public Schools\" —\nW. L. Chandler, assistant treasurer. Dodge Sales and Engineering Company, Mishawaka,\nInd.\ng) \"National Aid for Vocational Education\" — ^John Lapp, director, Bureau of\nLegislative Information of Indiana, Indianapolis, Ind.\nA) \"Problems of Vocational Guidance\" — Frank E. Spalding, superintendent of\nschool, Minneapolis, Minn.\nDiscussion.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, February 24, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 8:00 P.M., in the Cincinnati Music Hall, and the\nfollowing musical program presented:\n\"Hymn of Praise\"\nMarchetti\n\"Little Orphant Annie\"\nClayton Thomas\n\"Wake Miss Lindy\"\nH. Waldo Warner\nCombined Glee Clubs of Woodward and Hughes High Schools\nLouis E. Aiken, Director\nThe topic under discussion at this meeting was: \"Should Our Educational Sj^tem\nInclude Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for War ? \"\nLindley M. Garrison, Secretary of War, Washington, D.C., found it impossible to\nbe present, but he sent not only a telegram to the department but also a digest of remarks\nhe would have made if present.\nThe topic of the evening was discussed by Nathan C. Schaeffer, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., and John H. Finley, state commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n2$$\n\nTHIRD DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION— Thursday, February 25, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., in the Cincinnati Music Hall, and the\nfollowing program given:\n1. \"School Curricula and Organization\":\na) \"Principles Underlying the Determination of a Course of Study\" — ^James M.\nGreen, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J.\nb) \"Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy Social Demands in\nDifferent School Districts ? Within the Same District ? \" — EUor Carlisle Ripley, assistant\nsuperintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nc) \" The Demands of Rural School Districts \" — Frank W. Miller, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Columbus, Ohio.\n2. \"Is a National Standard of Education Practical?\" — ^William Howard Taft,\npresident of the United States, 1909-13, Kent professor of law, Yale University, New\nHaven, Conn.\n3. \"School Curricula and Organization\" {continued):\nd) \"The Six-and-Six Plan\" — P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\ne) \"The Pros and Cons of the Gary System\" — David Snedden, state commissioner\nof education, Boston, Mass.\nGeneral discussion.\nThe annual business meeting followed the program.\nThe nominating committee reported as follows:\nFor President — M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of schools, Charleston, W.Va.\nFor First Vice-President — ^Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga.\nFor Second Vice-President — ^Lucy Wheelock, principal of Kindergarten Training\nSchool, Boston, Mass.\nFor Secretary — E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich.\nThe persons named were unanimously elected as officers for the ensuing year.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report:\nWe, your Committee on Resolutions, beg to submit the following report:\n1. Resolved, That we believe that the right to vote in the various departments of the\nAssociation should be limited to those whose work is of the character indicated by the name\nof the department, and that we suggest that the by-laws of the Association be amended,\nif necessary, so as to secure such limitation.\n2. Resolved, That the president of the department appoint a committee of five to\nconsider and report at the next meeting a plan for such an extension of the organization\nof the department that professional relations shall be more adequately defined and professional interests shall be promoted, not only at the regular meetings, but also during the\ninterval between meetings.\n3. Resolved, That the department heartily indorses the organization of bureaus of\nefficiency and educational measurement as adjuncts to the superintendent's office. The\nconstant investigation of school problems by permanent school officers is far more\neffective than any other form of scientific study. It is to be recognized that temporary\ncommissions are in some cases justifiable. The superintendent or the board of education\nshould be in a position at any time to call in impartial professional advisers in case they\nfind that school interests require such special discussion. Professional aid from without\nwill, however, be for the most part unnecessary if the regular supervisory staff, together\nwith the teachers, has been active in constant studies of the types which can be carried\non by the permanent bureau of efficiency.\n4. Resolved, That the department commends most heartily the activity of the United\nStates Bureau of Education in issuing special bulletins reporting the results of educational\ninvestigations. The range of subjects covered and the great body of valuable information thus made available to the teaching profession justify, in the judgment of the department, an extension of the support which the federal government gives to the work of the\nbureau.\n5. Resolved, That the department recognizes the urgent need of provision for the more\ncomplete training of teachers in service. The famiUar devices of teachers' institutes and\nsporadic lectures do not adequately meet this need. State departments of education and\nlocal communities should be urged to make provision for regular, systematic training\nboth in technical professional lines and in general subjects.\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nICmdnnati\n\n6. Resolved, That we note with approval the increasing tendency to establish, beginning with the seventh grade, differentiated courses of study aimed more effectively to\nprepare the child for his probable future activities. We beUeve that as a result of these\nmodifications a more satisfactory type of instruction will be developed and that a genuine\neconomy of time will result.\n7. Resolved, That in the judgment of the department it is of the greatest importance\nthat support and encouragement be accorded to night schools and continuation schools\norganized for the training of adults. The dissemination of intelligence in a cosmopohtan\npopulation like that of our coimtry demands, not only that the children of the nation be\neducated, but also that educational opportimities be offered to many of the older members\nof the community, especially where adequate opportunities have been withheld in earlier\nyears.\n8. Resolved, That we heartily approve the increasing attention which is being given\nto the hygienic and sanitary problems of the rural school and bespeak for the recommendations of the Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Council of\nEducation the most widespread publicity thru the United States Bureau of Education\nand all other suitable mediums of publicity.\ng. Resolved, That we again reaffirm our declaration favoring a national imiversity\nand note with pleasure the fact that the Fess Bill establishing sudi a university has been\nfavorably reported to the House of Representatives. We trust that this action indicates\nthe eventual passage of this or similar legislation.\n10. Resolved, That the legislation which is pending in the Congress of the United\nStates for the protection of children of school age from undesirable employment deserves\nmost careful consideration. We recommend to the United States Bureau of Education\nand Bureau of Child Welfare that they, as the representatives of the educational profession,\nco-operate in promoting all national legislation looking toward this end.\n1 1 . Resolved, That in view of the commonly observed fact that the bringing of popular\nrecreational, social, and civic activities within the jurisdiction of the school authorities\ntends to purify them and to elevate their character, we believe that such emplojonent of\nthe school machinery should be regarded as essentially educational, and recommend to all\nboards of education that they include extension activities in their regular programs.\n12. Resolved, That we reaffirm our beUef in the efficacy of the small board of education\nas the most satisifactory method of administering public schools.\n13. Resolved, That we express our appreciation of the action of the various railroad\nassociations which gave to this meeting the open rate, thereby securing to our members a\nvery considerable saving in expenditure for transiX)rtation.\n14. Resolved, That we express our appreciation of the hospitality extended to the\ndepartment by Superintendent Condon and the committees and the citizens of Cincinnati,\nand of the courtesy extended by Mr. and Mrs. Charles P. Taft, the trustees of the Art\nMuseum, the management of the Rookwood Pottery, the Municipal Hospital, the High\nSchool Teachers' Association, the Chamber of Commerce, and the other dubs of the city.\nWe especially thank the May Festival Chorus and the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra for the complimentary concert, and the orchestra and glee clubs of the Woodward\nand Hughes High Schools for the most excellent music provided.\n15. Resolved, That the thanks of the Association are extended to President Snyder\nfor the most excellent program presented at this meeting.\n16. Resolved, That we commend the hotel nmnagements for the many special\ncourtesies provided.\n17. Resolved, That we thank the representatives of the press for their excellent reports\nof the meetings of the departments.\nRespectfully submitted,\nChaxles E. Chadsey, of Michigan\nNathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania\nBen Blewett, of Missouri\nJ. W. Kennedy, of New Jersey\nCharles H. Judd, of Illinois\nCommittee\nW. H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y., spoke as follows:\nI rise with some diffidence to take exception to one of the resolutions presented by\nthe Committee on Resolutions.\nWith the greater part of these resolutions I am in entire accord. I cannot believe,\nhowever, that the majority of superintendents are ready to accept the apparently imequivocal declaration contained in these resolutions of the value of differentiated courses\nin the last two years of the eight-year elementary-school course. Such a declaration\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n257\n\ninvolves two conceptions whidi to my mind are at variance with soimd educational theory\nand with the best educational practice. The theory underlying the resolution is that\nchildren of twelve years of age — for that is the normal age of children completing the\nsixth year of school work — are prepared to elect their future course of instruction and\npresumably their future life work. It is, on the other hand, I trust, the accepted theory\nof the majority of American teachers that there is a great body of knowledge useful for\npractical purposes and useful for equipping the mind for future experience tliat should be\nacquired before specialization begins. The theory involved in the resolution I conceive\nto be absolutely at variance with the accepted theory. In the next place, the almost universal practice of American schools is against the theory and practice set forth in the resolution. Before making this proposed expression of approval of differentiated courses,\nwould it not be well to wait until these courses have been more fully tried ? I submit\nthat the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association should\nnot thus commit itself to what at best is only a very doubtful experiment.\nIt was moved, seconded, and carried that all resolutions except No. 6 be adopted.\nIt was moved, seconded, and carried that resolution No. 6 be adopted.\nPresident Snyder invited to the platform representatives of cities desiring to invite\nthe Department of Superintendence for 1916. By vote of the department, each city was\nallowed five minutes for the presentation of its invitation. Detroit, Mich., Miami and\nPalm Beach, Fla., and Omaha, Nebr., extended invitations. It was voted that on successive ballots the city receiving the fewest votes should be withdrawn. On the first\nbaUot, Detroit received 400 votes; Palm Beach, 190; Omaha, 176; Miami, 29. President\nSnyder declared Detroit to be the place of meeting for 1916.\nRochester, N.Y., thru her mayor and Chamber of Commerce, sent an invitation for\nthe 19 1 7 meeting.\nSecretary Springer introduced the following motion, which was carried:\nResolved, That the request of the Commission on the International Congress on Education that the officers of this department take charge of the Congress on Professional\nSupervision of the Public Schools to be held at Oakland in August be granted.\nAFTERNOON SESSION— Thursday, February 25, 1915\nThe afternoon session was given to round tables as follows:\n(a) round table of state and county superintendents\nChairman — Charles A. Greathouse, state superintendent of public instruction,\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nTopic: State School Codes\na) \"Financial Support of the Public Schools\" — ^M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent\nof schools, Charleston, W.Va.\nb) \"The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers\" — A. G. Yawberg, superintendent ofCuyahoga County schools, Berea, Ohio.\nc) \"The Selection of County Superintendents\" — ^W. E. Chancellor, Hoge professor\nof political science. University of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio.\nd) \"The Determination of the School District\" — Francis G. Blair, state superintendent ofpublic instruction, Springfield, 111.\ne) \"The Supervision of Rural Schools\" — ^J. George Becht, executive secretary,\nState Board of Education, Harrisburg, Pa.\nGeneral discussion: Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction,\nMadison, Wis.; Jessie Yancey, superintendent of Mason Coimty schools, Maysville, Ky.;\nArthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal.;\nGrace M. Shepherd, state superintendent of public instruction, Boise, Idaho; and John\nEnright, superintendent of Monmouth County schools. Freehold, N.J.\n(b) round table of superintendents of cities with a population of over 250,000\nChairman — Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.\n\"The Essence of Success in Evening Vocational Work\" — Frederick H. Evans,\nprincipal of Vocational School, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, HI.\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\n\"Illiteracy and Industrial Efl&ciency in Large Cities\" — Albert Shiels, director,\nDivision of Reference and Research, Department of Education, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Education of Adult Immigrants\" — Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.; William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools,\nPittsburgh, Pa.; P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington,\nD.C.; Lewis M. Dougan, principal, Shaw School, St. Louis, Mo.\nGeneral discussion: Randall J. Condon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio;\nElmer K. Sexton, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J.; H. H. Wheaton,\nspecialist in immigrant education. United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n(C) KOUND\n\nTABLE OP SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION\nTO 250,000\n\nOP PROM 25,CXX>\n\nChairman — Frederick E. Downes, superintendent of schools, Harrisburg, Pa.\nTopic: Current Methods of Dealing with the Exceptional Pupil\na) \"The Backward Pupil\" — ^Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state superintendent\nof public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\nb) \"The Mentally Defective Pupil\" — Frank B. Cooper, sup>erintendent of schools,\nSeattle, Wash.\nc) \"The Delinquent Pupil\" — George I. Aldrich, superintendent of schools, Brookline, Mass.\nd) \"The Anemic Pupil\" — ^James E. Bryan, superintendent of schools, Camden, N.J.\ne) \"The Bright PupU\" — ^J. G. Collicott, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nGeneral discussion: Carey Boggess, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Ohio;\nRichard O. Stoops, superintendent of schools, Joliet, HI.; Edwin J. Brown, superintendent\nof schools, Dayton, Ohio; and Joseph M. Frost, superintendent of schools, Muskegon,\nMich.\n(d) ROUND\n\nTABLE OP SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOP CITIES WITH\n\nA POPULATION\n\nUNDER\n\n25,000\n\nChairman — ^William McK. Vance, superintendent of schools, Delaware, Ohio.\n\"Current Practices in the Appointment of Teachers\" — ^William C. Griggs, superintendent ofschools, Gadsden, Ala.\n\"How Shall the Efficiency of Teachers Be Tested and Recorded ? \"—Edward C.\nElliott, director. Course for the Training of Teachers, University of Wisconsin, Madison,\nWis.\n\"The Promotion of Teachers on the Basis of Merit and Efficiency\" — Clyde C. Green,\nsuperintendent of schools, Beaver Falls, Pa.\n\"A Satisfactory Basis for the Promotion of Pupils\" — ^Joseph Rosier, superintendent\nof schools, Fairmont, W.Va.\nGeneral discussion: A. C. Pa3Tie, superintendent of schools, Mooresville, Ind.;\nJames T. Begg, superintendent of schools, Sandusky, Ohio; Henry M. Maxson, superintendent of schools, Plainfield, N.J.; J. T. Giles, superintendent of schools, Richmond,\nInd.; J. Stanley Brown, superintendent. Township High School, Joliet, 111.; Walter S.\nDeffenbaugh, chief. Division of School Administration, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n(e) round\n\nTABLE OP CHILD RELATIONS\n\nChairman — Reed B. Teitrick, deputy state superintendent of public instruction,\nHarrisburg, Pa.\n\"The Administration of Compulsory Attendance Laws\" — S. O. Hartwell, superintendent ofschools, Kalamazoo, Mich.\nDiscussion: Homer O. Sluss, superintendent of schools, Covington, Ky.\n\"The Issuance of Work Permits and Its Bearing on Other School Problems\" —\nHelen T. Woolley, director. Bureau of Vocational Guidance, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nDiscussion: Owen R. Lovejoy, general secretary. National Child Labor Committee,\nNew York, N.Y.; Frances E. Walker, chief attendance officer, Rockford, HI.; Fred A.\nVerplanck, superintendent of schools, South Manchester, Coim.\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "S<pcrintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n2$()\n\n\"The Taking of the School Census\" — ^John W. Davis, director, Bureau of Attendance,\nNew York, N.Y.\nDiscussion: A. A. McDonald, superintendent of schools, Sioux Falls, S.D.; and\nPercy M. Hughes, superintendent of schools, Syracuse, N.Y.\nTHURSDAY\n\nEVENING,\n\nFEBRUARY\n\n25, 1915\n\ncomplimentary concert\nMay Festival and Symphony Orchestra Associations\nCincinnati, Ohio\nAlfred Hartzel, Conductor of the Chorus\nErnst Kunwald, Conductor of the Orchestra\n1. Prelude — \"Meistersinger\"\nCincinnati Symphony Orchestra\n\nRichard Wagner\n\n2. \"How Lovely Is Thy Dwelling Place\"\n....\n(A German Requiem)\nMay Festival Chorus\n\nJohannes Brahms\n\n3. \"A Festal Day\"\n\nEdward Keurvels\nChildren's Cantata (Flemish)\n\n4. Rhapsody\n\nJohannes Brahms\nContralto Solo — ^Miss Lorena Zeller\nFestival Chorus (Men)\n\n5. \"The Snow\"\n\nFestival Chorus (Women)\n\n6. \"Thanks Be to God\" (from \"Elijah\")\n.\nFestival Chorus\n\nEdward Elgar\n\nFdix Mendelssohn Bartholdy\n\nintermission\n7. Orchestral Suite\n\nDohnanyi\n\n8. \"Sanctus\" (Mass in D Minor)\n....\nJohann Sebastian Bach\nFestival Chorus and Children\n9. \"See the Conquering Hero Comes\" (from \"Judas Maccabeus\")\nGeorge P. Handel\nFestival Chorus and Children\n10. a) Psalm\nh) Night Hymn at Sea\nA. Goring Thomas\nChorus of Children\n11. \"Pilgrim's Chorus\"\na) Departure\nh) Return\n\nRichard Wagner\nFestival Chorus (Men)\n\n12. \"Hallelujah Chorus\" (from \"The Messiah\")\n.\nFestival Chorus and Children\n\nFOURTH\nMORNING\n\nGeorge F. Handel\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Friday, February 26, 1915\n\nPresident Snyder called the meeting to order in the Cincinnati Music Hall at 9:30\no'clock and the following program was presented:\n\"The Investigation of the EflSciency of Schools and School Systems\" — ^James H.\nVan Sickle, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.; Leonard P. Ayres, director.\nDivision of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.; Ella Flagg Young,\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nsuperintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.; Calvin N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton,discussion.\nN.J.; and William H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools. New York, N,Y\".\nGeneral\n\"Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education — Minimum\nEssentials of a Course of Study\":\na) \"The Objectives and Guiding Principles of the Report\" — ^Harry B. Wilson, superintendent ofschools, Topeka, Kans., chairman.\nAFTERNOON SESSION— Friday, February 26, 1915\n'\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:00 p.m., and the discussion of the morning continued as follows:\nb) \"Minimum Essentiab in Composition and Grammar\" — ^James F. Hosic, head of\ndepartment of English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.\nc) \"Minimvun Essentials in Reading\" — R. G. Jones, superintendent of schools,\nRockford, lU.\nd) \"Minimum Essentials in Arithmetic\" — ^W. A. Jessup, director, School of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, la.\ne) \"Minimima Essentials in Geography and History\" — ^WiUiam C. Bagley, director.\nSchool of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, lU.\n/) \" Typical Progressive Experiments ' '— Frank E . Thompson, professor of education,\nUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.\nGeneral discussion: George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration.\nTeachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; Thomas M. Balliet, dean.\nSchool of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y.; J. M. Gwinn, superintendent\nof schools, New Orleans, La.; Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools,\nSt. Louis, Mo.; P. W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex.\nAt the conclusion of the formal program, several items of general business were\ntransacted, as follows:\nIn accordance with the resolution adopted by the Department of Superintendence\nat its regular business meeting, which requires \"that the president of the department\nappoint a committee of five to consider and report at the next meeting a plan for such an\nextension of the organization of the department that professional relations shall be more\nadequately defined and professional interests shall be promoted, not only at the regular\nmeetings, but also during the interval between meetings,\" the president appointed as such\ncommittee the following persons: Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit,\nMich., chairman; Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis,\nMo.; James M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J.; Nathan C.\nSchaeffer, state superintendent of pubUc instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; and William H.\nMaxwell, superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y.\nIt was resolved that the Committee on Economy of Time in Education be continued\nfor another year.\nThe following resolution was adopted:\nWhereas, The Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education on\n\"The fore Minimum\nEssentials of a Course of Study\" is of immediate practical value; therebe it\nResolved, That the Department of Superintendence expresses the hope that the\nUnited States commissioner of education will find it possible to publish the report in full\nas one or more documents of the United States Bureau of Education.\nThe following resolution was adopted after discussion:\nWhereas, At the meeting of the Department of Superintendence just closing papers\nof great value have been presented of which the members desire to take immediate advantage and in order to do so it is necessary that they have access to copies of such papers;\ntherefore be it\nResolved, That the officials of the National Education Association be and they are\nhereby requested to publish immediately the papers read and discussions held at this\nmeeting of the Department of Superintendence and the report of its proceedings, if it is\nat all possible to do so.\nIn closing the meeting. President Snyder expressed his appreciation of the readiness\nand willingness of all who participated in the proceedings of the Department of Superin-\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n26 1\n\ntendence to render educational service and of the great value of their contributions. He\nalso expressed his obligation to the members for the courtesy which they had shown\nhim during the meeting, and gave due recognition to the oflScials, the people, and the\npress of Cincinnati for their unusual efforts to make the convention a success.\nSuperintendent Ben Blewett, of St. Louis, Mo., was requested to take the chair, and\na rising vote of thanks was tendered to the retiring president for his effective work in\narranging the program, and in conducting the meetings of the department.\nEllor Carlisle Ripley, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\n\nADDRESSES\nI.\n\nFREDERICK\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nS. SPIEGEL, MAYOR\n\nOF CINCINNATI,\n\nOHIO\n\nWe realize greatly the honor you confer by coming here for your deliberations and I reflect our public's mind when I extend to you a hearty\nwelcome. We have indeed learned to place full value upon gatherings\ndevoted to education.\nWe have seen our schools advance so rapidly that we have been able\nto show to every other city in the coimtry something in our school system\nworthy of adoption. We know that a highly standardized school system\nis our greatest asset for the future. Co-operation of the university and\nthe schools with the general individual and public activities of the city is\nnow realized to an extent never before thought possible. In fact it is but\na few years since our schools did not extend beyond their four walls. Now\nthey enter business houses, machine shops, public offices; the student body\nis assigned to work away from the schoolhouse as well as within it. New\nYork City and other cities have visited us to learn of our school methods\nat first hand. The value of this sort of training, and its influence upon\nthe lives of oiu: coming men and women, are beyond the range of human\ncalculation. It is fitting, therefore, that this convention should meet in\nthis city. Nowhere will you find a more appreciative citizenship.\nI want to say a word about our city. You are to visit our great new\nmodem school buildings. These great schoolhouses of ours are a part of our\narmament for higher education. You should visit the University of Cincinnati, which is maintained by the taxpayers, and which is the apex of\nthe most complete system of education provided by any city in this country.\nBetween times of your convention and committee activities, I wish you\nwould become acquainted with certain featiu-es of our civic life. You\nhave but to turn the spigot to learn that we have the best and healthiest\nwater supply in the United States. We have the best eqxiipped waterworks plant in the world. It was built at a cost of eleven million dollars\nand every country has sent representatives to this city to see that magnificent machine. You should inspect the new municipal hospital which\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nI had the honor of dedicating to public service last Saturday. Those\nbuildings were erected at a cost of four million dollars, and the doors are\nopen to all of our people, rich and poor alike.\nWhile traveling thru the city and suburbs, you will see evidence of a\nrapidly developing park and playground system, which is being worked\nout by a coromission of our citizens and one of the foremost experts in this\nUne of public work in the United States.\nYou will notice that a considerable portion of many of our streets shows\nevidence of a seeming recent upheaval. That is not caused by neglect.\nWe are establishing a new high-pressure water system for protection and\nto secure lower insurance. We have just opened bids for a new county\ncourthouse to cost approximately two and a half million dollars. We will\nparticipate in that as taxpayers. The first visible construction showing the\nabandonment of the canal, which for many years has been a nuisance\nwithin our municipal limits, is seen in the lowering of the bridge on Main\nStreet, one of our principal business thorofares. The canal will be abandoned to make way for a beautiful boulevard, which will be a part of our\npark and playground system.\nPlans for a great municipal auditorium, which we expect to build upon\nthe old hospital site, have reached the stage of consideration of building\ndetails. When you return to us in future for convention, the several\nbodies of your Association will be enabled to meet under one roof at the\nsame time, and still be separated from each other.\nWe have surveyed four routes to provide an entrance for interurban\ncars upon our streets, so that visitors from a distance may be brought to\nthe center of our city without the necessity of changing cars. This contemplated method of conaection with the country on all sides is one of the\nlargest plans to which we are conmutted.\nWhile looking over our river country, please be reminded that one of\nthe great bridges spanning the Ohio River is a part of the only municipally\nowned railroad in the world. It belongs to us. The Queen & Crescent,\nas we call it, is our own pathway to the markets of the South. This secures\nfor us a trade advantage with all the southern states that, but for our\nrailroad, would not be within our reach.\nRecently a meeting was held in this city for the purpose of establishing\na joint community life for this city, our neighboring cities over in Kentucky,\nand other municipaUties. It was the sense of that meeting that, altho\nthese people live in different states and separate municipaUties, nevertheless our approximation to each other makes us practically one, and therefore\nwe have adopted the name \"Cosmopolitan Cincinnati,\" representing the\njoint interest of these many communities alike. I anticipate great results\nfrom the establishing of this joint community life.\nCincinnati is larger in area than St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland,\nBaltimore, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Buffalo, or San Francisco.\nWe are\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOP WELCOME\n\n263\n\nthe center market, being within twenty-four hours of seventy million\npeople. Cincinnati is known to the world as one of the most solid of\ncities financially. Our securities bring the largest prices in the markets\nof the world. We have never defaulted one cent and, in all probability,\nnever will.\nWe are the largest center of hardwood limiber. We lead the world\nin the manufacture and quality of machine tools, woodworking machinery,\nornamental iron, office furniture, liquid bottles, poster printing, playing\ncards, printing ink, cigar boxes, shoes, laundry machinery, tanneries, and\ntrunks, and we rank second in the production of women's cloaks, men's\ncaps, and leather and baseball supplies. We have the greatest variety of\nfactories of any city in the country. Consequently we are the home of\na great industrial population, with a capital invested in factories of approximately $215,000,000, employing an army of workmen.\nRecently we completed the largest office building of any inland city\nin the world, and the Vanderbilts, of New York, have just completed a new\nskyscraper here for office piirposes. We are the great wholesale market\nin all staple lines, especially for Indiana, Ohio, western Pennsylvania, West\nVirginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee.\nNotwithstanding the cost of the several improvements which I have\ndetailed to you, I have every reason to believe that in time we will have the\nsmallest municipal debt of any city of importance in the world, because\nour contract with the lessee of the Southern Railroad is so advantageous\nthat we will receive revenues, permitting us practically to eliminate our\nbonded indebtedness. No other city in the world faces a prospect so\npromising financially.\nBelieving that good public health is one of the greatest assets any city\ncan possess, we rigidly inspect sources of food and the food itself. Our\ninspection is on a par with federal inspection. We examine buildings carefully to see that proper living conditions are maintained. Slowly but\nsurely we are conquering the white plague. Our system of house-to-house\ninspection by experts trained to handle conditions of disease is pronounced\nwell-nigh perfect.\nReverting to our sytem of education, we start a child at his A B C's in\nschool, and, without losing touch or sight of him, continue the preparation\nfor his life work, until he comes thru the doors of our university well\nequipped for Hfe. During these years he has received, not only a thoro\nacademic education, but a thoro training in applied sciences as well. The\nboys and girls are taught to accomplish with their hands, both in the schools\nand in the university, a skilled handwork of the highest standard, and this\nmarks the progress of every department in our system of education. Our\nstandard is high. We know that we are qualifying boys and girls, young\nmen and young women, for successful careers in life, to an extent rivaled\nby no other city in the world and equaled by but few.\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cinciimati\n\nI would have you realize, not only that we are accomplishing important\nmaterial things, but that we are animated by a sincere desire to realize\nthe highest ideals of citizenship. We believe that every citizen owes\ncertain duties to his city, and that it is incumbent upon the city to do many\nthings for its citizens. We are endeavoring to secure recognition of these\nmutual relations in the highest form, to the end that the citizen shall have\nthe benefit of the highest standardized administration, and that the city\nin turn shall have the benefit of the help of citizens who are believers in the\nbest accepted form of city government.\nYour program is very interesting. Perusal of it reveals an astonishing\narray of subjects of vital interest to every person in the United States.\nI trust you will realize your fondest hopes while here. When you leave\nus, may you feel it would be good to return ! We want to help you in every\nway. You have but to ask us. And, while handing you the keys of the\ncity, I repeat we are very glad to have you with us, and are proud to welcome\npeople with such a mission.\n\nn.\n\nJOHN M. WITHROW,\nPRESIDENT, BOARD\nCINCINNATI, OHIO\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nWhile this is a most important occasion to every citizen of Cincinnati,\nit is a red-letter week to every one of those who find their calling in the\nranks of teachers.\nWith each passing year conventions of various sorts meet here to\ndiscuss the interests and requirements of their various human pursuits.\nThey come to our hotels, decorate themselves with ribbons and badges\nor uniforms, meet and greet each other, tell of the stupendous importance\nof their chief interest, pass resolutions and checks, and then go their way.\nEach group, like St. Paul, magnifies its ofl&ce with energetic insistence,\nand, with the characteristic force of successful performance in every human\navocation, endeavors to convince the world of the paramount importance\nof its own products.\nThe doctors assure each other and all the rest of us that mending the\nbodies and preserving the health of men is the greatest possible himian\ninterest.\nThe lawyers resolve that their duty of interpreting the meaning and\napplication of the laws made by other lawyers in legislatures and congresses\nassembled for the guidance or confusion of men is the greatest problem of\nour time.\nThe ministers make no doubt of it that their profession of fitting men\nfor the hereafter is the most worth-while of all.\nThen there comes a group assuring the whole world that some form\nor other of breakfast food is the only thing to set the whole world happy\non its way thru each and every day from the cradle to the crematory.\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n265\n\nThe shoe manufactureres come and endeavor to show that they and\nthey alone can put man's feet into such gear that he may ever walk uprightly\nand never fall.\nThe automobile fascinators convene and talk the jargon of their trade\nand the whole race of men stop and listen, and many are fully persuaded\nso that they buy and ride by into the by and by, all the while trying to\nlive within their incomes even if they have to borrow money to do it.\nAll these and many more come and go, lifting up and exalting their\nachievements.\nEach one of these convening, resolving, and dissolving groups has a common purpose as its final object — the comfort and well-being of ready-made\n\nmen.\nTonight we come to welcome the masters of the art of making men,\nof taking the glorious possibilities of the raw material in the boy and girl\nand fashioning these into the most splendid of all creations, men and\nwomen, but little lower than the angels, the greatest of all things in life —\nthe thing which God is mindful of.\nThese masters of the art of teaching, these past masters of the publicschool factories where the boys and girls of the nation are made into men\nand women, the citizenship of the commonwealth, the real fabric of the\nRepublic, are the most welcome guests that ever came thru our city's gates.\nWe have talked of your coming and have planned for it for a whole\nyear. Our mayor has presented to you the keys of the city; we, the school\npeople of Cincinnati, take down the gates of the city and show you the\nwide-open door.\nIn earlier and perhaps more fortunate days I was a superintendent\nof schools. I divided the pupils, or perhaps they divided themselves, into\ntwo classes — those who came to school and those who were sent. \"Those\nwho came to school\" was much the smaller class. I have since found that\nthat was the fault of the school. It is the business of the modern social\nera in school work to reduce the class of \"those who are sent to school\" to\nthe vanishing-point. You will make us, the people of Cincinnati, and the\npeople of the world, eternally your debtors if you will show us the way.\nWe are all ready to do as you say.\nIt is quite evident that the schools are rapidly purging themselves of\nthe old patriarchal and military conventions and approaching the ideal\nsocial era. All honor to you who are developing this purifying and humanizing process of school emancipation and freedom.\nYou school superintendents of TVmerica are today the most constructive\ngroup of leaders in our midst. You are increasing the intelligence and\ncapacity of the great mass of population who labor; you are making the\nlaborer more worthy of his hire; you are unconsciously developing the value\nof honesty in business by teaching the wisdom that the seller shall have\nknowledge of his wares and the buyer shall have knowledge of his needs.\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\n266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nBy virtue of these things you are coming into your own. The people\nare coming to see that the group of men and women who direct the development and create the efl5ciency of their children are the most valuable of\nall our public servants. They are beginning to realize that the superintendent of schools who guides the training of all the children is he that\nmaketh a city and is \"greater than he that taketh a city.\" We venerate\nthe Brahmin caste you represent, and beseech you to put the feet of our\nchildren in the happy path where work is joy.\nThis brings me to ask a special boon: Tell us how to bring the mysterious educational plant, vocational guidance, to full fruition.\nI went to Munich last summer to study the marvelous vocational schools\nof the Germans, but I saw no guidance. Theirs is vocational propulsion.\nThey make square holes and square pegs to fit them. If they find a round\nhole, they do the mathematically impossible, as only Germany can, and\nsquare the circle. The German method of vocational selection is not for\nus. Here every man's son demands the right of choice. We yearn for\ntheir splendid results in productivity, however, and we must have them.\nYou educational wizards must find a way or make it for America.\nA number of years ago in the Queens Hotel in Edinburgh I saw an\ninscription in Gaelic on a beam in the ceiling of the dining-room. It was\na mysterious and unknown message to me and I called a waiter, a thorobred Scotchman, and asked him what it meant. He looked at me cautiously\nand cannily and said: \"I am not sure, sir, and I beg yoiu- pardon, sir, but\nI think, sir, it means * Don't forget the waiter! ' \" I afterward learned that\nit was the Highland Scotch Coed Mile Paitre Pomat — A hundred thousand\nwelcomes to you. Our message to you!\n\nRESPONSE\nFRANKLIN\n\nB. DYER,\n\nTO ADDRESSES\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF WELCOME\nSCHOOLS, BOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nCincinnati is far famed for its home-brewed hospitality. Certainly\nour organization never enjoyed a more hearty welcome in the forty-five\nyears of its existence. The attractions that have been pointed out by the\nmayor of the city are all the more appreciated by us since we have been\nsampling them for the last two days. It is said that the praise of a city\nis accepted at its face value only by its citizens, but we have been received\nso cordially and have been adopted so immediately that we feel a sense of\nloyalty that leads us to take everything that has been said even at a\npremium.\nWe appreciate also the fine modesty of the chairman of the board of\neducation, who says, \"The honor is the city's in having an opportunity\nto act as hostess to a body of such important people.\" It is true that we\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n267\n\nhave gathered here from every state and every important city in the Union\nand that in this audience is assembled no little of the dynamic energy that\nis shaping the destinies of our future democracy. We confess, however,\nthat we are here not as missionaries but to get rather than to give. Our\npurpose is to get from each other and from this city all we can in the way\nof educational suggestion.\nTruth is many-sided and he who looks at it continually from one angle has\nbut a narrow view. We are here to get other points of view, and so come\nto an all-round and comprehensive conception of educational truth. It\nis wonderful that tho we have no national system of education in this\ncountry the same ideals prevail in all essential matters, so that one could\nhardly distinguish a school in Portland, Me., from one in Portland, Ore.\nThis has been brought about thru commerce of ideas. No agency has been\nmore instrumental in this respect than this organization. No one who is\nnot a terrapin can be so encrusted over with self-complacency that he can\nattend the discussions of this Association without a truer vision of what he\nis in the light of what he should be.\nIn this connection it is a matter of rejoicing with us that so great and\nprogressive a city desires intimately to participate. On the other hand, we\nrecognize that this city has much from which we may learn. This city\nis attempting nothing less than to meet the educational needs of all\ntypes of children, all classes of society, and all ages of people. It begins\nin the elementary school with courses adapted to children with varying\nphysical, mental, and moral needs; it continues in its various high schools\nwith courses arranged according to the vocational needs of youth; and it\nextends thru a city university with its diversified colleges of engineering,\nteaching, commerce, homemaking, medicine, and liberal arts. These with\nits after-school and after-college courses will, when fully developed, enable\nthe city to realize its dream of education in a democracy.\nIn no other city of America, so far as I know, has so large an undertaking as the education of the whole people according to their needs been\naccepted as the duty of a city toward its citizens.\nIn another respect this city is worthy of study, and that is in the way\nthat all the educational institutions and the agents of civic betterment\ndovetail into the public-school system and work in and thru it without\nunnecessary duplication of effort. From the university, the art school, the\ncollege of music, the library, down to the manufacturing plant and mercantile establishment, each is making an educational contribution for the\ncommon good. The public-school system is a lens, as it were, to harmonize\nthe energy of all the agencies of civic betterment and to bring them to the\nburning-point of action. The whole school administration is so quick to\navail itself of the help of all agencies without jealousies, and so tactful in\nutilizing them without hindrances, that I know of no better example in any\ncity of real team work.\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nWe congratulate this city that it has had the courage to break with\ntradition and blaze new pathways of progress. Bergson points out that\nthose animals which discard protective armor and mimetic colorings and\nwho dare to leave the sheltered havens and live upon the danger line have\nevolved into the higher species. It is by these bold experiments that we\nprogress. The danger line is the path of progress.\nWe not only thank you for your hearty and hale Godspeed, we not\nonly appreciate your cordial hospitality, but we congratulate you on your\ncom-ageous attempt to meet the needs of a democracy in your own way.\nYour faith, courage, and ideals are an inspiration to us all. Enheartened\nby your example, may we all go forth to be the builders of a better world.\n\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nLOWE\n\nTRAP\n\nBRYAN, PRESIDENT,\nINDIANA\nBLOOMINGTON,\nIND.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIn general, living things are compelled to work with great intensity\nin order to live, in order to secure food, to escape enemies, and the like.\nThis work results in the development of organs and functions which enable\nthem to survive. But when the environing conditions change, it frequently\nhappens that the organs and fimctions which fitted the being to survive\nprevent readjustment. In such a case, the being is caught and killed in\nthe trap of its own organs and habits. Illustrations: extinct species;\nextinct races; extinct types of workingmen. One might conclude that\nthere is no escape for any living being from the descent into the trap of its\nown habits, which, in the end, means death. However, the history of living\nthings presents another set of facts. Individuals and species have again\nand again found a way of escape from the trap of habit into a freedom\nwhich was inconceivable before it was actually achieved. How were such\nescapes effected ? One might say in Tennyson's phrase that if we know\nthis we should know what God and man is. It is perhaps the most difficult\nquestion of the philosophy of evolution and the most difficult question of\nbiology and sociology. Meanwhile, it is also a question of inmiediate\npractical importance to every individual and to the school which prescribes\ntasks, because these tasks may be so prescribed and so carried out as to\ndrive the children into the trap which means some immediate efficiency\nand then a little later inability to meet the changing conditions of life.\nHow can one escape the trap? The parasite does not escape, nor the\ntramp, nor the jack-of-all-trades. As far as I can see, one escapes successfully from the trap of habits in two ways.\nFirst, by activities which lie outside the routines concerned. Activities\nwhich are remote from one's trade help toward the freedom which, in the\nlong run, means, as a rule, larger earning capacity.\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROTECTION\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nINTERESTS\n\n269\n\nSecond, the best way to escape from the routines which belong in any\noccupation is by more profound mastery of the occupation itself.\nI have spoken of nothing so far except the conditions affecting earning\ncapacity. It is my belief, however, that the two ways of escape from the\neconomic trap into larger economic freedom are also the ways of escape\nfrom the intellectual and moral trap into intellectual and moral freedom.\nIndeed, I can believe it possible that the life energy, whose immediate\nobject thruout millions of years has been to escape from the trap of\nhabits into the larger freedom so as to secure food, has been an essential\nforce thru which life has found its way into spiritual freedom.\n\nTHE PROTECTION\nCHARLES\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nINTERESTS\n\nH. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,\nOF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe problem of defining the duties and rights of the superintendent of\nschools has become acute in a number of cities. The board of education\nvery often has no rules to which the superintendent may appeal and there\nis little or no legal definition of his functions. The result is that personal\ninfluence is the strongest instrimient which the superintendent has at his\ndisposal. This might be enough to guarantee good administration if it\nwere not that boards of education are often transient and xmcertain in their\norganization. Influence which the superintendent possesses today is lost\ntomorrow as a result of the reorganization of the board.\nFurthermore, where matters are conducted on the purely personal basis,\nthere is likely to be an exercise of personal influence on the part of board\nmembers. The resiflt is that it is possible to find chairmen of committees\non teachers whose consent must be secured before it is possible to make in\nschool programs changes that seem to school executives to be of obvious\nimportance. One finds sometimes that an unprincipled seeker of influence\nhas secured a place on the board of education because he wants to supervise\nthe purchase of janitorial supplies. We have seen this man prevent action\non a new course of study until an order for mops was properly placed.\nEveryone has seen examples of the futile efforts of conscientious school\nmen to put that most important function of the school executive, namely,\nthe selection of teachers, on a basis which shall eliminate petty politics.\nIt is well enough for us to express the pious hope that sometime in the\nfuture the obstacles to a high professional control of the schools will be\nremoved by the growth of intelligence. The fact is that this desired result\nwill not come without the expenditure of effort on the part of those who\nhave the interests of schools at heart. If the teaching profession is to\norganize schools, it must unite and give its combined energy to a professional\nprogram.\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe case is still more complicated when it is realized how difficult it is\nfor even the school men to be strictly professional. We go to oiu: teachers'\nmeetings and sometimes we discuss the professional side of our work, but\nour most eager attention and our applause go to the speaker who indulges\nin some broad comment on our obvious personal deserts of larger salary.\nIf there are board members who seek unprofessional appointments, there\nmust be members of the teaching body who have accepted such appointments. Ifthere are domineering committeemen, there must be dominated\nappointees.\nIt is not my purpose, however, to describe what we have all seen. It\nis rather the purpose of this paper first to seek an explanation of the present\nsituation and second to propose a line of action which will make for improvement.\nThe explanation of many of the difficulties is that school officers are\nrelatively isolated. The school system of a particular city is part of a\nnational system. The movements which enlarge the course of study, which\nraise the standards for teachers, which bring the children into schools and\nkeep them there, are broad, general movements. The forces which oppose\nthese great movements are local and as persistent as they are petty. The\ncitizen who. wants schools conducted as they were conducted when he was\na boy knows nothing of the expansion of our school program. The superintendent ofschools must be able to introduce this conservative citizen to a\nnation-wide movement.\nAnother example of the same type is seen in the fact that the demand for\na particular appointment of some teacher is an intense personal issue, while\nthe broad demand for high standards is a national demand and often very\nabstract to the parties in a controversy. School officers have difficulty in\nmaking broad, national movements effective in the face of personal, local\nopposition.\nMy first point, then, is that the superintendent has difficulty in setting\nup professional standards because he must represent broad, general, professional interests.\nMy second point is like the first. There is in this coimtry today no\norganization which adequately helps school officers in enforcing professional\nprinciples. We meet here and get new ideas from year to year and we scatter to our respective fields of operation after the meeting with a new realization of our splendid isolations. We tell our boards of this and that and by\nthe month of April it is as tho we had not spoken. This organization ought\nto devise some means of sending its influence back with its members in\nsuch tangible, visible form that each community, when it comes in contact\nwith the superintendent, will realize that he is part of a large professional\ngroup working for definite ends.\nFor example, we all favor better training for teachers. We ought to be\nable to start an irresistible movement to secure recognition of the principle\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROTECTION\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nINTERESTS\n\n271\n\nthat training is necessary. Let us print a chart showing what cities of\nvarious classes do in this matter. When a superintendent goes before his\nboard of education let him have in his hand the chart authorized by our\nprofessional body, showing that board how it ranks in the movement toward\nthe better training of teachers.\nAgain, we all believe in the development of the course of study.\nWe want arithmetic improved. We read with eagerness the studies\nmade in this field by our intellectual leaders and we go with the reprint\nin our hands and say to our boards of education, \"Let us change arithmetic.\" They send us away, answering that they do not see much in\nthese studies made by some remote professor in a college of education.\nWould it not be more effective if a chart approved by a professional\norganization carried to that unconverted board of education the findings of our student of education? There are among us today able\nworkers putting out reports which are new and full of meaning, but we\nare so scattered, so isolated, that we do not get the real strength of these\nmen back of our daily push.\nOr take another type of example. I hear from some traveler or I read\nin the paper that Superintendent So-and-So is about to be surveyed. I surmise that the civic league of his city or some other organization wants something and has heard of this new device for stirring up reform. I know that\nthis civic league can easily collect enough money to reveal all the defects\nin that school system. I know that every school has glaring defects. I\nknow that if the discontented citizens pick their agents carefully, nothing\nbut a revelation of defects need be expected.\nI wonder how long it will be before school administrators discover that\nthey ought to have legitimate and well-organized machinery for bringing\ninto every school system professional advisers in a professional way. The\ndoctors do it; the engineers do it; all other professions do it. There can\nbe no doubt that we should gain enormously in our educational work if\nwell-qualified school men examined in a co-operative way the problems of\neach school conmiunity.\nThe school survey is a natural expression of the demand that schools be\nprofessionalized. I hear school men criticizing the school survey as now\nconducted and making absolutely no move to improve matters. The\nmovement is on; it needs organizing. I have seen school men trying, on\nthe other hand, to do the wise thing and to take advantage of the movement.\nAgain these men need organized help, for too often they are misled into\nemploying some of those blatant and unprofessional agencies which always\narise at such times to fatten on the unprotected who are conscientiously\ntrying to be progressive but do not know how.\nI cannot cease wondering how sane and rational school men let these\ngreat movements and these strong forces develop without organizing\nmethods of directing them aright.\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nNote that I am not advocating that these movements be controlled in\nthe sense that they be made to serve personal ends. I have not referred to\nthe personal side of all these cases. The tragedy of a career wrecked by\npolitical complications appeals to all of us as a pathetic human phenomenon.\nBut we could bear this with equanimity if it helped the general cause. The\nreal tragedy here is that the schools suffer.\nI would that I might carry the distinction between selfish, personal\ninterests and broad, wholesome, professional interests as far as my words\ncan reach. I heard an advocate of a certain type of teachers' organization\nnot long ago berating the merit system of promotion. The peroration of\nthat address was the impressive remark that where our flag goes civilization\nfollows, where teachers' organizations of this type go salaries increase automatically and the merit system is abolished. If my remarks up to this\npoint have given a grain of comfort to the organizers of such devices for\nsuppressing the merit system of promotion, let them be forgotten. I advocate the merit system because it sets up a professional standard. I advocate\na professional standard in education because I see the necessity for a broad\nco-operative movement among those who would improve our schools. I\nadvocate professional organization because I see unworthy, selfish agencies\nrendering ineffective the work of earnest school ojficers who labor against\nconservatism and political influence and personal prejudices.\nLet us realize that if we do not organize more compactly for professional\nends we shall never gain the advantages which come from united action.\nIf we act as individuals, we are like the single fagots of the fable, easily\nbroken by the naked hand. If we will bind ourselves together, we shall be\nstrong.\nThese proposals for a professional organization must be made concrete.\nI have no hesitation in being particular and specific. No one who has kept\nin contact with this meeting of superintendents can fail to realize that by\na process of natural selection it has come to be the most significant educational organization in the country. Why not perfect this organization?\nFirst, give it independence.\nOnce free to organize with the largest professional interests in view, let\nus begin by making productivity the motto of all our efforts. Let us organize a permanent committee which shall act as a central clearing-house for\nprofessional problems. Let this central committee have at its service district commissions. One such district committee should cover the North\nAtlantic states, another the South Atlantic states, and so on thruout ten\nor twelve districts. In addition there should be special commissions dealing\nwith special problems. All these commissions should prepare material for\nthe general annual meeting, which should be perfected in its representative\ncharacter.\nOf course, this program calls for work, but I believe the energy is at\nhand. There are many investigators who are willing to do what the pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROTECTION\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nINTERESTS\n\n273\n\nfession wants them to do. Indeed, there is an enormous amount of\nproductive work now under way; what is needed is deliberate consideration and judicious use of this work. The best and most experienced men in our midst ought to give of their time and energy to advise\nand organize.\nWhere are the funds to come from for this work? Fortunately the\nanswer is optimistic because the expense of doing most of the detailed work\nis pretty largely provided thru existing agencies. What is required is that\nthe professional agencies should be put in contact with each other. I do\nnot know how much the individual members of this meeting would be willing to pay toward a central organization of tlie type I have been discussing,\nbut I think they could be persuaded on mature consideration to regard the\ninvestment as a kind of professional insurance. Some money and much\nenergy woidd have to be invested in the enterprise, but I am confident that\nsomething would come back to each investor.\nI shall not tax your patience, however, with details. I wish to add\none more argiunent in favor of this project. No profession can be organized\nfrom without. It is characteristic of a profession that its highest attributes\narise from within. We can have a professional organization only when\nlike-minded men and women come voluntarily together. It is an impeachment of American educators that they have not perfected the strongest\nprofessional organization in the world. Our schools are better equipped\nthan those of any nation; we have resources and freedom not paralleled\nunder the sun; yet the requirements for admission to our profession are\nlower than those of any great civilized nation and our organizations of\nteachers are so weak as to be ridiculous. England with something like two\nhundred thousand teachers, contrasted with oiu: six hundred thousand, has\na membership in its national teachers' organization of over eighty thousand.\nI am not comparing numbers for the sake of exciting rivalry, but when I\nthink of our American teaching profession scattered, and our administrators\nworking alone, I ask myself how long it will be before we realize that a profession must be self-made, and that the making of a profession means\norganized effort, and that organized effort is needed every day for the protection ofgreat professional interests. The teachers of Germany carry on\nall sorts of professional work. Their organizations make reading-books for\nchildren and support psychological laboratories in which educational\nresearches are conducted. Our teachers have more opportunities for participation inall kinds of scientific work than even these German teachers,\nbut it is not our teaching profession which organizes these opportunities.\nMy plea is for a professional control of all these agencies and movements.\nIf we could bring together under the guidance of our leaders that which we\nhave, if we could make our belief vivid and statements clear, our individual\nproblems would become less trying and our professional influence enormously greater.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nTEXTBOOKS— EDUCA TIONALLY, COMMERCIALLY,\nAND POLITICALLY\nA. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, \"JOURNAL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\"\n\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nIt is as true as it is trite that the best possible education of all the\nchildren of all the people is of the utmost importance to all the people.\nIt is equally true and trite that you cannot have the best uniform and\nuniversal education if you sacrifice the education of the child to any interest\nor group of interests that have in view any object aside from the best\neducation of the whole child and of all children.\nA school is a teacher and textbooks. Everything else, by way of\nbuilding, equipment, and apparatus, exists to perfect the school and its\nopportunities. You can have a school without other outfit than a teacher\nand textbooks, but you cannot have a group of children learning even the\nessentials without both teacher and textbooks.\nIf the schoolbooks cost as much as teachers' salaries, we should still\nhave them. If they cost a great deal, instead of a mere trifle, there would\nbe less political nonsense than there is now. We are bound to have them.\nThe only questions are as to their educational qualities, and the commercial\nscheme, with or without political interference.\nIt took a long time to realize that there are teachers and teachers.\nEveryone of sixty years of age, who has lived in country communities,\nknows how general was the plan of electing as school director or trustee a\nman who wanted to give the school to some relative, or wanted to choose\nthe boarding-place for the teacher. The quality of the teaching and the\npreparation of the teacher were of slight account. It is an achievement\nof very recent times that no one can be employed as a teacher who has\nnot been educated to teach. Even now it is far from being a universal\nqualification; but every community that employs a nonentity as a\nteacher for political or personal reasons knows that it is doing a\ndiscreditable thing.\nIt will be a glorious day for America when the employment of teachers\nand the selection of textbooks are placed on a non-political, non-influence\nbasis. We are now face to face with the most vicious kind of political\nand non-professional interference with the textbook side of the schools.\nTextbooks are not only indispensable, but they depend for their value\nupon their especial merit as schoolbooks. There is as great a difference in\nschoolbooks as in works of fiction, or in essays or poetry. There has been\nno improvement in great works of fiction, in great poems, or in great essays\nin half a century, but American schoolbooks have improved marvelously,\nalmost miraculously. Nowhere in the world have they improved as in the\nUnited States. There is not a nation on earth in which the schoolbooks\napproach even faintly those of America. There must be some cause for\nthis. Is it accidental ? Far from it! Is it political ? Farther from it!\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendencel\n\nTEXTBOOKS\n\n275\n\nNo scheme or device or plan of teaching anything has ever spread its\nefficiency very far until it was put into a textbook and made available for\neveryone who chose to use it. It would cost a thousand times as much,\nyea, ten thousand times as much, to promote the general adoption of any\ngreat improvement in teaching by the visitation scheme as by the textbook plan. If every city published every promising dream in method, it\nwould cost infinitely more than under the present plan. It would be\ninbreeding of the worst sort and few of the dreams would come true. Not\none of these promising dreams in a hundred is of value when divorced from\nthe woman who is teaching something so fascinatingly as to make a brilliant\npresentation of an unimportant method.\nIt is indispensable that there should be a great American clearinghouse system to determine the possible visions. Our system of textbookmaking is not only the greatest in the world, but it is very near the greatest\nfeature in American education. If a teacher in Fort Kent, Me., or Chula\nVista, Cal., discovers, or thinks she has discovered, a brilliant idea, she\nmay be sure that some one of the many publishing houses that are the\nevolution of American education will make inquiries about her work. If\nthey get good reports from the casual visitor, they will send an expert to\nlook into her work with care. If the report continues to be favorable, they\nwill ask her to put her thoughts in the best shape she can and let them see\nthe manuscript. They will then submit this manuscript to specialists in\nwhom they have confidence; and if these specialists report that there is\nreally an idea of value, however crudely expressed, they will ask the teacher\nto associate with her some man or woman of large experience in school work\nto help her put it into workable shape; then this product of the original\ngenius and experienced master is turned over to their editorial force, which\ngives it the most effective form and featiu^e that expert bookmakers can\ndevelop. Then, and not till then, this evolution of schoolroom practice,\nfertile genius, broad experience, art, and skill in bookmaking is given to the\nworld.\nThe publishing house selection of manuscript, enlargement of the bright\nidea of the teacher thru the wisdom and experience of a broad-gauge man or\nwoman, and the perfection of bookmaking by a trained expert constitute\none of the most important professional achievements in education.\nThere is no greater educational tragedy, no greater wrong perpetrated\nupon youth, no greater handicap to the next generation, than for a state\nto permit somebody or a group of somebodies to make a schoolbook without\na great evolutionary process, and then put it tyrannically upon the teachers, superintendents, an 1 school officers. There is not a publishing house\nin America that could survive ten years if it made textbooks in the way\nthat even the very best of the state textbooks in America have been made\nand published.\nIs education America's greatest investment ?\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nIs education the supreme interest of the people ?\nIs education a public investment rather than a public expense ?\nIs education a permanent, dividend-paying investment, or merely a\nsort of children's picnic ?\nDoes education depend upon the character and quality, the scholarship, and the professional preparation and efl&ciency of the teacher, or is one\nteacher as good as another irrespective of education, training, or character ?\nNo man or woman in America would hesitate for a moment to answer\neach of these questions in a way that would mean the best for the schools,\nand yet in the majority of rural and village communities the practical\nanswer is that none of these things make any difference.\nWhy do these people individually say one thing and collectively do\nanother? Because individually they are independent and honest, but\ncollectively they are domineered over by men with the tax nightmare.\nParsimony versus the public good, fake economy versus education, have\nalways been the stock in trade of some men in every commxmity. No one\ndares to go before the legislatiu-e and advocate broken windows and dilapidated school property because these things are economical, but they do\ndare to go before legislatures and advocate the saving of money at the\nexpense of decent schoolbooks. There is not a rural school district in\nAmerica where the entire cost of schoolbooks is twenty cents per capita,\nand by no possibility, even if the wildest dreams came true, could there\nbe a saving of as much as a nickel a year per capita by using the cheapest\ntextbooks. But when you mass these nickels for the entire state, skilful\nmen can make the saving look large.\nSchool life and spirit, methods and purposes, vistas and visions, are\nshifting all the time. Textbooks in essentials may be relatively imiform\nfrom city to city, state to state, but not from year to year. When a state\nmakes a schoolbook, it uses it for many years — nowhere for a shorter time\nthan a child's entire elementary-school life. There have rarely been five\nyears during which, in some subjects, there has not been some great discovery adopted and adapted by publishers. To make it impossible for\na child ever to have the advantage of such a discovery is cruel, if not criminal,\nand a state-published textbook always makes it impossible to give a child\nthe advantage of a new and valuable discovery.\nAnd it is all so petty. Take a single present-day episode: Think of\na college president, as big and broad and brave a man as has ever administered amiiversity, a man with great vision, who is making as vital demonstration in animal industry, in agricultural creations, in physiological\nscience, as has ever attracted the attention of scientists the world over,\nand this man must devote precious time and more precious energy to the\nmaking of a state school primer! Not that there is any hope of making\na better primer than any one of forty now available, but just in the hope\nthat they may succeed in getting a semi-decent primer that will not be\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superinteudencei\n\nTEXTBOOKS\n\ni^\n\nridiculous, and in the vain hope that they may save a penny a year per\ncapita to the citizens of the state. If by the diversion of this college president's energy and the energy of other able men there should be as great\na saving as the most fervid imagination can hope for, it would take fifty\nyears to save the equivalent of the price of a circus ticket per capita.\nIf anywhere in the universe there can be found anything as petty as\nthat, we cannot conceive it. When this great college president and his\nconmiission have made a new primer, and have had the plates made\nfor it, the dear children must use that one primer day after day for an\nentire year.\nIn every enterprising city children read from ten to fifteen primers\na year. In this age of the world no child in respectable society mulls over\na primer for as long as eight weeks. A teacher in any up-to-date city who\nallows her children to loaf over a primer for more than two months would be\nretired for repairs, but this state expects her children to use one primer\nfor a year. Tragedy of tragedies !\nNo state has ever made a schoolbook that has contributed one educational idea to the school world. A publishing house that makes many\nbooks rarely sees a year go by in which it does not contribute important\neducational ideas. Every state-made textbook, even the latest and the\nbest, is little other than a body of ideas — educational, mechanical, and\nartistic — deliberately stolen from books made by the publishing houses\nwhich they affect to despise.\nA publishing house discovers artistic talent, develops and trains it to\na state of high eflficiency, only to see the artist bribed by a large state bid\nto carry the fruit of his discovery, development, and training to the state\nservice. In the same way a publishing house devotes much time and\nhigh-priced editorial talent to the evolution of a most artistic style of type\nand the makers of a state schoolbook audaciously write to the publishing\nhouse and ask where they can buy that special tj^e. Language is wholly\ninadequate to express the opinion of honest men on the attitude of a state in\nall these regards.\nThere is a more serious side to this question than any thus far considered, and with this we are most concerned. It is fundamental, reaching\nthe very foundation of educational efl5ciency.. We have been waging an\nintense and noble campaign for a quarter of a century for better salaries\nin coimtry and city schools. We have carried rural teachers' salaries from\n$15 and $20 a month to $40 and $70. We have carried elementary teachers'\nsalaries from $400 and $600 to $800 and $1,600. We have carried principals' salaries from $1,500 and $2,000 to $3,000 and $4,000 and superintendents' from $3,000 and $4,000 to $5,000 and $10,000. This has been one\nof the grandest campaigns in American history. The public has been educated to an appreciable comprehension of the teacher's worth to the school\nand the community.\nBut we shall lose it all and go back to the dark ages\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinnati\n\nunless we check this vicious emphasis upon the supreme virtue of cheapness in schoolbooks. It will not be easy to stop the public when it estimates\neducational values by their cheapness. You cannot go half-way down hill\non a flying toboggan and turn aroxmd and go back when you see danger\nahead.\nIt would be more difficult to demonstrate that teachers are more efficient\non $1,200 than on $600 or a superintendent on $6,000 instead of $3,000 than\nit is to prove that a 30-cent primer is better than one costing 15 cents. If\nwe educate the pubhc to estimate books by their cheapness, we are at the\nsame time educating them to estimate school men and women by their\ncheapness. One state gets a state superintendent for $4,000, another for\n$2,000, and another for $10,000. It is of the utmost importance to the\nman who gets $4,000 whether the people of his state want to get into the\nclass above or below. He will not permanently stay at $4,000. He will\ngo up or down, according to the class of men who decide such matters.\nMany states allow every city and town to have the best books. Some\nstates allow cities to have the best books and make rural schools have the\ncheapest, and some few states make city and coimtry schools have the\ncheapest books that can be had at a rummage sale. Sooner or later we\nshall all face the best or the cheapest educationally.\nAnd it will never stop with schoolbooks. Educate the public to follow\nthe fellows who influence them to use cheap schoolbooks, where at the most\nthey can by no possibility save more than a few cents per capita, and they\nwill soon strike at salaries, where they can save many dollars per capita.\nThere is not a good hotel in the country that is run by a man whose aim\nis to invest the least possible sum. There is not a creditable city in America\nthat seeks to invest as little as possible in streets, parks, and public buildings. There is no section of any city that is improving if the owners of\nproperty invest no more than they are forced to do by the health officials\nand the police department.\nGive the children of all America, north and south, east and west, in city\nand coimtry, in seedtime and harvest, from the kindergarten to the imiversity, the best-educated and the best-trained teachers; give them men\nand women who can inspire them with the thrill of aspiration; give them\na curriculum that is broad enough and high enough to meet the need of the\ndullest and the quickest; give them buildings, groimds, and equipment that\nfill every need, and schoolbooks which will simplify learning, whose information will give visions, whose every page will be illimainating; then shall\nwe give to the world the most intelligent, the most capable, the most worthy\ncitizenship any nation or age has produced.\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINTANGIBLE\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nASSETS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTHE TRAINING\n\nSPIRITUAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n279\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nAND PROFESSIONAL\nNORMAL SCHOOL\n\nASSETS\n\nOF THE\n\nBRUCE R. PAYNE, PRESIDENT, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS,\nNASHVILLE, TENN.\n\nIn the process of learning how to build a teachers' college for the South,\nnecessity, perhaps, has forced me, during the past four years, to visit and\nstudy more normal schools, colleges, and universities than very many\nother teachers have had the privilege of doing during that period. No\none knows better than he who has been compelled by the urgencies of\nsuch a situation that the least valuable thing to be learned by such a firsthand study relates to those factors known as physical assets, those earthly\npossessions, such as real estate, personal property, numbers of students,\nteachers, janitors, tables, test tubes, etc. One soon leams to search for\nthose intangible elements in the faculty and student body which really\nare the indispensable essentials upon which the institution is founded and\nfrom which its only valuable contribution to society is made.\nI shall, therefore, restrict myself to the spiritual and professional assets\nof the normal schools, as I have seen them, for one of our most distinguished\nand experienced American educators has said:\nPopular education is no more a matter of money than of plan and method; no\nmore a matter of legislation than of the spirit of men and women; no more a matter of\ntheory than of intelligent appreciation of conditions.\n\nThose of us who have had to employ teachers have learned not to\nattach too much importance to the physical appearance of the teacher, or\nthe physical possessions of the school from which he graduated, as contrasted with the atmosphere of that institution and the spirit of that teacher.\nBecause these are the most important things in the teacher and his school,\nwe must learn more and more how to subject them to such quantitative\nmeasurement as they will admit, and we must give them more prolonged\nand more persistent consideration. Even if, after years of trial, it be found\nthat such psychical qualities do not lend themselves to accurate measurements, nevertheless they can be and must be isolated for the purposes of\nlogical thinking; they will then receive, at the hands of all men, such proper\nrecognition in the scheme of education as they have always received by\nthose practical school officials who employ teachers, persuade taxpayers,\nbeg endowments, and keep the peace among parents, students, and\nteachers.\nAltho we voluntarily forego the use of figures in this study, nevertheless, inorder to show that the normal schools are among the few very largest\nfactors in the educational scheme of this country, it might be worth while\nto note that there are approximately one hundred thousand students\nattending the normal schools annually. Ninety thousand of these are\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nin the public normal schools. There are fifteen thousand more students\nin the public normal schools than there are students of all subjects in the\ncollegiate departments of all other public universities and colleges combined, excepting the agricultural and mechanical colleges. Whether one\nhas in mind the staff of teachers who are giving a pedagogical direction to\ntheir instruction, or the nimiber of students studying courses looking to\nteaching, or the millions of children being taught by trained teachers, in\nany case, both quantitatively and qualitatively, the normal schools are\ndoing the bulk of teacher-training in America.\nAnd, somehow, they seem to have struck the average, both in content\nof the curriculum and in method of teaching, which those school officials\nwho employ trained teachers demand. For whenever you require a teacher\nto teach teachers, he seems inevitably to approximate the content and the\nform of work done by the best normal schools. The ambitious instructor,\nwho is not so well prepared as the graduate of such normal schools, employs\naU his resources to acquire such preparation, while the Doctor of the university, highly trained in academic subjects, will find himself, when attached\nto a teacher-training organization, sloughing off very much of his unnecessary knowledge and learning by the same effort to speak the language of the\nnormal-school tribe.\nIn nineteen years* experience in teaching in simmier schools, it has\nstruck me with great force that the ablest teachers I have known, those\ninstructors who are able to influence teachers to carry back to their pupils\nthe greatest help, are those who seemed to be able to neglect much that\nthey had learned and to recall for application approximately such information as one acquires at the best normal schools. The summer-school\ninstructor who hasn't done this may have entertained, inspired, or even\nastonished with his doctrine the excited minds of some of the unsophisticated, but his pupils didn't find themselves in the following year, in their\nown schoolrooms, using much that he had imparted.\nMeasured, then, in terms of efficient results, or in terms of accomplishing most economically and effectively the educational task assigned, it may\nbe safely asserted that the normal school deserves well of public opinion.\nThe information and skill acquired and organized by its students have been\nof more use to that great mass of our population who receive all of their\nlearning below the high school than all other forms of knowledge acquired\nat other institutions from which we are drawing teachers.\nTo those of us who believe that society should determine the contents\nof the curriculima to be taught in a school supported by its own taxes, the\nnormal school seems to have been more nearly a social institution than\nmany others; for it has taken into consideration the needs of its environment; ithas made an analysis of social structure, and adopted in its courses\nof study those subjects and emphasized those topics which have direct\nbearing upon life as it appears in the present; it has had the courage to\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINTANGIBLE\n\nASSETS\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n281\n\nabandon subjects that had only remote and historical bearing on presentday needs. While other institutions have clung to traditional subjects,\nlargely because they were customary and were handed down from remote\neras; while others have emphasized topics mainly because they were difficult, and therefore supposed to be disciplinary; the normal schools have\nbeen willing and able to find culture and discipline in undertakings useful\nto their present patrons. They have not been ashamed to confess that\nthings may be useful and cultural at the same time. While the academic\ninstitutions have blindly set up ideals and copies of other ages for our\nchildren to imitate, have clung stubbornly to the past and yielded to the\nintroduction of professional departments, technological schools, and laboratory methods only after centuries of dogged resistance, and then merely\nas a compromise with outside pressure, the normal schools have discovered\na delicate equipoise between the rich heritages of the past and the useful\narts of the present. While the new land-grant colleges, fearing in the\noutset the scornful finger of the academicians, and yielding to their dictates,\nlargely omitted from their programs, in earlier years, a serious consideration\nof farm mechanics and agriculture, substituting therefor engineering,\ntheoretical sciences (and often Greek and Latin), the normal schools faced\ntheir task with a supreme courage and unequaled honesty, daring to teach\ncooking and sewing to women teachers, manual training and drawing to\nmen.\nThere has come an enormous saving and tremendous effectiveness to\nour world because these teacher-training institutions have felt themselves\nfree to abandon the mere imitation of traditional curricula which were not\nmeeting the demands of the times, but have incorporated frankly into their\nschools the present life of the outside world.\nIn this connection, however, fidelity to truth demands the statement\nthat the greatest failure of the normal school lies in this very region where\nits most striking success has been achieved. It has not always heard the\nMacedonian call. The most striking example we have is the almost total\nneglect, until the last few years, of the whole rural educational problem by\nthe one class of institutions best fitted to make the requisite contribution\nto the solution of that problem. Ambition seems always to have led\nteachers away from the country to the urban centers, so that in those large\nregions where three-fourths of the population dwell in isolated communities\naU of our higher institutions of learning might well be regarded as organized brigands, who persistently and systematically despoil the country districts round about of the best teachers and prospective teachers for the\nsake of the cities nearer by. If the rural educational problem is ever to\nbe solved, it must be solved largely by the normal schools. But this task\nand that of the adequate training of an elementary-school staff constitute\ntoo large an undertaking for even the normal schools. So that when one\nsees them neglecting rural education and elementary education for the\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcfamati\n\npreparation of teachers for the city schools and for high-school systems,\nhe must feel that they have lost their poise and ceased either to be able or\nto be willing to respond to the more urgent needs and demands of society\nas it is constituted in this country.\nAfter all has been said about the normal school, however, it is safe to\nassert that no other institution has a purpose so clearly and specifically\ndefined that neither students nor teachers can mistake it. It is an advantage to an institution as an institution to stand for one thing with all the\nstrength of its being. This gives a highly selected student body of the\nfinest quality and motive — the best of all material for a profession. Such\npupils have an individual aim in life, know what that aim is, and go about\nthe business of getting ready for it with intense and joyous earnestness.\nThey positively hunger for what the school offers.\nCollege students' are frequently sent to college by their parents, but\nthe students in the normal school go to school. To approach a subject\nfrom the standpoint of both teacher and student is a much more intensive\nprocess than looking at it merely as a student This is quite in harmony\nwith the educational principle, now so greatly emphasized, that a purpose,\nor a specific end, or a motive in learning gives increased power to the learner\nand increased point to the matter learned.\nThere is, moreover, something stimulating in rubbing up against many\nothers who are bent on the same end. It helps to wear off all sorts of\nrough edges, and clears up opinions as few other things can. There is\nstrength in union, even if the union be largely a matter of sentiment or\nsympathy — or something seemingly so intangible as atmosphere.\nThese students have a general and genuine conviction concerning the\nnecessity for special training for one's work. I have never once heard\nnormal-school students advance or defend the notion that a good general\neducation is sufficient preparation for teaching. They have a vast respect\nfor preparedness, both in themselves and in others. The normal-school\nstudent, therefore, sees several elements in teaching as a profession, which\nthe college student does not see. Iri addition to a good general education,\nhe sees that a profession must have its own special body of knowledge or\nsubject-matter as well as its own technique. The college student will\nreadily grant the necessity of both those things to a dentist, a surgeon, a\nlawyer, a minister, but refuses to grant the same necessity to a teacher.\nTo a college student, a general college education is the only preparation\nneeded for the profession of teaching. If he is very broad-minded, he may\nadd to this general education a greater amount of subject-matter in some\none subject, say English. But in the end, his aggregate of preparation is\nsubject-matter in a subject, not in a profession.\n' By coQege student in this paper is meant the student in the academic department of the American\ncollege who takes no pedagogic training in the school of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINTANGIBLE\n\nASSETS\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n283\n\nThe most enlightened student from a normal school or teachers' college\nsees these different elements in the aggregate of professional preparation:\n(i) a general education — or a broad subject-matter in many subjects; (2) a\nspecial subject-matter in one subject; (3) a special subject-matter of the\nprofession — such as general method, principles, history, and philosophy of\neducation; (4) a special technique peculiar to his profession, such as comes\nthru \"special method\" either in one subject, in administration, or in\nsupervision.\nThe crucial point of the whole situation lies here. A profession cannot\nbe a profession unless it is built upon these four elements: (i) a general\neducation, such as any educated man ought to have; (2) a special knowledge of his own subject; (3) a special body of professional subject-matter;\n(4) a special technique or method of procedure.\nCollege-trained teachers, without pedagogical or professional training,\nseldom get beyond the first two points — except by long experience; normalschool students have all four to begin with, as far as they go; hence, they\nusually come much nearer to being professional teachers than college men\nwho content themselves with being lecturers in subject-matter and rejoicing\nin the mistaken notion that this is all there is in teaching.\nThe normal-school graduate has totally different conceptions of teaching\nas a practice. To the well-trained normal-school student teaching is\nteaching — a process of stirring up, and drawing out, and interchanging of\nopinions, and thrashing out of notions. It is a lively process of give-andtake mentally, in which the pupil is even more actively concerned than the\nteacher.\nTo the academically trained college student teaching is lecturing —\na constant stream of talk on one side of a desk, and a constant frantic\ntaking of notes on the other, with usually no other purpose than to deliver\nit all up once and for all in an examination, the only opportunity the\nstudent ever has to air his own opinions. The reason most teachers\ntrained only in a college lecture is merely because they don't know how\nto teach. They only know how to lecture and to give examinations.\nThere is a more definite plan for the testing of this professional spirit\nin the normal school than is to be found in any other academic or professional institution. The raw and inexperienced student of pedagogy is\nnot sent out to test his theories by blind blundering amid large groups of\nhelpless children. Many graduates of academic and technological schools\nare allowed to try their hands at the training of youth without practical\nexperience, but no good normal school in this good day would attempt\nsuch a wasteful and dangerous procedure.\nBecause the graduates in such schools have had this experience, they\npossess that superior confidence so essential to efficiency in any art. In the\nprocesses of learning, knowing that their facts must be tested in the practice\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nschool, they have been more thoro than they otherwise would have been.\nA graduate of the normal school may not know as many things as the\ngraduate of the college,, but he knows infinitely more of what he is going\nto use and knows it better.\nThe spirit of co-operation among students is also a quality most frequently to be found among prospective teachers. Indeed, it is a subject\ndefinitely taught in such institutions, for while it is not on the program as\ndefinitely as English, history, etc., nevertheless the president of the normal\nschool knows that if he does not recommend his students as possessing the\nco-operative spirit^ few trustees and other school officials will offer them\npositions. There is a imity of purpose in these institutions which compels\na correlation of endeavor among the students which is one of the finest\nassets we have.\nA graduate of the normal school has a larger vision of education than\nother students or teachers of the same age. He sees education as a whole,\nrather than in terms of the particular subject he teaches, which latter defect\nis especially prominent among yoimg teachers who have had no more than\na mere academic training. Education in the college means, too often,\nsimply knowing things. In the normal school it means knowing, doing, and\nbeing. The normal-school student has more p>ower to see things in the\nlarge. The teacher with pedagogical training thinks of his subject in terms\nof its relation to other subjects. He thinks of it in terms of its influence\nin the whole educational scheme. He knows education in his own county,\ncity, and state, as well as in other states and coimtries. Larger niunbers\nof them feel the necessity of increasing their vision both by reading the\nliterature of their special subjects and by the study of educational theories\nand tested facts. They err less frequently by building their work upon\nworn-out educational principles or a discarded psychology.\nIn the list of psychical assets, open-mindedness to new truth must not\nbe neglected. In the summer-school faculty, where are assembled the\nteachers from various t3^es of institutions, one may almost select those who\nhave pedagogical training by their willingness to adopt new ideas, new\nplans, and new methods, and those who have not by their reluctance to\ngive up theories and facts which have been foimd to be untrue. As a good\nillustration of this, one has but to follow the discussion of mental discipline\nand faculty psychology to prove the point. The theory of special discipline and the negation of the theory of general discipline have been more\nreadily accepted in the teacher-training schools than elsewhere. Studentteachers do much more independent thinking than other students. The\nprogressive spirit, then, is most prevalent among trained teachers. Nothing\naccounts for the progress of teacher training in this coimtry as contrasted\nwith other forms of training so much as the progressive spirit which is\nprevalent among its devotees. The faculties of academic departments and\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINTANGIBLE\n\nASSETS\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n285\n\nthe departments of law in universities might learn profitable lessons from\nsuch open-mindedness and aggressiveness.\nOne of the strongest characteristics of young prospective teachers\nwhich I have discovered in my visits to these schools is their power to\ngenerate enthusiasm for what seem to other people to be iminteresting\nendeavors. When one views the monotony of the teacher's tasks and the\ndiflficulty of his imdertakings, he more highly prizes this asset. What\nschool official anywhere, in what sort of school, would care for a teacher,\nhowever highly trained, of whom it could be said: \"He has no enthusiasm\nfor his profession and can arouse no emotion or affection for his subject\" ?\nI know of no visit a man could make in order to discover more quickly\nin its essence the spirit of consecration than to the campus of some of the\nnormal schools of America. The experienced visitor can almost distinguish\nthe normal school from another institution of learning by this particular\ncharacteristic of its atmosphere. Its students have more desire for genuine\nservice than college students of the usual type. This atmosphere of service\nis as striking as its buildings, its students, its faculty, its library, and its other\nphysical facilities. The prospective teacher is doing things less for his\nown personal entertainment, or for the hope of social or financial reward,\nthan any other type of student. This produces longer hours of work and\nmore daring attempts for knowledge and power, a certain fidelity to thoroness, and definite eagerness for light to be carried to others.\nNo class of students in America has higher moral standards or lives\nup to them more thoroly. Indeed, the teachers of America represent the\nmost religious professional class which we have, except possibly the clergy.\nThey are more responsive to the higher appeals of spirituality and personality. They may come from poorer homes, or from richer homes, from\ncommimities of culture or the opposite; nevertheless, when they enter the\ncampus where teachers are prepared, they enter and become part of a moral\nand religious atmosphere, so that very rarely will an irreligious or immoral\nstudent graduate from a normal school. This is the highest tribute that\ncan be paid to these organizations exerting such a tremendous influence\nin the creation of good citizenship. Surely, if they so imiversally and perfectly display this asset on their books, they are well worth the investment\nand well worth all the commendation of good men everywhere.\nThere are many contributing causes to the high moral state prevailing\nin this type of school. Perhaps the requirements of society are heavier\nin their demands upon the teacher than upon others. The student-teacher\nis probably more generally poor than any other student; at the same time\nhe is more uncertain of obtaining a lucrative position ; which is a combination\nof circumstances calculated to draw out the best there is in him, for in some\nstrange way poverty, when combined with a moderate ambition and\nreasonable hope, presents a splendid basis for moral culture and integrity.\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnati\n\nIn addition to this, it is well worth noticing that, more than other\nstudents, normal-school students are definitely interested in definite tasks\nwith definite ends ahead of them. They have such a multitude of worthy\nand valuable interests that it less frequently occurs to them to seek those\ninterests which are artificial and damaging to human character. May\nthere not be a lesson to all schools in this fact ? If the students in all forms\nof school life were so busily engaged in doing things with which they are\neven in a small measure as delighted as are students in the normal schools,\nsurely there would be no disciplinary measures or religious problems to\nexhaust the energies of faculties and school oflScials.\nIn the end, the one supreme test to apply to any organization which\nhas a right to exist in these United States is that of democracy. Nothing\nelse counts in our land when that is lost. So long as this country hopes to\nsurvive and prosper in the struggle of the enlightening nations, so long\nmust every institution be shot thru and thru with this vital principle.\nDemocracy, then, must dictate the platform of oiu- political parties, order\nthe cardinal tenets of our social structure, prescribe the creeds of our sacred\nreligion, and permeate the fibers of all our cherished educational institutions. The normal schools have not failed the Republic at this strategic\npoint. For they are par excellence the democratic institutions of learning\nin America. Nowhere is the right to a hearing more generously accorded,\nnowhere is representation more certainly assured to every individual,\nnowhere is there a more charming intimacy and generous consideration for\nthe opinions of others. The university president may autocratically lord\nit over his faculty; the executive of the college may become a martinet;\nthe director of the technological school may engineer his schemes thru, but\nthe president of a teacher-training school must deal fairly with his pupils\nand constantly weigh the opinions of his colleagues. The non-democratic\nteacher has no permanent abiding-place in the normal school. The students\nin these schools live to serve all the people, from whom they come and to\nwhom they gladly return to offer themselves, so that every citizen of\ntomorrow may have his equal chance and his fair opportimity to develop\nthe rarest qualities within him for the welfare of society and the upbuilding\nof the nation.\nWhen I observe the devotion of the students in our normal schools to\nthe ideal of democracy and the advantageous use to which they apply it\nin their post-school careers, at such tremendous social, financial, and\nphysical sacrifices, I heartily renew my allegiance to them and to the\ninstitutions that produce them.\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nB.\nCALVIN\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHE TRAINING\n\nN. KENDALL,\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nSTATE COMMISSIONER\n\n287\n\nIN SERVICE\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nN.J.\n\nIf the work of schools is to be well done, the continued education of\nthe teacher is fundamental. The training of teachers should not end with a\nnormal-school or college diploma; it should not end with getting a life\ncertificate; it should not end with experience; by no means should it end\nwhen one becomes a high-school teacher.\nVast nimibers of teachers in American schools, however, are imtrained.\nThe majority of teachers are young, if under thirty is young. The plain\nfact is that many now teaching have little ambition to make themselves\nmore capable. We cannot shut our eyes to this. Many, perhaps the\nmajority, regard teaching as a temporary vocation. As has been pointed\nout, the average service of a teacher is only five years.\nBut the number of teachers with a professional attitude is increasing,\nand they respond eagerly to good supervision when they are fortimate\nenough to have it. The important duty is to develop teachers in classroom\nservice. That duty is squarely up to the superintendent. It is so close,\nhowever, that it may be overlooked. A pressing need of the schools is to\ndo better work in the plain things. Anything half done or poorly done\nspells inefficiency.\nSo long as reading and geography and English composition and arithmetic occupy so large a space in our elementary programs^ so long must the\nenergies of superintendents be directed to secure the best kind of teaching\nin these and kindred subjects. This means training teachers in service.\nWe must not allow oiurselves to become so engrossed in organization and\nadministration and school extension as to cause us to forget that organization and administration and extension are only half oiu* work. The other\nhalf is bringing about supervision that helps teachers in all schools. Some\nof these teachers are in kindergartens, some in school kitchens, in school\nshops, and in continuation schools; others are in high schools, in the third\ngrade, in the seventh grade, in rural schools.\nSchool systems cannot rise to their proper level unless the main stress\nis put, not upon administration, but upon good teaching. The best of\nschool systems, all other things being equal, is the one which makes the\nmost of whatever potential talent there may be among teachers.\nNow what are the means that may be employed for the training of\nteachers in service ? In order to verify or modify my own convictions, I\naddressed letters to certain teachers in ten representative school systems in\nthe country, inviting a frank expres.sion of their views. Similar letters\nwere also addressed to several superintendents in charge of school systems\nsomewhat widely recognized as progressive systems. What follows is a\nmixture of my own convictions with a consensus of opinions received.\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nSummarized, there seem to be two widely recognized means of improving teachers in service:\n1, The means that bear directly upon the art of teaching; the means\nthat make for increased schoolroom efficiency this week and next week.\n2. The means employed to increase the personal worth of a teacher, to\nenlarge her interests, to improve her general scholarship, to widen her\nvision, to give her broader culture (if I may be permitted to use the word),\nto furnish individual resources.\nThis latter means has for its purpose a more abundant life. It is not\nimrelated to efficiency in the classroom; it is not unrelated to making\nteaching more attractive to high-grade men and women. In passing,\nlet me express my strong conviction that, in view of prevailing economic\nand social conditions, the question of making teaching attractive cannot\nbe safely ignored. One reason is the competition of the increased number\nof occupations now open to women as well as men.\nAddressing myself to the direct means of improving teachers in service,\nI have time to mention only the quality of the supervision, meetings of\nteachers, and investigation and study by teachers of certain school problems.\nThere appear to be two kinds of supervision, or supervision so called:\nFirst, there is the inspectorial kind. Teachers too commonly say that\nin their teaching experience they have had no criticism, no commendation,\nno suggestion, no opinion, from any supervisory officer as to methods or\nresults. Such supervision is dormant, inactive. It may indeed create\ngood conditions under which teachers may do their work, but it fails to\naffect in any appreciable degree the quality of instruction. Teachers\nspeak of constructive supervision and its value, but some of them say they\ndo not get it.\nSecond, there is the kind of supervision that inspires teachers by means\nof active, positive, constructive leadership; the kind that gives teachers\nconfidence in themselves, especially those who are young and inexperienced;\nthe kind that encourages teachers to make use of the lessons of their own\nexperience; the kind that is humane; the kind that knows that the evolution of a good teacher is a slow process; the kind that is patient, that is not\nunforgetful of the demands made upon teachers; the kind that has a sense\nof hiunor.\nWhat is the attitude of the teacher toward criticism ? Let her speak\nfor herself. She admits that it is a difficult matter; she says that it depends\nlargely upon the person who gives it; that if it is intelligent and impersonal\nshe welcomes it. Says a grade teacher who is one of the best in her city,\n\"A child is too valuable an asset to suffer from careless teaching.\"\nAnd what is the attitude toward commendation ? One good teacher,\nwith much insight into human nature, says: \"Criticism is bad enough\nwhen accompanied with a little commendation, but positively deadening\nwithout it.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\n289\n\nSays President Eliot in a fine passage relative to criticism, too long to\nquote here in full:\nThe faculty for discerning quickly and surely excellences and virtues in persons,\npeoples, nature, and art is an immeasurably more valuable and useful faculty than the\nfaculty for seeing weaknesses and sins. It ought to be carefully and incessantly cultivated by school, college, and the experience of life, for it is capable of contributing greatly\nto happiness as well as to material success. The faculty of discerning and using conspicuous merit in other people distinguishes the most successful administrators, rulers,\nand men of business.\n\nIf commendation is worthily bestowed, it is a real tonic to teachers; nor\nis it without a tonic effect upon superintendents, if we would admit it. To\ndeny the truth of this is to deny hiunan nature. And yet it is not difficult\nto procure testimony — and that in too great abundance — that some teachers\ngo on year after year without commendation.\nTeachers testify to the inspiration for growth that comes from children.\nBut the satisfaction and happiness so desirable for the growth of teachers\nthat come from work with children are enormously enhanced by the expression of appreciation.\nThe increasing and expanding duties of what I deem to be the greatest\nlocal office in a municipality, that of superintendent of schools, will finally\ntell heavily upon the real efficiency of schools if these duties cause any\ndiminution of interest in the supremely important effort to secure better\nday-by-day teaching, not in some departments or schools but in all.\nThe coimtry needs more facilities for the training of supervisors and\nsuperintendents. To be sure, this training should rest upon practical\nexperience in teaching, but the supervisor should have a definite professional equipment as well, an equipment that will sometime be measured\nnot merely by successful experience in teaching. We need more welltrained women for the supervision of the work of teaching younger children.\nThe natural handicaps to efficient supervision in primary grades by men\nare so formidable that women may well be left in possession of the field.\nTeachers' meetings as a means of promoting growth seem to hold, in\nthe minds of teachers, a subordinate place to good classroom supervision.\nThis subject is too large to be adequately discussed here. These meetings,\nhowever, should have point, purpose, brevity. They should stop when\nfinished. They should not be held after school hours only. It is not easy\nto accomplish serious work or do constructive thinking after what should\nhave been a hard day's work in the schoolroom. The early afternoon is a\nbetter time. The net effect of a teachers' meeting should be to encourage\nteachers. Meetings should inspire confidence: \"Too much theory,\" \"Too\nmuch talking,\" \"Too much holding the floor by the superintendent\" —\nthese are quotations. Here is another quotation: \"The cry of the teacher\nin the ranks seems to be for the concrete expression of a theory.\"\nOverwhelming indeed is the evidence that teachers approve strongly of\nthe demonstration lessons with classes of children, provided the lessons are\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ngiven under as natural conditions as circumstances permit, not forgetting\nthe suspicion that is caused by such a performance if the children, and\nthe teacher herself, make no mistakes.\nThe organization of teachers into committees for the co-operative planning of courses of study is a means of teacher training. In Buffalo this\nyear such committees have been given definite assignments for the study and\ninvestigation of certain school problems. In Boston, at present, forty\ncommittees, which include in all four hundred teachers, are working on\nvarious problems connected with a proposed revision of the course of study in\nthat city. This is not working along the line of least resistance in framing\na course of study. It is a comparatively slow way, but there seems to be\nlittle doubt that it is an effective method of promoting the growth of\nteachers, to say nothing of other considerations. In my own state a superintendent says:\nI never bother my head about the general efficiency of a teacher who has become\nsufficiently interested in her problem to make a study of some one question which she is\nactually fadng. It really makes little difference what the question is; the important\nfact is her own mental attitude. Such a condition as this implies direct encouragement\non the part of the superintendent in teacher investigations, and a sufficient knowledge\nof statistical methods to give her direct help.\n\nSome representative undertakings the current year in that particular\nsystem are: compilation of a list of library books which have proved\ninteresting to children in the different grades; a comparison by Binet\ntest of the same pupil year by year, question by question; the effect of\ndefinite drill in teaching pupils how to study on their ability to pick out the\nessential ideas in geography and history; the relative effect of two different\nsystems of reading determined by the extent of the child's vocabulary at\nthe end of a stated period of time; variations in marks given by different\nteachers; and the development of fatigue during a session measured by\naccuracy in marking out \" A's.\"\nThere remains to consider — and necessarily in brief compass — the\nsecond of the means already indicated of training teachers in service. Here\nbelong facilities for giving teachers increased personal resources, if not\nprofessional ones.\nThese means are well known. A mere enumeration of some of them\nare: summer schools; study classes, conducted perhaps by the superintendent, the principal, or the high-school teachers of history, literature, and\nart; university extension courses; reading circles; lecture courses; leaves\nof absence for study or travel; institutes for business, not for entertainment; the sabbatical year with part pay, which will probably become\nmore common.\nSome of the courses taken may be used for credit in a college or university course or on a teacher's or principal's certificate. They obviously\nserve in this way a double purpose. A school system which can avail itself\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\n291\n\nof the services of live, wide-awake college professors for work with its\nteachers is fortunate. In my own state last year there were fourteen hundred teachers who were students in sununer schools. There were four\nwell-attended schools operated by the state. More than a thousand New\nJersey teachers are this year availing themselves of university extension\ncourses.\nMention may be made of the scholarships for teachers in service that\nhave been established thru private sources in Indianapolis and Pittsburgh.\nIn the former city, teachers have by this means been enabled to study at\nuniversities, not only in this country, but, in two or three instances, in\nGermany.\nI was particularly interested by the statement of a teacher in one of the\nmost noted school systems in New England, who expressed appreciation\nof the value to her of a correspondence course at a western university.\nWhen will it be possible for every state to offer to teachers in rural schools\nassistance by correspondence? The literature relative to schools and to\nteaching has of late become so extensive and so good that there is no reason\nwhy teachers should not every year read or study some of it. We are\nbeginning to be embarrassed with riches in this field, but this welcome\nembarrassment is comparatively new.\nI recall that during my first superintendency, which happened to be in\nsouthern Michigan, I asked William H. Payne, head of the Department of\nEducation in the University of Michigan, what work I should attempt to\ndo in the way of study classes with a corps of forty teachers. I have\nnever forgotten his reply, which was in substance: \"It does not make so\nmuch difference what you do. The main thing is to do something. Let\nit be Spanish if you like.\" I remember that we studied, in alternate\nweeks, Baldwin's Psychology as Related to Teaching and Bryce's American\nCommonwealth, which had just appeared.\nIndicative of some special efforts for the improvement of teachers in\nservice, it may be mentioned that in New York City an organized attempt\nis being made this current year to train regular teachers for special subject\nteaching. To one of the training schools are sent one day each week during\nthe year thirty teachers who are believed to have special ability in music\nand physical training. They there receive special instruction in these\nsubjects with the purpose of becoming departmental teachers.\nOne conspicuous leader in education believes that the board of education should have direct or definite control of the teacher's time to the\nextent that part of the summer vacation should be especially devoted to\nstudy or professional improvement, and that the teacher's contract should\ncall for service a week or two before the beginning of the school year.\nA teacher in St. Paul suggested that an exchange of teachers between\ndifferent cities or towns would be productive of growth. I do not know to\nwhat extent this has been carried on, but it is worthy of consideration.\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfCincinnati\n\nFinally, the conditions under which teachers do their work influence\ntheir growth. If these conditions are attractive, an environment is created\nin which efficiency grows. The number of children the teacher is required to\nteach is one factor here. The establishment in the system of special classes\nfor defective or backward children, thus withdrawing them at least for a\ntime from the regular classes, is a factor. Well-lighted, well-ventilated,\nwell-kept, and attractive schoolrooms, with restrooms with sanitary and\nother conveniences, are other factors. A pension system, freedom from\npolitics and pull in the promotion of teachers, a tenure of service law, so\nframed that it protects not only teachers but children as well, are other factors which cannot be overlooked in a consideration of the growth of teachers\nin service.\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\nARTHUR\n\nA STATE\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPROGRAM FOR INDUSTRIAL\nEFFICIENCY\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nD. DEAN, CHIEr, DIVISION OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N.Y.\n\nHow a state may consciously and consistently evolve a program for\ndeveloping industrial and social efficiency is a large question. Our special\nconcern today is the share that education is to have in such program-making.\nThe industrial world moves on while we hesitate over such matters as\n\"aims of education,\" \"relation of the school to the community,\" \"the\nsix-and-six plan.\" The educational world is slow. A study of this\nsplendid program shows that we are just realizing the importance of the\nconstructive policies which were proposed thirty years ago by individuals\nwho failed at that time to stand pat. All this time the industrial god has\nbeen at work, and are we keeping up with him ?\nThe industrial god is not discussing pros and cons. Its program is\nfar-reaching. It has steel birds swooping upon defenseless cities; iron\nswordfish which hunger for armored plates; skyscrapers that touch stars.\nIt has an electric speech which brings the soxmd of the Liberty Bell of a\nPhiladelphia to the World's Fair of a San Francisco. It has visualized\non a screen the life-history of a housefly which repeats itself for a nickel. It\nhas wormed its way beneath flowing waters and has bridged, with sweeping\ncurves, broad rivers. It has made automatic the crafts of a Barnabas;\nhas brought to all the labored script of a monastery.\nYes, and this god has made and vmmade men and women. It has made\nblood and spirit of little girls into artificial flowers for a few bits of copper.\nIt has used the nimble fingers of four-year-olds in tying knots for willow\nplimies that some social leader might preside at a child-labor conference.\nIt has taken the tan of a youth and turned it into the pallor of a mine boy.\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nPROGRAM\n\n293\n\nIt has made millions work overtime in a busy period at a seasonal trade\nonly to bring idleness and viciousness in a dull one.\nWonderful god! nearly everybody works for him. Some worship his\ngraven image; a few study the workings of his mechanical mind, hoping\nto discover a lubricant of sympathy and hmnan interest. An industrial\nrelations commission is seeking, as all good investigators should, to get to\nthe foundations and has learned that every social and industrial and\neconomic question is within the field of vision of this god.\nBut we are beginning to guide this all-powerful personage. According\nto some connected with big business, our Schoolmaster President has been\nthe one who put the \"sigh\" into psychology, but, be that as it may, his\nattitude is but the concrete expression of many forces of public opinion\nwhich are now saying that industry exists for the people and not the people\nfor industry; thatbusinessis the servant and not the master; that demands\nare to be human and not always material. We are about to say that the\npurpose of all activity is the increase of human wealth; that the dollar\nsign must find its final expression, not in figures, but in streets, schools,\nlibraries, churches, musemns, playgrounds; in music, art, literature —\nin the people themselves.\nAnd this conception of human needs in an industrial age is finding concrete expression in legislative halls. The industrial betterment program is\nbroadening its course of study, inserting new subject-matter, differentiating\nits activities, developing policies for a new order of things. This program\nrecognizes that the industrial god needs redirecting and that the people\nwho now do his bidding must be helped — so helped that some day industry\nwill express the consciousness of the people. The state is beginning to\n\"personally conduct\" industry, at least in so far as concerns questions\nrelating to the conditions under which its people shall work. The state is\neither discussing or enacting laws relative to minimum wage, workingmen's compensation, factory inspection, industrial insurance, apprenticeship, occupational diseases, collective bargaining, child labor, mothers'\npensions.\nNote that all of these things are a part of a state-wide program applicable to all people of the individual state, the benefit and the tax to fall upon\nall concerned. It waits not for its successes upon the theory of local\noption of individuals or communities. It rests not upon prejudice, traditions, local boards, ward politics. Once enacted, academic discussion is\nended. It moves with the strength and speed of the industrial god.\nPerhaps we say it is all folly, too rapid. We would hesitate and discuss\nit academically and earnestly as we do the relation between the high school\nand college or between business and the church. But the industrial betterment program takes its cue from its teacher, the industrial god — a god\nwhich works universally, constantly, irresistibly. The enacted and proposed legislation for industrial betterment is to work universally, constantly,\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nirresistibly on the theory that the universality or democratization of the\nhuman benefits which might come from industry must be as clearly defined\nand irresistibly applied as the evils which have been incident to industry.\nMeanwhile where is oiur educational program ? Have we a state-wide\nprogram which will turn a share of the profits of industry into educational\nopportimities for all the children of all the people ? I think it reasonable\nto say that we have not consciously thought of such. This is not saying\nthat individual cities have not established such a program. But the state\nas a whole — ^where does it stand ? Has it a minimum education law which\nit enforces? Has it a teachers' compensation law; a school inspection\nlaw; occupational education law; teachers' pension law; adolescent education program; medical inspection law? Generally speaking the states\nhave no such program. The educational program is still on a local\noption basis. It still rests upon either prejudice and tradition,\nor local initiative and foresight. Meanwhile, to repeat, industry of the\ngood and of the evil sort is state-wide in its workings. Meanwhile legislation looking to industrial betterment is state-wide in its consideration.\nAnd the educational program, far more disjointed than the trolley systems\nof a state, still has its high spots of efficiency and effectiveness only in\nindividual communities — ignoring the possibilities of a state-wide system\nof tnmk lines reaching every hamlet and every person. If, for example, our\ngood-schools movement in the Empire State could have a $200,000,000\nissue of bonds corresponding to the good roads issue of bonds, or a $130,000,000 issue similar to the barge canal bonds, in order that means could be\nprovided to carry our youth to better schools, to finer ideals, to more practical and far-reaching benefits to childhood, we would indeed be making\nprogress.\nPicture three parallel columns. In the first column, place all the statewide changes which have taken place imder the name of industrial progress;\nin the second, all the legislation which has been or is about to be enacted for\nthe state-wide industrial and social advance of workers ; in the third, all the\nstate-wide programs for the educational advantage of our youth and adults,\nand you will see how far behind we are as states in the conservation and the\nincreasing of hmnan wealth as it might be influenced by the public-school\nsystem.\nIndustry neither argues nor sleeps. It works. Labor unions argue\nlong and earnestly and then place their final word into a workingmen's\ncompensation law. Social workers confer and confer and confer again;\nand behold, the state has a child-labor law, or a widows' pension, or a minimmn wage. But we — ?\nOf course the states have done something — some far more than others.\nI should be the last to deny that. The progressive ones are those which\nconsider that education is the affair of the state; that the child is not to be\ndisadvantaged by the community in which he happens to be born; that\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nPROGRAM\n\n295\n\nmedical inspection is as important as factory inspection; that fire escapes\non schoolhouses are as important as those on a factory; that a decent\nwage for women teachers is as necessary as for the shop girl; that a system\nof taxation for supporting good consolidated schools is as beneficial as a\nstate highway system; that certified teachers are as worthy of consideration\nas certified milk; that a free university training in liberal subjects is as\nreasonable as a free college training in agriculture; that extension service\nfor the mechanic is as sensible as that for the farmer. It is such things\nas these which make up to a considerable extent a program for industrial\nand social efficiency.\nThere is one article of a state educational program to which I would\ncall your special attention — an article which would place educational\nthought on the same plane with that section of the industrial betterment\nplatform dealing with child labor. I refer to the question of child labor\nin its relation to education. This article might have the following\nsections;\n1. That the education of yoxing people is of public concern and that it consists of\nmore than the training received in the all-day school and consequently the school must\nassume a guardianship of its youth beyond the period of day schooling.\n2. That the purpose of employment of children up to eighteen years of age is for the\nbenefit of the child, forms a part of his educative process, and involves a consideration of\nthe most important question of how far employment in occupations suitable to childhood\ncan be made educative.\n3. That no child is to go to work imtil he has reached a certain maturity, the degree\nof which is not to be fixed entirely by age limitations.\n4. That no child is to go to work until he is physically fit to enter upon an occupational\nlife.\n5. That children are to work only in those occupations which have been approved\nafter investigation by the state department of labor, a list of such occupations to be on\nfile in the oflSce of the local superintendent of schools.\n6. That children are to work only in those local places of productive and distributive\nlabor the physical and moral conditions of which have been favorably reported upon by the\nstate labor department and the names of which are on file in the ofl&ce of the local superintendent of schools.\n7. That no child is to go to work until he has an employment certificate entitling him\nto work at a specific occupation for a specific employer. Every month the certificate is\nto be renewed or indorsed at the office of the superintendent of schools and due note to\nbe taken relative to the change of process or occupation to which the child 'has been\nassigned.\n8. That no child of normal health is to remain idle, for immediately after the child\nhas ceased to be employed the employer is to notify the local school authorities and the\nchild is to return to his proper grade in the regular schools or in special classes organized\nfor such children.\n9. That when a child goes to work he is to work the first year at profitable employment for not more than one-half of the time formerly provided for in the child-labor\nlaw; that the second year the child is to be employed not more than two-thirds of the\ntime formerly provided for such emplo)Tnent; that in the third year the child is to be\nemployed not more than three-fourths of the time formerly provided and that not until the\nchild is eighteen is he to work in profitable employment for a full working day.\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nICbcinnati\n\n10. That a child is to spend in school the difference between the time when he would\nlegally be at work if section 9 did not prevail and the time when he is at work after\nsection 10 prevails.\n11. That the school instruction for such young people is to have any one or a combination ofany of the plans herein set forth. To wit: (a) that the school work is to\ncontinue along lines of general education; or, (6) that it is to give prevocational training\nwhich will assist the young worker in determining his vocational qualifications for a\nparticular occupation; or, (c) that it is to give trade or occupational extension work in\norder that he may be more proficient in the occupation at which he is now engaged.\n\nMuch has been left unsaid m outlining even the twelve sections of one\narticle of an educational program which will make for industrial and social\nefficiency at least in so far as it concerns youthful workers in trade and\nindustry. This and other articles will be written on the statute books\nof progressive states and it is then and then only that we will approach\nthe solution of those industrial problems which properly belong to the educational forces.\nIn conclusion, we must remember that the state is to do everything in\nits power to make the child able to meet the physical and mental emergencies of life adequately; make him acquainted with Mother Earth\nand her generous boimty by actual work on the soil; make him happy in\nthe joy of cheerful labor; assist him in learning to use the eye and hand in\nuseful yet beautiful craft work; bring him to the point of enjoying that\ncharacter-building which comes only with actual participation in the\nprocesses of feeling, seeing, thinking, doing; help him discover his aptitudes\nand interests, and send him on the road to a vocation with some knowledge of its direction and some proficiency in walking thereon. These are\nsome of the steps in the educative process which will make for an increase\nof human wealth.\nGradually we are gaining ground. Gradually we are attaining a conception ofdemocracy in education. We started out to make gentlemen as\nin the days of Sirach; then thinkers as in the days of the academy; now\nwe are placing emphasis on vocational training. Some day let us hope\neducation may be such that all men will be gentlemen, all liberal in their\nmental attitude, all vocationally directed.\n\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nCHARLES\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nOF THE TRAINING\nIN INDUSTRY\n\nOF THE\n\nWORKER\n\nA. PROSSER, SECRETARY, NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION\nOP INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe century that gave us Shakespeare and Bacon had economic\nand social problems of the same general character as those of our times —\nthe decay of towns, the social unrest, the instability of the rural population,\nthe increase of pauperism and unemployment, and the diminution, actual\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHE\n\nWORKER\n\nIN INDUSTRY\n\n297\n\nand feared, of industrial skill. The Elizabethans established a system of\ncompulsory apprenticeship to solve them, which embodied a philosophy\nand established general policies with regard to child labor and child training in industry to which we must give heed before we can meet successfully\nthe same question. The Elizabethan statute of compulsory apprenticeship\nwas the expression of the experience of the English nation stretching over a\nperiod of more than two centuries with regard to the employment and\neducation of children for industry. In a primitive age it asserted certain\nfundamental principles concerning the relation of the state to the training\nand conservation of youth which are no less true and applicable in our\nown day.\n1. A nation-wide system of industrial education is necessary to the economic prosperity and supremacy of the country. The chief reason for making\napprenticeship compulsory was without doubt that of promoting England's\ntrade supremacy by the heightened skill of her workers. Already experience had taught the nation that thoro and systematic training was necessary\nthen, as it is now, to the efficiency of her craftsmen. The ability to compete\nin the markets of the world was then, as it is now, dependent upon the\nability of her workers to produce more goods of a better quality than her\ncompetitors. The prosperity of the local communities was dependent then\nas now upon the intelligence and dexterity of the workers in their struggling\nindustries. England's place in the sun, like that of any people past or\npresent, depended first and foremost upon the prosperity of her working\npeople. Industrial education in Germany is based squarely upon this idea\nand the growing movement here for state and national grants to aid local\nconmaunities in the support and supervision of vocational education is an\nassertion of the same principle.\n2. Governmental control and regulation of the employment and training\nof the youth in industry is necessary to the accomplishment of a nation-wide\nsystem of industrial education. England adopted compulsory apprenticeship partly because the trades left to themselves had failed to maintain the\ncontrol of a system of industrial training adequate to meet the growing\nneeds of a manufacturing and commercial people. The German experience\nhas been no less significant. Germany at first endeavored in vain to\ndevelop, thru the voluntary co-operation of the employer with the schools,\nopportunities for the training of her industrial workers. Then the farseeing\nBismarck, recognizing the need of state control and regulation, established\nthe compulsory continuation schools which have played such a large part\nin the commercial supremacy of modem Germany.\nFor ten years the advocates of industrial education have carried on a\npropaganda in the country which has taken hold of the imagination of the\nAmerican people as probably no other movement in education has ever\ndone. Nevertheless it is doubtful whether, as the result of the voluntary\nactivities of schools and shops, there are today, in the whole United States,\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nfacilities and opportunities for the industrial training of even twenty-five\nthousand workers. And there are more than twelve million to be reached!\nNothing short of legislation compelling town and shop, parent and child, to\nco-operate in the tasks will ever give to us, as it gave to early England and\nmodem Germany, a national system of industrial education.\n3. Training for industry and the labor of children in industry are matters\nof public concern which the state has the duty as well as the right to control, as\nfar cts the welfare of the youth and the public good may require. The Elizabethan state secured this control by binding every child entering industry\nfor at least seven years to a master upon whom was placed the responsibility\nfor his care and education. The master's obligation was enforced thru\nthe local guilds, who, in an impoverished age, unable to employ public\ninsp)ectors, supervised as self-appointed searchers — forenmners of the\nmodem factory inspectors — the shops of the crafts which they represented.\nThis they did partly to determine and insure the quality of the work and\npartly to see to it that the young worker received the kind of treatment\nand training guaranteed to him by his indenture. This was a degree of\nsupervision which was not ventured upon by the reformers of the nineteenth\ncentury, nor even by those of the twentieth century, who are most keenly\nalive to the evils of child labor.\n4. The child is the ward of society over whom the state should assert such\na guardianship both in his employment and in his education as may be necessary to make him a responsible citizen and an intelligent worker. In the\nElizabethan apprenticeship, the state exercised a wardship over the youth\nin industry more comprehensive and systematic than any other since the\ndays of Sparta. This wardship, delegated by the contract of indenture\ninto the hands of the master, extended from the first day the first papers\nof the apprentice were signed until he had arrived at the mature age of\ntwenty-four, and covered in the most intimate way every feature of his\nlife as an adolescent and as a worker. We have no equivalent to this in\nmodem industrial life. The nearest approach to it lies in the series of\nprohibitory measures by which the state has sought to protect the employed\nyouth against the dangers of his work.\n5. The primary purpose of the youth in industry should not be immediate\nprofit to his employer or to society but preparation for life and for labor, and\nhis career cts a young worker should be controlled and supervised by the state so\nas to insure this end. The Elizabethan apprentice was a learner exchanging\nhis service to the master for an education which was both civic and vocational. In the home of the master the apprentice received the best general training fitting him for the exercise of the civic virtues which the age\nafforded. In fact apprenticeship was the only means by which the employed\nyouth might come into the privileges and responsibiUties of citizenship as\na freeman of the town. The statute required the master to teach him a\ntrade in return for his labor, prescribed that only properly qualified masters\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHE\n\nWORKER\n\nIN INDUSTRY\n\n299\n\nshould undertake this education, and provided for the systematic inspection of their work as teachers of the trade. The modem child in industry\nis from the start a wage-earner on his own account, bartering his service\nin our great child-employing industries for money instead of preparation\nfor life.\nThe Elizabethan system of compulsory apprenticeship established a\nnational system of training in industrial education for the masses of England\nwhich cost the government practically nothing during the centuries it\nflourished. The misuse and misdirection of child labor was prevented;\nunemployment was lessened; the property of industrial towns falling into\ndecay was improved; the wastage of industry was reduced; and the\nfoundations were laid for the intelligence and skill that have wrought the\nmarvelous industrial and economic expansion of modem England.\nThe state provided a systematic means by which the child should make\nhis way into industry. In a sense it was an organized scheme of vocational\nguidance which undoubtedly resulted in a very careful consideration of each\ncase by all interested parties before final papers were signed. \"Regulation was introduced over the whole field of industrial juvenile labor.\"\nThe casual and shifting emplojonent so injurious to character in our own\nday was prohibited by binding the young worker to the trade and binding\nthe master to him during the period of his training. The period of demoralization now so common among young workers was avoided by making the\nmaster legally responsible for the conduct of the apprentice until long after\nhe had attained his majority. \"Tho there were individual cases of illtreatment, the youth received a fair return for his labor in self-support and\neducation.\" All the children who became apprenticed were certain of\nthorogoing training for a work in life, after employment, and a permanent\ncareer. The active supervision by the guilds prevented the sweating master\nfrom exploiting his apprentices. During the centuries when opinion was\nprobably hardest toward youth and when there was least idea that child\nlabor might be harmful, the conditions were even minutely regulated. This\nregulation must have had considerable influence in mitigating or preventing\nthe ill effect of children's work. In fact, apprenticeship had a eugenic\nvalue.\nIn spite of its excellence as a system of industrial education, it must be\nadmitted that the compulsory apprenticeship of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was by no means a universal solution of the problems of\nchild labor and education. It did not include the children engaged in\nagriculture. There were in those days, as now, many unskilled occupations. Employment in these was wholly unregulated. The story of\napprenticeship is at best only the story of the more fortunate leamer of\nthe skilled trade.\nCompulsory apprenticeship foundered and slowly went to pieces on the\nrocks and shoals of capitalism. The eighteenth century, an age of simple\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nindustrial processes, compared with the nineteenth, was the scene of the\ndisaster. While there were other contributory causes, capitaUsm broke\ndown the guild organization of industry and with it went the system of\ntraining yoimg workers which the guild had protected and enforced for\nmore than eight decades.\nCapital, in a laissez-faire age, was unwilling, as it now is, to be controlled\nby any organization as to the number of workmen it might employ or the\namount of goods it might sell.\nWhen the employer or the corporation equipped with large capital took\nthe place of the master, the old domestic and paternal relation to the apprentice disappeared. With the old personal bond went the sense of responsibility for the welfare of the worker, for his preparation for joumeymanship,\nand for the integrity of the craft. Eager for large profits and immediate\nreturns, the capitalist, then as now, looked upon the preparation of young\nworkers as an investment for the future which he was quite willing, in fact\nmore than eager, for others to make but which he regarded as an overhead\ncharge on his business, too remote in its return to justify the expense and\ntrouble of dealing with it.\nFourteen years after the opening of the nineteenth century, the English\nParliament repeated the then obsolete statute of compulsory apprenticeship.\nVoluntary apprenticeship by special contract between the employer and\nthe youth, which had grown up in the declining days of the guilds, became\nthe method by which, since that time, a few of the trades and industries\nin decreasing degree have prepared \"new workers.\" Here and there are\nexcellent examples of industrial efforts to meet the needs of particular\nestablishments or of national or local organizations by schemes which from\nthe standpoint of efficient vocational training are undoubtedly far better\nthan most of the instruction under the Elizabethan plan. But these usually\ndeal with the small selected groups of young people and reach only a very\nsmall part of the total workers in the highly skilled trades, while the lowgrade skilled and unskilled occupations in which the great mass of wageearners toil are entirely neglected. In England less than 7 per cent of the\nworkmen in the highly skilled trades have served an apprenticeship.\nIn the state of New York there was in 1908 less than one apprentice\nfor every twenty journeymen in a small group of highly skilled callings.\nThe United States census reports that in 1909-10 there was in the whole\nUnited States a total of 77,371 apprentices, both indentured and unindentured, an average of only one for every 322 workers of the more than twentyfive million people employed in gainful occupations other than agriculture,\nyet nearly every state in the Union has on its statute books legislation\nenacted for the purpose of encouraging indentured apprenticeship but now\nlong since obsolete. The effort to revive the old plan of training workers\nis interesting as an experiment but must of necessity fail to accomplish by\nlegislative fiat that which industrial and economic conditions have made\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHE\n\nWORKER\n\nIN INDUSTRY\n\n301\n\nimpossible as a large solution of the present-day problem of training\nworkers.\nThe indifference of capitalism and the aggressive spirit of individualism\nwhich, spite of many splendid examples to the contrary, have usually\nopposed, whenever personal interests were at stake, the effort of society to\nregulate business for the conservation of either our natural resources or of\nhuman kind — these have been, in the last analysis, the moving cause of\nthe utter lack of systematic training for the great mass of modem workers.\nLarge-scale production, extreme division of labor, and the specialized\nmachine, themselves the product of capitalism, broke down the old crafts\nwhere apprenticeship flourished. They made men into machine workers no\nlonger able to learn the whole trade, and increased the demand for a kind\nof unskilled labor which untrained children and women can perform better\nthan a man. Even where apprenticeship lingers, it is too often a method\nof procuring cheap labor which evidences a decay in the quality of the thing.\nDesire of freedom from restraint spread to the young worker himself, who,\nas a free American, became more and more unwilling to bind himself to a\nsystem of training which he chose to call \"wage slavery.\" The immediate\nrewards in wage for emplo3anent in special tasks are more attractive than\nthe remote benefits of a preparation for a trade. Like his employer, he\ntoo has learned to set the seen returns of the moment above the unseen\nrewards of the future. Blinded by the material evidences of our material\nprosperity, public opinion for a long time believed that unregulated child\nlabor was not only harmless but a good experience, valuable and necessary\nas a training for life. It is not the employer but the spirit of the age which\nhas been to blame for the overworking of children during their tender years\nand for the total disregard of what becomes of them afterward.\nThe very nature of our present industrial organization makes impossible a return to apprenticeship as a device for either the protection or the\neducation of young workers. With the introduction of machinery, a child\nno longer served as an assistant toa master, but as a principal, performing\nalmost entirely without direction a simple and highly specialized task.\nA few apprentices to the trade still survive — ^relics of an earlier day when\nyouth entered industry as a learner of a highly skilled process. But far\nmore significant is the great army of literally hundreds of thousands of our\nchildren who are no longer employed in industry as learners, but, in a sense,\nas independent workers in a multitude of socially and economically important but simple occupations.\nWidely as the conditions under which they manifest themselves differ,\nwe are confronted with many of the same economic and social problems\nwhich the Elizabethan statute was aimed to meet. Our volimtary efforts\nto train young workers have failed and experience shows will continue to\nfail to produce anything approaching either a state-wide or a nation-wide\nsystem of vocational education that is for any occupation in which the\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincmnati\n\nmasses toil. Even more acute and difficult with us is the task of supplying our industries or of the industries supplying themselves with the\ntrained workers necessary to the conmiercial prosperity and progress of\nthe nation. Unemployment shows its grizzled head in a much more extensive and dangerous form in the day of large cities and increasing influx of\nforeign and ignorant labor. The social xmrest of the working class whose\nroots always lie deep in the lack of an economic independence among the\nmasses that can only come from efficiency born of training strikes at the\nvery foundation of the Republic. Vocational guidance and placement of\nyouth have become an even more necessary and certainly a much more\ndifficult service in an age when the home has lost the ability to cope with\nthe complex conditions of modem industry and capitalism has to a great\nextent lost the old sense of personal responsibility for the education and\nguidance of the yoimg worker.\nThe complicated problems of modem democracy demand a more enlightened citizenship than the world has yet known. The age of Elizabeth recognized this same need and met it by a system of compulsory education, giving\nboth civic and trade training which afforded practically the only means by\nwhich the working boy might come into the privileges of citizenship as a\nfreeman of the town. In the declining days of compulsory apprenticeship\nthe strongest argument made for its continuance was that it was necessary\nas a means of preparing the youth of the day for participation in the duties\nand responsibilities of a citizen of the realm. Our American method has\nbeen to abandon the adolescent at the age of fourteen, entirely without\nsupervision and instruction, to an industrial system that has long ceased\nto give either any systematic, general, or vocational training.\nSpite of the splendid victories which the child-labor movement has\nalready gained for the protection of the employed child, nothing is clearer\ntoday than that prohibitory legislation alone cannot prevent the exploitation\nfor personal rather than social ends, the shifting employment, the wasted\nyears, the misdirected efforts, and shortened and decreased proficiency\nat the upper end of the career of the yoimg worker, which our age has almost\ncome to regard as a necessary tho regrettable feature of many of the childemploying industries. The statute of Elizabeth, as has already been shown,\nundertook to meet these conditions by directly raising the age of entrance\nfar above the custom of the day in imregulated industry, requiring a sevenyear service imder a single employer, supervising the training of the apprentice, protecting him in his employment, and insuring for him a fair return\nfor his labor after employment and a permanent career. We have dealt\nwith the misuse and misdirection of child labor thus far almost entirely\nby prohibiting legislation raising the age of entrance into industry, regulating the physical conditions of employment, and preventing the use of the\nchild in certain occupations dangerous to health or life or morals. Even\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHE\n\nWORKER\n\nIN INDUSTRY\n\n303\n\nthese reforms have been spasmodic and piecemeal, differing widely for\ndifferent states and for different industries. It was natural that the childlabor movement, crying out against the awful conditions of the nineteenth\ncentury, some of which in lessened degree still linger, should divert its\nefforts almost entirely to legislation prohibiting the most flagrant abuses.\nThe time has come for the twentieth century to treat industry in such a\nway as not only to protect the child, but, in addition, to make it, as did the\nElizabethan statute, an important and responsible part of the machinery\nof the state for the civic and vocational education of young workers. How\nshall this be accomplished ?\nA return to the old compulsory system of apprenticeship is, of course,\nout of the question. The same causes which brought about its overthrow\nare present to an ever-increasing degree in our social and economic life\nand make a system of voluntary apprenticeship equally impossible as any\nlarge solution of the question of training even our skilled workers. No\nsuccessful system of apprenticeship has ever been discovered for any other\nthan the highly skilled trade. A nation-wide system of volimtary apprenticeship would, at the best, reach only a small part of the great army of\nemployed children. We cannot look to the industries imaided by the public\nschools to give the employed youth either the civic or vocational education\nhe needs and to which he is justly entitled. The state owes the same duty\nin providing thoro training in citizenship for the young wage-worker as it\ndoes to the youth who remains in school. Even where apprenticeship still\nexists in the skilled trades, many large corporations have found it necessary\nto develop a special school of their own to teach the technical knowledge\nwhich the industry alone never has and probably never will be able to give.\nThe schools can never reach the great mass of employed youth, as long as\nthey must rely upon the voluntary co-operation of industry. The number\nof employers who feel that there should be greater regulation of the training of the working child is growing; but most of them feel unable and imwilling to cope with the problem singly and will welcome legislation removing\nthe matter from the field of competition between plants by making the same\nrequirements upon all. Entirely aside from the need of close contact with\nthe real industry in discharging the task, the schools have neither the\nresources nor the equipment with which to undertake the training of the\ngreat mass of wage-workers.\nThe state needs, first of all, a program for the conservation of the\nemployed child far more even than a plan of action in protecting its natural\nresources — a program that will deal with the employment and education\nof the young worker in a constructive rather than a merely prohibitory\nway. This program should be founded upon a soimd social philosophy\nand be put into effect in such ways as to win and hold the united support\nof all the interests which are today concerned with the adolescent boy and\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnati\n\ngirl. In order that it may speak in terms of the quickened conscience and\nwidening vision of the twentieth century, that philosophy should be stated\nin terms of the conservation of childhood.\nThe chief asset of the state is its children. They are the raw material\nout of which the state, like a living body, renews itself. In the interest of\nself-preservation and efficiency, the state has always asserted the right, in\nan increasing degree, to control the life of the child to such an extent and\nby such means as it deemed necessary to accomplish both these ends.\nThis attitude of the state toward the child is merely one phase of the assertion of the right of the state to control all its citizens for the same end.\nThe proper conservation of the boys and girls of today, who are to be\nthe men and women of tomorrow, is of far greater importance to the economic as well as the social well-being of the state than the conservation of\nour natural resources. Conservation of human beings, like conservation\nof mines and forests, not only costs money but calls upon the state\nto exercise self-denial and a vision that will set the unseen returns of the\nfuture above the seen and temporary advantages of the moment.\nFrom the standpoint of the state, the purpose of childhood is to prepare\nfor social well-being — for social and economic efficiency. This is not only a\nheritage to which each child is entitled as a part of his inalienable right of\nlife, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, but a social end which the state\nmust secure for its own preservation. It is the duty of the state so to supervise and to regulate the employment as well as the education of children\nas to secure this right for the child and this protection for itself. How far\nthe state shall go in scope or method depends not only on how far it finds\nit necessary to control the career of its youth but how willing it is to pay\nthe cost.\nSuch a theory of the purpose of the \"period of infancy\" — to use John\nFiske's expressive phrase — of the use to which the period of youth of the\nfuture man and the citizen and worker should be put, already has its applications insuch things as the safeguarding of the health and morals of children and the protection of the dependent and delinquent. We are here\nconcerned only with the application to the problems of the employment and\ntraining of the young wage-worker. Such a social philosophy of the conservation ofchildhood must accept at once the fundamental principles\nof the Elizabethan compulsory apprenticeship: that the training of the\nemployed youth is necessary to his and the nation's well-being; that\ngovernmental control of the employment and education of the youth is\nnecessary to a nation-wide system meeting the needs and rights of all;\nthat it is the right, as well as the duty, of the state to control the labor of\nchildren as far as their welfare and the pubUc good may require; that the\nprimary purpose of the youth in industry should be not immediate profit\nbut preparation for citizenship and for workmanship; and that his career\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] TRAINING\n\nTHE\n\nWORKER\n\nIN INDUSTRY\n\n305\n\nas a young worker should be controlled and supervised by the state as the\nguardian of his interests as far as may be necessary to insure this end.\nThis does not at all mean a return to the detailed control and minute\nregulation by the state of the whole career of the young wage-worker which\nthe Elizabethan statute established. This we could not, even if it were\nadvisable, restore. The statute simply made obligatory upon all a trade\ncustom which had for more than a century been the recognized method\nof training new workers. So excellently was compulsory apprenticeship\nadapted to the old handcrafts that its enforcement was in effect not an\ninterference with, but an assistance to, the organization and operation of\nindustry. Modem industry is so organized as to produce goods, not to\nprepare workers. The specialization of tasks which is ever on the increase\nnarrows both the requirements upon the worker and the opportunity to\nsecure any breadth of skill and knowledge in the shop or factory.\nWe cannot return to the old handcrafts. Neither can we revolutionize\nindustry so as to have each worker make the whole of the finished article\ninstead of performing a special task. One might as well attempt to suspend\nthe law of gravity as to stem the evolution of modem industry toward the\nlarge-scale production, division of labor, and specialized processes by which\nit makes more goods at a cheaper price to supply human wants and tastes.\nWe are beginning to realize that under modem conditions the industrial\neducation which fits the usual worker for his task and opportunity must be\na more direct and specialized training than the all-round training for the\nold handcrafts. Even if it were advisable to do so, it would be impossible\nto regulate modem methods of production so as to insure to each worker\nan all-round experience in every phase of all the processes used. The magnitude of the task, as to both the number of workers and the complexity\nof the many factors involved, would prevent. Even an age so accustomed\nto the sweeping and minute regulation of trade as that of Elizabeth would\nnot and could not have established compulsory apprenticeship had the plan\ninvolved an interference with industry comparable to the proposal that the\npresent organization and fundamental methods of manufacturing be revolutionized so as to afford a better means of preparing the employed youth\nfor its work. When we come to apply the principles lying back of the\nElizabethan attempt to conserve the young worker, we must accept the\nmethods of production in modem industry as a fact and adjust our program\nof action accordingly.\nWe need today a program of action in the protection and education of\nthe employed child which will set up definite goals toward which we may\nmove. These goals themselves should be variable, which will advance\nwith social, economic, and industrial changes and with the growth of a\nquickened public sentiment. I have, for my own satisfaction, constructed\na suggestive program.\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cmdnnati\n\n1. A rising standard of maturity for the child who leaves school to go to\nwork. — ^No child should be permitted to leave school to go to work until\nhe has reached a certain minimum of maturity. This standard varies from\ntwelve years in many of the southern states to as high as sixteen in a few\nnorthern ones. It should today nowhere be less than fourteen. In some\nof the states it will probably, within the next five years, go to sixteen for all\nchildren. Personally, for reasons which cannot well be given here, I beHeve\nwe should move toward fifteen years as the minimum age for the employment of either boys or girls, between whom no distinction should be made,\nproviding that there is provision for the further education, in some such\nway as is described below, of those above that age who are employed.\n2. A rising standard of physical fitness for the work undertaken by the\nemployed child. — No child under sixteen years of age should be permitted\nto go to work until he has reached a rising standard of physical fitness.\nThis will mean not only a physical examination to determine whether he\nmay be allowed to go to work at all, but the beginning of an attempt to\ndistinguish between the kinds of work which different children are physically\nfit to imdertake.\n3. A rising standard of general education for the youth entering wageearning. — This varies among the states from no requirement to a sixthgrade standing. In some this will doubtless rise in time to the requirement\nof graduation from the elementary school. Personally, I should favor, as\na final arrangement, permission to go to work for those over fifteen who have\nreached a sixth-grade standing and who were required by law to attend a\ncontinuation school for further training.\n4. Enforcement of all regulations for the young wage-worker. — ^No child\nof any age should, of course, be permitted to go to work in any occupation\nor under any conditions forbidden to him by law. Many of the states have\nalready defined these in their statutes. We may except legislatures from\ntime to time adding to the list. We need here above all a state-wide and\nimpartial enforcement of this regulation.\n$. Adaptation of the employed youth to his calling. — ^The state should,\nthru its schools and all other necessary agencies, help the youth when he\ngoes to work to find the employment and opportunities for advancement\nbest suited to his interest and ability. This means, among other things,\nprevocational training before leaving school, vocational guidance and placement, and the service of some such device as the juvenile labor exchange.\n6. Administrative discretion in a state agency to protect unhealthy or hazardous work. — Personally, I believe that after the state has by legislative fiat\nprohibited the employment of children where the best public opinion agrees\nthat the results might be injurious, there still remains a large field in which\nadministrative discretion should be given to the state department of labor\nor the state industrial commission, so that the question of the fitness of\noccupations for children may be handled in an elastic and constructive\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHE\n\nWORKER\n\nIN INDUSTRY\n\n307\n\nway. We are, of course, a long way from this, but I believe it is the goal\ntoward which we must move.\n7. Local supervision to determine suitable employments for children. — ^No\nchild imder sixteen years of age should be permitted to go to work save in an\noccupation whose conditions are approved by the school authorities as\nbeing on the whole such as to make such employment advisable. This is\nan immediate goal toward which we must work. Personally, I believe the\ntime will come within a generation when this regulation will extend to all\nthose under eighteen. To discharge properly the responsibility which\nthis requirement will make upon the school authorities will require, in my\nopinion, the organization of something akin to a juvenile labor exchange\nas the enemy of the public schools.\n8. A reasonable working day and no night work for immature workers. —\nNo child imder sixteen years of age should be permitted to work more than\neight hours per day, nor at night. This is a goal which some of the states\nhave already reached. Personally, I believe that within a decade this\nregulation will be extended to cover all those under eighteen years of age.\n9. Continued education in approved employment. — All children in industry under sixteen years of age should be required to give a part of their\nworking time to civic and vocational training in the continuation school.\nThus far the compulsory continuation school laws of Wisconsin, New York,\nMassachusetts, and Indiana have made their requirement only upon the\nyouth who went to work without completing the work of the elementary\nschool. The need of vocational as well as further civic education will in\ntime extend to all wage-workers imder sixteen. The amount of time,\nusually four hours per week, given to the continuation class is not sufficient\nto give the youth what he needs and we may expect to see it increased. The\nyouth over sixteen and imder eighteen will ultimately come into the benefit\nof the same regulation.\n10. Compulsory education, keeping in the schools those children prohibited\nby any rise in the child-labor law from wage-working. — Child-labor regulations\nprohibiting the employment of children should always be accompanied\nby compulsory education laws insuring the attendance of these children\nat school up to the same age. If the schools are to retain pupils until they\nreach a greater age or attain a higher grade standing, they must enrich their\ncourses of study and diversify their methods so as to appeal to the interests\nand the varying abilities of the adolescent boy and girl, and make school\nattendance seem more worth while as a preparation for what lies beyond\nthe schoolroom. Child-labor advocates can well afford to give some of\ntheir attention to the legislation and the community action which in many\nquarters is necessary to better the service which the school renders to the\nboys and girls destined to becom- wage-earners. Some of our schools,\nexcellent as they are otherwise, need reforming in this respect almost as\nmuch as industry does.\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niCincknati\n\n11. Compulsory training for the idle and the unemployed youth. — ^Any\nyouth under sixteen years of age who, for any cause whatsoever, loses his\nemployment as a wage-worker should be required to return to school for\nfull time imtil he secures another position. This regulation will, of course,\nultimately extend to those under eighteen years of age, wherever they are\nalso required, when employed, to attend the compulsory continuation school.\n12. The self-improvement of industry in dealing with every phase of the\nemployment and training of young workers. — Beyond the law and the schools\nlies a wide field whose boundaries have no limit for the betterment which\nemployers can make and where so many have already made valuable and\nlasting contributions — the selection, initiation, protection, training, and\npromotion of the employed youth.\nHere again efiforts of the employment manager and foreman must\nbe supplemented by an enlightened public opinion, practical vocational\nguidance and placement, scientific management of the right kind, and effective use of some such device as the juvenile jabor exchange.\n\nC.\n\nCONTINUATION\nROBERT\n\nL. COOLEY,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nIN WISCONSIN\n\nDIRECTOR OF CONTINUATION\nMILWAUKEE,\nWIS.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe Wisconsin Industrial Education Act was passed by the legislature of 1911. This law was of unusual interest thruout the country\nbecause it provided:\n1. An independent board to administer the work.\n2. Power for the Board of Industrial Education to levy a special tax of one-half mill\non the assessed valuation of the city.\n3. Compulsory attendance upon the part of apprentices and those under sixteen\nyears of age working on permits.\n4. Attendance was made free to all persons over fourteen years of age not by law\ncompelled to attend some other school.\n\nThe local boards of industrial education are charged with the duty of\nfostering and establishing commercial, industrial, evening, and continuation schools, and these terms are not defined or restricted in any way\nexcept by the provision that safety, citizenship, English, sanitation, and\nhygiene are to be included in the curriculum. In the case of apprentices, itis provided that the work must be supplemental to the trades to\nwhich the young people are apprenticed, and an apprentice is required\nto attend the school five hours each week while school is in session during\nthe entire period of his apprenticeship, unless he sooner attains his\nmajority, when attendance becomes voluntary.\nThe state Board of Industrial Education was given power to determine what schools should be given state aid. It is provided that all\ncourses of instruction, as well as the character of the teaching done, must\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nWISCONSIN\n\n309\n\nmeet with the approval of the state board before state aid can be granted\nany community. Not more than $3,000 in aid can be given one school\nand not more than $10,000 can be granted one city.\nThe state authorities, under a rather broad construction of their\npowers, have required that in all communities, as a condition for receiving\nfull state aid, four activities must be carried on simultaneously as follows:\n1. A school for fourteen- to sixteen-year-old permit workers.\n2. A school for indentured apprentices.\n3. An all-day industrial school for temporarily unemployed permit workers.\n4. Schools for adults — particularly evening schools.\n\nThere has not been a demand for these four phases of work in all\ncommunities. Some communities have no boys and girls working on\npermits, others have no indentured apprentices. The state authorities\nhave, however, urged that, to the extent that there is need of the four\nphases of work enumerated, state aid be proportionately withheld when\nany phase is not offered.\nThere has, in compliance with the law and these requirements, been\nestablished in each of the twenty-nine communities in Wisconsin now\nhaving boards of industrial education an institution which is on the whole\nless conventional and more adaptable than any the community has\nknown before, and which meets a distinct need for education.\nThe provision of the law making the city superintendent of schools\na member of the local board of industrial education has, I think, added\ngreatly to the strength and importance of his position in the community\nand has given the superintendent a new leverage with which to make\nhis ability and personality felt in matters of education. He is usually\nthe executive member in fact of the industrial board. His position is\nestablished by law and is one which gives him a clearly defined independence ofaction. He speaks both as a member of the board and as\nan authority on matters of education as questions arise, and, in view of\nthe fact that the board is composed of employers and employees, is the\nelement in the mortar which makes for compatibility as occasions\nrequire. We feel that this arrangement works very well. No friction\nhas arisen and, in my opinion, Wisconsin people are well satisfied.\nIn the short time that has elapsed since organizing the work in the\nstate of Wisconsin, with but one man in the field, 29 cities have inaugurated 49 schools, and raised, including the state aid, $341,000 for their\nsupport. There have been during the past year 25,004 people who have\nfound what they wanted and needed in these schools.\nMilwaukee, to which my activities are limited, is, as you may all\nknow, a city of over four hundred thousand inhabitants. It is a city of\nvaried industries and mixed nationalities, with the Germans and Poles\npredominating. Iron, steel, and allied industries hold first rank, meat\nproducts second, leather third, coal and coke products fourth, beer and\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "310\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CmdnnaU\n\nmalt tonics j5fth, building sixth, boots and shoes seventh. I mention\nthese facts to correct a national misapprehension.\nThe elementary schools are good — compulsory school attendance thru\nthe fourteenth year is well enforced and child labor is not excessive. Nevertheless real apprenticeship to the trades has about disappeared; each\nyear three thousand boys and girls go to work before their sixteenth year\nand before the completion of the elementary grades, and thousands of\nadults still need and desire training which will help them to earn their\nliving. These were not provided for in any adequate manner in our\nscheme of education.\nThe Board of Industrial Education began actively to arrange to\ncarry out the provisions of the law by which it was created in September,\n191 2. At this time a director was appointed to take charge of the work.\nHe was given the powers usually assigned a general manager in a wellorganized business, and has for two years been permitted to attack the\nproblem presented with a directness not usually permitted in school\nmatters.\nFor the inauguration of this work, two methods of procedure presented themselves: to make a comprehensive survey of the city before\nestablishing the work, or to attack the obvious and proceed. The latter\nplan was chosen for two reasons: first, the state aid could be obtained\nonly in the event of the school being in operation by November, and,\nsecondly, it seemed perfectly feasible to attack the problem in that way,\nsurveying as we proceeded and proceeding as we surveyed.\nSince the law required all indentured apprentices to attend school one\nhalf-day each week, a contract was made with the extension department\nof the University of Wisconsin to furnish the instruction and the apprentices were placed in its charge. It had been specifically provided in the\nlaw that such a contract might be made with the state university.\nSince all boys and girls working on permits were required to attend\nschool one half -day each week, two hundred of these were next called in\nand space in a downtown manufacturing building was made over into\nsuitable rooms for their accommodation. To this school the boys and\ngirls came one half-day each week while working and four hours a day\neach day while temporarily unemployed.\nIn October, a night school was established by the board in one of\nthe elementary-school buildings. The hope was to develop a new type\nof night school in harmony with the purposes of the law.\nThus the four activities required by the state board were inaugurated.\nA detailed description of our work with apprentices and the evening\nschools would not particularly interest this audience. This work is\nsimilar in character to that offered in many communities, with which\nyou are entirely familiar, and our main purpose was to extend this service\nadequately to the needs of the community.\nWe have now taken over\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nIN WISCONSIN\n\n311\n\nthe apprentice activities from the University of Wisconsin extension\ndepartment and established a central school to which all apprentices\ncome. We have at present provision for pattern-makers, machinists,\nprinters, bakers, plumbers, power-plant operators, bricklayers, electrical\nworkers, and sales people. The need of the apprenticed boy as revealed\nby knowledge of his previous education and the shop conditions under\nwhich he works determines our method of procedure with him and the\nsubject-matter of our instruction offered to him.\nMany boys come to the school on their own time in excess of the compulsory time for which they are paid by their employers. We have in\nattendance over three hundred apprentices actually indentured, and\nexpect that the number indentured will largely increase in the near\nfuture. We stand ready to attempt to meet adequately the needs for\ntraining which will supplement the shop or factory experience in all lines\nto which boys or girls are admitted thru apprenticeship.\nThe evening schools are now seven in number, outside of and in\naddition to those operated by the Board of Education, and have over\nthree thousand pupils in actual attendance. In our steam, internal\ncombustion engine, and electrical courses, as well as in much of our other\nwork, we are pursuing the method of correspondence schools, supplemented bylectures, laboratory work, and quizzes which bring the pupils\nand instructors face to face. In this way, we are getting much work done\nat home and are enabled to put the attendance on a two-nights-a-week\nbasis, which is all a workingman ought to spend away from home. The\nteachers engaged are given time during the day to correct the papers prepared at home. The correction of home work is much appreciated by\nthe men.\nThe work we have done in Milwaukee in which you would likely be\nmost interested is that of bringing back into school in one year five\nthousand young people who had left school under sixteen years of age, averaging about sixth grade education, and entered into juvenile jobs. This\nis an extension of the work alluded to in a preceding paragraph. These\nyoung people come to school during the day — four hours each week for\nthirty-two weeks in the year as a minimum. Some come oftener and\nstay longer. During the past week, boys under sixteen years of age\nattended 1,965 half-days and girls 1,602 half -days. There were 1,580\nboys in actual attendance, and 1,258 girls. Our number working on\npermits is less than last year by about one thousand, but that merely\nreflects the conditions of unemployment that have prevailed among all\nclasses of people. Our attendance averages 91 per cent of the number\nenrolled.\nWe require all of these boys and girls to come to a centrally located\nschool where, in the downtown section, space has been rented in welllighted structures built for manufacturing purposes. The space rented\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinnati\n\nhas been divided into suitable shops, laboratories, drafting-rooms, and\nclassrooms. The teachers and equipment, being grouped in one place,\ncan be used to greatest advantage and the large number of pupils coming\nto one place enables us to receive pupils on the days they can be best\nspared by the employer and make such shifts in the assignments to particular days as result in the maximum of accommodation without sacrificing the character of the work to be done. We have no itinerant\nteachers and no classes conducted in the shops, factories, or stores. All\npupils attend the full time required in one attendance. No Saturday\nwork has ever been offered except to those who have been delinquent.\nWe have felt that the Saturday holiday was too good an institution for\nthe worker for us to interfere with. No demand for Saturday instruction\nhas arisen.\nSeven hundred and fifteen different employers have sent 3,349 employees to our school within the past few months under this arrangement. Of these employers, 483 employ but one boy or girl. The\nbalance are employed in various numbers.\nMost of the work in which these young people are engaged is of such\na character that there is no element of apprenticeship in it. The boys\nand girls do not expect to remain in their present jobs, nor do their\nemployers expect them to do so, and neither they nor their employers\ncontend that their school work, in view of conditions, can or ought to\nbe, in many instances, related to their present employment. Our plan\nis to give the girls cooking, sewing, and academic work with home lessons\nand brief lectures in assembly. We teach them in brief weekly talks\nillustrated by slides, for instance, that there is life beneath the power of\nthe naked eye to see and that what is dangerous to us in that life is\nusually associated with dirt. When that lesson has been taught a good\npiece of work has been done. Or we acquaint them with our city government by simple short talks, and at other times take up the matter of\namusements. Strange as it may seem, many of these young people\nknow nothing of our splendid system of social centers conducted by the\ncity, in spite of the efforts hitherto made to get the information to just\nsuch as they.\nOne teacher devotes her whole time to putting books from our public\nlibrary out among the young people, and two thousand books a month\nare now going out to these homes where scarcely any books went before.\nDefinite instruction in their present emplo)anent is not given except when\nespecially desired by the young person in question, as in the case of\noffice or store girls who hope to become bookkeepers or clerks. In these\ninstances we recognize that some elements of an actual apprenticeship\ncondition exist and treat the cases accordingly.\nIn all of our work with the permit pupils, and particularly in the case\nof boys, our attempt is to discover and accentuate ambitions, not merely\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nIN WISCONSIN\n\n313\n\nto get a job, but to prepare to earn a livelihood in a man's job. To that end,\nlittle booklets are given all pupils applying for permits to work, which\ncall attention to the necessity for serious consideration of the problem of\nthe selection of an occupation for which they are to prepare themselves.\nThese little booklets explain that we now ofiEer instructions in the following nineteen occupations in which men make a man's wage:\nBaking\nCarpentry\nConcrete work\nElectrical work\nMasonry\nPattern-making\nPlumbing\nSheet-metal work\nStenography\nTinsmi thing\n\nBookkeeping\nCabinet-making\nDrafting\nMachinist work\nPainting\nPrinting\nPower-plant work\nSteamfitting\nStore clerking\n\nThe object of the work is:\nTo make the boys familiar with the use of tools and to aid them in selecting a trade\nor other skilled work that will help them to earn substantial wages when they become men.\n\nWhen such selection is made the subject-matter of instruction is built\nup around the shop or other work clearly related in the child's mind to\nsuch preparation. We allow not more than twenty pupils to a teacher\nand require the teacher to spend his entire half-day with the same group.\nDuring our first year we had the shopwork conducted by one teacher,\nthe drawing by another, and the academic work by a third. The result\nwas that each teacher came in contact with over six hundred different\npupils each week. Under our present arrangement, we are getting much\nbetter results. Our teachers are required to teach eight half-days each\nweek, and one full day is given to getting into touch with the boys and\ngirls outside of school.\nThe Board of Industrial Education has conceived its special function\nto be that of establishing an institution so varied in what it teaches and\nso flexible in its administration as to meet adequately the needs for\nfurther practical education of all people who are working and wish such\nadvantages. The response when such opportunities have been offered\nduring the past year must set at rest forever all opposition which arises\nfrom reasonable people who have doubted the importance of giving those\nmembers of the community who must remain employed a chance to\nimprove their condition both civically and economically.\nD.\nE. C. WARRINER,\n\nTHE ALL-DAY\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTRADES\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSAGINAW,\n\nMICH.\n\nThe first part of this paper is a brief statement concerning the Saginaw\nTrade School, Saginaw, Mich., as we have been operating it now for the\nsixth year; the second part is a discussion of the educational field for the\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntCincmnati\n\nall-day trades school, as it is illustrated by our own experience, and as it\nappears from a study of such schools thruout the country.\nSaginaw is a city of 50,000 people, divided by the Saginaw River into\ntwo school districts. The eastern school district has a population of\n30,000 and a school enrolment of 4,800 with 160 teachers. Our problem,\nthen, has been that of vocational training in a small city, and, if the figures\ngiven below in regard to our trade-school department seem small, this fact\nof oiu- population should be borne in mind.\nIn the fall of 1909, W. R. Burt, a public-spirited citizen of Saginaw, commimicated to the board of education his willingness to contribute $2,000\ntoward the establishment of a special course of instruction for boys, to be\nknown as a trade school. Mr. Burt had previously made it possible for us\nto erect a modern manual-training high school by contributing threefourths of the entire cost of the plant, which was $240,000. This second\noffer of $2,000 to start a trade school was accepted by the board of education,\nafter some discussion and after a protest by the machinists' imion of the\ncity. The trade school occupies rooms in the manual-training high school\nand uses the high-school shops, thus reducing the expense of equipment\nand maintenance. When the initial donation was used up, the trade school\nwas taken over by the board of education and has been carried on by it\nup to the present time.\nA two-year course is provided, looking toward the machinists' trade,\nas a greater demand exists in Saginaw for machinists than for any other\none craft. One-third of the pupil's time is given to academic work with\nindustrial content in English and arithmetic and two-thirds to drawing\nand shopwork. The shopwork includes woodwork and forging the first\nyear and pattern-making and foimdry and machine-shop practice the\nsecond year. Thus trade school is not perhaps so appropriate a name as\nvocational school or prevocational school wotdd be. The name trade\nschool was chosen because it is easily understood by the public. It is\nimpossible to teach the machinists' trade in two years anywhere, and it is\nimpossible to teach any trade thoroly in any school alone without commercial shop practice. It is possible, however, to give a boy a good groundwork in the essentials of the machinist's trade in two years. That is what\nwe are doing and it is about all the public schools can be expected to do in\nan all-day trades school.\nThe per capita cost of the Saginaw Trade School for teachers' salaries\nand supplies during the year 1913-14, based on the average attendance,\nwas $66! 66. The method of admission to the school is as follows: applicants must be at least fourteen years of age; this is the only absolute\nrequirement. On account of lack of room, we have not been able to\naccept all who have applied. For the past three years, therefore, we have\nused this selective test. An examination has been given all applicants\nin the fundamentals of arithmetic; their standings in their regular manual-\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE ALL-DAY\n\nTRADES\n\nSCHOOL\n\n315\n\ntraining work in the grades have been secured, and their last teacher has\nbeen asked to mark the applicants in persistency and likelihood to succeed.\nThe average of these three standings — arithmetic, manual training, and\nperseverance — ^has been found and those having the highest standings have\nbeen admitted. Even with these precautions, we have had difficulty\nin holding these pupils thru the two-year course. In the first entering\nclass there were 28, of whom 7 completed the two-year course; the second\nclass had 20, 11 of whom stayed two years; the third class 26, with 7 graduates; the fourth class 21, with 7 graduates. The fifth and sixth classes\nhave not yet completed their courses, but the prospect is good for holding\na much larger niunber. The compulsory school laws of Michigan require\npupils to attend school until the age of sixteen, so we are able to hold them\nuntil that time, but, after that, numerous causes lead even trade-school\npupils to drop out. The reasons assigned for our losses are as follows:\nlack of interest, 60 per cent; financial conditions of home, 25 per cent;\nsickness, 5 per cent; other reasons, 10 per cent. This loss of pupils will\nalways be the case in schools of this kind. It will always be impossible\nto tell with exactness whether a boy will \"make good\" in the machine\nshop except by the method of trial. Our vocational-guidance friends will\nhelp us to lessen the number of failures, but those in charge of vocational\nschools will always have a considerable percentage of loss. It would be\npossible, of course, to set the admission standard to vocational schools\nso high as to exclude all but the intellectually bright, but vocational schools\nought to be schools of opportunity, and, if they are to be this, the doors\nmust easily be opened altho the records of accomplishment are not all that\nmight be desired. Of those who have completed our trade-school course,\n70 per cent are working in machine shops successfully and coming back to\nour evening classes for further study. The numbers in our school have\nsteadily increased, the spirit is growing better, and the experiment has\nproved a success. And this without state aid, for Michigan has not as yet\nenacted industrial-school legislation.\nI have not given this account .of our experiment because it contains\nanything novel or striking, but because I believe our experience will be\nfound typical of all such schools in small cities, and because of the suggestions\nour experience affords of the direction in which the solution of the problem\nof industrial education will be found. As I have already said, there will\nalways be a leakage from a vocational or trade school unless some way is\nfound to determine without fail what a boy's vocation in life is to be. This\nway will never be found in America. In this new free country there must\nbe unlimited opportunity for experiment, for trying this occupation, then\nthat. This is the distinction of America and its glory that the whole world\nis open before our young men. Vocational guidance is good in that it will\nlead our young people more systematically than in the past to study themselves and to study the world, its callings, and its opportunities. Voca-\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "3l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinnati\n\ntional guidance will help to arouse ambition in boys and girls — ambition,\nwhich is the greatest lack of students in this easygoing age of luxury.\nBut vocational guidance can never decide in advance absolutely what one's\nvocation will be. Nothing can do this except a stratified society. It is\nthis stratified society which makes the problem of vocational education\nso much easier in Germany than it is in our coimtry. Travelers in Germany during the past ten years, looking with genuine admiration on the\nclean streets, the attractive homes, the evident thrift and comfort of the\npeople, have often asked themselves and each other and their German\nfriends why so many Germans have longed to come to America. The answer\nis that in America is found the opportunity for growth and change which\n(Jermany does not afford. I well remember a conversation I had one\nafternoon in Leipzig with a German lady who had spent many years in\nthe United States and who was then returned to Germany for a visit. I\nput this question to her: \"Leipzig is a beautiful city. Why do its people\nleave Leipzig for America?\" \"O!\" she replied, \"In Germany, you know,\nonce a servant, always a servant.\" We must see to it in developing a\nscheme for industrial training in the United States that we do not make\nits success depend upon attempting to cast the young lives of our adolescent\nboys and girls into rigid molds from which they cannot escape during the rest\nof their lives. For this reason, there will always be many who after entering the vocational school will not like it and will drop out. We must discourage frequent changes of this kind for trivial reasons, but if the world is\nto be free for trial we must expect some shifting out and in in these schools.\nAgain, it will always be difficult to hold students in an all-day trade\nor vocational school for more than two years. A trade school, as the name\nimplies, is designed to teach a trade and to make journeymen craftsmen\nof its students. Now the rewards of this sort of life are not such as appeal\nto persons of the keenest intellect. Those who like study will wish to take\nthe four- or the six-year high-school course. Those who love study will\ngo to college or engineering school. Those who are to become the world's\ncraftsmen will not, many of them, care to remain in a school more than two\nyears in order to prepare themselves for industry. They will be tired of\nstudy at the end of this two-year period and will long to enter the fray\noutside the schoolroom. To be sure many of them will be back in evening\nclasses or part-time classes later, which is well, but to attempt to keep these\nstudents in preliminary school work more than two years will result in\nfailiu-e.\nClosely allied with this phase of the problem is its financial aspect. The\nfamilies from which trade workers are recruited are absolutely unable\nto keep their children in school beyond the age of sixteen and many not this\nlong. The Douglass Commission in Massachusetts in 1905-6 reported a\nlarge percentage of homes which said they could keep their children in\nschool had the school anything of value to offer them. No doubt this is\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nALL-DAY\n\nTRADES\n\nSCHOOL\n\n317\n\ntrue in many cases, but in very many instances also financial pressure will\nforce yoimg people out of the trade or vocational school even before the\nterm is completed and certainly at the end of two years. It follows that\nthree- or foiu--year courses in a trade or vocational school are out of the\nquestion for any large number of students.\nThese considerations show why the enrolment in such schools as we are\nconsidering is not large relatively to the population of their cities, and\nwhy the average attendance is not so high as might at first blush be expected.\nAnother important factor in this whole question is the cost of the equipment. To carry on a trade school worthy of the name and purpose requires\nthe tools of the trade in large niunbers and up to date. Such equipment\nis expensive and beyond the reach of small cities. When instruction is\noffered in many and diverse trades, this cost is greatly increased and soon\nbecomes prohibitive.\nThese considerations lead us to understand why the per capita cost of\nmaintenance of trade schools is high, ranging from $80 to $200, a rate\nmuch higher than our communities are now used to. All types of schools\nmust cost more in the future than in the past, but at present a per capita\ncost of $200 may well be considered excessive.\nI have already hinted at the fact that it is quite impossible to bring\nthe atmosphere of the commercial shop into the schoolroom. It is therefore out of the question to teach a trade in its entirety in school any more\nthan it is possible to make a practitioner in law or medicine in college. The\nelements can be taught in a trade school, but this instruction must be\nsupplemented by actual shop practice.\nYou may now perhaps guess whither my reasoning is leading. The\nall-day trade school, meaning a school in which young men are to spend\nfour years, from fourteen or sixteen to eighteen or twenty, and which will\nturn them back to society skilled and finished workmen, will not be the\nsolution of the industrial education problem in the United States. Young\nmen cannot spend this much time and money to learn a trade in school;\nthey cannot determine well enough what their life occupation is to be;\nthe school cannot give the shop atmosphere; and such schools are too expensive for any but the largest and wealthiest commimities to support. What\nthen is the present outlook on the field of industrial education ? We have\nbeen working at this problem in a large way for only ten years, certainly\nnot long enough to reach a conclusion in a matter so large, but long enough\nto enable us to arrive at some conception of the probable direction of future\ndevelopment. As it looks today, three types of school are to occupy the\nfield of industrial education in our coimtry:\nI. Continuation schools, in which will be foimd boys who have completed the compulsory school age of either fourteen or sixteen as the state\nlaw may provide, or who are permit boys, that is, boys excused from school\nby the proper authority. This is the celebrated Fortbildungschtile of\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niCindnnaU\n\nGermany, which has been started on a large scale in the state of Wisconsin,\nwhere there were forty-five of these schools in operation in 1913-14, the\ntotal number authorized by the Wisconsin law of 1913. These schools\nwill be conducted twice or three times a week with from five to eight hours\nof instruction. The instruction will be what may be called academic with\nan industrial content, that is, shop arithmetic, drawing, and industrial\ninformation in regard to the particular trade pursued by a certain group of\nstudents. These schools will be truly continuation or supplemental\nschools to keep boys who are learning their trades in shops or factories in\nthe habit of study. It will be a remarkable achievement of incalculable\nbenefit to industry and to society to instil in the minds of such boys the idea\nthat study has a place in their lives even after they have left the day school.\n2. Another type of school which promises to do much for the welfare\nof the country is the co-operative part-time school first put into practice\nin the Fitchburg High School and in the University of Cincinnati. The\ngrowth of co-operative schools will depend upon the progressiveness of\nmanufacturers. School men everywhere will be foimd ready to enter\nheartily into the part-time arrangement, but employers whose traditions\ncause them to look with incredulity on the worth of school training are\nslower to appreciate the value of this arrangement.\nThe prime and obvioiis merits of the continuation and co-operative\nschools are that they do not require a special and expensive equipment in\nthe school. The shopwork is done in the shop, the school does the correlative academic work, and the student in the factory comes at once into a\nreal shop atmosphere and is learning commercial methods from the start.\n3. The third form which industrial education will take in this country\nwill be a pre-vocational course of two years parallel with other courses\noffered in the schools for pupils between the ages of fomrteen and sixteen.\nK the six-six division comes to obtain thruout the coimtry, this course may\nnm side by side with a general and a commercial course in Grades VII,\nVm, and DC, but, for its highest value to the individual, the vocational\ncourse should be taken up at the age of fourteen. This pre-vocational\ncoiurse will include one-third academic work with industrial content in\narithmetic and English and two-thirds shopwork in both wood and iron.\nThe shopwork will be determined by the financial ability of the school to\nprovide equipment. It is desired to have forge, foundry, and machine\nshop in addition to woodworking shops if possible. The aim of this twoyear pre-vocational course will be to try out those boys who think their\nability is of a mechanical nature. The school shoidd afford a means of\nexperimentation to save these boys from defeat in the world of industry\nafter leaving school.\nThis will be the program of the small and middle-sized manufacturing\ncity. Larger cities where there is a greater concentration of wealth and a\nmore varied lot of industries with a larger population to draw from and\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCORPORATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n319\n\ngreater opportiinities for diversified employinent will ofifer trade instruction\nin many lines. The New York City Vocational School for Boys is this\nyear offering instruction in twenty-four trades. But it is only the largest\ncities which can emulate such a course as this. The great service to\nindustry in the upbuilding of a citizenship skilled in the fundamentals of all\nhand work will be done by such schools as I have described above.\nThe term trade school has been little used by the public schools. The\nGirls' Trade School of Boston, the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in\nNew York, the Worcester Trade School, the Columbus (Ohio) Trades\nSchool, the Philadelphia Trade School, the Milwaukee School of Trades, the\nArthur Hill Trade School of Saginaw, West Side, and the Portland (Ore.)\nTrade School are the principal examples of the use of the name. This is no\ndoubt due to the knowledge on the part of school officials that schools cannot teach trades in a real sense and to the desire not to use a deceptive title. I\nhave treated the term all-day trade school, however, as including all schools\nin which students devote their entire time to studies whose purpose is to\nprepare directly for a trade. This should include, then, the industrial\nschools of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Connecticut, the vocational\nschools of New York, as well as the two-year courses in many individual\ncities for seventh- and eighth-grade and high-school pupils. Recent\nreturns received from forty states indicate that sixteen states have what\nmay answer the description of all-day trade schools. These states are\nConnecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,\nVirginia, Wisconsin, and Michigan.\nFrom out of the apparently confused mass of experimentation in\nindustrial education which the schools and the industries of the coimtry\nhave heroically taken up in the past ten years contrary to all theories and\npractices of the past, there will emerge within the next generation a system\nof industrial education which will, I think, take one or all of the forms I have\ndescribed: continuation, co-operative, or pre-vocational schools.\nE.\n\nTHE\n\nFIELD FOR THE CORPORATION SCHOOL\nRELATION TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nW. L. CHANDLER,\n\nAND\n\nITS\n\nASSISTANT TREASURER, DODGE SALES AND ENGINEERING\nCOMPANY, MISHAWAKA,\nIND.\n\nI look upon this moment as a very auspicious one. The business world\nand the schools need to get together and put their shoulders to the wheel\nfor the promotion of their mutual interests. It is proper to say that the\nschools are like factories turning out graduates, which, in turn, become\nemployees of business houses and may be considered the raw material of\nbusiness. It is very wise then that we should get together and tell our\ntroubles.\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nIf a business house was buying bread from a baker and the baker was\nin the habit of delivering it in a half-baked condition, the business house\nwould never hesitate to go to the baker and tell him what the situation was.\nCo-operation between the baker and the consumer would result in a much\nbetter product from the bakeshop and would give greater satisfaction all\naround. Similarly, when the product of the schools reaches business in an\nunderdone condition, it is proper that we should get together and analyze\nthe situation. The interests of the schools and business are mutual. We\nare all aiming for the one end — that of a line of school graduates who are\nbetter fitted to earn a living and serve the community.\nCorporations do not want the schools to turn out himian automatons\nto act like machines turning out a certain product, but they want the\nbrains and thinking powers of individuals developed, so that they may\nintelligently do their work. All business men should realize that they\nshould first co-operate with the eugenists in an e£fort to provide the schools\nwith little individuals with sufficient gray matter to make it possible to\ndevelop the proper amount of intelligence.\nThere is a proper field for the corporation school. For instance, a\ncorporation is justified in teaching methods which will increase the sale of\nits products — methods which are, in most cases, peculiar to that particular\ncorporation. A telephone company is justified in teaching girls how to\noperate switchboards, and machine shops may well teach boys the rules\nand methods common to good shop practice. However, the corporations\nhave been led into an improper field of operation thru a lack of co-operation\nor getting together of the schools and corporations. Some of these corporation schools have been teaching arithmetic, spelling, penmanship, etc.\nThis is an encroachment upon the functions of the public school, and\nsuch subjects should be left to those schools.\nThe National Association of Corporation Schools was formed about\nthree years ago. The fimctions of that association are as follows:\n1. To develop the efl&dency of the individual employee.\n2. To increase efficiency in industry.\n3. To influence courses of established educational institutions more favorably toward\nindustry.\n\nThe association is on record as favoring the various forms of continuation\nschools. In order to further the matter of co-operation, the membership in\nthe association is open to anyone interested in that work, and any of you\nwould be welcome to membership. The fee for membership is $10 a\nyear, for which each member receives a copy of the proceedings together\nwith the monthly bulletin.\nI believe it is conceded that it is not possible to reproduce the business\natmosphere in school. You may approach it, but a school imitation must\nnecessarily lack the ozone that keeps the business employees on their toes\nin an effort to render the greatest service to the customer and build up\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\n\\\nSuperintendence]\n\n\\\n\nCORPORATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nPUBUC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n321\n\nan ever-increasing business. The only way to secure the real business\natmosphere is to use the shops, stores, and ofl&ces of industry as laboratories\nof the schools, and, in order that the teachers may thoroly understand the\nsituation before the students, they should have intimate connection with\nbusiness and preferably be given positions during vacations. A business\ntraining would be a very desirable portion of a normal-school preparation\nfor teaching. In this way, the schools and business can co-operate in\nfurnishing high-grade employees.\nThere are certain business ethics which might well be reflected thruout\nschool life, such as turning work out on time, making delivery to the customer at the time promised, keeping the product up to a standard degree of\nexcellence, always endeavoring to increase sales, etc.\nAnother feature that I have noticed in regard to employees reaching our\ncorporations direct from school is that they have formed the opinion —\nunconsciously perhaps — that, inasmuch as they have been in the habit of\npassing from one grade to the next without a perfect score having been\nreached, when it comes to doing their work in an office or shop, work of\nabout 75 per cent of accuracy will get them thru. In teaching, I judge that\nit is important that the method of reaching a conclusion should be correct\neven tho perhaps the actual conclusion might not be quite right, as in an\narithmetical problem. In business, on the other hand, not only must the\nmethod of reasoning be sound, but, above all, the answer to the problem\nmust be absolutely correct. For instance, if the bill clerk is pricing up a\nman's invoice requiring addition, multiplication, and subtraction, the net\namount of that invoice must be correct. This necessity for accuracy seems\nto be one of the hard blows to those persons just out of school.\nI have also noticed that many teachers are teaching away from business,\nparticularly away from shops. They seem to have a fear that their pupils\nmay get into the factories, and yet they know that the great bulk of them\nin most communities must of necessity go to factories in order to earn a\nlivelihood. A closer familiarity of the teachers with modem shops would\nshow them that there is no cause to fear a shop existence, particularly for the\nstudent with brains. One with the executive instinct has a particularly\nbrilliant prospect in the shop.\nIn all business it is necessary to have more or less supervision of the\nwork. In some institutions there is a foreman for every five employees.\nThis costs money and makes high cost of the article produced or sold;\nbut, on the other hand, with such supervision the cost of the article is less\nthan it would be without the supervision, because employees left to themselves would turn out a lower quality of work, would spoil a larger percentage ofthe material handled, and would waste an undue amount of time.\nThe more practical knowledge and comprehension of business ethics an\nemployee has, the less supervision he will require, and consequently the\nmaterial turned out by him will be produced at a lower cost. The lower\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cindnnati\n\nthe cost, the greater the volume of sales that is possible, and hence the\ncommunity is made correspondingly richer and the demand for labor in that\ncommunity that much greater.\nCincinnati is the mother, and, I believe. Dean Schneider the father, of\nwhat is known as \"part-time\" or co-operative education, whereby the\nschools and industry put their shoulders to the wheel for the common good\nof the community. This plan is being quite generally adopted all over the\nUnited States for shop, store, and office employees. I believe I am safe in\nsaying that the business world will be willing to co-operate with you in this\nform of education, tho it may be necessary in some communities to educate\nthe people to the advantage of this form of education.\n\nF.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nJOHN LAPP, DIRECTOR\n\nAID FOR VOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE BUREAU\nOF LEGISLATIVE\nINDIANA, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nINFORMATION\n\nOF\n\nThere is pending before the Congress of the United States a bill providing for national aid for vocational education. The proposition has been\nbefore Congress for many years and the present bill is the composite of\nmany proposals worked out by the Commission on National Aid for Vocational Education appointed by President Wilson one year ago.\nBy the terms of the bill, the sum of seven million dollars will be appropriated annually for the purpose of aiding vocational education in trades\nand industries and agriculture and in the training of teachers of vocational\nsubjects. Three millions of the appropriation will go to agriculture; three\nmillions to trades and industries; and one million to the training of teachers\nof vocational subjects. The bill provides that this money shall be spent\nunder the direction of state boards provided for by the state legislatures\nand upon plans submitted by such boards and approved by the National\nBoard of Vocational Education consisting of five members of the cabinet,\nnamely, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of the Interior, the\nSecretary of Labor, the Secretary of Commerce, and the PostmasterGeneral.\nThis proposal for extensive national aid raises at once the question of\nthe duty of the federal government in the premises. To provide and manage education has been recognized as being particularly the duty of the\nstates. Under the Constitution, the federal government can take no part\nin the direct administration of the educational system. Nevertheless, the\nduty rests upon the federal government to promote the general welfare,\nand, when certain conditions are found to exist which are detrimental to\nthe general welfare, the federal government owes an obligation.\nIt is obvious that the federal government should not assume any of the\nburdens of education unless the need is of such importance to the national\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID\n\nFOR\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n323\n\nwelfare as to justify national aid. In determining the extent of its obligation, therefore, we may say that federal aid should be given only for those\nforms of vocational education for which there is an urgent need that is not\nnow being met, and where it is clear that the states cannot take action\nquickly enough to meet the present and growing need. The discussion of\nfederal aid as outlined in the proposed bill should, therefore, relate to the\nneed for vocational education in particular lines and the relation of those\nneeds to the national welfare.\nThe country has been somewhat aroused to the deficiency of our publicschool system in its failure to give proper attention to the first problem of\nman's existence, that of earning a livelihood.\nVast changes have taken place and the schools have not met the new\nconditions. They have not kept pace with the changing times. They meet\nthe heavier responsibilities which are put upon them far less effectively than\nthey did their lesser responsibilities a quarter of a century ago. They have\ndoubtless taught well the things which they have taught, but the question\nnow before the country concerns the desirability of teaching much that is\ntaught. Certain it is that so far as fitting youth for a vocation very little\nhas been accomplished. The federal commission declared that not more\nthan one person in a hundred had been trained properly for the work they\nare doing. \"More vocational schools are found,\" the report declares, \"in\nthe city of Munich, Germany, than in all the great cities of our country put\ntogether.\"\nJudging the system of elementary education by its universality, for in\na democracy it must be so judged, we find that while we have set up the\nstandard of graduation from the elementary schools as the minimum for\nour youth, as a matter of established fact only about half the children\nreach the final elementary grades and only 10 per cent reach the final grade\nin high school. We find that 10 per cent have left at thirteen years of age;\n40 per cent at fourteen; 70 per cent at fifteen; and 85 per cent at sixteen\nyears of age.\nWhat has education done for the 50 per cent of the nation's children\nwho thus leave the schools before completing the elementary courses ? Has\neducation performed its function of adjusting these millions to the conditions in which they are placed and implanting in them the inspiration to\ngrow in power and appreciation ? These are questions to which a militant\ndemocracy demands answer and which the nation must consider.\nIt will be taken for granted that education must give as a minimum the\npossession of the tools of knowledge and of fundamental facts and must\nestablish \"habits, attitudes, and ideals.\" All after education, general or\nvocational, can be built only upon such a foundation. Doubtless the\nessential tools, reading, writing, and arithmetic, are taught with a keener\nappreciation of their fundamental importance than ever before, but it would\nbe a bold person who would assume that any considerable portion of the\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nICindnnati\n\nchildren educated in our schools are equipped with power to read interpretatively, to express clearly, or to do accurately the ordinary daily computations. Yet these are essential to their freedom and their protection.\nWhat else is given to these millions of our youth by the schools ? Practically nothing! Not one in a thousand derives other benefits. The school\ngives no knowledge conducive to self-preservation or that will facilitate\ngaining a livelihood, leaving such knowledge to be picked up at random in\nafter life. They give no knowledge of the duties of home or of parenthood\nand slight power or insight into citizenship. The great masses of children\nunequipped for life are cast into the industrial struggle. Lack of knowledge\nmakes their experience blind. The way of progress is barred because they\ndo not have the necessary tools to weld experience and knowledge into\npower for success. Practically all are doomed to hard, monotonous toil\nwithout hope and outlook to relieve it.\nAndrew S. Draper saw clearly the great educational void which the\nschools were not even attempting to fill, and he expressed his opinions\nboldly in these words:\nWhen but one-third of the children remain to the end of the elementary course, there\nis something the matter with the schools. When half of the men who are responsible for\nthe business activities and who are guiding the political life of the country tell us that the\nchildren from the elementary schools are not able to do definite things required in the\nworld's real affairs, there is something the matter with the schools. When work seeks\nworkers, and yoimg men and women are indifferent to it, or do not know how to do it,\nthere is something the matter with the schools\nOur elementary schools train for\nno industrial emplojntnent. They lead to nothing but the secondary school, which in turn\nleads to the college, the university, and the professional school, and so very exclusively\nto professional and managing occupations. One who goes out of the school system before\nthe end or at the end of the elementary course is not only unprepared for any vocation\nwhich will be open to him, but too commonly he is without that intellectual training which\nshould make him eager for opportunity and incite him to the utmost effort to do just as\nwell as he can whatever may be open to him. He goes without respect for the manual\nindustries where he might find work if he could do it. He is without the simple preparation necessary to do definite work in an office or a store. He is neither clear about his\nEnglish nor certain about his figiires.\n\nThe adaptation of education to useful purposes reaches its most complete failure in the rural schools which have been following a regimen of\nstudies utterly imfitted to their environment. The teaching of elementary\nsubjects in these schools has been formal to a degree that is shocking to\nconmion-sense. Instead of relating these studies to the life-motives of the\nyoung, and teaching them in such a way as to connect them with life;\ninstead of taking advantage of the opportunities which in the country are\nunequaled for applying knowledge to things, the schools have been allowing\nthe children to live off the dry husks of knowledge. Teachers for these\nschools have been trained in the village or city high schools and have perhaps gone thru formal training in normals or colleges. They have little\nS)anpathy with rural life and their knowledge of the country is limited. It\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID\n\nFOR\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n325\n\nis ridiculous to see a teacher of this sort who may not know barley from\nbeans attempting to teach agriculture in a flower pot in the winter time to\nred-blooded rural youth.\nSuch has been the teaching in a great part of our rural schools. False\nstandards are set up, boys and girls are made to dislike educational work,\nand such influence as the rural school exercises is in favor of the trend away\nfrom the country.\nBesides the duty that this democratic nation owes to every one of its\nchildren, the need for vocational education is a national one, involving as\nit does our success in our relations both to foreign countries in trade and\ncommerce, and to our social and economic problems at home. In the future\nstruggles for commercial supremacy in the world's markets, that nation will\nwin, and will deserve to win, which makes the best goods at the lowest\nprice. Dependence upon supplies of raw materials is only a temporary\nadvantage which does not count in the century-long commercial struggles\nbefore us. In fact, only a part of a century will be needed to remove the\nadvantage which we now possess in our supplies of raw materials, unless we\nreform our wasteful and ignorant methods of mining, lumbering, and farming, and of utilizing the products of mine, forest, and field.\nWe cannot depend in the future as in the past upon a few industrial\nleaders of brilliance to keep us well up in the race. We have managerial\nskill of a high grade, and upon it we have built what we now possess. But\nthe supply of such men is limited and the specialization of industry has cut\noff the source from which the most efficient have come. There is a wide\ngap now between the men in the management and the men in the ranks, and\nthat gap is widening. A few men in the factory do the thinking while thousands automatically work on and often are even discouraged from thinking.\nCombination of thought and work is reduced to a minimum. Such a condition may be temporarily successful but is disastrous in the long run, and\nthat disaster extends to the commercial life of the nation.\nIndustrial efficiency must mean efficiency all along the line. Efficiency\nmust mean the ability to do a task in the very best manner and the desire\nto do harder and more important tasks. Promotion and an outlook must,\nin some manner, be held before all men and that can be done only by widespread training, reaching every man in the ranks. Germany recognized\nthe necessity for universal training and it was recently her proud boast that\nin a few years there would not be such a thing as an untrained man in the\nEmpire. What that would have meant to the trade of nations were it not\nfor untimely war can only be conjectured. Certain it is that the unfaltering\nadvance of German trade and commerce has been due to vocational education. The nation's purpose held to that course and planned for a further\nadvance by promoting educational efficiency thru every grade of labor.\nOur nation must learn the lesson and apply the method, if any solid, permanent, world results are to be accomplished in our commerce.\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCmdnnati\n\nUp to this time we owe little to the schools for our progress. To use\nwords of Herbert Spencer spoken in derision of English education of the\nmiddle of the last century:\nAll our industries would cease were it not for that information which men begin to\nacquire as best they may after their education is said to be finished, and were it not for\nthis information which has been from age to age accimiulated and spread by imoflScial\nmeans, these industries would never have existed. That increasing acquaintance with the\nlaws of phenomena which has thru successive ages enabled us to subjugate nature to our\nneeds and in these days gives the common laborer comforts which a few generations ago\nkings could not purchase is rarely in any degree owed to the appointed means of instructing youth. The vital knowledge — that by which we have grown as a nation to what we\nare and which now imderlies our whole existence — is a knowledge which has gotten itself\ntaught in nooks and comers while the ordained agencies for teaching have been mimabling\ndead formulas.\n\nThe nation must also recognize the social significance of vocational\neducation in industrial work and promote such education as a means of\nfurthering the security of the established order. Undeniably, social unrest\npervades the land. Everywhere one finds evidences of unsound conditions\nin the social fabric. They break out in the form of strikes and riots; in\nthe demand for legislation regarding hours and conditions of work; in the\npropaganda of the socialist; or the demands of the Industrial Workers of\nthe World.\nThese conditions cannot long continue without serious consequences to\nthe national welfare, and the nation's clear duty is to find immediate correction. One of the most potent forces for correction is certain to be found\nin vocational education. It goes to the very root of the causes of discontent.\nBy providing a means for each man to find a way out and up, it puts the\ndivine spark of ambition into men. It places promotion in the way of every\nman who will profit by it and thus removes the one chief evil against which\nmen justly complain. It opens up the safety valves thru which the righteous discontent of the workers may escape to the profit of the man and the\nbenefit of the nation. National eflSciency and social security alike demand\naction, and all the agencies of government, national, state, and local, must\nrespond.\nThe importance of agricultural education to the national welfare\nscarcely needs to be referred to here. Agriculture is the principal basic\nindustry of the coimtry and upon it depends the prosperity of the nation.\nMarkets rise and fall upon the reports of the crop yield. So closely is our\nindustrial fabric knit with agriculture that captains of industry and great\nfinanciers wait with anxiety to get the first ofl&cial crop predictions.\nBut this basic industry has been practically at a standstill. After forty\nyears of agricultural education, such as it has been, we are confronted with\nrelatively worse conditions than when scientific agriculture first began to\nreceive serious attention. Average yield of farm crops has been practically\nat a dead level; the soil is being exhausted at an alarming rate; tenantry\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID\n\nFOR\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n327\n\nis increasing; the rural population is shifting to the city; and the cost of\nliving rises at a rate far in excess of increased capacity to pay. The facts\nare simply that the data of agricultural science have not been effectively\nput into possession of the men who till the soil. Hundreds of millions of\ndollars have been spent on agricultural education and yet we are relatively\nabout where we started. A wider education is needed to make agriculture\nkeep pace with the demands upon it and this can be achieved only by\nvocational schools of agriculture within the reach of every boy on the farm.\nIt should be the nation's purpose to foster agriculture; to preserve the soil;\nand to build up a countryside which shall be a solid bulwark against social\ndecay. The economic profit is great and the social value is incalculable.\nIn this the nation, the states, and the local units should join heartily and\neffectively. All profit by the co-operation and all should pay the cost.\nOur welfare is primarily dependent upon our physical and vital resources.\nConservation of those resources is a national duty and it is time that the\nnation surveyed its losses and took effective steps to prevent them. We\nhave been living in an age of exploitation. We have been wasting and\nallowing waste of our resources like drunken sailors. The policy of taking\nall that could be gotten without regard to wise use or to the economy of the\nwhole has been disastrous; we have ruined our soils and robbed them of\ntheir fertility in order that the exploiters could gain the highest immediate\nreturn without putting anything back on the land; we have mined coal,\niron, and other minerals with criminal losses due to the greed of the exploiters\nwho would mine the best because there was the greatest profit at once even\ntho it meant the permanent loss of the less productive veins; we have sent\ncrude materials abroad and bought them back in fine fabrics and delicate\nmachinery; we have permitted insect pests and diseases of plants and\nanimals to take their toll of billions while the knowledge of prevention lies\ndormant; we have allowed a fire waste which is a disgrace to the nation\nbecause we have not made application of existing knowledge and known\npractice to the art of building; we have allowed our farms and roadsides\nto grow up to foul growth, a drain upon the soil and a hindrance to productive crops; we are wasting hundreds of millions of dollars thru lack of education in the care of farm machinery; we waste other millions by the\ninability of our people to judge the value of their purchases in food, dress,\nor furnishings; we lose billions thru preventable diseases, and we bring\nuntold loss, pain, and misery to the thousands who are needlessly killed and\nmaimed in our industries every year or who suffer from preventable diseases.\nIn all we waste $50,000,000,000 every year thru ignorance.\nThe most widespread need which is not now being met is that of providing teachers for the great task of universal vocational education. This\ntask is one of analysis and cautious advance. We must know what we are\nattempting to do and make plans on the basis of ascertained facts. We\nmust know what knowledge is worth while, and the \"relative value of\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cindnnati\n\nknowledges,\" and we must learn efficient ways of imparting what has been\ndetermined to be of most worth. We must answer the questions: What is\nit the farmer needs to know because he is a farmer and tills the soil ? What\nis it that a homemaker needs to know because she is a homemaker and\ninterested in realizing the ideal of the home ? What is it that the carpenter,\nplumber, machinist, and engineer need to know to perform their work with\ngreatest skill? What is it that the masses in other occupations need to\nknow to give them efficiency and consequent joy in their work ? What is\nit that all persons in whatever walk of life need to know to make them effective imits in our civic and social life? These questions can be answered\nonly by close study of industry, agriculture, business, and the home as well\nas the broader needs of civic life. The answer will give us the data upon\nwhich to build the elementary-school courses, the vocational schools, parttime and evening schools, correspondence work, and the vocational library.\nEnough knowledge is already stored up to revolutionize the practical\nworld if it could be brought into action; enough scientific knowledge of\nagriculture is in printed form to make two blades of grass grow where one\ngrows now if it were effectively put to work; enough of industrial science\nhas been accimiulated to bring a new era of efficiency if a channel could be\nopened to conduct it to the right workers in the office and shop; enough\nscience and art stand ready to improve the millions of homes in the lands\nif the homemakers were given the opportunity to get that part which is\nuseful to them; enough principles and facts of business are available for\nthe business man to give business a broader, more permanent, and more\nefficient character if they can only be wrought in the right proportions into\nthe minds and actions of business men; and enough facts are at hand to\nprevent enormous wastes of our vital and physical resources if the dormant\nknowledge were only awakened and put to work. The main task is to find\nmen and women capable of translating all of this knowledge into action\nthru the teaching process.\nNational aid is needed to stimulate the production of a new kind of\nsocial teacher who can grasp the problems presented by the new time in\norder that the movement for vocational education shall move steadily\nforward without being diverted from its real purpose.\nWhat has been said of the nation's duty applies in a larger way to the\nindividual states. The competition which the nation enters into with the\nworld is, in miniature, engaged in by the states with each other. Each\nstate has its own developments to sustain; its special industries to promote;\nits own resources to conserve; and its own peculiar social problems to solve.\nThus the promotion of textile manufactures in Massachusetts in competition with those of the South is a problem which Massachusetts is most concerned in solving but in the right solution of which the nation has an\ninterest. If that problem is solved by Massachusetts thru education\nwhereby a finer and ever finer grade of textiles shall be the product; if the\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID\n\nFOR\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n329\n\npeople of Massachusetts meet the competition of Georgia by learning to\nmake better goods and leaving the coarser goods for Georgia's development,\nthe result is a national benefit and a state asset and of great local importance to all cities where textiles are made. The counteraction of any competition, whether between states or nations, is to be found in the development\nof new or superior products. In the friendly rivalry of states, each state\ncan profit greatly by the development of its products thru educated skill.\nThe cities and towns have a greater interest than the state or nation\nin education which fits their industries. Their concern is immediate and\nprevailing. The results are tangible. They can be seen in the direct\nprosperity of the community and its citizens. In the nation and the state,\nthe result is merely observable in the aggregate; to the cities and towns,\nit means concrete betterment; to the citizen, it means efficiency, prosperity,\ncontentment, hope for himself and his children.\nBut there are other considerations calling as loudly for unity of action,\nchief among which is the mobility of our workers. A man may be bom in\nNew York, may be educated for a trade in Cincinnati, and may spend his\ndays in Chicago. His vocation may call him into many states in a single\nyear, and perhaps in the course of a lifetime he may have done useful work\nin every part of the country.\nAccording to the census of 1910, only 57 .3 per cent of the urban population were bom in the state where they were then living. Even the rural\npopulation showed only 74 . 5 per cent were natives of the state in which\nthey were then living. An investigation by the Russell Sage Foundation in\n1913 showed that in 78 American cities only 15 per cent of the fathers of\nthe 22,027 boys thirteen years of age were bom in the city where they were\nliving. Of the boys themselves, only 58 per cent were natives of the city\nwhere they were attending school.\nThe mobility of population brings also another inequitable distribution\nof burden thru the massing of unskilled, native, and immigrant labor in a\nfew industrial centers. No one would argue, for instance, that it is just\nfor the cities of New York and Chicago and Boston to bear the entire burden\nof educating the foreign immigrants whom the laws of the country permit\nto enter but fail to distribute properly. The inequitable distribution of\nburden from all of these causes is the most powerful argvunent in favor of\nthe distribution of burden among the localities, states, and nation — the\njoint beneficiaries.\nA second consideration of great importance lies in the unequal abilities\nof the states and the local units to provide the kind of education which the\nnational purpose demands. The Commission on National Aid to Vocational\nEducation. estimated the wealth per capita of school population with significant effect. Their estimates show that the average wealth for the whole\ncountry per capita is about $5,674. In ten states the average exceeds\n$10,000. In five other states the average is less than $1,900. It is apparent\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthat the resources of some are relatively totally inadequate.\nsion makes the following statement:\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe commis-\n\nAssuming that the people of the several states are equailly disposed to contribute to\nthe support of their schools in proportion to their means, there will be expended per capita\nof school population in Nevada nearly ten times the amoimt available in Georgia or\nAlabama; in California approximately five times as much as is available in Arkansas,\nFlorida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, or Virginia, and approximately twice as much as is available in Delaware, Indiana, Maine, Maryland, Missouri,\nSouth Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Washington, or Wisconsin.\n\nThe ability of the states may also be roughly estimated upon the present\nstate indebtedness, which varies from 3 cents per capita in Iowa, to $10.46\nin Virginia, $13.02 in Arizona, and $22.78 in Massachusetts. Thirteen\nstates average less than $1 per capita, while twelve states exceed $6 per\ncapita. A similar story can be told of the relative ability of the cities,\ntowns, and rural districts to meet singly and alone the burdens which\nincreased educational facilities put upon them.\nThe problems involved in giving an education which shall meet the vocational needs of all the people, which shall promote the bases of prosperity —\nindustry and agriculture — and which shall conserve the resources of the\nnation, are vast and formidable. All that has been done in vocational\neducation is as nothing compared with that which is yet to be begun. The\nneed for vocational education increases faster than the facilities for providing it. Teamplay on the part of nation, state, and local units is urgently\nneeded if we are to meet the need and advance the national welfare.\nThe part of the nation in this teamplay should be to give guidance in\nthe study of the problem and such aid as will stimulate vocational education\nin agriculture, trades and industries, and the training of teachers — the\nmost urgent needs — not for the purpose of assuming the burden of such\neducation or of directing it, but of stimulating the work by conserving the\nlocal interests, initiative, and responsibility of the states and local communities. All that the federal government should ask is that the funds\nbe devoted to the purposes for which they are granted and that they be\nspent imder such conditions as will make certain efficient results. The\nstates and local communities cannot ask more and the federal government\nshould not give less.\nWhence then the opposition to national aid for vocational education\nwhen the challenge is by circumstances put squarely up to the nation to\nfulfil the purpose of its establishment — \"to promote the general welfare\" ?\nTwo opponents have appeared: the unconstitutional crank and the\nagricultural colleges and experiment stations. The former mumbles about\nthe rights of the states to control education and the lack of power delegated\nto the nation. Forgetting precedent to which he so fondly clings in other\ncases, he screams his feeble protest. Let us review one item of evidence.\nFirst and last the federal government has given nearly $600,000,000 to the\nstates for education. It is today giving many millions annually for agri-\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n331\n\ncultural colleges and experiment stations. With this statement, we may\ndismiss the unconstitutional crank and leave him to his mumblings and his\nfutile screams.\nThe agricultural colleges and experiment stations are theoretically in\nfavor of vocr.iional education, and, of course, desire the results, but they\noppose the vocational school. They have their own enterprise — the\nextension work — to foster and they very evidently do not care for any\nrivals to that work. In consequence, they would leave the boy to get what\nhe can from the dry husks in the rural schools, and then, when he goes to\nwork on the farm, they will show him some of the tricks in their bag. The\nboy must be safely out of school and at work before the coveted prize of\nvocational training is given to him. No matter that thousands are driven\nout of school by the profitless methods; no matter that the precious years\nof youth are wasted in fruitless teaching; no matter that the boy is drawn\nto the city by the failure of the school. He must wait for instructions for\nprofitable employment until he goes to work.\nIt would seem to be about time that everyone should recognize that\nthe agricultural colleges and experiment stations, the Department of Agriculture at Washington, and all the other agencies have failed to do any\nmore than keep us from slipping back; they have not, on the whole, put\nus forward in agricultural development. Great as their work has been,\nsomething more is needed. Heroic efforts must be made and instead of\nopposing, for selfish reasons, broad education which industry and the\ncountryside need, the agricultural colleges should stand in the forefront.\nNot that they should do less of extension work, but that they should get a\nkeener appreciation of the educational needs of rural youth. The agricultural colleges and experiment stations and their agents should not be\nallowed to dominate rural education nor should they be allowed to build\nup an independent system of education for youth in the rural districts\noutside the schools. The rural school should be the center around which\nall activities of education for youth should center. Grave dangers confront\nthe country in this respect thru the growth of agricultural extension.\n\nG.\nFRANK\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nE. SPAULDEsTG, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nOF SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS,\n\nMINN.\n\nMore completely than any other single movement, vocational guidance\nmust take for its function the conservation of human resources. This\nmovement enters this limitless field of effort not as a distinctly new agency;\nit seeks rather to differentiate itself from old agencies — the school, the home,\nthe occupation — by clarifying, co-ordinating, and rendering more effective\nthe efforts of these agencies whose function is also some phase of human\nbetterment. The vocational-guidance movement seeks the co-operation\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(CindimaU\n\nof these numerous other agencies, and must depend for its efficiency largely\nupon securing such co-operation. Out of the problems of these other\nagencies, rather than de novo, the vocational-guidance movement is formulating its problems and thus defining its field. Merely to state a half-dozen\nof these problems as they seem now to be taking shape — with no attempt to\nsuggest their solution farther than their statement may suggest it— is all\nthat the limits of this paper will permit.\nThe first problem of vocational guidance seeking to conserve himian\nresources is to know the existence of those resources and their extent and\nnumber, and to gain and exercise some measure of control over them.\nHence the vocational-guidance department of every school system should\nbe responsible for an accurate and always up-to-date census of all the\nchildren and youth of the commimity, covering the ages from four or five\nto at least eighteen, or, better, twenty-one years. Furthermore, within\nthese years the vocational-guidance department should exercise legal\ncontrol over the children and youth of the community: first respecting\ntheir schooling, later respecting their employment, or combined employment and schooling. Hence, the issuance of all school exemption and\nemployment certificates should be under the control of this department,\nand should be so systematized that the department may know at all times,\nand control in accordance with law, the whereabouts and employment of\nevery youth of the community.\nThe second great problem of vocational guidance concerns types of\nschools and school curricula. While the vocational-guidance department\nmust not be charged with the full responsibility of determining what types\nof schools shall be maintained and what subjects shall be taught in a given\ncommunity, this department must render invaluable assistance in determining these matters. For it is the function of this department to know\nmore completely, more extensively than any other, the two great factors\nwhich must determine the scope and character of schools and programs of\nstudy — on the one hand, the children and youth to be educated, their\ncapacities and needs, and, on the other, the needs of society, the opportunities that society affords for worthy service.\nThe vocational-guidance department should become a great repository\nof knowledge, always up to date and significant, of these two great factors\nin every community — the children and the work of the community. To\nsecure this knowledge, the vocational-guidance department should stimulate\nand assist the study of children thruout the schools. Every teacher should\nhave a part in this study, which should materially influence her attitude and\nwork; at least the larger generalizations from these studies in the schools\nshould be formulated and made available for quick reference in the vocational-guidance department. Equally should this department stimulate and\ntake part in frequent industrial, commercial, and occupational surveys of the\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n333\n\ncommunity, and the significant findings of such surveys should be always\navailable in intelligible form in the office of the department.\nBut no vocational-guidance department should serve merely as a\nrepository of such knowledge as this. Its knowledge should, indeed, be\navailable for the use of all who may seek it; but the department itself\nmust be at least one of the prime interpreters of this knowledge. When it is\na question of the adjustment and the constant readjustment of schools and\nof school programs to the changing needs of the children and of the community, itmay well fall to the vocational-guidance department to take the\ninitiative in bringing about the necessary adjustments.\nOne important feature that the vocational-guidance department\nmust help to introduce in some effective way into the school program of\nevery community is a study of the rich and varied possibilities of service\nthat not only the local community but the world affords. Such studies\nmust be made not only informing, but inspiring, to the end that youth may\nnot merely know of the existence of opportunities for service, but that\nyouthful desire for activity, for self-expression, may be aroused and directed\ninto worthy channels.\nVocational guidance may well formulate for itself a third problem,\nthat of the moral effect of the school on the child. I refer not especially\nto the conscious and intentional efforts of the school to train the character\nas well as the intellect — most schools are fully alive to the importance of\nsuch character- training as a means of vocational preparation — I refer\nrather to the continuous, unavoidable, yet rarely appreciated effect of\nthe conditions imposed upon the pupil thru the organization, administration, and conduct of the school and of the school work. The character\neffects growing silently and inevitably out of these fundamental conditions\nare probably more important than those resulting from conscious and\nintentional efforts of instructors. They are of all kinds — ^beneficial and\ndetrimental — measured in terms of their contribution to the realization of\neach individual's possibilities.\nDemanding especial attention from the standpoint of vocational\nguidance are those conditions which develop in a large percentage of pupils\n— and usually in the very ones most needing vocational guidance — feelings\nof personal unfitness and discouragement, habits of failure. Those who\nknow industrial conditions to which young workers are subject, rightly\ndeplore the prevalence of the blind-alley job, the frequent changes from one\njob to another, the repeated failures to get a sure footing anywhere, for out\nof these conditions graduate that most pitiable class — the imemployables.\nIt is high time for us to realize that many children in our schools are subject\nto like conditions — blind-alley studies, repeated and continuous failure,\nwhose character effects are inevitably the same as those resulting from like\nconditions in industry.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cindnnati\n\nThe vocational-guidance movement should help to bring from the\nindustrial world to the school the impressive lesson that the conservation\nof human resources — in general and in the individual — depends upon\nsuccess — the habit of success, the feeling of self-confidence that grows out\nof habitual success. No one wants to fail — least of all the youth whose\nnormal condition is that of confidence and hope. The school must learn\nto adapt its work and requirements to the natural desire to succeed, so that\nthe entire school life of every pupil may be a series of successes, to the\nend that, however meager the intellectual accomplishment, the habit of\nsuccess may be formed. Without this fixed habit of success, any young\nperson is poorly prepared to face the discouraging conditions so prevalent\nin the world of industry. The young person entering industry with the\nhabit of failure developed in school has already made several grades toward\ngraduation into the class of unemployables.\nThe fourth and the iromediate problem of vocational guidance is the\nindividual. Vocational guidance must see that the individual learns to\nappreciate his own capacities and possibilities; that he informs himself\nconcerning the opportunities for worthy service that the world offers;\nthat he prepares himself as adequately as time and conditions permit to\napply his powers to the rendering of the highest service of which he is, or\nmay become, capable; that he learns to concentrate his thought, his energy,\nand his ambition, to this end of large and worthy service. This problem —\nlike most other problems of vocational guidance — is not one for the vocational-guidance expert or councilor alone; it is a problem that must enlist\nthe thought and effort of everyone, especially teachers and parents, who\nhas any responsibility for the development and success of the child and\nyouth.\nThe fifth problem of vocational guidance demands extensive knowledge\nof opportunities for service, especially in the lomaediate community, but\nalso in the world at large. Such knowledge must not be confined to industrial and commercial occupations — service in the professions, any opportunity for worthy service, great or small, is the concern of vocational\nguidance. This knowledge must be intimate as well as extensive. It must\nembrace essential conditions of each distinct occupation — the general\ncharacter of the occupation from the standpoint of social and civic welfare;\nthe extent of the demand for service in that occupation; preparation\nnecessary; steps, conditions, and limitations of progress; health and\nother conditions with their effects on workers; seasons and hours of work,\nwages, and other advantages. In short, a well-equipped vocational guidance department should have at its command such practical analyses of\nevery important organized form of service as were worked out so admirably\nfor certain typical industries in the Richmond survey. Obviously, the\ngathering of such knowledge and keeping it always up to date, as is necessary, isan immense undertaking. Here, again, the co-operation of many\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR WAR\n\n335\n\nagencies — industrial, commercial, professional, civic, social, and educational\n— must be enlisted.\nThe sixth and culminating problem of vocational guidance has to do\nwith the successful transition of children and youth from the favorable\nconditions of healthful growth, and of practical education, which the schools\nmust provide, into different but also favorable conditions for continued\ngrowth that occupations must be brought to afford. I state this final\nproblem advisedly, with at least some realization of the prodigious responsibility imposed on vocational guidance — the responsibility of influencing\nthe conditions of industry in favor of human welfare. To accomplish\nthis undertaking in any considerable measure is unquestionably beyond the unaided power of any vocational-guidance movement that\nis likely soon to develop. But fortunately many organized agencies,\npublic and private, are already engaged in this same undertaking. I refer,\nof course, to all those agencies whose object is the banishment of human\nexploitation, the elevation of human welfare above mere industrial and\ncommercial profit — those agencies that are already doing much to shorten\nthe long hours, to improve the working conditions, and to increase the pay\nof wage-earners. It is the function and the unparalleled opportunity of\nvocational guidance to co-operate with all such agencies, to co-ordinate\ntheir efforts, and to concentrate them all to the fullest conservation of\nhuman resources.\nThat the motives of vocational guidance may be above question, this\nmovement should be supported at public expense, just as the public-school\nsystem is supported. Any distinct organization for the purpose of stimulating, directing, and making more effective the vocational-guidance movement\nshould be a part, a department, of the public-school system. The ideal\nof vocational guidance is but an elevation and extension of the educational\nideal for which the school exists. Vocational guidance seeks the largest\nrealization of the possibilities of every child and youth, measured in terms\nof worthy service; vocational guidance seeks this not thru the school alone\nbut thru the upbuilding influences that work and life beyond the school\nought to afford every human being.\nSHOULD OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM INCLUDE ACTIVITIES\nWHOSE SPECIAL PURPOSE IS PREPARATION FOR WAR?\ni. lindley m. garrison, secretary of war, washington, d.c.\nTelegram\nPressure of work is such that I feel obliged to notify you that I will\nnot be able to leave Washington to go to Cincinnati. This telegram is in\naccordance with my arrangement made with you at the time we spoke about\nmy going. I have delayed advising you until the last moment in the hope\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nicincinnati\n\nthat I could so arrange matters as to get away, but the pressure is worse\nthan usual and I literally cannot leave my duties here to go elsewhere at\nthis time. I will write you a letter embodying certain views that I desire\nto have presented to the convention, I greatly regret that I cannot have\nthe privilege myseK of being there in person and nothing less than imperative duties here would keep me away.\nLetter\nAs my wire last night informed you, I find that circumstances are such\nthat I have no right to go away from here at the present time for any\nexcepting some imperative official purpose. I very much regret this, as\nI had looked forward with genuine pleasure to the meeting at Cincinnati.\nYou must know the intense interest that I take in the matter of national\ndefense. I do not know whether you read my annual report and various\nother articles and addresses that I have since made on the subject, but\nI assimie that in a general way you are aware of my position. I feel that\nit is the cardinal duty of those that are interested in our country's safety\nto take those reasonable precautions which wise consideration leads us to\nfind necessary under all the circumstances.\nIt always has seemed to me to be idle to discuss this matter from the\nstandpoint of whether one favors war or peace, because I have never met\nanyone in my life that favored war. It would be difficult to find anyone\nwho would openly favor the many things against which precautionary\nmeasures on behalf of the people are absolutely essential. Diseases, fires,\nfloods, calamities of all descriptions, are likely to happen and must be provided against; and so it is in this other field — war is likely to be forced upon\na nation, however pacific its intention and however desirous of avoiding\nit it may be. Until this situation has been changed, every self-respecting\nnation that is guided by wisdom must take those reasonable precautions\nor suffer the hideous consequences of failing to do so.\nBy reason of our distaste for the subject, our shrinking from war, our\ndesire to avoid it, we have gone to the other extreme and have failed to\nlook the situation manfully in the face and deal with it in that enlightened,\nintelligent, and forceful way that we have dealt with other problems.\nThere is another unfortunate situation, arising out of a failure correctly\nto represent facts in our history. The lack of proper precaution has produced woeful results which are overlooked in the final success that attended\nthe fortunes of this country. One has to be a most careful student of history\nto ascertain the truth, because, generally speaking, the narratives of our\nhistory would lead one to believe that militarily we had handled whatever\nsituation confronted us with great skill and efficiency. That such is not\nthe fact is known to every real student. The inherent manhood, fortitude,\nand courage of our people finally triumphed, but all of the untoward consequences ofa lack of proper precautions were felt. That such imtoward\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nWAR\n\n337\n\nconsequences were finally overcome and that we succeeded despite them\nis surely not an argument for a continuance of a similar condition.\nIt is another unfortunate fact that people who should think about this\nmatter with an open mind and informed intelligence and an earnest desire\nto reach a wise, patriotic conclusion, refuse to do so because of the shadow\nof militarism which they evoke and shrink from. I cannot sjonpathize with\nthis state of mind. There is no proposal that I know of that this country\nshould build up a great military power for the sake of such power, nor that\nthe civil authorities should be impinged upon or interfered with in order\nthat we may have a great military power, nor that any of the effects of\nmilitarism should be produced in this country. But this country must\nhave sufficient military force to enable it to maintain its proper position\namong the nations of the earth. It gains nothing by feebleness, and I for\none have no fear of the misuse of its strength.\nI feel a perfect confidence that if the citizens of this country could be\nmade to see this matter freed from the prejudices which encrust it, they\nwould be practically of one mind, and all the difficulties would disappear.\nIt is this which inclines me to think that very useful work might be dpne\nin the schools and colleges. Just how this work should be undertaken, to\nwhat extent it should go, and what form it should take, I am not advised.\nI feel about this as I do about many matters: that it is more important\nthat it should be done well than that it should be undertaken speedily. Very\noften a subject-matter of great importance, and one which would produce\nvery beneficial results, is so treated and handled as to defer or to defeat its\nbeneficial effects. In the matter that we are considering, so much depends\nupon the way in which it is done that I for one wish to be sure that we have\nadopted the best way before we co-operate upon any way.\nMy suggestion, if I may be permitted to make one, is that the convention appoint a committee with full power to go into this subject-matter\nand to co-operate with me and those whom I may designate for the purpose\nin a study thereof, with a view of making a report of what, in our joint\njudgment, is the wisest, most patriotic, and most efficient way to handle\nthis most important subject. If the convention thinks well of this idea\nand adopts it, I will enter into the execution of my part of it with enthusiasm and will do all that I can to produce a result which will be beneficial\nto the great system which you represent, to the many who will be affected\nthru your efforts, and to our country as a whole.\n\nn.\n\nNATHAN\n\nC. SCHAEFFER,\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT\nTION, HARRISBURG, PA.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUC-\n\nA cartoon in Punch represents a mother with her head tied up, suffering\nfrom a violent headache, while her little daughter in the foreground soliloquizes, saying, \"I do not see what mama will do. Between the cook and\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincbnati\n\nthe Kaiser she is completely distracted.\" The average teacher is like this\nmother because between the teaching of cooking and of current events,\nbetween the demands of vocational education and the teaching of the war,\nshe is well-nigh distracted. But when the demand is made that militarism\nbe introduced into our public schools as an integral part of our vocational\ntraining, her distraction reaches its climax, and if she ever succeeds in\nfulfilling this latest requirement, we may develop a race of Amazons more\nfierce than the militant suffragettes. It is a widespread notion that military\ndrill benefits a boy's physique and that it is an essential part of physical\neducation. If this be so, why are the girls excluded from military drill?\nThe war-brides need as much bodily health and vigor as the soldiers who\nmarry them if future generations are not to show signs of decadence. Military drill for girls would be the logical conclusion if military drill were\nessential to the development of a healthy body and a sound mind.\nInvestigations have shown the contrary to be true, and in these days\nnothing in educational practice is considered conclusive unless based upon\nscientific experiments. Says Dr. Darby of London:\nExperiments which were conducted in a public school with a view to ascertain the\nrelative value of gymnastics and mere drill showed that the average results yielded by the\nformer were more than three times as great as those yielded by drill alone. Relatively,\ntherefore, this method of physical culture is inferior. Military drill is defective inasmuch\nas it does not to any extent meet the physical demands of the body. Its efifect upon boys\nis not salutary. It does not, as the community at large has beUeved, make a youth erect\nor give him a graceful, manly bearing. On the contrary, it tends to make him stiff and\nangular in his movements, as well as to droop and round his shoulders.\n\nThis conclusion is in entire harmony with the investigations of Dr.\nSargeant, of the Hemenway Gymnasium at Harvard University, who claims\nthat the gracefulness which is thought to characterize the movements of\nyoung cadets is not the outcome of drilling and marching, but rather of the\nhours spent each day under the direction of the dancing master. This\neminent authority says:\nAfter taking the most favorable view possible of military drill as a physical exercise,\nwe are led to conclude that its constrained positions and closely localized movements do\nnot afford the essential requisites for developing the muscles, and improving the respiration\nand circulation, and thereby improving the general health and condition of the system.\nWe must further conclude that in case of any malformation, local weakness, or constitutional debility the drill tends, by its strain upon the nerves and prolonged tension on the\nmuscles, to increase the defects rather than to relieve them.\n\nIs there any more justification for the introduction of military drill into\nthe school curriculum on moral grounds than there is on physical grounds ?\nI answer emphatically in the negative. Military drill seeks to develop\nimquestioning obedience, so that the soldier will move forward in the face\nof danger and even certain death, but it does not develop obedience to\nconscience, to a sense of right, and to the divine imperative to duty. The\nlessons of the Sunday school are thrown to the winds upon the field of\nbattle.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nWAR\n\n339\n\nThe explicit declaration of a British commander-in-chief that maxims\nlike \"Truth always wins in the long run,\" \"Honesty is the best policy,\"\ndid very well for copybooks, but are not to be acted upon in warfare, shows\nhow war and preparation for war upset our ethical standards. Legitimate\nwarfare includes and justifies\nall the mean, false, cowardly, and unchivalrous actions which youths have been taught\nto despise in their own behalf, such as strategems, ambushes, spying, eavesdropping,\nhitting from behind or when a feUow is down, lying, forging letters and telegrams, signals\nto mislead the enemy, following up a beaten enemy and hammering at him with cavalry\nand artillery to annihilate him; insisting upon the severest possible terms of surrender,\nor refusing all offers of surrender with the order \"Take no prisoners.\"\n\nIt is bad enough when these practices and principles enter into adult life.\nTo instil them into the subconscious life of adolescent youth results in\nmoral damage from which the pupil never recovers. Having been taught\nby militarism that it is permissible to suspend the decalog for his country's\nsake, he is in danger afterward of repealing the Ten Commandments for his\nown sake whenever any advantage can thereby be gained in the political\nor financial world.\nAt the University of Pennsylvania, Dr. Reichert has been delivering\nlectures upon dual personality and the subconscious lif« of the soul. He\nand others have shown the danger of dropping wrong ideas into the subconscious depths of the soul and of stirring up what man has inherited from\nhis savage ancestors who lived by war and the chase and by activities as\nsavage as, but less ruthless than, modem warfare which is now little more\nthan butchery by big guns and slaughter by centimeters. In a recent\nlecture he said:\nThe morality, the culture, the religion, the ideals that characterize the highest manifestations ofour pretentious civilization are but a veneer that covers our greatest subconscious mental life — a form of mental life that is our chief psychic heritage from imtold\nwarring progenitors, and which, like the smoking, smoldering volcano, is likely to break\ninto an eruption and overcome all. Break this fragile skin, and Dr. Jekyll becomes Mr.\nHyde, Dorothy is transformed to Becky, and the real Miss Beauchamp is changed to the\nDevil Sally.\nLet us cast our eyes to the flaming horizon beyond the ocean, and behold the highest\nideals of civilization set aside for the ordeal of steel and blood, and witness between the\nrise and set of the sun the culture of a Dr. Jekyll transformed to the barbarous perfidy\nand diabolical savagery of a Mr. Hyde leading to the greatest and most imfamous tragedy\nin the history of mankind.\n\nFrom this point of view, it matters much what we sow into the subconscious depths of the soul. The study of war, the military drill during\nthe most impressible periods of adolescent life, leave in the subconscious\ndepths of the soul the materials for wars and the worst that human nature\nis capable of.\nThe question before us, however, involves far more than the introduction ofmilitary drill into our public schools. We all agree that it is the\nprovince of the public school to prepare its pupils for citizenship. To\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nicincinnati\n\nattain this end a threefold concept of the state should be developed in the\npupil's mind. In the first place, the state should be conceived as organized\nforce. The state of Pennsylvania manifests herself as organized force in\nher mounted police — an organization which has done wonders in maintaining peace and order during strikes and labor troubles. The state as organized force is manifest in the army and the navy. We shall always need an\narmy and a navy for defense and for police purp)oses. Our commerce needs\nprotection on the high seas; our citizens need protection in foreign lands;\nour border and our ports must be protected from violation of the rights of\nneutrality. Suppose the Kaiser should land an army in New York for the\npurpose of invading Canada as he did in Belgium for the purpose of\ninvading France — ^what would our government do ? Would we allow any\nforeign power to say that treaties guaranteeing the rights of neutral territory\nare but scraps of paper ? The day will never come when the nations of the\nearth can do without armies and navies for purposes of self-defense and\npolice protection.\nIn the next place, the state should be taught as organized justice. Our\ncourts have done away with the duel, with private revenge thru violence,\nwith tribal feuds in which death was the invariable penalty exacted without\ntrial and in the heat of passion. If the state is lax in the administration of\njustice, lynch law asserts itself with all its attendant barbarities and horrors.\nThe courts may have to fall back upon the state as organized force for the\npurpose of enforcing their decisions and decrees; they may make errors\nin the administration of justice; nevertheless there is less suffering and\nviolence where courts of law are established and maintained than under the\noperations of lynch law. Without doubt the schools should inculcate\nrespect for law as administered by our courts of justice. The law should\nnever be made a device for letting guilty men escape, nor a means for bolstering up rapacious corporations. Our liberties and free institutions are\nsafe so long as the people do not lose their faith in the ballot and the judiciary. Hence it is of the utmost importance to develop in the minds of\npupils while studying history and civics the concept of the state as organized justice backed by organized force. And as soon as the nations rise\nto the concept of an international court of arbitral justice as a substitute\nfor war in the settlement of disputes and difficulties, so soon will they\nabandon the theory that might makes right and that weaker nations have\nno rights which the strong are bound to respect. Personally, I see no\ndifference between the ambition of England to be mistress of the seas, the\nambition of Germany to control the markets of the world, the ambition of\nRussia to control the major portion of the arable land on the earth's surface,\nand the ambition of certain jingoes in the United States to dominate the\nNew World for the glory of the flag and the benefit of our men of wealth.\nIn dealing with our weaker neighbors, justice, and not force, is the glory\nof the nation.\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nWAR\n\n341\n\nIn the third place, the state should be taught as organized good-will.\nWhat is the meaning of our hospitals and almshouses, of our schools,\ncolleges, and orphans' homes, of our post-offices and our parcel post, of our\ninterstate commerce and public-utility commissions, of donations and\nappropriations for the relief of our destitute populations ? The good-will\nof the United States was manifested when our government prevented the\npartition of China, when it offered to mediate between Russia and Japan,\nwhen it announced the Monroe Doctrine as a protection to our South\nAmerican republics. Our attitude toward Cuba at the close of the SpanishAmerican War in which we made every possible blunder except the choice\nof an enemy was another shining example of the state as organized goodwill. John Hay's assertion that he applied the Golden Rule to the treatment of nations as well as to the treatment of individuals is a concrete\nenunciation of the doctrine that the state is organized good-will. The\nmost shining triumph of the spirit of good-will among the nations is found\nin the hundred years of peace between the United States and Great Britain.\nThis century of peace was worth while for our churches and schools to celebrate in spite of the dreadful war into which Great Britain has been\ndrawn with the leading nations of Europe, some on her side and others\nagainst her. President Butler speaks of those \"who are longing for the\nday when justice and not force shall rule the destinies of the world.\" This\nday will not dawn unless in addition to conceiving the state as organized\njustice backed by organized force, we also regard the state as organized\ngood-will.\nAt this stage of our discussion, it is necessary to differentiate between\nteaching war and preparation for war, between efforts to prepare for\nwar and efforts to prevent war. We hear much about the propriety of\nteaching the causes and the conduct of the European war. What should\ninterest us far more is the termination of the war and the prevention of\nwars in the days which are to come. What can the public schools do to\nprevent war and to make unnecessary the vast expenditures upon armies\nand navies? Here is a legitimate field for the activities of the publicschool teacher. This war should no doubt be referred to among current\nevents. Is it wise at this time to spend much time upon the causes and\nconcomitants of this war which instead of being a historical or biological\nnecessity is the greatest biological crime of the ages? Instead of being\na survival of the fittest to live, it means the destruction of the strongest and\nmost valuable lives and the survival of the weakest to perpetuate the race.\nMay not the teaching of war among current events be overdone ? When\nthe war broke out my youngest daughter exclaimed: \"What a lot more of\nhorrible history we girls will have to learn while this war is in progress!\"\n\"How will it be,\" exclaimed her sister, \"after the war is over!\" When is\nour teaching of history successful and satisfactory ? Is it when the facts\nof history and the details of government abide in the mind as mere knowl-\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cindnnati\n\nedge? I say emphatically, \"No.\" The pupil should leave the class from\nday to day with higher ideals of patriotism and civic duty. He should say\nto himself: \"I will work and vote and live for the best interests of my\ncountry, yea, if need be, I will fight for my country and die in its defense.\"\nDoes this justify the introduction of military drill into the curriculum ?\nWill preparedness for war prevent war? The present European struggle\nis the answer to that question. The Czar and the Kaiser did not begin\nwar until they felt that every possible preparation for war had been made.\nThere might have been no war if there had been no military class anxious\nto try the inventions and preparations which had been made during four\ndecades! And while these preparations were going on, did the European\ngovernments introduce military drill into the schools whose pupils had not\nattained the age of eighteen years ? They did this only when the exigencies\nof war drove them to subordinate the individual to the state.\nWill the lack of preparation for war prevent war? Three times\nthe United States went to war unprepared. The last time President\nMcKinley told the committee of jingoes who visited him from Congress\nbefore declaring war against Spain he would like to have powder enough\non hand to keep up the war at least two weeks. If we would prevent war,\nwe must approach the problem from an entirely different angle. In other\nwords, history must be taught from the peace point of view.\nThe teaching of history should be so broad in its scope and so philanthropic inits content that like John Hay the pupil shall be willing to follow\nthe Golden Rule in dealing with nations as with individuals. Right here\nwe get a new point of view. We conceive the state as existing for the\nwelfare of the citizen, but there may arise crises during which we must\nadopt the Persian idea that the citizen exists for the state. In other words,\nit may become the citizen's duty to take up arms in defense of his country.\nIf military drill is harmful during boyhood and during adolescence, it should\nbe postponed to the period when the youth has entered college or started\nupon his vocational career. So long as it is necessary for some of our people\nto learn the art of war, provision must be made somewhere for this training\nand instruction. After the adolescent period is ended, the necessity for\nmilitary drill may be met by summer camps for college men where they\ncan acquire a knowledge of military tactics if not of the art of war. Our\nland-grant colleges give this sort of instruction during the regular sessions.\nThe young men upon whose education the government is spending millions\nof dollars owe the country a debt in the way of preparation for military duty.\nHow far militarism should be carried into our denominational colleges is\na question worthy of discussion. My two sons entered college too young\nfor the military drill. The commandant would not admit them; they\nwere too small to take the soldier's stride. I could not see that this lack\nof military drill did them any harm from any point of view unless perchance\nin time of war they might have to enter the army as private soldiers and\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nWAR\n\n343\n\nnot as oflScers. The time that would have been consumed in military drill\ncould be used for higher and better purposes. To most of my audience, the\nCivil War and the Franco-Prussian War are ancient history quite as much\nas the battle of Thermopylae or the Carthaginian wars. To me both the\nCivil War and the Franco-Prussian War are as vivid as if they had occurred\nyesterday. The survivors of the Franco-Prussian War were my chums and\nseatmates at the University and the survivors of the Civil War had been\nmy schoolmates in my native state of Pennsylvania. I am sure that their\nexperiences in the war neither improved their health or their morals, nor\ndid it make them better able to lead a life that is worth living. Before\nthis military drill becomes a passion of the soul, the school should instil\nsane ideals of life by glorifying the arts of peace above the art of war. The\nstudent of the land-grant college should be made to see that a scientist\nwho adds millions of bushels to the com crop of a state is a greater benefactor than he who sinks a battleship or kills a regiment upon land. He\nshould be made to see that smokeless powder and machine guns have taken\nfrom war its glamor and glory. The day of the infantry charge that thrilled\nthe poet is fast fading. The cavalry assault that produced the charge of\nthe Light Brigade is dying. There never will be another charge like that\nof Pickett's at Gettysburg; machine guns have made such charges impossible madness. There may still be dramatic possibilities in the submarine of\nHolland and the aeroplane of Wright, both of them American ideas evolved\nwithout the aid of military drill in the public schools. From this point of\nview, one cannot escape the conviction that over against the concept of the\nstate as organized force, organized justice, and organized good-will, military\ndrill in the public schools is organized insanity and, in so far as it is necessary\nfor national defense, it should be postponed to the years when the youth\ncan see war as it really is— a hell on earth.\nFinally, let us not permit the student to forget that there is a God in\nhistory who controls the destinies of peoples and nations. Nineveh and\nBabylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome were military nations whose militarism\ndid not save them from destruction. The militarism of the so-called great\npowers of Europe has come to judgment. Have you ever watched German\nwomen hitched up with dogs drawing carts thru the streets while their sons\nwere drilling ? Have you noticed how little the Italian peasant has to eat\nand wear? Altho working the most fertile soil under the sunniest of\nskies, the products of his industry are consumed by the army. Have you\nlooked into the hovels of Russian peasants, and seen their tables and their\nbacks almost stripped bare of food and clothing in order that the army might\nbe fed and clothed and supplied with guns and powder and missiles of\ndestruction? Have you seen the Russian farmer, when the tax-gatherer\nhad taken his last heifer, hitch his wife and children to the plow so that\nthere might be another harvest ? Have you seen that peasant selling the\ngrain which he and his children would need during the winter in order to\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CincinnaU\n\nescape a flogging by government officials, while the mother with tears in her\neyes was trying to keep alive the suckling at her breast, gone dry, by the\noffer of a little bread moistened with saliva? Have you stood at Ellis\nIsland and watched the incoming tide of Europe's poor, with the light\ngone out of their eyes, many of them trampled out of shape under the heels\nof the war lords of their native land ? Could you doubt that some day\nEurope would stand at God's judgment bar and pay the penalty for its\nmilitarism ? What is the lesson of our own country's history ? Once we\nsold slaves. Women were torn from their husbands and children. Good\nmen stood looking on apparently unconcerned. \"Year after year the\natrocity went on, and it seemed as if it might go on forever. Poor black\nwoman, she could not protect herself and there was no one else to protect\nher.\" Then came a war which no one wanted any more than the common\npeople of Europe wanted the present war. Abraham Lincoln at last saw\nthe meaning of the war; he bowed his great soul before the Ruler of the\nworld, sajdng: \"If every drop of blood drawn by the lash must be paid for\nby blood drawn by the sword, even then we must say that the judgments of\nthe Lord are true and righteous altogether,\" If we would avoid plunging\nthe land of the stars and stripes into another hell, let us keep military drill\nout of the public schools.^\nin.\n\nJOHN H. riNLEY,\n\nSTATE COMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nALBANY,\n\nN.Y.\n\nIf by \" our educational system \" you mean our elementary and secondary\nschools thru which a republic is consciously, sacrificially trying to give her\neighteen million children each year tuition of a longing that in its very transmission becomes a prophecy; an institution whose very maintenance is a\nprayer uttered by one generation thru a thousand hoiu-s of every year for\nall that \"it could never be\"; an institution in which the future takes\ncounsel of all the race hope and hmnan failure of the past; and if you mean\nby \"war\" that hellish thing which is now going on in Europe, that vocation\nof jealousy, envy, and hate, pursued with every skill that the human mind\nand hand have learned, with every passion that the brute has bequeathed,\nbut exposing incidentally every virtue that a god knows.\nIf you mean by \"our educational system\" that which attempts to\nexpress what we most want to keep, out of all human experience in the\neternity back of us, and what we most desire to hand on to those who are to\nlive in the eternity before us — some haunting memory of the Creator's\npurpose for man, some stirring strain that drives us, leads us on, that\n\"harries man to love the best\"; and if you mean by \"war\" that which\ndrags one man back to the savage even while it lets the divinity in another\nfind its exalted eternal expression, that which is strewing with stark and\nrotting corpses fields already twice red with the carnage of Caesar and\n'In the last paragraph I have used the ideas and some o( the words of Charles E. Jefferson's The Cause\nof the War.\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nWAR\n\n345\n\nNapoleon, that which, as in the days of Jeremiah, has \"taken away the\nvoice of mirth and the voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom and the\nvoice of the bride, the soimd of the millstones and the light of the candle.\"\nIf you mean by \"our educational system\" not merely curriculums and\nbudgets and licenses and pensions, and miserable lonesome rural schools\nand beautiful urban structures, but the visible, organized, disciplined\naspiration of a race moving toward some higher goal; and if you mean by\n\"war\" that which is pictured in the recent report in the Alumni Weekly\nof a Yale man, fresh from the trenches in the north of France:\nThen the machine guns opened on them witheringly, they were falling in hundreds,\nbut on they pressed (in dense ranks). They came nearer and the British could hear them\nsinging \"The Watch on the Rhine\" — thousands of voices, while hundreds carried the air\non mouth organs. They were getting close. It was time for musketry. The English\nobserved that only half of the approaching mass wore uniforms. \"Shoot low,\" commanded the English ofl&cer, \"they are only boys; aim at their legs.\" .... Only a few\nreached the trenches.\n\nIf you mean by \"our educational system\" the \"substance of things\nhoped for\" in a democracy's highest faith; and if you mean by \"war\"\nthat sublimated brutish game played under international rules, whose\nissue is absurdly assumed to determine relative values of civilizations;\nthat greatest tragedy which would be the greatest comedy if it were not\ntragedy — then I answer \"No!\" \"Our educational system,\" in its basic\nnation-wide disciplines, in its earth-wide racial heritages, and in its vocational courses, should not include those whose special purpose is preparation\nfor \"war.\" No, by all our hopes for the millions of children of all nations,\nwhose ancestral hates we seek to quiet or quench, whose parents unite in\ntaxing themselves for the support of the schools which we represent here\ntonight. No, by all the innocent sufferings and blightings of the millions\nof the \"gory nurse's\" children whose fathers and brothers are facing each\nother on hundreds of miles of entrenched borders this same night. No,\nas many times as there are children, here and there.\nBut if, holding to the definition I have made of \"pur educational\nsystem\" (keeping its fences open only on the infinite side), you will let me\ndefine \"war,\" I am ready to answer \"Yes,\" — ^yes, by all the lives that\nwithout hate have been nobly given for the love of something higher than\none's self; yes, by the \"adorable faith\" of the soldier who from being a\nmercenary, a paid slaughterer, in time became a patriot and a martja*;\nyes, by all the suffering and struggle and victory of himian evolution from\nbeasthood to manhood.\nIf you will let me define \"war\"! And I begin my definition, as is the\ncustom of the lexicographer, with the derivation, the etymology. My definition ofwar will stand on my definition of militarism, and my definition\nof militarism goes back thru the Roman milites, helmeted and bespeared,\nmassed in legions or formed in testudines, back to the slopes of Kabulstan\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CincinnaU\n\nand the plains of the Jumna and the Ganges, to the places of the motherlanguage, the Indo-Germanic, to the Sanskrit word \"mil,\" which signified\nto associate, to unite — ^back to the primeval soldiers, those who joined one\nanother to achieve some common object. And, as the most usual common\npurpose was to attack, or to defend themselves against other hmnan beings,\nso it came about that in many languages, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Latin,\nSpanish, Portuguese, French, Old High German, and Middle Dutch, the\nword in which they spoke this common object (\"guerre,\" \"werra\") had the\nsound of the wings of the followers of Apollyon, which John heard in the\nApocalypse, \"the soimd of chariots, and of many horses rushing to war.\"\nI am a militarist in this pristine Aryan sense. And I build my martial\nsystem on the same foimdation as that which all European languages\nof militarism remember — the assembling, the organizing of individual men\ninto mUites, militia.\nIt is of such a militarism that Kipling sings: a militarism not primarily\nof individual valors but of miracles of organization; a militarism in which,\nas Chesterton says, there is no \"epicurean comer,\" no \"place of irresponsibility\"; amilitarism which calls into specific sacrificial service what each\nman has to give even if it takes him away from his personal prospects, or\nhis personal gain, or takes from him his life.\nOn my way to France from England just after the declaration of war in\nEurope last sununer, I journeyed in a compartment from London to the\nChannel with six or seven Frenchmen and a Russian who had left their\noccupations and families to join their comrades, each in his appointed place.\nOne was a maker of meerschaum pipes, proud of his skill, but going unquestioningly and without a word of comment or complaint except the hope that\n\"it would not come to bayonets.\" At that same time, Doctor Carrel, who\nhad but a little time ago received the Nobel Prize, and who had made the\nheart to beat long after the death of its owner, was going to hospital service\nin the south of France. And down in Austria there was a musician, Fritz\nElreisler, the violinist (whom I heard last Satiu*day night), joining his regiment, later to be rescued insensible from a trench, where he had been ridden\ndown by the Cossacks, and even now lame from the spear-thrust. These all\ntell of a marUal organization which, in its provident thought, had a definite\nplace alike for the meerschaum-pipe maker, the world-famed surgeon, and\nthe composer of the \"Caprice,\" and which, if you could make your way to\nthe German trenches, would reveal a provision for every martial need or\nemergency, and comfort even, only less than omniscient. (One of my former\nstudents who has just returned from there tells of officers in the field, in the\nlull of battle, listening by field telephones to music in Berlin.)\nSuch a militant organization and with it a specific prediscipline, a\npreparatory training! (And preparation for war is war, even as preparation\nfor life is life.) I think I am almost ready now for the Landwehr and a\nLandsturm, a continuation school in which each man shall, apart from\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nWAR\n\n347\n\nhis vocation, or quitting even for a time his vocation — as every able-bodied\nman of France, Germany, Austria, Italy — undergo physical and mental\ndisciplines for the sake of the state, for the sake of the race.\nFive years ago, after reading William James's essay on \"The Moral\nEquivalent of War,\" I wrote him that I was prepared to recruit a regiment\nof volunteers for his army, which, he urged, should be conscripted. Perhaps\nyou recall that most stirring of martial docmnents, put out as peace propaganda, inwhich he advocates the conscription of the luxurious classes to be\nsent to the coal and iron mines, to freight trains, to fishing fleets, to dishwashing, clothes-washing, and window-washing, to road-building and\ntunnel-building, to foimdries and stokeholes, to the frames of skyscrapers,\nin order that they might know \" the sour and hard foundations of the higher\nlife,\" and feel that they belonged to a collectivity superior in some ideal\naspect to themselves, something for which they were ready to pay a bloodtax. I was not ready then for conscription, having memory of an experience\nas a boy in seeing citizens in this very valley work out poll taxes on the\nroads. But when I see the miracles wrought by martial organization, I\nam impatient at times that we have to wait for the conscription of our\nindividual ideals.\nWhen journeying thru a pass in the Jura Mountains a few years ago one\nMarch day, I saw, silhouetted against the cold evening sky, the figure\nof soldiers climbing along a ridge to their fortress at the end of a day's\nmarching or scouting. In Florence I saw troop after troop crossing and\nrecrossing the Amo to and from the hill of San Miniato where Angelo's\nDavid looks across the city to the Apennines. At Siena I was waked by\nthe tramp of soldiers' feet. In the place of the Caesars I saw crowds held\nin by lines of soldiers, while kings from north and south passed. Everywhere soldiers, and always was rising this thought, \"If these men, compelled\nto military service\" — useless as it seemed to be then except in its disciplines\n— \"if they could only be trained and employed to fight against the real\nfoes of a city, a nation, a race, what a power would be released for the\ngeneral good!\"\nAnd here my definition of war emerges upon battlefields of promethean\nyet newest heroisms (if indeed there are such places as battlefields to be left\nto history). Even while I was making this definition in that reciuring\nthought which came to me in Italy and France, someone, I have learned\nonly within the last few days, was at that very time framing a like definition\nin Russia:\nOur awfulest enemies, the elements and germs and insect destroyers, attack us every\nminute without cease, yet we murder one another as if we were out of our senses. Death\nis ever on the watch for us, and we think of nothing but to snatch a few patches of land!\nAbout 5,000,000,000 days of work go every year to the displacement of boundary lines.\nThink of what humanity could obtain if that prodigious effort were devoted to fighting\nour real enemies, the noxious species and our hostile environment. We should conquer\nthem in a few years. The entire globe would turn into a model farm. Every plant\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntCincinnati\n\nwould grow for our use. The savage animals would disappear, and the infinitely tinyanimals would be reduced to impotence by hygiene and cleanliness. The earth would be\nconducted according to our convenience. In short, the day men realize who their worst\nenemies are, they will form an alliance against them, they will cease to murder one another\nlike wild beasts from sheer folly. Then they will be the true rulers of the planet, the\nlords of creation.\n\nBut I have found a more recent and effective statement of the thought\nthat was flimg across the sky of many an earth mind by the philosopher\nJames before he went away, the thought that troubled me whenever I heard\nthe measured tramp of feet or saw the bayonet in France or Italy, the\nthought that at the same time was stirring this Russian, imknown to me,\nto cry against the war philosophies of Gumplowitz, something that has at\nlast got from the philosopher's study into the street — even as the philosophies of the European professors have reached the triggers of the\npeasants' rifles and made men different from all other animals, in that they\nprey upon their own species.\n\"But where does the martial spirit come in?\" says the cynic. And\nthe American philosopher, after James's own spirit, replies: *'The nation\nhas never made us look at it in the right way.\" There is nothing \"animating about wallowing in a trench or lugging a haversack and a heavy gun all\nday, except as it is a part of an organized national enterprise. Well, then,\norganize yoiir national enterprise against nature instead of the Belgians or\nCanadians.\" As it has been since the Titans fought the gods, \"Nature is\nour implacable enemy. Russians aren't, Germans aren't.\"\nWe have too much softened our vocabulary and our spirits. We speak\nof \"public service\" and of \"doing good\" when we ought to be making such\nwar, fighting evil, and enduring hardships. We ought, as some old militant\nChristian said, to put on our armor and not take it off till we put on our\nshrouds. For life is not service. Life is struggle alone, struggle together.\nLife is war.\nI discovered when following the Mississippi River to the Gulf a few\nyears ago, that it was the War Department that was watching its every\nmovement, that was carrying on constant battle with floods, shoals, erosions,\nburrowing animals, and the clouds which every year send the army of\nwaters down the valley with the power of 60,000,000 horses. It is the War\nDepartment that has dug the Panama Canal, that has made some regions\naccessible, that has made others habitable, that has stayed pestilence and\nministered most effectively to cities overwhelmed by disaster. It is to the\nWar Department that we turn in our extreme emergencies — flood, fire,\nfamine, and earthquake. It is the War Department that is illustrating\nhow we may fight our real and common race foes.\nAnd I would have the conservation of health and the direction of education conceived of as functions of the War Department, scientifically,\nausterely administered for the conunon good. Kitchener's letter to the\nexpeditionary force going into France is the best possible literature for us to\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nWAR\n\n349\n\nuse who are directing the expeditionary forces which this generation is sending to battle in the thirties and forties and fifties of this century. Here is\na meeting of the general staff, Generals Maxwell and Schaeflfer, Claxton\nand Flagg- Young, Jordan and Snyder, who must largely determine their\nfar movements. Would we might commandeer every luxury,, every\ndegenerate habit, every extravagant whim, every waste, to support this\narmy. Would we might use one slice of bread for our sandwich instead\nof two slices if we could thereby make them fight more effectively against\nignorance, disease, intemperance, incompetence, sloth, and passion, and\nfight for those things without which human existence were a colossal jest.\nTill we have taxed ourselves for schools as Europe is taxing herself for\nwars, we shall not have done too much.\nBut if you say that this is all Utopian, and that without war as it is\nillustrated in the trenches and on the mine-spread seas, we cannot preserve\nor foster that priceless spirit of courage, honor, disinterestedness, contempt\nof life, I would point to the soldier. Colonel Goethals, who has divided the\ncontinent, and the soldier. Colonel Gorgas, who kept away the hostile\ndiseases while this Hercules was at work; I would point to Pasteur, who\ndragged around with him a half -paralyzed body for twenty years and more,\nfighting microbes, when he might have been living in Horatian ease; I\nwould point to the martial geologist Van Hise, to the martial sanitarian\nGeneral Wood, to the martial peacemaker Jane Addams. I could, in\nprotesting proof, point to thousands, all the way from the invincible endurer\nPrometheus who gave fire to men, to that gentle fighter, Richard Watson\nGilder, who wrote this for me not long before his death:\n'Twas said: \"When roll of dnim and battle's roar\nShall cease upon the earth, oh, then no more\n. \"The deed, the race, of heroes in the land.\"\nBut scarce that word was breathed when one small hand\nLifted victorious o'er a giant wrong\nThat had its victims crushed thru ages long;\nSome woman set her pale and quivering face,\nFirm as a rock, against a man's disgrace;\nA little child suffered in silence lest\nHis savage pain should wound a mother's breast;\nSome quiet scholar flung his gauntlet down\nAnd risked, in Truth's great name, the synod's frown;\nA civic hero, in the calm realm of laws,\nDid that which suddenly drew a world's applause;\nAnd one to the pest his lithe young body gave\nThat he a thousand thousand lives might save.\n\nI am not so unpractical as not to know that we shall have to prepare\nfor protection, that for a time we shall have to train some men to shoot\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "3 so\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincmnati\n\nOther men. I have had that training myself and I approve the temperate\nand sensible program, so far as I vmderstand it, of such practical antimilitarists as General Wood and President Schurman. But what I do contend for, beyond this, or in spite of this, is that we must not turn our great\npublic-school system into recruiting stations or barracks for the idea that\nwar, as illustrated in Belgium, Poland, and Servia, is the supreme expression, or the necessary school, of a nation's valors or of a virile world\ncivilization.\nI had come to the end of my address when a morning's cablegram\nfrom the edge of the Eiiropean war brought me the summarizing, prophetic,\ngraphic epilog of what I have been attempting to say. It may not be\ntrue, but it intimates how what I have been saying may come true. The\ncable is as follows:\nBerne, February 22 (Dispatch to The London Morning Post). — \"All the young men\nin Germany between the ages of seventeen and twenty who have failed to volunteer for the\narmy and cannot give an adequate excuse are now being called out to serve as an vmtrained\nLandsturm. The older boys and girls, with the consent of their parents, are to be employed\nin farm work this spring, summer, and autumn in the East Prussian provinces as well as\nin Bavaria, for which purpose they will be excused from school attendance.\"\n\nThey are to go to the farms. They too are to fight for their country\nand in the field ; fight for it with the plough and the harrow, the planter\nand the harvester, the insect exterminator and the fertilizer. And some\nday all physical war will be as this. The Landsturm of Fear and Envy\nand Hate will become the Landsturm of disciplined, scientific, aspiring\nindustrial, and invincible struggle for man's supremacy over earth, sea, sky,\nand self!\nWith that definition of \"war,\" I am ready to say that the schools should,\nmust prepare for it, body, mind, and soul.\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPRINCIPLES\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nGREEN,\n\nCURRICULA\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nUNDERLYING THE DETERMINATION\nCOURSE OF STUDY\n\nOF A\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nN.J.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nI am interested in my subject, not because I think I am able to offer\nany new principle of education, but because I believe there is need of our\nconsidering the cmriculum from a more comprehensive point of view than\nhas been usual. I am of the opinion that if we examine our educational\nhistory and our practices very carefully we will conclude that as a people we\nare too much inclined to piecework.\nThe history of a great many of our institutions of learning will show\nthat while they pretend to general education they are really actuated or\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDETERMINATION\n\nOF A COURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n351\n\nbiased by some special purpose. The ardent advocates of some one type\nof education to the disadvantage of all other types are familiar to us. How\noften we hear the demand for the practical, industrially speaking, set forth\nwith an emphasis that would imply that such subjects as language, arithmetic, and geography were not practical. It is not uncommon to find\nthose who plan the education for a state prompted by some special motive\nor influence. There is a discrimination in the education for the city and\nthat for the country, and yet the boundary lines of our different classes of\neducation are often so arbitrary that it is diflScult to reconcile the different\ndepartments and districts. One who takes any certificate of training or\neducation as a passport and undertakes to go from country to city, or from\ncity to city, or from state to state, will get a vivid impression of the great\nvariety in our judgments of educational values.\nThere is perhaps an explanation for our lack of standards and coherence\nin several conditions, such, for instance, as our youth, oiu\" great stretch of\nrelatively sparsely settled territory, our rapid accretions by immigration\nfrom many countries with widely different types of character and widely\ndiffering conditions, and our consequent lack of homogeneity. Whatever\nmay be the causes of our conditions, there is undoubtedly a growing sense\nof the need that educators define their plans and purposes more exactly.\nFor the advantage of my subject, I should like to divide life into two\nparts: the one, the period spent in the school; the other, the period following\nschool.\nBroadly speaking, the school is the organized arrangement for teaching\nthat which we shall need to know after we leave school in order to perform\nour daily industrial and business transactions and imderstand our social\nand ethical relations.\nThis department is entitled \"National.\" The question naturally\narises: Is there anything national that concerns us educationally, or do we\ntake this title simply because we are assembled from all parts of our nation ?\nThere has always been the implication that there should be that in our\neducation that was national. This implication has manifested itself in our\nsongs, in our familiar references to our national character, and in the records\nof our national activities in our histories. It must, however, be admitted\nthat our notions of a distinctly national education from a curriculiun point of\nview are hazy. It is not uncommon to find men of prominence on the platform and in current literatiure comparing features of our government with\nthose of the Old World in a way that indicates that they fail of any real\nconception of our national integrity.\nI appreciate teamwork and there is one on this program who has a\nmasterful conception of our nation, one who has been its ofl&cial head, but\nI will not be presumed to anticipate him in asserting that it is possible to\norganize certain knowledge in a way to add clearness to that understanding of our natioQ which we somehow feel but do not well express.\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nOne who carefully reads English history will realize that when those\nNew England settlers who were in a very real sense our nation-builders\nchose for their compact equality before the law and freedom to worship\nGod they were laying the cornerstones of the only arch that coidd be\ntritmaphal in progress over the Old World and could make possible the fulfilment oftheir hopes. The errors and minor inconsistencies of these same\nsettlers were evidences that it is one thing to have an ideal and another\nthing fully to measure up to that ideal, but this only proves that while they\nbuilded better than they knew they were yet human.\nIf we follow up these two principles and note how they subsequently\nmanifested themselves in our provisions for an independent court that\nshould not be amenable to any class or influence other than our fundamental law; in our provisions for the common defense thru civil as well as\nmilitary instrumentalities; in our care for the general welfare by dredging\nharbors, dyking rivers, opening public lands to settlers, establishing postal\nsystems, regulating the currency; in our efforts to so regulate business as\nto prevent the undue ascendency of any one class or interest over the people\nat large, we gain some suggestion of the underlying principles that have\ninfluenced our national activities.\nThe point I wish to emphasize is that there can be no safe formation of\na scheme of public education that is not founded on a well-defined community sense.\nIt may seem that I have inverted the natural order in considering\ncommunity education, or, in other words, state or government education,\nbefore individual education, but it must be borne in mind that man is a social\nbeing, that in our government the state is the educational imit, and that\nour individual activities are regulated by the community interests if they\nare well planned. The niunber of persons who prepare for any one activity,\nwhether industrial, commercial, or professional, must be determined ultimately by the needs of the commimity, and the amoimt and quality of\npreparation are determined by commimity conditions. The kind of education required in our thinly settled country in 1840 was vastly different from\nthat required now.\nWe have in our national capital and in many of our state capitals and\nin many of our larger municipalities bureaus of information of one form or\nanother, many of which are doing valuable work. This work should be\nthoroly efficient and should be popularized in our common schools. The\ngood teacher will know how to reduce important themes to simplest forms\nof presentation thru junior republics, student government, and other\ndevices, and when she has done this she will feel that she is a worker worthy\nthe dignity of her undertaking.\nThere is nothing in our dear country more disappointing or more\npathetic than the army of the poorly paid and the unemployed unless it\nbe the feebleness of our efforts permanently to remedy these conditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDETERMINATION\n\nOF A COURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n353\n\nThe bread-line may serve as a temporary specific, but, unless our education\nleads to a permanent relief, we shall feel that our land of liberty has come\nshort of our fondest hopes.\nKeeping in mind our commimity ideals, let us turn our thought to the\nindividual. In considering the needs of each individual it is worth our\nwhile — in imagination at least — to divest ourselves for the time being\nof our heritage of learning, our peculiar notions of the classical or\ncultural or informational, and placing the individual at the starting-point\nin life ask what are his needs and what must be known in order to\nsupply those needs. Primarily his needs are food, clothing, shelter,\nlanguage, and religion.\nDoubtless the enumeration of this set of elementary branches will be\nregarded as mimdane and a shock to our old philosophy of idealism and\nsocialism, but careful thought must convince us that it is natural and the\ngroundwork for our study of the history of our conventions in education.\nMan was created both animal and spiritual and must accept both the\neconomic and the social.\nIf we take as the beginning of our plan for the personal curriculum any\none of the foregoing elements, as, for instance, shelter, it will suggest the\nneed of arithmetic, not as the science of numbers but of measurement, and\nthe limits of necessity in arithmetic; it will suggest drawing as the only\npossible expression of form and appearance; it will suggest hygiene as the\ncondition of health; it will suggest boundary lines as the protection from\ntrespass; it will suggest highways as common and joint possessions.\nIf we take food and clothing, they will suggest our geography, the\nsources of our foods and the materials of our clothing, and the conditions\nof their production, manufacture, and transportation. Out of our conditions of manufacture and transportation will grow the economic and social\nproblems and the relation of those problems to definite conditions.\nGood language is the clear expression of exact ideas. Out of the\nactivities mentioned will come the regulating influence of our language.\nWe will not be found studying words merely for the sake of words, but\nrather for the sake of ideas we must express to make known our needs.\nThru such an approach to religion, the heart not only will find expression\nin an ideal but will relate that ideal to the conditions of life.\nMy plea for the curriculum does not displace books, but approaches\nbooks from a different point of view; it does not destroy categories and\nconventions, but gives the selective power among categories and conventions; itdoes not destroy the study of history, but culls from history that\nwhich turns the light of the best social and economic experience of the past\ndirectly on our own problems.\nOur race has become so old and our printed matter so abimdant that\nthe temptation is to gormandize the words of others at the expense of vigor\nof thought.\nWp turn from the man who knows much of a subject to the one\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nwho has read many books and comments somewhat on many things, from\nthe thoro to the versatile.\nThe conclusions to be drawn from my paper, then, are:\n1. Man by nature is social and individual. Therefore both of these\nelements should be found in the curriculum and with proper balance. In\ndetermining social and personal values the standard should be definite\nconditions and needs.\n2. The scope of the curriculum should be commensurate with the\nrequirements lor eflSciency and should be so planned that it leads from that\ngeneral knowledge that is essential to all and gives mobility toward that\nspecial knowledge which is economic and efl5cient.\n3. The best school is the school that selects the best subject-matter\nfor the curriculmn considered socially and economically in the light of\nwhat has been and is to be and teaches that subject-matter in the best way.\n\nB.\n\nSHOULD ESSENTIALS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY VARY\nTO SATISFY SOCIAL DEMANDS IN DIFFERENT SCHOOL\nDISTRICTS?\nWITHIN THE SAME DISTRICT?\nELLOR CARLISLE RIPLEY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nDrawing, music, nature study, and various forms of physical training\nhave gained, thru expert supervision, a relatively large place in school\nsystems. Able supervisors in frequent visits follow these subjects in great\ndetail and demand definite products from teacher and pupils. As a result,\nspecial subjects have tended to obscure the ancient and honorable essentials. The permanent but perhaps exaggerated place of special features\nin the curriculum may be one cause of recognized need for emphasis on\nattainment in essentials.\nA second cause lies perhaps in absorbed attention to the activity of the\nteacher with resulting neglect of that of the child. It is not what the\nteacher does but what children know which secures successful mastery of\nthe essentials of arithmetic, reading, and writing.\nShould courses of study vary to meet differing social demands ? This\nis a very different question from \" Should the essentials, arithmetic, reading, and writing, vary to meet differing social demands?\" This second\nquestion is the one set for discussion.\nAs there seems to be no accepted definition of essentials, for today's\nconvenience they may be regarded as those phases of formal study which\nserve as preparation for further school progress and for meeting the common\ndemands of life. In most school systems, instruction in the arithmetic of\nupper grammar grades is shaped to prepare children for high-school mathe-\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nDEMANDS\n\n355\n\nmatics. Thru percentage, interest, ratio, and proportion, the boys and\ngirls are started on the road to algebra and geometry.\nFor many city children, at least, preparatory arithmetic seems less\nvaluable than does that which may be described as actual. Ratio and\nproportion, and beyond their bare elementary phases, interest and percentage, seem to give less training than courses in practical problems based on\nmeasurements, simple mensuration, buying, selling, different phases of\ntrade, or simple merchandizing.\nTraining is used here to mean experience in thought. The value of\nexperience in thought to school children may be measured in terms of its\namount. It is believed that a greater amount of thought is exhibited in\nclasses working on actual applications of mathematics than in classes\npuzzling over preparatory phases of the subject. Actual applications give\nchildren more experience with the mathematical phases of environment\nthan preparatory arithmetic can secure for them. These are reasons why,\nfor the purpose of meeting varying social demands, districts may differ in\ntheir courses in seventh- and eighth-grade arithmetic.\nIt is, however, the early phases of arithmetic which have given that\nsubject its hold on the school curriculum. Integers, simple and common\nfractions, familiar weights and measures, and reasonable speed and accuracy\nin the four fundamental operations are the essentials. It is not the subject,\nbut these elementary phases of it, which the real proprietors of the schools\ndemand. Are schools justified under different social conditions in modifying courses in elementary arithmetic ?\nMuch of the hard-won skill obtained in this subject is lost soon after\nleaving school. The adult, thru daily practice in a particular occupation,\nmay retain the speed and accuracy he possessed as a pupil, but most persons have few or no calls for more than fourth-grade computing ability.\nCourses in arithmetic would suffer marked collapse if permanent utility\ndetermined their inclusions, but permanent utility does not seem to be a\nfactor in human growth. Development implies forsaking and forgetting.\nBrain impressions connected with learning to walk, to talk, and to read are\nlost or obscured. In like manner the nutriment which builds up the body\nserves its purpose without becoming a permanent possession. Perhaps at\nthis particular time the pedagog may render schools and people a service\nby insisting that permanent utility is too small a measure to hold all the\nreal values of educational processes. That children are best educated when\nput thru a course of study based wholly on practical knowledge has not yet\nbeen demonstrated, nor has it yet been proved that there really is such a\ngerm as the \"irreducible minimum\" much sought of able men.\nThe fundamental essentials of arithmetic may possess but a small\ndegree of practical and permanent utility. But they do give children experience in perceiving and establishing relations; they demand exercise of\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nthought; they give means of, and power in, a liberalizing form of expression.\nIt is not the practical need which permits no variation from the essentials\nof elementary arithmetic; it is the experiences gained in getting its knowledge and skill which require that every child be equipped with the fundamental essentials of arithmetic.\nAn attempt has been made to express the opinion that social demands\nmay profitably modify seventh- and eighth-grade courses in arithmetic, but\nthat the fundamental essentials of that subject should be required from\nevery child.\nIn speaking of modem progress, a writer says that prior to the invention\nof the railway locomotive it took as long to travel from Rome to Paris in\nthe nineteenth century as it did a thousand years before. The invention of\nthe steam engine reduced the journey from days to hours. Popular education isdrawn along by all the strong currents of quickened trade and travel.\nEverybody must know how to read! There is imiversal yearning for the\nlargest and deepest thoughts of men. Literacy grows concurrently with\nand thru all forms of progress, altho demands for literature may fall ofif.\nReading has always been the prime school art and chief and earliest aim\nof formal education in the United StateS; yet there were in our country in\n1910 two and a quarter million men of voting age unable to read, and the\nrange of illiteracy in the states was from 17 per thousand in Iowa, to 142\nwhite and 484 colored per thousand in Louisiana. If our appalling total\nof five and a half million illiterates possessed the essentials of reading,\nthey would do much \" to promote the highest good of society, to forward\nmaterial prosperity, and to remove a menace to national weKare.\"\nA suggestive tho insufficient measure of some relations of reading\nability to differing social demands is discovered by identical tests in different school districts. Simple tests were recently made in the eighth grades\nof four very differently conditioned schools.\nThe first stanza of \"The Village Blacksmith\" was read and classes\ndirected to \"tell about the blacksmith.\" Then the third stanza was given\nwith the direction to \"tell what the verse says you can hear.\" The prose\nreproductions of these verses showed \"sledge\" as the word oftenest used\nin the school least favored economically. \"Sinewy\" reversed this record,\nbeing oftenest used in the best-conditioned school and hardly known at all\nin the poorest conditioned. \"Chestnut tree\" made a stronger impression\nin the poor than in the favored districts. \" Brawny \" did not fare well anywhere but found its lowest record in the poorer conditioned schools.\n\"Muscles\" was about equally popular in all four schools; \"sexton\" scored\nvery high in a district where fimerals are important public events, but\napparently was not imderstood in another district.\nThe same classes were also asked to use in a sentence each of eight words\nselected from the first twenty-five lines of the fifth act of Shakespeare's\nMerchant.\n(Performed, penitence, trespass, companion, bred, sorely, bene-\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nDEMANDS\n\n357\n\nfit, and seldom.) One child in each of two districts used all the words correctly, but no child in either of the other districts met with this success.\nThe maximum of possible points in the least favored district fell below those\nof the most favored by 25^ per cent.\nA third vocabulary test was made by recording associations with the\nexpression \"twenty-five cents.\" In the first ten papers examined from a\npoorly conditioned school, nine pupils mentioned only food and money;\nthe tenth wrote: \"twenty-five cents: money, mine, pocket.\" Opposed to\nthis result, the first ten papers from a well-conditioned school give\nso wide a range of associations that their classification would require\nmany groups, and the vocabulary was not only more varied but much\nmore specialized.\nThese test papers showed differences in fluency and quality of expression as well as distinctly different equipment with which to pursue reading\nbeyond the stage of essentials. While it is true that some selections could\nbe used in all the districts, the nature and scope of reading delightful and\neducative in one would be unwelcome and of little value in another. In\nother words, there seems to be ground for marked variation in dissimilar\ndistricts of the upper-grade courses in reading.\nIt is a common observation that reading ability varies less in the lower\ngrades of different districts than in their upper grades. A frequent explanation of the greater success in primary reading is the superior skill of primary\nteachers. At the present time, facts hardly justify this explanation. It\nis notably true, however, that reading attainment of American primary\nschools is one of our great national achievements. But primary-school\nsuccess in reading does not meet the essentials in that subject. Below\nfourth readers, vocabularies are narrow, words are of individual rather than\nclass application, and first, second, and third readers do not accustom children to the use of sentences with clauses. The American citizen needs the\nproduct of training in these directions. Press, public speech, texts on\nindustrial subjects, and simple standard literature call for a breadth of\nvocabulary and a kind of word and sentence not embodied in readers below\nthe fourth. All this training is needed to give \"essentials of reading.\"\nSuch reading ability contributes not only to further progress in school but\nalso to the welfare and comfort of everyday life. Varying social demands\ncannot, it is believed, release any school from unremitting attempts to teach\nevery child of every district to understand and express the meaning of a\nreading text equal to that fitted for fourth-grade use.\nWhat is essential in penmanship ? Power to read script and write it\nlegibly at reasonable speed. Like reading, writing is practically a daily\nnecessity and subject to frequent school and life demands not sufliciently\nvaried to justify different requirements in essentials of the subject.\nSocial conditions may affect the ease with which the essentials are\ngained, and it is obvious that a child from the home using a five-thousand-\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "3S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nword vocabulary will escape difficulties falling to one who is familiar with\nonly one thousand words.\nIn the newer essentials of hygiene and health and ideals of citizenship,\nthe work of the schools is set by the character of the homes. Hence variations in courses of study in these subjects must be wide indeed, ranging\nfrom merely supplementary inspirational instruction in some districts to\nthoro and complete courses in information and liberal training in habits in\nother districts. The all-important old-time essentials of character and\nconduct are based on principles including not only all districts, but all men\nof all time, and need no discussion as to variation under differing social\ndemands.\nDo different social demands in the same district justify varying courses\nof study there ? Viewed from so near a standpoint as the single district,\nvarying social demands are seen as individual children. Here is the boy\nwho forsakes his desire to be a grocer for automobile repairing \"because\nautomobiling is the becoming trade\"; the pupil who makes a brilliant dash\nthru tasks costing a neighboring child long toil; the irresponsible traveled\ngirl; the dependable, thirteen-year-old caretaker of a motherless family.\nEach child presents a specific social demand. In a sense, the niunber and\ndegrees of variations of the course of study give an index of the teacher's\nskill. In the large, however, principles bearing on variation in different\ndistricts apply equally to the single district. From the standpoint of\nadministration, a district containing several classes of parallel grades can\ntoday most fully meet its purpose by carrying its courses to satisfy the\nneeds of pupils who are and of those who are not preparing for high school.\nThis paper has attempted to express the opinion that essentials of reading, writing, and arithmetic should be gained by all children in the first\nfour grades; to suggest an opinion beyond the scope of its discussion that\ntwo additional years should foster fiu*ther advance in these and other\nstudies; to say that marked variation should begin in the seventh grade.\n\nC.\nFRANK\n\nTHE DEMANDS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nW. MILLER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nCOLUMBUS,\nOHIO\n\nDISTRICTS\n\nOF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nIn the midst of the wealth of literature on the rural school which has\nbeen produced within the last decade, the question still stands out in bold\nrelief: \"What are the solutions of the rural-school problem?\" Principles\nof education have been worked out by our leaders of educational thought,\nbut the task remains to get these principles into actual practice in the niral\nschools. The problem of the rural school is the problem of rural life and\nof the rural people. The problem is ethical, social, sociological, hygienic,\nand economic.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nDEMANDS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISTRICTS\n\n359\n\nThe first requisite is to let loose a charge of dynamite that will awaken\nthe entire people to the remotest comers of the land and lead them to a realization of the condition of their schools and the possibilities of improvement. When this awakening is once produced, there wdll be discussion, and\ndiscussion will lead to improvement. The greatest obstacle to improvement istradition, the tradition that the little red schoolhouse is the embodiment of the best principles of American democracy.\nWe cling more tenaciously to our traditions in education than in anything else. The farmer who believes that the little red schoolhouse, the\none-room school with its barren walls, its imattractive environment, its lack\nof equipment, its absence of sanitary convenience, and its poorly paid\nteacher, is still good enough for his children for the reason that he and his\ngrandfather attended the same kind of school, is not so bound by tradition\nwhen it comes to securing modem implements for his farm. He is willing\nto discard an implement that is still in good serviceable condition in order\nto place on his farm an implement of modern type that will produce for\nhim better results. If the \"good old way\" is good enough for the children\nof the present day, why should we not be consistent and go back to the\n\"good old way\" in industry, in medicine, in surgery, and in agriculture ?\nIt is now conceded by all educators who have studied the subject that\nthe consolidated or centralized school is the best type of school for the rural\ndistricts. The consolidated school requires the transportation of the pupils,\nand it is here that the only objections arise from the parents. Parents\nobject, and justly so, to having their children remain too long in the wagon\nin going to and from school. When the roads are heavy the progress of\nthe wagon is slow. If the roads in a school district are good, a motorwagon can be used which will transport the children with dispatch. Such\na movement for better schools by means of better roads requires a large\namount of public teaching and in this every teacher and superintendent\nshould take an active part. Good roads are conducive to better market\nconditions for the farmer and to better social conditions for him and his\nfamily.\nThe great nimiber of country people who are removing to the city is one\nof the greatest destructive tendencies in our national life. Many of the\nyoung people are starving for social opportunities. The dreaded disease\nof many boys and girls on the farm is loneliness, and too often is the cure\nsought in city life. In one of our hospitals for the insane in Ohio I was\ngiven the sad information that 67 per cent of the women inmates of that\ninstitution are from the country. The cause of this preponderance can be\nspelled in one word, \"loneliness.\"\nHere is a great opportimity for the teachers and the superintendent.\nThey should be leaders and should be instnmiental in providing social\nfunctions for the people of the district. They can be instrumental in providing literary societies, lecture coiurses, debating clubs, com shows, canning\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nICincinnati\n\nclubs, sewing classes, agricultural clubs, socials, and many other occasions\nwhich I will not take your time to mention. Such functions will not only\nprovide the people with social opportimity, but will also be of educative\nvalue and will create a better school spirit in the community.\nToo many of our rural schools are but poor imitations of the city schools.\nIn most instances the schools must be rescued from city courses of study\nand must be reconstructed in terms of rural life. Agriculture should be\ntaught in every coimtry school. Every boy should learn the use of the\ncommon tools. There should be a course in tinkering. Every boy should\nlearn how to construct a shed and make some of the minor repairs about\nthe house. He should be able to make most of the repairs required for the\nfarm machinery. He should be able to weld pieces of iron. Forges can\nbe purchased at a small price and the ability to weld pieces of iron will very\noften save both time and money. Some of the most common and important\npoints in business law should be taught, together with some of the principles ofbookkeeping such as may be necessary for keeping farm and home\naccounts.\nEvery girl should have the opportvmity of stud3dng home economics.\nThe term \"home economics\" or \"domestic science\" is not imderstood by\nmany of the rural people nor by many of the rural teachers. In Ohio we\nhave coimty normal training schools for prospective teachers, and in each\nof these schools there is a course of one week in domesdc science suited to\nthe niral home. The course is given by two women who are trained especially for this work. While they are giving this course, the women of the\ncommunity are invited to be present. In one of these schools this teaching\ncame as a revelation. The people for the first time understood and they\ndemanded that the subject be taught in their schools. But their buildings\nwere too small. An election was called in that district recently and a bond\nissue of $60,000 was voted by the people to build a new consolidated school,\na monument to the teaching of domestic science in the rural schools.\nThese things are not visionary, for we have many rural schools in the\nUnited States in which they are now carried into effect.\nIf the people of a farming community are taught better production\nonly, the opportunity for exploitation by speculators and middlemen is\ngreat. Wheat rises to $1 . 66 per bushel only after it has long since passed\nout of the hands of the producer.\nThe farmer must work hard for what he gets, and is therefore reluctant\nto part with his money for better schools. The American farmers do not\norganize as do the men of the city. If legislation is desired by a city, train\nloads of boosters besiege the state house to press their claims for the needed\nlegislation; and they generally succeed in getting it. Farmers are not\norganized to press their claims and are obliged to take whatever legislation\nis given them. In some of the European coimtries, notably in Denmark,\nthere is co-operation among farmers in marketing their products. They\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEMANDS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISTRICTS\n\n361\n\nemploy their own agents in the large centers of population which serve as\ntheir markets, and thereby avoid giving rich profits to a host of middlemen.\nIf co-operation can be conducted so profitably by the farmers of Denmark,\nwhy cannot the same be done in our country. A knowledge of the best\nmethods of marketing his products is as important to the farmer as it is for\nthe manufacturer to know how to market his products.\nIn the cities we find night schools conducted by the board of education.\nThese schools are well attended, not merely by children of school age, but\nby many people of middle life. The Y.M.C.A.'s conduct schools that are\nwell attended by adults. Correspondence schools do a thriving business.\nBut what opportunities for improvement are there in the country for the\ngrownups? None! There should be a term of school of about three\nmonths in the year when farmers are least busy. This course should be\nopen to all residents of the school district without regard to age or previous\ntraining. The course should contain agriculture in its various phases,\ncivil government, sanitation, the simple forms of bookkeeping such as may\nbe used in keeping farm accounts, some of the more common points in\ncommercial law, deeds, mortgages, writing of wills, and banking.\nThe course should also include arithmetic, and such subjects as history\nand literature for the development of the broad cultural side of life. The\nattendance at the farmers' extension schools conducted by some of the\nuniversities and the popularity of the moonlight schools in Kentucky bear\nwitness to the fact that there is a strong demand for such a course\nin the rural schools.\nThe vacation periods in the rural schools should be determined by the\nnature of the occupations in which the services of children may be employed,\nnot only with profit to the parents, but with even greater profit to the\nchildren who thus have an opportunity to learn how to do something as\nwell as to know something. If the rural school of the earlier days seemed\nto turn out men and women who became leaders in public life, it was due\nto the fact that children in those days were taught to work.\nThe time-honored subjects must receive new emphasis in their application to rural life. The new form of leaven in the old essentials should be\na permeation by the spirit of the farm. Some teacher may ask, \" How are\nwe to teach all these new branches without destroying the work in the old\nessentials?\" In some subjects, new and better methods are time-savers.\nThe statistics of the last few years have shown that the pupil who applies\nhimself to some practical or industrial study has his mind quickened to do\nbetter work in his academic studies. The experience of the past few years\nhas demonstrated that the boy who is engaged for a few hours each day at\nthe bench makes better progress in his spelling than does the boy who must\nserve under the drill master. The boy who uses the square, ruler, and\nyardstick will grasp the meaning of a problem involving these imits more\nquickly than .will the boy to whose mind those units are mere symbols.\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe boy who must make out his bill for the limiber he needs and the prices\nto be paid will get a new insight into business methods and problems.\nElnowledge gained by experience in our youth is most tenacious knowledge, and prejudice is probably the greatest impediment to progress that\nhas ever been known. We teach school as we were taught; we proceed\nwith our business as in the days of our youth; it is only by our ability to\naccept the knowledge given by reason or argimient that we shall prove our\nability to handle the things of life. It is highly essential that every teacher\nreceive the advantage of the reasoning and arguments of others. This\nrequires a training course for teachers and the reading of professional literature. By reasoning and argimaent the teacher must pass beyond the\nelementary stage of his education.\nIn the country we need teachers who have the right vision. They\nshould be men and women who have grown up with country life. Too\nmany of the rural teachers have been like the wandering Jew. The teacher\nshould become a part of the community life of the people of his district.\nTheir interests should be his interests, their pleasures should be his pleasures,\ntheir problems should be his problems. We frequently hear people in the\ncountry complain of the quality of teaching they are able to get from young\nteachers who are not in full sjonpathy with rural life. They complain that\nmany of the teachers in the rural schools are town and city girls who go\nback and forth like a shuttle and do not mingle with the people in the rural\ncommunity around the school. They complain of the practice of many\ntown and city boards of education in requiring their own high-school graduates to teach in the country for a few years after graduation before they\nwill emplo}- chem in their home schools. There is an answer to this objection. If farmers do not want their schools taught by city boys and girls,\nthey have the remedy entirely in their hands. The rural boards of education are made up of their own number. Many a prosperous farmer\ndoes not encourage his son to prepare for the profession of teaching with its\nmeager salary imless the community in which he lives offers less than the\naverage opportvmity in agriculture. Few of the well-to-do families of the\ndistrict care to be bothered by keeping the teacher as a boarder, and often\nthe best houses in the community are closed to the teacher, and he must\neither room in town and thus lose almost every opportimity to affliate with\nhis patrons, or accept accommodations in a home whose standing in the\ncommunity will not help the teacher in gaining that social influence which\nhe has a right to expect.\nIn one of the wealthy townships of Ohio, a woman teacher could find\nno place within a reasonable distance to room. But she was not to be\noutdone. She had a small house constructed on wheels and every time she\nwas hired to teach in a different school she would have her house drawn by\nfour horses to a comer of the yard of the new school. Thruout the school\nyear she washes, she irons, she cooks, she eats, and she sleeps in the same room.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROS\n\nAND\n\nCONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGARY\n\nSYSTEM\n\n363\n\nMost of the rural communities are better able to pay good salaries than\nthe cities, as shown by the fact that the school tax rate is usually lower in\nprosperous rural communities than in the most prosperous industrial centers.\nOf the $36,000,000 of bonded indebtedness for schools in Ohio, over $30,000,000 is charged to the cities, where the demand is greater for better\nbuildings, better salaries, and better equipment. But the rural boys and\ngirls are just as deserving as the city boys and girls, and are as certainly\nworth saving aiid educating.\n\nD.\n\nTHE PROS AND CONS OF THE GARY SYSTEM\n\nDAVID SNEDDEN,\n\nSTATE COMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nIn its principal features, the so-called \"Gary System\" of organizing and\nadministering public schools is already familiar to educators. Bulletin\nNo. 18, 1914, of the United States Bureau of Education, gives a good general\ndescription of the system as a whole. In their order of interest to the layman, the following are the unique features of the Gary System:\n1. It permits of such use of school buildings that substantially twice\nas many children can be accommodated in the ordinary type of school\nbuilding as is usually the case. In addition to classrooms, they have\nassembly hall, workrooms, and gymnasium.\n2. All of the teaching is in greater or less degree on a departmental\nbasis. Teachers can specialize their instruction along the lines of their\ngreatest aptitudes, altho, in some cases, they do not specialize along the\nlines of specific subjects, but rather of groups of subjects requiring similar\ntreatment.\n3. The buildings, equipment, and activities of the entire school system\nare used as laboratory and workshop for the practical activities, including\nthe so-called \"industrial training,\" of the pupils, from the lower grades\nthru the high school.\n4. The so-called \"practical\" or \"industrial\" activities of the pupils in\nthe grades and in the high school are of so thoroly definite and utilitarian\na character as to insure valuable educational results in a field where\nheretofore the layman has suspected that a considerable portion of the\ninstruction offered has been of a dilettante, unsubstantial, and impractical\ncharacter.\n5. Educational agencies other than the school are drawn into active\nco-operation with the school to some extent. These agencies include the\npubUc library, the church school for religious education, industrial establishments, and various forms of voluntary activity, such as the Y.M.C.A.\nwork. Boy Scout work, and the like.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\n6. The amount of attention given to instruction in science, more particularly its practical applications, is such as to insure valuable results\nin this field — a thing which is rarely achieved in other school systems.\n7. There is a substantial lengthening of the customary school day,\n8. A considerable part of each day is given to supervised play and other\nforms of physical activity, directed by the schools.\n9. School buildings are used to a substantial extent by others than\npupils, thru evening schools, the use of gymnasium and plunges for adults,\nSaturday classes, summer schools, etc.\nII\nThere can be no doubt that the general plan underljdng the so-called\nGary System does contemplate all the modifications and extensions of the\ntraditional school system suggested above, nearly all of which appeal to the\npublic as being educationally useful and highly desirable. The writer does\nnot purpose to analyze in detail the extent to which these aims are actually\nrealized in practice, nor the character of the training and instruction\nresulting. A very exhaustive study would be necessary, at this early\nstage in the histor}\"^ of the Gary System, to evaluate these results in any\nconclusive fashion. Such a study should and must eventually be made,\nbut it would take much time, special service, and the use of careful\nstatistical methods to produce satisfactory results.\nThe important thing for us to realize, however, is that back of the Gary\nSystem there is, in the first place, a comprehensive theory of what the public\nschool should do, and, in the second place, an extensive and detailed working\nout of at least tentative ways and means by which this theory shall be\nrealized in practice. A visitor to the Gary schools is impressed with the\nlarge number of administrative and pedagogical devices which the superintendent and his coworkers have already invented, adapted, or borrowed,\nand put into practice with a view to extending the scope of the work of\npublic schools, and to making them serve more effectively the needs of all\neducable persons in the community, young or old.\nBut in two visits to the Gary schools and in contact with Superintendent\nWirt, with whose name the so-called system is most frequently identified,\nI have been unable to discover that the workers in the Gary System are\nirrevocably committed to any particular hobby or theory of administration.\nThe general scheme is characterized by flexibility. Superintendent Wirt\nand his associates are constantly experimenting with new devices, and seem\nto be seeking to ascertain and value the different ends to be kept in view and\nresults obtained under the operation of any tentative plan.\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROS\n\nAND\n\nCONS\n\nOF THE\n\nGARY\n\nSYSTEM\n\n365\n\nIII\nTo the educator the significant features of the Gary System in their\norder are these:\n1. The system of education in its underlying theory, in its plans, and\ncertainly, to a large extent, in its practice, more adequately meets the educational needs of city children than any other system of which the writer has\nknowledge.\nIt is everywhere recognized that children in the public schools should\nbe taught the so-called \"academic subjects.\" But, in addition, they should\nbe given a large amount of opportunity for the acquisition of practical knowledge of science thru as direct contact with nature as possible. They should\nbe given opportunity to practice, on the basis of standards suited to their\nyouth and permanent interests, various forms of industrial or other practical activities, with a view to exercising their instincts for constructive\nwork, to \"finding themselves\" vocationally, and to gaining experience in the\nworld of material activities. They are all entitled to abundant opportunity\nto play, under conditions which will make for wholesome moral development and insure the maximum of useful physical activity and growth.\nFinally, the voluntary or quasi-voluntary activities of young people should\nbe encouraged, and this under some form of supervision by the school, to\nthe end that good rather than bad results may follow and that the home,\nchurch, playground, club, and library shall be brought into co-operation.\nMany of us recognize all these as desirable objects, but nowhere before\noutside of boarding schools, so far as I know, have administrative agencies\non a comprehensive scale been organized to provide the necessary means.\n2. Under the Gary System, instruction in science in all grades becomes\nvery much more real and effective than has been possible in schools giving\nonly a few minutes a day to so-called \"nature study\" or elementary science.\n3. Thru the extension of its manual- training system and the development of a wide range of industrial and other practical activities in connection with the buildings, equipment, and activities of the school system as a\nwhole, the Gary schools have placed so-called \"practical\" or \"prevocational\" instruction on a basis much more satisfactory than anything\nheretofore existing outside of individual schools.\n4. Because of the large amount of time available for play under supervision, the scope, thoroness, and efl&ciency of the physical education of the\nschool children have been materially increased over those conditions as\nusually found.\n5. The Gary System makes for the maximum use of school plant, or,\nas it might otherwise be expressed, it achieves a given educational result\nwith a minimum of educational equipment.\n6. It provides a relatively large incentive and opportunity for extension\nactivities, both for young people and for adults.\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\n7. The system of departmental teaching, including the more recently\ndeveloped feature of the use of the auditorium, permits of the development\nof definite tj^es of pedagogical approach which are of the utmost importance for sound education, but which have hitherto received scant recognition.\nThis is important because there is involved the possibility of a distinction which is only now beginning to be made in conscious educational\npractice between that training and instruction, on the one hand, which\nshould be of a definitely systematic character, such as reading, spelling, and\narithmetic in the lower grades, and mathematics, foreign language, and English in the upper grades; and, on the other, those other forms of learning\nwith reference to which no such definite and precise approach is necessary,\nsuch as the results of the right kind of nature study in the lower grades,\nstory-telling and general reading in all grades, lectures on various interesting\ntopics in the upper grades and high school, practical arts in all grades, the\nuse of moving pictures, the development of voluntary activities, play, etc.\nThe writer is of the opinion that it is exceedingly difficult for any one\nteacher so to shift her point of view that she can at one time give the children definite drill toward specific powers, and at another put herself in an\nattitude favorable to giving the children opportunity fully to exercise their\nown powers of appreciation and reception.\nUnder the Gary System, where one teacher confines herself to the specific\nacademic or classroom work, the achievement of definite habits and organized knowledge in these subjects becomes possible, while, on the other hand,\nthe carrying on of other forms of activities in auditorium, science laboratory,\nor gymnasium permits of a quite different educational atmosphere and\nmethod of approach. It is certain, as the writer sees it, that during the\nnext decade the most important development toward educational efficiency\nin training and instruction will be a progressively sharp series of distinctions\nbetween that kind of instruction which should terminate in definitely recognizable powers, and the other kind of instruction or activity which should\nresult in appreciations but not in definite, tangible, and measurable powers.\nFrom the writer's point of view, the Gary System opens the way for an\nindefinite series of experimental developments in this direction. It will\nbe the aim, necessarily, of the academic teacher to make her arithmetic,\nspelling, penmanship, English, foreign language, etc., as definitely fruitful\nas possible, in terms of specific powers sought in these studies. On the\nother hand, it will be the aim of those in charge of auditorium instruction,\nplayground activities, and industrial activities respectively, to achieve in\neach of these departments the particular kind of results that seem best\nto interest the children and give the maximum of the kind of attainment\ndesired under existing aims and conditions.\nIn other words, each major division of the work of the Gary System\nwill develop its own types of aims, and these will differ in marked degree\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROS\n\nAND\n\nCONS\n\nOF THE\n\nGARY\n\nSYSTEM\n\n367\n\nfrom those of other major divisions. The teachers in each of these divisions\nwill develop characteristic mental attitudes and will tend to assert more\nclearly the special demands required of their various departments. Because\nthe Gary System opens, from the writer's point of view, an indefinite range\nof opportunities for developments of this character, he regards it as being\nof the utmost promise.\nIV\nUnder what conditions and to what extent can other cities adopt or\nadapt the aims, forms of administrative organization, and methods of the\nGary System ? To many of us, this is an important question, because the\npublic has become interested in the reports coming from Gary, and if we\ndo not lead, we are in danger of being pushed, into some form of movement\nfor readjustments of our schools suggested by that city.\nIt is unnecessary to observe that there can be no successful modifications\nor developments of local school systems along lines that seem to give good\nresults at Gary if, on the one hand, an attempt is made baldly to copy or\nimitate that system, or if, on the other, the work is undertaken by local\nauthorities who do not comprehend and sympathize with the general scheme\nof educational aims and purposes which, from the start, seems to have guided\nSuperintendent Wirt and his coworkers. Better leave a local system alone\nthan to attempt to make it over in the exact image of Gary or to attempt\nextensive readjustments without the guidance of a broad and modem philosophy ofeducation.\nBut to school authorities who have a fairly clear notion as to what they\nwant, I do not see why the schools of Gary should not prove profoundly\nsuggestive, provided such authorities are convinced that the educational\nmission of the public school is as far-reaching as has been asserted by almost\nall our educational thinkers and leaders during recent years. If we are\nreally in earnest in our oft-reiterated contention that the modem school\nshould aim to insure the education of the whole child; if we believe that the\nschool should provide, not merely the means for drill in the academic\nbranches, but should make possible intellectual nurture and growth as these\nresult from abundant free play, from a wide range of interesting practical\nactivities, and from ample opportunity to gain in comprehension of scientific knowledge as this is to be acquired from contact with nature and with\nman's works; if we are convinced that every school should definitely coordinate itseducational efforts with those of the home, the church, the shop,\nthe press, the stage, the library, the police, the club, and the playground;\nand if, finally, we hold that the city should make its expensive school plant\nrender the fullest possible service to the community — then we can certainly\nstudy Gary to advantage. We can derive from it a hundred suggestions as\nto readjustments and extensions that may to advantage be made locally.\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincimiati\n\nLet us consider separately some of the possible adaptations.\n1. The lengthening of the school day, the use of a given classroom or\nother working space by two or more independent groups of pupils, and the\ndepartmentalizing of teaching — these three features are, as I see it, mutually\ninterdependent. To have one almost inevitably involves having the others.\nWe need half of each longer school day — at least six, and preferably seven\nworking hours — for academic studies, and the remaining half, outside of\nacademic classrooms, for miscellaneous activities — play, physical training,\npractical work, science, and auditorium. We need departmentalized teaching at least to the extent that will insure to each group of children different\nteachers for the academic studies, the practical arts, and the physical\neducation.\nBut I see no good reason why the changes necessary to carry out this\nprogram should not be effected in almost any large school. True, if there\nare no gymnasium, no assembly hall, and no playground, the difficulties\nwill be great — almost a matter of making bricks without straw. But I am\npersuaded that, given departmental teachers with some special training and\nthe beginnings of enthusiasm for their special work, these teachers will be\nable to do much to make their work fruitful in ordinary schoolrooms, and\nin nooks, comers, and hallways — always provided they have caught the\nidea that their extra-academic teaching is to develop an approach and spirit\nof its own unlike that of the academic atmosphere.\nBut I do not see why the new plan should be tried in all the schools of\na city at once. It should be inaugurated in a building most suited to the\nnew plan, and under teachers specially selected to give it a fair trial. Certainly no wise superintendent will expect that new machinery of the kind\nrequired to make the Gary plan a success will run itself, or will work even\npassably under unsympathetic direction.\nSpecific difficulties will be encountered. School children accustomed\nto shorter sessions will object, and so will the parents of some of them.\nMany teachers are opposed to a school day more than five hours long. But\nall of these are obstacles which the business-like superintendent is accustomed to meet and overcome, if he knows what he wants. The discontinuance of home study will win favor among pupils; the supervised play,\namong many parents; and the administration should always be flexible\nenough to accommodate itself to what are clearly the legitimate demands\nfrom parents for time for music lessons, dancing, etc. Teachers can readily\nbe induced to see in the new system a means of making education more\neffective, and they will then render the desired co-operation.\n2. Can we develop a program and opportunities for practical activities\nsimilar to those of Gary ? In many cities, certainly not at first. We have\nturned over all of this municipal housekeeping to special agencies, and it\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROS\n\nAND\n\nCONS\n\nOF THE\n\nGARY\n\nSYSTEM\n\n369\n\nwill be hard to win it back. We are in the position of that household wher6\nall cooking and sewing and nursing and cleansing have been delegated to\nservants who hold the children at arm's length and give them no chance\nto share in any of the work which is their rightful heritage. Superintendent\nWirt is entirely right in his position that every bit of the practical work\ninvolved in carrying on the plant and operations of the school should be\nmade the charge and educational opportunity of the learners in the school\nsystem as far as that can be done, under proper direction and with due\neconomy. Is the school — the agency assuming final responsibility on the\npart of the state for the education of the young — to foUow the home and\nthe workshop in shutting the door to practical endeavor and practical\nachievement in the faces of its children? Will it give its printing, its\naccounting, its plumbing, and its electrical work to outside service, and\nrestrict its willing and promising youth to work on manual-training knickknacks ?\n\nI\n\nBut we shall not achieve Gary's results in this department until we shall\nhave evolved workable programs of our own and agitated them persistently\nbefore the public. The wise superintendent will be content with small\nbeginnings and will insure competent direction by skilled workmen from\nthe start.\n3. The fullest development of playground, gymnasium, and swimming\nactivities is, in large degree, a matter of equipment. Many educators see\nclearly the way forward here, if needed facilities are provided.\n4. Evening schools, Saturday classes, and summer or vacation classes —\nthese are not unique except as to their general integration into the Gary\nSystem. They can readily be developed elsewhere.\n5. The co-ordination of the school with other educational activities,\nwhich is a unique thing in Gary only as to its scope and the variety of devices\nemployed, should be begun and extended everywhere. Whether the Bible\ninstruction under the charge of the churches will succeed is not yet clear,\nbut the experiment is of great significance. In theory we all are committed\nto closer co-operation with the home, the public library, the local newspaper,\nthe moving-picture show, the police, and the voluntary clubs which young\npeople should and will form. Superintendent Wirt has been a little less\nfearful, and has, we like to flatter ourselves, been a little more favored by\nlocal conditions than the rest of us — that is all.\n6. But I wonder if all of us school men can adapt the essential features\nof the Gary theory, and yet preserve a large degree of flexibility in its operations ? We do so easily become victims of the machinery and routine which\nwe set up. We feel that we must compel everybody, make everything\nobligatory, in order to succeed. We think chaos would result if we permitted\nsome pupils to go home or come to school an hour earlier than others. If\nwe establish manual training, all or none must take it. We complain of\nparents who want their children to take outside music or dancing or Ian-\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nguage lessons — ^perhaps of more importance than the work we are offering.\nAt present we do not co-operate with newspaper, moving picture, and children's club, except sporadically. We compete with them, and the child\nis often the first victim of our competition.\nK we can assure flexibility and adaptation of means to the pupil as the\ncenter of our efforts, let us borrow many of the Gary devices, but if they\nmust become part of a rigid system decreed by a spirit of autocracy and\nmechanical routine or regimentation, let us leave them where they are.\n7. Can we carry over the Gary idea that it is educationally worth while\nfor groups of younger children and of older children to visit each other's\nwork and to co-operate at times? Perhaps not until we shall develop\nteachers who can see in learning a great deal more than the reciting of\nassigned lessons and drill on daily tasks. A high rather than a low order of\nteaching talent will be required to conduct this visiting and to make the\n\"auditorium\" period a success — a higher order, perhaps, than Superintendent Wirt yet realizes. Any duffer of a teacher can assign and hear\nlessons; it requires almost an artist to stand aside when children are learning by themselves.\nVI\nI have said much about the \"pros\" of the Gary System — so much that\nperhaps you think I can find no \"contras.\" I find it indeed difficult to\ncriticize adversely, for the scheme is still in early stages of operation, and,\nin the main, I find little to dissent from, as to its intent and general plan.\nIt is too early yet to test the plan by its results.\nThere are, however, two phases of the Gary work which I think need\ncritical examination, to one of which I think Superintendent Wirt is committed, and as to the other of which, I think, he has very clear vision, the\npublic only being in a degree misled by current reports. I refer, in the first\nplace, to Superintendent Wirt's conviction that as far as practicable all\ngrades — kindergarten, elementary, and high school — should be represented\nin each large school; and in the second, to a somewhat widespread belief\nthat the Gary plan includes proposed solutions of the problems of vocational\neducation.\n\nvn\nIf it should prove to be possible to utilize on an extensive scale the cooperation ofgroups of young and of older learners in the totality of the learning process as that obtains in schools, it might prove expedient to make\nsacrifices in other directions in order to bring together in single buildings\ntwo thousand or more children of all grades. To me this is a matter yet\nto be demonstrated, even in Gary. It is clear that if the varied industrial\nand other practical activities so largely characteristic of the Gary scheme\nare to be fully organized in schools for older pupils, these schools must be\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROS\n\nAND\n\nCONS\n\nOF THE\n\nGARY\n\nSYSTEM\n\n371\n\nvery large — too large, it seems to me, to render them easily accessible to\nchildren living in urban communities as ordinarily constituted. I still\nbelieve that the urban school organization of the future — one in which the\nbest features of the Gary System will be extensively reproduced — will\ninvolve just two types of schools of general education: (a) local, small\nschools for all children under twelve years of age, staffed and supervised\nentirely by women; and (b) central schools, very large, and with very\nflexible programs, for all children over twelve, regardless of grades. Vocational schools we shall have in addition, but these will be located close to\nthe seats of the industry, commerce, homemaking, and agriculture for which\nthey will give preparation — often, indeed, in the buildings, or on the\ngrounds, devoted to these occupations.\nMy recommendation, then, is that we strive to realize the best results\nof the Gary System in the two types of schools, and so make possible easy\naccess to school and playground on the part of children under twelve, while\nyoung persons from twelve to eighteen will be expected to walk or ride\nconsiderable distances to large central schools abundantly equipped with\nshops, grounds, and other facilities for broad and vital education.\nVIII\nIn some quarters it is being said that the Gary plan has solved the problem of vocational education. If I understand Superintendent Wirt, Gary\nhas not attacked the problem of vocational education, except as regards\ntrade extension education in evening schools, because it is held that vocational education belongs in the industry itself, the public school co-operating\nwhere it can. The varied practical activities carried on in the schools, in\nconnection with which many thousands of dollars worth of work of a thoroly\nproductive character is done, especially in the building trades, printing,\nfurniture-making, food preparation, stenography, and bookkeeping, are not\nregarded as supplying the need for vocational education except for the small\nnumber of learners who are enabled to specialize as apprentices to the carpenters, plumbers, printers, machinists, painters, electricians, engineers,\nhousekeepers, stenographers, and bookkeepers employed as regular teachers\nof the practical activities in the schools themselves. I think Superintendent Wirt believes that the field of the separate day vocational school\nis a limited one — perhaps being available for only a few occupations and\nperhaps only for a partial degree of vocational training in these. But he\nwould have the school co-operate with industry, first by giving the pupil\nextensive opportunity for generous practical training in industrial arts,\nor homemaking, or commercial work, or agriculture, before entering industry, and thereafter, thru the provision of abundant opportunities for trade\nextension teaching in evening classes, of the \"short unit\" type. The Gary\nscheme, therefore, includes no provision for complete vocational training\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntCincinnati\n\n(outside of stenography) except as regards the few persons who can in effect\n\"apprentice\" themselves to the trade workers among the teachers.\nMy own point of view is somewhat different from Superintendent Wirt's,\nif I understand him aright. Perhaps conditions in Gary are peculiar; but\nI believe we shall find that there is, in every city, place for a variety of\nseparate vocational schools which shall, for an introductory period, claim\nthe full time of the learner, after which these vocational day schools will\narrange for a part-time service of their pupils in commercial shops imder\nthe supervision of the school itself, the whole period for this arrangement\nto extend from fourteen to eighteen or nineteen years of age. After this,\nthe learner, on his own responsibility, can, if he desires, continue in the\ntrade extension evening school.\nThese separate vocational schools will, I believe, be located as close as\npossible to the industries with which they are ultimately to connect, and\nwill, at every stage, make, as the basis of their education, practical productive work, either in school shop or in commercial shop. They wiU follow\nindustry as to working hours, working weeks, and working year. Learners\nwill be paid at least in part for the productive work which they do.\nLet us give credit to Gary and its school authorities for having conducted\nsuch an intelligent, comprehensive, and sustained an experiment in education, and let us, on behalf of American school children, profit from the results\nof that experiment to the fullest practicable extent.\nSuperintendent Wirt is of the opinion that the Gary System offers\ngreater opportunity for vocational education than is here indicated. He\nsays in a letter:\nI have only one suggestion to offer\nYou say, \"except for the smaU number of\nlearners who are able to specialize as apprentices\"; and also,\"The Gary scheme, therefore,\nincludes no provision for complete vocational training (outside of stenography) except\nas regards the few persons who can in effect apprentice themselves to the trade workers\namong the teachers.\"\nI am inclosing a report for the past year on the shopwork for boys. Eliminating the\n45,000 manual-training hours, there was an average of 600 hours' definite trade teaching\ngiven each day for an average of 190 days. The total average daily attendance during\nthe year of boys foiuleen years of age and over was only 220. Also the school shops can\naccommodate twice the nimiber of boys that are now using them. Since the average of\ntrade-teaching hours per day was nearly three hours for each boy fourteen years of age\nand over attending the school, I beUeve that you have placed undue emphasis upon the\nuse of the words \"small\" and \"few\" in the above quotations. It is true that some of this\ninstruction was given to students in co-operative courses. Much of the instruction was\ngiven to boj^s imder fourteen. Every boy over fourteen and every adult in the city,\nhowever, was given the opportimity. There are more adults attending evening classes\nthan there are children in the day classes. There are many adults in day-school shop\nclasses. Many more could be accommodated, with present shops and teachers, if we could\nsecure the students. The students who go into industry as apprentices and journeymen\nare much greater in nimiber than the students who go as stenographers.\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nSTANDARD\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n373\n\nI believe that when any city is giving an average of two hours per day definite trade\nteaching in school shops to a number of adults and schoolboys equal to the total attendance of boys fourteen years of age and over in the day school, it is meeting fairly well\nthe vocational training needs of the community.\n\nIS A NATIONAL\nWILLIAM\n\nSTANDARD\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nPRACTICAL?\n\nHOWARD TAFT, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, I909-13;\nPROFESSOR OF LAW, YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN.\n\nKENT\n\nIt is your chairman who is to blame for this. He caught me when\nI thought I was in conceabnent in the city of New York. He knew my\ndates, and I could not get off by saying, \"I will answer you when I get\nhome.\" He said, \"No. I know you are going to be in Cincinnati for\nthree days, and those are the days that the National Education Association\nmeets there, so there is no excuse, unless you can prove that every minute\nof every twenty-four hours that you are to be in Cincinnati, you will be\noccupied.\" I am something of a liar but I could not equal that, so he is\nto blame.\nI cannot come before you and give you any information — ^you who\nhave been for so many years (all but the ladies) in the profession of teaching.\nIt is a great profession. It is a noble profession, and I am honored to\nbe even only a novitiate in the craft. It is growing and has grown to be\nmore and more of a profession. Every man in the last generation began\nas a teacher. Now, what does that indicate ? It indicates that he intended\nto be something else, but in order to keep body and soul together while\npreparing for something else, he took it out on the boys and girls. Now, it\nhas become as it ought to become — a regular profession. It has not ceased\nto be a self-sacrificing profession. That and the clergy are the two professions which cultivate as a necessity the spirit of self-restraint. It is\nbetter for us in the long run; we are better people because we have not\nhad larger salaries. We understand the value of the dollar and we know\nthe advantage we have in getting it when we get it. I am glad to note\nthat some of the gentlemen with large fortunes realize that they will make\nthe teaching profession, which is so important in the development of the\ncommunity, better by making provision for its old age. They will make\nits members better teachers, by makmg it possible for teachers not to have\nto worry their lives out with what is going to happen to those who are dear\nto them when the breadwinner loses his faculty for teaching, or when he\ndies. I believe that there is no other profession in which a retired list with\na suflBlcient sum to live on is so needed as the teaching profession. Now,\nI have said I am a novitiate in the profession. I am, but I have had some\nexperience. I was one of those responsible for the establishment of education inthe Philippines, a problem which presented difficulties that were\nquite new, certainly to anybody having to do with government in America.\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinnati\n\nThe question concerned what we should teach them in the way of a language. Should we teach them Spanish ? Only 7 per cent of them spoke\nSpanish. Should we teach them their native dialects? They were not,\nany of them, worthy to be taught to a people aspiring to modem civilization and wishing to keep up modem institutions, and especially the institution of freedom. As the responsibilities were ours, as English was the\nbusiness language of the Orient, and as the taos, so-called (those attached\nto the soil), were anxious that we should teach the English, we did so. Our\nadvantage in doing so was that we could then appeal to our home country,\nand to the profession of teachers in our home country, to help us out, and\nso we sent for one thousand American teachers. I say one thousand; I\nthink now the number is reduced to about six hundred or, perhaps, seven\nhundred. When you get teachers, male and female, out into that fardistant land, it is a little difficult to prevent making two into one! Those\nteachers went to work and taught in the primary schools and then in the\nnormal schools, and today, as a result of twelve to fourteen years of teaching, there are now in service seven thousand to eight thousand Filipino\nteachers who are teaching English and the other branches of an ordinary\nuseful education in the primary and secondary schools, and some four\nhundred thousand pupils are in attendance upon the schools. That is not\nnear the school population of the Islands, but you have to cut your suit\nto the amount of cloth you have. We did not have the money to enlarge\nthe schools in such a way as to teach the whole school population. Their\ninterest in education, and desire for it, is the best evidence that those people\nare capable of being made into self-governing people. This will not be at\nonce. It will take one and probably two generations in order to do it.\nWe are now, under the present administration, experimenting on a different\ntheory. We shall greatly regret this experiment. It will certainly cost\nus dearly. In the end, the lesson that will be taught may prove valuable.\nI speak of that with very great confidence, because four years' experience\nin the Islands, and eight years' further responsibility for that government,\nenable me to know something about that problem and a great deal more\nthan those who know it all in advance without investigation. I would like\nto talk about that subject more, but you haven't time and I haven't.\nI am a trustee of the Jeanes Trust Fund. A dear little old lady, a\nHicksite Quaker, one of four in a family, no one of whom married, finally\nfound all of a large fortune in her hands as the survivor, and under the i\ninfluence of Hollis B. Frissell, of Hampton, and Booker T. Washington, of \\\nTuskegee, she left $1,200,000, the income of which is to be expended in\nhelping along in the best way practicable the rural colored schools of the\nSouth. Under the most efficient executive management of James H. Dillard,\nthen of Tulane University, and now the agent of both the Slater Fund and\nthe Jeanes Fund, we are helping along in an effective way, I hope, the\ncolored rural schools of the South — and they need it. This has developed\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nSTANDARD\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n375\n\ntwo things. One is that it is not only the colored rural schools of the South\nthat need aid, but the white rural schools of the South as well. The other\nis the importance of proper superintendence in making a system effective\nand workable. The county superintendents are just as important in a\nschool system as the non-conmiissioned officers are in an army. They are\nthe ones that make the army and give it its discipline. The higher officers,\nof course, are those that lead, but the non-commissioned officers are the\nmen whose experience and personal influence in the ranks and whose spirit\ngive the esprit de corps to the army. That is the case with the county superintendents thruout the South, and, I have no doubt, in every school system.\nFor this reason I am glad to be here to talk to the men upon whose activity,\nearnestness, and skill the whole system of school education depends. It is\nthe superintendents who must keep the teachers up, who must select the\nproper curriculum, and who must make the army go.\nNow, there is some laxity in the present generation. I am not a pessimist, nor am I a reactionary, altho I have been called that often. Sometimes\nI am glad to be a reactionary, because one of the healthiest things that can\ncome, after we have been on a drunk, even in excesses in reform, is the\nreaction. Education that does not help to form character misses its chief\nobject for citizenship, and I have a theory that you need a broad foundation\nof thoro primary education for everyone, whether he is going to be a farmer,\na lawyer, a mechanic, or a minister. Now, I beg of you — well, I don't beg\nof you, because you know more and have more to do about it than I— ^but\nI want to suggest that you may overdo this dividing up your education clear\ndown to the bottom. You may overdo this business of vocational education unless you have a foundation. One of the most humiliating things\nto me is to get a letter from a university student in which he misspells two\nor three words. That is only an indication that he was not thoroly trained\nin the primary schools, and that while his head was in the clouds, his feet\nwere not on the ground. Among the youths in the common schools, in the\nprivate schools, in the secondary schools, and in the colleges, as every one\nof you knows (you may not admit it, but you know it), you find a lack of\nrespect for authority, a lack of self-discipline, a lack of courtesy and politeness. What does a lack of courtesy and politeness mean ? Why, it means\nthat the boy or girl has not been taught the democratic principle of respecting the rights of others. When a pupil is abrupt and rough, and does not\ngive to the teacher the respect the teacher ought to have, he simply has\nfailed to learn the proper principles of democratic citizenship. A man who\nis always dwelling on what somebody ought to render him and not on what\nhe owes somebody else is started wrong. Discipline is what we need in this\ngeneration. It is in that we are lacking. Where does the lack come from ?\nDoubtless, some of it comes from the schools, but the chief cause is a great\ndeal farther back than that — it is in the family. In these luxurious days,\nthe parents delegate to somebody else the discipline of the family and do\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nnot have the desire to see, I mean the strength of character to see, that the\nboys and girls have the proper respect, first, for their parents; second, for\nthe opportunities they have in going to school, and for the necessity for\nimproving them; and, third, they do not have the self-restraint that they\nshould show in their bearing to the entire world. They get the impression\nthat they are \" the whole thing\" and that the world circulates around them.\nThat is due to the lack of discipline at home.\nI have a brother who is in your craft, and I may say, modestly, in mine.\nHe is the head master of a school and he meets with head masters. At one\nof the head masters' meetings, one of them got up to illustrate the diflSculties\nhe was laboring under, and read a letter that he had from a mother:\nDear So and So:\nHere is our Willie. Willie is a noble boy. He has been a little lax in his studies.\nHe is impetuous and sometimes breaks rules, but he is a noble boy. Do not be severe\nwith him. Do not punish him. We have never been severe with him or punished him\nat home except in self-defense.\n\nNow, I suppose you are tired of the word \"efficiency.\" (I have not\ngot to my idea yet.) You are tired, as I am too, of the word \"efficiency,\"\nand yet you can hardly find its exact equivalent. You can make it \" effectivenes \" ifyou want to, but the word \"efficiency\" will come around and\ncome back again. \"Thoroness\" is another word, and that is what I would\nlike to suggest the means of promoting this morning. The American people\nare sound in their views of the fundamental importance of education as\nessential to the safety and success of popular government. It is with them,\nand always has been, a sacred cause. Taxes are paid ungrudgingly, therefore, by the taxpaying public, when it is necessary for the promotion of\neducation. Now what is the result of that willingness, that fervor, which\nis produced in the cause of education ? It is that the people are lax in their\nscrutiny of the character of the product of the system and in the amount of\nits cost. As a consequence, it is too often the case that the school authorities\ntake advantage of that particular characteristic of the field in which they\nare operating and that the systems, in many instances, are not as thoro, are\nnot bringing forth as good products as they might, if less attention were\npaid to publicity and attractive curricula and eloquent and soul-inspiring\nannual reports than to seeing that the curricula are practical rather than\nattractive, that the superintendence is close, that the discipline in the\nschool is thoro, and that the work of the teachers is earnest and loyal to\nthe cause.\nThe people who pay the taxes have not the means of learning whether\na particular school system in a city or a community or a state is really\neffective or not. They cannot judge as to whether their children are learning what they ought to learn. They don't know enough, as a general rule.\nSome think they do, and generally those who think they do are nuisances\nin the system anyhow because they have not real, sound knowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nSTANDARD\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n377\n\nThere ought to be some means of enabling the people of a community to\nknow whether they are really getting their money's worth, whether they\nare getting the real cloth, or whether they are getting the fustian and the\nshoddy, and that is what I want to suggest to you this morning.\nThis is Washington's Birthday week. He recommended to the American people that they establish a national university at Washington. They\nhave attempted to do so from time to time, but the attempt has always\nfailed. The plan has never been carried out. It is the one recommendation of Washington — well, there were two; the other of them was that we\nshould not have any parties, these are the only instances in the forecast of\nthat remarkable man in which he made an error. We have had parties\nand have been the better for it, because you cannot run a popular government without parties. Of course, you can be ideal, and suppose that everybody isgoing to agree with everybody else, that all the good people are going\nto unite and all bad people are going to be subdued, but it never works that\nway. You cannot have a popular government that really will interpret\nan affirmative policy of the people into action unless you have parties.\nPeople are constituted differently. Some are willing to sacrifice minor or\nless important principles to accomplish one that they deem most important.\nOthers are so constituted that they look at everything from the standpoint\nof perfectionists and must have everything right or else they \"won't play.\"\nNow, this latter class of people is most useful in a community. They make\nup what used to be called the Mugwumps. They control elections by going\nfrom one party to the other as they disagree or condemn the party in power.\nThat is most useful and they play a useful part, but it is a self-sacrificing\npart if they have any political ambition.\nWashington's other suggestion was that of a national university. His\nidea doubtless was that it should be a teaching university, a university\nimder national auspices, like that which he then knew at Harvard, Yale,\nPrinceton, Pennsylvania, and Columbia. But there are other than teaching\nuniversities. London University is not a teaching university. It has a\ngreat faculty and is organized for the purpose of testing those who have\nstudied in various courses and desire a certificate. Why should we not\nhave at Washington an examining university which shall have a large\nfaculty of experts, who will go out at the request of the authorities of any\ncommunity, examine the school system, and report to the people who are\npaying the money for it what kind of a school system it is ? In that way,\nby comparison, you will introduce a standard in the school systems thruout\nthe country. The same university can establish examinations in fixed\ncourses to give the men who have gone thru these school systems an opportunity, ithey\nf\nchoose, to get a certificate by passing the examination.\nNow, we have a Bureau of Education. We could easily enlarge that\nbureau and make it a national university. In that way, we would add\ngreatly to the utility of that Bureau.\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcmnati\n\nA great many people have thought we were at a disadvantage in this\ncountry, because, unlike France, Germany, and the other European\ncountries, where they have such thoro systems of education, we have no\ncentral power to carry on one system of education thruout the country.\nWell we haven't, but we have the means of doing something that will be\nalmost the equivalent.\nTake the Department of Agriculture, which began as a bureau. The\ngovernment has no authority to tell farmers what to do. It cannot act\ndirectly on the subject of agriculture. All it can do is to furnish information. Of course there are some bureaus in it which exercise the interstate\ncommerce power with respect to pure food, and with respect to the examination ofmeats, but generally, it is a bureau of advice, it is a bureau of\nresearch, and whatever comes from it is voluntary in the sense that it is\nforced on no one, and is accepted by the public because of the advantage\nthat comes to it by acceptance. In the same way you can introduce a\nvoluntary system enlarging your Bureau of Education into a national\nuniversity. You can carry out Washington's idea in a practical way.\nJust as soon as it becomes known in the country that there is an impartial,\nwisely severe, and thoro method of testing the character of public-school\neducation in any conmiunity or in any state, it will become compulsory,\nbecause the people who pay the taxes will demand the evidence that may be\nhad thru such a university that they are getting their money's worth for\nthe taxes they pay.\nIt is said that it is not possible to do this because of the politics at\nWashington. Well, I agree, this is a difficulty. A long time ago I lived\nin Washington, and I had just a remote connection with politics. It grew\nvery remote after a while. I believe that, if you clothe your Bureau of\nEducation with the character of a university, while at first it may not work\nas smoothly and may not work impartially, ultimately it will grow into\na scientific bureau, a scientific test, and all the efforts of congressmen,\npulling and hauling, will not change the thoroness and the impartiality\nof the examination. The very remoteness of Washington from the place\nof examination will help along that blindness to persons and political\ninfluence that there ought to be in conducting such an examination.\nWhen you carry out this plan, it will stimulate everyone connected with\nthe school systems to see to it, not that they are satisfying the general\npublic with their own impressions of what they are doing, but that they are\nsatisfying the general public by the work, the character of which is proven\nby the testimony of impartial experts who know.\nI suppose everyone who hears me has been an after-dinner speaker.\nOurs is a talking profession. This country is banquet-mad, and, of course,\nunless you are different from most after-dinner speakers, you occasionally\nmake a speech and forget your point. I think it was James Russell Lowell\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n379\n\nwho said that if he could only make, at the dinner, the after-dinner speech\nhe made going home in the carriage, he would be a wonder.\nI want to add one statement. When United States Commissioner of\nEducation Claxton here, who follows me, was appointed (and I claim the\nhonor of appointing him), I went to the gentlemen who handled the money\nin Congress and asked that they enlarge the appropriations in order to begin,\nin a small way, these expert examinations. But even in those days, there\nwere other things that caUed for expenditure besides those things that could\nnot get into the headlines. So my plan did not work, but ultimately it is\ncoming. When you get a reformer who is far away from results, he tells\nyou that ultimately it is coming, and I am like the rest.\n\nTHE INVESTIGATION\nI.\n\nOF THE EFFICIENCY\nSCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nOF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nInvestigations of the efficiency of schools by persons not members of\nthe teaching and supervisory force of the city surveyed are by no means\nnew. Up to about 1840, periodical inspection of schools by laymen was the\nusual means employed by communities to make sure that schools rendered\nthe service expected of them. The expert had not been developed, or at\nany rate had not been recognized, nor had any need been found for his\nservices. In the early days here, as in ancient Greece and Rome, the\nordinary citizen was thought competent to perform any public service\nwhatever, without previous training or experience.\nJust now school surveys occupy so large a place in the public mind and\non educational programs that one might assume that they represent something new in education, whereas they are really of ancient date. The new\nfeature is the reliance placed upon the trained worker.\nIn President D wight's Travels in New England, published about 1800,\nwe read that the schools of Boston were visited once in tliree months by a\ncommittee of twenty-one gentlemen, annually chosen and invested with\nample powers. They examined the schools in the various branches which\nwere taught and advised the masters with regard to methods of instruction\nand control. The examination conducted by this commission in 1795\nincluded the thirteen hundred children then in the Boston schools. The\nevent was one of considerable importance. There were present on this\noccasion, besides the committee, the lieutenant-governor, councilors, and\nsenators belonging to the county, representatives, clergy, and justices of\nBoston, and the sheriff of the county, together with several other gentlemen of distinction. President Dwight does not comment at length upon the\nfindings of the commission, but he pronounces the schools excellent and\ncommends the goiDd sense with which the work of inspection was carried on.\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "380\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe comments of some of the school committees of the early days gave\nevidence of a grasp of educational principles that must have disturbed the\npeace of the less efficient teachers. Here are some samples from the report\npublished in 1840 by the school committee of Springfield, Mass. :\nThere are prominent faults in the way in which spelling, English, grammar, arithmetic, and geography are taught in many of our schools.\nSpelling. — Discharging at a class whole colimms of words, with the meaning of which\nthey are as familiar as they would be with so many terms selected from the Hebrew or\nSanskrit, is certainly not a very fascinating mode of teaching pupils the orthography of\nour language. For an exercise in spelling, let the words be selected from some paragraph\nthat has been read; let their meaning also be vmderstood; and then let them be written\nout by each scholar in the class. This will afford exercise for the mind. Not only will\nthe ear be employed, but the eye; to which latter sense spelling is really addressed.\nInstead of one, two of the organs of sense will be engaged, of which that of sight is always\nmore conducive to distinct and lasting impressions on the mind.\nArithmetic and grammar. — ^Taxing their memories with the rules of grammar and\narithmetic, whilst they know nothing of their true import or application, is condemned.\nReading. — ^The most superficial inspection of our schools is sufficient to disclose\nin this particular, not only a multitude of faults, but a whole system of fundamental\nerror. Indeed, it may be doubted whether its intrinsic importance has been in any due\ndegree felt by the mass of those to whom the management of these schools has been submitted. Had it been, our schools in this particular would be already undergoing a radical\nreform, and the equanimity of the committee or visitors would no longer be disturbed\nby the senseless jingle of sentences as a substitute for reading.\n\nIt is not surprising to learn that during the year covered by this report\na superintendent of schools was appointed, nor that two years later Horace\nMann was able to say to the Springfield school committee: \"I am sure\nthat your schools have made more progress within the last eighteen months\nthan during the three previous years.\"\nThe first claim to be made for the surveys of the older type is that they\nled to the realization of the inadequacy of lay commissions for the educational management of schools, and paved the way for the appointment of\nthe educational specialist, the expert supervisor. By the middle of the\ncentury, laymen everywhere had given up the direct supervision of the\nschools and were represented in professional matters by the superintendent.\nThis change had its drawbacks. Direct responsibility having been removed,\nthe public gave less attention to the schools, which in the early days had\nbeen its most vital concern. Writing in 1892, after visiting schools in many\ncities, J. M. Rice was constrained to say of the public at large: \"In the\ngreat majority of instances the people take absolutely no active interest\nin their schools,\" meaning an intelligent interest sufficiently deep to lead\nthem to follow closely the action of the board of education and the superintendent and teachers. The natural result sometimes was lack of sympathy and misunderstandings, leading occasionally to upheavals and\nthreatened changes of policy. This was true of Cleveland as early as 1848,\nand a survey was undertaken by representative laymen. A few recent\nsurveys have had their origin in situations of this kind.\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n381\n\nThe frankness with which defects were set forth in school reports before\nthe day of the superintendent is in strong contrast to the self-satisfaction\nwhich characterized many reports of a later day, if again we may refer to\nDr. Rice. He stated that experience had taught him to place no reliance\nwhatever on reports published by school officers, such reports being apparently no more than political documents and consequently as a rule entirely\nmisleading. This was in 1892. Twenty-three years have passed since\nthen and many changes have occurred. Not the least of these changes is\na new attitude of reporting officers. Each year for three years past, I have\nhad occasion to examine reports from about 250 school systems, and I am\nconvinced that the charge of unreliability and deception made against them\nin 1892 could not be substantiated today. As a rule, the reports set forth\ndefects as well as excellences, and their statement of merits is temperate\nand restrained. The critically judicial attitude now manifested by the\nmajority of reporting officers which has replaced the attitude of selfcomplacency so conspicuous in school reports of a former decade is one of the\nmost noticeable features of school reports of recent years; and in my\nopinion this changed attitude is in no small degree to be attributed to the\nwide attention which the surveys of the past few years have had, especially\nthe later ones. The survey reports supplement the lecture and the textbook in normal schools and colleges. They have been discussed in meetings\nof grade teachers thruout the country, and the standards of judgment which\nwere applied in the particular system surveyed have been tested by thousands of teachers elsewhere in their own schoolrooms.\nMore than twenty surveys have been made since the survey movement\nbegan about five years ago. As many are now planned or actually in progress as were made in all these years. I have taken pains to learn whether\nin ten typical cases the survey results have met expectations. I think it\nsafe to say that, except in one case, where matters had reached a crisis\nbefore the report of the Survey Commission was made, results have on the\nwhole justified the enterprise; and even in this one case, the stead)dng\neffect of the report of the Survey Commission was, as many believe, important. While it had no apparent effect as to persons, they think it safeguarded certain progressive policies that were threatened. In this\ninstance, those responsible for originating the survey were not in power at\nits completion. As a rule, however, those who were responsible for having\na survey made have also been responsible for the use made of its findings\nand recommendations. Under such circumstances only can adequate\nresults be expected.\nThe greatest value claimed for one of these ten surveys is said to lie in\nthe fact that it showed the people what excellent schools they had, rather\nthan proving, as some hoped it would, the opposite state of affairs.\nIn several instances, it is noted that changes suggested in the recommendations would have been made anyway; but that the survey helped\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nmaterially by securing ready aquiescence in changes supported by wellknown educational authorities.\nI find greater confidence expressed in surveys made by a commission\nthan in the two or three made by a single individual. This expression with\nregard to a one-man survey is typical:\nThe same objection that is made to this survey could be made to any one-man survey. That is to say, after it is all done, the opinion of another educator is equally valid.\n\nIn this instance, the question of the financial support of the schools\nwas not an issue. It is perhaps in matters pedagogic that the one-man\nsurvey is most open to objection. So far as opinion enters into survey\nfindings, it is evident that greater weight will be attached to a report made\nby a commission of several trained men, each one investigating a department and all concurring in the general report.\nIn the later surveys, mere opinion is a smaller factor than in the earlier\nones. The later surveys had the advantage of the fruitful labors of many\ninvestigators who had developed tentative units of measurement and to the\nextent that investigators utilized these units and were able to make exact\ncomparisons by appeal to definite standards, they secured greater respect\nfor their findings than their professional standing alone would have commanded.\nThe most conspicuous immediate result of surveys, and one which seems\nto have been attained in nine of the ten about which I have made inquiry,\nis the very decided help given in securing adequate appropriations for the\nsupport of the schools. In some instances this has been true chiefly in the\nmatter of school accommodations. One community was actually shamed\ninto liberal provision for school buildings. Others have appropriated more\nmoney for teachers' salaries and supervision as a direct result of public\ninterest in the survey. From a city far below the one hundred thousand\nclass in population comes this testimony:\nMany things that we were looking for and imable to obtain we were able to secure\nby the interest created by the report. It has helped us to seciire more adequate appropriations, both for the general expenses of the schools, and for new buildings. Nearly\none and a quarter million dollars have been made available for new buildings since the\nreport. Practically all of the recommendations have been carried into effect.\n\nThe spirit of co-operation in which surveys were carried out is frequently mentioned. The following statement will serve as a sample:\nThe surveyors undertook the work with the idea of being of assistance, of pointing\nout things that were good, and of calling attention in a spirit of co-operation to the\nthings that needed remedying. The idea was to build up and not to tear down.\n\nIn most cases, it appears that the recommendations served as topics\nfor discussion in public meetings, at some of which the members of the\nSurvey Commission were present to support their views.\nGreat progress has been made in this movement, as can be readily seen\nby those who compare the earlier surveys with the later ones. The later\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n383\n\nones are not only more convincing to the local community, because of\ntheir increasingly scientific procedure, but they are also more useful as\ncontributions in the wider field of school administration and supervision.\nThe last two to appear will serve to illustrate these points. Several editions\nof the report of the Springfield, 111., survey have had to be printed to meet\nthe wide demand for the document for purposes of study. I understand\nthat more than five thousand copies have already been called for in addition\nto the number needed for home consumption.\nThe report of the survey of the Butte, Mont., school system is likewise\nthe best sort of a textbook on school administration. Here we have theory\nexpounded in direct relation to vital problems. No recommendation is\nmade except on the basis of concrete illustration of need drawn from the\nlocal field. That it was convincing locally is shown by its inmiediate\neffects.\nThe school board took action on two recommendations before the\nSurvey Commission had left the city. They voted the organization of a\nfour weeks' summer school for the teachers, and they ordered a radical\nchange in the plans of a building drawn in atrocious disregard of the recognized standards of school lighting, which the commission advocated.\nThey did this even tho it involved the dismissal of an architect who was\ntoo stubborn to make the change required by the board. The Trades and\nLabor Council of the city voted in support of a two years' preliminary\ntraining for teachers, as a prerequisite to appointment, thus reversing a\nformer action of their body. Since this, the school board has put in two\nschool nurses, and adopted the salary schedule for teachers recommended\nby the Survey Conunission, a schedule which involves increased professional\ntraining as a basis for reaching the maximum. The intermediate school\nis assured, as are classes for backward and defective children.\nIn no instance where surveys have been undertaken under conditions\ncorresponding to those deemed essential by your Council Comjnittee on\nStandards and Tests of Efficiency have they failed to be highly influential. Not only have surveys served the local conmiunity, but they have\nalso served a wider constituency.\nThe survey by outside experts has suggested the desirability of periodical surveys within the school system itself, and, for every outside survey\nthus far made, from six to ten inside surveys, partial or complete, have been\ncarried out, and many more are planned. Then, too, in many cities,\nbureaus of research are being established thru which surveys may be conducted within the system and progress be definitely determined by means\nof valid standards. Surely one of the aims adopted in the Detroit bureau\nmust be of interest everywhere. Methods are to be found which will\ndevelop optimum degrees of the mechanical skills with the least expenditure\nof time and effort. Not the increase of mechanical drill work is desired,\nbut its reduction to a safe minimum.\nThe Boston bureau has undertaken\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nsimilar work. If thru the researches of these and other bureaus we learn\nhow to economize time in mastering the tools of education, we shall be able\nto use it for work of great value. It may yet be possible to retain the best\nfeatures of our enriched curriculimi by utilizing time saved from needless\nand fruitless drill. We need not fear that standardizing the work in the\nthree R's, the tools of education, will affect adversely school work as a\nwhole. On the contrary, it should set free a vast amount of energy that\nis now being misdirected which may be applied to really educative work.\nThe outside survey has its limitations; it discloses only present conditions. Under certain circumstances, this service is valuable to the commimity in which the survey takes place, but it has a wider value, as has\nalready been suggested, in contributing to common knowledge of methods\nof procedure, in helping to perfect measuring units or standards already\nworked out, and in adding perhaps to the list of units of measurement\navailable. Workers in any school system now find at hand well-attested\nmeans of determining the efficiency of their work in at least a few lines and\nthe reports of the current year furnish evidence that they are availing themselves of those means. Even if we regard the net result of the survey\nmovement only as a contribution likely to lead finally to more intelligent\nways of conducting examinations in our own schools, we must assign to it\na high value.\nA decade ago the self-complacency of the average school man stirred\nthe unsympathetic among lay spokesmen to make sweeping statements\ncondemnatory of public-school procedure in general. Then it became the\nfashion upon many an educational platform for the school man, especially\nwhen far from home, to outdo the layman in criticism of public-school work.\nBoth lajonan and school man, however, dealt in generalities and one was as\nlittle helpful as the other. A more self-respecting attitude now characterizes the utterance of the average school man. He feels obliged neither to\ndeclare his work perfect nor to allow it to be underrated. He has means\nof comparison at his disposal by which he is able to show definitely in what\nrespects his schools are good and in what lacking. In other words, the\nprogress made in his field thru research and survey is enabling him to\nassume a scientific attitude toward his work.\n\nn.\n\nLEONARD\n\np. AYRES; DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF EDUCATION,\nFOUNDATION,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nRUSSELL\n\nSAGE^\n\nFour years ago, two university professors injected a new word into 01\neducational vocabulary and introduced a new method into our educatioi\nprocedure. In that year Professors Hanus of Harvard and Moore of Yale\nconducted studies of the school systems of Montclair and East Orange\nNew Jersey and each used the word \"survey\" to designate a section of his\nreport.\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n385\n\nThese earliest of school surveys differed from former reports on school\nsystems in their fundamental philosophy. Their object was to tell the\npeople in simple terms all the salient facts about their public schools, and to\nrely on the common-sense, the common insight, and the common purpose of\nthe people as the first great resource in working out their problem. The\npurpose of the survey was to educate the public.\nThe two men who conducted these surveys were pioneers, but not\ninventors. They did not originate either the new term or the new method.\nThey borrowed them both from the social survey movement which was at\nthat time three years old. This movement had its inception in 1907\nin the social survey of Pittsburgh, which borrowed its name from the land\nsurvey.\nIn the years that have elapsed since these early beginnings, the survey\nmovement has grown with great rapidity, but the social survey has multiplied far faster than the school survey. The Sociological Library of New\nYork City is now compiling a bibliography of the survey reports that have\nappeared in print, and it has shown that while the American social surveys\nnow number more than three hundred, the educational ones are only thirty.\nThe truth is that the school survey is the direct descendant of the social\nsurvey, that the two are contemporaries, and that the parent movement is\ntwice as old and ten times as big as the offspring.\nNow surveys of this new sort are always expensive of both time and\nmoney, for when rightly conducted they are dependent on truth and\nsimplicity, which are costly. On those that have been carried thru in the\npast few years, sums of money mounting high into the hundreds of thousands\nhave been expended and to them thousands of men and women have devoted\nlong periods of the most laborious sort of work and study.\nThe source of the survey movement. — ^This means that these surveys are\nthe product of some widespread and powerful influence, for nothing is purchased at so great a price except in response to an insistent demand. This\ninfluence is not far to seek. It is to be found in one simple idea which has\nbeen taking root in the mind of the American people during the past decade\nand a half and which is shaping the events of the time and determining their\nultimate issue. That idea is that people are more important than property.\nEver since this idea was borne in upon the American people, they have\nbeen restlessly turning upon themselves and their institutions the merciless\neye of self-examination. They are asking what manner of people they\nreally are. They are demanding to know whether justice is being done in\nAmerica. The results of this searching self-examination are to be found in\nthe veritable flood of books and reports that have appeared in the past\nten years describing the illiterate, the immigrant, the industrious; the\nplutocrat, the prostitute, the prisoner; the teacher, the tenant, the tramp;\nand so on thru the alphabet. Every part of our life is being studied,\nwritten about, surveyed.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincmnati\n\nThis movement, of which the school survey is a part, is no silent,\nunconscious transition from one age into another. In no former period has\nthe demand for change been so deliberate, so widespread, upon so great a\nscale. Education is following where the movement for social justice has led.\nThe American nation is looking itself over from head to foot, critically\nquestioning its very elements, challenging its oldest institutions as well as its\nnewest, studying its every arrangement, analyzing its philosophy, and it\nstands ready to attempt as many and as radical reconstructions as may be\nnecessary to attain its ends. As a nation we are seeking, and are determined to find, not a place in the sun, but a more equal distribution of sunshine in the lives of all the people.\nThe school survey is a fraction of a fraction of this deliberate selfexamination of the full-grown nation. It is here because the people want\nto know the facts about their schools and the school survey is the most\nefficient means yet discovered for finding them out and making them\nknown.\nThere are certain definite characteristics which set the school survey\napart as a distinctive implement of education and of democracy. These\ncharacteristics are in large part inherent in its very name, which it indirectiy\ntakes from the land survey.\nAlways a local study. — The school survey, like the land survey, is always\na local study. It is concerned with conditions within a given area. It can\nnever be thought out at a far-away desk. It is not a general treatise on\neducation. It recognizes that each commimity has its own distinctive problems which must be solved by itself and are not susceptible of absent\ntreatment. That is why the school survey can never be thoroly standardized. That is why we can never have what many people are insistently\ndemanding — a standard set of forms and schedules, by which to gather\nfor any or all cities figvures and answers which, when tabulated, will constitute school surveys.\nSurveyors must he competent. — Another cardinal characteristic common\nto the land survey and the school survey is that the surveyors must always\nbe competent. In the former field, this has been guaranteed by legal\nenactment since the days of the ancient Egyptians. In making school\nsurveys, it has frequently been forgotten. It is a fimdamental fact that in\nneither field can trustworthy results be obtained thru ready-made methods\nor untrained common-sense. That is why it is generally true that school\nsurveys cannot be conducted by mothers' clubs, newspapers, chambers of\ncommerce, citizens' committees, or local bureaus of mimicipal research.\nSurveys must he impartial. — ^A third common characteristic of the land\nsurvey and the school survey is that they are both imworthy of the name\nif they are partisan or prejudiced. To accuse or defend, exaggerate or\nminimize, is as fatal in the one case as in the other. Surveys must never\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n387\n\nbe like those verbs in Latin that take the dative. They must never have as\ntheir purpose to \"please or displease; command, obey; serve, resist;\nbenefit, injure; believe, threaten, persuade, and the like.\"\nThis is why the survey is not an investigation. By common usage the\nterm \"investigation\" suggests the indictment of individuals or institutions.\nIt stresses failure and non-performance. It looks backward. An investigation implies the existence of conditions known to the insider but unknown\nto the outsider, which are to be ferreted out and subjected to pitiless publicity. Whenever the land surveyor or the school surveyor conducts his\nstudy for the purpose of proving a preconceived case, the product is not a\nsurvey nor does it contribute to progress.\nSurveys must be co-operative. — On the social side, the school survey\nhas two sets of characteristics which it owes to the fact that it is a social\ninstrument and not to the fact that it is a surveying instrument. The first\nof these is that a school survey must always be co-operative. It cannot be\nsuccessfully imposed from without. If the teachers and oflScers of a school\nsystem do not want a survey, they will not have one; at least they will not\nhave a real one. They may have an investigation, an inquiry, an examination, and a report, but they will not have a real school survey.\nIn the light and in the open. — ^The second social essential of the school\nsurvey is its public character. A survey report can never be a confidential\nreport. It is often possible to work out far-reaching reforms in a school\nsystem by getting a group of strong men and women together around a\ntable and convincing them that a certain course is the right one to take.\nThis is a legitimate and often a valuable method of reform, but it is not the\nmethod of the survey.\nThe school survey is a new and distinctive implement of progress.\nIt has come into being for the purpose of educating the public about their\nschools and its distinctive function should be preserved. It is a part of\nour national self-examination. It is the product of civic intelligence and\ncommunity progress. Its object is to make the entire school system pass\nin review before the public eye. It makes the schools and the public pay\nattention to each other. It presents the past, the present, and the possible.\nIt is a community stock-taking, inventory, and appraisal of its educational\nassets and opportunities. It aims to place before the citizens a picture\nof their schools; a picture so accurate that it cannot mislead, so simple\nthat it cannot be misunderstood, and so significant that it cannot be disregarded. Itdoes not always succeed in its aim but it cannot even take\naim in secret or in the dark.\nMovement spreading rapidly. — What the future of the school survey may\nbe no man knows, but two indications are significant. The first is the probability that we shall have a great many of them in the near future. In the\npast four years two states, ten counties, and eighteen cities conducted\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nthem. At the present time there are under way or definitely projected\nmore school surveys than all those combined that have so far been completed. That the movement is rapidly spreading is certain.\n/\nSurveys are improving in quality. — ^The other significant indication is'\nthat they are steadily improving in quality. It is almost literally true\nthat every survey report that has been published has in one or more conspicuous respects been superior to all its predecessors. This results from\nthe fact that we began to make surveys without knowing how and we have\nbeen learning as we went along. It is well for us to remember that while we\nare making these inventories the methods of making them are themselves\nin the making.\nWhat the ultimate results of the surveys will be we do not know, for\nsufficient time has not as yet elapsed for us to judge. We have at hand,\nhowever, dependable figures showing the results of one piece of educational\nmeasuring which has become a part of the survey movement altho it was\nnot started by it.\nProgress thru measurement in education. — ^Just ten years ago the distinguished superintendent of schools of New York called attention to the\nfact that 39 per cent of the children in the schools of that city were above\nthe normal ages for their grades. This aroused widespread investigation\nwhich showed that similar conditions obtained in other cities thruout the\ncountry. Soon studies of this phase of educational efficiency showed that\nthe same conditions which resulted in our schools being crowded with\nretarded children also prevented a large proportion of these children from\never completing the elementary grades.\nAbout seven years ago this became one of the most widely studied problems of educational administration, and in the past four years it has been\none of the prominent parts of the school surveys. During the entire period,\nhimdreds of superintendents thruout the country have been readjusting\ntheir schools to better the conditions disclosed. In these seven years,\nthe number of children graduating each year from the elementary schools\nof America has doubled. The number now is three-quarters of a million\ngreater annually than it was then. The only great organized industry\nin America that has increased the output of its finished product as rapidly\nas the public schools during the past seven years is the automobile industry.\nIt is probable that no other one thing so fundamentally important to the\nfuture of America as this accomplishment of our public schools has taken\nplace in recent years. There is every evidence that this is the direct result\nof applying measurements to education. If the school survey movement\nnow imder way can produce other results at all comparable with this one, i\nwe need have no fear for the outcome.\nIt is greatly to be hoped that the term \"survey\" will not change its\nmeaning as the years go by. It has always meant a looking-over, and it is\nto be hoped that in its new educational application it will continue to mean\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n389\n\nthe kind of looking-over of everything that does not overlook anything. Its\nfuture is secure if it can permanently stand for an impartial study of the\nschools of a community, competently conducted for the enlightenment of the\npublic, and the welfare of the children.\n\nin.\n\nCALVIN\n\nN. KENDALL,\n\nSTATE COMMISSIONER\nTRENTON, N.J.\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nWhat shall be our attitude toward school surveys? Shall we search\nfor the potential good in them, examine what they have accomplished, use\nthe lessons of experience, try to eliminate their weaknesses, acknowledge\ntheir limitations, and endeavor to develop a proper method of conducting\nthem? Are they productive of such positive results as to justify their\nencouragement ? That they have not justified in some cases the expectations oftheir advocates may be admitted. That they are regarded in some\nquarters with suspicion may also be admitted.\nThere is in the conduct of a survey an ethical or professional relation\nto the superintendent of schools. The work of the surveyor must not make\nthe office of the superintendent of schools more hazardous than it is. A\nsurvey should not put a club into the hands of the enemies which every\nsuperintendent doing his duty must make. The school survey from a professional point of view should therefore recognize the relation of the makers\nof the survey to the head of the school system.\nIt may be unfortunate to conduct a survey in a system where there is a\ntense situation in which the superintendent of schools, members of the board\nof education, and teachers are involved. At a time of acrimonious agitation, itmay be better for surveyors to keep out. Whatever report they\nmake is liable to be received with suspicion or antagonism, which neutralizes\nwhatever good effect it otherwise might have. It is difficult for the examiners not to appear to be partisans of one faction or the other. If they\nattempt to compromise between the two, the survey may be colorless and\nwithout point.\nWhat have these surveys accomplished?\nI. They have resulted in making an inventory of the conditions which\naffect the efficiency of a system of schools.\nThey have called attention to the necessity of analyzing or cataloging\nthe activities involved in a system of schools, including courses of study,\norganization, administration, methods of teaching, general conditions\nunder which teachers do their work, and the various subdivisions of\nthese.\nThe influence of surveys has by no means been confined to the cities\nor states in which they have been conducted. It is not far from the truth\nto say that cases are not unknown where their influence has been greater\noutside the municipality concerned than in the municipality itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cindimati\n\nIn consequence, they have brought about a keener analysis of our own\nactivities. An increasing number of superintendents are investigating\ntheir own systems. In consequence, more superintendents are able to\njustify the increased cost of schools and answer questions concerning\nfinances. In consequence, superintendents know more definitely what;\nis involved in making a system eflScient. In consequence, there is less mere\npersonal opinion and there are more facts.\nSurveyors' reports are usually more comprehensive and of greater\nvalue than the ordinary city or state report. The day is past when we can\nwrite courses of study, hire teachers, provide seats, promote pupils, have\ngraduating exercises, and, having done all this, say that we have a gocd\nschool system. In a word, the number of wide-awake systems is today\ngreater because of school surveys and the talk about them.\n2. They have been a means of directing attention to certain scales for\nmeasuring the ability of pupils in arithmetic, handwriting, and English\ncomposition. Those who are devising such scales or standards of measurement deserve encouragement. This method of measurement is not perfect\nand therefore has a limited value, but it is a movement in the right direction.\n3. Surveys have resulted in several notable docimients concerning\nschools which are of very substantial aid to a superintendent, a principal,\na member of a board of education, a teacher, a layman, in answering the\nquestion: What is a good system of schools?\nFor example, I do not see how one can read the Vermont survey or the\nOhio survey and not realize, as never before, what must be worked for in\nimproving nu\"al schools; or how one can read the Portland, the Bridgeport,\nor the Butte survey and not see in a clearer way some of the needs of city\nsystems.\nThere is much about classroom instruction in these reports which is\nof very substantial value to teachers. I do not know how a teacher can\nread or study some of these reports concerning instruction and not have\nher views changed as to what is effective teaching. Among the reports of\nsurveys which have come to my attention I do not know one in which an\nopen-minded person cannot find something of value. To go further, I do\nnot see how it is possible for superintendents to read these reports carefully\nand go on with precisely the same ideals and the same methods or plans\nfor carrying out these ideals as before.\n4. The surveys reveal the complexity, extent, and ramifications of\nmodem school systems. How greatly the schools have expanded in the\npast twenty years, or even in ten years, perhaps we ourselves who are\nin the thick of it do not fully realize.\nAs a result of these surveys, it is not too much to affirm that some\ncollege graduates in the commimity, some board members, some newspaper editors, have come to realize that a superintendent of schools is a\nsocial engineer. They have in consequence an added respect for his office.\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n391\n\nThe surveys show that the work of the schools touches the community —\nits social, its industrial, its civic, its moral, and its physical life — in a way\nundreamed of when some of us began our work as administrators of schools.\n5. Surveys have been the means of bringing outside indorsements to the\nrecommendations of the superintendent and approval of his plans. Sometimes these indorsements are needed. The superintendent may have\nurged these recommendations upon his board; the board may have confidence in him; but it has felt reluctant to carry out the recommendations\nin view either of the expense involved or of the departures from traditional\neducational policy.\nSays one superintendent of schools, whose schools have been surveyed\ntwice, happily upon his own initiative:\nAs an example of how the survey has helped I can give the following experience.\nWhen we cut down the elementary-school curriculimi and substituted high-school work\nfor the eighth year, some of the parents objected. We called parent meetings in each of\nthe schools and explained the plan, and read to them from the report of the survey on\nthat point. They seemed satisfied with the explanation and occasioned no further\ntrouble. I am sure this policy would not have been as readily accepted had I been its\nonly sponsor.\n\n6. Surveys have shown in numerous instances the inadequate financial\nsupport of the schools — the moderate cost of conducting the schools as\ncompared with similar systems in the country. How effective such comparisons are we all know.\n7. They have revealed undesirable conditions of school buildings; the\ndisgraceful, indecent, and even criminal conditions of outbuildings. When\na survey shows that 46 per cent of the schoolrooms are defectively lighted;\nwhen it shows that one-fourth of the children in primary grades are sitting\nin seats too big for them; when it shows that rural teachers in a certain\nstate are compelled to teach for salaries that are below the wages of household servants in cities, and that many of these teachers are called upon to\nclean their schoolhouses before school opens, there may be some people in\nthe city or the state who will sit up and take notice.\nSurveys have pointed out the overcrowding of schoolrooms. They\nhave called attention to the intimate relation between school eflSiciency and\nthe number of children the teacher is called upon to teach; to the unfortunate practice of boards of education taking the initiative in the appointment and promotion of teachers; to the high temperature of schoolrooms;\nto the undue height of blackboards; to inadequate playgrounds; to the\nenormous waste due to irregular attendance; to the high percentage of\nretardation; to examinations as a sole basis for promotion; to the meager\nprovision for children of differing types of ability; to the lack of suitable\nindustrial training for children who are not bookish-minded; and to fire\nhazards.\nQuoting from one survey: \"Conditions in this city make possible a\nduplication of the Collingwood tragedy in Ohio.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe newspapers, discriminating parents, the superintendent of schools,\nto say nothing of the board of education, have all gone to sleep in that city\nif these hazardous conditions still exist in February, 1915. The survey in\nthat city was worth all that it cost, and a hundred times more, if by means\nof it the attention of the board of education was called for the first time to\nthe dangerous chances it was taking on the lives of the children.\n8. They have shown the imfortunate practices of boards of education in doing things which do not belong to boards of education to do, which\ntake their time, and v/hich could be better done by the superintendent or a\nbusiness manager. For example: a board requiring high-school principals\nto secure the permission of the board to invite distinguished men to speak to\nthe pupils of their schools; a board spending entire sessions in hearing\nfrom principals of schools as to the efficiency of their teachers. We can\nall imagine how much real enlightenment a board could receive under such\ncircumstances.\n9. They have shown that the superintendent's office is crippled by a\nlack of adequate help, in view of the fact that he is steadily becoming, as\nbefore pointed out, a more important officer in the community, and that the\ndemands upon his time are increasing accordingly.\n10. They have revealed very clearly and with some detail the prevalence\nof poor teaching — and that kind of poor teaching which we aU agree is poor\nteaching.\nWhat are some of the lessons to be drawn from the conduct of surve)rs\nhitherto made, which may be of value in making them more acceptable to\nschool people and more useful to the conduct of the schools ?\nThe opinion is expressed that in a system of considerable size the survey\nshould be conducted by at least three persons, and not by a single individual,\nwhoever he may be. Especially is this desirable in passing upon classroom\ninstruction or upon the quality of supervision. There is so much that is\ndebatable in these fields that it is not always wise to accept one person's\njudgment. Moreover, so much is involved here, there is a chance of so\nmuch honest difference of opinion, standards may so differ among even the\nmost capable, that I cannot believe any one person should have the final\nword in estimating the quality of instruction or supervision. I may agree\nwith his views or statements, but the next man may not agree. If the\njudgment is in general adverse, the whole body of teachers and principals\nmay attack it and its potential value may be diminished. An individual\nadverse report may be of very substantial value, but that value may be\ndenied, and naturally so.\nThe opinion is also expressed that among surveyors or investigators there\nshould be at least one person of wide and generally recognized successful\npractical experience in conventional school work. There is likely to be\nundeserved criticism of a report which is made by persons who have not\nhad what is called practical experience in dealing with school situations.\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n393\n\nIn my judgment, therefore, the survey will have greater influence if at\nleast one person with such experience is among the surveyors.\nOne survey has lacked punch or point. Its failure to direct public\nattention to a political situation which operated to impair the efl&ciency\nof that particular school system has been criticized, and justly so. A\nsurvey should reveal in no uncertain terms the almost insurmountable\ndifficulties under which that particular system or superintendent has worked.\nSurveys should clearly set forth the progress that has been made in the\nschools. The important questions is: Is the school system moving in the\nright direction ? And it is not to be forgotten that a school system cannot\nalways travel a generation in advance of public opinion and of the taxpayers who support it.\nThere appears to be some evidence that surveys have not always dwelt\nsufficiently upon the strong points of the schools. Adverse criticism is\ndesirable; it is necessary; it is to be expected. But it is not always the\nsign of the expert. To be able to set forth the excellences of schools in a\ndiscriminating way is not an indication of incapacity on the part of the\ninvestigator. The survey should not condemn everything. If it does it is\nbound to rouse the antagonism of the teaching body, the principals, and\ntheir host of friends. Some things may be left unsaid, even by experts.\nThe public should not lose faith in its schools. A school system is a tremendously complex affair. It is much more complex than the public\nrealizes and perhaps it is more complex than even some surveyors realize.\nSome of the reports are too long, too voluminous, so much so that it is\ndoubtful whether they are read.\nSome of the recent surveys are to be commended because of the pictures\nthey contain. Say what we will, pictures convey an impression that cold\nprint does not. A goodly proportion of the American public is more interested in pictures than in detailed print, and a survey should reach the\npublic.\nSome surveys have been partially ineffective because the results have\nnot been used in the school system and apparently no serious attempt has\nbeen made to use them by school officials or by boards of education.\nIt is highly questionable whether the survey should attempt to measure\nall that affects children in their school life. We all know that the surpassingly important factor in determining the efficiency of schools is the\nquality of the work of the teachers. There is much in the work of teachers\nthat does not lend itself to an unqualified judgment by any body of surveyors, whoever they may be and however expert they may be, but there is\nmuch in the work of the schools that does so lend itself. The enormous\ninfluence exerted upon children by the personality of teachers, the habits\nthat children form, the ambitions that are created — in a word, the influence of teachers upon the character of children — all this and much more\nis not capable pf being set out in courses of study or in reports of investiga-\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnati\n\ntors. Some things in schools cannot be standardized and some things\ncan. These are considerations which you and I do not ignore in judging the\nvalue of the work of teachers of our own children. Nor can they be ignored\nin judging the value of the work of a great body of teachers. I believe that\na body of surveyors should say something of this definitely in a report.\nThe expert or examiner may be in danger of giving the impression that he\nis speaking the last word concerning the relation between children and\nteachers. No examiner or expert thinks this. It should frankly be stated,\nin my opinion, that we are modest in making claims that psychology has\nyet evolved a method of testing or evaluating all of the influences that\naffect the worth of the schools to children.\nSome surveys bear evidence that they have been too hastily done; that\ntoo little time was spent in the schools; too little time in conferences with\nteachers and principals and superintendents and boards of education and\nintelligent citizens. A survey should not be hurriedly made. The interests\nat stake are too important, the results too far-reaching.\nMaking a real or acceptable survey of a system of schools is not inexpensive. The number of competent surveyors should not be too limited.\nThere is evidence that surveys have not in all cases affected the work\nof the schools to the degree that might be hoped. For a time, at the\nbeginning of the survey, newspaper interviews may be attempted with the\nsurveyors; teachers and principals are all on the qui vive as to what may\nhappen; but after the survey is accomplished and the report printed\nperhaps nothing happens, and things go on as before.\nIs it not possible to issue the report in parts, at different times during\nthe course of the survey, or at different times afterward, so that suitable\nnewspaper publicity may be given it? It is too much to expect that a\nlarge part of a volume of two himdred pages, if all given out at once, will\nfind a place in the columns of the newspapers. Adequate newspaper\npublicity is not obtained in that way.\nIt is important that in some way the results of the survey be made a\nmatter of discussion in the school board itself, in superintendents', teachers',\nand principals' meetings and conferences, in the commercial and civic\norganizations of the city, and in women's clubs. I recall that at Boise the\nsurveyor, upon the conclusion of his work, was asked to make an address\nbefore the leading commercial organization of the city. Local publicity\nfor surveys is of so much importance that it merits serious consideration.\nAgain, the survey points out certain defects or weaknesses of a professional kind of which the board of education, the superintendent, the\nprincipals, or the teachers may not be aware — too much reciting by pupils,\ntoo little studying by pupils, too much home study. One survey points\nout that there is too much talking by teachers, too many questions by the\nteacher and too few by pupils. It was shown that in seven rooms out of\nten the teacher was talking when the visitor entered the room. A survey\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n395\n\npoints out that there is too little exercise of the initiative of the pupils, too\nlittle classroom discussion, too many leading questions by teachers. One\nreport showed that the loss of 35 minutes a day because of poor teaching is\nequivalent to the loss of an entire school year. At least two surveys\ndirect attention to the use of incorrect English by teachers; another to the\nprevalence of supervision of the inspectorial or reporting kind.\nFinally, there are four pertinent questions in regard to school surveys\nor investigations:\n1. How may they be instituted, organized, and conducted so as to allay\nthe natural suspicion of many superintendents of schools in regard to the\nwhole question of surveys ?\n2. Shall these surveys be conducted by school people, by professional\npeople, or shall they be placed in the hands of outside agencies whose\nqualification for such important work is open to doubt ?\n3. Shall school people recognize the potential value of school surveys\nand adopt a constructive, even a friendly critical attitude toward them,\nor shall they be opposed ?\n4. By what means shall surveys actually influence the conduct of the\nboard of education, the administration of the schools, and the quality of\nthe teaching? How shall public sentiment be influenced to action by\nthe constructive and valuable features of these reports ?\nIV.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nH. MAXWELL,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nThere are some ways, sometimes used, in which the efl&ciency of a school\nor a school system cannot be determined. There are some ways in which\nthe efficiency of a school may be determined with an approach to accuracy\nand without the assistance and without the retardation of time-wasting,\nenergy-destroying statistical research. There may be ways in which socalled scientific surveys or investigations, when stripped of past and present\nabsurdities, will help in determining efficiency.\nIn what does the efficiency of a school consist ? We might take any of\nthe classic definitions of education and say that that school is efficient which\nsubstantially fulfils the pmposes expressed in the definition. I choose\nMilton's:\nI call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly,\nskilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war.\n\nAny school which trains its pupils, as far as a school may, to perform\njustly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private,\nof peace and war, as far as the natural endowment of each pupil will permit,\nis an efficient school.\nYou will notice that I have inserted two conditions, \"as far as a school\nmay\" and \"as far as the natural endowment of each pupil will permit.\"\nThe first condition, \"as far as a school may,\" is inserted because the school\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nis only one of many educative influences. The home, the church, the press,\nsocial intercourse of all kinds from the gutter to the church parlor, all have,\nfor weal or for woe, their educative influences. Who, for instance, has not\nseen the boy struggling against, and finally overcome by, the influence of\na lazy, dissolute father ? Who has not seen the girl follow the lead of a\nweak, flighty, slave-to-fashion mother ? And who does not know of children who have been saved by one parent in spite of the other, or by a teacher\nin spite of both ? No, the school cannot assume, and should not be charged\nwith, the entire responsibility of training men and women to perform justly,\nskilfully, and magnanimously all the oflSces, public and private, of peace\nand war. Too often the home and environment are fighting against the\nschool for nineteen out of the twenty-foiu: hours of the day.\nWhat the school may be held responsible for is the teaching, in a thoro\nmanner, as far as the school goes, of the tools and rudiments of knowledge,\nthe training of the eye to accuracy and the hand to skill, the implanting of\nideas and ideals, and, in the process, the engendering of good habits of\nthought, action, and speech. For all these acquisitions and powers are\nnecessary to render a man capable of performing justly, skilfully, and magnanimously the ofl&ces, public and private, of peace and war. When the\nschool fails, it is often because the opposing forces are too strong. When\nthe school succeeds, it is seldom entitled to all the credit; other forces in\nhome, church, press, and society have been at work.\nThe second condition of efliciency is \"as far as the natural endowment\nof each pupil will permit.\" Poverty and its effects weaken the brains and\nbodies of some. Laziness, spnmg from wealth, or the foolish indulgence\nof parents, impairs the energy of others. Heredity endows some with\nsmall, some with large, brain power. It is not possible, therefore, to train\nall children to the same pitch of eflficiency. The school cannot be held\nresponsible for teaching all children to spell equally well or to speak equally\nwell, or to write prose and poetry equally well. The thing is not possible.\nK all children can perform the school arts to the best of their ability, it is\nall anyone has a right to expect. When I read that, in one of the older\neastern cities, after shedding lakes of ink and using up imtold reams of paper\nand consuming the time of imnimibered teachers in administering and\nscoring the Courtis standard tests in addition, subtraction, multiplication,\nand division, the learned director reached the conclusion that \" 29 per cent ,\nof the pupils in the eighth grade could exchange places with a like number\nof pupils in the fourth grade, without changing, in the slightest, the arithmetical ability in the fimdamental operations of either class as a class,\" I\nam inclined to exclaim:\nMy dear sir, what did you expect ? That all the children in a grade would show\nequal ability in adding, subtracting, multipljdng, and dividing ? Any teacher of experience could have told you that they would not. You should have known it yourself. One\nflash of Horace Mann's insight would be worth a thousand miles of your statistics.\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n397\n\nFrom these two conditions — that it is extremely difficult to segregate\nthe influence of the school, the home, the church, and society, and that\nchildren vary enormously in ability, it follows that there is no absolute\ntest of teachers' work; at least, none has yet been discovered. It follows,\ntoo, that statistics that do not take account of the variations in children\nare misleading.\nIt will not do, however, to press this argument too far. It may be made\nto palliate inefficiency. For instance: There are two myths that possess\nmost people's minds about education, and, of course, teachers are not\nexempt from the delusions. One delusion is that pupils who come from\npoor homes or poor districts in a city cannot do as good school work or as\nmuch school work as pupils who come from rich homes or well-to-do districts. The other delusion is that children brought up in the coimtry have\nstronger bodies and better brains than those brought up in cities. Both\nmyths are delusions and snares. They have often been offered by teachers\nas excuses for inferior work, and they have often led to impairing the\nefficiency of both country boys and city boys.\nThe only conclusion we can reach is that efficiency is a relative term\nand that the degree of efficiency is often determined by conditions which\nit passes the art of man altogether to change or to remove.\nBut even this is not all. The argument for the statistical measurement\nof children's attainments by standards and fixed tests is only an argiunent\nfrom analogy, which is never conclusive, and, in this case, the analogy is\nactually false. One of its most noted advocates states the argument in\nthis way:\nWhere the material that is acted upon by the labor processes passes thru a number\nof progressive stages on its way from the raw material to the ultimate product, definite\nqualitative and quantitative standards must be determined for the product at each of\nthese stages.\n\nHe illustrates this principle, doubtless true enough for inanimate things,\nfrom the processes of manufacturing a steel rail. \"Education,\" he asserts,\n\"is a shaping process as much as the manufacture of steel rails; the personality isto be shaped and fashioned into desirable forms.\" In biology he\nadmits that a new factor enters — the factor of growth. \"Man,\" he continues, \"must set up standards and arbitrarily control conditions even here,\nin order that, with the aid of the growth process, he may secure the full\npossible product.\" And then he triumphantly concludes: \"In education\nit is the same.\"\nThose of you who are reading Sir Conan Doyle's new Sherlock Holmes\nstory, now appearing in serial form, will recall that the two official detectives\nengaged on a mysterious murder case were thrown off the track by failing\nto take accoimt of the absence of one of a pair of dumbbells from a gentleman's study. Just so our zealous friends, the statistical-standard-scaletest advocates, have been thrown off the track by failing to take account of\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\none little word in the major premise of their analogy — the little word\n\"ultimate\" in the phrase \"the ultimate product.\" The child of fourteen,\nor sixteen, or eighteen, or even twenty-two, when he obtains the B.A.\ndegree, is not an ultimate product. The man, the man in actual life, with\nall its temptations, cruelties, miseries, happinesses, is the ultimate product.\nAnd for him the supreme test is: Can he \"perform justly, skilfully, and\nmagnanimously all the offices, both pubHc and private, of peace and war\" ?\nAnd who, even of the most successful of men, can tell what parts of his\ncharacter are due to the school, or to the mother who led him, or to the\nfather who drove him, or to the pastor who preached at him, or to the\nteacher who guided him by still waters and thru green pastiures ? The word\nin season that started him in the right direction is often hard to trace. It\nnever reveals itself to the statistician. The forces of cultiure are like the\nwind that \"bloweth where it listeth and thou hearest the sound thereof\nbut canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth.\" The analogy\nhas the fault of all weak analogies — it ignores the chief differences between\nthe things compared. It loses sight of the fact that the steel rail is an\nultimate product, while the child is not an ultimate product. The ultimate\nproduct in humanity is the resultant of a play of many and ever-changing\nforces.\nOur good friends, the statistical professors of education, would do well\nto try their theories on the work of their college and imiversity colleagues\nbefore applying them to the common schools. The college or university\nstudent is more nearly an ultimate product than is a sixth-year child. How\nwoidd it do to determine the efficiency of college teaching by grading the\nJuniors according to their ability to solve six problems in the differential\ncalculus in twelve minutes, or to, estimate the English compositions of\nSeniors on a scale graduated from the style of William H. Allen, of New\nYork, up to the style of Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard ? Imagination pales\nbefore the attempt to picture the howls of horror raised by the ordinarily\npeaceful and placid professors. When the university professors \"make\ngood\" in their own field, we shall welcome them into ours.\nThere are still other ways in which the efficiency of a school or a school\nsystem cannot be determined. One of these is by the clamor of business\nmen, merchants, engineers, department-store foremen, and the like, who\nnever leave off the outcry that the children who now seek employment cannot or will not work — cannot do anything right. They forget that a difference in environment almost invariably throws an adult, much more a child,\nout of his bearings and paralyzes his brain. They have never learned the\nlesson of Addison's failure in writing his first official letter as Secretary of\nState, the lesson of Frederick the Great's nmning away from his first battle,\nthe lesson of Disraeli's being laughed down in his first House of Commons\nspeech. They do not realize that the artificial motivation of the schoolroom is as different as day from night from the responsibility that weighs\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n399\n\nupon the boy who fears that a false move may lose him his first job. The\ninhumanity of foremen makes countless children mourn. The teacher is\nlittle to be envied who allows his efficiency to be measured by the criticisms\nconceived in selfishness and brought forth in ignorance. He should realize\nthe everlasting truth of William James's profound words:\nLet no youth have any anxiety about the upshot of his education, whatever the line\nof it may be. If he keep faithfully busy each hour of the working day .... he can,\nwith perfect certainty, count on waking up some fine morning to find himself one of the\ncompetent ones of his generation.\nNot quite so bad, but almost, is the criticism of the so-called expert who\nmeasures everything in a school by its accord with some pet theory of his\nown as to school or class management or some method of teaching which\nhe is vain enough to imagine he invented. One expert tells us that the\nefficiency of a high school is to be rated in accordance with the extent to\nwhich students are permitted to select their own studies, as if the history\nof education and the history of men had nothing to teach us. Another\nso-called expert tells us that, unless each lesson reveals in the children\nmotivation, initiative, organization, and choice, the instruction is poor.\nThe argument, as recently stated by one of the foremost advocates of\nthe theory, is this:\nThe principal purposes for which instruction is given should form the viewpoint or\nbasis from which instruction should be judged.\nThe principal purposes for which instruction is given arc mental discipline and\nknowledge.\n\nA mind is well disciplined in any subject to the extent that it has secured control\nover the proper method of procedure in that subject.\nHence, the best test of mental discipline is by testing control of method of study.\nKnowledge can likewise be tested by testing the method by which it is acquired.\nThe argument is abbreviated, but it is substantially in the words of the\nexpert.\nOne or two familiar illustrations will reveal the weakness of the argument. In the first place, no one of authority, except this expert, would\naccept his definition of mental discipline as the extent to which the mind\nhas \"secured control over the proper procedure\" in any one subject. The\nphilosopher and the man in the street would equally reject this definition\nand would assert that \"mental discipline is the ability to transfer power\nfrom a field in which functioning has taken place, to a field more or less like\nit, in which functioning has not taken place.\" And I believe we shall continue to estimate a person's knowledge of a subject, not by the way he\nacquired his knowledge, but by its amount and its acctu-acy. If a child,\nfor instance, can find the interest upon a given amount of money for a given\ntime, and at a given rate, we shall continue to believe that he offers incontestable evidence of knowledge of the topic \"interest\" in arithmetic. Our\nbelief will be quite unshaken by any amount of evidence that the method\nby which he acquired his knowledge was faulty. The military tacticians of\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n400\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nthe eighteenth century, who went down like ninepins before Napoleon, consoled themselves with the thought that they had made war by correct\nmethods. The illustrious physician in Gil Bias, who killed all his patients\nby surfeiting them with hot water and bleeding them to death, never ceased\nto vaunt the validity of his methods. Experts may assure us that the\nproof of the pudding is the method of making. As plain, practical people,\nwe shall continue to feel assured that the real test is the eating of it.\nLike all enthusiastic reformers, our expert claims too much for his plans.\nTo follow approved methods of teaching or studying does not necessarily\nresult either in mental discipline or in knowledge. It only raises the presumption that knowledge and mental discipline will result. A sarcastic\nword, a harsh look, a cruel act may, in the case of a child, destroy the effects\nof the best methods of teaching ever invented.\nIn like manner we must discount the criticisms of those who have some\nnew-fangled idea to introduce into the schools. These new doctrines\nusually rim a regular course and that course involves three stages. In the\nfirst stage, everything hitherto done in the schools is wrong; in the second\nstage, if the new theory receives any popular support, everything will be\nwell ; the new subject or the new method is a panacea that will cure all educational ills; in the third stage, the practical teachers have divested the\nnew theory of its superfluous trappings, have swept away the preposterous\nclaims of its advocates, and have discovered and used whatever small\nkernel of truth it contains or conceals. So it was in the case of manual\ntraining. So it was with correlation. So it was with vocational training,\ntho the third stage is not yet quite reached. And so, doubtless, it will be\nwith the standard-test-scale-statistical plan of determining school efficiency.\nBefore attempting to foretell the final evolution of the standard-testscale-statistical plan, I would point out that, without the aid of statistics,\nthere are certain conditions of school work which, when present, raise a\nstrong presumption of efficiency; and, when absent, raise an almost equally\nstrong presimiption of inefficiency. Some of these conditions are:\n1. The school authorities should control the use of school moneys and should not be ■\nsubject to the political oflBcers of city, coimty, or state.\n2. The board of education should be the supreme authority in a school system, but \\\nit should not operate the system. Its function is to act as a brake on school officers who '\nare too radical in their changes, to spur on those who are indolent, to get rid of those who\ndo not \"make good,\" and to pass judgment on educational policies.\n3. There should be ample and efficient opportunities for training teachers, not only\nneophytes, but those in the service.\n4. Teachers should be paid such salaries that they can live in a way befitting their j\nhigh calling and take advantage of opportimities for self-improvement.\n5. Classes should not be inordinately large — never over fifty.\n6. There should be prevalent among the teachers a high ideal of professional ethics.\n7. In the schools all work of a routine nature should be done in a fixed order.\n8. In work that admits of continuous progress, superintendents and principals shouldl\ncontribute their share of enthusiasm, skill, and knowledge, and they should elicit the skill,^\nthe enthusiasm, and the initiative of teachers.\n9. Teachers should be familiar with and shoiild practice the most approved methods\nof teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n401\n\n10. Pupik not only should give attention to their teachers, but, if they are efficiently\ntaught, will evince their interest by asking questions and seeking further information.\n11. The physical health and strength of children should improve as they proceed\nthru the grades.\n12. There should be definite standards of attainment for all subjects of study in all\ngrades, but particularly in the highest grades, kept constantly before the minds of both\nteachers and pupils.\n13. The leading motif oi the school should be hard, earnest work to conquer difficulties,\nand the atmosphere should be one of joy over difficulties conquered.\n14. The subjects of study or the pursuits should never be so numerous as to dissipate\nenergy instead of cultivating the habit of concentration.\n15. There should be adequate means of testing results. What do the children know ?\nWhat can the children do ? Are they improving in physical vigor and endurance ? Are\nthey acquiring the school habits? Are they improving in the power of concentrating\nattention ? Are they habituated to careful reflection on the day's work ?\n\nIf these phenomena appear in a school, there is a strong presumption\nof efl5ciency.\nOur friends of the standard-test-scale-statistical theory believe that\nthey can determine the results, at least of instruction, with an accuracy\nwhich, if we are to believe them, is practically infallible. They are still in\nthe second stage of reform accomplishment — the stage in which they proclaim their theory as a panacea for all educational ills. What says Professor\nBobbitt, their most elaborate exponent ? I had intended to enimierate the\nlist of benefits he claims would inevitably follow the adoption of the standard-test-scale-statistical planof testing efficiency, but I find it is so long as\nto be wearisome. Siiffice it to say in general terms that he claims it would\neradicate inefficient teachers; it would grade efficient teachers; it would\nindicate to principals and superintendents just what they ought to do under\nevery possible condition; it would eliminate favoritism in appointing and\npromoting teachers and principals; and it would enable a superintendent\nto convince his board of education that all his recommendations ought to\nbe adopted forthwith.\nOf course, it would not do all these things, nor a tenth part of them.\nNot for that reason, however, should it be utterly rejected. In the course\nof a somewhat extended experience, I have learned that, however laden\nwith abuses an old plan of school work or an old method of teaching may\nbe, it contains beneath the surface something that is well worth while. I\nhave also learned that it is never safe to reject a new theory, however disguised by absurdities it may be, without seeking for the grain of truth it\nmay contain. In this case the kernel of good that may be discerned beneath\nall the trappings is the return, under a new name, of the old-time examination. Thirty years ago, xmder the leadership of Emerson E. White, when he\nwas superintendent of schools in Cincinnati, most of the superintendents\nof the country cast out stated examinations from the elementary schools.\nMr. White preached a veritable crusade against stated examinations as the\nfetters of the teacher that destroyed spontaneity and prevented initiative.\nHe forgot that, with all their faults, even as they then were, examinations\nconstituted standards as well as tests. And what are the new-fangled\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinnati\n\nscales and tests but old examinations under a new name ? Their sponsors\nclaim that they are more scientific than the old examinations. It may be\nso. I trust it is. Of one thing, however, I feel certain: If their efifect\nshould be to convert teachers into bookkeepers, to compel them to expend\non statistics the energy they should expend on teaching, these tests will go\nthe way of the old examination and be cast into outer darkness. If, however, they should settle down to improved forms of examination and restore\nto us that thoroness of teaching and that accuracy of scholarship which,\nto no small extent, vanished with the old examinations, they will prove a\nblessing to each rising generation. Enthusiasm, correlation, and caprice\ncan never take the place of thoroness.\nIf there were two standards, a higher and a lower, set up for the eighth J\nor whatever may be the last year of the elementary course, two similar\nstandards at the close of the high-school coiurse, and two similar standards\nat the close of the college course, and if the work to reach these standards\nwere carefully tested by comprehensive examinations covering the important points of the preparatory courses, the scholarship of all our institutions\nof learning and the knowledge and mental training of their students would,\nI venture to hope, be materially improved.\nThere is one test of the efficiency of a school which surpasses even a\nproperly conducted examination. That is the kind of men and women the\nschool's pupils tiurn out to be. Wherever you find worthy and successful\nmen and women speaking kindly of the old school and the old teachers;\nwhen they tell with what sweetness and light their mistakes were corrected,\nwith what a firm hand their moral weaknesses were held in check; when\nthey look back on the school premises, however poor they may have been,\nas hallowed ground; when you find them attributing their success to their\nschool training, you may rest assured the school they attended was an\nefficient school. That is the supreme test.\n]P\nREPORT\n\nHARRY\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION— MINIMUM ESSENTIALS\nOF A COURSE OF STUDY*\nf\nTHE OBJECTIVES AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES\nOF THE REPORT\n\nB. WILSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nTOPEKA,\n\nKANS., CHAIRMAN\n\nFour years ago at the meeting in Mobile, this department created a\nCommittee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education. The resolution\ncreating the committee was proposed by Henry Suzzallo in closing his\n« In the preparation of both this report and the introduction to the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National\nSociety for the Study of Education, in which appears in complete form the findings of the Committee on\nEconomy of Time in Elementary Education, the chairman of your committee had the assistance particularly of F. E. Thompson and V. A. C. Henmon of your committee. The Fourteenth Yearbook may be obtained at a cost of seventy-five cents by writing G. M. Whipple, Department of Education, University of\nIllinois, Urbana, ill.. Secretary. National Society for the Study of Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n403\n\naddress in which he was representing the Council Committee on Economy\nof Time.\nSaid he:\nThe main requirement at this point in our progress is to investigate the waste in the\nelementary schook and to make definite proposals for eliminating the archaic and least\nuseful material from our course of study, and to propose more economical methods of\nteaching.\n\nThis statement makes it perfectly evident that your committee was\ncreated to do a specific piece of work.\nThe only modification which has been made in the task assigned your\ncommittee was made at St. Louis in extending the scope of the work of the\ncommittee to cover the work of secondary schools. You also ordered a\nmodification in the number of members constituting the committee in your\nmeeting one year ago at Richmond by adding two additional members,\nincreasing the membership to seven.\nDuring the four years of our work, but two appropriations have been\nmade for defraying the necessary expenses of the committee and of those\nco-operating. An appropriation of $250 was made following the meeting\nof the department at St. Louis and last year at St. Paul an appropriation of\n$200 was allowed. Out of these appropriations, a total of $449 . 55 has been\nexpended to date. During this time, not only have the members of the\ncommittee been under expense of various sorts, but they have had associated\nwith them, as will appear below, a large nmnber of co-operating investigators. In the development of our work, two meetings at Chicago — one in\nDecember, 191 2, and another in October, 1914 — were necessary.\nInasmuch as you created this committee to further the work of the\nCouncil Committee on Economy of Time which was concerned with developing programs for economy in all types of schools from the kindergarten\nthru the university, we found a large amount of work already done. The\nCouncil committee's efiforts extend back to 1903, and the evidences of its\nwork are distributed thru the printed Proceedings of the National Education\nAssociation since that time. Your committee, of course, found it necessary\nin the first place to determine the meaning of the task assigned it and the\nscope of the responsibility involved. In this interest a logical outline was\ndeveloped, the same appearing first in the Proceedings of this department\nfor 191 2 and again, with some additions, in 1913.\nIt became apparent early that because of the complicated and fundamental character of the problems involved in our task it would be necessary\nto enlist the active co-operation of a niunber of expert investigators in the\nfield of education. We have been very fortunate in having associated with\nus in counsel and in the study of practically all the problems which have\nbeen undertaken a niunber of \"co-operating investigators\" who are experts\nin the educational field and in the direction of educational research. Owing\nto their teaching positions, each of them is constantly directing research\nwork with graduate students. Because of their interest in various phases\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nof the problem of economy of time, each of these men has been willing to\nbecome responsible for the study and investigation of one or more of the\nphases of the general problem of economy of time. It is they rather than\nthe members of the committee created by this department who have formulated the addresses and reports which have been made before the meetings\nof this department and before other meetings of the National Education\nAssociation touching our problem. This is likewise true of the printed\nreport which is before us for consideration at this time.\nAs we have gone about our task, trying to vmderstand it and to make\nprogress upon it, we have, in the first place, taken carefully into account\nall of the work of the Council Committee on Economy of Time which\nhas been made available. In its report published in 1913, as Bulletin jp\nof the United States Bureau of Education, they brought forcibly to the\nattention of the country the desirability of shortening the period of formal\neducation. The following proposals pertinent to the purposes of the\ndepartment Committee on Economy of Time are quoted (see pp. 18 and 19) :\nThe contemporary judgment is that the period of general education should be shortened at least two years.\nIn the elementary and secondary periods, economy thru selection, elimination, vital\nmethods, relation to modem life, would yield much better results and little or nothing\nwould be lost by the proposed change in time.\nTo define the form oi discussion, the following divisions of the entire period of general\nand special education are prop>osed:\nAGE\n\nElementary education\n6-12\nSecondary education (two divisions — 4 years and 2 years)\n.\n.\n12-18\nCollege\n18-20 or 16-20\nUniversity (graduate school and professional schools)\n....\n20-24\n\nPreceding their statement of conclusions, the committee said:\nWhen by economy — this does not mean more cramming, but less — as much can be\naccomplished in the elementary and secondary schools and in the first two years of college\nas is now done in the full sixteen years, the last two years of college can coimt toward\ngraduate and professional degrees and two years of the whole period can be saved.\n\nThat it was intended to place a heavy responsibility upon your committee isevident in the following quotation from the report of the Coimcil\ncommittee (see p. 15):\nWe approach now the question of saving time in the elementary period or of accomplishing more within the time. The committee agrees that there is much waste in elementary education and that the elementary period should be from six to twelve. Nearly\nall our correspondents are emphatic regarding waste and the importance of shortening the\nentire period of general education.\nSaving time can be made in the following ways:\nI. The principle of selection is: first choose the most important subjects and the\nmost important topics; make a distinction between first-rate facts and principles and\ntenth-rate; prune thoroly, stick to the elements of a subject; do not try to teach everything that is good; confine the period of elementary education to mastering the tools of\neducation. This does not prevent inspirational work, which is a demand on the skill\nof the teacher rather than on time. A great secret of education is to accomplish a maximum of training with a minimum of material. This is especially true of formal subjects;\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n405\n\nit is true also of inspirational subjects, in that after a general survey of the field emphasis\nshould be placed upon a few selected points. Under the conditions above enumerated the\nformal elementary period can end in six years.\n\nThat there is a widespread feeling, perhaps a belief, that the period of\nformal education should be shortened is perfectly evident. Where and how\nthis shortening is to take place is, however, not so generally agreed upon.\nThe foregoing quotations make clear that the committee of the Council\nbelieves that the great waste in education is in the elementary schools. In\nharmony with this belief, it has reconmiended that the period of elementary\neducation be reduced to six years, maintaining that the essential knowledge,\nhabits, ideals, and attitudes for individual and social needs can and should\nbe acquired in that time.\nYour committee is not yet committed to the thesis that it is necessary or\ndesirable to shorten the period of elementary education. The reports in the\nYearbook supply large ground in support of our open-minded position upon\nthe matter. In his report on \"Time Distribution\" (p. 23), H. W. Holmes\nobserves, \"Our present effort to define minimum essentials by experimentation and investigation is an essential step\" in the determination of the time\nrequisite to accomplish the results that are expected in the elementary\nschools. Says he:\nWe cannot tell how much time ought to be given in arithmetic xmtil we know how\nmuch arithmetic is taught; nor indeed even then, for we must next determine how much\ntime is necessary to reach a defined standard of achievement.\n\nIn interpreting his survey of the experiments for economizing time,\nF. E. Thompson says (p. 29) :\nNot many have indicated very much interest in the shortening of the period of education, but almost everyone, explicitly or by implication, would have much more accomplished within this period\nEducators are trying to save time, not to the end of\nhaving more time for something else than education, but to the end of having more in it of\neducation; in general, \"economy of time\" is but a S3Tionym for \"efficiency.\"\n\nIn his discussion of handwriting, F. N. Freem.an makes rather definite\nsuggestions in reference to the time which will be required in each grade\nto enable the children concerned to reach the standards of quality and\nspeed which he proposes. In his closing paragraph, however, he makes it\nevident that further testing and experimentation are necessary before\nthe time essential to attaining the standards set can be definitely stated.\nW. A. Jessup's extended study in the field of arithmetic does not enable him\nto say definitely just what amount of time is necessary to attain the results\nwhich are expected in arithmetic. He finds it necessary to content himself\nby recommending (p. 129) \"the adoption of the median time in use thruout\nthe country .... as an upper limit of time distribution.\" S. A. Courtis\nmakes no effort in his statement of time requirements to do more than\nmdicate the time which should be allowed in making tests to determine\nthe attainments of children. Even his extended investigations in the field\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nof arithmetic have not led him to venture a statement as to the total time\nwhich should be allowed in elementary education for securing the results\nin children which arithmetic teaching is expected to produce.\nIt is becoming increasingly clear to your committee that its procedure\nupon this problem must be guided first, last, and all the time by what is\nin the interest of efficiency in education. It is vastly more important that\nwe turn out, if possible, an efficient, well-equipped product than that we\nturn out merely a product in a given time. In all of our efforts, therefore,\nto consider how time may be economized in the elementary schools we have\nbeen driven back to the consideration of two fimdamental questions:\nFirst — What is the function of elementary education in our democracy?\nSecond — What is the content in each subject of study which is essential if\nthe elementary school, so far as any given subject of study is concerned,\nis to discharge its purpose in the education of children?\nIn reference to the first question, the current view seems to be that the\nfunction of the elementary school is to provide those educational opportunities necessary to insure, with the assistance of the other institutions\nof society, the acquisition on the part of elementary-school children of\nthose habits, skills, knowledges, ideals, and prejudices which must be made\nthe common property of all, that each may be an efficient member of an\naggressive democratic society, possessing the necessary equipment to insure\nthe right and profitable use of leisure time, the power of self-support and\nself-direction, the capacity and disposition for co-operative effort, and, if '\npossible, the ability to direct others in positions of responsibility requiring\nadministrative capacity.\nUnder this conception of the function of the elementary school, a problem of first importance is in reference to what can be done in the elementary\nschools of our democracy to secure that degree of attainment in knowledge,\ncharacter, and skill essential to equip those who are subjected to its training\nwith the accomplishments requisite to efficiency and with an intense desire\nand the training necessary to make the greatest possible additional personal\ngrowth. Society is still dependent primarily upon the elementary schools\nto fiu^nish not only the tools of knowledge but also those facts, concepts, and\nprinciples essential in a democracy to common discussion and to the correct\nconsideration of common problems. The training of the elementary schools\nmust supply the requisite basis for \"mutual intercourse, mutual imderstanding, and mutual S3Tnpathy \" which are absolutely essential to a successful democracy.\nIn light of the accepted function of the elementary school, it is clear\nthat the second question in reference to the content which is essential in\neach of the various subjects of study is of paramoimt significance. It is\nthru the content of the course of study that the schools supply the common\nbasis for conference and intercourse. Of first concern, therefore, in realizing\nthe purpose of the school is the determination of the absolute essentials of\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n407\n\nthe course of study that we may be sure of equipping our citizenship so\nthat it may discuss and confer on a sufficiently high level to insvire the\nprogressive evolution of our democratic society. It is only by determining\nupon these absolute essentials and concentrating our teaching efforts upon\nthem that their permanent fixation may be insured in the minimum of\ntime.\nThe major portion of attention in the reports is devoted to a consideration of the essential content of the subjects of the elementary\nschools which are treated. The aim has been to determine, so far as possible,\nthe content which is essential to social efficiency and to suggest those\nstandards of attainment in certain subjects from grade to grade which\nexperimentation and current practice seem to justify. The attack thruout\nis positive rather than negative. The aim has been to determine what\nmaterials should enter into the curriculimi in the light of social needs rather\nthan to attempt to decide what should be omitted from the curriculiun as it\nnow stands. If the selection can be made from the positive standpoint, it\nfollows, of course, that all of the material which is not thus retained will\nbe omitted. The ideally constructed course of study for the elementary\nschools is clearly one stripped of all content not essential to the needs of\nmodern life and organized so as to harmonize with the child's growth in\ncapacity and experience.\nThe dominant question which has been before each investigator in the\nformulation of his report is— What content comprehensible to children\nin the elementary schools in this subject is so valuable socially that its\nretention is essential in enabling the school to realize its purpose adequately ? The answer to this question was sought thru the application of\nvarious tests. It was assiuned by W. A. Jessup that the content which is\nreflected in a wide school use is of significant social value. W. C. Bagley\nmade a similar assumption in his findings based upon an examination of\ntextbooks in history and geography. The newspaper-magazine test\nwhich he applied sought to determine the facts in geography and history\nwhich are needed by people who would read current publications intelligently. The content which is of greatest importance in spelling has been\ndetermined by two or three studies of the vocabularies which are employed\nby children and other people in writing. Similarly, R. G. Jones determined\nthe standard vocabulary which should be taught in the lower grades that\nthe children's acquisition may be the most useful to them in the reading they\ndo. A still different type of test was employed by F. N. Freeman when he\nmeasured the attainments in writing in quality and speed possessed by the\nchildren of all grades in fifty-six cities of the United States in his effort to\ndetermine the standard in quality and speed which should be required\nin the various grades of the elementary schools. He also supplemented\nthis method of determining minimum requirements by taking the judgment\nof fourteen firms representing roughly four types of business and employing\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\n1,702 persons in reference to the attainments in writing which in their\njudgment should be evidenced by persons applying for positions.\nBefore there can be any scientific basis for determining definitely the\ntime necessary for the teaching of each subject in the elementary schools, the\ntask of determining the minimum essentials, which has been so carefully\nbegun in this report, must be carried to completion with infinite care. While\nthis is being done, we must make as much progress as possible in the determination ofthe standards which shall be set up for attainment from grade to\ngrade on the part of the children. Even after the content has been carefully determined in the light of social needs, and reasonable standards have\nbeen carefully established, we shall not be able to determine the time which\nis necessary in mastering the content to the degree of excellence proposed\nimtil we have refined and improved our methods of teaching to the extent\nthat is possible with present knowledge and until we have likewise improved the organization within the system so as to enable each child to\ndo the work assigned at the optimal time and with least loss by reason of\nthe machinery of the school.\nIt must be clear that our first objective cannot be merely time gain. If\ngain is accomplished, it must ensue because the efliciency desired can be\nsecured in less time. Saving of time is undoubtedly desirable if it can be\nsecured without sacrificing efliciency, for the saving of time will not only\nresult in less cost to the taxpayers for the maintenance of the school system,\nbut it will likewise resiilt in increasing the earning power of those who graduate from these schools, owing to their earlier entrance into remunerative\noccupations. We must not forget, however, in our zeal to accomplish\nsavings and to reap gains, that economy of time in education may mean\neither a shortening of the period of formal education or the more economical\nuse of the time required, whatever it may be, in order that the maximmn\naccomplishment in knowledge and skill may result.\nWhile the burden of attention has been directed to the determination\nof the content of each subject of the course of study, we have thought it\nworth while, in the interest of enabling others to whom these reports may\ncome to work in the light of all the results which are available with reference\nto any problem, to indicate rather fully the sources which supply material\nrelated to the topics under treatment. Carefully selected bibliographies\nhave therefore been given space in the report, each following the study to\nwhich it pertains.\nEven a general study of the printed report will render it evident that\nthe task of formulating completely the minimum essentials in the subjects\ntreated has not been finished. Your committee believes, however, that\na valuable handbook and guide in course-of-study-making has been produced. Until improved methods are developed, we believe the guiding\nprinciples and the methods employed by the investigators making these\nreports are those which should become dominant in the development and\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n409\n\norganization of courses of study for the elementary schools in this country.\nAs much has been accomplished, perhaps, as it was reasonable to expect\nin the time available to those making the reports. In the present state of\nour knowledge of social and educational values, it is not possible to complete\nthe task with any mathematical certainty that the results offered would\nmeet the educational needs even in a single community. The undertaking\nis increasingly difl&cult when the formulation offered is intended to serve as\na guide in course-of-study-making for the elementary schools of the whole\nUnited States. Further time and more extended opportunity for conference\nand experimentation would render it possible to be more specific as to details.\nThe reports on language and grammar, history and geography, call particular attention to this. Nothing like the degree of completeness secured\nin these reports would have been possible but for the assistance of the investigators who co-operated with the conunittee, taking complete charge of the\nreports as they appear in the Yearbook.\nThe omission from treatment in this report of the subjects of music,\ndrawing, sewing, cooking, manual training, other forms of handwork, and\nnature study, or elementary science, must not be interpreted either to\nmean that their content is not in need of critical evaluation or that their\nimportance in the curriculimi is undervalued. Rather, it was foimd impossible to add them to the subjects considered and to bring all the matter which\nthis would render it necessary to treat within the limits it seemed reasonable to set for this report.\nEven if the problem attempted in this report had been more adequately\ndone, only a fair beginning would have been made in the imdertaking to\naccomplish all of the economies which are both possible and desirable in\nelementary-school education. Further work in this field with the view of\ncompleting it for the time being may yet be secured, if it seems desirable.\nThere will still remain, however, the problem of improving the organization\nof the system and the technique of classroom teaching, that the minimum\nessentials in the curriculum may exercise the maximum of educational\neffect with the greatest possible economy of time and effort.\nThree steps of considerable importance, as it seems to your committee,\nhave been taken since the meeting of this department began. As a result\nof two meetings between representatives of the Commission on the Reorganization ofSecondary Education and the Committee on Economy of Time in\nElementary Education, three important steps have been initiated.\nFirst — An effort will be made to secure such co-operation between those\nwho are working upon the problem of minimum essentials in the elementary\nschool and those who are working on corresponding subjects in the secondary\nfield as will insure unity of aim and purpose in the formulation of the\ncontent in each of the subjects of study. Rather definite plans were\nmade in reference to history, geography, science, civics, English, and\nmathematics.\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntCmcinnati\n\nSecond — A Committee on Definition of Aims of Elementary and\nSecondary Education in Terms of Activities has been created, the seven\nmembers to be taken jointly from the Commission on the Reorganization\nof Secondary Education and your Committee on Economy of Time in\nElementary Education. Frank E. Thompson, professor of education,\nUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., was made chairman of this committee.\nThird — A third step of great significance is that the International Kindergarten Union has authorized the appointment of a committee of nine to\nformulate a report on \"The Mininiun Essentials in the Kindergarten and\nPrimary Grades.\" Annie E. Moore, professor of elementary education,\nTeachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., was made chairman of this committee. The purpose indicated when the creation of this\ncommittee was proposed was to have a piece of work done for the grades\ncovered corresponding to that which your committee has done for certain\nsubjects in the elementary schools.\nWe feel that it is particularly significant that these co-operative relations\nhave been established between the kindergarten, elementary, and secondary\nconunittees that are at work upon problems concerning the course of study.\nNOTICE\nPapers were presented by members of the Committee on Economy of\nTime in Elementary Education as indicated in the minutes. These appear\nin the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education.\nDISCUSSION\nThomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York,\nN.Y. — ^This is in every way an interesting and admirable report as far as it goes. It is\nnot radical, as one of the sp)eakers has called it; it is surely safely conservative, for it does\nnot go as far in some respects in its recommendations as some of our most progressive\nschools now go in actual practice. Its value lies, not in helping progressive schools\nmuch, but in lifting the work of poor schools to a higher level. It furnishes a basis for\ncriticism of poor schools.\nWhat is essential, or a minimum essential, in a curriculiun depends not wholly on the\nmaterial taught but also on the pupil's aim. Essentials must differ obviously with such\naim. If the pupil is fitting for college, then certain aspects of arithmetic which are basal\nfor the study of algebra are essential which would be wholly imessential if the pupil were\nto learn a trade or \"go to work\" at the end of the elementary-school course. For the\nlatter pupil the practical aspects, not essential for the college-fitting child, wovdd be\naltogether essential. Likewise in grammar, the formal, technical part is essential for the\npupil who is to study a foreign language; for the majority who are not, such formal grammar is largely a waste of time. Geography and history should in like manner be treated\ndifferently in the case of these two classes of pupils. In fact, no study in the elementary\nschools, above the third or fourth year, should be treated in the same way with both\nclasses mentioned. This fact is the strongest argimient for the differentiation of the\nelementary school.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n411\n\nIn determining essentials, we must also bear in mind the fact that the elementary\nschool in all countries must be national in its curriculum, while the university is cosmopolitan. Physics, chemistry, history, economics, and the rest may properly be taught\nin the same way in the universities in all countries; while arithmetic, geography, history,\nand language must be taught in the elementary school from the national point of view.\nWhat is essential in the elementary curriculum in one country is therefore largely\nunessential in that of another.\nThe three topics of the report assigned me are reading, language, and grammar.\nReading. — It is a distinct merit in the report that it emphasizes silent reading and\nspeed as a test of efficiency. Speed in the mechanical processes of arithmetic and in penmanship istill much emphasized in many schools, while in these days of adding machines, typewriting machines, dictaphones, and stenographers, such speed is largely\nobsolete. On the contrary, in reading, where there never will be a machine to do the\nwork, we are ignoring speed. When we know that persons of equal intellectual ability\nand of the same educational advantages may differ as much as 400 per cent in their speed\nin silent reading, it is time we recognized the fact in teaching children to read. You\ncannot train a child to read too fast silently so long as you hold him responsible for knowing what he has read; and it is found, in the case of light reading, that the rapid reader\ngenerally grasps and remembers more of what he has read than the slow reader. Slow\nreading and thoughtful reading do not necessarily go together, just as there are people\nin the world who are slow but not sure.\nThe chief fimction of oral reading is to interpret literature. What is real art in\nliterature cannot be fully appreciated by silent reading. This is a point which the report\nshould have pointed out. Every teacher of literature should be a good oral reader, and\nyet we never apply this test in the selection of such teachers.\nLanguage. — On this subject I wish to add only one or two footnotes to the report.\nTraining in language, during the first four years at least, should be largely oral, and\nemphasis on written composition should be confined chiefly to the upper four grades.\nIt has been found by actual experiment that the best way to secure fluency, freedom, and\nclearness in written composition in the upper grades is to develop these qualities in oral\nspeech in the lower. A child who can talk fluently has already accomplished threefourths of the work of learning to write fluently. The contrast between the talker and\nthe writer among adults does not hold for children except in rare cases.\nThe tendency to defer penmanship, and with it spelling, till the second or third year\nis a right one. In written composition, two aims are to be accomplished which are so\ndifferent that they require two separate lines of language work. One of these aims is\ngrammatical correctness, the other is freedom, fluency, clearness, and logical sequence\nin thought. The first includes the mechanical processes of penmanship, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, quotation marks, abbreviations, and certain conventional forms.\nIt includes correctness in the construction of sentences.\nDrill in these things should be given in the form of dictation exerckes in the main\nand mistakes should be rigidly corrected. The aim should be to establish habits by\nrepetition.\nIn the case of composition, which should be a separate line of work, the aim should\nbe to secure fluency and freedom. This cannot be done if the child is made to feel that\ngrammatical correctness is mainly criticized in the composition. A child will outgrow\nfully three-fourths of all his mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and the rest, if the few\nmistakes which he cannot correct are corrected. To correct all the mistakes of compositions defeats its purpose. The corrections make him self-conscious when he writes and\ntherefore make fluency impossible. The report might be more explicit on this point.\nIt is a mistake, too, to begin paragraphing early. Paragraphing never becomes an\nunconscious process even with literary men. Few writers paragraph in the same way.\nFeatures of language, that are to be made unconscious habits must be taught early, else\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nthere is later a wrong habit to be overcome. This does not apply to paragraphing.\nI should not care if children didn't paragraph their compositions imtil the last year of the\nelementary school. They can be taught it in a very short time when they are mature.\nMost schools class paragraphing with punctuation, capitalization, etc., and begin it in the\nthird or fourth year.\nGrammar. — So long as we retain the imdifferentiated elementary school, the curriailum should adjust itself very largely to the needs of the large majority. Hence those\nfeatures of technical grammar which are important only to the pupil who is to study a\nforeign language in the high school should be relegated to the high school.\nI agree heartily with the suggestions of the report as to what should be omitted,\nexcept that I should omit still more. I should teach the simple sentence, its subject, its\npredicate, and their modifiers, and omit entirely the teaching of the complex and the\ncompoimd sentence. The last two are too difficult for all but the brightest children in the\nelementary schools and they have no practical value for them. I should omit the subjunctive mood. It is beyond elementary-school children and they have no need of it. I shoidd\ntreat mood in a very elementary way. Infinitives and participles should probably be\ntaught as suggested in the report. I should omit the teaching of the tenses of the subjunctive. They are altogether too difficult, since their names do not indicate the actual\ntime which they express as is the case in the other moods. Every teacher is aware of\nthis difficulty.\nIn teaching grammar in the elementary schools, we must discriminate clearly between\nwhat is arbitrary and rests on usage merely and what is based on logic, or the laws of\nthoiight. Everything that is arbitrary can be taught easily enough and should be taught\nin so far as it is practical. The part which rests on logic and constitutes scientific grammar should largely be relegated to the high school. This includes especially the analysis\nof sentences, some of the discussions of moods and tenses, and a host of classifications\nwhich the report suggests should be omitted.\nWe must, however, remember that after all the usage of the recognized masters of\nthe language is the final authority for correctness, and not logic. Logic has influenced\nusage and has changed it from age to age, but nevertheless the vdtimate authority is\nusage, logic or no logic. Many of our school grammars make logic the test of correctness\nwhere usage alone should be given. They want to make grammar \"scientific.\" To give\nonly a few examples to illustrate what I mean: Double negatives to express negation are\nnot wrong because they are logically equivalent to an affirmative, as the grammars say;\nthey are wrong in modem English solely because the best writers and speakers do not\nuse them. Shakespeare is full of them. The Greeks used them. They still persist in\nEnglish among the imeducated. \"It is me\" is not incorrect because logic requires the\nnominative after the verb to be. The French always say, \" C'est moi,\" and the expression\nmay have come into England at the time of the Norman Conquest from France. The\nsame is true of double comparatives. Usage no longer sanctions them. Logic has\nnothing to do with it. Shakespeare used them frequently. \" This was the most xmkindest\ncut of all\" is a sentence found imder false syntax (I) in many grammars. I recall when\nas a boy of fourteen I corrected this very sentence for Shakespeare. The agreement of the\nverb with its subject in number rests likewise on usage and not on logic. The French\nsay, \"Ce sont,\" etc., in certain constructions, and the Greeks habitually used a singular\nverb with a neuter plural subject, as every schoolboy knows.\nBy recognizing usage as the final authority all that has much practical value in\ngrammar can be taught arbitrarily in elementary schools. The teaching of technical\ngrammar maiidy for discipline, or training in logical analysis, I believe to be unprofitable\nin the elementary schools.\nJ. M. GwiNN, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. — ^This discussion will be\nlimited to that part of the report dealing with current practices and standards in arithmetic.\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n413\n\nThe method of investigation used by the committee, that of exhibiting oirrent practices in city and coimty schools and the consensus of opinions of a large nimiber of superintendents, while it is flattering to us superintendents in that it assimies that what most\nof us are doing and thinking is right, is not an altogether safe and adequate method for\nsolving the problem of what arithmetic should be taught in the elementary schools.\nThere are those, and not a few, who seem to believe that whatever the schools are doing\nand whatever opinions superintendents have are more likely to be wrong than right.\nThese critics may not deserve a great deal of consideration, yet they merit some attention.\nIn view of this situation, it is not wise to look at what is alone in order to find what ought\nto be.\nThe real test of arithmetic is to be foimd in its use in the industrial, home, and business life of the commimity and not in what is being taught in the schools. In order\nadequately to present the situation, it will be necessary to look out as well as in. The\nopinions of some business men and women and the current practices in the use of arithmetic in business and the home might contribute enlightening information with respect\nto the content of arithmetic which should be included in the course of study.\nWe are over-enamored with the democratic practice of settling questions by votes.\nA majority vote may settle some questions but hardly one so deeply involved by social,\neconomic, psychological, and physiological factors as that of the teaching of modem\narithmetic in our elementary schools. The voice of the people may be, as Hesiod said,\nthe voice of God, but before I accept such doctrine, I beg the privilege to inquire. What\npeople ? In deciding complex and complicated problems, the opinion of one man is often\nof more value than the concensus of opinions of an army of other men. One sometimes\ncan chase a thousand and two put ten thousand to flight. I have no adverse criticism\nto make against the nine hundred and eighty-one superintendents whose courses of study\nand whose opinions make the foundation of the committee's findings and recommendations.\nIt would be smcidal, in part at least, since I am numbered among them and my opinion\nwas among those sent to the committee. I merely urge that no mass of men greatly\nlacking in uniformity of training, and, therefore, in habits of perception and thinking,\nwho live in widely scattered commtmities with different demands, can represent by their\nvotes what is good for all, tho such a consensus of opinions is, I grant, interesting, suggestive, and to an extent directive.\nThe committee has pointed out its limitations and has clearly stated that the problems\nof vital method, relation of subject-matter to modem life, and the relation of the subjectmatter to the interests and abilities of the child have not been attempted. In making its\nreport on how economy of time may be secured thru elimination of nonessentials and by\nincluding only such additional significant material as is clearly vital to life in realizing\nthe ends of elementary education, the committee further points out that the investigation was made with a view to finding out the extent to which superintendents were\ninterested in these problems, their attitudes toward certain proposals for eliminarion,\nand the current practices in schools. It further states that the present report might be\nconsidered a clearing-house of experience which will enable any superintendent to know\nwhat other superintendents are doing.\nThe committee is to be commended for thus indicating the important problems it has\nnot touched and for making but modest claims for the completeness of its findings in the\nlimited field of investigation. It is well to keep these limitations in mind for there may\nbe thousands of school men vmacquainted with all the facts who may be inclined to accept\nthe report as final, not alone upon the seven topics studied by the committee, but on the\nwhole question of the content of the course in arithmetic.\nThe investigation which the committee has made has been done with care and its\nfindings are valuable. I concur in the opinion that the time is ripe for a widespread\ndistribution of the findings in arithmetic. To further this idea, I wovdd suggest that\nsome committee from feach state measure the state course of study, where there is one,\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nby the standards of oirrent practice and the recommendations of the committee. In\nlike manner, each city and county superintendent, thru his office directly or thru committees ofteachers, should measure his course of study. This would make all conscious\nin an intelligent way of the problems and findings, and would, doubtless, result in the\ncorrection of the more serious deviations from well-established norms. The cotmcil of\nthe Louisiana State Teachers Association has already undertaken so to measure the\nLo\\iisiana course of study and will make its findings known at its meeting in April, when\nthe state association holds it aimual session.\nHaving adopted the voting method for deciding current practices and for the basis\nof their recommendations, those conducting the election are guilty of gross irregularities\nin the conduct of the election. Superintendents were asked to indicate the topics which\nthey would eliminate and also those to which they woidd give less time. To me, there is\na great difference between eliminating a topic entirely and giving it less time, yet these\ninvestigators boldly £idd these two kinds of votes together and when a majority is obtained\nby this method declare the election carried for the elimination of the topic. If an honest\nelection had been conducted, eight instead of twenty-five topics would have been dropped.\nJust how gross these election frauds were may be seen in the trial of \"Longitude and\nTime,\" where, with but 8 per cent voting to eliminate, the judges declare it banished by\nthe votes of the superintendents. In the same illegal manner, the judges require a twothirds majority vote to increase the time of a topic unconditionally and so name five topics\nfor increase when eleven of the nineteen had a majority vote for more time. Topics with\nless than a two-thirds favorable vote were to get more time if it could be seoired thru\nelimination of other topics. The committee seems to be biased toward economy thru\nelimination and against economy thru giving more time to important topics. The committee ishardly fair to its method and seems to let its opinion rather than its data shape\nits conclusions.\nThe term \"recitation time\" has little definiteness of meaning as it is used by superintendents, and classroom conditions vary greatly and thereby influence the so-called\nrecitation time. In a classroom of but one grade, the recitation time is likely quite\ndifferent from that of another room where there are two different grade groups under one\nteacher. Study periods and home study should also be taken into consideration. It is\nhard to believe that any school would require first-grade children to spend 90 minutes\ndaily in reciting arithmetic. We need to know the total time spent by pupils in different\ngrades on arithmetic, including recitation time, study periods, and home study.\nThat there should be much time given to drill in the lower grades and especially in\nthe second, third, and fourth grades, all wUl doubtless agree, but it is extremely doubtful\nwhether increasing the time given to drill will secure the ends desired. Improved method\nwill accomplish more than additional time for drill. The committee should avail itself\nof the studies and experiments which have been made or direct new researches into\nmethods of drill.\nThe tabulation of the opinions of superintendents and current practices foxmd in\ncourses of study represents a necessary and valuable beginning, but scientific investigation must go much farther in order to find the nonessentials to eliminate, and the\nadditional materials vital to the ends of elementary education which should be included\nin the course of study of arithmetic.\nA companion study to the one reported by the committee should be made to find\ncurrent practices in the use of arithmetic in the home, industry, and business, and to\nsecure the consensus of opinions of qualified business men and women.\nIt is to be hoped that the committee will organize and conduct investigations of vital\nmethods of teaching arithmetic, relation of subject-matter of arithmetic to modem life,\nand to the interests, abilities, and needs of the child, and, with the aid of theorists for\ncorrections, submit a final and comprehensive report which might take the form of a\nrecommended course of study of both matter and method.\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nSUPPORT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n41$\n\np. W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex. — It is evident from Mr.\nThompson's paper that he does not consider that any of the experiments made thus far\nfurnishes a complete solution to the problem. This is well. We may as well recognize\nthe fact that no special form of educational work will meet the needs of every community.\nWhat may be a waste of time in one community may be a valuable use of time in another.\nThe question of the elimination of nonessentials is one which must be worked out by each\ncommunity for itself.\nParenthetically, it may be asked whether we are quite sure that the elimination of\nnonessentials is the thing most needed for economy of time in school work. Certain it\nis that the mere elimination of the difl&cult parts of a subject will not insure the best use\nof time on the easier parts. It is not always those who do the least work that do that\nleast in the best way. It is not always those who say the least who say that little in the\nbest manner. Economy of time may perhaps be achieved even when doing some things\nthat it is not absolutely necessary to do, provided we are doing them well.\nIt is further evident from Mr. Thompson's paper that he recognizes the problem of\neconomy of time to be one that is personal and spiritual. No merely mechanical device\nwill solve it. No alteration of printed courses of study can ever make it certain that we\nare employing our time in the best manner possible.\nThe teacher who can inspire his class to enthusiastic work is not likely to let his class\nlose much time. On the other hand, the class that is doing its work in a perfunctory\nfashion under a dull and listless teacher is likely to be wasting much of its time, no matter\nhow closely the course of study may have been pruned.\nIn any good school system cases are not lacking in which far more than the ordinary use of time has been made. We all know the boy of foreign parentage who comes\nto our school with very little to his credit, except an intense thirst for knowledge, yet who\nmakes some three or four grades in the course of a year. He does so, not on account of\nany extraordinary ability on his part, or on the part of the teacher, but because the boy\nhimself has an intense desire to learn, a clear-cut motive for learning. The teacher had\nthe good sense not to stand in the boy's way and the course of study was sufficiently\nflexible to allow the boy to do the most he had it in him to do.\nElimination may be an important element in the economy of our schoolroom time,\nbut even more important are such elements as inspiration, motivation, and sjonpathy\non the part of the teacher, concentration on the part of the child, and flexibility on the\npart of the course of study.\n\nROUND\nROUND\n\nTABLES\n\nTABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nM. P. SHAWKEY,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCODES\n\nSUPPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSUPERINTEKDENT\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF SCHOOLS, CHARLESTON,\n\nW. VA.\n\nThat education for all the children of the state shoxdd be provided at public expense\nis no longer a question for debate. We are now concerned rather with how much money\nshould be raised for the purpose, how it should be raised, and on what basis it should be\ndistributed.\nIt will be agreed that a substantial part of the public educational fund should be raised\nby local taxation. Any other plan would tend to rob the community of its right and power\nof initiative and its feeling of personal interest in the school because of its personal invest-\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nment. The local obligation, moreover, is greatest because the local benefits are greatest.\nSacrifice is not a pain but a privilege when it is made to win the thing we prize highly or\ncherish dearly. Any good citizen will count it a privilege to have the opportunity to make\na sacrifice so that his child may have an education. While the will to contribute money\nfor the support of public schools is all but universal among the commvmities of the country,\nthe ability to do so varies greatly. When we leave one local vmit and pass over into the\nnext, astonishing inequalities begin to appear. To maintain a good school in one vmit\nrequires two or three times as much sacrifice as is required to maintain a like school in\nanother. Should not the county undertake to level up these inequalities to some extent\nat least ? Does not the welfare of the coimty demand that it shall throw a protecting\narm aroxmd the weaker units within its border ? Isn't it the correct business policy for\nit to do so? The same scripture which declares that every man must bear his own\nburden also exhorts the faithful to bear one another's burdens. By that gospel the local\nunit is to look out for its own school, but, at the same time, it is the duty of the strong\ntmit to help the weak one to the extent of a partial equalization of the educational burden\nat least. For this reason there should be a coimty school fvmd big enough to match doUar\nfor dollar for the local fund, and, in some instances, the coimty fund should perhaps give\ntwo or three dollars for one contributed by the community.\nA proper state system of schools implies a liberal state school fund. No state, it\nseems, has ever doubted the propriety of spending public funds to build asylums, prisons,\nalmshouses, and reformatories, tho we may assume a regret for the necessity for such institutions. Ifthe state does not like the business of building penal, charitable, and reformatory institutions, it ought then to engage more largely in building educational institutions,\nfor the very patent reason that education tends to increase manual efficiency, to check\ncriminal instincts, and to develop mental capacity.\nIn the best-regulated school systems the state will bear a large part of the financial\nburden. It will do so for the very good reason that it is better able to do so than either\nthe township or the county. The state has open to it important sources of revenue that\nare not open to the smaller political units. The county and the township must depend\nupon a property tax and a poll tax and upon fines and forfeitures for their funds. The\nstate may avail itself of all of these sources, and, in addition to these, it may impose\nlicense taxes, income taxes, and excise taxes of various sorts. All these latter sources of\nrevenue are becoming larger and more important every year. How important they have\nalready become is indicated by the fact that Pennsylvania now appropriates seven or\neight million dollars annually to her common schools, nearly all of which is derived from\ncorpKjration taxes, mostiy of the three kinds I have mentioned. New York, Ohio, and\nother states are also collecting large sums from their public service corporations and\nsharing the money liberally with their public schools. With the rapid growth of our\nindustrial life, these sources of revenue will continue to become more and more productive,\nand the states should accordingly make more and more liberal contributions to the support of the public schools in the city and the country.\nAnother argument in favor of the state school fund is found in the fact that state\nfunds are better administered than local funds. Charges of graft in connection with the\nuse of local school funds have been numerous and in many cases only too well founded.\nCharges of wastefulness and inefficiency in the use of such funds have been equally as\nnumerous and well founded. So long as local funds are handled as a mere incidental\nduty by men whose principal energy is devoted to personal business affairs, so long there\nwill be inefficiency in the management of such funds.\nOn the other hand, state school funds are handled by men chosen because of their\nfitness for that particular service — men who devote their energy to that main business.\nEfficiency, therefore, has generally marked the administration of state school funds, and\ngraft in connection with them is practically unknown.\nOn the whole, experience in the\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nSUPPORT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n417\n\nvarious states not only justifies the maintenance of state funds, but indicates that, for the\nmost part, the states might properly and wisely increase their state school funds materially.\nOf the methods of creating the state school funds, the time limits of this paper will\nnot permit a discussion. It is not out of place to say, however, that few of the states\nhave availed themselves of all the means at their command. Had the wisdom which\nretained the public lands in Minnesota, the Dakotas, Texas, and some other states prevailed in all the other states, the latter would be in a much better condition than they\nare today. The colossal blunder of the age, the shame of our civilization, is the foolish\nway in which we have thrown away our birthright in the great natural resources given\nus by a bountiful Providence for a beneficent purpose but which we have sold for a mess\nof pottage. In my own state. West Virginia, the loss of natural gas from the leaks in the\npipes transporting it to the great industrial centers amounts to enough to add a hundred\ndollars a year to the salary of every teacher in all the public schools of the state; yet the\nstate sits idly by and allows such extravagance to continue year by year, blissfully conscious of the fact that, at the present rate of destruction, this best and greatest of all\nnatural fuels will be exhausted in less than three decades, and this too in the face of the\nfact that many rural schools are forced to suspend at the end of a six months' term for\nlack of funds. In my own state, ten million dollars worth of electric energy goes to waste\nin our moimtain streams every year for sheer lack of the machinery to harness it and bid\nit do the work that is so rapidly consuming the richest deposit of soft coal on the face of\nthe earth. This too in face of the fact that the average rural schoolhouse is a wooden\nbox and the average rural teacher is paid starvation wages. There are other means of\ncreating an adequate school fund, among which may be mentioned the following:\n1. The state should retain the lands now sold at sacrifice prices for delinquent taxes.\n2. Corporations which are consuming our natural resources should pay into the state\ntreasury for school purposes a slight assessment on their gross incomes.\n3. The amount of state revenues could be increased in most states by proper reforms\nin the methods of assessing property and collecting taxes. Wickliffe Rose, in his excellent\ntreatise on School Revenues in Ten Southern States, finds that \"for the United States as\na whole, real estate is assessed at 50 per cent of its value; tangible personal property at\nabout 25 per cent; and intangible personal property at about 5 per cent.\" Is there any\ngood reason why personal property should not contribute to the support of schools on\nthe same basis as real estate ?\n4. In most of the states of the Union the state school tax rate is very low and should\nbe raised, thereby adding to the amount of the state school fund.\nNext in importance to creating an adequate state fund is the importance of making\nthe proper and best use of such a fund.\nThe most common method of determining the share of the state fund to go to each\nlocal unit is to divide the total amount of the fimd by the total number of school youths\nin the state and thus establish a uniform per capita quota. This plan is used by more\nthan thirty states of the Union. Its wide use is doubtless due to two facts: first, its\nsimplicity and ease of operation, and, second, its mathematical justness. The equality\nof any one man with every other man has long been a boast of our democracy. Theoreti- .\ncally, then, every child in the state has a right to an equal share of any common fund to\nbe used for school purposes.\nThis plan, however, has become more and more the subject of criticism and attack\nduring recent years. Its weakness lies in the fact that it fails to recognize the wide\ndiversity of conditions among the local units of the state and does not take into consideration the equally great diversity of needs among the local units. By that plan Eagle\nDistrict in Harrison Coimty, West Virginia, with wealth enough to maintain its schools\non a five-cent levy, receives just as much money per child as Washington District in\nKanawha County, where a twenty-five-cent levy will not run the schools for the minimum\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnati\n\nterm at the minimum rate of salary for teachers. The plan has another serious weakness\nin that it takes note of pupils only and not schools. Under it the schools may be never\nso bad and never so poorly attended and yet the local imit would draw from the state\ntreasury its per capita share of the state fund.\nAnother popular plan is to base the distribution upon school attendance. There\nare several variations of this plan such as (a) that making the school enrolment the\nbasis; (6) that making the aggregate attendance the basis; and (c) that making the\naverage attendance the basis.\nAs a whole, this plan is subject to at least two criticisms. In the first place, compulsory-at endance laws are now in effect in forty-three states out of the forty-eight. If the\nlaws are effective, as they generally are, then the higher attendance records are enforced\nvirtues and not especially deserving of reward. In the second place, attendance bases\ndiscriminate in favor of the towns and cities as against the rural districts and are, therefore, especially objectionable because of the uniformly greater needs of the rural districts\nand because of the long-standing discrimination against the rural districts that has been\nmore or less general thruout the covmtry. Because of the bad roads, the poor methods\nof transfKjrtarion, and the poorer means of protection from the weather, the average rural\nchild cannot attend school as many days in the year as the child in the city.\nAnother method is to base the ratio of distribution upon the number of teachers\nemployed. This plan has the one imjjortant virtue that it recognizes the relation between\ncost and support, for the big factor in the cost of a system of schools is the salaries of the\nteachers employed. This plan has also a very patent objection. The great effort in\nmany rural sections at the present time is to persuade the people to give up the little,\ninefficient schools and bring the pupils together in larger units. If the state is going to\ncontribute funds according to the number of teachers employed, it will be only natural for\nboards of education to yield to the rather common clamor for a school at every man's\ndoor no matter how small that school may be.\nUndoubtedly the best plan for the distribution of state fimds is a composite one\nembodying the four distinct elements of school census, the nimiber of teachers necessarily\nemployed, the especial needs, and the especial deserts of the particular school or school\nunit.\nOn the basis of justice, every child enimierated has a right to as large a share of the\nstate fimd as any other child; on the basis of equity, the more needy should have the\ngreater share; and on the basis of expediency, the especially deserving should have a\nspecial allowance. The effectiveness of the state subsidy for high schools, for consolidation of rural schools, for teaching such special subjects as agricultiure, domestic science,\nmanual training, and the industrial arts stands out as a characteristic of the educational\nprogress of the past two decades in the American states. We must not overlook the fact,\nhowever, that the principle of a subsidy as a theory is hard to justify. It may easily\nwork wrongs. Every dollar of subsidy given to the high school takes its pence from the\nstarving district that cannot maintain its own elementary grades. The subsidy plan\ntends to make \"the rich richer and the poor poorer,\" to quote a popular phrase from the\npolitical stiunp speaker. How many dollars of subsidy is it wise to grant even to the\nmost deserving under such conditions ?\nTo repeat, let me say that the very best plan of apportionment of state fimds may\nbe said to be the one based upon the four factors of enumeration, need, desert, and possible good to be accomplished. The plan should have some flexibility, so that adjustments\nmay be made from time to time to meet the varying conditions. It should be handled\nby professional experts, either the state board of education, the state superintendent of\nschools, or some agent selected by the state board or the state superintendent. It should\nvest the administering authority with reasonable discretionary p>ower so as to insure the\nbest possible use of every doUar expended.\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\nB.\n\nAPPOINTMENT,\n\nTHE APPOINTMENT,\n\nA. G. YAWBERG,\n\nSALARY, AND TENURE\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nSALARY, AND\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF CUYAHOGA\n\nTENURE\nCOUNTY\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBEREA,\n\n419\n\nOHIO\n\nThis topic, \"The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers,\" will not down.\nPick up almost any one of the old standard books on pedagogy and you will find this\ntopic occupying an important place. Nor is this any less true of recent literature along\nthis line. Few of our recent books on education fail to discuss it, all admit the importance of the questions involved, and many boldly assert that upon the solution of these\nimportant problems depends future educational progress. These conditions, whatever\nthe merits of the question may be, make it important that we should be informed as to\nwhat the more recent state provisions on the topic are.\nThis paper does not pretend to be exhaustive either in the niunber of state codes\nconsulted or in reference to any particular state code. Hence any correction or addition\nto the facts stated, by anyone present, will be welcomed as a contribution and not regarded\nas a criticism.\nIdaho. — Idaho, which, educationally speaking, is typical of many of the western\nstates, has no legislation specifically limiting the appointment, salary, and tenure of\nteachers. In the larger cities, superintendents have the power of recommending, but in\nall other respects the boards of education have full power. Any salary is legal that the\nteacher will accept and the term of appointment is one year. Custom makes the action\nfairly uniform thruout the state, but the teacher usually must depend for her appointment\nupon a board of education or directors usually not fitted to judge such matters.\nIowa. — Iowa, which is typical of most central states, has similar provisions. The\npower to employ teachers and fix salaries of teachers is vested exclusively in the local\nschool boards. Under the present law, teachers and superintendents may be employed\nfor a period not to exceed one year. An attempt is being made at present to secure a law\nmaking it permissible for school boards to extend this limit to a period of three years.\nIllinois. — In Illinois the code provisions are practically the same as for Iowa. The\ncounty superintendent may and often does exert much influence over the appointment\nand salary of teachers, but the code gives him no specific power in this direction. He\nhas, however, the power of weeding out the really poor teachers thru the granting of\ncertificates, three grades of which are issued. Third-grade certificates are good for one\nyear; second-grade for two years; and first-grade for three years, with the provision that\nthird-grade certificates may be issued only once to any one person. The chief criticism\nof this power is that it is negative rather than positive.\nMichigan. — I can best state the conditions in Michigan by quoting from a recent\nletter from State Superintendent of Public Instruction Fred L. Keeler. He says:\n\"You will find in our laws that the district board or board of education employs the\nteacher, but there are no provisions in regard to salary or tenure of office. We have a\nSupreme Court decision to the effect that superintendents of schools may be employed\nfor a reasonable period.\"\nIndiana. — In such a discussion as this, Indiana's code cannot be passed over lightly,\ncontaining as it does what seem to be such admirable provisions. In each township or\nrural-school district, a school trustee is elected on a political ticket. The various trustees\nof the county constitute the county board of education. The number on this board in\nthe various counties is, therefore, a variable ranging from ten to forty. This board elects\na county superintendent. The trustee in his own township has full power to appoint\nteachers and place them, appointment being for one year. This provision of having a\npolitically elected oflScer appoint the teachers looks to those on the outside like the weak\nplace in the law. In fairness, however, it should be stated that it seems to work better\nin practice than in theory, as our chairman imdoubtedly would say.\nThe strong point in this law seems to lie in the minimum-wage and qualification\nprovisions. Teachers are divided into four classes.\nClass A must have an average of\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnati\n\nat least 8$ per cent to get a certificate to teach. This is the lowest class possible. Qass\nB must have an average of 90 per cent, Class C an average of 93 per cent, and Class D\nan average of 95 per cent. Of course experience and training enter into the qualifications\nnecessary to secure these averages, but the limits of this paper do not allow me to record\nthem here.\nThe minimum amount that may be paid a teacher in Class A is two and one-half\ntimes the average on her certificate in cents per day. Since the least average a teacher\nmay have is 85 per cent, we find that her daily wage is 2^X85, or $2. i2f. For a month\nof twenty days, this amounts to $42.50, which is the minimum salary to any teacher.\nTeachers in Class B have their average multiplied by three to determine the minimum\nsalary; in Class C, by three and one-half; and in Class D, by four. If a teacher in\nClass D should have an average of 100 per cent, it would be possible for her Tninimnni\nsalary to be $4 per day, or $80 per month.\nThe teacher's minimum salary is also directly affected by the judgment of the county\nsuperintendent in such a way as to give him a powerful leverage in raising the standard\nof teaching. The great majority of you imdoubtedly know what is meant by the \" success\ngrade\"; nevertheless, in view of its relation to the teacher's salary, it may not be out\nof place to call attention to its chief characteristics.\nThe county superintendent is required to visit each teacher in the coimty at least\nonce each year, oftener if possible, to determine how good a teacher she is. As a guide\nto, and record for, his judgment he carries a blank form on which he grades the teacher\non a basis of 100 per cent. This grade is made up of three parts as follows: (i) Teaching\npower — if the teacher be considered perfect in this, a grade of 45 per cent is given;\n(2) government — 35 per cent is considered a perfect grade; and (3) general characteristics\n— 20 per cent is considered perfect.\nThe average grade on the certificate is the average of the examination grades and this\n\"success grade.\" If, for instance, a teacher's \"success grade\" be 90 per cent and the\naverage grade on her certificate be 85 per cent, the average upon which her salary is based\nis 87 J per cent. It can thus be seen that the 'success grade\" which any teacher receives\nis of much concern to her.\nIt is also of interest to note that a teacher who attends the annual Teachers' Institute\nwill have 2 J per cent added to her average grade. Thus it is possible for a teacher to\nreceive a minimum salary of $43 . 75 per month for the very first year.\nTeachers' meetings also are held each month in each township or combination of\ntownships. The programs for these are made out each year in advance and every teacher\nis required to take part in at least a certain number of meetings. If teachers attend\nthese monthly meetings they are allowed pay for an extra day. In other words, they are\npaid for twenty-one days in that month. If they fail to attend and have no good excuse\nfor such failure, they not only lose the pay for this day but may be docked a day's pay\nfrom the regular month.\nWhile the whole plan has very much to commend it, and while the minimum salaries\nare higher than those provided in most states, it usually has the effect of keeping teachers'\nsalaries very close to the minimum.\nNorth Carolina. — In North Carolina, teachers are appointed by local committeemen.\nNo teacher can be appointed, however, who is not approved by the coimty superintendent.\nThis represents a large step in advance over those mentioned above so far as appointment\nis concerned. Those who have a five-year state elementary certificate receive a minimum\nsalary of $35 per month; those who have a five-year state high-school certificate receive\na minimum salary of $40 per month; teachers who hold only a one-year coimty certificate\ncan be hired only as assistants and cannot receive over $35 per month. The only other\nmaximum limitation is that no more money can be spent for salaries than accrues to the\ndistrict from the taxes.\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPOINTMENT,\n\nSALARY,\n\nAND\n\nTENURE\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n421\n\nSo far as the tenure of teachers is concerned, they are usually hired for one year,\ntho they may be hired for two years provided the committeeman holds oflBce that long\nat the time of the appointment. The code provides that no teacher can be appointed\nfor a term beyond the term of oflBce of the appointing officer. It also provides that no\nteacher can be dismissed except for cause.\nWest Virginia. — I can best state the situation in West Virginia by quoting from a\nrecent letter from State Superintendent M. P. Shawkey.\nIn part he says:\nWith reference to West Virginia, all our larger towns and cities have independent\nauthority and regulate the matter of appointment, salary, and tenure of teachers as they\nchoose. In all these cases the superintendents are elected for a series of years and the\ncustom has been pretty well established that the teachers shall hold their positions continuously solong as they are giving satisfactory service, tho the towns differ somewhat\non the basis of promotion.\nI would also say that a bill is almost thru our legislature and has every prospect of\nbecoming a law which will put the election of teachers in the rural districts in the hands\nof boards of education instead of the local trustees and will provide that the appointment\nshall be made upon the recommendation of the coimty superintendent. It will also be\nprovided that the minimum salaries shall be $30, $40, and $50 instead of $30, $35, and\n$40 as at present.\nIt should be said that these varying minimimi salaries are based upon the kind of\ncertificates. The minimum of $30 per month applies to holders of third-grade or oneyear certificates, which grade is issued only twice to any one person; the minimum of\n$35 to second-grade or three-year certificates; and the minimum of $40 to first-grade\nor five-year certificates. All high-school and primary teachers' certificates, the latter of\nwhich may be issued to teachers of two years' experience, are considered first grade.\nOhio. — And last but not least in this brief survey comes Ohio. One year ago the\nleast would have been a close approximation so far as our rural schools are concerned in\norganization. Today in this respect Ohio is not far from the top and we believe that in\na few years the results will justify our confidence at present. So far as cities and the\nlarger villages are concerned, practically the same conditions exist in Ohio as were described\nfor West Virginia.\nUnder Ohio's new school code every school in Ohio is required to have not only\ncounty supervision but district supervision as well. The district superintendents must\nsupervise (except under special conditions) not fewer than twenty nor more than sixty\nteachers. In most cases this involves from two to six school districts. When there are\nthree or fewer districts under one district superintendent, he is elected by the boards of\neducation of these districts in joint session. When there are more than three boards\ninvolved, the presidents in joint session do the hiring. The same authority that does the\nhiring fixes the salary, which in no case can be less than $1 ,000. In every case the county\nsuperintendent recommends the district superintendent, tho the hiring boards may, by a\nmajority vote of all their members, overrule this recommendation.\nThe district superintendents are paid on vouchers by the county board of education\nin twelve monthly instalments. They cannot be hired for more than one year on first\nelection, but thereafter may be hired for terms of three years.\nThe coxmty superintendents are elected by the county boards of education and may\nbe elected for a term not longer than three years at any election. In no case can the salary\nbe less than $1,200. In no case have county superintendents been elected at the minimum salary, the average being $2,000.\nTeachers are recommended for positions by the district superintendents, tho the\nboard of education may refuse to elect those recommended and may elect others by\nmajority vote. A minimum salary of $40 per month is also provided for all teachers.\nIn case the maximum levy for school purposes, three-fourths of which is to be used in the\ntuition fund, will not provide money enough to nm the schools eight months, the state\nwill make up the deficit, provided that: (i) elementary teachers with at least six weeks'\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nprofessional txaining are receiving $45 per month; (2) elementary teachers who have\ncompleted the full two-year course in any normal school, teachers' college, college, or university approved by the superintendent of public instruction are receiving $55 per month;\nand (3) high-school teachers are receiving $70 per month.\nWhile these latter provisions do not now have very wide application in the state,\nthey are a step in the right direction and, we feel, will, in a few years, grow into absolute\nminimimi requirements for all teachers.\nSo far as tenure of office is concerned, the common practice is to hire for only <me\nyear, tho boards of education may, if they wish, hire for a term not to exceed three years.\nThe law provides also that the teacher holding a position must be considered before\nanother can be hired for the place.\nIn the matter of appointment, salary, and tenure of teachers, as well as in other provisions, we feel that Ohio's new school code marks a big step forward, since it places these\nmatters as well as all other school procedure and organization upon a professional basis.\nHowever, it will take years before all the adjustments in the application of this code can\nbe made which will bring about the good results that seem certain to follow.\nThere is some friction and opposition to those adjustments at present, but no more\nthan was to be expected. It is a gratification to note that this opposition comes from\nthose least capable of judging. It is also certain that there is more opposition now than\nthere ever will be again. It is also a keen satisfaction to note the increased interest and\nhelpful attitude toward the schools found thruout our state.\nViewing the situation as a whole, it is seen that much progress has been made in\nthe last few years in putting the power of appointing teachers into the hands of superintendents or others capable of judging. There has also been a tendency to lengthen the\nterm of the teacher's contract and make more secixre the teacher's tenure so long as good\nservice is rendered. The tendency in some quarters to place teachers under civil service\nseems, however, to be carrying the matter in the wrong direction. If the schools and\nschool-teaching are to be kept on a high plane and open to progress, there must be a\nresponsible head. And a superintendent, in order to be held responsible, must always\nbe given large power over not only the appointment but the reappointment of teachers.\nIn the matter of salaries, it seems we still have a long road to travel. While salaries\nseem to have been increased, yet, in comparison with the rise in the cost of living, this is\nnot true. The average salary is still very low. The following taken from Strayer and\nThomdike's Educational Administration, published in 1913, is as nearly up to date as is\navailable.\nThese investigators foimd, thru a wide investigation, that the hypothetical male\nteacher is twenty-nine years old; that he entered the profession at the age of twenty;that he has had between three and four years of training beyond the elementary schook;\nthat he has had seven years of experience; and that he draws a salary of $489 per year.\nThe hjfpothetical female teacher is twenty-four years old and entered the profession at\nthe age of nineteen. She has had four years of training beyond the elementary schools\nand has had five years of experience. Her salary is $485 per year. In the average, it is ,\nto be noted that there is not the large discrepancy between the salaries of the sexes that\na narrow view might indicate. It is also to be noted that the highest average salary\npaid all teachers is $72.41 per month in the North Atlantic states; the lowest average\nsalary $42 . 19 per month in the South Atlantic states. The highest average salary paid\nby any state is $93 . 84 per month, by California; the lowest is $33 . 20 per month, by\nSouth Carolina.\nThe thing of note in all these comparisons is the low salary paid to teachers. It is\nalso of interest to observe that in comparison, all things considered, the city teacher\nfares much better than the rural and small village teacher. It is also true that the city\nteacher is required to have much more professional training than the rural teacher before\nentering upon her duties.\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELECTION\n\nOF COUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n423\n\nGranting that the salary question is one of the most important before school administrators at present, it is gratifying to note the passage of higher minimvma-salary laws in\nseveral states. However, in view of the foregoing observations the solution of this question seems to rest no more upon the passage of minimum-salary laws than upon raising\nthe standards of professional requirements.\n\nC.\nWILLIAM\n\nTHE SELECTION\n\nE. CHANCELLOR,\n\nOF COUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nHOGE PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY\nWOOSTER, WOOSTER, OHIO\n\nOF\n\nThere is so much discussion, even of thought, regarding centralization and decentralization pro and con that it may be well to discriminate between about a dozen kinds\neach of centralization and of decentralization. First, there may be national centralization or decentralization; or state centralization or decentralization; or county; or even\ncity or township centralization or decentralization. Second, there may be centralization\nthat is legislative or judicial or administrative. Arguments valid for state centralization\nin legislation may be valid while those for such centralization in administration or in\njudicature may be invalid. School supervision is administrative, not legislative; and it\nis quasi-judicial to an extent. Upon this basis, I propose to advocate a compromise plan\nof partial state centralization, partial decentralization, fixing upon the county as on the\nwhole the true central unit for rural-school supervision.\nMy general complaint is that we have too few rural-school supervisors, pay such as\nwe have too little money, and cause men to serve who generally are vmfit intellectually\nto serve well.\nAt the present time, there seem to be about 2,500 county school superintendents in\nthe thirty-nine states with such ofl&cers. They appear to draw about $2,750,000 total\nsalaries for this service of rural-school supervision. In the same states, there seem to be\nabout 1,000 urban school superintendents drawing about $1,500,000 for their service of\nurban supervision. In these states, there is no urban superintendent who is politically\nnominated and elected upon party tickets.\nMore than half of all the teachers of America have county school superintendents as\ntheir chief local educational supervisors. Indeed, almost one-half of all our teachers\nhave no other school supervisors than such superintendents. Thirty-nine of our states\nhave county school superintendents. The notable nine without such oflBcers are the six\nNew England states, New York, Virginia, and Nevada. Virginia has a modified coimty\nsystem. In strict terms, we might include even New York in the county-system list.\nIn the states with county school superintendents, there exist various methods for\ngetting persons into this office. The prevalent method in the North is that of popular\nelection upon party tickets. The prevalent method in the South is that of factional\nscrambling for the place upon the ticket of the necessary race-religion commonly known\nas capitalized democracy. Of course, neither of these methods is selection.\nIn New Jersey, the county superintendent is selected by the state commissioner of\neducation and appointed by the state board of education. This allocated divisional\nofficer is usually a local resident, but he is the creation of state centralization. Generally,\nhe serves for life; and, from ten years' educational experience in the state, I am glad\nto bear witness that he usually merits this customary life tenure.\nIn Pennsylvania, the county superintendents are chosen by the township directors\nof schools in conventions. This is county centralization, state decentralization.\nIn Ohio, the county school superintendent is chosen by the presidents of the boards\nof education of the ranking five townships according to population. This is a perilous\ndevice of county centralization, state decentralization, calculated always to favor the\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnati\n\nurbanization of the smaller districts and to keep the county superintendent busy manipulating his friends into town-board presidencies.\nIndiana has a plan similar to that of Pennsylvania, as have also Maryland, North\nCarolina, and Louisiana.\nIn the three coimties of Delaware, the governor appoints the coxmty superintendents.\nIn Tennessee, the coimty superintendents are appointed by the judges of the covmty\ncourts severally.\nBefore we come to judgment upon this notable variety of experiments, it is profitable\nto remember that in several states the popularly elected county superintendents are themselves members of the county boards. In Maryland, where the coimty boards appoint\nthe coimty superintendents, the boards themselves are appointed by the governor. In\nNorth Carolina, the state legislature appoints the county boards, which in turn appoint\nthe county superintendents. To avoid unduly confusing the main issue with a cloud of\nminor details, we must refrain from citing other such items which do not materially alter\nthe applicarion of fundamental principles. It appears that less than half the states of\nthe Union have county boards of education, an item by no means to be ignored by those\nwho trust in part to changes in governmental machinery for betterment of schools.\nTo box the compass of this situation, it is requisite to observe the systems in such\nstates as do not have coimty school superintendents or their equivalent. In New England,\nthe general supervision of rural schools is undertaken by superintendents employed by\nunions of two or more townships. The supervisory unit is much smaller than in the rest\nof our country. As everyone knows, county government is relatively unimportant in\nthe little province of six small states beyond the Hudson River. The centralization of\nauthority in the hands of the state boards and of the chief state educational officer variously\nstyled in New England superintendent, commissioner, and secretary is proceeding rapidly\nand without much regard to local notions.\nWe must not stray aside into the inviting field of inquiry as to what states have state\nboards of education and why or why not such boards exist or should exist. Comparative\ntables of the educational hierarchy of the typically different states would indeed be\ninteresting and more or less important. A complete presentation of such matters, however, isthe task rather of the bookmaker than of the speaker for a quarter-hour.\nIt is with no passion for uniformity that we proceed now to some statistical details.\nOur federal system invites and secures progress thru local initiative and variety.\nA careful review of aU the states without great desert areas and with fair railroad\nfacilities shows that the average county contains four hundred square miles and is about\ntwenty miles square, for surveyors' artificial straight lines have generally been followed\nrather than the more convenient lines of nature along waterways and by hilltops. This\nis unfortunate, for most county superintendents find in consequence that there is no true\nand natural community of interest in the various towns within their legal jurisdiction.\nIn this respect, their task is greatly and unfortunately different from that of the city\nsuperintendents of America.\nIn respect to size, there are great extremes presented even in the older states. For\nexample, Pennsylvania divides 45,215 square miles into 67 counties, an average of 675\nsquare miles per county. For an area of 9,860 square miles of land surface, Maryland\nhas 24 counties, an average of 41 1 square miles per county. The Georgia county is not\nquite twice the size of that of Alabama. The Wisconsin county is twice that of Tennessee.\nFar greater extremes may be found in population. The average county superintendent\nhas within his jurisdiction one thousand families, but the extremes vary from city populations to an average of less than one family per square mile.\nWe may now properly pause and consider for a moment that a school superintendent\nexists in a county to attend to matters of four general kinds. He visits schools and tries\nto help teachers; he cares for fina.nn'a1 affairs; he renders opinions upon school legal\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELECTION\n\nOF COUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n425\n\ncontroversies; and he directs educational policies. Let us discover what his services are\ngenerally conceived to be worth.\nOmitting such extreme cases as those of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, and of\nCook County, Illinois, we find that the conunon range of salary is from $4,500, paid in\nseveral instances in Pennsylvania and in California, to $600, the frequent dole in several\nstates. The lowest recorded payment is that of $115, to a county superintendent in\nNorth Carolina. Let us cite a few averages from bottom to top of the scale, namely:\nKentucky, $831; Colorado, $1,061; Michigan, $1,192; Indiana, $1,391; Texas, $1,429;\nMaryland, $1,591; Pennsylvania, $2,322; New Jersey pays uniformly $3,000.\nFor the entire country, the average salary received this year is $1,100. This is about\nequal to the real worth income of a farmer with eighty acres of land; or of an experienced\ncity elementary-school teacher. The brighter spots are New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio,\nIllinois, California, North Dakota, Maryland, and Louisiana in this order for the ranking\nstates.\nThere is no causal relation between the average salary and the cost of living. Houses,\nprovisions, fuel, and clothing are all relatively high in Colorado in terms of money, and\nlow in Illinois. But Illinois pays nearly twice as much as Colorado. The average salary\nof an Illinois covmty superintendent will buy three and a half times as much as the average\nsalary of a Colorado superintendent. A similar relation subsists between Louisiana and\nKentucky. It would be unfair to infer that Illinois has three or four times as good rural\nschools as Colorado, or a similar ratio between Louisiana and Kentucky.\nVicinage gives no clue to these differences. South Dakota pays on the average\n$1,227, while North Dakota pays $1,656. Maryland pays almost twice as much as\nVirginia, and California pays far more than does Oregon.\nLocal custom and convention within the states do not explain salaries, for the extremes\nvary greatly. Within North Dakota, one county superintendent draws $2,000, and\nanother only $1,000. The Virginia range is from $2,750 to $179. Michigan has a county\nthat pays only $250, and Tennessee one paying only $200. In one case, South Dakota\nfalls down to $466. The plight of the South Dakota superintendent is perhaps the\nworst in the Union, since no one can be elected to a third term consecutively.\nBy way of comparison, we may note that Massachusetts has a minimum salary for\nunion township superintendents of $2,000 and an average of about $2,500.\nIn order to see the system in operation, let us take the third state in the Union in\npopulation, Illinois. Illinois has 102 counties. One county has 252 rural schools.\nAnother has 26 such schools. The average is 90 schools. Twenty school superintendents\nhave each over 150 schools to visit. The average area of a county is nearly 600 square\nmiles. Under average conditions, with an automobile, it is possible to visit four schools\na day, spending fifty minutes or so in each school. With a horse, it is possible to visit\nthree schools. Of course, the more schools, the greater the amo\\mt of office work. That\ncounty superintendent is fortunate who can spend one-half his time visiting schools. And\nthat county is fortunate whose county superintendent gets around to every school three\nor four times a year. The average county superintendent has something like six to ten\ntimes as much to do as the average city school superintendent. It would be absurd to\ndeny that he does it.\nHere and there an accidental genius under favorable conditions, such as proximity\nto a fine city or to a university or state normal school, makes a success of the county\nschool superintendency. But everyone knows that the county school superintendents of\nAmerica are as a body educationally negligible. The least damaging remark to be made\nof them is that they are cogs in a machine.\nIt does not appear that the poorly paid, popularly elected school superintendents are\neducationally inferior to the highly paid ones. We do not wish even abler politicians as\ncandidates.\nRaising salaries is not the solution of the problem of how to get real school\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n426\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nsupervision. Sending out from the state capitals various lots of men educated in city\nuniversities to supervise rural schools would be worse than leaving matters as they are.\nReducing salaries might help, since it would increase the number of women school superintendents. And withdrawing all city-bred men from rural supervision might help, since\nit woxild eliminate the men who darken counsel with words without wisdom.\nIn most states of the Union, educational office is, as yet, imperfectly differentiatedfrom ordinary political office, and education is looked upon as merely a minor function\nof government. We still have the theory of Old Hickory that any man who can make a\nfist at supporting himself in private life is quite competent to hold any public office. In\ntruth, all education should be differentiated from government and integrated into an\nindependent social institution.\nA popularly elected county school superintendent holding office by the partisan favor\nof a political majority for a fixed term is one person, while a deliberately chosen superintendent holding office by the continuing favor of the representatives of the people for an\nindefinite term is another person. This because their dispositions toward life are opposite. One lives in and by politics and lives insecurely and fearfully, while the other lives\nin and by education and has at least the chance of living securely and bravely. One has\nan office, the other a livelihood.\nThe country needs more and far better rural-school supervision. Ohio is moving\nin this direction. We now have 88 county superintendents and about 500 town school\nsuperintendents. What seems to be needed is a local supervisor with from twenty to\nforty teachers to look after. Over five to ten such local supervisors there should be a\nmore generalized personal supervision. When this can be secured by appointing one\ncounty superintendent, it is well. Otherwise, there should be two or even more such\nsuperintendents, as in several states there now are in several counties. The Virginia and\nUtah plans of uniting several counties under one man is well only when the local imit of\nsupervision is supplemented by an intermediate imit. In large or in populous counties,\nthere should be a board of superintendents and their assistants.\nBut we have at last reached the cross of difficulty. How shall the highest local supervisory officer be gotten into office ? Certainly not by running for it against other candidates upon party tickets at general elections. This served well enough in busy, worried,\nignorant pioneer daj^, but it is anachronistic in our times.\nFirst, no man or woman should be eligible to appointment to the office of coimty\nsuperintendent who does not hold a superior teacher's certificate granted by a state\nexamining board prior to appointment. In all states, the himibug of the local examining\nboard should cease. Not only shall the questions be set, but the answers shall be marked,\nin the state capital.\nSecondly, from the eligible list, the county board of education or the school-board\nmembers of the townships should elect the man they desire. But here their power over\nhim should cease, for he should be removable only upon the application of the same\nauthority with trial before the state superintendent, whose findings should be reviewable,\npreferably by a state board of education.\nThis simple system would end two abuses: one, the canvassing of the people or of\nthe school directors by applicants who are good travelers and salesmen of their own\nservices; and the other, the fear of losing their places and salaries thru temporary disfavor\nfor advocacy of something perhaps highly worth while to the school commvmities.\nThirdly, these coimty chiefs should be paid by the state and not by their localities.\nPreferably, they should all have about the same tasks, in numbers of teachers to super*\nvise, distances to travel, and money to apportion, all fairly equalized by the state officers.\nPreferably, they should draw salaries based upon seniority and success, but the extremes\nshould not be greatly different. There is no state in the Union where the minimum\nsalary should be less than a thousand dollars a year.\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDETERMINATION\n\nOF THE SCHOOL\n\nDISTRICT\n\n427\n\nThe county superintendency is a purely administrative office, and while it should\ngenerally be filled by a local man and always by an essentially rural man, it should be\nfilled by such men only upon due control from outside.\nAs the philosopher Lotze pointed out more than a half-century ago, the mechanism\nconditions the workings of the spirit. Fortunately, the New Jersey system and the\nConnecticut experiments, the Massachusetts idea of state certification, the various plans\nof choice by county boards all together point the way that the rural schools will travel\nat various rates in the several states, saving country life to itself and yet raising the\nstandards of rural school-teaching according to modem progress.\nI know of no reason why the rural schools of the nation should not be better than the\ncity schools. We do not need to send the best men and women as teachers to the country\n— we have but to leave them there. The city as the paradise out of which shall come\ntrue education for the country is one of the strangest delusions of mankind. Half a\ncentury hence, to be a rural teacher will be the ambition of city women, and to be a ruralschool superintendent will be the goal of our ablest young men in education.\n\nD.\n\nTHE\n\nDETERMINATION\n\nFRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE\n\nSUiPERINTENDENT\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISTRICT\n\nOF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nILL.\n\nSomeone has said that, if a German, a Frenchman, and an Englishman were asked\nto write the life-history of a lion, the results would be as follows:\nThe German would go into his study, close his door, light his pipe, sit down, and spin\nout of his inner consciousness the life-history of a lion, beginning with the earliest cosmic\nperiod and going down to the present time. The same would be published in fifteen\nvolumes as an introduction to the real subject.\nThe Frenchman would collect all the books which had been written upon the subject,\nread them thru, pluck out of them the most vital and important parts, and recast them\nin the form of the most concise and lucid statement ever written on the life-history of\nthe lion.\nThe Englishman would gather together a large equipage, go down into Africa, hunt\nthe lion in his lair, shoot him, skin him, take him back to England, mount him in museums,\nand then proceed leisurely to write up the notes of his experiences as the life-history of\nthe lion.\n, I do not know whether this figure at all represents these three particular t5T)es of\nmind. I do know, however, that we have in the field of education three kinds of thinkers\nand workers corresponding somewhat thereto: (i) There are those who can evolve out\nof their inner thought an educational system beautiful in its form, its administration,\nand its results; (2) there are others who have an instinct for reading all that has ever\nbeen written upon education, recasting it, and giving it a new form, a new construction,\nand a new application; and (3) there are still others who are engaged in the actual work\nof organizing or administering school affairs. They are the men of experience who must\ntry to fit the ideal and literary systems which have been wrought out by the other two\ntypes to the actual existing state of affairs.\nNow, for one, I believe that we need these three points of view in public education.\nWe need the philosopher, the idealist, who throws aside the restraints of what has been\nand what is and insists that what is true in thought can be made true in practice. It is\nhis insistence upon this perfect form that has helped constantly to improve our educational\nsystems. We also need those who are devoted to the literary point of view; who believe\nthat we must interpret the present in the light of the past; who have a fondness for collecting data and statistics and working them over and giving us a fresh restatement of\nthem. And we need, of course, the man who is on the firing line. We need him to try\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nout and embody all that is given in the ideal and literary forms as fast as the existing\norder will take them.\nNow when we come to consider the forces which determine the school district, we\nmeet with all three of these various points of view. There are those who on a priori\ngroimds can construct a school system with the districts beautifully wrought out with\nregard to organization, revenues, and administration, and these will insist that this ideal\nis the most practical on earth. There are others who have studied the entire field of\neducation, have foimd what forces have operated to determine the form of districts in\nother times and in other places, and who, fortified with these argiunents, feel that they\ncan convince legislators and the people of various states that the conclusions which they\nhave reached are the ones which should be embodied into actual practice. There are\nalso the practical men. These men, dealing as they are with the people and with existing\nconditions, are in danger of becoming too conservative, even pessimistic, from the various\nproposals for change and reconstruction. Their ideas are worthy of consideration, but\nin some respects, they have, perhaps, received an overrating.\nWe are fortimate in these days, however, that all these forces are being brought\ntogether and are working together to make the very best system possible out of the conditions as we have foimd them in the various commonwealths of the Union.\nI suppose that everyone, whichever one of these tyi)es he may represent, will agree\nthat the state is for certain large purposes in education a school district. Its very constitution places upon it the duty of establishing certain standards of citizenship. It\nbecomes immediately necessary for it to effect a system whereby these standards of\nintelligence and morality may be fixed and maintained. In this large way, the very\nexistence of a democratic state compels it to become a great school district for the organization and administration of a system of education which shall beget and maintain an\nintelligent citizenship. So far as I know, in every one of the commonwealths of the\nUnion this point of view has found expression in the form of laws relating to courses of\nstudy, certain required subjects, minimum length of term, standards of preparation and\nqualification of teachers, as well as in the form of a department of public instruction,\nwhich seeks thru a general form of advice and supervision to carry these laws and these\npolicies into effect.\nI think we would also agree that in the right development of a state school system\nthe state should be divided into subdistricts, in order that local sentiment, local initiative,\nlocal leadership, and local responsibility may develop. Education is a thing which must\nbe achieved rather than received. The state may set standards and may provide a\nwide-flimg system of organization, administration, and supervision, but it will prove\nmore or less a failure imless the people of the various parts of the state seek, thru their\nown desire and in their own way, to secure for their children the kind of education which\nseems to them best. I do not believe that any state should allow a single square mile\nof its territory to be without educational opportimity, because, in that section, indifference, ignorance, and greed stand in the way of a local demand. We will agree, however,\nthat imtil that particular section becomes intellectually aroused and until it seeks earnestly after the thing, it will not find it in the truest and best sense. In these local\ndistricts and units, the organization and administration give large opportunity for participation in the educational process by the people themselves. I take it, therefore, that\none of the main forces in dividing the state into school districts is the large desire on the\npart of the people for local self-control, as well as the belief that education will work its\nbest results when it rests as largely as possible upon local initiative and local responsibility.\nIt is here that the question arises as to what factors should determine the size of this\nlocal district. In Illinois, the greatest variety obtains in the size and character of the\nlocal district. It is easy to discover, however, that practically all of these districts have\nbeen determined, to a large extent, by the community idea. Wherever a group of people\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDETERMINATION\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISTRICT\n\n429\n\nwas conscious in any way of this community feeling, it sought to incorporate itself into\na school district.\nNow a community is a very difficult thing to define. It may be a city like Chicago\nwith its 2,393,325 inhabitants, with its representatives from every nation of the earth,\nor it may be a little rural community with not over twelve families. Each feels that it is\na community and that its schools should be organized and administered so as to serve\nthe peculiar needs of its people. In the one, we have 326,342 children enrolled, 7,544\nteachers, and $17,329,407.98 expended annually, all this imder the control and management of one board of education. In contrast to this, we have 10,632 one-room, oneteacher school districts, which have an enrolment of a little over 300,000 children, taught\nby 10,632 teachers, and administered by over 32,000 school officers. The majority of\nthese districts are subject to change in territory — additions or subtractions, as certain\nfamilies or groups of families desire, for one reason or another, to be changed from one\ndistrict to another — but it is a kind of community feeling that accounts, in the main, for\nestablishment and maintenance of these school districts. There is, however, a more\ndetermining force in shaping the school districts than this community sentiment. It is\nthe revenue proposition. Wherever the state furnishes the large part of the revenue\nnecessary to maintain the schools, taxation may not play so large a part in the shaping\nof local districts, but wherever the large part of the burden of maintaining schools falls\nupon the local district, it exerts a tremendous influence in determining boundaries. In\nIllinois, in the year 1914, $44,000,000 were expended in public education. Of this\namount, the state contributed only $3,000,000, The districts had to raise practically the\nentire amount. In some parts of the state, the desire to keep a district free from heavy\ntaxation may lead to its being kept as a separate district long after it has ceased to\nserve a good school purpose.\nIn Illinois, we have a number of instances where the desire on the part of landowners and property owners to avoid \"being attached to a larger school district where a\nbetter school is taught and a higher rate of taxation exists led them to fight consolidation\nfor none other than selfish reasons. However, in a great majority of cases, every effort\nis put forth to discover new ways and means of raising enough revenue to support the\ntype of school which the laws of the state require and the community desires. Small\ndistricts have been found in many respects incompetent to raise sufficient revenues to\nmaintain good schools. This is especially true as the schools are extended upward thru\nthe high school and downward thru the kindergarten, and as we enrich the course of study\nby adding on the sciences, manual training, domestic science, and such subjects as call\nfor laboratories, benches, and machinery. Some districts that foimd the revenues quite\nsufficient before these modern changes in length of year, length of school life, and modem\ncourses of study have found it impossible to raise sufficient revenues to meet these new\ndemands.\nTwo general plans have been used to meet the difficulty. One is the consolidation\nof a number of districts into a larger district, which consolidated district would have\nsufficient taxable property to raise a revenue adequate for all the school needs. Another\nplan was to organize high-school districts. This second plan is a purely revenue device.\nUnder the laws of Illinois, the local districts are restricted to a levy of i§ per cent for\neducational purposes and i| per cent for building purposes. Boards of directors and\nboards of education have found it increasingly difficult to maintain schools, under modem\nconditions, with such revenue restrictions. However, by organizing a large high-school\nterritory covering a number of elementary districts, the law permitted the high-school\nboard to levy i§ per cent for educational purposes and i^ per cent for building purposes,\nwhich furnished ample revenue for maintaining a good high school. Each of the underlying elementary-school districts could still continue to levy to the full limit of the law.\nThere is a growing sentiment in certain localities to make the county the unit for\ntaxation and organizaiion of all the schools of the county. This plan, it is thought, would\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nobviate these various attempts at overlapping districts. It is one of those consummations\ndevoutly to be wished, but which, wished ever so hard, is difficiilt to bring about under\nthe present conditions. If we could begin anew we might organize our districts according\nto rather ideal plans, but, from a standpoint of making things better than they are, the\nrevenue idea is leading us from the smaller district gradually toward the larger.\nSupervision and several other matters have had some influence in determining school\ndistricts, but, in the main, the two large factors have been (i) the community feeling with\nthe local desire to control and manage the school which is to minister imto that community, and (2) the need of adequate revenues to carry into successful operation the kind\nof school system required by the state and desired by the local community.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH\nA POPULATION OF OVER 250,000\n\nTHE ESSENCE\nFREDERICK\n\nH. EVANS,\n\nOF SUCCESS IN EVENING\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPAL OP VOCATIONAL SCHOOL,\nINSTITUTE, PEORIA, ILL.\n\nBRADLEY\n\nWORK\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nOne of the first essentials of success in evening vocational work is an understanding\nof the functions of the work. An evening school cannot fully prepare for a vocation as\ncan the day school, for the reason that the time is too short. A boy starting into an evening school at the age of sixteen and attending the nmnber of hours per year that it is customary to have evening classes in session, would be at least fifty years of age before he\nhad put in as much time as is served in an apprenticeship course of four years. Then\nthe function of evening vocational work is not to teach vocations, but to supplement the\nexperience the day worker is gaining from his work with the instruction and experience\nthat will make him most eflBcient in his occupation.\nA man's job in the industries is not a fixed but a changing and often a disappearing\nthing. Inventions of automatic machinery, discoveries of new processes, the increasing\ndemands in some industries, and specialization with scientific management are altering\nthe requirements of men in many trades, and have caused some trades almost totally to\ndisappear. Evening vocational schools should anticipate these changes. They should\nkeep up to date on new industrial methods and should organize new information in a way\nthat it may be taught to the men who need it.\nThis may be illustrated by considering the advent of electrical machinery. The\ninstallation of electric drives to replace belt drives introduces an element that the old\nmillwright who put up the shafting and kept it repaired is not ordinarily capable of handling. The gas engine in many instances is replacing the steam engine. The steam\nengineer finds the gas engine a difficult problem to handle, mainly because it involves electricity inits ignition system. If the steam engineer knows electricity as well as steam\nengines and boilers, a change in his plant from a steam-engine and belt-drive system to\na gas-engine and electrical transmission system will give him a better job instead of\nthrowing him out. Instruction in electricity can be so organized and taught to these men\nin the evening school as to enable them to advance themselves instead of falling behind\nand losing out.\nAn evening vocational school should not be a place in which to train the young,\nbut a place to render real service to seriously intentioned day workers.\nThose having to do with the conduct of evening schools should familiarize themselves\nwith the field in which the work is to be done. If it is possible, a vocational survey should\nbe made; otherwise the instruction may be an economic blimder. I regard as of great\nimportance a first-hand personal knowledge of those whom the evening school is to serve\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUCCESS\n\nIN EVENING\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nWORK\n\n431\n\nand a sympathetic understanding of their point of view. He who would serve shop men\nmust visit the shops and talk with the men.\nThose conducting evening vocational work should know what the shop man expects\nfrom the evening school. The immediate incentive for a shop man to enter an evening\nclass for the first time is likely to be that he either expects to get immediate help out of\na present difficulty (such as learning to read a complicated blue-print from which he is\nto work next day) , or to learn how to fill the place of a man with a better job, who is to\nleave next week. He expects the instructor to tell him and to show him what he wants\nto know and not to give him a book and place him at a machine and tell him to go ahead\nand dig it out for himself. He expects his instructor to know more about his job than\nhe himself knows. He does not come to evening school for a general education but to\nlearn some specific thing. For example, we tried for two years to organize a class in\npractical arithmetic, but could not secure a sufficient number of shop men to make it\nworth while. But when we announced that we would teach computations of pulley and\ngear speeds, strength of boiler patches, strength of beams, and other concrete subjects\nthere was an immediate response. We at once began to teach the fundamental principles\ninvolved in each of the subjects asked for. However, when it came to applying these\nprinciples and getting results, the members of the class found that they were weak in\nhandling fractions and in interpreting mathematical symbols. In a short time, the class\nwas willingly but unconsciously following the course in simple arithmetic that had been\nplanned originally. It was not a general educational subject to them now, but a means\ntoward the desired end of figuring out a jack shaft, computing gear changes to cut odd\nthreads, or spacing the rivets in a boiler patch so that it would get by the inspector, as\nthe case might be.\nWe could not get students to organize a class in electricity. However, when we\nannounced a course covering automobile ignition systems, magnetos, self-starters, etc.,\nagain there was an immediate response and no dissatisfaction when, after the course was\noutlined the first evening and the practical purpose in view shown, the instructor began\nto teach electricity as it also had been planned originally.\nAn evening school must draw students before it is a success. Newspaper notices and\na wide distribution of circular letters and advertising literature pave the way, but by far\nthe greatest factor in making the work popular is the word of a satisfied student to a\nfellow-worker.\nAn evening school must hold students in order to succeed. To hold a student he\nshould at first be given what he wants; later he should be given what he needs. A shop\nman just entering expects an almost immediate return from his investment of time and\neffort. If he does not get it, he will quit; if he gets it, he will come again, and later he\nwill be willing to invest in educational securities that will be longer in maturing. After\na while, when the habit of evening work is established, he will come and not question the\nbenefits derived. A great many correspondence-school men enter evening classes because\nthey have established the habit of evening work and want all of the help they can get.\nThe success of evening work depends largely on the spirit in which it is conducted.\nThe work must be put on a high plane and the ideal of achievement must be held high.\nHalf-hearted work cannot be tolerated on the part of either students or instructors. I do\nnot believe in opening an evening school free to the public without in some way discriminating as to who shall enter. My experience in private evening-school work has\nconvinced me that in a private school, at least, a tuition charge is beneficial to the work\nof the school. There is no better test of the worth of a vocational course than the test\nof making it worth paying for. The time is too limited in evening school to allow any but\nseriously intentioned students to enter.\nAmong the most important factors of success are the courses of instruction and the\ninstructors. The essential qualifications of the instructor are his ability to instruct and\na thoro knowledge of his work and the workman's point of view. I place the ability to\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CincfamaU\n\ninstruct first because it is an essential qualification and one that is often overlooked in'\nchoosing vocational teachers. The course of instruction should be organized by the\nco-operation of those having collectively three different types of expyerience and knowledge, j\nnamely, that coming from being employed in a vocation, that coming from knowing the\nvocation from the theoretical or engineering side, and that coming from the theory and^\npractice of manual-training pedagogy.\nthings\nbe taught\nand allstudent.\nthru the course instruction should be pre-'\nsentedFirst\nin the\nordershould\nof needs\nof the first\nindividual\nFor example, if a man has just purchased an automobile and comes to learn how to\nstart it, he should not be launched on a study of the thermodynamics of heat engines,\nbut should be shown where and how to fill his gasoline tank and how to crank his engine\nwithout breaking his arm. The instruction, especially the first part, should, as far as\npossible, be such that if a student were to leave any evening he could use aU of it the\nmorning after.\nThe course should be strong on the informational side and in applying fimdamental\nprinciples to practical work. In hand work, it should emphasize the formation of correct\nhabits of work. The time is too limited to emphasize the developing of skill by practice.\nThe developing of skill by repetition will come in the day's work.\nGood demonstrating is more essential in evening than in day work. Men entering evening vocational classes have not, as a rule, minds trained to learn from the printed page as\nhave day students. Then, too, they are weary from a day's work and find it difficult to\nconcentrate. It is important to draw a class together from time to time in a live discussion. There is an enthusiasm that comes from fellow-workmen exchanging ideas.\nThe demonstration alone is not suflScient to impart all of the necessary instruction.\nEven a textbook caimot be altogether satisfactory, for, in order to meet the demands for\nwidely varying needs, it must necessarily contain a great deal of superfluous material for\nany one student. Abstracts of demonstrations and assignment of work should be given\nto each student on single cards or sheets, one sheet at a time. In giving out work to be\ndone and necessary data and instruction, one sheet at a time has the advantage over a\ntextbook in that it is an incentive to concentration on the one thing. There is not the\nrestless desire to turn over a new leaf or to look and see what is ahead.\nA maximum amount of individual instruction should be given, and the instructor\nshould endeavor to illustrate principles to each individual by showing him how it applies\nto his individual job.\nCourses should be in short imits. Six weeks, two evenings per week, two ho\\irs per\nevening, with something definite to accomplish, is good.\nThose responsible for evening-school instruction shoiild recognize the possibilities\nin the men who enrol. The fact that many of those entering evening school have at some\nprevious time failed in the day school does not necessarily indicate that they are lacking\nin ability. Such failures can often be attributed to an irresponsible attitude while in the\nday school due to a lack of experience with life's realities and a consequent failure to take\nschool work seriously. The stem necessity of earning his living often converts the\nday-school incorrigible into the serious, hard-working vocational evening-school genius.\nEvening-school students have at least average mental ability. While as a rule they\ndo not possess the book-knowledge foundation, the habit of reading, the ability to express\nthemselves in words, nor the familiarity with scientific and mathematical terms possessed\nby day-school students, yet they have something that the day-school student does not\nordinarily possess, and that is experience in earning their living. It is on this solid\nfoundation of knowledge acquired thru experience that the evening instructor must\nbuild, and, if he can but find points of contact, he can build largely and well. An eveningschool student accomplishes at least twice as much per hour of instruction as the dayschool student of the same grade.\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nILLITERACY\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n433\n\nThose conducting evening vocational work should have a proper conception of its\nimportance. It not only is helpful to the workman in that it enables him to learn more\nand earn more, but it stimulates him to higher service by showing him a way up. It\nrelieves the deadening monotony of his work by giving him something to think about, and\nit may broaden his horizon by leading him to an understanding of the scientific, industrial,\nand social relationship of his job.\n\nILLITERACY\nALBERT\n\nSHIELS,\n\nAND INDUSTRIAL\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nDIVISION\nOF REFERENCE\nAND\nEDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nIN LARGE CITIES\nRESEARCH,\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nThe subject assigned to the writer raises no real question as to the relation between\nilliteracy and a low grade of productive efl&ciency. Such a relation is one of the implicit\nassumptions of all educational practice. Omitting, therefore, for the moment any\nattempt to show the immediacy of this relation, let us first examine the conditions as they\nexist.\nIn the United States report (Census 1910) illiterates are divided according to nativity,\nparentage, age, sex, and distribution. For the purpose of this paper, the census figures\nare taken as of persons ten years old and over, excepting when otherwise specified. Illiteracy isassumed in the census to indicate inability to write in any language, altho that is not\na universally accepted definition.\nThe illiterates of the country, as a whole, number 77 to the thousand. Rural illiterates number loi, and urban illiterates 51, in a thousand.\nIn order to make clear the fundamental contention of this paper, I desire at once\nto mark the distinction between native-bom illiteracy, in which the ability to speak and\nunderstand our language is implied, and foreign-born illiteracy — a more difficult problem\nin that such illiterates can neither speak nor understand our language.\nRURAL\n\nILLITERACY\n\nRural illiteracy is not exclusively native, but it is largely so. In 1910, there were\n3,748,031 rural illiterates. This equals approximately 10. i per cent of the whole rural\npopulation; of rural illiterates but 13 out of every hundred, or 477,870 in all, were foreign\nborn. Twenty-two of every hundred were negroes and 65 were native-born whites. It\nis true that a half-million foreign-bom illiterates is not a negligible number. In fact, the\nwhole question of rural illiteracy, whether native or foreign bom, is an educational problem of itself, which, tho not considered at this conference, deserves serious study. It\ndoes not, however, lie within the scope of this paper.\nURBAN ILLITERACY\nIf we turn from the country to the cities and towns, we find a remarkable reversal\nin the proportion of native- and foreign-bom population. The rate X)f illiteracy is considerably less than in rural districts — 51 out of every thousand. Of the one and threequarter million illiterates of the cities, 67 out of every himdred are foreigners, 11 are\nnative whites, and 22 are negroes.\nILLITERACY IN TOWNS OF 100,000 AND OVER\nLet us tum now to the larger cities, those of 100,000 or more in population. One\nwould naturally expect that with better school facilities and improved methods of instruction there would be a considerably lower rate of illiteracy than in the smaller towns.\nThe facts do not confirm that expectation.\nThe combined population of cities with more than 100,000 population was (1910)\n16,587,288 and the illiteracy 49 in every thousand, a reduction of but 2 in a thousand.\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nWhy is there so slight a reduction ? Because the ratio of the foreign bom has greatly\nincreased. In these cities it equals, in every hundred, 8i foreign born, 13 negroes, and 6\nnative-bom whites. The schools are better, but the problem has become complicated\nby the increase in number of that type of illiteracy which is the most difficxilt factor in the\nproblem.\nILLITERACY\n\nIN TOWNS\n\nOP 250,000 AND OVER\n\nSize does not necessarily represent excellence. Yet we may assume that whatever\nour school systems have to show of excellence in educational system and administration\nis fully if not exclusively represented among the 22 largest cities of the United States.\nIn 1910 these cities had a combined population of 12,580,843, of whom 683,900 were\nilliterate. This represents 55 out of every thousand. That is to say, there is more illiteracy in the 22 largest cities than in all the other cities as a whole. Notwithstanding the\nefforts of governments and schools and private and auxiliary organizations, the ratio\ncontinues to creep up. But that after all is not so significant a fact as another. We\nmust know not only the amount of illiteracy, but its character as well. And in these 22\ndties illiteracy is foreign illiteracy. Out of every hundred of these illiterates, 90 are\nforeign-bom, 4 native-bom white, and 6 negroes.\nI realize that these figures can be in some degree discounted. A foreign-bom illiterate between the ages of ten and fourteen will obtain here an elementary training; foreignbom illiterates in many cases may have an adequate command of the vernacular, so that\nin this respect they are as well off as their native brethren.\nBut, interpret the figures as we will, they are not encouraging. I think, therefore,\nour concem is not to extract what comfort we can get from these figures, but to realize\nour responsibility for improving the conditions they indicate.\nThe native illiterate is unfortunate to the degree that there is dosed to him one of\nthe most important channels of communication by which he may be brought in relation\nto the world at large. The fact is also true in the case of the foreign illiterate who speaks\nour language. But this limitation, tho a grave one, does not isolate the English-speaking\nilliterate as it does his European brother who does not speak our language. The former\nhas some means of understanding at least the life about him, if only in a superficial way,\nand in the case of the native illiterate, supported as he is by native traditions and by\nacquaintance with the conditions of his community, he may tmderstand it well and interpret itshrewdly.\nBut to the foreign-bom, illiteracy is a condition imfortimate for himself and not less\nunfortimate for the city in which he makes his home. The reasons are as various and\ncomplex as are the conditions of urban life itself. It is a temptation to enlarge on these\nconditions, political and social, including such matters as health and housing, recreation\nand relaxation, crime, court procedure, etc. However, I may refer you to the report of\nthe Massachusetts Commission entitled The Problem of Immigration in Massachusetts,\n1914, a report which had to be somewhat hastily prepared, but which is nevertheless a\nvaluable presentation of the social conditions co-existent with foreign illiteracy — conditions that are in no sense limited to a single state.\nIf it is a fact that illiteracy in our large cities is practically a question of foreignbom illiteracy, using the word as it refers to inability to read or write either in any\nlanguage, or in English only, these conclusions follow in examining its relation to industrialism:\nI. The occupations of the non-English-speaking immigrant and the proper distribution of all labor are the subjects for examination in a study of the relarion between\nilliteracy and industrialism.\nII. There are in addition certain other questions, such as housing, health, etc., concerning the non-English-speaking immigrant which have a less direct but not less important relarion to industry.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nILLITERACY\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n435\n\nIII. There should be a study of all those agencies devoted to the reduction of immigrant illiteracy and to the amelioration of unfavorable social or industrial conditions in\norder that they may work together more effectively.\nIV. The school must be the principal agent in this work.\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nOCCUPATION\n\nOF THE\n\nIMMIGRANT\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF HIS LABOR\n\nAccording to the report of the Commissioner of Immigration, 1,197,892 immigrants\nlanded in New York in 1913. Out of every thousand, 221 were children under fourteen\nyears. Of the remainder, 11 had professional occupations, 135 were skilled workers, 633\nwere either unskilled or without occupation. Of those above school age, therefore, 80\nper cent were without any regular trade or occupation.\nIt is too easily assumed that skilled labor finds its best market by a natural process.\nIn the country where distances are short, where transportation is cheap, where knowledge\nof wages and opportunity is pretty well extended, where the people are fairly homogeneous\nand bound by the common tie of language and tradition and a somewhat rigid social\norganization, this might in a great measure be true. But these are precisely not the conditions which confront the non-English-speaking immigrant who comes here. Frequently\nhe is compelled to depend on intermediaries only less helpless than himself and frequently\nacting thru personal and even sinister motives. There is a chasm between the immigrant\nand his opportunity, and, for the illiterate in English, it is a wide one.\nIn the immigration of 1913, to which reference has been made, the 160,000 skilled\nimmigrants followed some 49 trades. Sixty-four per cent of the entire number followed\nseven occupations: garment-makers, 37,528, carpenters, 15,035, clerks, 14,025, shoemakers, 11,758, miners, 9,510, masons, 7,377, blacksmiths, 5,431.\nAmong these skilled workers let us consider the garment-workers. Of this class\nof workers, 22,934 were tailors; 67 per cent were Hebrews, 11 per cent Italians, and the\nrest were scattered among 36 other races and nationalities. Now the garment trade in\nNew York is seasonal. Strikes are not infrequent and misvmderstandings are common.\nI am informed by one investigator that the average period of employment for every worker\nin New York City would scarcely exceed four months a year. Taking into consideration\nthe slack season, I should not say, nor would any of those associated with me, that New\nYork, for example, needs more tailors.\nIt is extraordinary that many of the Hebrews who entered the tailoring occupation\nwere not tailors by trade — many had a skilled trade of their own. The gist of the matter\nis that because of ignorance of conditions and segregation, an overcrowded trade was yet\nfurther crowded and is now being further crowded year by year, and that these additions\nto the labor ranks consist not only of those skilled in the trade, but of others who are\ndeflected to it under circumstances that constitute no real industrial gain either to the\nworker or to the community. I might add that there are skilled workers in New York\nCity who, for the same reason, do not market their own labor either in their own occupation or in any other field of skilled labor. Thru the desperation of immediate need,\nthey enter the ranks of the unskilled. Many a man learned in the law, many a painter\nand carpenter, is a peddler. That is not always the result of bad times; it is rather a\nmatter of faulty distribution due in a large measure to ignorance of our language and of\nindustrial opportunity.\nIt is to the unskilled laborer, however, that we must give the greater part of our\nthought — not as a matter of philanthropy, but as one of national safety. Most Americans\nare very optimistic about our ability to assimilate any volume of immigration, and so far\nas that optimism implies a splendid confidence in our abilities, and a strong determination\nto use them, we should be proud to share in it.\nWe need the unskilled laborer in the country and we shall need him for many years\nto come. But we cannot use this labor profitably so long as it continues to herd in con-\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ngested sections where it is least necessary, where it is forcing itself into crowded fields,\nwhere it adds to the ranks of the idle and unemployed.\nn.\n\nTHE RELATION OF IMMIGRATION TO CERTAIN ADDITIONAL PACTORS, HAVING AN INDIRECT\nBin? NOT LESS IMPORTANT RELATION TO INDUSTRY\n\nThe labor of the illiterate — always remembering for large cities that this means in\neffect the illiterate immigrant — ^has been referred to. The need for more adequate\nmethods of marketing such labor is obvious.\nIn addition to his training and equipment, there are factors I shall refer to but briefly,\nless to consider their character than to indicate their importance in the educational\nscheme.\nThese factors are: Health — physical and mental — including opportunity for relaxation; decent living conditions; opportunity for saving; right to justice and redress; and\nopportunity for a ti^ of instruction that will most practically adjust the immigrant to\nurban conditions.\nThe foreign-bom dweller in the city who interprets conditions as he meets them\nimproperly or falsely, because he can neither hear nor speak save thru others, is a creatiu'e\nof circumstances. His hands are tied, and those who would help him, too, are barred,\nfor they cannot reach him. Illiteracy brings these other evils in its train. The man is at\nhis poorest, not only because he cannot give the best that is in him, but because he lacks\noppKjrtunity for growth. A man like this may be exploited and plundered thru his own\nignorance. If he loses his money in a private bank, if he is transported unknowingly as\na strikebreaker to a hostile community, if he is mulcted of his earnings, he feels he is\nbetrayed. He comes from a country where governmental supervision plays a large share\nin the activities of a people and he feels therefore that he is in some measure a victim of\ngovernmental neglect. If he is a man of spirit, his own attitude will influence others.\nHe becomes potentially a menace.\n1\nni.\n\nTHE AGENCIES\n\nOPERATING IN A REDUCTION OF IMMIGRANT ILLITERACY AND IN THE\nAMELIORATION OF INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS\n\nThese agencies may be considered summarized as: (i) The federal government,\nacting thru commissions, thru the Department of the Interior (Commissioner of Education), Department of Labor (the Division of the Commissioner-General of Immigration),\nthru naturalization bureaus, and thru federal legislation. (2) The state, largely thru\nlegislation or thru financial aid to schools and thru its powers of granting citizenship.\n(3) The city, thru its various agencies, notably those of education. (4) Private or semiprivate organizations.\n1. Federal agencies. — Recently a bill looking to the reduction of immigration and\nforbidding the entrance of illiterates was vetoed by the President. There are many of\nus who do not believe that illiteracy is a proper standard to apply to the admission of\nprospective immigrants, for we realize the debt this country owes to the illiterate and\nunskilled. To put it broadly, illiteracy itself, tho always a disadvantage, is a very\nserious problem principally because of the attendant evils it brings in its train.\nIn some things the federal government can aid the schools directly. It can contribute to any movement that will impress on the public the importance of the question\nfor all our citizens and especially for those in our cities. It can issue publications, conduct investigations, and continue to offer the contributions and co-operation of the\nDepartment of Education.\n2. The state. — The state could doubtless aid in many ways, depending in large measure on the closeness of the relation obtaining between the school system of a city and the\nstate itself. There are, however, two powers that lie with every state government. One\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nILLITERACY\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n437\n\nis legislation. I wovild call to your attention the Massachusetts law that requires all\nnon-English-speaking immigrants, less than twenty-one years of age, to attend evening\nschool until an elementary command of English has been attained. A second power of the\nstate is that of appoi .oning moneys for the education of foreigners and illiterates: in view\nof the somewhat fluid character of much immigrant labor, it is eminently proper that the\nstate should help m this matter. For smaller towns and for rural districts, matters not\nhere considered, the state would undoubtedly, thru its educational administration, afford\nhelp in other and more direct ways.\n3. The city. — The city itself must and should undertake the largest responsibility in\ndeaUng with illiterate foreigners. This responsibility should be centered in the educational\ndepartment, but, in my opinion, should not rest there exclusively. The school, however,\nhas so vital a share in whatever is to be done in solving the problem that I have reserved\na discussion of its work for a separate section.\nI believe that in conjunction with the board of education there should be a body of\ncitizens, or a committee with a salaried secretary, employed by the city. Such a committee must be an active working committee with periodic meetings. It should be\nfinanced so that it may engage in a publicity campaign. It should include a representative of the city government, of business (such as the board of trade), of the schools — the\ncity superintendent if he is actively interested (but, if not, better some other person),\na representative of any organization that is devoted to education generally, or to this\nphase of it specifically, and finally one or more persons of local eminence, whom the\nforeign population itself recognizes as representing it directly.\nThis committee must prepare a program including:\n1. A knowledge, if even in a crude way, of the foreign groups and their occupations.\n2. An educational program for the citizens of the city showing what conditions are,\nwhat has been done, what remains to be done, and the reasons for the necessity\nof doing it.\n3. A program for the proper financing of the school work of education.\n4. A program looking to:\no) Laws concerning health conditions and housing, hours of labor, etc., and their\nenforcement.\nb) Opportunity for proper recreation and relaxation.\nc) Examination of methods of court procedure as applied to foreigners, the\ncharacter of interpreters, and the like.\nd) A municipal employment bureau.\ne) A general as distinguished from a directly educational campaign among foreigners, including meetings, discussions, etc., on our coimtry, its institutions,\nits opportunities, and the like.\nIf co-operative action of this kind is to be undertaken, then the school will have to\nshare in the movement; it may even have to lead it. But it should not monopolize it\nonce established.\n4. Private organizations. — ^There was a time when school officials were sometimes\nruffled by the intrusion of private individuals into matters of school administration, and\nthere are times now when activity of this kind represents very little more than superficial\nknowledge, a critical spirit, and a tremendous confidence based largely on ignorance of\nconditions. Nevertheless, one of the important advances made in school administrative\nsystems within recent years has been the sympathetic and intelligent co-operation developed on the part of the public thru the organizations interested in educational questions.\nI believe that school people should familiarize themselves with the suggestions and publications ofindividuals and societies so far as they affect foreign immigration. There\n|:an be no division of opinion, as to the responsibility of the school for doing the work\nspecifically belonging to it: i.e., the instruction of foreign illiterates, more effectively\njind more successfully than in the past. That statement leads us to a new topic.\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\nIV.\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\nSCHOOL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPRINCIPAL AGENT EN SOLVING FOREIGN\nRELATION\nTO INDUSTRIALISM\n\nILLITERACY\n\n(Cmcinnati\nIN ITS\n\nA discussion of what has been done by the schools is not encouraging. Publicschool instruction for illiterate immigrants needs two great developments: the enrichment of its content; the extension of its activities. Such other questions as those of an\nadequate teaching force, properly trained and paid, and an improvement in methods, do\nnot lie within the scope of this paper.\nThe content of instruction for immigrants should always be primarily instruction\nin our language. It should be dominated by a more practical and less literary method,\nand it should be skilfully organized so that from the first the learner will be able to use\nwhat he gets and adapt it to ordinary situations as he meets them.\nThe course in civics should cease to be abstract and formal. Thruout it should have\nin mind that the attendant is a wage-earner. He may have little need to know the qualifications ofa congressman. He needs knowledge of the parks, museums, hospitals, clinics,\nand other social facilities and opportunities of his city. His touch with the state is thru\nthe policeman, garbage collector, or letter-carrier, and instruction should begin with\nthese representatives of authority. Election to him is a definite phenomenon. Laws\nthat afiford him privileges or require from him the performance of duties, he should know\nin a practical way. Above all, the course should include some consideration of the\nindustry of the place as he knows it.\nAs the immigrant learns his English and his civics, he should get some definite notion\nof the industrial situation and opportunity of the city in which he lives, not by a futile\nattempt to learn a trade, but in a very definite way, notwithstanding. He should learn\nthe English terms for the tools and processes of his trade; the conditions of that trade;\nthe opportunities for employment. Without expensive equipment, he can, as he learns\nthe language, also learn to adjust himself to industrial conditions. It is possible that the\nold argimients as to a proper method of grading in evening schools, based sometimes on\nnationality, sometimes on age, sometimes on previous education, may some day be displaced byanother standard — an organization of classes based on occupations.\nThere is now in New York such a class made up of immigrant carpenters, and the\nresults are encouraging enough to extend classes like this on a considerable scale.\nInstruction in one's own language, if he be an illiterate, is a matter of necessity for\nthe worker in mines and shops in which there are notices affecting his health and safety.\nWhen the time is too short to allow of the successful instruction in the writing and reading\nof English, and when some ability to read in the foreigner's own tongue is imperative,\nthen such instruction is permissible, but it should not be given to the exclusion of English.\nIf given at all, it should be because of practical and not sentimental considerations.\nEvening-school instruction for foreigners even under legal compulsion will always\nprove unsatisfactory. A course in late afternoon hours for night workers should be provided in all large cities. More difficult than this is the extension of such instruction into\nshops and factories during regular working hours and without loss of pay.\nThis is not to be interpreted as a philanthropic experiment, tho it may appear so.\nIt is an industrial proposition and resolves itself into some such question as this: Will\nit pay a manufacturer to allow an illiterate worker to get enough time in working hours\nto learn English, his return being a better grade of labor ? We are all familiar with individual experiments along this line that give an affirmative answer to this question.\nCONCLUSION\nI desire to enumerate what seem to me the significant points of this paper.\nI. In the United States, there were, in igio, 22 cities of 250,000 population or more.\nIn these cities 90 per cent of the illiteracy was among the foreign bom. As a practical\nproposition, therefore, such cities, or most of them, must take up this problem as one of\nimmigrant education.\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF ADULT\n\nIMMIGRANTS\n\n439\n\n2. Skilled labor is frequently misplaced because of segregation in cities. The lack\nof knowledge of English is one of the important causes that tends to prevent the proper\ndistribution of such labor.\n3. Unskilled labor, which represents about 80 per cent of the adult immigration to\nthis country, gravitates to large cities. In such cities no really efficient method is being\nworked out looking to its assimilation. Illiteracy is presumably most widely distributed\namong imskilled labor. In any case, inability to speak English is an important tho not\nexclusive cause of that urban congestion in groups which tends to isolate the immigrant\nfrom a knowledge of industrial demands and opportunities.\n4. There are other causes for this condition, such as the lack of opportunity for\nsodal relaxation and recreation, the reciprocal misunderstanding between the foreign and\nnative bom, etc., but they are all more or less intimately associated with the fact that the\nforeigner cannot write, read, or speak Englis^i.\n5. The school is the immediate active agent in dealing with immigrant illiteracy,\nbut not the exclusive one. In the past it has affected but a very small fraction of those\nwho need its service. There is reason to believe that in both content and scope the course\nof instruction for illiterate immigrants should be greatly enriched and extended. Possibilities ofwhat might be done have been indicated Mrith descriptions of some illxmiinating\nexperiments.\n6. The agencies which aid in solving the problem of immigrant illiteracy must be\ncarefully discriminated, as federal, state, city, and private. They should be carefully\ndistinguished in order that the powers, the responsibilities, the possibilities for performance ofeach be clearly understood.\n7. All the agencies that are engaged in this work must consciously work together.\nThere is very little co-operation at this time, and until such co-operation is obtained there\n\\nll be continued waste of effort. The present degree of co-operation, for example,\nbetween cities and the federal government is very slight.\n8. But whatever the degree of co-operation, the cardinal fact is that tho immigration\nmay be a national matter, the solution of the problem of immigrant illiteracy, of adaptation of immigrant labor to industry, of social and civic amelioration of immigrant conditions, isa local community one. A corollary is that until communities realize this fact\nand undertake on their own account to deal with it, no real progress can be made. Immigration as a topic is one of national concern. The immigrant himself is not a topic, but\na man; the United States to him, whether viewed as a place to sell his labor, to enkindle\nhis spirit, to realize his hopes, or to afford him a home, is the particular community in\nwhich he lives and no other. There and nowhere else must the solution lie.\n\ni\nI.\n\nBEN BLEWETT,\n\nTHE EDUCATION\n\nOF ADULT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF INSTRUCTION,\n\nIMMIGRANTS\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS,\n\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nThe adult immigrant attends the evening schools for two quite different reasons.\nHe desires to become as quickly as possible the master of a practical English vocabulary\nsuch as he needs every day in his occupation and in his social life. He desires also to\nbecome acquainted with our institutions which differ greatly from those in which his\nprevious life has been passed, and escape from which has been, in many instances, the\nmotive for his coming to the United States. The first of these reasons is the one which is\nmost actively in evidence. This is natural because the possession of the language is a\nprerequisite to an easy entrance into the comprehension of the social conditions.\nSome difficulties stand out strongly as peculiar in the organization of this work.\nThere is great variation in the previous school training of these adults. Some have had\nlittle opportunity in their old homes, and some have had very great opportunities, having\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Cincinnati\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n440\nadvanced thru what corresponds to our high schools and even having had some university\nwork. The schools as yet, so far as I know, have not been able to take these differences\ninto proper consideration in classifying these students and the work for them.\nAnother serious difficulty is the selection of teachers peculiarly fitted for this work.\nThis difficulty is partly shown in the very strong differences of opinion as to whether or\nnot the teacher should be familiar with the foreign language and with the institutions of\nthe country from which these students come. There are those who claim that the pupils\nshould be grouped according to nationality and that the teacher should be selected on\nthis basis. The testimony of principals of schools in St. Louis and the answer to careful\ninquiry made of the students in that city do not support this opinion, but do, with little\nexception, take the ground that it is best for the teacher not to have the ability to speak\nin any considerable degree the language of the foreign student.\nThe element in the teacher which seems to be essential from the testimony I gather\nfrom my own experience is that there should be teaching ability of the highest order, and\nespecially should the teacher be able to enter into sympathetic relations with her students,\nimderstand their difficulties as mature people, and deal with them accordingly. I have\nnever seen any more affectionate regard for a teacher than is manifested by these adults\nfor one who is really skilful.\nIn furtherance of the desire of these students to become Americans, it is important that\nthey should have correct information from right sources on the steps that are necessary\nto be taken by them to secure their naturalization papers. They frequently fall into\nthe hands of sharks who exploit them in what they claim to be valuable aid in getting\ntheir papers. The schools, the departments of the government, and the courts can protect them from such exploitation.\nBecause it will take some time for them to acquire English enough to understand the presentation of such and other matters thru it relating to the peculiar industrial\n-and social life of their new home, it may be well to have these presented in talks in their\nown languages by men or women competent to render such service, but it is the almost\nunanimous opinion of those with whom I have advised that these students wish to have\nall of this presented to them in English as rapidly as they can comprehend in that language.\nWhile we are doing a great work for these people, there still remains much to be done\nin a proper grading and other organization of school work, and much remains to be done\nin making the school a real center of dissemination of accurate and vital knowledge concerning the new institutions into which they seek to find their way and which have promised to offer for them a life full of new hope and opportunity.\nn.\n\nLEWIS M. DOUGAN, PRTNCIPAL OF SHAW SCHOOL, ST. LOXnS, MO,\n\n1\n\nSpeaking from my experience with North Italians and Sicilians, it seems to me most\nimportant to learn who these people are, whence they came, why they came, where they\nlive, and what they do. The little survey I have made has shown that my men came\nfrom conditions of life and occupation very different from those in which they now find\nthemselves. From a semi-rural life in a primitive community, they have come to live\nin what Professor Ross calls \"pigsty\" conditions, and to work at clay mining and clay\nmanufacturing. Some will return, but many will remain, and these constitute our problem. They are by nature an emotional, fun-loving people, with pleasing voices and a\ntalent for music of various kinds which should be developed. They are here for the purpose of making money even at the cost of, to us, decent living. Their purpose and\ntheir sacrifice, Thomas A. Daly puts in his inimitable way as follows:\nBut steel so long I maka mon',\nSo long ees worka to be done,\nI can forgat how shines da sun\nEen Napoli.\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF ADULT\n\nIMMIGRANTS\n\n441\n\nThey are not here to enter politics and become, like the Irish, ward politicians as soon as\ncitizens. They are not expecting or caring to be pushed upward like so many older\nimmigrants. They want first and most of all the English language, and they need first\nand most of all a knowledge of how to live. Their American education is bound up with\nthe problem of housing conditions, which is, of course, not a school problem; but somehow the school must find a way to teach them hygiene, the care and upbringing of children,\nand family life in general. At the same time, it must help to save the best in them as they\ncome to us and interpret for them the lives of the best American workingmen. This is\nnot the place to consider the problem of their primitive regard for women, but it needs\nstudy. We shall do well to consider carefully whether it is not better to teach these men\nto live decently and happily in the station they now occupy than to push them upward\nand get another shipload to take their places.\nAs to the mooted question. Who can best teach these people ? my opinion is that it is\nnot a question whether the teacher is of their nationality so much as whether the teacher\ncan reach them personally, and, in language instruction, sharpen the correspondence\nbetween the English symbols and the ideas which, as adults, they already have. Because\nof the instructors' failure to do this, many a man drops out; and, while many day-school\nteachers are indifferent successes in evening schools, comparatively few Southeastern\nEuropean immigrants have teaching power. Nor does the history of the padrone system\nreflect credit on the foreigner as a leader of his own people: but personal leadership and\ninterpretation they need. We have lately had a representative of the United States\nNaturalization Service come to our school to talk with the men, to represent the government in a personal way, and, perhaps, save them the fees of some tricky lawyer. I\nwould emphasize again in closing the need of learning first the immigrant's past and present\nlife, and basing on that knowledge the education given him. Altho we ought not yet to\ncondemn our newest Americans from Southern and Eastern Europe, we know there are\ngreat temperamental differences between races and subraces and that some are still very\nbackward. The Lombard is strikingly different from the Pole; and the Sicilian,\npart Greek, part Norman, part African, coming out of mediaeval ignorance seems almost\noriental. The problem is essentially the same, no doubt, as that offered by the immigrant of a half-century ago, only vastly more difficidt, especially in the face of modem\nindustrial conditions. Apparently there is need of much patient study lest we trust\noptimistically, as we have in the past, to the forms of our government and our social\ninstitutions automaticadly to give these very alien people our American standards and\nideals, and lest, in expecting from them the swift adjustment of the Northern European\nstocks to our American life, we suffer the fate of Kipling's white man, \"who tried to hurry\nthe East.\"\nDISCUSSION\nElmer K. Sexton, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J. — ^The problem of the education of the adult immigrant has presented ever-increasing difficulties\nsince about the year 1883. Since that time immigration has doubled and has greatly\nchanged in character.\nBefore 1883, 95 per cent of the immigrants came from Northern Eurojje. Now, 70\nper cent of them come from Southern Europe. Of the \"old immigration,\" 3 jjer cent was\nilliterate, while 35 per cent of the \"new immigration\" is illiterate. The old immigration\ncame during the general development of the country for the purpose of settlement. The\nnew came during the industrial expansion, for the purpose of a higher wage. A much\ngreater percentage of the immigrants today are men and a greater percentage return to\nEurope with their earnings. From this rapid summary of changed conditions, it is at\nonce apparent that a tremendous task is incumbent upon the people of this country thru\ntheir schools and other agencies to socidize and Americanize these newcomers and^their\nchildren.\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincimiiitr\n\nWe know that a family moving into a strange community will become acquainted\nmuch quicker and with a stronger sjonpathy if it has children. So, too, it is thru the\nschools that the foreigners who have settled in a colony of their own coimtrymen get the\nfirst and most complete touch and viewpoint of the American. It is here they learn to\nimderstand America, her mode of thinking, her institutions, and her ideals.\nThe number of immigrants has increased rapidly. They are more illiterate and a\ngreater proportion are unskilled workmen. They are not well distributed, and, in many\ncases, the true spirit of America never reaches them. They still live in the social conditions ofthe country from which they came, retain her ideals, and preserve her institutions.\nThese coimter forces to the success of our great experiment of a nation conceived in liberty\nand dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal are acomiulating, and we\nshould not become aware of our duty too late.\nWe must meet the problem and solve it. We can better understand the conditions\nand remedies, perhaps, by referring to my own city. Newark contains 120,000 adult\nimmigrants. A small portion of these, having entered the cotmtry as children, have had\nthe benefits of the public-school influence. Of the men and women, the majority of whom\ncould not speak, read, or write English, 4,203 attended our evening schools last year,\nThb does not, of course, represent the proper proportion of these adults who have been\ninfluenced by the evening schools, 60 per cent of whom do not return the second year\nto the evening schools, their places being filled by others. In one year many succeed\nfairly well in learning to read, write, and speak English, and many have secured their\nfirst naturalization papers. Others have changed residence, or have taken up higher work\nin regular classes of the evening grammar or high schools.\nThe male adults are encouraged to take out their naturalization papers. Of the\nmen, 450 have secured their first naturalization papers this year, and over 400 more have\nmade requests for blanks which will be sent to the schools thru the superintendent's\noffice and filled out in the classes. These men, with the blanks prepared, will report\naccording to schedule to the county clerk, who has kindly consented to keep his office\nopen for that purpose each Wednesday evening during February, March, and April.\nThe influence of the evening schools is felt by many of the best male immigrants\nthru the personal touch; thru the power gained in learning to read, write, and speak the\nlanguage, thereby getting the benefits of another great Americanizer, the public press;\nand thru their interest in the government after becoming citizens.\nThe school building should be opened without cost to these people, so that they may\nform clubs where the commvmity spirit can be developed and where civic pride can be\nintensified. The work of the evening schools now provides for classes in household science\nand art for women and in the trades for men, but these courses do not reach a sufficient\nnumber of unskilled workmen.\nThe most potent influence in promoting the assimilation of the family is the children,\nbut we find that the absence of family life is much more conspicuous among the immigrants today coming from Southern and Eastern Europe than formerly. Many of these\npeople do not expect to settle here permanently, and they live in roaming groups wherever\nthey can find employment, and do not come in contact with Americans. The tendency\nto learn the language and become naturalized has decreased among the new immigrants.\nThe evening schools, therefore, should offer all inducements possible to forward both\nof these lines of assistance, and should further adapt themselves to the newcomers' needs.\nThere is another class which has scarcely been reached. The women are but slightly\naffected and many remain for years, and perhaps all their lives, ignorant of the true\nAmerican spirit. But 1,075 women attended evening school last year and most of these\nwere unmarried. The mother in the home exerts more influence over the lives of others\nthan does anyone else. Here are foxmd the ideals of cleanliness, beauty, order, arrangement, obedience, industry, honesty, truth, and love. Many of these mothers are isolated\nin colonies and are unable to touch the American civilization at any point except perhaps\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF ADULT\n\nIMMIGRANTS\n\n443\n\nthru the children who attend the public schools. The American civilization places\nwomen on a much higher plane than do the countries from which we receive most of our\nimmigrants. How are we to bring these women in closer touch with the freedom and\ninspiration for which this country stands ?\nThe extension of the nurse and social-worker idea will reach the colonized women\nin perhaps the line of least resistance and perhaps with least cost.\nThe Bureau of Associated Charities, in co-operation with the settlement workers,\nformed classes of these foreign mothers and placed them under the instruction of social\nworkers. Most of the expense was borne by private subscription, the board of education\nfurnishing part of the cost and giving the use of the school buildings. Mothers were\ntaught to prepare wholesome and hygienic food, to dress the children properly, to keep the\nhouse in order, to do general housekeeping, to buy economically, etc., and, more important\nstill, were given that community spirit and social touch which is a powerful Americanizer.\nThese mothers received this assistance gladly and with enthusiasm. This work was very\nsuccessful, but it needed following up.\nIn January, 1914, our Board of Education reduced the nvunber of medical inspectors\nand increased the number of nurses. Each of the 26 nurses has the care of one or two\nschools and about 2,200 pupils. She visits the schools under her charge, and, after examining individual cases and inspecting several classrooms, makes as many visits to the\nhomes as time will allow. During these visits of the nurse to the home, the director of\nmedical inspection requests her to become a social worker as far as possible, and, in her\ncapacity as an adviser and helper, she makes suggestions to the mother with reference\nto the cooking of food, cleanliness, clothing of children, etc., all of which may be necessary\nto carry out her duties as nurse, but she goes much farther whenever occasion presents\nitself. The nurse gains the confidence of the parents as her duties are wholly helpful,\nand cordial relations exist between them. Her suggestions in her capacity as nurse and\nsocial worker are well received. Our truant oflScers report to the nurses in many cases\nthat sickness in the family is the cause of absence and the nurses are supposed to examine\ninto the nature of the trouble. The nurse reports on the home, the family, economic\ncondition, and on the child on whose account she made the visit, and this report is closely\nexamined and followed up by the chief medical inspector. From 3,500 to 4,000 visits\nper month are made to the homes by the nurses. It is the intention to secure for these\nnurses university extension courses for social workers, that they may be even better\nequipped to render aid intelligently and effectively.\nH. H. Wheaton, specialist in immigrant education, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. — The full importance of immigrant education has been developed by the previous speaker. The main features of the subject, inability to speak\nEnglish, illiteracy, selection of subject-matter, methods of teaching English, and citizenship training have also been brought out in part. As the last speaker on the program,\ntherefore, I am going to set aside all discussion of the subject itself, and proceed at\nonce to state some recommendations for a national, state, and city program for constructive work in immigrant education.\n\nI. Amend the naturalization law to standardize educational qualifications for\ncitizenship.\nRequire ability not only to speak the English language, but to read and write it as well.\nRequire\nan intelligent conception of the rights, duties, and privileges of American cidzenship.\n_ Substitute for the present court examination a requirement that the applicant for\natizenship present with his petition a certificate showing creditable work and regular\nattendance upon some public school for at least one school term where he received instruction inEnglish and civics of a certain standard.\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nICmcinnati\n\n2. Authorize the United States Bureau of Education to set the standard of instruction required in English and civics to entitle an alien to the certificate above mentioned.\nRequire public-school classes in English and civics for foreigners to be taught according to the most approved methods. Plan and outline appropriate course of study covering\nsuitable subject-matter.\n3. Grant federal aid to public-school classes in English and civics for foreigners where\nstandards required by United States Bureau of Education are maintained.\n4. Provide local school authorities with the names, addresses, and facts of identification of newly admitted alien children, in order that children of school age may be immediately brought into school under the compulsory attendance laws.\n5. Instruct detained aliens at immigration ports in English, and maintain a guidance\nbureau which will direct newly arrived aliens into occupations for which they are fitted.\n6. Assume jurisdiction of the whole subject of immigrant education on the ground\nthat the admission of aliens to the United States is a federal matter and that the admission\nof aliens to citizenship is also exclusively a federal matter, and that therefore their qualifications for citizenship are equally a concern of the federal government.\n\n1. Amend the education laws to necessitate compulsory attendance of non-Englishspeaking and illiterate persons between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one years, fixing\nthe standard of literacy training required as equivalent to the completion of the fifth\ngrade in the public schools. Amend the labor laws to prohibit the employment of such\nminors imless weekly reports of regular attendance are presented to employers.\n2. Require all large cities to maintain evening schools for foreigners where English\nand civics instruction is given. Require the school term to extend thruout the daj^-school\nterm. Require the smaller cities and school districts to maintain evening schools for\nforeigners for a reasonable period of time when twenty or more illiterate minors within\nthe proposed amendments of the compulsory attendance laws and labor laws are required\nby such laws to attend some school.\n3. Extend the facilities for educating foreigners, such as camp schools, industrial and\nvocational schools, continuation and part-time schools, etc. Develop traveling libraries\nof foreign language books and books in English smted to foreign-bom readers. Locate\ntraveling libraries in evening schools where foreigners are receiving instruction. Centralize general control and supervision over such schools in the state departments of\neducation.\n4. Grant state aid to cities and school districts compelled to maintain or establish\nevening schools, camp schools, etc., due to the operation of the compulsory attendance\namendment.\n5. Plan courses of study in English and civics suitable for foreigners, thru the state\ndepartment of education, which should devote attention to bulletins on education,\nstandardization of classes, terms and courses, and preparation of syllabi for local use.\n6. Provide free textbooks or authorize city and district boards to provide them free\nin evening schools and classes.\nCITY\n\n1. In large cities concentrate all immigrant education work for persons fourteen years\nof age and over under one supervisor appointed by the superintendent of education, with\npowers to standardize courses, methods, subject-matter, classes, etc.\n2. Appoint teachers of English for foreigners from a civil-service list made up in\ngeneral on the basis of teaching ability, experience, and knowledge of foreign languages.\nSelect teachers with experience and training in day-school work subject to the limitations\nnoted at the end of paragraph 5.\n3. Provide teachers' courses in Italian, German, Polish, Slavish, and other immigrant\nlanguages where the American-bom teachers may qualify themselves siifficientiy in such\nlanguages to enable them to establish a mediimi of communication with the non-Englishspeaking students in evening classes.\n4. Conduct teachers' training courses for the purpose of demonstrating the best\nmethods of teaching English and citizenship and for standardizing subject-matter and\nmethods of training.\n5. Pay evening-school teachers a salary commensurate with their qualifications,\nability, and experience; if on the monthly basis, pay such teachers equivalent to a dayschool teacher's salary, if on the day basis, pay such teachers sufficient to enable them to\nteach in the evening schools without engaging in any other occupation. Prohibit dayschool teachers from teaching at the same time in the night schools.\n6. Group pupils on the basis of congenial nationality, ability to speak English,\nprevious education, and, where possible, upon the basis of sex and age.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBACKWASH\n\nPUPIL\n\n445\n\n7. Lengthen the evening-school term to cover the spring period of heaviest immigration, giving at least three nights of instruction per week, two hours per evening.\n8. Establish branch or deposit stations of the city library in all schools where foreign\nstudents are taught, selecting books with the assistance of committees from foreign\nsocieties and made up of the better educated foreigners.\nSecure books from the state traveling library in foreign languages and in English\nsuitable to the students.\n9. Develop the use of schools as neighborhood centers and for meetings of foreigners'\nsocieties, etc.\n10. Advertise evening-school facilities in foreign language newspapers; distribute\ncirculars and posters in the principal foreign languages thruout the foreign quarters. Post\nsuch notices in factories where aliens are employed; send notices to foreign organizations\nrequesting co-operation; appoint committees of foreigners to procure attendance of adult\nimmigrants.\n11. Ascertain the type of educational work for foreigners being conducted by private\nagencies and solicit the co-operation of such organizations.\nIf federal, state, and city authorities will combine in the execution of the program\nsuggested, we shall be in a fair way to solve the problem of immigrant education which\nnow confronts us. Instead of chaos in subject-matter and method, we shall have standardization. Instead of inadequate supervision of such facilities as are now provided, we\nshall have centralization in the proper authorities looking toward uniformity in the treatment of this great problem. Until this program is adopted in all or in part we shall have\naliens applying for citizenship and being admitted to the exercise of this privilege without\nproper qualifications and without any intelligent conception of what residence in the\nUnited States really means.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH\nA POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 250,000\n\nTOPIC:\n\nCURRENT\nA.\n\nMETHODS OF DEALING\nEXCEPTIONAL PUPIL\nTHE BACKWARD\n\nWITH\n\nTHE\n\nPUPIL\n\nADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nINDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nOP PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nOne of the most vexatious problems which the city superintendent of the present\nday has to confront is that of instructing the non-average child — the child who fails\nto become adjusted to the regular work of the public schools.\nOf the different types of children that come from these non-average groups, the\n\"backward pupil\" is characterized by superintendents as follows:\n1. Unable to do work of his grade on account of illness, absence, or lack of mentality.\n2. Not able to do regular school work in a reasonable time.\n3. Does not have ordinary ability to keep up with his class.\n4. Has lost his standing with his class because of mental inability to do the work of\nhis class.\n5. From inability or ill health not able to do average work in the grade in which his\nage indicates he should be classified.\n6. A pupil who for any reason is two or more years behind his grade.\n7. Not of defective intelligence but simply behindhand in his work and often a bafSing\nstudy needing the help of an expert.\nIt will be observed that every definition implies certain standards which a pupil must\nreach if he is held by the school authorities to be normal.\nThe current methods of dealing with these bclow-grade pupils may be grouped as\nfollows:\nI. Methods that do not seek causes below those immediately apparent but simply\ncoach the pupil to bring him up to his grade. In such cases, the backward pupils may be\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nsegregated in one class, under the regular teachers, and given additional help, or the\nprincipal, teacher, or unassigned teacher in the building may coach such pupils outside\nthe regular class and regular class hours. An ungraded room may be maintained in\nwhich such pupUs are placed temporarily. Continuation schools for a few weeks in the\nsummer are provided to bring up the back work.\n2. Methods that seek causes of backwardness by investigating home conditions, the\npersonal history of the child, and his social environment. While the same agents as the\nforegoing are employed to aid the progress of the pupil, the plans and methods are necessarily modified in the light of the causes discovered, and an added force is given in an attempt to remove, as far as possible, the causes that are shown.\nSuch causes may be social: (i) Children of foreign families handicapped by a strange\nlanguage. (2) Children of nomadic families, who must frequently adjust to new school\nconditions. (3) Children in a room where there is frequent change of teachers. (4) Children from homes not conducive to adjustment wilJi public-school requirements, etc.\nThey may be physical: (i) Temporary illness. (2) Slight defects in vision and hearing.\n(3) Bad teeth and adenoids.\n(4) Some slight physical deformity, etc.\nThru co-operation of the pupils and teachers with the home and physician, thru\nsimple physical tests, thru medical and dental inspection in the schools, these causes are\nremoved or modified and the backwardness relieved.\n3. Methods by which the application of scientific tests designed especially for that\npurp)ose, as the Binet-SLmon and other tests, will disclose causes not otherwise apparent,\nsuch as: (i) Slow mental development. (2) A type of mentality that cannot adjust to\nthe teacher or regtilar work of the school. (3) A type that may be strong in some branches\nof study and unable to cope with others. (4) A bad mental deficiency that if not discovered and treated may degenerate into feeble-mindedness. {5) A condition resulting\nfrom feeble-mindedness, that had been attributed to other causes.\nUngraded schools, with special teachers, courses, and forms of instruction, are\nprovided for these pupils, and they are placed in such schools, either temporarily or\npermanently. Thru a careful study of conditions and causes, these pupils are grouped\naccording to their needs and remedies applied that will meet the situation.\nThese are in general the current methods of dealing with backward pupils, and while\nthey have met and relieved many trying situations in the schools, yet the entire process\nof discovering and treating such cases points to certain greatly needed changes or punctures in our present school systems, whereby an accumulation of backwardness will be\nprevented and the best possible advantages accorded all pupils to secure a public-school\neducation.\nForemost among these greatly needed changes is that of placing fewer pupils imder\nthe charge of one teacher. There will always be plenty of backward pupils to be treated\nby special devices so long as school systems place from forty-five to fifty or more pupils\nunder the care of a single teacher. When we consider the wide diversity among individual children and the small percentage of them without physical or mental blemish,\nwell may we ask what man or woman of superhiunan strength and intelligence can ever\nknow a fractional part of the needs of the children in a room when there are not enough\nminutes in the day to treat them as individuals.\nMiss Katrina Myers, of Indianap>olis, in a paper on \" Feeble-Mindedness in the\nPublic Schools,\" read before the Indiana Academy of Science, thus describes a group of\nchildren in the primary schools:\nImagine one hvmdred ordinary first- or second-grade pupils. Here investigators\nfind: one stutters; two or three lisp; one is seriously anemic; several are badly spoiled\nchildren; one is immature — a year or two retarded in mental and moral growth; one is\nmorally weak; two are imbecile or feeble-minded. Then there is one inactive child;\nseveral oversensitive, nervous children; one superficially precocious child; several who\nare superior, eager, ardent, imaginative, social. Four suJBFer from defective hearing;\ntwenty-six now or will very soon show eye strain or have defective vision; about a dozen\nhave asymmetries or deformities; about thirty have nasal obstruction or diseased throats,\nand several others possess serious peculiarities of temperament. Only twenty-five of the\nhundred are physically and mentally without blemish.\nEvery plan for the treatment of backward pupils shows the need of individual study\nand individual treatment for all pupils. This can never be accomplished imtil the num-\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nPUPIL\n\n447\n\nber of pupils in charge of one teacher shall be reduced from forty-five, fifty, and sixty\nto twenty-five or thirty — preferably the former.\nAnother change must come in the course of study. Breadth, flexibility, wide latitude\nfor adaptation to individual groups and types must be introduced in courses of study,\nthat the interest of the pupil may be discovered, and his adjustment to the school made\npossible.\nNew and elastic grade standards must be worked out with maximum and minimum\nrequirements and innumerable stages between.\nOur present rigid promotion schemes that hold back pupils because they are not\nproficient in all lines must give place to promotion by subjects and advancement for the\nbenefit of the individual.\nIntelligent and sympathetic supervision of school work is greatly needed, particularly\nin the new and special lines of work that are becoming more and more a part of the school\ncurriculum. Each supervisor is too much inclined to magnify her own work, failing to\nsee its relation to a general course of study and to individual pupils.\nTeachers must be secured for the schoolroom who are capable, quick to discover\nindividual needs and interests, and trained to provide for them. Normal schools must\nplace more stress upon how to study individual types than upon fixed methods for large\nclasses without regard to individual differences. Such teachers having been found and\nthe necessary punctures made in the system so that they may use their initiative and\noriginality in giving instruction, we shall find that \"backwardness\" is a term with little\nplace in our public schools.\nUnder the present plan of special teachers, ungraded rooms, and schools, we are\nattempting to cure the results that follow upon the evils of a system, and hosts of backward pupils drop out of school before their cases can be diagnosed and treated.\nSuperintendent Donald Du Shane, of Madison, Ind., who has been greatly interested\nin the problem of \"backwardness\" and deeper causes for retardation, made an investigation last year of the cases of pupils withdrawing from the Madison schools to go to work,\nunder the provisions of the Indiana compulsory attendance law. Thru this investigation,\nSuperintendent Du Shane found that 81 per cent of all the withdrawals on working certificates represented pupils who were behind in their school work.\nThe Binet-Simon tests applied to 229 boys in the reform school at Plainfield, Ind.,\ndiscovered the mental age of each one to be lower than the chronological age, the mental\nage of the majority ranging from three to five years below the chronological age.\nOur work in the public schools should be constructive, with the attention centered\nupon the normal rather than the abnormal. Our crjdng need in the public schools today\nis not so much for special devices that at the best can reach only a very small percentage\nof the pupils denominated \"backward,\" but for a modification within the system that\nthru superior teachers with small numbers of pupils and a wide range of action will prevent\nthe development of such cases.\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nPUPIL\n\nFRANK B, COOPER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH.\nI have assumed that it is expected that I should speak of the methods pursued in the\ntreatment of the mentally deficient in the city in which I have the honor to live and work.\nWe began some years ago with a single teacher selected from the regular corps on\naccount of her personal and pedagogic qualifications, to which were added a summer of\nstudy under Dr, Goddard at Vineland, N.J,, and some weeks of visitation and observation\nat schools for the defective in other cities. We took for our first special school ten or\ntwelve children, the most serious of our individual problems then in the schools, most of\nwhom were of a very low grade of intelligence. These children furnished a basis for\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincii\n\nstudy and for development and this became the nucleus of our present system of special\nschools. The following year, two teachers were added and some classification was\nattempted according to order of intelligence and needs. At about this time, a psychological clinic was established in connection with the special school imder the direction of\nthe Department of Education of the University of Washington, which had received a\nbenefaction for the purpose. At the same time, there was instituted a volunteer service\nfor the school under our medical specialists of the city. We now have eight special\nschools, employing fifteen specially prepared teachers, and accommodating one hundred\nand sixty-five pupils.\nOur child laboratory is in a central location in a separate building which is ako the\nheadquarters of the medical director and contains the medical and dental school clinic.\nAt the child laboratory, an observation class is maintained. This laboratory is completely provided with apparatus for making mental tests, and it is here that the process of\ndiagnosis is carried on, a child remaining at the laboratory only long enough for his status\nand need to be determined. Sometimes he is there for only two or three days and sometimes for as many weeks.\nThe method of procedure by which a child may be admitted to the observation class\nis somewhat as follows: A child who is having difficulty in his grade work is reported by\nhis teacher to the principal of his building. The principal in turn reports him to the\nauxiliary teacher in the building, who then gives him individual help. The school nurse\nalso examines the child for physical handicaps. If, after this assistance, the child still\nfails to make progress, he may be recommended to the child-study laboratory, where family,\np)ersonal, and school histories are obtained. After this he is sent to the medical clinic\nand given a thoro examination by four or more specialists. The medical director then\nmakes a physical diagnosis and the child is returned to the child-study laboratory with\nthis diagnosis. He is admitted to the observation class. Here every effort is made to win\nhis confidence and to make him feel at home. As soon as this is accomplished, he is given\nthe Binet-Simon test of intelligence and his mental level is foimd. In addition, he is\ngiven other tests for various mental traits, such as perception, judgment, association,\nmemory, ability to comprehend, and to think in abstract terms. These are tests that\nmust be given individually and the best results cannot be obtained imtil the child feels\nperfectly at home and in sjTnpathy with the examiner.\nIn the observation class, all the activities of the child are observed. The extent of his\nability to do academic work is foimd by various tests. His inventiveness, ingenuity,\nvolition, interests, co-ordination, social adaptability are all observed and noted while he\nthinks he is having a good time. The observation class is not like the ordinary schoolroorr, in that the chief object is the observation and study of children rather than that\n6{ teaching tbem. The order of things is reversed. The children are there to be studied,\nnot taught — they are the teachers and the teachers are the students.\nThe period of observation varies with different children. When a child has beenj\nthoroly\nobserved,\nstudied,\nand tested,\nmedical Arelief\nobtained,\nresults\nof these'\nobservations\nand tests\nare recorded\nand and\ncompared.\ndiagnosis\nis thenthemade\nbased\nupon\nthe combined findings of the medical clinic and the child-study laboratory and from \"J\nthis diagnosis a recommendation is made as to future school work and methods for hia\ndevelopment are suggested. The child may be returned with this recommendation to his\nregular grade, or he may be placed in the special class nearest his home, or he may be\ndebarred from school temporarily or permanently according to his physical and mental\ncondition.\nThis method of admission to the observation class is not the only one in practiceMany children are brought by their parents or by those in charge of them, for observation\nand study, independently of the schools.\nOf the 136 children who have passed thru the child-study laboratory since September,\n16 already have been returned to their grades, 64 have been assigned to special classes,\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nDELINQUENT\n\nPUPIL\n\n449\n\n7 have been temporarily and 15 permanently debarred from school work, and of the\nremaining 34, 16 are still in the observation class, and the other 18, who came for examination only, are doing regular work in their respective schools. These latter are institutional cases and have been sent to the state institution.\nFor two or three years, we have been caring for a number of institutional cases for\nwhom the state could not provide on account of insufficient room. Now that the state\nis prepared to care for them, all such are sent to the state institution for the feeble-minded.\nAt the individual special schools, two or three teachers are employed and classification\nattempted. These schools are provided with suitable equipment, especial attention\nbeing given to the hand work. The older boys have manual training, and the older\ngirls have household arts, the instruction being adapted in every case to individual power\nand needs. We have succeeded thru the agency of these schools in relieving the regular\nschools and saving them time and strain, in making the school life of these exceptional\nchildren much more enjoyable, and in contributing in a significant way to their power to\nhelp themselves and others.\nC.\nGEORGE\n\nTHE DELINQUENT\n\nI. ALDRICH, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nPUPIL\n\nOF SCHOOLS, BROOKLINE,\n\nMASS.\n\nModem penology contends that there is no criminal class. There are individuals\nwho, sometimes thru their own favdt but oftener because of circumstances beyond their\ncontrol, must for a time be designated as criminals. In dealing with such individuals,\nthe dominant note is not punishment but reformation. So we may believe that among\nchildren and youth there does not exist a delinquent class, unless possibly we admit that\nthose who are delinquents because they are defectives constitute such a class. Individuals, however, may be found everywhere to whom for the moment the term \"delinquent\" must be applied. Practically none of these have become delinquents thru the\nexercise of their own volition. They are the victims of inheritance, environment, associates, one or all. In every system of schools some of these unfortunates — more sinned\ni^ainst than sinning — are to be found. In school systems which are well organized and\nefficiently conducted, the ntmiber will be relatively small and will steadily diminish.\nWhat shall we do, not with them but for them ?\nTo begin with, we shall sympathize and not condemn. We shall put far from us the\nidea that once a delinquent always a delinquent. We shall regard them as unfortimates,\ntemporarily in the slough, who need the utmost consideration. To deal with the majority\nof pupils who measure up to our expectations is easy. Success with them entitles us to no\nspecial credit. Each of the others presents a problem of greater or less difficulty. Few\nof these problems are insoluble. Success in tbeir solution carries with it an exceeding\ngreat reward. That great man. General Armstrong of Hampton, used to say that the\nfirst thing to do for a darky is to save him from himself. Very similar is our duty to the\ndelinquent. He may have become a delinquent thru the force of extraneous circiunstances, or he may have become one thru his own weakness, such as lack of self-respect,\nlack of will-power, or feebleness of purpose. Quite probably he needs to be rescued from\nhimself. In this undertaking, our reliance must not be upon systems, devices, regulations, or any sort of machinery. If we succeed, it will be thru the abundant sympathy,\nthe keen insight, the good sense, the persistent effort of human beings. In this great\nwork, our first and chief reliance must be the classroom teacher. Hers is the finest\nopportunity; hers must be the heaviest responsibility. If, happily, she is given a reasonable number of pupils, say forty, if these pupils are left in her care for a reasonable time,\nat least a year, if instead of being hampered by higher powers she is given a fair chance\nto do the best that is in her, she will rejoice in her opportunity and not shirk the attending responsibility. Brought into contact with her class at the begirming of a school year,\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "45©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nconscious always that she is to teach boys and girls not subjects, she will make as speedily\nas possible a study of each individual. Certain wajrward ones she will speedUy find, but\nat the outset she will admit no presumption that any are to be classed as delinquent.\nLater she may be compelled to recognize the fact that one or more must for the time be\nso designated. She will make this admission in sorrow, not in anger, and with the silent\ndetermination that the few to whom the term \"delinquent\" must be applied shall be\nfreed from the bondage of their delinquency. She knows that she must in some way get\nhold of each. She must win their confidence and good will. No treatise on pedagogy\nwill tell her how to do this. Upheld by the belief that each is interested in something,\nthat each would like to be or to do something, she looks out for the interest, or the desirci\nknowing which she may break thru the barrier which separates her from the heart of the\npupil and makes her for the time impotent.\nNext to the classroom teacher in the possibility of useful service and consequently\nin point of responsibility comes the principal. He cannot, in fairness, be expected to\nknow each of the hxmdreds who make up his school in the same intimate way that the\nclassroom teacher may know every member of her class, but he can and ought to know\nthe limited number of exceptional cases in each classroom. It is his privilege and duty,\nnot to supersede the classroom teacher, but stanchly to support her in the exercise of her\nauthority, to assist her by suggestion and ad\\'ice, to sympathize with her in her difficulties and discouragements, and to commend warmly her efforts and successes. In the case\nof sharp differences between the teacher and the delinquent, the principal constitutes the\nfirst court of appeal. While he gives the teacher thorogoing support in the rightful\nexercise of her authority, he will impress the culprit with his absolute fairness. Incidentally, hewill do his best to see that no appeal is taken to a higher authority. In school\nadministration, it is desirable that most matters be decided by the persons who stand\nnext and who have intimate and personal knowledge of all attending circumstances.\nNext among the human beings who are to minister to delinquents, I place the attendance officer — a designation to be preferred to truant officer. This official should be dominated by the same considerations that sway the teacher and principal, namely, that he is\nan agent for reformation, not for punishment. He must, of course, be keen and acquainted\nwith the various satanic desires to which delinquency seems to be prone, because it is\ndesirable that the young persons with whom he deals should have a wholesome respect\nfor his position and authority. Coupled with this respect, should go a feeling that the\nattendance officer bears them no ill will — that he is in no sense their enemy, but rather\na faithful friend who can meet the obligation of friendship only by doing now and again\nwhat is unpalatable to the other party concerned.\nI pass now to a word regarding the school board, the body from which, in very large\ndegree, teacher, principal, and attendance officer derive their authority. In general, it\nis true that the well-being of any system of schools is vitally dependent on the wisdom,\nthe independence, the disinterestedness, and the courage of the board or school committee.\nA cardinal principle in the policy of such board ought to be the ready and hearty support\nof all subordinates in the judicious exercise of their respective fimctions. No harm will\nresult if, on occasion, it expresses hearty approval of the acts of its appointees. Occasionally itmust sit as a court of appeal and should then be the embodiment of justice.\nAs already suggested, these appeab will not be frequent if teachers and attendance\nofficers are wise and efficient. A wise board, moreover, will discourage such appeals by\nimpressing the community with the conviction that appeals are useless imless foimded on\na genuine grievance, that the board stands like a rock behind its agents unless in the\nexercise of their various functions these agents have clearly erred. So simple a device\nas a requirement that all appeals shall be made in writing and shall state clearly the\nalleged grievance will serve a useful purpose. In a democratic society like our own,\nwhere members of school boards are commonly chosen by popular election, happy is the\ncommunity which is vrise enough to select as members men and women who are superior\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nDELINQUENT\n\nPUPIL\n\n45 1\n\nto the idle tittletattle of the street, who can withstand passing gusts of local sentiment,\nand who show themselves fearless in the discharge of official duty.\nFinally, among the humans who are concerned in the management of delinquents,\nI come to the judge, to whom, unfortunately, an appeal for assistance must sometimes\nbe made. I use the expression \"appeal for assistance\" designedly, for be it constantly\nremembered that in all our dealings with the delinquent we are much in the position of\na physician endeavoring to cure a patient. It is the purpose of the physician, not to\npunish the patient for his illness, but to make him well again. The number of delinquents\nfinding their way to the court room should be relatively small. Only when teacher,\nprincipal, and attendance officer have tried, and tried, and tried again, should resort be\nhad to the court room. In cases where such resort must be had, every precaution shoxild\nbe taken against giving the delinquent anything in the nature of a criminal record. The\nresults attending this final appeal will depend on no mysterious qualities attaching to a\ncourt, but upon the qualities of head and heart possessed by the man who presides in the\ncourt. Like the attendance officer, he must be too keen to be hoodwinked. Someone has\nsaid that a good executive is one who acts promptly and is sometimes right. So the\njudge while giving the young person before him every possible chance — admonition,\ncaution, encouragement, probation, and all the rest — should proceed with all the speed\nand vigor and decision which circumstances permit. He should be the wise and sane ally\nof all those who before him have been doing their best to save the delinquent.\nHowever we may regret the fact, it is sometimes necessary to remove the delinquent\nfrom a place to which it is a travesty to apply the name \"home,\" from an environment\nthoroly vicious, and from associates who may be neutralizing all influences for good which\ncan be brought to bear. Under these hard circumstances, what the wise judge will do\nwill depend chiefly upon the character of the special school or institution to which he may\ncommit, and there again the human qualities of the superintendent and his associates\nwill constitute the all-important consideration. All will agree that delinquents should\nnot be sent to an institution in which misdemeanants are to be found. That home is poor\nindeed which is not a better place for a wa)rward boy or girl than are institutions of this\ncharacter. The delinquent, however, may need to be for a time in a school of a special\ncharacter — not in a prison, not even in a reformatory. Experience shows that he would\nbetter be placed in such special and desirable school for an indeterminate period, the\nlength of his stay to depend on his conduct and progress, and on vigilant regard for the\nconditions to which he may revert on being discharged. When circiunstances indicate\nclearly that a discharge may be wisely considered, the release would better take the form\nof a parole, so that the delinquent may be easily and promptly returned to the school should\nhis salvation call for such procedure.\nThe foregoing constitutes a rapid sketch of the wisest procedure known to me in dealing\nwith delinquent pupils. In most cases these pupils are not vicious and depraved, but\nthey are unfortunate. Often their lives have been filled with hardness and what they\nneed at school is sympathy — not softness — but sympathy, sane and salutary, which will\nmanifest itself in many and varied ways. It may even eventuate in whipping. I hope\nwe may agree that any system of schools is open to condemnation if corporal punishments\nare of frequent occurrence, but I hope we may also agree that it sometimes happens that\na boy stands in distinct and unquestionable need of a spanking. A sharp distinction may\nbe made between deserving a whipping and needing a whipping. If a boy merely deserves\na whipping, we need not be greatly disturbed if he fails to get it. If, however, he is manifestly inneed of a whipping, if nothing else will serve as a substitute, I, for one, being a\nfirm believer in children's rights, am unwilling that he be deprived of this particular right.\nI have thought it not amiss to say just this word because there may be seen here and there\na sickly sort of sentimentality which frowns upon any imposition of corporal pimishment,\nhowever carefully safeguarded.\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nA word, also, I venture upon the subject of mid-year promotions, a practice which\ninvolves, as it seems to me, the sacrifice of great possibilities. At the beginning of a school\nyear the teacher meets for the first time her new class. They are strangers. She has to\nlearn individually the qualities, aptitudes, and weaknesses of each. Such knowledge\nshe must have before she can serve them intelligently and effectually. The advocates\nof mid-year promotions would whisk away these pupils about the first of February, just\nas it is becoming possible for the teacher to begin to accomplish the great purpose for\nwhich she is employed. What is this purpose ? Not to lead them over prescribed portions of the course of study, but, as an older, wiser person of insight and vision far transcending the possible insight and vision of children, to put her stamp upon them, to awaken\nlatent possibilities, to develop interests, to implant motives and ambitions, to curb imruly\ntempers, to strengthen feeble wills — this is her great work and for it a full school year is\npitifully short.\nDelinquent children often have strong personal characteristics. In his very interesting memoirs. Lord Charles Beresford, speaking of the old days when flogging was so\nprevalent in the British navy, remarks, in speaking of men who had to be disciplined:\nIn many cases they were the best men, the men who had the pluck to get into a row.\nHigh tempered, fiill of exuberance, they were flogged for offences against discipline, and,\nwhereas a flogging was soon over and done with, the alternative proposed would break\na man's heart in prison and deprive the Navy of valuable service.\nSo our delinquents often get into trouble because they are courageous, thoughtiess,\nor reckless to a marked degree. Emphatically, they are worth saving.\n\nD.\nJAMES E. BRYAN,\n\nTHE\n\nANEMIC\n\nStTPERINTENDENT\n\nPUPIL\nOF SCHOOLS, CAMDEN,\n\nN.J.\n\nThe motive for the establishment of classes for anemic children is different from the\nmotives governing the establishment of all other classes in the schools. The primary\npurpose of these classes is to improve the pupil's physical health. He is assigned to this\nclass, not because he has failed to make good progress in his school work, even tho this\nmay be true in many instances, but rather in order that he may live in a school environment that is designed to bring about a definite and immediate improvement in his physical\ncondition. It is significant, therefore, that with the establishment of classes for anemic\nchildren, the school has begun to deal with the problems of physical welfare in a more\ndirect and purposef\\il way than ever before. School buildings are now being especially\ndesigned and curricula are being adopted to meet the hygienic needs of this class of\nchildren.\nIf the children are well and strong, their school life must keep them well and help\nthem to grow stronger; if they are weak, their school life must offer every opportunity\nand aid to grow strong; if they have unfortunate physical defects, their school life must\nlead the way either to their cure or to the means of minimizing the effect of the misfortime\nupon the life of the individual; if they are not capable of developing into responsible\ncitizens, the school must make the diagnosis so that society may be protected. School and\nchild life must be almost synonymous terms, and, in order that the school shall be in\nposition to assume its burden of responsibility, it must be vastiy better equipped with\nrespect to its facilities for ministering to the physical needs of childhood. Instead of\nadopting a curriculimi for mental training that almost completely fills the day's program\nand then squeezing out a few minutes during the day for the purpose of physical development, the school should be free, first to formiJate its program of physical welfare with as\nmuch care for the physiologictd age and development of each child as is now given to his\ngrading, and then to build up a program for mental training as a direct and natural\noutgrowth of our knowledge of his physical status.\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nANEMIC\n\nPUPIL\n\n453\n\nIn our classes for anemic children we have a start in this direction. Some of the\nopen-air classes established have these features:\nBuildings or rooms especially designed to permit the outside air to enter directly\nand circulate freely in all parts of the room and to admit an abundance of simshine;\nadequate means of protection against bad weather and means of providing sufficient\nartificial heat to prevent the temperature's falling below a specified minimima; plenty of\nfloor space to permit the children to move about with little restriction; movable furniture\nthat may be located to the best advantage for each school exercise with especial reference\nto light and air; special clothing to insure comfort — sitting-out bags, blanket coats or\nsweaters, caps, and gloves; rest chairs or couches for the rest hour; lunches of suitable\nfoods at regular periods, with cooking and serving facilities convenient; play periods with\nample space and apparatus; a doctor to study each child's special needs and a nurse to\nadminister the treatment; and a large degree of freedom as to method and material of\ninstruction.\nThis new type of school seems to have met imiversal favor wherever it has been\ninaugurated.\nThe whole history of the movement for the establishment of classes for anemic and\ntuberculous children covers a period of only ten years in Europe and seven years in the\nUnited States, A report upon Provision for Exceptional Children in Public Schools issued\nby the United States Bureau of Education in 191 1 states that 25 cities were at that time\nconducting open-air classes. In the report to this department in 191 2, Superintendent\nEdson stated that of 100 of the leading cities of the United States, 14 were conducting\nclasses for the anemic and 14 were conducting classes for the tuberculous children. In\nanother report it is stated that 44 cities were conducting open-air classes in 191 2. Our\ninquiry justifies the belief that more than 60 cities are conducting such classes at this time.\nFrom the standpoint of physical equipment, these schools fall into two general classes:\nopen-air schools and open-window schools.\nThe open-air schools are those that are conducted in buildings or bungalows especially\ndesigned and constructed for the purpose. These buildings may be opened almost entirely\non two or even three sides to give almost as free circulation to the air within the building\nas in the open. Provision is made for closing any or all sides for protection against\nsevere weather. In some cases an additional room is provided, closed on all sides and\nequipped with heating apparatus, to be used as a warming room, as emergency requires.\nThis type of school follows somewhat closely the idea upon which the \"open-air-recovery\"\nschools of Germany were established ten years ago, which were followed very shortly by\nsimilar schools in England and Switzerland. When the idea was brought to America,\nhowever, instead of building a school camp in the edge of the woods, as was the case with\nthe European schools, tents or bungalows were set up in open spaces within the city. We\ndo not know of any school of this kind in America that has been located in the edge of the\nforest, but the tents or bungalows of several of the American schools have been built\nto mdke possible as near an approach to open-air life as the limitations of location would\npermit. We understand that one or more open-air rooms following this type more or less\nclosely have been conducted in Hartford, Boston, Cambridge, Montclair, Newark, Bryn\nMawr, Indianapolis, Chicago, and St. Louis, and in a few other cities. Quite an extensive\ntreatment of the architectural features that are considered to be desirable in buildings\nto be used for this purpose is foimd in Bulletin No. S59 oi the United States Bureau of\nEducation.\nThe open-window schools are conducted in school buildings of the usual t5T)e, the\nonly distinction between these rooms and others in the same building being that the\nwindows in these rooms are kept open so that fresh air is admitted freely from the outside\nand the temperature is kept low. In some cases the windows are constructed and himg\nwith special reference to the use of the room for this purpose. The great majority of the\nclasses established for anemic children are conducted in rooms of this type.\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "4S4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CinciDnaU\n\nFrom the standpoint of the classification of the children who are assigned to rooms of\nthese two types, there are many variations in the cities in which such classes are conducted. The use of the open-air school in America was first brought about by certain\nlocal societies for the relief of tuberculosis, with the object of providing schools in which\ntuberculous children might be cured of the disease and given such instruction as they could\ntake at the same time. The character of some of the schools originally started in this\nway has been modified, but there are several such schools conducted as hospital schools\nfor tubercidous children. In one notable instance, the open-air school is conducted as\nan experiment in the education of normally healthy children. This is the Phebe Anna\nThome Open-Air Model School for Girls at Bryn Mawr conducted by the Department of\nEducation of Bryn Mawr College. The other open-air classes of which we have information are meide up of children who are anemic, nervous, imdemourished, or otherwise in\npoor physical condition. The open-window rooms are not all conducted for physically\nsubnormal children. In many instances, open-window or low-temperature rooms are\nconducted for normally healthy children and the results of these experiments are worth\ncareful study as bearing directly upon our problem of heating and ventilating schoolrooms.\nIt is with respect to the use of the open-air and open-window room in the treatment\nof anemic children, however, that the practices current in schools of this type are under\nconsideration here. The features that are of especial interest wiU be considered imder\nthese eight heads: rooms, temperature, desks, clothing, lunch, organization of classes,\nprocedure, and results.\nRooms. — In drawing the distinction between the two tjqjes of schools, we have\ndescribed the two general t)T>es of rooms used in ample detail and will not dwell further\nupon this point.\nTemperature. — ^At least one side of the room is kept open all the time, the windows\nbeing partly closed, at times, only sufficiently to afford protection against storm. Most of\nthe rooms are provided with heating facilities so that the temperature may be prevented\nfrom falling below a fixed minimum, if desired. The practice with reference to a Tninimniri\ntemperature varies widely. A few of the open-air schools use no artificial heat at all.\nIn one case no heat is used except after baths. In most cases a minimnni temperature\nof 40 to 50 degrees is fixed. In some schools it is from 50 to 60 degrees.\nDesks. — Movable fumitiure of one kind or another is quite generally used. The\nchair-desk is in favor for this purpose. It enables the pupil to be seated advantageously\nwith reference to simlight and air currents and makes it possible to dear a large floor\nspace whenever it may be needed for games and exercises.\nClothing. — Special clothing is used in practically all classes. The usual equipment\ncomprises the sitting-out bag, either sweater or blanket coat, woolen toque or automobile\ncap, and gloves or mits. In some cases, felt shoes and soapstone foot-warmers are provided. In the public-school classes, the whole outfit of clothing is provided by the school\nin some cases; in others, it is provided entirely by philanthropic agencies; and in still\nothers, the sitting-out bag or blanket is the only part provided by the school, the other\narticles being fiimished by the pupils themselves.\nLunch. — In most of the schools, limches are served. In a few instances no lunch is\nserved. Practices with reference to the limch vary widely. In a few schools lunch is\nserved three times a day; in some cases, once a day; and, in most cases, twice a day. In\na few schools, the limch consists entirely of milk. In all schools, milk forms a large\npart of the food provided. The articles of food most commonly provided are milk, soup,\ncereals, cocoa, stew, fruit, and bread. In those schools in which the children do not go\nhome for the midday meal, meat, stews, and vegetables are usually served at noon. In\nsome cases, all of the food provided is furnished by the school; in other cases, it is furnished entirely by private philanthropy; in still others, it is furnished in part by the school\n(usually the milk) and additional material is purchased from a fund made up of such small\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nANEMIC\n\nPUPIL\n\n455\n\nsums as the children may contribute from week to week. In nearly all cases, cooking\nfacilities are at hand for the preparation of the lunches. The cost of the feeding is a very\ndifficult item to report because of the great variation in the quantity of food used per child\nand the variety of ways in which the food is provided. Several schools that furnish\nonly part of what is served report a cost of five cents per meal per child; another school\nin which the food is provided by private philanthropy reports a cost of ten cents per day;\nanother school, in which three meals are served each day, reports a cost of fifteen to twenty\ncents per day; another city reports a cost of eighteen cents per day for three meals. In\nthe St. Louis report, it is estimated that the cost of food and preparation would be about\ntwenty-four cents per day. It should be noted that the results of feeding are marked.\nThe fresh air without the feeding falls far short of the desired result. Medical inspectors\nin charge of these classes seem to be unanimous in the opinion that the feeding is quite as\nessential in the treatment of anemia as is fresh air.\nOrganization of classes. — ^The number of pupils assigned to one teacher varies from\nfifteen to thirty. In the greater number of cases, it seems to be about twenty-five. In\nmost schools, all elementary grades are represented. In a few cases, the number of grades\nin one class is restricted to three or even two. The responsibility of examining the children and assigning them to these classes is practically uniformly in the hands of the medical\ninspector or other medical authority. In very few schools for anemic children is it permis ible to admit children with open tubercular lesions. The opinion seems to be generally held that tuberculous children, even those in the incipient stages of the disease,\nshould not be assigned to classes of anemic children, but should rather be assigned to\nhospital classes for the special treatment required in their cases. The discharge of the\nchildren from anemic classes is likewise determined by the medical inspector.\nProcedure. — In practically all schools, weight records are made at regular intervals —\nin some schools, once a month, in others, once in two weeks, and, in the greater number,\nweekly. These records are made by the school nurse in some schools, but, in the large\nmajority of cases, by the teacher. The rest periods are observed regularly in almost all\nschools. The period is usually from 45 minutes to an hour long, following the lunch\nperiod. In many schools steamer chairs or cots are provided upon which the children\nare required to recline in quiet during this hour. Recreation periods are frequent, but\ncaution against overexertion must be observed.\nThe instruction of the children probably varies widely with respect to the amoimt\nof work required. In many instances where information is sought concerning this phase\nof the work the reply is made that the instruction is adapted to the needs of each child as\nfar as possible. It is probable that in many cases the teacher feels that the success of her\nwork is on trial, and that unless her pupils shall make at least as good progress as pupils\nof the same grade in other rooms, her work will fail to justify itself. The pressure of the\ntraditional school standards is upon her, with the result that she is trying to keep every\nchild abreast of his proper grade. Furthermore, this effort can be justified, in part, upon\nthe ground that the pupil is in so much better physical condition than formerly and is consequently so much more alert mentally that he is eager to apply himself to his task and\naccomplishes much more with less expenditure of time than formerly. On the other\nhand, there is ample ground for the opinion that the work of these classes should be\norganized with reference entirely to their physical strength, and to do this necessitates\nits complete dissociation from the curriculiun prescribed for normally healthy children.\nThe feeUng of pressure should be relieved almost entirely. There is much evidence that\nthis is not the case in a large number of classes and that the adherence to the prescribed\nschool curriculum is likely to be too close for the best physical results.\nResults. — I will consider first the results with respect to school progress, since this\ntopic has already been begun in the paragraph immediately preceding this. In the great\nmajority of cases, highly gratifying results in school progress are reported. One school\nreports that no marked improvement over former progress has been shown and that the\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nphysical condition of the children is such that they should not be expected to keep up with\na normal class. Another school has reported that but little change is apparent. Another\nschool reports that not all of the children have made good school progress tho many have.\nStill another thinks that good progress has been made by practically all, but that they\nshould not be expected to keep pace with normally healthy children. It hardly seems\npossible at this time to draw a conclusion of wide application with respect to this phase\nof the work, when there are so many varjdng circumstances and unknown conditions.\nOur enthusiasm in a new enterprise often blinds our judgment. It seems probable,\nhowever, that great caution should be used to avoid forcing the mental activity of chil- ,\ndren during the first months, at least, of this treatment, or until it is evident that the\nphysical recuperation has gotten a good start and signs of increased mental alertness and\neagerness are clearly seen. It must be borne in mind that improvement in school progress\nis not the thing chiefly to be desired.\nImprovement in health is the primary object of this work and upon the results\nachieved from this point of view there is no division of opinion. Statistical data upon\nthis point are not available from many schools, but in those instances in which detailed\nreports have been made, the improvement in physical condition is clearly shown. The\nreport of the city of Newark for the year 1913-14 gives the following data for two classes:\nCLASS\n\nI\n\nCLASS\n\n2\n\nAverage roll\n29\n28\nAverage attendance\n23\n23\nAverage time on roll\n4 months\n6 months\nPercentage of pupils subnormal in weight. ... 89 per cent\n87 per cent\nAverage weight gained by each pupil\n3 lbs.\n4.5 lbs.\nTotal gain in haemoglobin\n660 per cent\n225 per cent\nTotal loss in haemoglobin\nnone\nnone\nAverage percentage of gain in haemoglobin. . 10 per cent\n5 .66 per cent\nPercentage of the total enrolment cured\n54 per cent\n30 per cent\nPercentage of the total enrolment improved. .\n4 per cent\n14 per cent\nPercentage of the total enrolment not improved 42 per cent\n55 per cent\nPercentage of the total enrolment that earned\npromotion\n90 per cent\n86 per cent\nPercentage of the total enrolment transferred\nback to regular class\n44. 5 per cent 62 per cent\nThe gain in weight reported here is representative of many schools. Where the\nchildren are kept in the class longer, the gain in weight is greater. The gain likewise\nincreases with the feeding. A marked difference in the gain in weight was found between\ntwo classes in the same city, in one of which the children were served a definite quantity\nof milk daily and in the other of which they were encouraged to drink all they could. The\nweight of the latter class increased with much greater rapidity.\nReports of increase in haemoglobin are available from very few schools as a whole,\nbut a sufficient number of individual cases are recorded to justify the view that the openair treatment afforded by these classes brings about improvement in the haemoglobin\ntest quite universally.\nThe report of the city of St. Louis for 1913 gives a history of each of fifty-eight\nihildren enrolled in the open-air class for that year. Most of the pupils showed a history\nof incipient tuberculosis, and the school should probably be classed as a tuberculous school.\nMany of the children were retained in the class from twelve to fifteen months. The\nreport shows that of the fifty-eight children enrolled, twenty-three were discharged cured,\nand twenty others improved.\nI will submit a brief statement concerning one open-window room that has been under\nmy personal observation for a year and a half. The room has south exposure. The\nwindows swing on horizontal rods located about midway of the length of the window.\nOn most days, the whole window space may be open; when the wind is strong on that\nside, the sash may be set at such an angle as to admit large currents of air at a height much\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBRIGHT\n\nPUPIL\n\n457\n\nabove the children's heads. Movable desk-chairs permit the children to sit much in the\nsun. The chair may be turned at such an angle that the child's work is shaded by her\nbody from the direct sunlight. Sitting-out bags, woolen sweaters, gloves, and caps comprise the equipment of clothing. Soapstone warmers have been used to warm the feet\nafter the exposure of coming to school on cold days, but have not been found necessary\nin the schoolroom. The children have been comfortable with a minimum temperature\nof 38 degrees on bright, sunny days, and 45 degrees on cold, cloudy days. The steam was\nadmitted to two radiators on six and a half days in a year. The children selected were\nanemic, nervous, subject to headache, earache, colds, and throat trouble, and in most\ncases were undernourished. In all cases, the parents' consent has been secured. Two\nlunches a day have been served. The children go home to their midday meal. The morning lunch consists of a cereal and milk, or soup, and fruit, with sometimes a baked potato;\nthe afternoon lunch of milk or cocoa. The milk is provided by the school and the other\nmaterials are purchased with funds contributed by the children — five or ten cents a week, in\nsome cases nothing. Moderate physical exercises and games come at frequent intervals,\nwith due caution as to overexertion. The class has had the constant attention of the\nmedical inspector. During the first year, thirty-four girls were enrolled from Grades I\nto IV. The ages ranged from seven to twelve. The average attendance was twenty-five.\nTwenty girls were in the class all the year. The greatest gain in weight was 7 pounds,\nthe least, i pound, and the average, 3 pounds. The percentage of promotion was 93.\nThe second year for the class is now only half completed. The number of pupils enrolled\nis twenty-seven, taken from Grades II and III. Seven girls were retained from the year\nbefore. The greatest gain by any one pupil for the five months is 8f pounds, the least\ngain is 2 pounds, and the average is 4§ pounds. It will be noted that the average gain\nfor the whole of the year before was 3 pounds, while for five months of this year the average\ngain is 4^ pounds.\nThe number of open-air rooms needed is variously estimated by different authorities.\nThe proportion of anemic children in the school population is not certainly determined,\nbut it is conservative to estimate, upon several studies that have been made, that 5 per\ncent of the school population is in physical condition to be directly benefited by such\ntreatment.\nIt seems probable, indeed, that these experimental classes in physical welfare will\nlead to decided modifications in the construction of schoolrooms with reference to the\nadmission of outside air and to the lowering of schoolroom temperature in schools of all\nclasses.\nE.\n\nTHE BRIGHT PUPIL\n\nJ. G. COLLICOTT, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nTo get a report of what is now being done to provide for the supernormal or exceptionally bright children, a personal letter was sent to the superintendents of the cities\nin the United States having a population of fifty thousand and over asking the following\nquestions: (i) What provisions does your city make for the exceptionally bright pupils?\n(a) Where in the grades do you make provisions for gaining a grade ? (3) What has been\nyour observation of such pupils in their later school work ?\nTwo groups of methods for training pupils who are especially bright are being used\nin these and other cities in this country and in Europe: (i) A group of methods which\ntries to solve the problem by making modifications in the methods of instruction, or grading, and promotion machinery of the schools. (2) A group of methods which may be\ncalled the \"special-class\" or \"special-school\" method, where the supernormal pupils\nare placed in a special class or special school.\nThe special promotion and individual or individual-class instruction method. — Certain\ncities make provisions for getting the brighter pupils promoted as rapidly as possible.\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CincinnaU\n\nIn such schools pupils are given an opportunity to finish the work of the regular school\ncourse as rapidly as they can and are promoted when they have finished the work of a given\nunit of the course, half-year, or grade. Such promotions may be made at the middle of\nthe term, at the middle of the year, or at any other time the pupil is thought qualified\nto do the work of the advanced class. The promotions may be made either by years,\nhalf-years, short units of a fixed course, or by particular subjects. In most cases the\npupils remain with the regular teachers and take the work of the regular course. They\nare merely given an opportxmity to complete the work of the regular course as rapidly as\npossible.\nElizabeth, N. /., plan. — Each grade, I to VIII, is divided into three or four sections,\naccording to abilities of pupils. Each section is allowed to do as much work and go\nforward as rapidly as possible. As soon as a pupil shows ability to do the work of the\nnext section, he is advanced to that section. Progress is measured by the work in the\nessential studies — ^reading and number work in the lower grades, language and arithmetic\nin the upper grades. Twenty-four per cent of pupils in the grades gained from one-fo\nto two-fourths of a year's work,'\nPortland, Ore., plan. — ^The course of study is divided into fifty-four parts, coverii\neighteen terms of five months each. Promotions take place at the end of each term, a\nlimit composed of three terms forming a cycle. Each class is permitted to go as rapidly\nas it can, but the slower divisions cover, as a rule, three points per term, and the faster\ndivisions four. At the beginning of a cycle those pupils who have reached the same point\nof progress in the course are classified into a bright class to advance four points per term\nand a slow class to advance three points per term. This takes place until fifty-four points\nare covered. The pupil who remains in the first division thruout the course will complete\nthe work in seven years. The pupil who remains in the second division thruout the course\nwill complete it in nine years.\nOther cities have emphasized the individual instruction feature. Extra ungraded\nroom teachers are employed to help the backward or bright pupils; also complete individual instruction may be attempted as was done at Pueblo, Colo. The Santa Barbara\nconcentric plan, the North Denver plan, the Batavia and Newton plan, the group system\nused in New York City, all emphasize this need for individual instruction. But in all\nthese plans the teachers follow more or less closely the regular course of study. The\nstress seems to be placed on getting the pupils thru a given course as rapidly as possible.\nThe idea in this group of methods seems to be more extensive and intensive work for the\nbright pupil along the lines of work regularly taken up in the school. The following\nexamples are typical.\nThe Santa Barbara concentric plan. — Each grade has A, B, and C sections. The\nsections do the work concentrically. The fundamentals are the same for each section.\nAll do the necessary work for the grade. The A pupils do the most extensive work. The\nB section does less extensive work than the A pupUs. The C pupils take only such work\nunder a certain topic as is required for the work of the next grade. The A pupils are\ntransferred to the C section of the next grade when promoted.\nUnder this plan in Santa Barbara, 34 per cent of the pupils make slow progress, 44\nper cent make normal progress, and 22 per cent make rapid progress.\nThe North Denver plan of instruction. — ^There is a certain minimum requirement in\nall studies to which all pupils are held. When pupils who require all the assigned time to\ncomplete a particular study are engaged in such study, the more capable pupils are, by\nprocess of natural selection, detaching themselves temporarily from the class in order to\nwork in some study in which they are weak, or for a broader or deeper study of some\ntopic by means of reference books, gathering illustrative material, or following out some\ninterest approved by the teacher. An A pupil may find that all he can do in arithmetic\n'See Shearer. \"The Lock-Step of the Public Schools,\" Atlantic Monthly, Ixrix (1893). 749-57; «J«>\nShearer, \"The Grading of Schools.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBRIGHT\n\nPUPIL\n\n459\n\nis the minimum, but in history he can do much outside work. This makes it possible for\nthe school to foster the bent of the pupil. The brighter pupils are often called upon to\ngive the results of their reading to the class; they are making themselves socially useful;\ntheir success awakens a desire in others to be able to make a creditable contribution of\nthe same kind. Thus all are stimulated to do independent work in spare moments and\nto find spare moments for independent work. They learn how to work things out and\nhow to find important material in books and elsewhere.\nThe characteristics of the North Denver plan are that it does not hurry pupils over\nthe course of study. Each lesson is developed with the class as a whole. One pupil does\nnot travel faster than another, but may get more. It is not so much to the advantage of\nthe pupil to go thru the grade rapidly as to get aU he is capable of getting while going thru.\nFour pupils completed the eight-year course in less than six years. Seven pupils\ncompleted the eight-year course in six and one-half years. Twenty-one pupils completed\nthe eight-year course in seven years. Twenty-four pupils completed the eight-year course\nin seven and one-half years. In one of the buildings 57^ per cent of the pupils completed\nthe course in eight years or less; in the other building 67^ per cent of the pupils completed\nthe course in eight years or less; in the building pursuing the old plan only 37I per cent\nof the pupils completed the course in eight years. This indicates that the plan tends to\nconserve the interests of the individual pupils.\nThe group system. — ^This is only a modification and extension of the North Denver\nplan (used with success in New York City). It provides for different rates of progress\nfor pupils of different abilities. The essential aim is not to advance the bright pupils,\ntho they may go as fast as possible; the real merit lies in the fact that it enables the slow\nand backward pupil to keep up with his grade.\nThe plan may be carried out in two ways: on the basis of a \"constant group,\" or\non the basis of a \"shifting group.\" Under the \"constant group\" plan, pupils are divided\ninto classes to be maintained for a certain definite period of time. The promotions from\ngroup to group occur only at stated times. The pupils are classified according to their\nability to advance. There are usually two or three groups. This requires divisions in\nnearly all subjects. Under the \"shifting group\" plan, the pupils are divided according\nto their power to work. The membership of the group is not constant. The pupils may\nbe grouped only in certain subjects. Pupils may be promoted from one group to another\nat any time. There may be two groups for reading, and three for arithmetic. The chief\naim is to have the bright pupils do thoro, careful work and to bring the slow pupils up\nto the grade standard.'\nHow the group system is carried out: New lessons are presented to the whole class.\nA short test following the lesson shows the pupils who have not mastered the new points\nand so need further instruction. The next recitation contains only the pupils in Class B.\nThe pupils in Class A remain at their seats to do extensive study. Class B attacks the\nsame lesson from a new point of view. At the close of the lesson another test is given,\nand those who have not yet mastered it form Class C, and will go over it again while\nClass B will be assigned study work similar to that assigned to Class A on the previous\nday, while Class A will be assigned new work. When Class C has mastered the work,\nthe class is reassembled and another section of new material is presented to the class as a\nwhole.\nThe \"special\" class or school methods. — Certain cities have sought to solve the problem presented by the backward and specially endowed pupils by grouping them in different\nsections or classes, the supernormal pupils being placed in one class, the normal in another,\nand the subnormal in a third. The tendency has been to have all pupils follow the same\ncourse, but to allow them to finish the course as rapidly as possible. Occasionally such\n' For advantages and disadvantages of \"constant\" and \"shifting\" groups see Pedagogical Seminar ,\n\nxviii, 490-91.\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincin\n\nspecial classes have been put in charge of a specially trained teacher who attempted tc\ndiscover the special interests of her pupils, but in most cases the chief aim of such special\nstudy has been to learn how better to administer a more or less fixed or traditional course\nof study to a class of individuals thus specially endowed rather than to determine the individual aptitudes of the pupils and then by special instruction try to ailtivate the special\ntalents and interests found.\nThe Cambridge, Mass., plan. — An attempt has been made to devise a system of grading and promotion that shall be elastic, giving the bright pupils opportimity to do more\nthan the required work of the grade, yet allowing the average pupil to maintain the\nstandard of his grade.\nTo this end two divisions have been formed in each of the grades — an A division doing\nintensified work, and a B division doing only the required or minimum work of the year.\nWith this system a pupil ready for and desirous of promotion may be advanced from the\nB division to the A division of any grade, or from the A division of any grade to the B\ndivision of the next higher grade without omitting any of the fundamental work of either\ngrade. This system is distinctly superior in two ways: it does away, to a great extent,\nwith the worry and nervous strain which is always attendant on systems of rapid promotions, so called; and it allows the pupil a full year imder the uninterrupted influence of one\nteacher — an element of prime importance. Earnest efforts have been made in forming a\nnew course of study and deciding upon a standard for each subject in each grade. Meetings have been held with the principals and teachers and a minimum amount of work that\nmust be accomplished by each grade has been made out.\nThe Miers, Iowa, plan. — ^This is the Cambridge plan applied to nine grades instead\nof the upper six. The course is made out covering the same ground, but one requires more\ntime than the other. These courses run parallel, and are so made that they articulate\nwith each other at different points along the line. Pupils may be transferred to either\ncourse at any time. The interval between equipment of classes is only twelve weeks.\nThis gives opportimity to adapt the course to both the slow and the bright pupils. Pupils\nof superior abiUty are not forced to work too hard, slow pupils are not compelled to hurry\nover the work. The pupil is promoted on the estimate of the teacher, and as soon as the\nwork at any point in the course becomes too easy for any pupil, such pupil is reclassified.\nThe Mannheim plan. — This plan provides for special classes running parallel with the\nregular classes. In these special classes (furthering classes) are placed those pupils who\nfor any reason show themselves unable to do the work of the regular classes. The special\nclasses are organized on the same plan as the regular classes and do for the most part\nthe same work but not so extensively. There is little or no change or promotion of pupils\nfrom the \"furthering\" class to the special class. The facts show that the \"furthering\"\nclass is almost entirely for the slow pupils, those lacking in interest and native ability.\nPupils are separated according to their individual endowments into three groups:\n(i) The mentally defective are assigned to the auxiliary schools, which represent in the\norganization the first four grades of school work. (2) The normally endowed pupils, who\nare expected each year to be capable of gaining a promotion, are assigned to the regular\nclasses of the regular eighth-grade course. (3) Those pupils, who while not abnormal\nstill are classed below the average, are placed in the \"furthering\" class. About 10 per\ncent of all pupils are put in this special class. Certain German educators have objected\nto this plan on the ground that the brighter pupils are needed in the other classes to spur\non the duU and backward pupils.\nPreparatory schools. — ^Worcester, Mass., has five preparatory schools. The pupils\nwho finish the sixth grade may, if good in scholarship, take the special high-school courses\nin French, Latin, or German, in one of these centers and so finish their high-school course\nin three years. Baltimore places capable pupils from the seventh grade in a preparatory\nschool where, in addition to the r^ular eighth-grade work, they receive instruction in\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBRIGHT\n\nPUPIL\n\n461\n\nhigh-school subjects and are thus able to enter the high school with a corresponding amount\nof credit.\nSummer schools. — Certain cities have provided for special summer classes where\nbright pupils in certain grades may finish the work of a half-year or even a year. Seventhgrade pupils n-^y thus be prepared for high school in a short course, other pupils may be\nprepared to \"skip\" a grade or a half-year's work; others are permitted to make up work\nlost by sickness or failure; and still others are permitted to do supplementary work without\nspecial school credit.\nHow selection of bright pupils is made. — The selection of bright pupils for special promotion or for the special class or school, either preparatory, summer, or special class for\nsuperior pupils, is made by the regular teacher or by the principal in co-operation with the\nteachers and parents. The criteria of judgment in every case, so far as can be made out,\nare the general observation of the teacher, the character of the school work done, the\nphysical condition of the pupil, and the ability to do the work of the advanced class.\nThe one great aim of the superintendents and teachers seems to be to allow such pupils\nto advance as rapidly as possible in certain traditional or standard courses. The great\nneed for more accurate and complete tests of individual ability for this group of brighter\npupils and the great need of giving the members of this group a chance to develop their\nspecial talents by furnishing them an opportunity to do the work in which they have a\npeculiar ability and on that account are most interested is certainly one of the important\nimmediate public-school problems of our day.\nAccording to Steam, supernormal pupils may be divided into two classes: (i) The\nuniversally supernormal, including those who seem to be endowed with superior mental\npowers in many or all lines of mental activity. The methods now in use probably test\nthis group somewhat accurately, as is shown by the fact that the pupils promoted by the\nvarious plans sketched above, or placed in special classes or schools, and given an opportunity to do individual work, make a creditable record in nearly every case. The pupils\nthus promoted and cared for continue to do well in the upper grades and high school. All\nthe superintendents and principals answering the question, What has been your observation ofsuch [bright] pupils in later school work ? report that the pupils who skipped a grade\nor who were given a chance to forge ahead in their work did good work in the advance\ngrade, that they were among the best, no failures among them, etc . Only one city reported\nthat the results had not been satisfactory. (2) Those who are specifically supernormal;\nthat is, pupils who are exceptionally gifted in one particular line, such as music, mathematics, drawing, painting, the technical arts, learning of language, etc. This group is\nnot nor cannot be adequately reached by any of the methods described above.\nKerschensteiner carried on investigations on five thousand Mvmich school pupils\nto discover those who had marked artistic ability. The pupils were asked \"to make\nfreehand drawings of specific objects, both from memory and from nature.\" His results\nshowed that many children even from the poorer homes had remarkable talent in this\nfield. These pupils he assigned to art or arts-and-crafts schools, where they had the\nopportunity to develop these special powers under expert direction and under favorable\nenvironment.\nAll these experiments with the problem are valuable and encouraging, but one\nimportant thing is lacking. They show that in dealing with this favored and important\ngroup we are still trying to fit the pupils into the traditional and set schemes of education\nnstead of fitting education to the needs and interests of these special individuals. To the\nspecially endowed pupil opportunity should be given to develop his special powers by\nassigning him to a particular type of school suited to his needs, or at least providing in\nthe regular school for the special work which will best train him in the right and best use\nof his special powers. In all high schools and colleges today, pupils with exceptional\ntalent for scientific observation and investigations are found following the courses of study\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnatl\n\nmore or less detrimental to their particular interests and abilities. This is wasteful, to\nsay the least.\nThe next step to be taken in dealing with the supernormal group is to devise more\npractical and scientific methods of determining what pupils are supernormal. We know,\nor may know, precisely how many and which of the pupils in our city system of schools\nare myopic or cripples, but we have little or no actual knowledge of those pupils who are\nexceptional draughtsmen, musicians, mechanics, artists, etc.\nThe supernormal pupil should be as carefully studied and as specifically treated as the\nfeeble-minded. Accurate scientific tests should be devised for determining not only the\nspecially giffed or endowed, but such tests as will enable us to determine what particular\nabilities or special capacities each supernormal pupil possesses. Not only should such\ntests be devised and applied, but special work should be provided which will cultivate\nto the fullest extent their creative powers. Suitable teachers should be engaged for this\nwork, men and women with genuine interest in the problem and specially qualified for\nthe work. The specially endowed group should make more rapid progress by broadening\nand deepening the cultural material, by minimizing drill and mechanical aids to memorization and imderstanding, by cultivating especially the habit of independent and\noriginal thinking, and by free election within the subjects of instruction (particularly in\nthe upper grades). The superior capacities of these pupils should be given the best\npossible opportunity for the highest development, and, because of the imiversal demands\nupon this class, self -discipline and the spirit of conscientious thoroness shoiild be developed\nin a manner totally impossible for them if left in the ordinary class or treated in the traditional way. By this means we should be able to develop for society a group of worthy\nleaders equipped with deeper and broader training than we can possibly give them by our\npresent methods.\nDISCUSSION\nCarey Boggess, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Ohio. — There are but few\npupils of normal age in any ordinary room group who shoiild be treated as bright pupils\nin the sense of the topic here discussed. These are entitled, however, to some special\ntreatment, tho they should not be segregated. This will not preclude irregular promotions\nor even double promotions in exceptional cases. Neither does it imply a rigid system of\npromotions.\nBut the pupil of age suitable for his grade should be with his fellows. Tho he may\nhave the grasp and the capacity for more work than they, yet his feelings and his social\nneeds and aspirations are like theirs.\nThere is no argument for a separate grouping in the fact that the bright pupil can\naccomplish more than the average of his class. The variability of achievement among\ndifferent members of the same class is well known, even among those all of whom will\nwithout question be passed to the next grade. In the same room and subject to the same\nconditions, it is probable that the absolute acquisition of one pupil may be at times twice\nor thrice that of certain others.\nMinds, like bodies, may at some early period develop with great rapidity. We\nfrequently see strong or quick intellects in little childish bodies and we see as often the\naverage mind possessed by children of large bulk or frame grown quickly. In neither\ncase is it desirable to regroup children on the basis of what mind or body could do imder\nspecial treatment.\nThe bright pupil should remain with his grade and with children of his years because,\nwith the greater maturity he wovdd attain by awaiting the usual time and his normal\ndevelopment, he will gain more from a given grade when he thus reaches it, than he could\nhave done earlier, when hurried into it by reason of his precocity.\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBRIGHT\n\nPUPIL\n\n463\n\nDoubtless the best method to secure rapid progress thru the grades of a course of\nstudy is that of individual teaching, an Aristotle for an Alexander, but along with gain\nin time is loss at some point. Let the boy be a boy, the girl be a girl, for once, and grow\nand live with those whose hearts are tuned together. Let them work side by side as they\nplay together.\nThe argument for efficiency is carried too far in the claim that each child, as a member\nof society, should have the way cleared for him to push into what is called productive\nactivity at the earliest possible moment. Life is too long now, when it is all work. The\nnation may be distanced in the struggle for the markets of the world by another which\naims at efficiency in all things, but there is a rational living which does not always measure\ntime in imits of productivity.\nAnother argument against segregation of bright pupils is that of expense. With the\nvast development in the present period of education and its ramifications and inclusions,\nwith its specializations and with no suggestion usually that any good thing should be\nwithheld by the state, the absolute limit of school taxation must be found presently, even\nr^ardless of supposed or real needs. There may be some good phases of education\nthat should be left to family or private initiative. At any rate its diversification and its\nrapidly growing cost should impel us to begin to discriminate and to hesitate over the\naddition of new elements of expense, especially when an alternative method might avoid\nthem. The separate instruction of the very small nimiber of bright pupils would entail\na disproportionately large per capita cost in any city of small or medium size.\nWhat special treatment, then, may be given this class ? One practicable plan will\nreadily be called to mind, as the different grouping systems are considered, under which\na number of subjects are taught to the undivided class and others are taught to sections\nor groups. This will often be feasible where the abler group is of sufficient size.\nWhere this is not deemed desirable, the bright pupils may be given more work or\nlarger tasks of the same kind given to the whole class by means of a flexible assignment\nof lessons. This is really the key to a rational provision for the unusually strong pupil.\nWhat he needs is not a more rapid passing to new and advanced subjects but a growth in\npower by the accomplishment of more work of a given kind and the attainment of accuracy and facility thereby. This is his sort of good fortune, to know and to do the same\nfield of knowledge and achievement, but to know it and to do it better than his mates.\nThis general scheme of flexible assignments should be amplified by a secondary\nplan of side readings or studies for the surplus study time of the stronger ones. The\nschool should be supplied with sufficient supplementary texts and books of general reading,\nso that time gained from the proper preparation of lesson tasks may be agreeably and\nprofitably employed by such pupils. By a little oversight and planning for sequence and\nsjrstem on the part of the teacher, this will easily afford, not only a suitable use of the time\nof bright pupils, but a real means of their rational development while they continue with\nthose of their age and general class.\nRichard O. Stoops, superintendent of schools, Joliet, HI. — I agree with Superintendent Aldrich's definition of the delinquent pupil — that he is the product of inheritance\nand environment, and not primarily responsible for the fact that he is a source of trouble\nto the school authorities. I further agree that the detection of incipient delinquency is\nwithin the province of the regular teacher, her principal, and the attendance officer, and\nthat a broad sympathy and keen insight should enable them to find the dominant interests\nof such boys and to restore very many of them to the proper relationship to the school\nand to the community.\nI am convinced, however, that, in actual practice, most school systems as large as\nthose represented in this round table have a few scattered misfits in the elementary grades\nwho are not reached by the teacher and principal, and who become too great a strain for\nthe regular teacher to carry in justice to her other pupils. In most cases, these boys have\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nICindnnat!\n\nno home life and no sympathetic or intelligent guidance from parents. Without this\nvital touch, and frequently living amid surroundings which are positively degrading, they\npick up the vices of the streets and alleys and rapidly drift into petty crime.\nThese boys are behind grade, uninterested in the regular school work, they are motorminded as a rule, they possess initiative, and delight in \"starting something.\" They are\nskilful in dodging the police and have a general contempt for authority. They frequently\nattain a certain cheap neighborhood notoriety in which they take keen delight. A transfer\nto other surroundings is usually necessary to bring such boys to the proper point of view.\nLet me illustrate by a brief statement of Joliet's experience along this line.\nA year and a half ago, I foimd that we had a dozen delinquent boys scattered among\nten different schools. In no instance could I justly charge the delinquency to the incapacity of the teachers concerned. In every case, the delinquent caused as much nerve\nstrain and worry on the part of the teacher as all her other pupils combined. It seemed\ntherefore, a problem of conservation to gather these boys into one special group and thus\nto relieve the regular teachers from an unjust tax upon their resourcefulness and vitality.\nA centrally located room was equipped with fifteen ordinary school desks and as many\nbenches for woodwork. I then secured the services of a young man of twenty-one, well\ntrained in manual arts, and with one year's experience in teaching eighth-grade woodwork.\nBut this was the minor point. He was chosen because he had shown ability in highschool athletics, in directing student activities, and in managing boys. He possessed\nleadership; he could get boys together to do things. I was hopeful that he might become\nthe big brother of those boys and he did not disappoint me.\nThe story is brief. Twelve boys between the ages of twelve and fifteen were brought\nin from the different school neighborhoods. All of them were impetuous and wilful,\nmany were openly defiant, and most of them had police records. The young man was\ntold to manage these boys and to discipline them as he saw fit. He was to devote about\nhalf their time to the fundamentals of reading, language, arithmetic, and mechanical drawing, and the rest to swimming, games, and manual training. The boys were helped to\nmake of wood the things within their comprehension which they most desired. There\nwas a constant effort to seize upon some interest and develop it toward self-control.\nThe first month was tr3dng, but the atmosphere soon cleared and they seemed to\nunderstand one another. Within a short time, those boys became as regular in attendance\nas the average room, and their attitude toward authority and toward work was greatly\nimproved. The visible residts attained have won the commendation of the board of\neducation and the unqualified indorsement of the attendance officer and the chief of\npolice.\nThere is nothing new in this experiment, as other cities have tried similar plans with\nsuccess. In my opinion, the city of Cincinnati is doing most excellent work along this\nline imder the immediate direction of Principal Wiley of the School for Delinquents,\nSuch a room as I have described cannot overcome in one-seventh of a boy's time the\nvicious tendencies that are operative during the other six-sevenths of his time. The fact\nthat Cincinnati furnishes dormitory facilities and is authorized by the Juvenile Court to\ncontrol the entire time of the boys who have no moral support at home furnishes the\nfinal provision for reclaiming at least 90 per cent of the pupils who give serious trouble\nto the teachers or to the police.\nThe expense of thus isolating the most troublesome cases will be more than offset\nby the increased efficiency of the regular teachers relieved of this strain. Best of all, it\nwill pay in terms of future citizenship, for the school's effort to reclaim is bovmd to have\na more humane and personal touch than any interest asserted by a state reformatory no\nmatter how intelligently it may be conducted.\nJoseph M. Frost, superintendent of schools, Muskegon, Mich. — ^There are many\ncauses for the delinquency of children. They may perhaps be arranged in the following\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supcrintendencel\n\nTHE\n\nBRIGHT\n\nPUPIL\n\n465\n\norder: First and foremost, home conditions; second, heredity; third, school conditions;\nfourth, neighborhood environment; and fifth, the use of leisure time.\nThe question naturally arises, then. How are we to go about this problem of reducing\ndelinquency so that we may secure better results ?\nI believe that one of the greatest factors in securing good results is the organization\nof a strong attendance department. If the system has a good attendance officer, faithful,\nearnest, sincere, sympathetic, endowed with good judgment and ably assisted, he can\ndo much to reduce delinquency. Of course, all delinquents are not truants. Some of\nthe most difficult cases are those who come to school regularly, behave themselves, but\nrefuse to do their work.\nIn the next place, the schools should be organized with small classes so that the\nprimary teachers especially can give proper attention to the delinquent. In the intermediate and grammar grades, the classes should be so organized that work may be given\nto the delinquent in which he will be interested. We have become so accustomed to trying\nto fit all children into the same square hole that it is difficult for us to realize that many\nof these children do not receive the attention they should receive, nor are they given subjects inwhich they are vitally interested. One of the most vicious boys that we have had\nin our school became a good and faithful pupil after he had been made the captain of a\nbasket-ball team. It is not necessary for me to state at length the reasons for arranging\nour courses to meet the needs of the children.\nThat school conditions in many cases cause delinquency is a well-known fact. We\nall know teachers who are so overbearing and such martinets in their attitude toward\nchildren, that they cause them to be delinquent, especially in the matter of attendance.\nThere are other teachers who, by an entirely different attitude, are able to reduce or to\nremove delinquency. One of the important things for us to do, therefore, is to get the\nteachers as a body thoroly in sympathy with the delinquent child if we are to make any\nsure progress in the way of removing delinquency.\nAnother great help in removing delinquency is brought about by the visits of the\nteachers to the homes. In many cases, after the teachers have seen the home conditions,\ntheir attitude toward the children is entirely changed.\nAnother positive aid in reducing delinquency is the organization of playgrounds and\nsocial centers. These are especially helpful in enabling the child profitably to use his\nleisure time. Many a child has been saved from bad influences by merely getting him to\noccupy his time with organized play.\nThe work that has been done in the large cities along this line is so extensive and also\nso expensive that in many cities it cannot be undertaken. We should not, however, shy\nfrom our responsibility, since at a small expense, some of the regular teachers can be\ntrained along the line of playgrovmd work and be retained for a small compensation for\nan hour or so at the close of school to direct the playground work. The playground is\none of the best institutions that has ever been organized for all of the boys and all of the\ngirls, and we should see to it that something is done along this line if we hope to measure\nup to our responsibility.\nThe social center is a splendid place for those boys and girls who really have no\nattractive home surroundings, but, at the same time, I have that old-fashioned feeling\nthat too many things in general are being provided for outside the home. The club\nbecomes so attractive to the fathers that they immediately leave the home after their\ndinners are eaten and seek the club. The mothers find recreation in card parties and it\nis left to the children to go outside of the home to find amusement. I am inclined to believe\nthat the tendency today is to relieve the home of too much responsibility. There are some\nparents that seem satisfied to have anybody take care of their children rather than that\nthey should assume this responsibility themselves. Some parents want their boys to\nbecome Boy Scouts so that they can be properly handled and then are inclined to find\nfault with the Scout Master because of the way in which he handles them.\nI wonder\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CincL\n\nwhether, in providing all the things that are being provided today for attracting the\nchildren outside of the home, we are not contributing to the disruption of the home itself ?\nIn our city, the number enrolled in the seventh grade is 96 per cent and in the\neighth grade 74 per cent of those entering the first grade. This shows what may be\ndone in the small city if all forces work together to keep the children in school. Of\nall of the things that I have mentioned, I believe the greatest credit is due the attendance department of our city for the removal or reduction of delinquency.\nI believe that this whole question is a matter of habit formation, and that a little\nattention at the right time will bring about wonderful results. I feel that any inherited\ntendencies may, in great measure, be overcome by training the children along right lines.\nI agree with Superintendent Aldrich in all respects except that of semiannual promotions. Ido not believe that we should sacrifice the interests of the children as a\nclass in order that we may give more attention to the few. If semiannual promotions\nare good for a majority of the children, as they must be or they would not be in such\ngeneral practice, then they should not be eliminated in order that the teacher may give\na year's time to a few children. Semiannual promotions do not necessarily mean that all\nchildren change teachers every half-year. In fact, only a few of the children do. In\nmany cases it is a good thing for these children to have this change. I do not believe,\ntherefore, that we should give up the great advance that we have made in looking after\nthe individual child and his interests by doing away with these frequent promotions.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCURRENT\nWILLIAM\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH\nPOPULATION UNDER 25,000\n\nPRACTICES\nC. GRIGGS,\n\nIN THE APPOINTMENT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nA\n\nOP TEACHERS\nGADSDEN,\n\nALA.\n\nThe time in which this paper had to be prepared was too short to permit of a complete investigation of current practices in the appointment of teachers. A report based\non the study of school laws and of annual reports of superintendents of most of the cities\nof the cliiss assigned for study, together with answers to certain inquiries that could be\nmade, would be more acceptable than a report on the replies to a few questions as in this\ncase. Perhaps the subject is of suflScient importance to warrant the appointment of a\ncommittee to work thru a year's time and report its findings. I present this report with\nthe consciousness that it does not go far into the subject assigned me.\nAs I had time to do nothing more than ask for replies to certain questions, I\nsent a drcidar letter to about 35 per cent of the superintendents in cities of less\nthan 25,000 p>opulation. No particular plan governed in the selection of cities. I\nwrote as follows:\nI shall very greatly appreciate it if you will write me fully at once as to how the\nfollowing points govern in the appointment of teachers under your supervision:\n1. Qu£ilification: (a) Academic for elementary and high school. (6) Professional\nfor elementary and high school.\n2. Preferences as to resident or non-resident.\n3. The nominating power.\n4. When nominating power declines to renominate.\n5. Forces that influence the nomination.\n6. State and local laws governing.\n7. Minimum age.\n8. Married (female) teachers.\n9. Kindred of nominating power (if superintendent nominates).\n10. Dismissing from service.\n11. Conditions on which teachers may resign.\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPRACTICES\n\nIN APPOINTMENT\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n467\n\n12. Leaves of absence (sickness, etc.) with or vdthout pay.\n13. Professional and health certificates.\n14. Appointment when one or more qualifications are wanting.\n15. Any other conditions governing in the appointment.\n16. Salary schedule.\nOver 150 letters were sent and 73 replies were received before tabulation began.\nSeveral have been received since then, but were not taken into account. The following\nstates are not represented in the references: Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Kentucky*\nMaine, Maryland, Nebraska, Nevada, and New Mexico.\nSome of the replies evidenced candor and cordiality. The greater portion of them\nshowed that the writers gave the questions a reasonable amoimt of thought before answering. It is evident from the reading of some of the rules and regulations sent with replies\nto the questions that some things are practiced that might not be inferred from a reading\nof the rules and regulations. One report read was printed in 1909. Since then many\nchanges have been made in the rules, including a change in the superin tendency. The\nrules do not state that the superintendent has the power to nominate teachers, but the\nanswer to the question stated that the superintendent does nominate. In that particular\ncase, I happen to know that the superintendent is given a free hand in the appointment\nof teachers. This observation may be of some worth to those who draw conclusions from\nprinted reports.\nFrom the responses to the questionnaire the following data were obtained (the minimum in every case is the basis of this summary) :\n1. Qualification:\na) Elementary school:\nRequiring graduation from a standard normal school\n16\nState certificate\n14\nHigh-school graduation plus two years' normal training\n12\nHigh-school graduation plus one year's normal training\n9\nHigh-school graduation plus some normal training\nS\nHigh-school graduation\nS\nNormal-school graduation plus one year's experience\n3\nHigh-school graduation plus normal-school graduation with two years'\nexperience\n1\nb) High school:\nCollege graduation\nSame plus experience\nFull high-school course plus college graduation\nNormal-school graduation\nCollege graduation plus normal training\nNothing more than state license\nCollege graduation plus two years' experience\nNormal training\nState license plus some experience\nHigh-school graduation plus experience\nThree years in college plus experience\nTwo years in college plus experience\nHigh-school training plus normal training\n\n36\n6\nS\n5\n4\n4\n3\n3\n2\n2\ni\ni\ni\n\nIt will be noted that, from the 73 responses, only 13 require normal training in highschool work.\n2. Resident or non-resident teachers:\nNo preference\n31\nResident preferred\n24\nNon-resident\n5\nResident for elementary grades, non-resident for high school\nS\nDesiring equal mmibers of each\n3\nResidents who have had experience away from home\n3\nDesiring a majority non-resident\ni\nDesiring a majority resident\ni\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nIn nearly every case the expression \"all things being equal\" is used. One superintendent stated that non-residents were preferred for the reason that they could be eliminated more easily if it became necessary.\n3. Nominating power:\nSuperintendent\nSuperintendent with committee of the board\nAnyone\nSuperintendent for high school, board for elementary\nBoard of education\n,\nPrincipals\n\n53\n12\n4\ni\n2\ni\n\nIn some states, the laws of the state require the superintendent to nominate, as in\nOhio.\nIn one instance, replies came from a superintendent who had recently changed work,\nand from his successor. It is noted from both reports that the new superintendent is\naccorded greater latitude in his work than was accorded his predecessor, judging from\nthe replies from each one.\nIn some cases where the superintendent has incurred the displeasure of a portion,\nif not all, of his board, it is noted that his prerogatives are not so great as in cases where\nharmony exists. One superintendent reported that he was entirely disregarded in\nmatters of this kind. In that partiodar town, it was found on investigation that the\nboard had not had a professionally trained superintendent for the last eighteen years, ^h\nThe investigations bring out the fact that committees of the boards on nominatiad^|\nof teachers depend on the superintendent to the extent that he is the power that actually\nmakes the selection. No doubt these superintendents find it an advantage to have a\ncommittee of the board to share the responsibility. It gives him an opportimity to\ninform his board for this and other duties; and their knowledge of school problems\nobtained in this way makes them more useful school workers. A superintendent will\nsurely suffer ultimately if he permits his board members to remain iminformed on the^problems they need to have knowledge of,\nS\nIn in\nanswer\nto the\nquestion.\nthe force.\nnomination\nthe^^\nanswer\n53 cases\nis that\nmerit What\nof the forces\nteacherinfluence\nis the only\nIt is ofnotteachers?\nknown that\nthere is any standard of merit that governs in any case. Some plan that would enable\na superintendent to evaluate teachers would serve a great purpose. Lotus D. Coffman\nsay^: \"I have asked many superintendents this question: *If fifty people appeared before\nyou as candidates for five positions all qualified in the eyes of the law, what qualities\nwould you take into consideration in selecting those you chose?'\" He says that the\nreplies are blanket expressions that really cover a multitude of undefined qualities. Local\npolitics, favoritism, church relations are given in 8 cases as influences.\nThirty-six state that married female teachers whose husbands are living are permitted\nto teach. Thirty-seven of the replies state that none but single females aire employed.\nA difference in conclusions obtained from direct answers and reports or literature\nused may be noted again in a reply that stated that married female teachers are not\nemployed. The correspondent inclosed a teachers' implication form which had this\nquestion: \"If married, give age of yoimgest child. Does husband support you ? \" One\nsuf>erintendent stated that married women made better teachers than single ones if they\nwere good teachers before they were married.\nThe investigation shows that in 30 cases third-degree relatives of the superintendent\nor a member of the board are not employed. It is inferred in the 43 cases in which\nanswers were given that nepotism may obtain.\nIn most cases teachers are permitted to resign during the life of the contract. Some\nof the replies state that the authorities cordially release a teacher if her interest is materially\nadvanced thereby. One reports that one-half of a month's salary is held by the board\nafter the second month and that resignation during the session forfeits this amount.\nla\n\ny\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTESTING\n\nTHE\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n469\n\none or two cases certificates are canceled. It is not stated whether state or local. In\nmost cases, teachers are not released without their having given due notice to the board.\nThis ranges from two to four weeks.\nA few report that resignation offered for the purpose of taking other work is not accepted.\nAbsences with pay are as follows:\nFive days full pay for illness or death in immediate family\n10\nPart pay\n8\nTen days during each term or half-year, full pay\n10\nFour days' consecutive illness, full pay\n2\nTwo days a month, full pay\n2\nContinued illness one month, half -pay (contract ceases)\nS\nFunerals in immediate family, three days full pay\n3\nTen half-days each semester, half -pay allowed\n2\nIf school conditions cause teacher's illness, full pay\n2\nTeacher receives regular salary and pays substitute\n9\nThose receiving no pay for any absence\n20\nReplies to the other questions are so varied that they are not considered of sufficient\nimportance to be incorporated here. To some extent, however, they had weight in\nthe making of general statements in this report.\nOne of the imperative needs of our smaller school systems is a plan by which superintendents may learn of qualified, available teachers. The best a superintendent can do\nunder present conditions is to make inquiry of the normal schools of his section of coxintry,\nspend a large portion of his time at educational gatherings in getting acquainted with\nteachers, and visit schools where teachers are at work. The latter is not a pleasant task\nfor the reason that the superintendent feels that he is disturbing another's plans. If a\nvacancy occurs during the year, he is almost helpless. To find a desirable teacher fco'\nthe vacancy, is more than he expects. While he has the vacancy, it is often the case\nthat a good teacher is available for the position, but it is an accident if the two are brought\ntogether. The managers of our teachers' agencies offer to solve the problem, but superintendents are, as a rule, not inclined to depend upon them. An organization in each\nstate whose purpose shall be to aid school boards in finding good teachers for their\nvacancies and good places for worthy teachers is an imperative need and, no doubt, will\nbe realized in nearly all the states in the very near future.\n\nHOW SHALL\nEDWARD\n\nTHE EFFICIENCY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nBE TESTED\n\nC. ELLIOTT, DIRECTOR, COURSE\nFOR THE TRAINING\nXmiVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS.\n\nAND\n\nRECORDED?\n\nOP TEACHERS,\n\nWhen a man cannot measure, and a great many others, who\" cannot Imeasure, declare\nthat he is four cubits high, can he help believing what they say ?— The Republic of Plato,\nBook IV.\nI. Certain casual observations. — It will be well to hold in mind several of the existing\nanomalies of that educational situation upon which my present argimaents are focused.\nOf all the factors and influences entering into educational processes and results, none is\nsubjected to the scale of the measuring rod more frequently than the teacher. With\nelaborate systems of licenses and certificates, states and communities have established\nlegal hair-line distinctions between varying degrees of teaching fitness. With much\nmechanical ingenuity, the officers of many school systems have contrived graded schemes\nof preferment and compensation for teachers, the presimiptive bases of which are\na reliable ability on the part of someone to classify positive, neutral, and minus teaching,\nand a Sherlockholmesian accuracy for the detection of the several professional clues that\nrespectively lead to the competent, the mediocre, and the unfit.\nThe teacher who is not, in his own estimation, in possession of a complete set of\ndependable standards for the self-determination of his worth to education is of a rare\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "47©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nspecies, and, by the way, not much sought after by discriminating collectors of the supercompetent. Such self-imposed standards, made up tho they are of rough-and-ready,\nindefinitely formulated units, serve the very admirable purpose of enabling all of us, in\nthe modest privacy of our own thoughts, to be placed among those of superior merit.\nGenerally speaking, no teacher voluntarily submits his professional attainments for valuation to other than his friends. And between friends, what's the use of standards of\nprofessional attainment ?\nAgain, generally speaking, the supervisor of schools who is able, with any degree of\nobjective accuracy, to evaluate the total working efficiency of a teacher, according to a\nmethod, and with a result that will pass unchallenged by other supervisors, has not yet\nrevealed his identity.\nAgain, generally speaking, the great majority of those immediately within education,\nas well as those immediately without, are permanently vmder the influence of what Gelett\nBurgess has, with brilliant and sensible wit, called bromidioms. Even a superficial\nscrutiny of our educational population would show how very widespread is the intemperate use of such typical bromidioms as the following: \"I know good teaching when\nI see it,\" or \"The best part of teaching, that which arouses the will, awakens the feelings,\nstimulates the ambitions, inspires the sense of something to be achieved, and gives purpose\nand ideals to life, belongs to the immeasurable in education.\" To be more or less bromidic,\nis, however, a part of our common heritage.\nA concluding observation is pertinent. Significant of the difficulty and intricacy of\nthe problem of educational efficiency, as this centers specifically in the individual teacher,\none interesting fact may be noted. Concerning this question, practically alone among the\ngreat moot questions of education, those \"arrogant\" judges of our educational destinii\nthe school surveys — have not attempted in any direct way to declare a final verdict,\n2. The limits of the presentation. — Obviously, the present circumstances do not permit of any intensive elaboration of even the larger and the more important issues included\nwithin the natural boimdauies of the questions imder discussion. On the other hand,\nthe partioilar problems arising from these issues are of most practical concern for American teachers, and for those charged today with the professional and technical direction\nof public-school systems. My opportimity, however, will probably be best capitalized\nby first centering attention upon certain predetermining conditions in education which\nare serving to modify the professional status of the teacher and also of the supervisor.\nA very brief consideration of the foimdations of teaching merit, and an abbreviated discussion ofthe natiure of the major measures of teaching efficiency will bring me to m^P\nchief conclusions: namely, that the development of usable efficiency standards for teachers depends primarily upon a much more complete objective analysis of the real work of\nteaching than has yet been made. In its practical application, this analysis shovdd be the\nmeans for stimulating growth and improvement of the teaching staff rather than for\nclassifying individuals, impersonally and more or less arbitrarily, according to their professional fitness. For may not an index of the productivity of a school system be found\nin the demonstrable merit of its supervision fully as much as in the observed performances\nof its teachers ?\n3. The changing basis of selection for work. — ^The drama of our most daily forwardmoving Ufe contains no more intense scene than that in which the manipulators of human\nenergy seek to identify and to isolate the economically usable and socially needful qualities\nof men. The general status of an individual, his preferment, and his premiums of compensation inthe working world are, to an increasing degree, limited and fixed by the\nextent to which he possesses selected groups of qualities and energies. All varieties of\nwork are being analyzed into constituent elements of action and reaction. From these\nelements, there is to be built up synthetically, according to the formulas of a sort of human\nsocial chemistry, the man of skills — The Efficient One. Vocations tend more consciously\nand directiy to select men, instead of men selecting vocations.\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTESTING\n\nTHE\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n471\n\nThis scientific engineering of human material by the Taylors and Gilbreths is now\na familiar and exploited phenomenon in industry and commerce — the worid of controlled\nand controllable movements and products. Our contemporary life reveals many tragedies\nresulting from this analysis of work and the relentless selection of the fittest workers.\nNotwithstanding, there is an ethical logic for the attitude that only thru such a process\nof analysis and synthetic selection of hiunan qualities will there be a sound basis for the\neconomic and social discovery of the individual. Only as the real individual is discovered\nwill this be a world of real opportunity for all.\n4. The changing status of the American teacher. — The conspicuous result of the great\neducational revival of three-quarters of a century ago was the rediscovery of the school by\ndemocratic society; that the ideals of democracy become realities of life only thru the\nagency of the public-school system. The motives of the epochal educational endeavor\nof the past decade are to be foimd in the rediscovery of democratic society by the school;\nthat the life of the school is maintained by the transfusion of vitality from a living society.\nA new set of professional interests is developing today from the rediscovery of the teacher\nby the school; that the school system, as an educational machine, requires for its proper\noperation teachers who are skilful men and women, not merely skilful machine tenders.\nThe educational promise of the years now approaching depends upon the rediscovery of\nteacher by society; that there shall be a positive relation between quality and worth of\nservice and quality and quantity of rewards.\nOrganized industry and trade, thru minute analysis of the work to be done, has\nfoimd ways for testing the complex values of men and for the economical selection of individuals for work. Organized education, somewhat less consciously perhaps than industry\nand trade, is also striving to analyze its processes and ends into elemental imits. An\nimderstanding of the nature of these units, alone and in combination, is a prerequisite\nfor the selection of educational workers, and for the most serviceable utilization of the\ncapacities of the individual teacher.\nThere are many who view, with no uncertain apprehension, the present-day movement for the so-called standardization of education in any of its numerous particulars.\nIn so far as such standardization represents not a means, but an end in itself, there is\nample basis for imeasiness among those who have the discernment to realize that among\nthe essential foundations of the teachership are individual freedom and the counterplay\nof subtle emotional reactions.\nWithal, it seems inevitable that education will not escape the influence of those same\nforces that aim to bring a standardized order into the making and exchanging of material\nthings. Nor should there be attempt to escape, if, thru scientific analysis of the requisites\nfor successful teaching, there is any likelihood of a larger emancipation of the teacher from\nthe feudalism and the mechanical mastery of the existing educational order.\nThe testing and recording of teaching efficiency has this as a clearly defined objective:\nthe analysis of the work of teaching into its basic components; and the analysis of the\nworkers in teaching as to their possession of basic qualities and capacities. The changing\neconomic, social, and professional status of teaching is to be conditioned by the character\nand accuracy of the analysis we make of the work and the worker.\n5. The changing responsibility of the American city school superintendent. — It is\ninappropriate here to review, even as to its chief stages, the professional evolution of the\ncity school superintendency. That there has been a fairly rapid evolution during the\npast twenty years is all too patent. This evolution has been more rapid in the demand\nfor those qualifications and abilities necessary for successful supervision than it has in the\nsupply. The preacher-prothonotary-politician types of superintendents are becoming\nextinct. Their places are gradually being filled by men who have an abiding faith, a\ndetached, impersonal attitude toward the problems of education, and a personal skill in\nadjusting the school machine to the emerging needs of child and commvmity. The problem\nof teaching efficiency is in the hands of the new type of school superintendent.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cindimatr\n\nAmong the multitude of official and non-official responsibilities of your school superintendent in your modem city, none approximates in importance that of evaluating,\nconserving, and improving the quality of performance of the teachers who properly look\nto him for leadership and pre-eminent skill. The degree to which this responsibility to\nthe teaching staff is fulfilled is indicated by the devices employed, the methods used, and\nthe records preserved of the improvement of the performance of each teacher employed\nat any time in those schools. The one great end of teaching is the prevention of the waste\nof child energies and capacities. The one great justification for educational supervision\nis the prevention of the waste of teacher interest, skill, and products. The prevention of\nteacher waste precedes the prevention of child waste.\n6. The foundations of teaching merits. — ^The motions of teaching are not comparable\nto the motions of bricklajong. The bricklayer, with an identical series of motions, is able\nto produce immediately the same material results. The teacher, with such an identical\nseries, is confronted with pupil results, extremely variable and extremely remote. At the\noutset, we should realize that in teaching efficiency we are dealing with at least three sets\nof variables — the teacher, the pupil, and the supervisor. Any product of their combination isbound to be a variable.\nHere The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table gives us a better insight into our problem than\nthe statistician. Holmes, it will be recalled, calculated that at least six personahties\nwere to be distinctly recognized in the relations of John and Thomas. There were, in the\nfirst place, three Johns: (i) the real John — ^known only to his Maker; (2) John's ideal\nJohn — never the real one, and often very imlike him; (3) Thomas' ideal John — ^never the\nreal John, nor John's John, but often very unlike either. Similarly there were three\nThomases.\nBecause of these complicated relations and counter-relations, the problem of a satisfactory foimdation for a plan of determining teacher merit is difficult and deUcate.\nThe literature of education is rich with a poetic analy^s of the ideal teacher. This same\nliterature is sadly lacking in records of the scientific weighing of the real teacher.\nAt this stage of our progress certain working principles seem to me to be entitled\nto our consideration. Seven of these may be briefly and crudely formulated somewhat\nas follows:\n1. The chief purpose of any teaching efficiency scheme is to serve as the means of\npromoting development and improvement of the individual teacher.\n2. The content-basis of any teaching efficiency scheme should be the result of cooperative determination between the members of a teaching staff and the supervisors.\n3. This content-basis should attach primary imp>ortance to objective items representing those results of teaching capable of objective valuation rather than to contributory\npersonal factors.\n4. Clear and definite meanings should be attached to each item that enters into any\nfinal estimate of the value of the teacher's performance.\n5. The original estimate of fitness, calculated according to the accepted plan, should\nbe made by the teacher, and not by the supervisor.\n6. This original estimate should be subject to correction, only after conference\nbetween teacher and supervisor. The burden of proof for the verification, as well as any\nmodification of the teacher's estimate, rests squarely upon the supervisor.\n7. At least once each year, the verified and modified estimates should be made a\nmatter of definite record.\n7. The nature of the measures of teaching efficiency. — ^It is a far cry from the position\ntaken by a city superintendent who recently said to me with emphasis: \"This talk about\nthe measvurement of teaching efficiency is all ' bosh.' All I want to know about a teacher\nis— 'Can she teach ? ' I don't need any efficiency curves to enable me to answer that question. What I need is to see her teaching.\" Now there is a kind of sense in this comment,\nwe must admit, even tho it is nonsense. As a class, city superintendents are less sophisticated than formerly, less cocksure of their possession of a gift of second sight enabling them\nto pass with offhand certainty upon the processes and products of the teachers' work.\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nMERIT\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN PROMOTING\n\nTEACHERS\n\n473\n\nThe particular plan or device employed seems to me to be relatively unimportant\n(a) providing there is clear recognition of the foundation principles above defined; and\n(ft) providing there is no attempt at overelaboration of minor details, and (c) providing\nthe main value stress is placed upon clearly defined results of teaching, rather than upon\nformal procedure or upon personal factors of presumptive educational worth. In these\nseveral respects, however, practically all of the systematic efforts to analyze teaching\nability put forth in recent years have left much to be desired. In this connection might\nbe mentioned the analytical scheme which I proposed and published five years ago; that of\nE. C. Witham, of Southington, Conn.; that of A. C. Boyce, recently described in the Yearbook of the Society of College Teachers of Education; as well as the rating schemes adopted\nin many cities, typical of which are those of Houghton, Kansas City, and New Orleans.\nMy judgment of five years ago, relative to the major constituents of effective teaching performance, remains unchanged as to essentials. Experience and observation bulwarks my contention that the teacher is an octo-personality; that there is a physical\nteacher, a moral teacher, an executive teacher, a professional-technical teacher, a projecting teacher, a social teacher, a supervisory teacher (arising from the relations that\nexist with supervisors and other superiors of the school system), and, finally, an achieve■ ment teacher. This last is, in reality, a product of the cumulative converging of the other\nseven personalities. Before we are able to understand its real nature and worth, we shall\nbe obliged to analyze far more carefully than hitherto the professional composition of each\nof the preceding seven major factors. It is possible to analyze them and thereby to rid\nthe profession of teaching of that state of delightful and harmonious disagreement as to\nwhat are the fundamentals of teaching performance that make for genuine educational\neconomy and achievement. It must be comprehended that proper measures of teachers'\nefficiency must reward variety of ideas instead of uniformity of ideas, flexibihty of procedure rather than rigidity, the play of individuality in place of readiness of adaptation\nto the machine.\n8. The need of experiments, experience, and evidence. — ^The solution of the practical\nproblem of teaching merit may not be talked out on the platform. It must be worked\nout in the schoolroom, by teachers and supervisors, with that intelligence, detachment,\nand painstaking care that hallmarks all work of a truly scientific character. There is\nneed of more such detailed study of the measures of merit of teachers as that of Ruediger\nand Strayer* and that of A. C. Boyce.*\nMore than this we need co-operative experimental work over a wide area and under\nvarious conditions. The results of the experience of different individuals with different\nplans must be scrutinized and compared. Efficiency is not a problem to be met and\nsolved by the individual teacher and supervisor. It must be met and solved by the profession ofeducation working together. I doubt not that a group of a dozen competent\nsuperintendents of relatively small school systems, working together upon this problem,\ncould do more in a single year in the production of a workable method for the determination of the merit of teachers than could a hundred superintendents and nonsuperintendents working alone for a generation.\nTHE PROMOTION\n\nOF TEACHERS ON THE BASIS OF MERIT\nEFFICIENCY\n\nCLYDE C. GREEN, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, BEAVER\n\nAND\n\nFALLS, PA.\n\nAs a mere matter of sound business policy, the commercial world has adopted the\nmethod of basing salaries and promotions upon the ability and usefulness of the employee.\nNo employer pays level salaries in a given department and no employer makes salary\nand promotion depend chiefly upon years of service.\n'Journal 0/ Educational Psychology, I (igio), 972 £f.\n\n'Ibid., TH (igia), 144 ff.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe desire to apply sound business principles has prompted the administrative\nauthorities of most large cities and many small ones to adopt some form of the merit\nsystem of promoting teachers and fixing their salaries.\nBut the application of business principles to the employment of teachers was not as\nsimple as many expected. We have the assurance of many competent school authorities\nthat their schedules based upon merit have stood the test. We also know of many notable\nfailures, and fully realize that the operation of this plan has meant serious trouble for\nmore than one superintendent.\nIt would be folly for us to ignore the fact that the introduction of the merit system\ninvolves really great diOBctdties and it would be stupidity on the part of those who have\nhad some measure of success in this phase of their work if they failed to recognize the\nmartyrdom suffered by the pioneers in this movement in at least three of the great cities\nof this coimtry.\nWhile it is beside our purpose to enter into a minute analysis of the causes of the\ndiffioilties which arose in these and other school systems, careful investigation has convinced us that, in most cases, opposition was due to a failure in its execution rather than\nto any favdt of the essential features of the plan itself.\nUnder any ciraimstances, however, there are two classes of opponents which are\nusually present: First, the fossilized teacher who is incapable of professional growth and\nwhose chief distinction is the number of years she has occupied space. I say this with due\nregard for the veteran teacher who has never ceased to grow and whose services have\nbecome invaluable to the school system of which she is a part. Secondly, the petty\npolitician who desires to exploit the public-school system for his personal aggrandizement, j\nThere is no single method of dealing with either of these classes, but we must simply\nplace them in the same category with other barnacles on the school system and treat\nthem in such manner as the exigencies of the case require. At all events the deleterious\ninfluence of both must be mdlified; and it follows that the administrative authorities who\nlack the courage to meet such diffiadties or the power to co|>e with them are in a sorry m^ i\n\nplight.\n\nThere are two important considerations which are siifficient to convince us that thef\nteacher's promotion and increase in salary should depend solely upon her increase in\nefl&ciency. First, it is simple justice. Secondly, with rare exceptions teachers will not\ndefinitely prepare themselves for greater efficiency without hope of adequate reward.\nThe first reason does not seem to admit of argimient, and in our own experience has\nbeen accepted without question by all teachers and all others interested. The second\nreason is not self-evident; and, involving as it does the great question of increasing\nefficiency of teachers in the service, is opposed by those who are prone to deny that me\nand women in the teaching profession are influenced by the instincts and impulses commo\nto the race. There may be teachers who are wUling to sacrifice themselves without hop\nof earthly reward and this spirit is commendable wherever it is found. It woxUd\npleasant to conceive of an entire corps of teachers or an entire body of public offic\nactuated by such high motives; but experience teaches us that a salary of fifty doll\ndoes not usually purchase seventy-five dollars worth of service, and it is not reasoo\nto expect it.\nAfter all has been said about the higher motives which should actuate a teacher in '\nthe performance of her duties, there are two influences which are mightily effective in bringing forth her best efforts. These influences are the assiu^ance that her increase :\nin efficiency will be properly recognized in her promotion and the fixing of her salary, and\nthe knowledge that she cannot hold her position if she is incompetent.\nAs already suggested, probably the most frequent cause of failure is a defective\nmethod of determining the teacher's qualifications. Who shall pass upon the teacher's\nfitness for promotion or increase in salary ? How shall her increase in efficiency be determined ? What shall be the basis for determining her increase in efficiency ?\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMERIT\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN PROMOTING\n\nTEACHERS\n\n475\n\nTechnically, in most cities, the board of education has the sole power to fix teachers'\nsalaries and assign them to their positions, but the fine question of a teacher's increase in\nefficiency is one for the expert; and the chief factor should be an efficiency record kept\nby the principal or other supervisory officer and approved by the superintendent. While\nwe realize very keenly the vidnerable points of this method, we are satisfied that any\nhonest and intelligent effort to measure a teacher's service in terms of well-defined and\ncommonly accepted standards is preferable to conclusions determined by the extravagant\npraise or bitter condemnation of a few parents, pupils, or even school-board members\nwho have had personal relations with her.\nWhile the much overworked term \"efficiency\" is still obscured by a h£ize of mystery\nand uncertainty, we use it here in a relative sense, and we make no claim that anyone is\nable to determine on an absolute basis that a teacher is 95 per cent efficient. In the\nabsence of objective standards for measuring educational products and achievements, we\nmust be satisfied with standards which are essentially qualitative rather than quantitative.\nFor example: If, in the matter of classroom instruction, we accept Frank McMurry's\nprinciples of the motivation of pupils' efforts thru the providing of specific purposes\nfor study, attention to relative values in subject-matter, organization of ideas, and development ofinitiative on the part of the pupil, the supervisor will look for these qualities in a teacher's classroom work.\nWe merely refer to these qualities for the sake of illustration, realizing that emphasis\non specific qualities of instruction will vary with the policies of the authorities in different\nschool systems. Regardless of the academic discussions of impractical theorists, we are\nconvinced that it is folly at this stage in the development of the science of education to\nattempt to specify an elaborate schedule of standards for judging a teacher's work with\nthe hope that such a schedule will be accepted generally by those authorities who are\nactually operating the merit system of promotion. On the other hand, an essential\nelement in any form of the merit system is the designation of a few specific quEdities which\nare in harmony with the policies of the institution. These will be varied from time to\ntime as the conditions justify.\nA record of a teacher's classroom efficiency should be satisfactory to the teacher as\nwell as to the supervisor if it is to have the desired effect upon that teacher, i.e., the\nretention of the teacher's service and her professional growth. Is this condition possible ?\nAgain we must take issue with the theorists who assert that only those teachers who receive\na high rating are satisfied with the supervisor's analysis of their work, and that in order\nto preserve peace he will give practically all of his teachers a high grade in schoolroom\nefficiency.\nThere are two important factors which must be given due consideration if the supervisor's analysis of a teacher's work is to be satisfactory to both parties concerned. First,\nthe supervisor must maintain an attitude of entire frankness toward a teacher regarding\nhis estimate of her work. Positive criticism, favorable or unfavorable, is always preferred byhonest people, and teachers belong to that class. Negative criticism savors of\nincompetency or chicanery. The teacher is on trial, and she is entitled to a bill of particulars. Ifshe does not receive the coveted promotion or increase in salary she is entitled\nto a definite statement showing wherein she failed to meet the requirements. The supervisor's record of a teacher's efficiency should be fully discussed with her before it passes\nto higher authorities. Here is where the supervisor's best constructive work is made\npossible. At least one gigantic failure of the merit system within recent years was due\nto the neglect or wilful ignoring of this factor. Secondly, the supervisory authorities\nwho do not have the confidence of those whom they are supervising are not in a position\nto operate any system. This may seem rather harsh, but after all it is about time that\nwe awake from our pedagogical dreams and face the stubborn facts of a practical world.\nA second element of vital importance in determining a teacher's fitness for promotion,\ntho one not so commonly recognized as the record of schoolroom efficiency, is the pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1\n\ninati ■\n(Cincinnai\n\nmotional examination or other means used to determine her growth in the knowledge of\nthe theory of teaching, in scholarship, and in matters of general culture. The exact form\nwhich this promotional examination shall take will be determined by local conditions\nand policies, but where possible it seems expedient that it should be coincident with the\nexaminations required by state law for the different grades of teachers' licenses. Inasmuch as the superintendent grants the lower grade certificates and has the recommending\npower with certificates of the higher grades, the department of supervision has a very\npractical opportunity to encourage growth both in a knowledge of educational processes\nand the philosophy of teaching and in a knowledge of the academic branches required\nfor the several grades of teachers' certificates.\nThe question of the actual correlation between length of service and merit has not\nbeen and probably never will be definitely settled. The investigations of Ruediger and\nStrayer concerning this question are interesting if not entirely satisfactory. Referring\nto the table of correlations which they prepared they close their report with these words:\n\"From the figures as a whole, one may infer that a teacher in the grades reaches firstdass eflSdency in about five years; that she maintains this ejEciency for about twenty\nyears; and that after twenty-five years of service she begins to decline.\" Administrative authorities will find conclusions such as the above of little use to them when they\nare confronted by actual conditions, and those who attempt to apply the merit system\nwill sooner or later discover that, beyond a reasonable period of apprenticeship, length\nof service should be a factor only in so far as it can be shown that it has been conducive\nto greater efficiency. After a limited period of years, teachers caimot rely upon the\ninformation and inspiration received from schoolroom experience for their increase in\nefficiency. They must show evidence that they have definitely studied and prepared for\nbetter work. This principle holds in the case of superintendents as well as teachers, and\na wide-awake commimity will not be tardy in making the application.\nThe practice in many school systems of making a distinction in salary between\ncertain grades may have some advantages, but there are two inevitable results of the\npractice which seem to weaken any arguments in its favor. First, the best teachers will\ngravitate to the grades paying the highest salaries. Secondly, it creates a difficult administrative problem when it becomes expedient to transfer a teacher from one grade to\nanother.\nWe will close this discussion with a brief statement of the cardinal features of tlw\nmerit system as it is used in Beaver Falls:\ni^k\nI. Teachers are classified as follows:\nClass i: Teachers holding a permanent state certificate, state normal-school diploma,\nor a permanent college certificate, and showing evidence of at least three years' successful\nexperience in schook approved by the board.\nClass 2: Teachers holding a professional certificate, state normal-school certificate,\nor provisional college certificate, and showing evidence of at least two years' successful\nexperience in schools approved by the board.\nClass 3: Teachers holding a provisional certificate, state normal-school certificate,\nor provisional college certificate, without two years' successful experience in schools\napproved by the board.\nThis classification is made on the following basis: (1) The grade of certificate, involving promotional examinations to determine evidence of growth in scholarship and a\nknowledge of educational processes and the philosophy of teaching; and (2) successful\nexperience, involving an efficiency record to determine evidence of growth in schoolroom\nefficiency with special reference to the following items:\no) Instruction\nb) Management of children\nc) Attention to details of school work\nd) Professional zeal\ne) Personal qualities\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSATISFACTORY\n\nBASIS\n\nFOR\n\nPROMOTING\n\nPUPILS\n\n477\n\n2. Minimum and maximima salaries are fixed for classes 2 and 3, a minimum and\na maximum for automatic increase are fixed for class i. Teachers belonging to class i\nwho possess special qualifications may receive a salary beyond the maximum for automatic increase.\n3. Provision is made for an automatic increase in salary according to a definite\nincrement for a teacher having a satisfactory efficiency record until she reaches the maximum salary for the class to which she belongs or acquires the qualifications which place\nher in another class.\n4. The efficiency record is posted twice each year and teachers are given an opportunity to see their rating before it is reported to the board of education.\n\nA SATISFACTORY\n\nBASIS FOR THE PROMOTION\n\nJOSEPH ROSIER, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nOF SCHOOLS, FAIRMONT, W.VA.\n\nWith the development of modem school organization came the necessity for arranging\ndiildren in groups of homogeneous abilities so that each individual might be able to respond\nto the instruction given to the group as a whole. In the graded school system, each group\nis supposed to be composed of children of about the same age and of about the same mental\ncapacity. The graded school system, on the one hand, has developed the spirit of social\nco-operation among the members of the group in the mastery of the course of study, and,\non the other hand, it has tended to the submersion of the individual pupil and his peculiar\nneeds and interests. The point of conflict therefore in all plans for the grading and promotion ofpupils in our schools is found in the needs of the individual pupil for specific\ninstruction and the mechanization of class teaching.\nNot only is flexibility of grading necessary for the welfare of children of limited\nmental capacity, but, in recent years, the necessity of making provisions for the children\nof more than average mental capacity has been recognized. This brings out the desirability ofminimum and maximtmi requirements in the course of study so that pupils of\nexceptional ability may have a wider range of studies. Provisions for shortening the\ntime of the completion of the course of study such as the Cambridge plan and other\nsimilar plans, aside from the administrative difficulties, are of doubtful value, because\nbright pupils will be benefited more by an intensive study of subject-matter in the different\ngrades than they will by a premature and hasty advance into higher classes.\nWith these preliminary statements concerning the problems of grading and promotion, we are prepared to consider the basis for the promotion of pupils from grade to grade\nin our schools. A view shotdd first be taken of the methods which were developed along\nwith the growth of the graded school system. During the period from 1870 to 1895,\nscholastic ability and intellectual training were the factors that determined the promotion\nof pupils, and examinations were made the chief test. Lists of examination questions\nwere prepared by external authorities for testing the different grades of the schools, and\nthe papers containing the answers were collected and passed upon by the superintendent\nand his assistants. The marks on the examination papers when properly added and\naveraged indicated the fortunate children who were to be advanced to the next higher\ngrade. These scholastic tests with some slight attention to the chronological age of the\nchild made the promoting of pupils a comparatively simple and easy problem.\nModem investigation of the many phases of education has in recent years given us\nan entirely different outlook. The examination as a means of determining the fitness of\npupils for promotion is no longer considered reliable or adequate. An examination prepared by a central authority and scattered broadcast as a test of general fitness is a\nviolation of every known biological and psychological law. Such tests mechanize the\nschool system, hamper and restrict the teaching, overstimidate some children, and fail\nabsolutely to stimulate others. The examination as a basis for promotion is an instmment of torture, and cannot be justified in the light of our present-day knowledge of the\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmcinnati\n\nchild. The progressive superintendent realizes that he must know the needs and the possibilities ofthe children, and that he cannot find out these things by any system of external\ntests.\nThe primary basis for the promotion of the child from grade to grade in ova schools\nis biological. The child is a product of evolutionary processes, and his elemental biological\neqvdpment is not imlike that of all other kinds of animal life. The biological outlook is\nabsolutely essential to an intelligent imderstanding of childhood in its natural instincts,\nits primitive manifestations of thought, and in its developmental influences of evolutionary\norigin. Our organized systems of education have never given intelligent consideration\nto the lengthened period of infancy, and its biological significance in the physical and\nmental growth of man. We are too prone to regard the child as a separate instead of an\nintegral part of organic creation, and to overlook the fact that there are certain physical\nand mental determinants in the normal imfolding of its possibilities. Our teacher-training\ncourses have dealt too much in psychological hair-splitting, and not enough with the\nsimple laws of biological growth. An observance of the order of the physiological maturing\nof children will solve many of our educational problems by adjusting our demands and\nrequirements to the stage of development. The child's powers of resistance to disease\nand fatigue have a great bearing upon the sort of education it ought to have. We have\nscarcely recognized in practice the intimate relation that exists between physical and\nmental conditions. The neurological basis of feeling, knowing, and willing is so deep and\nfundamental that no system of instruction can safely disregard it. When we recognize\nthe basic importance of the nervous system in the development of the child we will not\nexpect normal instincts, emotions, and intelligence in children that are morbid and\nimhealthy.\nRecent investigations also show that the training of the mind is closely related to\nthe activity of the muscles, and that motor activity of some sort is essential to all educational development. Termon holds that the motor element is present in all our thinking, and that thinking, biologically speaking, is never its own end, but a means toward\nadaptation, which is essentially motor. The traditional school with its memorizing\nprocesses and its examinations for the test of mental contents rather than mental capacity\nleft out of account that large element of children whose thinking is based largely upon\nmotor processes and muscular activities, with the result that such children were branded\nas laggards, misfits, and incompetents. Traditional education is subject to criticism in\nthat it measures the educational progress of the child solely by intellectual attainments\nand scholastic standards. More importance has been attached to knowing than to doing.\nWith the application of biological laws in education less time will be given to book instruction, and more to those things that demand physical activity.\nIn the formulation of soimd theories of grading and promoting children, we must also\ngive an important place to the consideration of the psychologic basis of education. The\napplication of the laws of mental life to educational processes is an obligation resting upon\nevery modem school system. In the training of teachers much of the theoretical and\nexperimental psychology now given in normal schools and departments of education\nought to be discarded, and a study of the simple mental processes in relation to learning\nsubstituted in their place. In the general practice of education, we need a wider study\nand vinderstanding of the methods of adjustment and of adaptation. The greatest world\nwaste of human energy grows out of the inability of the individual to land in the place in\nwhich he can render the most valuable service to himself and society. The mechanical\nstandards set up in too many of our schools tend to destroy the ability of the child to stand\non his own feet, and undoubtedly make him weak and vacillating in the presence of the\nvarying situations of life. Primitive education was more efficient in training the individual\nto confront the situations of primitive life than is modem education in its preparation of\nthe child to find its bearings in the more complex life of today. Our schools need teaching\nthat is based upon the simple, well-tested principles of psychology, that views in broad\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSATISFACTORY\n\nBASIS\n\nFOR\n\nPROMOTING\n\nPUPILS\n\n479\n\noutline the natural mental development from childhood to manhood, that recognizes\nindividual differences among children and perceives their significance in educational\ntraining, and that clearly grasps the conditions and the factors that imderlie the learning\nprocess.\nIn adding to the traditional scholastic standards the biological and psychological\nelements which have been considered, the grading and promotion of pupils become a\nquestion of child welfare rather than of the manipulation of a scholastic yardstick. In\nany conflict between the school system and preconceived educational standards and the\nwelfare of the child, the needs and interests of the child must be supreme. We preach\nno soft pedagogy when we say that our school systems must be so flexible in their adjustments and requirements that they may provide the child with the amplest opportunity\nfor serving his needs. Slowly but surely, with our broader knowledge of physiology and\nhygiene and the psychology of childhood, the pupils in our schools are being emancipated\nfrom the schoolroom repressions and scholastic tortures that prevailed everywhere in\nformer generations. We no longer chain children to their desks and to their books, and\nthus make learning a process to be dreaded and hated and the school a prison-house from\nwhich children escape with joy. With a more liberalized spirit in our schools, the school\nsystem has ceased to be a machine in which children are bent and compressed into purely\nintellectual and scholastic molds. In spite of the dismal forebodings of those who attempt\nto attribute to the leniency and latitude of present-day school discipline the lack of\nrespect for law, order, and authority, there are substantial grounds for believing that\nreverence for the individuality of the child is the most vital element in modern pedagogy.\nIn the teaching of today the discipline of physical force and muscle must give way to the\ndominant influence and leadership of the spirit in the control and direction of children.\nThe problem of determining the fitness of a pupil for promotion is one which must\nbe solved primarily by the teacher. The purpose of grading and promotion in our schools\nis not that of punishment or reward, but an intelligent, sensible assignment of a pupil to\nthe place where he can do the best work. The teacher, after having had a pupil in her\nclass for a half-year or a year, with opportunities for the daily inspection of his recitations\nand his written work in the different subjects, and for the observation of his physical\ncharacteristics and mental attitudes, ought to be better qualified than anyone else to\ndecide what is best for the child. The teacher's judgment should, of course, be based\nupon a reasonable system of records and not upon mere temporary or spasmodic opinion.\nAny plan of promotion, however, that makes the teacher a slave to classbooks, markings,\nand percentages is distinctly bad. The determination of the promotion of a child is not\na matter of adding and averaging percentages. The teacher should be permitted to\nrecommend for promotion all pupils in her class about whose ability to do the work of\nthe next grade there is no question. There will remain a certain number in each class\nwhose cases should be considered by the teacher and the principal together. There will\nbe an occasional pupil about whom the superintendent will be called into consultation.\nIn all instances, the question to be decided is what is best for the child. Any plan which\nprovides for an examination of the doubtful minority as a final test of what shall be done\nwith them is an inexcusable dodging of professional responsibility. In the light of modem\nknowledge of the relation of physical to mental conditions, it would be far better to call\nin the doctor and the specialist.\nDue consideration should also be given to the physiological as well as the chronological age of the child, to its general health conditions and vital power to resist disease\nand fatigue, to the degree of its mental maturity, and to its habits in school attendance,\nstudy, and performance of assigned work. With our highly intellectualized notions of\nschool work, and mechanical standards of measuring the progress of children, too much\nfuss has been made about scholastic marks and promotions. Reclassifications and promotions should be brought about by normal and quiet methods without any upsetting or\nserious disturbance of the individual pupil and without any noticeable agitation of the\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinnati\n\nschool as a whole. The supreme aim in assigning a pupil to his place in a school system\nis to provide him with a maximum of opportimity. This assignment is a matter of\njudgment to be exercised by those best acquainted with the capabilities of the child. The\nteacher in consultation with the principal can most accurately and wisely determine when\nthe pupil is prepared to advance to a higher grade.\nDISCUSSION\nA. C. Payne, superintendent of schools, Mooresville, Ind. — Superintendent Green's\ncontention is that eflBiciency should be the sole basis for the promotion of teachers in any\nsystem of schools. In this contention, all of us agree with him. The spirit of the twentieth century is that advancement in any line of hmnan endeavor is conditioned by the\ndegree in which a man or an institution \"makes good.\"\nIt seems strange that two of the greatest institutions of society, the church and the\nschool, should have been content so long to ignore, in large degree, the principles whidi\nunderlie all successful business endeavor and practice.\nThe spirit of inquiry and research, that divine spirit of discontent which asserts itself\nwhen the work of today is not better than the work of yesterday, is begiiming to make its\ninfluence felt among the school administrators of the country. A few taxpayers everywhere (and the nimiber is rapidly increasing every day) have begun to inquire whether\nthe school is giving value received for its expenditure of time and money. These\ntaxpayers are asking why the schools of their city should cost more per pupil than\nthe schools of a neighboring city. They are insisting that the disproportionate cost of\nthe maintenance of two schools in the same city is due largely to the lack of scientific\nmanagement. This inquiry of the taxpayer, this exercise of sovereignty in our Republic,\nhas caused us school men to turn our attention to a phase of public-school administration\nwhich has not yet received due consideration.\nThe increasing nvunber of school superintendents everywhere who have volimtarily\nasked their boards of education to employ experts to examine courses of study, methods\nof instruction, and administrative ejBEorts in their own school systems — these men have\ndone much to beget confidence in the schools of the present and to inspire larger hope for\nthe schools of the future.\nSuperintendent Green names two classes of individuals who oppose the promotion\nof teachers on merit, the fossilized teacher and the politician who would exploit the school\nfor personal gain. The niunber of classes should be increased by the addition of that\nclass of superintendents who find it more pleasant to remain in their oflices, to keep records,\nand to entertain visitors, than to go out among their teachers in their daily work and\nactually share with them its problems and perplexities. These superintendents are\ncontent to view this question of efficiency from the range of a forty-two centimeter gun.\nThey declare that this measuring of efficiency is another \"new one\" brought to light by\nColxmibia or some other university and that it will soon be consigned to the p>edagogical\nscrapheap where all the other educational fads of the centuries peacefully repose. We\nhave, therefore, an addition to the classes of opponents of merit and efficiency — the\nfossilized superintendent who finds himself imable to make adjustment to the changes by\nwhich the race has kept its face toward the light. \"Progress, man's distinctive mark\nalone, not God's, not the beast's,\" has neither poetical nor practical appeal to him.\nThe author of the paper has made the necessity of keeping an efficiency record so plain\nthat a wajrfaring man need not go astray. The difficulty, as the author well says, is the\ndifficulty of determining the factors that shall constitute this record and the emphasis that\nsome of these should receive in using them as an efficiency test.\nAt the risk of being dogmatic, it would seem safe to say that one element, or factor,\nin an efficiency record anywhere is the teacher's ability to bring the subject-matter taught\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSATISFACTORY\n\nBASIS\n\nFOR\n\nPROMOTING\n\nPUPILS\n\n481\n\ninto vital relationship with the life the pupil now lives. In teaching the government of\nancient Greece, the teacher should lead her pupils to see that the Greek spirit of freedom\nand independence reappeared in the Constitutional Convention. Still further, if the\npupils of this teacher see that the attempt of a member of the legislature of their own\nstate to make the county rather than the state the unit in the administration of a law\nis an exemplification of the Greek spirit of local independence, she has done a splendid\npiece of work. This teacher is an artist. On one point of her efficiency record she should\n\nhave \"A+.\"\n\nAnother characteristic that should have place in any efficiency record anywhere is\nthat resourcefulness or originality which enables the teacher to stand before her class,\nnot as a trained craftsman, working at the direction and plan of another, but as the student\nin his laboratory, becoming more conscious every day of the growing significance of his\nsubject as a developing power in the lives of his pupils. Such a teacher is afire with zeal\nfor truth. Her pupils have gotten live coals from the same altar. In the heat of the\nspirit, even as two bars of iron under pressure become one, so does the thinking of pupil\nand teacher fuse into one product which transforms the world. Mark this teacher \" A+ \"\nin one quality of her teaching record. No one has ever described this better than the Sage\nof Concord when he said:\nThe spirit only can teach. Not any sensual, not any liar, not any slave can teach,\nbut only he can give who has; he only can create, who is. The man on whom the sovd\ndescends, thru whom the soul speaks, alone can teach. Courage, purity, love, wisdom\ncan teach; and every man can open his door to these angels, and they shall bring him the\ngift of tongues. But the man who aims to speak as books enable, as synods use, as the\nfashion guides, and as interest commands, babbles. Let him hush !\nAnother element of any efficiency record anjrwhere is that of a definite aim or purpose in every recitation which the teacher conducts. The teacher who sees the goal from\nthe beginning and makes all his questioning, all the illustrative material used, help move\ntoward this goal deserves high efficiency rating. It is said that far back in the misty\nmorning of the past the Great American Auk and other animals now extinct left the\nimpress of their feet so distinctly upon rock then plastic that to this day the geologist\nmay trace their wandering feet. Even so may the influence of the teacher who leads his\npupils to right habits of thinking day by day and year by year be seen long after his work\nis done in the minds of those whom he has taught. Such a teacher deserves high ranking\nin any efficiency record.\nThere are many more elements in an efficiency record which are so general in their\napplication as would make their employment satisfactory in measuring the efficiency of\nteachers in any school system anywhere. Lack of time forbids even the mention of these,\nnot to say anything about the large number of elements in an efficiency record which will\nbe peculiar to any system because of the emphasis placed upon certain objectives in\neducation as seen by the superintendent and board of education.\nJames T. Begg, superintendent of schools, Sandusky, Ohio. — It is with some hesitation that I imdertake what I am about to do, namely: take the opposite side on this\nquestion after having heard two excellent papers on the subject on the affirmative side.\nIn listening to the arguments favoring fixing the teacher's salary according to her\nefficiency, I wondered how long the speaker had been superintendent in his particular\ncity, how far he was responsible for his present corps of teachers, how many he would\ngrade low had been graded high by his predecessor, how difficult it is to judge results\nimmediately. If we only realized that he whom we may hold to be mediocre in ability\nmay, in the day of judgment, be found sitting on the right hand of God's throne, while\nwe who feel so superior because of our accidental position may find ourselves in a very\nhumble position among God's elect!\nEfficiency! Efficiency! Who art thou anyway? So much is done in thy name\nthat one might think thou wert a magician.\nEfficiency in factories has been referred to\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnaiil\n\nby both papers, but so far as my limited observation has allowed me to go, efficiency in all\nmanufacturing and mercantile establishments means only one thing and that thing is\nspeed. All factories demand a certain standard or quality of workmanship from every\nworkman in that department. If a workman cannot do that kind of work, he is fired.\nIf he can, he is kept on the pay-roll and rewarded for just what he does.\nNow why can't we as superintendents demand a certain standard of teaching, stipulating that all who cannot do that kind be dismissed, and that those who can be paid the\nsame salary according to experience? I do not object to classification of work with\ngraded salary, but I do think that it is next to impossible to pay a beginner $90.00 per\nmonth and a teacher of five or ten years' experience $70 . 00 per month for teaching the\nsame grade and do it on the sole groimd that the new teacher is the more efficient. I can\nvery easily picture the school cyclone that will strike your town when you undertake\nit, if the present squalls in various cities over smaller matters are any sample. Statistics\nin our school journals say the life of the school superintendents of the United States averages three years in a place.\nIn view of all the foregoing, gentlemen, I am very frank to say to you I do not think\nthere are two men in the room big enough to put such an arrangement across. The government does not pay that way, the railroads do not, the telegraphers do not, the contractor\ndoes not — in fact, no business does imless it is a merciless piece-pay manufacturing game.\nThen let us be sane, let us try continually to raise the standard of the teacher's\nefficiency as a class, let us do anything and everything that wiU react to the betterment\nof the boys and girls. Let us be slow to judge the work of one co-worker as compared\nwith another, especially when both are doing acceptable work, lest we betray oiu: own\nnarrowness, our own inefficiency, our susceptibility to being swayed by our personal feelings,\nour likes and dislikes, eta, ad infinitum.\nHenhy M. Maxson, superintendent of schools, Plainfield, N.J. — ^It seems to me\nthat the first essential in establishing a system of promotion is to answer this question:\nWhat is the aim of a promotion system ?\nBefore answering the question, it may be wise to sweep away various misconceptions:\n(i) There is the erroneous idea prevalent among the teachers that it is an instrument of\ndiscipline. Many teachers hold up before the children the non-promotion bogie to\nfrighten them into doing their work. (2) There is the misconception of the parents, many\nof whom seem to think that it is a system for bestowing merits or demerits on the pupils\nat the end of the year, and who rise in arms if their particular child has not received promotion, assuming at once that it is the result of unfairness on the part of the teacher.\n(3) Misconceptions exist also on the part of the school boards, who seem to think it is\na method of roUing red tape, as shown by a case that appeared in the papers not long\nsince, where a child had passed the county examination for admission to the high school,\nbut the board of education would not receive her. There was no question of ability to do\nthe work, but the child had not passed thru the eighth grade. And (4) even the supervisory officers sometimes get astray on the matter, conceiving that it is simply a device\nfor producing classes of even ability.\nNow all these are misconceptions of the real basis of promotion. The real aim is\nsimply this: To provide a method for putting each child in the place where he will get the\nbiggest returns for the time he spends in school. If this be so, then the main thing in\ndetermining the system of promotion is the invention of some means that will enable us\nto determine what a child can do, in order to know what to give him to do; i.e., the\ncornerstone of the system is the determining of individual ability, individual power of\naccomplishment, individual needs. How shall this be determined?\nIn these days, there is much talk of efficiency tests, of educational standards, but it\nwin be many a day before these matters are in such shape that they can be used to determine a child's advancement in the course. That question must be settled mainly by the\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSATISFACTORY\n\nBASIS\n\nFOR\n\nPROMOTING\n\nPUPILS\n\n483\n\none who knows him best, his classroom teacher, who works with him day by day, who\nsees not only what he accomplishes but the way his mind works, who becomes familiar\nwith his capacities and his deficiencies. The teacher's judgment, supplemented by that\nof the principal, the next one who knows most about the child, must ever be the main\nreliance in systems of promotion for smaller cities. In difficult cases, the judgment of\nthe superintendent may be brought in as a referee.\nIf parents were satisfied to accept the dictum of a teacher unsupported, these personal judgments would be sufficient. Parents are not so satisfied, and ofttimes the good\nteacher needs data as wa3miarks, in order to help her in determining the final judgment;\nhence arise systems of daily marking and examination. They are all right, if viewed\ncorrectly. But they have their dangers. The teacher must not feel that she is to give\nan exact ntmierical value of the abihty of each child. In fact, for purposes of promotion,\ntwo marks are sufficient: \"Satisfactory\" and \"Unsatisfactory.\" Of course, conduct\nshould never enter into the matter at all. Since we are trying to determine where the\nchild's power of accomplishment should put him, deportment must for the time being\nbe forgotten.\nAgain, from this viewpoint, the pupil must be advanced by subjects. If he is deficient\nin arithmetic, there is no sense in making him take over again the geography which he\nhas done well.\nFinally, the system must never become so hardened and ironclad as to prevent the\nauthorities from putting each child where he ought to be, regardless of what the records\nshow.\nAs a summary, I am inclined to accept this dictum: (i) Each pupil should be given,\neach day, something that he can do; (2) he should do it; and (3) if he does not do it,\nthere is something the matter with the system. If a child does not, each day, find something that he can do and wants to do, then, as far as that child is concerned, the promotion system is a failure.\nJ. T. Giles, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind. — ^My contribution to this\ndiscussion is a report of a co-operative effort by the Richmond city teachers and supervisors to construct a mutually satisfactory scale for judging the merits of a recitation.\nThe request for the scale came originally from the teachers themselves. The following\nmethod was used:\nEach teacher and supervisor was asked to submit to the superintendent a list of ten\nqualities of a good recitation. The replies were then tabulated as follows, the figures\nindicating the number of times each quality was mentioned: interest, 71; preparation,\n70; initiative, 69; weighing values, 56; organization of ideas, 41 ; assignment, 40; motive,\n37; co-operation, 35; purpose (aim), 35; attention, 32; well-adapted subject-matter, 32;\nquestioning, 30; sympathetic attitude, 30; criticism, 23; apperception, 21; knowledge,\n20; participation by all, 19; application, 18; presentation, 17; spirit, 17; English, 15;\nexpression, 14; self-activity, 14; generalization, 13; effort, 12; skill of teacher, 12; selfreliance, 12; concentration, 10; review, 8; order, 7; surroundings, 7; imified action, 6;\nresponsibility, 6; originality, 6.\nFive or less mentioned accuracy, assimilation, appeal to all the senses, balance,\nbrevity, correlation, class activity dominant, courtesy, co-ordination, clearness, concentration, cheer, conservation, discussion, definiteness, direction not domination by\nteacher, dignity, drill, enthusiasm, exactness, equipment, friendly feeling, imagination,\ninspiration, induction, judgment, knowledge of pupil, logical content and memory, neatness, observation, poise, politeness, power, problem, promptness, position, response,\nrespect, reason, suggestion, simplicity, spontaneity, self-control, study habits, standards,\nthinking, tact, time, thoroness, understanding, variety.\nThe significance of the above classification is clear. It means that, theoretically at\nleast, we have passed in teaching method from the logical doctrine of the five formal steps\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmdnnati\n\nin the development of subject-matter, thru the psychological doctrine of interest in the\ndevelopment of the child, to the sociological doctrine of the child's adjustment to socirty.\nThe qualities most frequently mentioned were then arranged in the form given below\nand resubmitted to the teachers for evaluation. The replies were again tabulated and the\naverages are as indicated in the scale.\nThe reason why the total of points in the recitation schedule is 120, professional and\ncommxmity interest being 30, making 150 points all together, is because in Indiana a\nteacher's success is graded practically on a scale of 15, no teacher being able to secure a\nlicense if her success grade falls below 85. Of these possible 15 points (150 on the scale),\n3 (30 on the scale) are assigned by the department to jjersonality and professional and\ncommunity interest and the remainder to the teaching process.\nThe value of this scale lies in its construction rather than in its final form. It states\neducational values as one group of teachers sees them today. It is mutual, not superimposed. Itis offered to this body as a suggestion of method, not as a finality.\nThe scale itself is as follows:\nRecitation Tests\nI. Conditions determined (as far as possible) by the teacher:\n1. Favorable surroundings, order, industry, temperature, ventilation, light,\nseating, books, apparatus, etc. [12]\n2. Attitude [18]\no) Self, group, teacher control\nb) Sjrmpathy v. force\nc) Reasons v. authority\nd) Freedom v. prescription\n3. The problem (assignment) [24]\no) Furnishing a definite aim (goal) of skill, knowledge, appreciation, ideal\nb) Interesting (motivated), identified with a felt need\nc) Adapted to pupil's experience\n(Q Applicable to life adjustment\nn. Activities of the pupils:\n1. Attention (participation) undivided, imanimous [16]\n2. Co-operation [18]\nc) Group responsibility\nb) Pupil initiative, absence of teacher domination\nc) Conformity to social usage out of school, courtesy, etc.\n3. Criticism [12]\no) Self and group v. teacher\n4. Use of ideas [20]\na) Expression, good English, design, harmony, accuracy, neatness, etc\nb) Evaluation (choice)\nc) Organization\nor Habit formation\ni) Conformity to James's Laws\nTotal [120]\nm. Professional attitude and commimity interest [30J\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTERING\n\nROUND\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nLAWS\n\n485\n\nTABLE OF CHILD RELATIONS\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION\nS. O. HARTWELL,\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nOF COMPULSORY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nKALAMAZOO,\n\nLAWS\n\nMICH.\n\nThe present situation as to compulsory education in the United States is practically\nthe same as the situation on other items of educational theory and procedure. Legally,\nwe have no national system of education, but as many different plans as there are states.\nPractically there has been notable progress in recent years toward unity of plan and a\ncommon method of procedure among the different states. From the point of view of\ndesirable conditions, compulsory education has not yet gone very far in the United\nStates. If we are to consider it historically, however, with an eye to the gains in recent\ndecades, the advances are encouraging.\nPrior to 1870, but two states had enactments of this kind on their statute books. Congress had also acted for the District of Colimibia. The first effective law, which gathered\ntip some vagrant provisions as to truancy and regular attendance previously enacted,\nwas passed in Massachusetts in 1852; Vermont passed its first law in 1867; while the\nDistrict of Colimibia enactment was in 1864. In the next decade, twelve states passed\nsimilar laws. In the twenty years between 1880 and 1900, fifteen more were added to the\nlist, and ten others made similar provisions during the first decade of this century. Thus\nthe list of states at present without any provision for compulsory education is brought\ndown to a half-dozen southern states, with three or four in the same section whose enactments are not state-wide but drawn to meet special local conditions. The vital provisions\nas to length of the compulsory term, the maximum age of pupils coming under the law,\nand the penalties for enforcement differ amazingly. Apparently the best laws and the\nbest enforcement are found at present in the New England states. New York, and a few of\nthe North Central states. According to the 1910 census (quoted in W. S. Deffenbaugh's\narticle on \"Compulsory School Attendance\" in a recent bulletin of the Bureau of Education), only eight of the states have secured the school attendance of 90 per cent of the\ndiildren between six and fourteen years of age. Four of these are in New England, the\nothers being Iowa, Nebraska, Michigan, and New York. Ohio has advanced legislation\non compulsory education and child labor passed in 1913 and the Wisconsin law for continuation schools in industrial training has imdoubtedly done much to help the situation\nm that state.\nBut however much we may say as to progress in the last two or three decades, statistical comparison of the proportion of the children in school and of the facts of iUiteracy,\nwhich dearly bear a direct relation to compulsory school attendance, shows that both the\nlaws and their enforcement are, in actual terms of the best procedure, incomplete and\nragged. In the different states, the compulsory age limit ranges from twelve in three\nStates to sixteen years of age, which is the accepted limit in fifteen states. Idaho is the\nonly state going above the limit of sixteen, having named eighteen years, but evidently\nconditions of enforcement, probably because of scattered population, are uncertain, as the\npercentage of children imder fourteen who are enrolled in school is 82. i. The period of\nreqiured attendance varies from twelve weeks per year — six of which must be consecutive\n— in one of the southern states, to the full year, the legal requirement in twenty-five states.\nBut here, again, legal enforcement as to the complete school year varies so that the Frenchman's dictum on a general statement is correct: \"No general statement is true, not even\nthis one.\" Further, the causes of exemption are so varied that the percentage of efl&ciency\nof enforcement up to the age of fourteen shows a descending scale from 92.9 in Massachuset s, to54.6 in Louisiana. It should be said, however, that the Louisiana statistics\nare really prior to the adoption of their compulsory law in 1910. Therefore, in a general\n•discussion of the enforcement of compulsory education laws, it is necessary to assume a law\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nwith strong provisions and sufficient penalties, such as the Ohio law of 1913 above\nmentioned, the Michigan law, or the Massachusetts law.\nGiven such provisions on the statute books, what are the essentials that must be\nsecured in order to gain a reasonably satisfactory enforcement? The point that seems\nto me of first importance is one on which I have foimd it difficult to secure clear data.\nThe provisions are as varied as the different laws and in most of the states much is left\nto local initiative. I refer to the method of enrolment and registration by which the\nfacts as to the nvunber of children of school age are ascertained. Here the German\nhabit and example of thoroness and its results in the matter of compulsory education are\ncertainly suggestive even if we cannot exactly follow them. Their method of careful and\ncomplete registration of all families and the prompt recording of families that move have\ngiven them probably the closest estimate to be foimd in any country as to the actual\nnvunber of school children. With this as a first step, careful legal enforcement of\nattendance has followed, and the curve of illiteracy has steadily fallen until the ratio of\n3/100 of I per cent has been reached. It is further stated in the same pamphlet from the\nBureau of Education just quoted, that in Prussia in 1901 out of 5,754,728 children of\nschool age 5,754,180 were in school. Clearly no state in this coimtry could approach\nthat. Probably under the present registration systems, no state would know if it had\ndone so.\nThis point of registration is essential and can, with reasonable care, be fairly met.\nIn the first place, all the respectable laws require a school census which forms the basis\nfor such registration; in the second place, provisions for making this effective seem easily\npossible in a locality of any size. I may briefly describe a plan used with some success\nin a city of moderate size: Care has been taken for several years to check the school\ncensus from previous records with such success that this year less than a score of the\nnames presented to the state department were rejected as in error. Next, a card record\nof the actual attendance in the public schools has been kept. These two lists have been\nprepared for pupils of school age. Of course, there is considerable discrepancy as there\nare several parochial schools in the town. In the fall, the list of names found on the\nschool census and not in the attendance register has been sent to each of the private and\nparochial schools, which have co-operated in checking the names of those in attendance\nat such schools. The remainder of the list has been checked by postal-card notice and by\nvisits of the truant officers. A further list of those in attendance in the public schools\nlast year who have not enrolled thig year has been checked in the same way and the\nresult shows that the actual number of pupils failing to enrol is very small. The keeping\nof the two lists has also been quite effective in checking the curious habit among applicants for school permits of aging suddenly at fourteen, whereby they skip a year or two\nin order quickly to get to work.\nThe weakness of this list is one that is, I fancy, constant. It does not account, except\nthru volunteer information, for the pupils who come into town during the year. In a small\ndty, neighborhood information will take care of the major fraction of these people. In\nthe country, neighborhood information may perhaps be a little more reluctant. But\nsome method of providing for a continuous register of this sort must, in my judgment,\nbe foimd in order to get thoro enforcement of the compulsory attendance. I presume\nthat such methods are used in the large cities where there are well-organized attendance\ndepartments.\nThe second point in enforcement is a sufficient number of attendance officers. Even\nthe best of the localities that I know of — and they are situated in states with a high percentage ofenforcement — are weak in this regard. I presume, therefore, that the weakness\nis practically universal. This is natural enough since parents, as a rule, are rather resentful of legal compulsion, and since there is a hazy notion in the public mind that nonattendance is sporadic and individual. The school man looks upon it as a steady factor\nof interruption. With a little planning, much more can be secured in this line in almost\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTERING\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nLAWS\n\n487\n\nany city. While the truant officers, so called, must have certain police powers, the\nseparation of the attendance department so far as possible from the police point of view\nseems necessary. Men and women should be secured as attendance officers, who, in\naddition to sympathy and tact, have some knowledge of the problems of education and\nunderstand the value of school attendance and regularity therein. I have known a\nfew cities in which the principal attendance officer was a teacher in the ungraded school.\nThis has been valuable both to the school and in the enforcement of the law. It has\ngiven a wider knowledge of the conditions affecting the truancy and it has added to the\nforce of volunteer officers a number of pupils who knew the haunts of the derelicts. The\nmethod cannot be fully carried out in a large city but it can be made useful in the\nsmaller city.\nIn the smaller villages and rural districts, enforcement of the attendance law is likely\nto be placed, if placed at all, in the hands of a deputy sheriff. Here, again, the principle\nof removing enforcement from police control and connecting it with the positive side of\nschool administration needs emphasis. The failure to send children to school is, of course,\ndisobedience to compulsory laws, and the ordinary machinery for checking disobedience\nlies either in the local police force or in coimty and state jurisdiction. Division of responsibihty, in matters of this sort, is in general to be avoided; but, in spite of all this, conditions of enforcement in school attendance differ so entirely from the ordinary conditions\nof law enforcement that the establishment of separate machinery for this purpose seems\njustifiable and in fact necessary. First of all, while the actual culprit in question is likely\nto be the parent, the person who, in childhood phrase, \"gets took up,\" is the small boy,\nand the visit or escort of the police officers is not for him a desirable thing. Secondly,\nthe attention of the sheriff's office is bound to center on larger game; infractions of the\nattendance law are likely to be considered as almost of no practical importance, or, further,\nin the sense in which \"practical\" is frequently used, the important practical point is to\nforget them. Thirdly, the attitude of police and deputy sheriffs toward law infraction\ntends rapidly to become cynical, and cynicism has no value in securing school attendance.\nLastly, and in many ways most important of all, is the fact that better school attendance\nmust, in the end, be secured by positive rather than negative means. In other words, the\nonly people who can make a good job of it are those who will have some interest and\ninfluence not only in catching the boy but in doing something worth while to keep him\nafter he is caught. Some plan for local truant officers under the direction of state inspectors who are assistants in the department of education, these people to do the required\ninvestigating and prodding where prodding is necessary, and reporting to the prosecuting\nattorney and the sheriff's department only the incorrigible boys, would be a distinct\nstep in advance. It is along this path that the best chance for enforcement lies.\nThe child-labor situation in the United States, with the demands of industry for cheap\nlabor and the incessant cry of some parents for financial returns from their children, is\nusually considered one of the most serious stumbling-blocks in the way of enforcement\nof compulsory attendance. This is still too true, but personally I doubt whether it is\noften a more serious difficulty than some of the lacks within the school system itself.\nUnless I thoroly mistake industrial signs, the demand of organized industry for child\nlabor in the North Central states, at least, is steadily decreasing. Manufacturers are\nfinding not only that it leads nowhere but that its immediate use is expensive rather than\neconomical. Unorganized and unskilled occupations still depend, for much of their\nlow-grade work, on child labor. Sometime and somehow I believe the school will meet\nthis situation thru changes in its curriculum and by a different attitude toward certain\nlines of labor as training. Meanwhile, the problem of making attendance laws and enactments regarding child labor harmonize for the interest of the children themselves is\npuzzling. The emphasis of difficulty lies at one point in one state and at another point\nin another state. Out of the confusion one or two leading facts arise, viz., the plan of\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincianati\n\nhaving the registration for school permits and labor permits, so called, center at the same\nplace — that is, in the educational departments of the schools — is necessary in order to\nsecure even reasonable results in school attendance. Some sort of working agreement,\nat least, should also be secured and if necessary provided by law between the department\nof factory inspection and the attendance department of any system of city schools.\nSo far we have dealt with the legal and mechanical means needed to secure effective\nenforcement of the compulsory education. If school men were to stop here, they might\nfairly be charged with taking motes out of other people's eyes without attending to\nbeams in their own. No one, I think, who has kept in touch with the history of public\nschoob in this coimtry or whose work has made him familiar with their growing problems\nwill fail to maintain the proposition that our school system has made wonderful progress\nin equipment, in method, and in realization of its true purposes within recent years. But\nthe need more carefully to weigh present public demands and to make public education\nin its scope and best attainments literally inclusive of all classes of children and youth is\ntoday more urgent than ever before. Facing these facts we may as well admit that an\nessential element in securing maximum attendance is the readjustment of arrangements\nwithin the school itself; put in another way the truest solution of enforcing laws for\ncompulsory education is to abolish their necessity. Of course, I admit that until human\nnature reaches a higher plane, there will be the irreducible TniniTnnm of people who must\nbe comp)elled to become decent citizens. But the intent of democracy is not only to make\npossible but to arouse individual initiative — self-direction, that is, in thought, in action,\nin service. Educational workers will agree that the best time to start this multiphcation\nof individual initiative is in the earlier days of a child's training, and, further, that the\npublic schools will fail of their mission unless they tie themselves so close to the varied\ninterests of life that they will contain something intellectual for everyone possessing an\nintellect, and some kind of training for each boy who needs to be trained.\nThe school as an institution has hitherto held largely to the doctrine of the necessity\nand blessedness of mental work. Sometime it will accept the cognate doctrine of the\nneed of physical work and pay attention to methods of training therein. There will\nthen result a curriculimi based on the essential unity of the human demand which includes\nboth kinds of work. When this residt shall have been attained and even when it shall\nbegin to appear, the problems of compulsory education will be greatly reduced. The\nimmediate view of our subject would seem to seek to discover effective ways of securing\nthe maximum of attendance within the present range and limits of educational work. A\nfairer view will show that an extension of the range and limits of organized education in\nthe training of children will be one of the best steps toward seeming maximum attendance.\nWith restricted curricula, long vacations, short hours, and lack of organization, the present\nsystem is after all a matter of shreds and patches. Personally, I should not ask a larger\nproportion of the individual pupil's time or attention imder present conditions. But\nthru special schools for specific lines of work and interest, thru the groping and rather\npuerile method of credits for outside work, and thru the occasional experiments in uniting\nthe demands of toil and of education in its narrower sense, like those now under way at\nGary and at Ogden, Utah, plans for bringing under a school r6gime the different lines of\nchildish activities are beginning to formulate. At present, organized education is often\nneedlessly fearful of the effects on its higher centers of the so-called practical demands.\nIf education is to be a training for life, we ought to view these opportunities as new and\nfertile fields for cultivation, with an increased scope of interest, happiness, and balanced\npower. For what are we training people if not toward activity? How shall we secure\nthat in its best form if we continue to separate the training of intelligence from the daDy\nactivities? When we combine them can we fail to secure the interest and attendance\nof every healthy little animal growing ? The stunted and repressed may still baffle, and\ncompulsory laws may still be needed to reach the irresponsible parent who has escaped\nthe training of this generation; but reduced to its lowest terms the problem is as much\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWORK\n\nPERMITS\n\nAND\n\nOTHER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n489\n\none of reaching thru the school the universal interests as it is of compelling attendance.\nThis may seem a far cry from our present situation with the need for compelling machinery.\nTo me it seems to denote not only the ultimate goal, but the quickest way of reaching it.\nDISCUSSION\nHomer O. Sluss, superintendent of schools, Covington, Ky. — ^In general, the chief\ndifficulty in the way of the regular school attendance of children is an unfavorable home\nenvironment. The factors in this unfavorable home environment may be the indifference\nof parents, poverty, insanitary and frequently immoral conditions. To meet these\nconditions and to change them so that children under the shadow of such an environment will attend school regularly is a task as difficult as it is important. It is obvious\nthat for such a task attendance officers of a high type are needed. We need individuals\nwho are armed not merely with the majesty of the law — they should have intelligence,\nhigh ideals, sympathy, tact, firmness, and something of the spirit of social service. To\nsecure such officers, higher salaries must be paid.\nOther things being equal, that attendance officer is the best who finds it necessary\nleast often to appeal to the court. Whenever a case must be taken to court, it is the\nparent, rather than the child, who should be prosecuted. It is the parents, not the children\nwho are responsible for the unfavorable home environment which promotes irregular\nattendance. For this reason, it is believed that the parent, rather than the child, should\nbe placed on probation. Where the attitude of the parents toward school attendance is\nproper, there will be comparatively few cases of truancy.\nIn cases of indigent parents, a system of relief should be established so that children\nmay attend school regularly. Such aid is given, sometimes by the associated charities,\nsometimes by parent-teacher associations, sometimes by private philanthropy, and sometimes bythe board of education.\nIn case the authorities are convinced that the child is beyond the control of the\nparents, or that the home is an improper one for children, the child should be removed\n1from the home and assigned to a parental school or other suitable institution.\nIt is important that the attendance officer should make prompt investigation of\nabsentees. To this end, it is necessary that he receive daily reports from principals, that\nhe make daily investigation, and that he make daily reports to the principals.\nIt is important, too, that a policy of co-operation be established among school authorijties so that a formal notice may be given when a family with children of school age moves\nfrom one city, town, or community to another. This notice should give the names of\nparent or parents, the children and their ages, and their anticipated street address if that\n3e known.\nTHE ISSUANCE\n[ELEN\n\nT. WOOLLEY,\n\nOF WORK PERMITS AND ITS BEARING\nSCHOOL PROBLEMS\nDIRECTOR,\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE,\n\nON OTHER\nCINCINNATI,\n\nOHIO\n\nWorking permits may have a very direct bearing on school problems or none at all,\nepending on how they are issued and what use is made of the information obtainable\nam issuing them. Statistics of working permits are vital statistics of the school. They\n^rrespond to the death-rate of the community. The usefulness of statistics of the\neath-rate depends on how accurately the records are taken and how carefully they are\nnalyzed. Most communities plan their campaigns of health and sanitation on the basis\n■ their vital statistics. The statistics regarding working permits should have just as\nirect a bearing on school problems.\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n49©\nEvery school system ought to have a central oflBce which issues all permits, and which\nmakes out each year a statistical report of the total number issued, the number issued to\neach sex, the ages of the applicants, the school grade completed, and the kind of industry\nentered. The Children's Bureau began its work for child welfare by trying to improve\nmethods of keeping vital statistics of birth. It is continuing its efforts by taking up the\nproblem of methods of issuing working permits and the use of statistics based on them.\nIn many states, the child-labor laws are at present such that the office which issues\npermits comes in contact with the child only when the permit is issued. But even with\nthis limitation, information of great value to the school can be obtained. Consider, for\ninstance, the significance of the accompanying table (Table I) showing merely the total\nnumber of permits issued each year since the Cincinnati school system has kept records.\nTABLE I\nThe Total Number op Working Pekiots Issued Each Year m Cincinnati\nYear\n1905-6\n1907-^\n1908-9\n\nNumber\na,6a3\na.SSo\n2,oS3\n2,856\n4,ai8\n\nYear\n\n1910-11\n\nNumber\n1,207\n2,800\n2,450\n3,348\nJ, 366\n\nThe first effort made by the school to secure the enforcement of the child-labor law was\nin the year 1906-7, when F. B. Dyer, who was then superintendent, asked the department\nof factory insf>ection to assign to the city some extra inspectors for the purpose of gathering in the children who were working without permits. The result was to increase the\nnumber of permits issued that year by nearly 100 per cent. During the following year,\nthe special inspectors were withdrawn, and there was a financial depression, with the\nresult that the number of permits dropf>ed even below where it had been before. In the\nyear 1908-9, the Child Labor Committee began its work for better enforcement and the\nindustrial conditions improved. Accordingly the number of permits increased during\nthat year and the next. From 1910 down to the present time, the law has been well\nenforced. In 19 10 a new child-labor law added the educational requirement of the fifth\ngrade in school and made more rigid regulations about birth records. As a result the\nnumber of permits issued decreased again. In 191 1, the establishment of day continuation schools, which were compulsory for all children who had not completed the eighth\ngrade, put a premium on remaining in school which reduced still further the number ot\nworking permits. The following year an adjustment to the new conditions seems tt^\nhave been reached. At the beginning of the year 1913-14, another law went into effect;\nwhich raised the age limit one year for boys and two years for girls. That had the effect\nof reducing the number of permits to half what it had been before, the smallest niunbei\never issued.\nBut far more significant than these totals is the analysis of the statistics for eacl'\nyear. In Cincinnati, we have made such an analysis for each of the last five years. Thi\ndetails of it you will find in the annual reports of our superintendent of schools. Soms\nof the facts discovered which have an obvious bearing on school problems are the following\nThe amount of retardation among children who leave school to go to work is more thai\ntwice as great as it is in the school system at large. In the pubhc school, the largest grou.\nleaving was from the fifth grade, the lowest one possible, while only 13 per cent of thes\nfourteen- and fifteen-year-old children had completed the eighth grade. The establisli\nment of the continuation school brought up the proportion of those who had complete'\nthe eighth grade to over 20 per cent in two years. We foimd that the children were leavir!\nin greatest numbers very soon after the fourteenth birthday and very largely at their ow\ndesire. For conditions under the new law, which raises the age limit to fifteen years ft\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supcrintendencel\n\nWORK\n\nPERMITS\n\nAND\n\nOTHER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n491\n\nbo)rs and to sixteen years for girls, we have but the first year's records on file. During\nthis first year, the additional two years in school for girls has not meant two additional\nschool grades. The percentage of retardation among girls has been increased from about\n65 to over Qo per cent. However, it may not be fair to judge the effects by the records of\nthe first year.\nBut statistics of working permits have one great advantage over statistics of the\ndeath-rate. Death closes the account of a man so far as this world is concerned, but\nleaving school does not necessarily close a child's account so far as the school is concerned,\ntho it has done so only too frequently in the past. The schools are now beginning to feel\nthat it is a matter of interest and importance to them to know what happens to children\nwho leave — where they succeed and where they fail, and how accordingly the school might\nperhaps have done better for them than it has. We are beginning to pass laws which give\nthe schools some contact with, and some supervision over, the beginners in business and\nindustry. Probably the most efficient type of law will prove to be one which provides\na part-time system of education up to eighteen years, such that the first steps in industrial\nlife will be taken in close co-operation with the school. Short of such a law, a mere system\nof working permits which must be reissued by a central office belonging to the school each\ntime there is a change of position up to eighteen years of age will serve to give the school\na small measure of supervision over, and a large measure of information about, young\nworkers. Under such a law, tho it had a sixteen-year age limit, we were able to enforce\nthe child-labor law and to collect a great deal of valuable information about the types of\noccupation into which the children of Cincinnati go, the wages paid them in various\nindustries, and the frequency of changes of position, for details of which I must refer you\nto the reports of our superintendent of schools. Ultimately, when a sufficient amount of\ninformation of this kind has been collected, each school system should open a placement\n. office where both the interests of children leaving school and of employers who need young\n|.workers can be intelligently studied and the necessary adjustments made. Our Bureau,\n' after four years of preUminary investigation, has just opened such an office, and is now\nfinding positions for children who must leave school.\nBut the possibilities of the office which issues working permits under the type of law\nwhich I have sketched extend far beyond the uses thus far described. Such an office can\nbecome the medium thru which the adjustment between the educational system and the\ncommunity at large is made. It can have as one of its departments a bureau of investiIgation and research which can make valuable contributions toward the solution of the\ntroublesome problem as to how education in the schools can be modified to meet the\nlegitimate demands of business and industry, and how the conditions in business and\nindustry can be made more advantageous from the educational standpoint. We have\na department of research in our Bureau in Cincinnati, and the best method of illustrating\nits function is to take up a few cases in which we have been able to throw some light on\niese borderland questions of the school and society.\nThe first incident illustrates how results may be obtained by spreading information\nmd educating the community at large. In common with other workers in the field, we\nlave thought the messenger service undesirable work for boys, in spite of the fact that it\ns better paid than any other occupation for beginners. We had explained to teachers,\n0 parents, and to children when we had the opportunity what the dangers of the messenger\nervice were. About two years after the office was first opened, three officials of the\nVestem Union came to see me to inquire why I was refusing to issue permits to boys to\nv^ork for them. I had some difficulty in convincing them that I had done nothing of the\nort, and that their difficulty in obtaining boys enough to run their messages was purely\nquestion of public opinion as to the desirability of the messenger service as an\nccupation for boys. We had a long talk on the subject in which they argued that the\nlessenger service had been much maligned, that it was not a blind-alley occupation\necause boys could progress from it either into telegraphy or into electrical work, and\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CincinStt\n\nthat many of the men high up in the company had risen from the rank of messenger boy.\nThey offered to refrain from sending any more young boys into the segregated district\neven in the daytime. Finally they wished to know what sort of an arrjingement they\ncould make with the public schools to secure enough messengers. I offered to refer\nthe matter to Superintendent Condon. The final outcome has been a part-time school\nfor messenger boys planned by Miss Conway, director of the continuation schools. Miss\nConway arranged with the company to take two boys for each vacancy, allowing each\nboy to work half a day. She selects for the service boys of fifteen who would leave school\nentirely if they were not given an opportunity to earn money. The company has developed further its school of telegraphy, in which the public school does some of the teaching,\nand each boy has a chance to advance if he wishes. Messenger work which is done for\nhalf time under the supervision of the school, and for the purpose of keeping a boy in\nschool the rest of the time, loses its worst features. Furthermore, the blind alley has\nbeen opened.\nThe second problem which I wish to discuss has to do with the shifters in industry.\nEvery employer complains of the instability of labor and the expense of hiring and firing\neach year an endless succession of beginners. One big commercial plant wrote to ask my\nadvice as to methods of handling the problem. I could give none at the time because\nI did not even know what class of workers it was that did most shifting. My socialist\nfriends were assuring me that it was probably the most brilliant and enterprising of the\nthe young workers who were shifting most. They had sense enough to know that under\nour present organization of education and of industry the only chance a beginner had to\nfind out for what sort of work he was best fitted was to wander about from one thing to\nanother until he stumbled uf>on his proper niche. It is a crime, they urge, to advise\nchildren to stick to their jobs. They should rather be urged to shift about as much as\npossible at the start. On the other hand, employers were inclined to regard the shifters\nas the incompetent. The office has now made a classification of changes of position for\na series of seven hundred children whose emplojTnent records have been carefully verified\nduring a period of two years. We found that the children who had completed only the\nfifth or sixth grades changed positions more frequently and were idle more of the time\nthan were the children who had completed the eighth grade. We have also made a classification ofthe number of changes of position in a group of twenty-four hundred children\nduring the entire period of the work permit. Among them were twenty- seven children\nwho changed positions eight or more times during the two years. Of this twenty-seven,\nthere were fourteen who had completed only the fifth grade, eight who had completed the\nsixth grade, four who had completed the seventh grade, and only one who had completed\nthe eighth grade. If the distribution within this group had been proportionate to the\ntotal numbers leaving each grade, it would have been about five from the eighth grade\nand seven or eight from each of the others. Measured in school standards, then, the worst\nshifters were the inferior children. The first step the employer should take in guardint.'\nagainst this evil is to give a preference to children who have done well for their age iv\nschool.\nAt this point I am, of course, greeted with the criticism that school standards are noi\nfair measiu'es of ability. Some of my friends whose views on education are a bit radica\ngo so far as to insist that it is probably the children of superior quality — those who are to\nindependent to endvu-e the deadening and stultifying effect of the average schoolroomwho get retarded and leave school as early as possible. This brings me to the thir\nproblem on which we can throw some light — the comparison of children who go to wor;\nearly with those who remain in school. When our department of research was fin\norganized this very question was uppermost. In the first place, it was sought to detei\nmine whether the group of children who drop out of school to go to work at fourteen ar\nof the same grade as those who remain in school, except for poorer economic condition:\nor are children of a different tjrpe, tho perhaps of equal ability, or are children of inferio\n\n/\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "493\nSuperintendence]\n\nWORK\n\nPERMITS\n\nAND\n\nOTHER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nability; and further, how their rate of progress, mental and physical, compares with that\nof children who remain in school. Accordingly we began to take mental and physical\nmeasurements of two groups of fourteen-year-old children, one which was just dropping\nout of school to begin work, and one which was intending to remain in school. Each\ngroup, consisting of almost eight hundred children, is being retested each year for a period\nof five years. Tho we are now taking the fourth yearly tests of working children and the\nthird yearly tests of school children, the only comparative series which are all evaluated\nand summed up are the two fourteen-year-old series. Both these groups were school\nchildren who had had equal educational opportunities in the sense that all were bom in\nthis country and had had our schools at their disposal up to the time they were tested;\nbut while one group was just leaving school to begin work, the other was intending to\nremain in school. The following table of results (Table II) selected from our total series\nas illustrations gives the comparison in a group of mental tests in terms of the lo, 50, and\nTABLE\n\nn\n\nTen, so, and 90 Percentiles or Fourteen- Year-Old Children in Mental Tests\na = Children who were leaving school to begin work\n\n6= Children who were remaining in school\nBoys\n\nPercentiles\nIndex of Cancellation\n(Letter \"a\")\nAccuracy of Cancellation\n(Letter \"a\")\nMemory\n\n10\n\na\n\n833\n342.0\n317. 1\n\nb\nS4.8\n\n81.9\n\n8 Place Digits\n\nb\n\n74.1\n227.5\n\n90.2\n\nSubstitution Index\n\na\n\nS6.a\n\nPage I\n\nb\n\na\n\n495\n\n199 S\n\nSO\n\n74-8\n\n3IS4-7\n\na\n\nOpposites (Easy)\nAccuracy\n\na\n\nSentence Test\n\na\n\n49-4\n70.3\n12.0\n\nNumber of Ideas\n\nb\n\n20. S\n\n17.0\n\nSentence Test\n\nISO\n\na\n\n24.0\nII. I\n\nIndex of Ideas\n\nb\n\nb\n\n10\n\n160.6\n\n306.4\n304.0\n\n07. S\n\n56.4\n\n226.0\n204.9\n\nIII. 2\n\nroo.7\n\n78.4\n\n15-8\n\n96. s\n98.8\n129.4\n\n172.7\n\nSubstitution Index\nPage 4\n\nb\n\n162.4\n230.2\n218.7\n\na\nb\n\nGirls\n\n88.1\n\nII9-3\n98.1\n\n69.4\n\n143.7\nX9S.a\n209.0\n\n89.7\n81.6\n\n144.0\n\n9S 4\n\n82.4\n\n90\n\n72.8\nSO. I\n53-9\n217.1\n209. s\n\n162.6\n\n212.4\n217.2\n\n106.4\nIS4.0\n112. 6\n\n7S.I\n\n78.6\n\n98.6\n\n118.7\nO\nS97.9\n125.0\n97.2\n\n73 S\n\n87.4\n\n69.1\n\n10.7\n79.6\n17.0\n\n26.0\n\n93. S\n25.0\n98.2\n\n6.6\n35. 0\n\n69.3\n13. 0\n16.0\nS7.8\n18.0\n\n25.0\n\n94.1\n\n97.6\n9 9\n\n6.0\n\n36.0\n\n17.8\n(For a detailed description of these tests see \"Mental and Physical 7.2\nMeasurements of Working Children\"\nby Helen T. WooUey and Charlotte R. Fischer. Hon. Sup. Psy.\n7.0\n9.8 Rev., No. 77, 1914.)\n\ncase marks off\nles of the two series of children. The 10 percentile in every\npercenti0\n19\nthe poorest tenth of the series, the 90 percentile the best tenth, and the 50 percentile gives\nthe median. In some cases, such as the index of cancellation and the index of substitution which are estimated times for a perfect performance, a high number means a poor\nKcord, while in others, such as the accuracy of cancellation, memory, the accuracy of\nassociation by opposites, and the number of ideas in the sentence test, a high number indicates a good record. In every case but one, the school series ranks above the\nworking series. In that case — the index of cancellation for the girls — the superiority of\n\n90\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n494\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cmciniutti\n\nfiguring an index is not exactly fair because it gives an undue advantage to a child who\nemphasizes speed at the expense of accuracy. According to the tests, then, the group of\nchildren which drops out of school at fourteen is mentally inferior to the group which\nremains in school. The judgment of the school, expressed in the great retardation of the\nworking group, is confirmed by the tests, and tests form a method of measurement sufiBciently different from school work to make their results an important piece of additional\nevidence.\nBut tho the group of working children as a whole is less able than the group of school\nchildren, there may be individuals among them of a merit far superior to the average of\nthose who remain in school. To be able to detect these exceptional individuals and provide means of further education for them will be, we hope, one important outcome of the\nwork. No less important will be the detection of the children who are lacking in sufficient\nability to give them a chance of success in industry. Just how great the deficiency must\nbe to forecast industrial failure, our series of results when complete will help to determine.\nMeanwhile the fact that the children who drop out of school early are on the whole an\ninferior group mentally is an important element in fixing both an educational and an\nindustrial policy toward them.\nThe fourth and last problem which I wish to discuss is that of the wage-earning\ncapacity of children who leave school at fourteen, and the bearing on it of the school grade\ncompleted on going to work. Our fourteen-year-old children had completed grades\nvarying from the fifth to the eighth. Table III gives the median weekly wage for each\nIS\n\nTABLE\n\nIS\n\nin\n\n14\n\nMediak Weekly Wages of Children Who Began Work at Fourteen Years eor the\nFirst Two Years\nIS in Industry\n14\n\n(The table reports on 625 children\n14 at fourteen years and 600 children at fifteen years.)\nIS\n\nBoys\n\nGirls\n\n14\n\nPublic\n\nSchool\n\nPublic\n\nParochial\n\nParochial\n\nAge..\n\nII\n\nv....\n\nVI...\nVII..\nVIU.\n\na. 96\n4-33\n3.80\n3 83\n4. IS\n\nS.60\nS.20\nS\"\n\n3.87\n3-79\n3.70\n3-75\n\n4-7S\n4.71\nSS4\nS.oo\n\n4- as\n\n4-39\n41S\n\n475\na. 80\n\n4.17\n\n346\n3.1a\n\n4.00\n\n4.as\n3.06\n3.2J\n3 20\nreliable\n3.20\n\n4.46\n\nof the first two years of employment. The table gives an unusually\nset of wage\nstatistics, since each of these children was interviewed every time he changed his position and also at the end of each year. There are several interesting points about the\ntable. As usual, girls earn about one dollar a week less than boys of the same age. For\nboth girls and boys, wages increase a little more than a dollar a week in the second year\nof emplojTnent. Boys with a public-school training earn a little more during both years\nthan boys with a parochial-school training (a fact which may perhaps be explained by the\nmanual training and gymnastics of the public school which constitutes the most marked\ndifference in the two types of school), while there is no difference as a whole between the\ntwo groups of girls. Finally, and this is the point of chief interest, there is no correlation\neither negative or positive between earning capacity and school grade. Only medians\nappear in this table, but the complete table of distribution from which the medians are\ntaken shows the same lack of relationship to school grade except that there are fewer\neighth-grade children in the very low range of wages. For both sexes the highest paid\ngroup is that from the sixth grade. During the first two years in industry, then, there\nis no financial advantage for children in having completed a higher grade in school. But\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWORK\n\nPERMITS\n\nAND\n\nOTHER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n49S\n\nmeasured either by school standards or by the mental and physical tests, the children in\nthe upper grades are superior to those in the lower grades. There are two possible\nexplanations. Either the kind of ability which counts in school work and in the laboratory\ntests is quite diflferent from that demanded by industry, or else employers take little pains\nto discriminate between the more and the less able of these beginners. It is true that the\nsuperiority of the upper-grade children in height, weight, strength, rapidity, and manual\ndexterity is much less than their superiority in general intelligence. Perhaps intelligence\nis a negligible factor in the kind of work assigned to beginners, the most employers insist\nthat it is important. Moreover, the upper-grade children show one element of industrial\nsuperiority which tends to indicate that according to the employers' own standards they\nare the more valuable employees. They are steadier workers. They hold their positions\nlonger and are employed a larger part of each year than the lower-grade children. A\ntable made out on the basis of yearly earnings would show a positive correlation with\nschool grade, not because the upper-grade children are paid at a higher rate per week, but\nbecause they work a greater number of weeks out of the year. This series of facts suggests that industry pays little attention to the quality of its young employees. Any child\nwho can do the work at all is paid a fixed sum and receives very little further attention\nunless he fails. The hiring and firing of young workers is often left in the hands of unintelligent foremen. If children were more wisely selected and rewarded a bit more consistently according to merit, there might be less complaint on the part of employers about\ntheir instability.\nTho the problems which I have discussed are somewhat disconnected, I hope they\nhave served to illustrate some ways in which the office which issues working permits might\nbe developed into an agency of real service in bringing about a better adjustment between\nschool training and subsequent careers in business and industry.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrances E. Walker, chief attendance officer, Rockford, 111. — ^The new school population, with more than 50 per cent of foreign-bom parentage, suggests a changed curriculum ifour cherished ideal of universal education is to prevail.\nNormal progress is often hindered by the handicap of language, but manual training,\ndomestic science, agriculture, and studies in citizenship taken up in age groups or in early\ngrades would give better preparation for future usefulness to boys and girls of fourteen\nwho are obliged to leave school to go to work.\n\nVocational training saves \"wasted\n\nyears.\"\nA more rigid enforcement of compulsory education laws and the use of vacation certificates limited to September i would result in keeping hundreds of children in school\nbeyond the age of fourteen and beyond the eighth grade. Industries would not suffer,\nand parents would manage to get on without the children's earnings.\nVocational guidance bureaus are invaluable in aiding children to find suitable situations and to remain in them, and encouragement from \"big brothers\" among staunch\nbusiness men proves beneficial to both the men and the boys.\nAn examination by the school physician would result in children who are physically\nunfit being restrained from industry until the physical ailment could be bettered or\nremoved.\nIf children are to be allowed to go out into the field of labor, we must see that they\nhave been given the fundamental training necessary for the establishment of better\nhomes, better morals, better health, greater social efficiency, and broader hiunanity.\nF. A. Verplanck, superintendent of schools, South Manchester, Conn. — ^The Connecticut law in regard tP labor certificates has several excellent features.\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cindimati\n\nAll children must attend school until fourteen years old. Children between the ages\nof fourteen and sixteen must attend school or be regularly employed. All leaving certificates are issued by the agents of the state board of education with the consent of the parent.\nThe pupil must satisfy the agent that he is fourteen years old, that he has employment\nwaiting for him, that he is physically able to do the work, and that he can read, write, and\nperform the fundamental operations of arithmetic including both decimal and common\nfractions.\nThe employer is compelled to notify the state board of education when the child\nenters his employ and also when he leaves. Pupils no longer obtain a certificate and then\nroam the streets. The pupil who is discharged from labor is obliged at once to re-enter\nschool. The pupil who is approaching his fourteenth birthday keeps up his interest in\nschool work, for an examination faces him.\nThe standard of the work in the lower grades has been raised to prepare pupils for the\nexamination. The attention of school authorities has been called to the fact that many\npupils are leaving school with only meager academic training and with nothing that can\nin reality be called trade training.\n\nTEE\n\nTAKING\n\nOF THE\n\nJOHN W. DAVIS, DtRECTOR, BUREAU\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCENSUS\n\nOF ATTENDANCE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nThe necessity for a permanent and continuing census as required by the school census\nlaw has been fully demonstrated in the city of New York. Even before this law was\nenacted the need for it was felt. Edward B. Shallow, associate city superintendent of\nschools, was for a nvunber of years assigned to the supervision of the enforcement of the\ncompulsory education law. In his annual report to the city superintendent of schools for\nthe school year 1907, the following recommendation is made:\nPermanent\n\nSchool Census\n\nMuch non-attendance and truancy are caused by the migration or shifting of a large\npart of the population of the city of New York. Many people move from place to place,\noften two or more times within a school year. Some move out of the city, and return\nto the city soon after. Such people may detach their children from school, then purposely neglect to place them in school again on their return to the city. The presence\nand residence of these children in the city is often discovered only by accident.\nA permanent school census bureau should be established where the name, age,\nresidence, and parental name of every child of school age might be recorded; dso all\nchanges of residence within the city, arrivals in the city or departures therefrom and\nreturns thereto, as well as the coming of school age of any child. Parents, house owners,\nand agents might be compelled by law to report to a central bureau the presence of a child\nof school age at any place, and the records could be corrected accordingly. No parent of\nhonest intentions would hesitate to make known his place of residence; and the dty\nshould demand to know the residence of all other.\nIn accordance with Mr. Shallow's recommendation, there was passed by the legislation in 19 14 what is known as Chapter 479 of the laws of the state of New York:\nThe people of the state of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact\nas follows:\nSection i. The greater New York charter, as re-enacted by chapter four hundred\nand sixty-six of the laws of nineteen himdred and one, is hereby amended by adding to\nsection ten hundred and sixty-nine, a new subdivision, to be known as subdivision eight,\nto read as follows:\n8. The board of education shall have power to establish a bureau of compulsory\neducation, school census, and child welfare, and, subject to the provisions of law and of\nthis act, the said board shall have power to make by-laws, niles, regiilations, and prescribe\nforms for the proper performance of the duties of all persons employed in and under the\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nT'HE TAKING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCENSUS\n\n497\n\ndirection of said bureau. On the nomination of the board of superintendents, the board\nof education shall have power to appoint a director and an assistant director of the said\nbureau for a term of six years each, and such attendance oflScers, eniunerators, clerks, and\nother employees as may be necessary, and to fix their salaries within the proper appropriation; toassign a chief attendance ofl&cer, and one or more attendance oflScers as supervising attendance officers for such periods as may be prescribed in the by-laws of the\nboard of education. No persons shall be eligible for the position of director or of assistant director of the said bureau who has not one of the following qualifications; (a) graduation from a college or university recognized by the University of the State of New York,\ntogether with five years' experience in teaching or supervision since graduation; (b) a\nprincipal's license for any of the boroughs of the city of New York obtained as the result\nof an examination, together with ten years' experience in teaching or supervision. The\ndirector and assistant director shall be participants in the teachers' retirement fund imder\nsection ten hundred and ninety-two of the charter of the city of New York and be subject\nto its provisions. Attendance officers employed under the direction of the said bureau\nshaU perform duties in connection with the enforcement of the compulsory education law,\nin the taking of a school census, and in connection with the emplojonent of children under\nthe labor law, and such other duties, not inconsistent with this act, as the director of the\nbureau or the board of education may prescribe. It shall be the duty of persons in\nparental relation to any child between the ages of four and eighteen years residing in the\ncity of New York to give to the educational authorities of the district within which they\nseverally reside all the information prescribed in section six hundred and fifty of article\ntwenty-four of the education law of the state relating to such child, and such pther information as may be required. Persons in parental relation who withhold such information\nshall be liable to the penalty prescribed in section six hundred and fifty-three of article\ntwenty-four of the education law of the state. It shall be the duty of attendance officers,\nacting as census emmierators, to collect the information prescribed in section six hundred\nand fifty of article twenty-four of the education law and such other information as the\nstate commissioner of education or the board of education may require.\nThe director of the bureau of compulsory education, school census, and child welfare,\nherein established, shall, subject to the by-laws of the board of education and in its name,\nenforce the compulsory education law, direct attendance officers in their duty, commit and\nparole truant and delinquent children, and proceed against those in parental relation in\nthe manner provided in section six himdred and thirty-five of chapter one hundred and\nforty of the laws of nineteen hundred and ten' as amended, any provision of the said law\nor of section ten hundred and seventy-eight of the charter of the city of New York to the\ncontrary notwithstanding. The assistant director shall perform such duties in connection\nwith the supervision of the school census, or otherwise, as the director, subject to the\nby-laws of the board of education, may prescribe. Under the direction of the board of\neducation, the city superintendent of schools Shall have a general supervision of the\nbureau of compvilsory education, school census, and child welfare.\nOn or about May first, nineteen hundred and fourteen, the board of education shall\nascertain the information required by section six hundred and fifty of article twenty-four\nof the education law of the state relating to a census of all persons within the city of New\nYork between the ages of four and eighteen years of age. Thereafter such census shall\nbe amended from day to day by attendance officers, clerks, and other employees under\nthe supervision of the director, as changes of residence occur among children of such city\nwithin the ages prescribed in this article, and as other persons come within the ages\nprescribed, and as other persons within such ages shall become residents of such city,\nso that said board of education in its census bureau shall aways have on file a complete\ncensus of the names and residences of the children between such ages and of the persons\nin parental relation thereto.\nThe expense of carrying out the provisions of this act, except the salaries of directors\nand attendance officers, shall be paid out of the special school fimd as created by section\nten hundred and sixty of the charter of the city of New York.\nSec. 2. This act shall take effect on the first day of May, nineteen himdred and\nfourteen.\nState of New York\n\"1\nOfhce of the Secretary of State J\nI have compared the preceding with the original law on file in this office, and do\nlereby certify that the same is a correct transcript therefrom and of the whole of said\noriginal law.\nMitchell May\nSecretary of State\n■So in original.\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "4\n498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CincinnaU\n\nThe conditions which Mr. Shallow described have not become less complex since\nthat time, but, on the contrary, have increased in complexity while the number of individuals involved becomes daily more numerous. The population of the city of New York\nis in a constant state of flux. It is being added to each year in large numbers. All these\nchanges are reflected with more or less accuracy in the registers of the schools. Transfers are issued at the rate of 300,000 a year; approximately so,ocx> children a year receive\nemployment certificates; in normal times from 13,000 to 20,o<x3 children enter the city of\nNew York as immigrants; more than 8,000 are allowed to leave school because of physical\ninability to attend school; 4,000 disappear and cannot be found; 3,500 under seven\nyears of age are withdrawn by their parents — in all a great army of children is affected.\nThe state contemplates that every child shall receive the benefits of an elementaryschool education. It is gradually raising the standard of educational requirements before\nthe child may be lawfully employed. It is a commonplace that the wards and charges of\nthe state, adiilts and minors, are recruited for the most part from the inefficient and the\nill trained — those whose hereditary equipment and early environment have not been\nfavorable or who have been forced to meet both handicaps. The justification for our\nsystem of popular education is the elimination of these handicaps, as far as possible.\nNor has the state been contented merely to offer the opportimities; it has insisted that\nthey be utilized. Yet unless the duty is definitely lodged with a competent authority\nto identify every minor, and to be aware during the period of minority that he is subjected to the processes of instruction and training, it is self-evident that the crop of the\ninefficient and the ill-trained will forever be renewed. Lacking such awareness of the\nindividual on the part of the constituted authority, thousands will annually disappear\nfrom view to follow their immediate desires or necessities, and, needless to say, they will\nemerge later to become the recipients of the charity of the community or the punishment\nmeted out for wrongdoing. That the opportimities exist for such disappearance, the\nstatbtics given above make clear.\nThe school census law charges the Bureau of Attendance, as it formerly charged the\nPermanent Census Board, with the duty of continuous registration of every child between\nfour and eighteen years, that is with the duty of identification and awareness of the individual as above described. The Permanent Census Board began its first canvass in 1910\nand concluded it in 191 1, altho the greatest part of the work was done during one year.\nIt discovered and reported to the compulsory education authorities 26,836 violations of\nthe compulsory education law, of which 23,241 were reported within a space of little more\nthan a year. Its recurring canvass steadily develops niunbers of individuals, parents, and\nchildren, imknown to the authorities, who are evading the requirements of the compulsory\neducation law.\nOne of the most positive effects may be seen in the rapid increase of the roister of\nthe elementary schools as shown by the following tables:\nPUBLIC ELEMENTARY\n\nNumber of\nPupils\n\nYear\n\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\n\nSCHOOLS REGISTER\n\n1910\n191 1\n191 2\n1913\n1914\n\n648,691\n658,843\n669,907\n696,525\n724,833\n\nIncreases\n\n11,064\n10,152\n26,618\n28,308\n\nVarious attempts have been made to explain this increase. Part of it is due to the\nhigher requirements for the issuance of an employment certificate, and part to an increase\nin the rate of immigration. But in equal measure the effect of the regular and repeated\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintcndencel\n\nTHE\n\nTAKING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCENSUS\n\n499\n\nhouse-to-house canvass of the census enumerator may be seen. His statements of the\nrequirements of the law as to school attendance, and of the necessity for an employment\ncertificate; the following up of all immigrant children reported by Ellis Island as taking\nup residence in New York, and the resultant visit of the attendance officer, where the\nlaw is not obeyed — here is a moral effect of a high order.\nThe attention now given to the education of those children whose physical or mental\ninfirmities formerly debarred them from instruction is not only a striking evidence of the\nmore kindly sentiment prevailing in the present generation, but also a recognition of the\nfact that training will bring complete or partial economic independence. It is, of course,\nrecognized that not all these individuals are susceptible of training, but must become the\nobjects of custodial care. But how are these individuals to be isolated from the great\nmass of the community ? Again, it must be said, the census enumerator is the agent for\nbringing these individuals to light — not the person for fine discriminations and conclusions, but the observer who notices the departure from the normal and thus brings it to\nthe attention of those competent to decide. Asa result of his activities in this city, the\nstaff of the inspector of ungraded classes has been doubled, additional physicians provided, and a persistent demand created for further increases in the staff. Numbers of\nchildren \"crippled,\" \"deaf,\" \"blind,\" \"tubercular,\" \"mentally deficient,\" have been\nbrought to light. Parents, otherwise self-respecting and self-supporting, have not hesitated to conceal such children until the advent of the enumerator, believing thus to avoid\nleproacb or shame.\nThe following tables show the results in this direction thru the first\ncanvass:\nTubercular\n676\nContagious disease, not attended by physician\n61\nInfantile paralysis\n192\n''■'\n\nMentally\nill\ni,\"7\nDeaf\n314\nBlind\n228\nCrippled\n969\n134 cases of adult tuberculosis were also reported to the\nBoard of Health, raising the total of cases thus sent\nto\n3,691\n\nThe proper tabulation of the census returns provides a great body of statistics especially useful in the selection of sites and the location of school buildings. Both high schools\nand elementary schools should be so located as to serve most directly the people of the\ndty. Conclusions in these respects can be reached only by extensive and intensive map\nstudy of the densities of the child population in relation to existing school accommodations, courses of study offered, nearness to school facilities, and rates of growth of population. The facts and reports presented by the Census Board in 1911 and 19 12 were\nrecognized as authoritative by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, and the facts\nI are still presented by the Bureau of Attendance for such use, altho the reports are no\nlonger made.\nA study of the relation between the facts of high-school attendance, distance from\nhigh school, and the elementary-school population, all distributed by blocks for the\nBorough of the Bronx, was prepared for the city superintendent of schools, and, altho\nnot complete in form, it indicated clearly the need for an additional high school in the\nlower part of that borough.\nMaps were also furnished the Public Recreation Commission and the borough\npresident's office in Brooklyn, showing the distribution of the child population in the\nvarious areas affected by requests for funds for increased recreational facilities. Other\nsimilar studies have been furnished for the use of neighborhood associations, and semipublic and private corporations.\nPart of the information collected by the enumerator shows the nature and place of\nemployment of each person between fourteen and eighteen years of age who is employed.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "SOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJ\n\n[Cum\n\nProbably the most significant statistics yet published by this Board were those concerning\nthe occupations of 132,000 children registered in this office. The casual nature of this\nemployment and its lack of opportimity for training and development again emphasized\nthe need for changes in elementary education which would give greater promise of a fair\nmeasure of economic independence to the average individual than is now the case.\nIt is becoming more and more clearly recognized, however, that movements for\nvocational training and vocational guidance are dependent upon the classification and\ncollection of information concerning industry itself. The teaching of children cannot be\nadapted to manufacturing, industry, and commerce until, in a variety of specialized\ntrades and industries, processes and variations of processes are known, the part performed\nby persons and the part played by machinery is analyzed, and imtil the growth and decline\nof various lines of business have been made a matter of systematic record and rendered\navailable for the use of school administrations.\nThe present efforts now being made to develop prevocational work and continuation\nclasses for children fourteen to sixteen years of age who have left school to work serve\nto emphasize the foregoing statements. In the group from foiurteen to sixteen, there are\nsome 60,000 children actually employed. Between sixteen and eighteen years, there are\nmore than 100,000 more. These years are those in which training must be initiated if\nit is to prove most beneficial, and it is clearly recognized that it must be related to occupational opportunity. There is a vast amoxmt of information needed if the educational\npossibilities are to be realized.\nThe following up of children whose employment has ceased is one of the most necessary phases of census work. It is from this group that delinquents are easily and naturally recruited. In town, city, or coimtry idleness means deterioration, frequently disaster.\nThe following up of such children to see that they are attending upon instruction when\nnot employed is one of the most important and necessary phases of the census work. In\nthe city of New York it involves over 60,000 children, as stated, imder the present laws\nand should include eventually all minors.\nThe identification and location of individuals is often one of the most difficult things\nto do in a great city. The register of births kept by the Department of Health is inadequate, as it obviously cannot include those born elsewhere. The records collected by\nthe Census Board supplement other existing official records. Inquiries are received from\nmany sources requesting such information, and would become much more nimierous were\nrecords more fuUy developed and more accessible, for the inability of this bureau to\nmaintain an alphabetical file prevents full use of its recorded information. As an indication of the use made of these records, it may be pointed out that nearly six thousand\ncensus age certificates have thus far been issued.\nThe varjdng policy of the police commissioner in respect to the detailing of police\nofficers as enumerators prevented the proper amendment of the census when the first\ncanvass was completed, and the work has never been properly brought up to date since.\nWhat is needed now is a complete recanvass within a short space of time, not to exceed\nthree months, and the immediate eunendment of the census thereafter. For the recanvass,\ntwo himdred men are required for a period of three months, and for the recurrent amendment of the census thereafter from fifty to sixty men should be available.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nm\n\nA. A. McDoNAU), superintendent of schools, Sioux Falls, S.D. — I advocate a permanent and continuous school census because such a census is a most indispensable factor\nfor obtaining the best and most effective administrarion of a school system organized to\nprovide an education for all the children in a commimity. It affords an index to the\nchanging educational needs of the community by growth in population; also those needs\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nTAKING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCENSUS\n\n501\n\ncaused by the movement and character of the people. The successful enforcement of the\ncompulsory educational and child-labor laws depends absolutely upon a permanent and\ncontinuous census and so does the distribution of school moneys by the state depend upon\nsuch a census.\nThe schools of any community are not fulfilling their functions and not performing\ntheir full service unless they find and give to all the children of a community a complete\nelementary and high-school education. Otherwise the community is not getting full\nvalue out of the money invested in the plant and the money expended for running expenses.\nThe census should be taken early in the spring before school closes. This gives plenty of\ntime to file and tabulate the material before school opens in the fall, when it will be useful\nin determining the number of children who should be at school. The school census\naffords a quick means of obtaining the names and addresses of those children of compulsory school age who have not entered. The truant ofl&cer can get them into school\nimmediately.\nI have found the cumulative card a great help in keeping a continuous census. I use\ntwo sets of these cards. One set is with the teachers and the other set is kept in the\nsuperintendent's office. When a child drops out of school during a semester, his card is\nsent at once to the superintendent's office and as soon as it is received it is referred to the\ntruant officer for verification. At the close of each semester, the teacher must enter the\nrequired data on her cards and then send them to the superintendent's office, where\nthe data are copied on the cards on file in the fireproof vault. The teacher sends a list of\nthe pupils she has at the beginning of the second semester and the corresponding cards are\nreturned to her. Those cards not called for represent pupils not in school, and they\nare immediately referred to the truant officer for verification.\nOur regular school census is taken in May and the census-takers must find the children\nto correspond with the cumulative cards on file. These cards are an excellent check on\nthe census-taker as well as a help. Every child between six and twenty-one years of age\nis worth to the city five dollars of state school money. This money is another incentive\nto search thoroly for every child of school age in the community. When school begins\nin the fall the teachers call for their cumulative cards. Those not called for represent\nchildren lost during the summer, and those cards are immediately referred to the truant\nofficer, who must verify each absence.\nThe use of the census cards and the cumulative cards makes a most excellent permanent and continuous census.\nPercy M. Hughes, superintendent of schools, Syracuse, N.Y. — The life of a democracy depends on the enlightenment of the people as a whole. Realizing this fact, America\nhas decreed the banishment of illiteracy and has provided the pubb'c schools as the means\nof accomplishing this result. Ignorance, prejudice, and neglect still prevent many from\nsecuring the benefits of the educational system. With a view to still further reducing\nilliteracy, many states have enacted compulsory education laws, and recently some states,\nfollowing the lead of New York state, have undertaken to complete the work by requiring\nthe taking of local school censuses, in order that no child may escape the beneficent\nreach of elementary education.\nBy act of the New York state legislature in 1909, permanent school census bureaus\nwere estabUshed in all first-class cities. These are required to keep their work up to date.\nThe result of the first year's work in the three New York cities of the first class. New York\nCity, Buffalo, and Rochester, was the finding of thirty thousand children unlawfully out\nof school and the satisfactory disposition of practically all of these cases. This situation\nhad existed, notwithstanding the fact that the compulsory education law had been in\noperation for sixteen years.\nThe work is not so effective in cities of the second and third class where the law\nrequires only a quadreimial census and makes no provision for keeping records amended\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n502\nfrom day to day during the four years intervening.\nThe only efiEective handling of\nmatter is by a permanent census bureau.\nThe best body for taking and keeping alive the school census of a city is the poli^\nforce, if it is efficient. This body should be carefully instructed in its duty in the case. .\nThe data secured in a thoro school census may well be made the foundation for (\ndent handling of all questions concerning general child welfare in the community.\n\nSECRETARY'S\n0.\\KLAND\n\nMINUTES\n\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of schools\nCharleston, W.Va.\nFirst Vice-President — ^Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools\nAug\\ista, Ga.\nSecond Vice-President — ^LucY Wheeloce, principal. Kindergarten Training School\nBoston, Mass.\nSecretary — E. C. Wakxiner, superintendent of schools\nSaginaw, Mich.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 24, 1915\n\ni\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Shawkey in the City Auditoriuniy^\nOakland, Cal., at 9: cx> A.M.\n^\nThe following addresses were delivered:\n,^!^\n\" Community Center Work \" — Elizabeth C. Sterling, county school superintendent,\nClarke County, Vancouver, Wash.\n\"Supervision in the South\" — M. L. Brittain, state superintendent of schools,\nAtlanta, Ga.\n\"School Supervision in New England\" — ^Payson Smith, state superintendent of\npublic schools, Augusta, Me.\n\"School Surveys in Europe\" — ^James Mahoney, head of Department of English,\nSouth Boston High School, Boston, Mass.\no\nMr. Mahoney gave a synopsis of his monograph on \"Some Foreign Educational Sufi\nveys\" prepared for the United States Bureau of Education and printed by them as\nBuUetin No. 37, 1915.\n\ni\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday ArrERNOON, August 24, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. with Reed B. Teitrick, deputy state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., in the chair.\n^^^\n'^P\nThe following program was given:\n\"The State Department and Educational Statesmanship\" — Edward 0. Sisson,\ncommissioner of education, Boise, Idaho.\n\"Personality in Supervision\" — J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School,\nRiver Falls, Wis.\n\"Progress of Elementary Agricultural Education in Nova Scotia\" — L. A. DeWolfe,\nsupervisor of Agricultural Education, Truro, N.S.\n\"Review and Discussion of the Program on Professional Supervision\" — Henry\nSuzzallo, president, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\n\" The Administration of the American University \" — David Starr Jordan, Chancellor,\nLeland Stanford Jimior University, Stanford University, Cal.\n,\nM. P. Shawkey, President 4\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\nWORK\n\n503\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nCENTER\n\nWORK\n\nELIZABETH C. STERLING, COUNTY SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENT,\nVANCOUVER,\nWASH.\n\nCLARKE\n\nCOUNTY,\n\nThe county-school superintendent should furnish help and inspiration\nto the children, to the teachers, and to the patrons of the schools of the\ncounty. Such is my county-school superintendent's creed. I believe\nthat all supervision should consist of about nine-tenths inspiration and\none-tenth direction. This creed was neither convenient nor easy to hold\nwhen I found myself in charge of the educational work of a county of eighty\nschool districts, ninety schools, and over two hundred teachers; a territory\nabout the size of Rhode Island; roads that had not been materially improved\nfrom their original state; one deputy, who would be more than busy with\nthe details of office work, and no other help.\nThus I faced the problem that many county-school superintendents\nhave faced — how to get into personal touch with these teachers, pupils,\nand patrons. An occasional visit of inspection is to my mind about as\nunsatisfactory as anything ever called supervision could possibly be. So\nI sought for something else that might better open the way to the real needs\nof the situation. My attention was attracted to the community-center\nplan of our state superintendent of public instruction, Josephine Corliss\nPreston. You know the conditions of our rural life in very many cases.\nHard work and the struggle for existence crowd out social life; the young\npeople have few recreations, and the few they do have are not so uplifting\nas we would wish. When the people meet infrequently, the lack of acquaintance means lack of sympathy and love, and jealousy and bitterness creep\nin. The young people find such life unattractive and leave the home and\ncountry and seek the city with its unsafe attractions. The schools are\nneglected, and the teacher finds an uphill road to travel when she seeks the\nhelp and support of the patrons.\nThe community-center plan has for its purpose the overcoming of just\nthese conditions. Following this plan, I organized my eighty districts into\ntwelve community centers, appointing the principal of the central school\nsupervising principal of the community center. I prepared a circular\nletter of invitation to the patrons to meet on a certain specified day at the\nschoolhouse at the center. The supervising principal prepared a short\nprogram of music and exercises and the rest of the program was given over\nto the state field organizer and myself. We talked with the people and\nfound them cordial and free in their response to the plan for social work.\nThey said that they felt the need of more social life and communication with\ntheir neighbors; they told us of the good times they had when they were\nboys and girls at huskings, loggings, quilting bees, singing schools, debates,\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland\n\nsleighing parties, etc. They acknowledged readily that their boys and girls\nhad not these nowadays and that there was a reason for the young people\nwanting to leave the country and go to the city.\nAfter this most important heart-to-heart talk, the people were more\nthan ready to organize and promise to help the work in every way possible.\nWe asked the supervising principal to appoint one of the teachers of his\ngroup of schools as his assistant and another as secretary, and we limited the\norganization to these few officers; the simpler such an organization, the more\nthe rest of the people feel the responsibility of the work. All were urged\nto hold themselves in readiness to serve on committees appointed by the\nsupervising principal. Many committees are very essential to the prosperous working of a community center.\nWhen people drive from five to ten miles over the most dreadful roads,\nand often in a storm, they are ready to appreciate all that has been prepared for their entertainment. And they are not in a hurry to get started\nfor home. They will wait for a long program, and then for a real visit, and\nrefreshments besides.\nIn planning the dates for the meetings, we unconsciously followed\nCora Wilson Stewart's moonlight-school plan; we examined the almanac\nand selected the Friday nights when the moon would be most gracious in\nher light-giving, and appointed the meetings for those nights.\nSuch was the organization of the work; now let me tell you how it\nworked. The interest and co-operation were greater than we had dared\nto expect. Everybody was called on from the oldest to the youngest who\ncould sing, speak, spell, figure, act, or \"perform\" in any way for the entertainment ofthe gathering, for singing, recitations, declamations, orations,\ndebates, spelling, computation matches, and plays all formed the various\nparts of the programs and no one was or asked to be excused. I need not\ntell you that when father and mother, and big brother and sister, and the\nboy and girl, all take part in the affair of the evening, everybody is interested, and everybody enjoys the affair.\nThis seems a very simple plan and one not widely differing from the\nusual variety of entertainment. Let me tell you it does differ in many ways\nfrom the usual conduct of such entertainments. In the first place, very\nrarely in late years do all the family go together to any entertainment\nYou will find father at his club; mother at the parent- teacher association;\nbig brother at the fraternity, and big sister at the sorority, and the boy and\ngirl at the movies. Very rarely do we find all the family at any one place\ntogether. This is not as it should be; the family ties are not to be thus\nthoughtlessly loosened, if we would preserve the unity of the home that\ncharacterized the homes of our grandparents.\nThen this plan differs from much of the modem entertainment in the\nkind of exercises composing the program. I have mentioned the literary\nand musical parts in which the people, young and old, took part. In\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\nWORK\n\n$0$\n\naddition we were often able to send them speakers of note and interest and\nvarious demonstrations from college and club workers. These are uplifting and educational to a greater degree than much of the purely entertaining\nfeatures of the ordinary moving-picture show and the dance. We hope\nsoon, however, to make it possible to have the instructive and pleasing\nmoving pictures as a part of the equipment of our community centers.\nSome of the results summed up in terms of the teachers, the pupils,\nthe patrons, and the county superintendent, were these: People living in\nthe same neighborhood who had not known each other became acquainted\nand were friends working together with a common interest and for the common good; people who had known each other but who had quarreled, forgot\ntheir quarrel and worked in harmony; people who had not seemed to be\naware of the existence of the teacher as a real person got acquainted with\nher and proved her strong allies later when need for better schoolroom\nappliances were made known; the parents talked with the teacher about\nJohnny's lack of love for study, and Mary's too great tendency to pore over\nher books, and her need for a stronger body, and they advised together\non ways and means to overcome the failings of both Mary and Johnny;\nthe older boys and girls who had left school became acquainted with the\nteacher so that she could reach them in securing their assistance in getting\nup the programs; latent talent came to light, orchestras and glee clubs\nwere formed, and time will tell whether or not some future statesman was\nnot developed from the lively debates that were engaged in.\nAround the firesides people talked about the last spelling match, or the\nciphering match in which James Smith beat the grocer in adding; thus they\noccupied their thoughts with something that left them no time or inclination for faultfinding and jealousy. The little children thought it just\nwonderful to see their fathers and mothers take active part in these\nprograms and became more serious in their own efforts to study and\nlearn.\nThe material results that were soon apparent in the communities were\nthat the people wanted larger meeting-places, as the schoolrooms had proved\ntoo small. In two communities the demand for a community hall resulted\nin the donation of labor for building one, and ladies held socials to buy\nlumber, and soon large community halls capable of seating everyone who\nwould come to any meeting were completed. To these I took speakers from\nour state college with pride.\nThe second year many districts of their own accord said: \"Why cannot\nwe have our own community work in our own district without going so\nfar away from home ?\" I always answered that this was what I had been\nhoping for, and that I should be very proud of them if they would maintain\na commimity center all their own. And the work went on earnestly and\nsubstantially making better communities and better neighbors, better\nschools and better .teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland\n\nOf what incalculable value this work has been to the teachers who took\nhold of it enthusiastically, I cannot tell you. They were so well liked\nwhen the patrons came to know them, that they had their salaries raised in\nseveral cases, and that is a result that always appeals to a teacher. But\nbest of all, the teachers in many cases found that they could be the leaders\nthat their position needed. Often they were exceedingly diffident about\ngoing ahead and preparing a program or addressing the people on any\nsubject; but when they saw the necessity for it, and that I felt confident\nthat they could do these things, they forgot themselves and became strong\nand enthusiastic leaders, in many cases developing talent for leadership\nthat wiU be invaluable to them all their lives. One young teacher who was\na good \"mixer,\" but inexperienced, seized these opportunities to help in all\nprograms that were held in his center, and was so capable and well Uked\nthat he was offered five different schools in the county for the next year.\nI know of no other way for a teacher to gain confidence and power so\nsoon as to get right into this social-center work. She finds herseK working\nwith older people of the district, which is of itself a very good thing, for we\nall know that to deal exclusively with children tends to make us teachers\nsomewhat dictatorial and seK-sufficient. Here also came the opportunity\nfor the superintendent to show her confidence in the teacher, and say : \" Why\nof course you can do it! I know you can if you just try; you will surprise\nyourself if you try.\" Naturally the teacher would feel the inspiration of\nbeing trusted, and wovdd indeed surprise herself with the results of her\nefforts.\nYes, I visited the schools; looked after the office routine; gave hearings\nabout neighborhood and school difficulties; created new school districts\nand consolidated old districts; saw some new schoolhouses erected and\nothers enlarged and repaired; urged a raise of salaries and better school\nequipment; but the work that I have done that will make me happiest in\nfuture years as I look back is the conmiunity-center work; in this I most\nearnestly believe that we truly uplift and elevate and inspire all who will\nin the least degree respond.\n\nSUPERVISION\nM.\n\nL. BRITTAIN,\n\nSTATE\n\nIN THE SOUTH\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nATLANTA,\n\nGA.\n\nThere are at least two reasons, whether unfortunate or not, which any\nwell-informed student of the subject would find justifiable for considering\nsupervision in the South apart from the other sections of the Union.\nThe first of these is due to the fact that the difficulties are more than\ndoubled in Dixie by reason of the necessity of having to provide separate\nschools for two races. In some parts of this coimtry, far from securing\nsympathy on this accoimt, we would receive abuse for our failure to welcome\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n507\n\nthe negro to school and home upon terms of equality. This, however, is\nnot a matter for argument in those states that extend from Maryland to\nTexas. It is what the lawyers term res adjudicata. No matter how difficult itmay make the problem of educating our own children, it is forever\nsettled, so far as the South is concerned, that the whites and negroes will use\nseparate schools. And while not comporting with the ideas of some of our\nbrethren, I imagine the people of this state of California, at least, will comprehend inpart, thru facing a situation much less trying than our own.\nSecondly, from the earliest years of this Republic, it has been the case\nthat the South seems to have pinned its faith to the principle of a highly\neducated minority of her people. I am not speaking in defense of this\npractice but merely state what I think the records show as to the fact. The\ndemocratic idea of public-school education for all was received in much of\nthe South with some difficulty and long after it was accepted by the rest of\nthe land. It is only within very recent years that it is acknowledged without\nquestion among the older people, and there still lingers the idea here and\nthere that, while a man ought and should provide for his own children, it is\na monstrous thing and utterly contravening the Bill of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, and even the Magna Charta to be taxed for the education ofthe children of others. Individualism perhaps unduly developed\nin some directions is largely responsible for this feeling and this is accentuated bythe fact that so large a percentage of this region is rural and\ntherefore inexperienced and untrained as to the wonderful virtues and benefits of co-operation.\nThe three broad divisions of supervisory work are naturally grouped into\nstate, municipal, and county. In some respects, each of these is afifected\nby the conditions mentioned. These are found more marked in the last of\nthe three as a matter of course since the country is ever the most conservative element in our life and the last to change the inherited forms.\nState. — More than in the other parts of the country, the state superintendents ofthe South are elected by popular vote. The educational experts\nare almost unanimous in pronouncing this method unfortunate. It leads,\nof course, to frequent changes and a settled policy can hardly be adopted\nfor any length of time. It is certainly true that it leads to changes. Altho\nI have been state superintendent for only five years, there are only three\nstates from Maryland to Texas that have the same chief supervising\nofficer as when I entered the work in 19 lo. While it is generally unwise\nthat we do not have the long tenure of office found in other commonwealths,\nit is true that it keeps the state departments closely in touch with popular\nthought and less inclined to dictatorial assumption. Altogether, tho,\nit is undoubtedly a weakness and there may be seen evidences that this is\nrecognized. Within the last few weeks the state of Tennessee, for instance,\nhas undertaken to change the method previously followed and henceforth\nthe state superintejident will be appointed by the state board of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland\n\nMunicipal. — Practically everywhere our city and town superintendents\nare chosen by boards of education. Here and there some little disposition\nto change this method of selection to one by popular vote is discernible,\nbut fortimately with little or no effect thus far. Naturally the assumption\nis that this supervising officer is a scholar and a gentleman and I am glad\nto say that the demand that he be a skilled specialist in education is constantly growing. The progress made in municipal education has, as a\nrule, been more satisfactory than anywhere else. With the centralization\nof population and wealth, it is, of course, to be expected that less difficulty\nshould be experienced in urban than in rural-school work. For the most\npart, the expectation has materialized and while southern cities — in a less\ndegree, of course, than the rural sections — suffer from the necessity for two\nseparate systems, the march of progress and the influx of population from\nother places have almost completely supplanted the old individualistic\nidea which preferred private to public-school training.\nCounty. — Tho there is some variation, for the most part the county\nsuperintendent in the South, like the state officer, is subject to the disadvantages ofpolitics. The terms range from two to four years. There is, therefore, not only the lack of continuity as to purpose and progress, but, as a\nrule, there is the still greater handicap of being compelled to select the superintendent from the limits of the county and from among those only who\noffer themselves for the position. As elsewhere the difficulties in the way of\ngood schools are most pronounced in rural sections. Yet here, if anywhere,\nis needed the greatest degree of professional skill, tact, and ability. And yet\nsadly is it true that we have in this position less professional qualifications\nthan anjrwhere else tho it must be said that they are greater than we have\na right to expect in view of the small salaries paid. Bourbonism and the\nrace question give more trouble in the rural regions than in urban and yet\nwe are found with less competency and leadership in these needy localities.\nIn some states, and perhaps in some places in all, there is antagonism and\nhostility even to the underpaid officials who act as county superintendents.\nThe openly expressed feeling is that this official does nothing worthy of the\nname and is a drain upon the resources. The cure for this condition is, of\ncourse, to be found in effective work, and fortunately instances are multipljring where progress made under skilled leadership is popularizing and\nstrengthening the work of the county superintendent who holds the key\nto the situation.\nRural supervisors. — Perhaps the greatest help to our rural-school work\nin the South in recent years has been that given by the supervisors. These\nare teachers trained in domestic science and in manual arts who go from\nschool to school giving aid to teacher and pupils and sometimes to the\npatrons as well. Many counties in the South are now giving their superintendents the advantage of these assistants to the great help of the schools\nand with the most beneficial results to the communities in which they are\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND\n\n509\n\nemployed. Difficult as the work of the country superintendent necessarily\nis, even when he is not overcrowded by the large number of schools and the\nwide area over which they are scattered, these assistants are peculiarly\nneeded and helpful. Perhaps there is no one thing we could introduce in\nrural-school work so invested with uplifting possibilities if these supervisors\ncould be specialists, at least to a moderate degree, in domestic science, art,\nand the simple laws of hygiene.\nWe of the South sometimes feel that we are accorded the stepchild's\ntreatment in Uncle Sam's American family. Notwithstanding the fact that\nthe great Civil — tho I think it more properly should have been termed the\nuncivil — War left us stripped of all property, save the soil, no other section\nhas had such a burden to carry. Too poor for at least two decades to even\neducate properly our own children, we have assumed in addition the training of the negro race, nine-tenths illiterate at the start. The Union should\nhave aided in this task, even if the South has been too proud to ask it.\nWe are progressing, however, nearly as fast as any fair-minded critic\nwould expect. The figures of the census bureau give evidence of the rapid\nstrides made during recent years by the \"Land of Cotton,\" and we face\nthe future with confidence and hope.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nPAYSON SMITH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND\n\nOF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA,\n\nME.\n\nIn any discussion of school administration in the New England States,\nit should be borne in mind that the county as an educational factor is\npractically nonexistent there. The town is the unit for the support and\nfor the administration of schools. It is well also to take note of the peculiar\nsoUdarity of interests of the New England States. This unity of interests\nhas not been without its effect on education and to a considerable extent\nit will be found that the states of this group have adopted the same educational policies.\nMassachusetts, always influential in molding educational policies, has\nespecially acted the pioneer for New England. This is true in what may\nbe called the New England supervisory plan, which, to be sure, is no longer\nlimited to the New England States, but has been adopted in other eastern\nstates.\nThe purpose of the first Massachusetts law bearing upon school supervision was to bring to the smaller towns of that state the advantages that\nhad already been demonstrated to lie in the close professional oversight of\nthe school. To accompUsh this end, the superintending school committees\nof the several towns were authorized to form unions and to employ superintendents ofschools, the salary of the persons thus employed to be paid\nin part by the towns and in part by the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "SlO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIn the beginning the law was a permissive one but later in Massachuset s itwas made obUgatory upon towns.\nWhile there are minor points of difference among the several New\nEngland States in the manner of administering state laws on supervision,\nthe main points are the same. The supervisory imit is a small one including from twenty to fifty schools, in this case a school being defined as a\nclass in charge of a teacher.\nWhile the superintendent of schools serving under the several imion\nsupervisory acts of the New England States is employed by a group of\ntowns, he discharges his duties for each of the towns imder the separate\ndirection of each superintending school committee. No state has undertaken to force upon towns a uniformity of school procedure, and where\nsuch imiformity has resulted it has come thru the professional influence of\nthe superintendent and not by legislative enactment.\nThruout the New England States the superintendent of schools,\nwhether serving a city or a group of towns, is now recognized as an educational director and not as a town officer. In no case is a superintendent,\nstate or local, elected directly by the people and in no instance is the\noffice of a superintendent regarded primarily as a political office. The\nprinciple is established that the superintendent is an agent of the school\ncommittee having only those separate powers that are regarded as professional. For example, in several of the New England States the superintendent ofschools by law appoints teachers subject to the approval of the\nsuperintending school conmiittee and where the legal requirement has\nnot been made custom has usually fixed this appointive power of the\nsuperintendent.\nIt is accepted that the superintendent of schools is the professional\nadviser of the committee and of the people on matters that relate to public\neducation. With this strictly professional function, there are frequently\ncombined various business responsibilities which may even in some instances\ntend to an unfortunate emphasis.\nIn New England as elsewhere, a large part of the duty of the superintendent ofschools has been that of directing the work of teachers. In\nNew England, perhaps even more than elsewhere, there has been a tendency\nto carry this function of the superintendent somewhat to an extreme.\nHappily there appears now to be a reaction from this extreme of school\ndirection and a more natural and wholesome relationship of the superintendent to the teaching force is in process of creation. The superintendent ofschools is addressing himself more to the less minute points of\nschoolroom practice and method and is leaving the teacher a larger freedom\nin the conduct of her work.\nSchool supervision in New England as elsewhere is a relatively recent\ndevelopment in the educational program. There, as elsewhere, we find the\nproblems that relate to the training of an efficient corps of superintendents.\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSTATESMANSHIP\n\n511\n\nWe find the same necessity of defining and redefining the functions of the\nsuperintendent that his proper place in the school system may be established, and we find the same necessity for establishing those codes of professional conduct and procedure that shall serve to guide those who are\nthemselves in turn to have so large an influence in directing the educational\npolicies of communities.\nTHE STATE\nEDWARD\n\nO. SISSON,\n\nDEPARTMENT AND EDUCATIONAL\nSTATESMANSHIP\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nBOISE,\n\nIDAHO\n\nTo the state, education is the supreme concern; slowly but irresistibly\nthis great truth, long familiar to the prophets and sages, is penetrating\nand dominating the thought of all civilized peoples. Already the expenditures for schools far exceed those for any other governmental activity\nand in some of the most progressive communities they already surpass the\ntotal of all other expenditures for public purposes.\nBut the money outlay on education is the most trifling part of the\nstate's investment in the process. The raw material is the real stake — the\nchildren, who are sent to the schools to undergo the processes of instruction\nand discipline; whose waking hours for years are largely spent within the\nschoolhouse walls under the guiding and molding hands of the state's\neducational agent called the teacher. This is the real investment, the\nvery soul and fiber of the state. Nay, they are the state's future self, the\nvery stuff out of which the state is yearly and hourly recreating its own\ntissues, organs, and substance! What wonder that all the wisest of mankind have echoed Plato's utterance: \"Education is the supreme concern\nof the state\"!\nLet us think of the true relation of the state to these children — in other\nwords, to its own future. Let us remember that the state's educational\npassion and action spring from the profound impulse to preserve and\nenhance its own being thru the care and nurture of these its children; thru\nthem to make its future greater, richer, happier than its past. It is this\nidea which more or less consciously leads the best men and women in all\nour communities to feel and exercise so living and vigorous an interest\nin education and to be ready to make so many sacrifices in its behalf.\nTo the state, education is a process, dealing with the most priceless\nand beloved of all its possessions. It is a process designed to work changes\nin the children who are submitted to it. All this is utterly commonplace,\nyet it is the central point in the relation of the state to education. What\nchanges does the state desire to work in these children ? How is education\nto make them different ? In what way is nature to be modified ?\nWhat kind of citizens does the state need ? This is the question of the\naim of education.. How is the state trying to meet this need? This is\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland\n\nthe question of the methods of education. What success is crowning the\nstate's efforts and sacrifices in this greatest of all its undertakings ? This\nis the question of the results of education.\nThese are the problems of educational statesmanship, and educational\nstatesmanship is the supreme need of the world. History, or at least\nlegend, tells us how Lycurgus thought educationally for Sparta, and how\nthat thought, embodied in a scheme of education, generated the Spartan\ntype. Fichte, and Stein, and von Humboldt thought educationally for\nPrussia. Prussian educational ideas spread to all the German states, and\nmolded the German character of today — for weal or woe.\nLet us look at the signs of the times: First, the race of man is at a crisis.\nOur country occupies a position of immeasurable vantage; but that means\nthat we may either succeed gloriously or be guilty of a failure that would\nbe the catastrophe of aU the ages. We who are enrolled in the profession\nof education dare not doubt that the solution of this world-enigma is at\nlast to be found in education.\nSecondly, what we need is ultimate direction of human forces toward\nthe good of mankind. Let us take, for example, the one that thrusts its\nhorrid shape into our hearts today — war. Shall the race hold to its course\nin this respect, or change it ? Shall we keep on forging cannon to shatter\nbodies and agonize hearts or shall we put our iron into engines and machinery and tools to mitigate labor and enrich life ? Shall we build battleships\nto destroy and be destroyed, or irrigation systems to turn the wilderness\ninto a garden and the desert into happy homes where children may multiply\nand rejoice in the more abundant life ?\nCertainly imiversal peace is an irridescent dream; but when the vast\ncomposite of the mind of man is changed, possibilities and impossibiUties\nchange places. It is an absolute fact that the nations of Europe have been\ntraining their children to believe in war — in its glory, in its necessity, in its\nrighteousness. When mankind wants peace, violently, intensely, fiercely —\nas it has hitherto in its subhmnan, prehistoric, stone-age heart, wanted war —\nthen it will have peace. Nor will those who hasten that day be mollycoddles.\nI have just read a European news dispatch headed: \"War to change\nboys' training,\" the change prophesied being to fit the boys more effectively for the next war. I beUeve too that the present super-diabolical orgy\nshould lead us to change boys' training, certainly to prepare them better\nfor whatever may come, even if that must be war, but also and chiefly to\ntrain them into the kind of men who will trample the folly and idiocy and\nbestiality of war under the feet of intelligence, self-control, and broader\nhmnanity.\nThe supreme educational questions is not \"What does he know?\" nor\neven that better question, \"What can he do ?\" but \"What does he want?\"\nWhat a man really wants for himself and for his fellow-man is the supreme\nand final criterion.\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSTATESMANSHIP\n\n513\n\nTo the solution of these problems the state must bring its utmost wisdom and resolution. This brings us to the central question of our discussion: Who is appointed to think and act educationally for the state in our\nRepublic? Thus far we have used the word state in its general sense;\nnote now that in our own land the supreme educational imit for all practical\npurposes is not the federal Union, but each one of the forty-eight states.\nThe federal government has subsidized the schools of all grades, it lends\nencouragement, it makes investigations, collects data, and publishes reports;\nbut all initiative, and practically all power and responsibility, rests with the\nstate. It is not so with health, or commerce, or war, or diplomacy, nor,\nso far as I can think, of any other paramoimt natural issue except education.\nThis places upon state departments of education an immense responsibility, no less than that of breeding and rearing and training the citizenship,\nnot only of the state, but also of the federated nation. No other department of state government has such ultimate authority and final responsibility ina matter of paramoimt national interest as the state department of\neducation. The conclusion of all this is momentous: The immediate,\npositive, ofiicial direction of the character and quality of American citizenship isin the hands of nearly half a himdred state departments of education.\nWhat powers and agencies does the state department command with\nwhich to deal with this, its supreme task ? First, it has certain great limitations chief among which is perhaps lack of actual power. The central\nfact in American school administration is the multiplicity of authorities\nwith independent and final jurisdiction. First the local school board has\ncomplete control over the great majority of all the questions that arise in\nthe actual operation of the school. Next the county superintendent,\nusually elected by popular vote, has his powers, which are for the most part\nfinal. But the county superintendent has little power to review actions of\nthe local board. With one or two isolated exceptions, the state department\nof education has no power to remove any local school officer or teacher\nfrom office. Usually it has no power to punish in any way whatsoever.\nOne accustomed to the typical situation respecting the authority of\nstate school officials is greatly impressed by the announcement that the\ncommissioner of education of New York has reversed the decision of the\nNew York City Board of Education concerning the dismissal of a teacher\nand later has confirmed the decision of the same Board in another case of\ndismissal. The natural propensity of American school administration is\nthe predominance of local control. In Prussia, and to a great extent elsewhere inEurope, the will to have schools and education has been the will of\nthe king and the statesmen; in America it has been the will of the people.\nThis is the stupendous fact! The sources of power for any imdertaking\nare to be studied most earnestly: any plan or method which threatens to\ncut them off or hinder their free flow threatens the very continuance of the\noperation. In view of this great fact: (i) we cannot expect and should not\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^\nwish for any such degree of centralized authority as most European systems'\npossess, for this would either fail of enforcement or would stifle and enfeeble\nthe great fountain head of American educational action, universal interest\nin the schools of the local community, and a sense of ownership of them;\n(2) we must search for the dangers of this situation and seek special means\nto avert and correct them; (3) we should discover the lines of advance along\nwhich the people are ripe to move and endeavor to guide and stimulate\nalong these lines; (4) public sentiment must be gradually convinced that\nthe state is more truly representative than any locality; that the education\nof every child is a matter of concern to the whole state; and hence that a\nreasonable amount of state control is justified and indeed indispensable.\nThe second great limitation is the utter inadequacy of the working\nforce in state departments of education. The state of Illinois had, in 1910,\n102 coimties, 11,795 districts, 987,379 enrolled pupils, and over a million and\na half children of school age. This is the field or territory for state supervision. The workers were the state superintendent and two rural inspectors;\nthere were also two statisticians, a legal adviser, and a publicity man.\nThis puts the plan of direct visitation of any considerable part of the\nschools out of the question. Here is one of the great contrasts between our\nschool system and that of Prussia. This does not necessarily mean\nthat the German plan is better than ours, but only that it is different.\nEvery Prussian secondary school is not merely visited, but is really \" examined,\" the government inspector being the chief authority in determining\nwhether the candidates for graduation shall pass or not.\nFrom the case of Illinois, and that of nearly any other state, it is clear\nthat the actual first-hand supervision must be done in the main by the\ncounty superintendent. New York is almost the only state which has\nanything like an adequate force and equipment in its department of education. Itis in this respect in a class by itself.\nThe inadequacy of working staff is rendered more serious by the existing state of change and unrest in educational work. If things were static,\nif it were necessary only to maintain things as they are, to keep practice\nup to fixed and well-understood standards, the task would be far easier.\nHow utterly simple, for example, to check up the organization and operation\nof a high school of the old type, with one course, the same as every welleducated man and woman had taken; any well-trained teacher can act as\ninspector and judge with fair accuracy of the competency and success of\nalmost any member of the high-school staff. But now all this is changed;\nfor the old simplicity we have complexity, for uniformity we have diversity,\ninstead of one high-school inspector we really need a staff of experts, each\nprepared to advise and pass judgment in a special field of the broad field of\nthe high-school curriculum.\nYet every one of these limitations is but the obverse side of a great\npotential or actual force. Burke said: \"No man is ruined except on the\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSTATESMANSHIP\n\n515\n\nside of his natural propensity.\" In order to get the whole truth, one\nmust add that no man succeeds greatly except on the side of his natural\npropensity.\nLocalized power in America is due largely to the vital interest felt by\npeople in general in the schools, and that vital interest aroused and enlightened is the greatest of all forces for this progress; among such a people\ninfluence is more potent than power itself. The lack of sufficient working\nforce would seem to be solvable by a more effective co-operation between\nstate departments and county superintendents: of this we can only say\nin passing that it is one of the chief administrative problems in the American\nsystem and is so recognized by many state educational officers.\nOn the other hand, state departments have great powers in the two\nparamount educational issues. The first of these is the course of study:\nwhat the children shall do in school, in what we shall invest their time, their\nenergies, their potential lives. This is the supreme question; and happily\nin this matter state departments have their largest powers, in most cases\nreaching to any action that could be justified by wisdom and discretion.\nThe second great issue is the character and quality of the teaching force.\nIt is true that state departments have practically no direct control over the\nappointment of teachers. But they have usually almost complete control\nover the issue of certificates, subject only to laws which they can usually\nhave modified in any reasonable direction.\nFurther than this, at least five states have already undertaken to conduct teachers' bureaus, and in this way render a great service to teachers\nand schools by getting competent teachers into places where they may\ncount the most.\nAll other things are subsidiary, instrumental, mere means to the great\nend: building, grounds, equipment, apparatus, textbooks, and so on.\nBut over these the state departments have large and growing powers.\nAltho the states number forty-eight with the District of Columbia and\nAlaska making fifty, altho we have thus fifty sovereign educational\nunits, and altho we have not, and God grant never shall have, any dominating state or any separate dominating unit, nevertheless the past and\npresent encourage us abundantly to expect and to cultivate national educational unity.\nThere may be, must be, an American educational ideal — a great supreme\npattern of American citizenship and humanity which shall pervade all\nsections and unify all endeavors. Only this can save the RepubHc and\nguarantee its destiny, but this can, and we believe will!\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPERSONALITY\nJ. W.\n\nCRABTREE,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland\n\nIN SUPERVISION\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nRIVER\n\nFALLS,\n\nWIS.\n\nMuch has been written on the value of the teaching personaUty. Not\nso much has been said about the need of a supervising personality. Does\npersonahty bear the same essential relation to success in supervision that it\ndoes in teaching ? Do the same factors enter into the supervising personality that enter into the teaching personality? To what extent may the\npersonality of the teacher or superintendent be cultivated and improved ?\nSome of these questions will be briefly answered in this paper.\nSuperintendents try to fill vacancies in their schools with men and\nwomen of cheerful, happy dispositions, who love children, and who are\nfilled with the true teaching spirit. They attach much greater importance\nto personahty than to scholarship and professional attainment. They\nwant teachers who have smiles for even the most repulsive children. They\ninsist on finding teachers who can bring sunshine and good cheer into their\nrooms on the darkest and gloomiest days. Does anyone question the\nwisdom of this effort on the part of superintendents to find teachers of\nwholesome personality ?\nI was a pupil in a school one winter where the teacher always kept the\nshutters closed on the south side of the room. I left school to work on the\nfarm during the spring months. I did not, at that time, know exactly\nwhy I left school. I know now. Even yet a sensation of chilliness comes\nover me when I think of that teacher or that term of school. I do not\nneed to tell you whether her influence led to high ideals and noble resolves\nin that school, or whether any inspiration came from her to the pupils which\nin later years led them to continue their education in higher institutions.\nThe next year we had a teacher who had the shutters taken off and\nallowed patches of sunshine to remain in the room, making place for them\nif necessary by shifting the pupils about in the room. Her smile was also\nsunshine, and a blessing and benediction to all the pupils of that school.\nDuring that year the boys and girls were all anxious to be in school every\nday to the end of the year. Then is when noble resolves were formed and\nthat year was the origin of an inspiration so great in the hves of the pupils\nthat it remains even yet as a positive force with others as well as with myself.\nI have taught imder superintendents of the self-centered, buttoned-up\ntype and I have taught imder big, whole-souled, broad-minded, optimistic\nmen. I have felt, as a teacher, the depressing effects of the closed-shutter\ntype of superintendent and also the wholesome uplifting influence of the\nopen-shutter type. I fear I was more or less pessimistic and narrow under\nthe former type. I am certain that I was optimistic and more successful\nunder the latter. Or to borrow a figure from W. R. Siders:\nside.\n\nAt one time of year we seek the siinny side of the street; at another time the shady\nThe person who has the proper personality puts himself in such an attitude with\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nIN SUPERVISION\n\n517\n\nregard to people and events that there is a grateful warmth about him when warmth is\nneeded, and we find him a refreshing retreat when we need shelter, sympathy, consolation.\n\nDoubtless your experience has been no less striking than my own. All\npupils do their best work and have their best growth in the sunshine of a\npleasing personality. All teachers in a like manner respond in an amazing\ndegree to an inspiring personality and reach their highest eflSciency under the\nbig-hearted superintendent. If it is important for the teacher to show a\ncheerful pleasing personality, it is infinitely more important for the superintendent to show a personality of such charm as further to develop desirable\nqualities in the minds and hearts of the teachers under his direction.\nSarah Louise Arnold, of Simmons College, believes that the supervisor\nshould have \"a deep human interest in both teachers and children and\nshould realize fully that human beings grow and are not manufactured.\"\nSoils vary even when the seed is the same. The supervisor who is bighearted, intelligent, and gifted with common-sense is likely to foster conditions which will stimulate growth both in teacher and in pupil.\nThe more a supervisor can cultivate an attractive personality, the more\neasily and the more successfully does he accomplish his work. He becomes\na leader instead of a driver. Enthusiasm replaces dogmatism and red tape.\nPeople work with him and not for him. He leads teachers to feel that he is\na coworker and not the superintendent.\nHow often does the young supervisor or superintendent make the mistake of trying to force society and conditions to bend to his will rather than\nto make himself agreeable and as far as possible adapt himself to the people\nabout him. J. W. Searson gives the following example of the young man\nwho greatly intproved his personality by finally grasping the social idea.\nHe says:\nA young man fresh from college had a most obtrusive, egotistic personality. He\ninsisted that every teacher do just as he said whether they liked it or not. His teachers,\nthe board, and the conamunity were soon opposed to him. Pupils began to hate him.\nHe was square, and began to study the situation. He finally took counsel of leaders\namong his pupils, teachers, and board members. He became convinced that he must be\na guide instead of a tyrant. He began to let the teachers help him plan policies; he\ninvited help and suggestions from the board; he even consulted strong conununity leaders;\nhe called leading pupils into council. He learned that others like to help and that all\ntogether were far better than one unaided. He began at a salary of $60 . 00 ten years ago.\nAfter ten years he receives $2,500 and is soon to be called to a place paying $3,000. His\nwhole attitude has changed and he is a wholly different man in strength and effectiveness.\nHe thinks it is all because he grasped the social idea.\n\nI know of other examples just as striking and so do each of you.\nThis subject being entirely new — that is, there being no literature on\npersonality in supervision in educational magazines or elsewhere — the\nwriter made a successful effort to get the views, \"hot off the bat,\" of a\nnumber of the leading supervisors and educational thinkers of the country.\nHe takes pride in presenting some of these views as the feature of this paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n5i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland\n\nIt certainly gives pleasure to give somewhat in detail the views of\nPaul H. Hanus, of Harvard University:\nSo far as I know there is no literature at all on \"Personality in Supervision.\"\nHere are some things that occur to me and I give them to you \"hot off the bat\"\nin accordance with your request:\n1. Personality won't count for much as a permanent asset unless the superintendent\nis well equipped for his work by training and experience.\n2. Given the professional resources that training and experience supply, that is,\ngiven a clearly defined educational policy, and an equally well-thought-out administrative\npolicy, personality is the chief element in successfid supervision. Some of the elements\nof this personality that coimt most and that every supervising officer can cidtivate are:\ntireless industry in all the activities of his office; an even temper, and the ability to see\nthe point of view of any teacher or parent no matter how mistaken it may be; the spirit\nof helpfulness, that is, the fixed determination to see things as they are and to take wellconsidered steps to remedy defects of all sorts. The approval of merits is no less a part\nof this spirit than the disapproval of defects, but too frequent expression of approval\ncheapens it and may cause deterioration of effort in both teacher and supervisor; tact*\nfulness — the ability to say and do the right thing at the right time in the right way, whether\npraise or blame is involved. Also to refrain from comment by word or act when either\nis imtimely. This last should never degenerate into evasiveness — one of the worst sins\nof inefficient supervisors. Hence courage is one of the f\\mdamental elements of helpfulness; the intention to lead in co-operation, not to dominate by authority, both within\nand without the school system. Of coturse, the list of these things is endless, and commonplace enough they seem after they are written down.\n\nI am sure that you agree that Dr. Hanus has given us something which\nmay stand as Uterature on this subject.\nAnother great thinker has given us his views \"hot off the bat\" also.\nL. D. Harvey, of Stout Institute, gives us a touch of philosophy and an\nanalysis of the subject which should by all means become a part of the\neducational literature of the next volume of Proceedings. He says:\nThe thing that has always impressed me most in the people who have taught me in\nschool and in the teachers working imder my supervision is, first, the sympathetic qualities\nof the individual's nature, his ability to see things from the standpoint of the indi\\'idual\nbeing taught, and his sympathy with the attitude of the student, sjmipathy for him\nbecause of conditions which produced the wrong attitude.\nAnother quality which has always appealed to me is not strictly an element of personality but of knowledge. I mean the fact of knowing thoroly the subject he was to teach\nand the individuals he was teaching and the ability to adapt his teaching to the needs of\nhis pupils. These are elements which affect the teacher's influence on the pupils and I\nsuspect the pupil in some way allies them pretty closely with the personality of the teacher.\nA third element is absolute honesty — honesty not only with himself but in his relations\nwith others. Allied closely with this is the fairness of the teacher, in which he treats\nthe pupil as tho he were an equal, at any rate believes that he is entitled to as fair dealing\nas an equal would be entitled to. I suspect too many of us in the teaching profession\nsometimes deal with pupils in a way that we would not attempt with our peers.\nAnother element in the personality of the supervisor is that of candor. He must be\nable to see the good qualities of the teacher and the bad qualities. He must not hesitate\nto tell the teachers frankly and clearly just what he thinks is lacking and what ought to be\nmodified. The qualities of honesty, candor, and sympathy that I have suggested as\ndesirable for the teacher are just as desirable for the supervisor, because in so far as his\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nIN SUPERVISION\n\nSIQ\n\nwork is constructive, it is the work of the teacher. A supervisor must have a personality\nbroad enough not to be rufHed by little displays of temper on the part of the person\ncriticized, and well balanced enough not to be affected by the attitude of the teacher who\nhas been complimented for his work.\nA supervisor must have an enthusiasm bom of knowledge and a consciousness of\nability in the use of that knowledge in the performance of his duties as supervisor. He\nmust have a consciousness of the fact that his duty is not to detect and get rid of a poor\nteacher so much as it is to help poor teachers to become good teachers, and if that is\nimpossible to get rid of them as easily as possible. The supervisor must have the characteristics and bearing of a gentleman or lady as the case may be.\n\nJesse F. Millspaugh, of Los Angeles, mentions kindness as one of the\nmost important elements of personality. C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin, insists\non the personality which reacts on those inspected or supervised in such a\nway as to make them frank and hopeful. R. J. Aley, of the University of\nMaine, says that \"a man who succeeds well must be able to meet people\neasily and agreeably.\"\nHere is another brief, pointed analysis of personality in supervision.\nIt is the one given on the spur of the moment by W. O. Thompson, of the\nUniversity of Ohio:\nFrom my point of view, the first quality is genuineness. This eliminates affectation,\nassumption of fancied authority, and any effort at patronizing.\nA second quality is quick appreciation of merit. This involves discernment, intelligence, sympathy, and lays a foundation for constructive helpfulness.\nA third quality is a teachable spirit. Perhaps this might be humility, but I am\nthinking more particularly of the fundamental conception of being a disciple or learner.\nI thuik a supervisor above all should be a humble disciple and student of people and\nmethods. He should, therefore, lack dogmatism, too offensive aggressiveness, but at\nthe same time be characterized by a firm and modest allegiance to principle. This type\nof person always goes to the front and rarely needs a justification or defense.\n\nWe all appreciate the agreeable forceful personality. We know of\ninstances where by effort the teacher or superintendent greatly improved\nhis teaching personaHty. Why not urge that every teacher and superintendent give time and attention to a purposeful effort to cultivate a happy\ndisposition, earnestness, agreeable manners, sympathy, and interest in\nchildren, and a deep genuine interest in the welfare of teachers ?\nThe purposes of this paper have been:\n1. To show that there is need of a desirable supervising personality, just as there\nis need of a desirable teaching personality.\n2. To make clear that cheerfulness, kindness, S5anpathy, agreeable manners, the true\nteaching spirit, and genuine interest in the welfare of teachers are necessary elements of\nthe successful supervising personality.\n3. To give authority for the position that these and other elements of personality\nmay be greatly improved by effort on the part of the superintendents.\n4. To suggest the wisdom of giving time and attention to the matter of cultivating in our professional and training schools the teaching and supervising personalities of\nthose to be sent out as teachers and superintendents.\n5. To advise especially that we strive to improve personality while in the service.\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\nPROGRESS\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURAL\nIN NOVA SCOTIA\n\nL. A. DEWOLFE,\n\n[Oakland\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,\nTRURO, NOVA SCOTIA\n\nJL\n\nNova Scotia is not so far behind the times as some of you western\nAmericans may think. Neither are our climatic conditions so mifavorable\nas the term \"Canada\" suggests to the average American. Our springs are\nsomewhat later than those of Massachusetts; but we can grow practically\neverything you can find in the Empire State.\nSchool gardening and nature study are making about the same progress\nwith us as with you. We have copied some good things from the United\nStates; and we have originated a few ourselves.\nOur agricultural and technical colleges have done much for the adult\npopulation. But only recently has anything tending toward vocational\ntraining been offered our children. At present, however, we have a\nband of enthusiastic teachers, who are leading their children to take an\ninterest in nature, gardening, agriculture, domestic science, and manual\ntraining.\nEach autumn school exhibitions are a prominent feature of the work.\nLast autumn about 70 schools exhibited the product of their handiwork.\nThis year about 130 schools will do so. Besides the garden products, the\nchildren exhibit sewing, cooking, preserving, woodwork, etc., the result <rf\ntheir manual efforts at home.\nAt these exhibitions, small money prizes are usually given; tho, in a\nfew cases, prize cards or ribbons have been the only reward. In one\nschool, all the prizes are paid in checks. This gives the child an introduction\nto actual business methods in a very practical way.\nOui teachers who are leaders in this work take a special training course\nfor two or three siunmers at Truro. Our svunmer school is conducted jointly\nby the normal and agricultural colleges. On completion of the course, the\nteacher is granted what we call a rural science diploma; and we speak of\nthe teacher as a rural science teacher.\nRural science teachers, when they fulfil required conditions, get a small\nadditional salary grant — $25.00 or $50.00 according to circumstances.\nFortunately, however, we have a loyal group whose first thought is their\nwork; and whether their grant be large or small makes little difference\nwith their efforts.\nTo be sure, not all our teachers are leaders. Like every other country,\nwe have good teachers and poor ones.\nWe try to have our people see that rural science is not a new subject so\nmuch as a new method of teaching the old subjects. We are not primarily\ntrying to make farmers; but if our pupils later become farmers, we hope\nthey will be intelligent ones.\n\ni\n\n1\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN NOVA\n\nSCOTIA\n\n521\n\nWith us, the school garden has not proved a success. The vacation\nproblem has beaten us. School children's gardens on the home grounds\nhave, however, proved popular. They bring the parents and the school\ncloser together than does any other one factor. The school exhibition, of\ncourse, is the crowning episode of the year's work.\nWith school children, we lay more stress on flower culture than on\nvegetable culture. The same cultural principles belong to both; but\nthe flowers are more interesting. Besides, vegetable culture is more\ncommonplace. Every home grows vegetables; but not all grow flowers.\nAnd does not the growth of flowers promote greater mental culture on\nthe part of the grower than does the growing of vegetables ? Everyone\nwill grow something to eat; but only the cultured will grow something\nto admire.\nIn my trip across the continent, I noticed diversified farm conditions.\nI admired most, I think, the state of Michigan with its mixed farming and\nits neat homes with attractive flower gardens. Quite in contrast were some\nof the prairie states where corn and hogs were the only crops; but where, in\nmany cases, the farmer lived in a neglected house with no flowers, no\nneatness, no care foir anything but his one source of profit. John Burroughs\nwould say the com and hogs had got into his soul.\nIt is that very thing we are trying to work against in our schools. We\nwant our children to be thrifty and economical, but we want them to enjoy\na few things that do not contain dollars.\nAlready these garden topics have brought boys to school who were\nbecoming habitual truants. They are happier than when grinding away\nat the old-time topics in the old-time way. And to make the schoolboy\nhappy and interested is one step toward race betterment of which we hear\nso much these days.\nOur agricultural education is bringing about a civic pride that did not\nexist a few years ago. People in towns and villages are improving their\nproperties, and are acquiring a greater respect for their neighbors' properties.\nThey are more careful of their shade trees. And we hope in a short time\nthis care will extend to our forest trees as well.\nPerhaps the greatest encouragement our schools get is from the women's\nnstitutes. Unfortunately, our country is not so progressive as yours.\n3ur women have not yet the suffrage. But in spite of this handicap, they\nire doing things. And school sanitation is one of their watchwords. Thru\nheir influence, the public drinking cup has gone, and furnace-heated\nchoolrooms have supplanted the old stove. True, this is not strictly agriultural education. But one new thing suggests another, and many\nmprovements are directly traceable to the awakening brought about by the\ntitroduction of these modern methods in education.\nWe are just now beginning to secure the co-operation of railway agents\nnd church oflScials. . The children are taught that the only impression\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland'\n\ntravelers have of their town is the one they get at the railway station. If\nthe town is to be judged by its railway surroundings, the children see that\nfor the sake of their own civic standing they must interview the station\nagent and get permission to help him plant and care for a flower garden.\nWe are also combining the school savings bank with gardening. Children are starting bank accounts with the money they earned themselves\nfrom the sale of garden products.\nOne thing we hope for but have not yet attained is the combining of\nschool gardens and supervised playgroimds. In towns we have the supervised playgroimds but all the children get is play. Too much play may\nbe as bad as too little. We hope to try the experiment of having the playgroimd children work a half-hour a day in the garden imder the teacher's\ndirection. If the playground teacher be also a rural science teacher, she\nshould give valuable instruction during that half-hour.\nIn brief, then, we in Nova Scotia are trying to keep up with progressive\ndistricts everywhere, and considering that our people are conservative and\npossibly \"slow,\" I feel we have no reason to be utterly discouraged with the\nprogress we have made.\nTHE ADMINISTRATION\n\nOF THE AMERICAN\n\nDAVID STARR JORDAN, CHANCELLOR, LELAND STANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\nJUNIOR UNTVERSirY,\n\nSome years ago in an address before xmiversity people, I spoke of the\nanomaly that in America, the most democratic of the large nations, the'\nadministration of the imiversity is autocratic, while in Germany, the most'\nautocratic of the great nations, the control of the university is democratic.\nIn America, the president of the university is chosen by an outside board of\ntrustees. In his hands rests the nomination of professors, the general poliq'\nof the institution, and, in general, all questions of promotion or of removal.\nThe initiative in any event rests with him, and his recommendations are\ngenerally followed. In Germany, the rector of the university is generally\nchosen by the professors and for the year only. The position is honorary\nand carries little influence over academic action.\nA report of the address reached Dr. Virchow, the distinguished proi\nfessor of physiology in the University of Berlin. To a mutual friend, Dr\nVirchow said: \"Will you tell Dr. Jordan that he is wholly mistaken?\nThere is no government on earth more autocratic than that of the Germai\nuniversity. But the autocracy Ues not inside, as in America, but outside\nin the hands of the minister of public instruction.\" This is indeed true\nThe minister of that department has a power to make or break which n<\nimiversity president in America has ever held. This influence, amonj\nother things, has made German universities almost exactly alike and ha\nkept their faculties largely free from the heresies of socialism, democrac/\nor even of pacificism, and internationalism.\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n523\n\nThe German university is relatively complete at the beginning, no\nmore subject to change, improvement, or reform than is the post-office,\nor any other administrative creation. It is composed of a body of\nprofessors, each supreme in his own field. These professors receive rooms\nand a small stipend from the administration but are otherwise paid by\nthe fees of their students. AU these students are professional or vocational\nstudents; they are not in search of general education, but are using the\nlectures as a help toward passing the final Doctor's examination. The\nfees are paid, whether lectures are attended or not. The young man who\naspires to become a professor becomes a private tutor, living on the fees he\nmay obtain in competition, thru his greater lucidity or greater desire to help\nthe student.\nThe American university is a \"going concern.\" It is always in an intermediate stage. It has never attained its final form and it always hopes to\ndo something better, larger, or finer with each succeeding year. It is\ndevoted not only to professional training, but to a degree of general culture\nas well. It is much more varied in its character than the German university,\nhaving highly variant deficiencies and occasional elements of superiority.\nIn the best institutions, the requirements for advanced or professional\ndegrees are more rigidly enforced than in Germany, and there is less (but\ntoo much) patience shown with the dawdler, the dissipated, and the incompetent student. The differences in administration go with the fact of\nprogress. In any good, forward movement there must be personal initiative— someone must lead the way. In the American university, this is the\nfunction of the president, and this function of initiative shows itself in the\ncreation of personality.\nIt is a saying of Emerson that \"colleges can only serve us when their\naim is not to drill but to create. They draw every ray of varied genius\nto their hospitable halls and by their consecrated influence set the heart of\nour youth into flame.\" The most precious thing in human life is personality. It is by this we know our friends and for this we love them. In\nmost respects, as living organisms, men are alike. Each has eyes, hands,\norgans, dimensions, senses, affections, passions, is fed with the same food,\nhurt by the same weapons, warmed or cooled by the same summer or winter, and each in his degree is \"pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw.\"\nFor all this we do not care. What is all alike never interests us. It is the\nslight and subtle elements of difference which help us to know one man\nfrom another, which enable us to love, to respect, to worship one man above\ntis fellows. Among a thousand vegetative characters, we are touched by\nthe one quality of personality, made up of a dozen minor attributes of\niindness, wit, gladness, brilliancy, effectiveness, making a whole which we\n3iay love, fear, or obey.\nIn the same way, a university must have personality else it cannot be\n;reat. A university, is an aggregation of professorships, deoartmeuts.\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oakland\n\nbuildings, books, seminaries, and laboratories. But it is more than this.\nIt is a place where students of all degrees come together in the democracy\nof learning. It is an alliance of men devoted to the discovery and administration ofthe truth. But this is not all of the university ideal, for all universities, intheir degree, are devoted to the same ends. In superficial\nregards all imiversities are alike. All have buildings, libraries, museums,\nmicroscopes, professorships. These are the xmiversity's vegetative organs.\nWithout these, it would not live, but by these only one university would\nnot differ from another. It is not for these things all have in common that\nwe know universities. Just as with men, it is the subtle element of personaUty. The Harvard spirit, the Cornell spirit, the Yale spirit, the spirit of\nBerkeley, the spirit of Stanford, all these are matters as real as the building\nor the books, and more important.\nFor the most valuable feature of a university is its character, the nature\nof its university atmosphere. This atmosphere is the conscious or imconscious work of the men who control. The atmosphere of greatness gathers\naround great teachers.\nAs the universities of America are constituted, it is the part of the\npresident to create the university atmosphere. He must set its pace,\nmust frame its ideals, and choose the men in whom these ideals can be\nrealized. It is thru the men he chooses that the imiversity becomes a\nliving person. The president is not himself the king. His noblest work is\nthat of maker of kings. It is not what the president himself can do that\nfirst concerns the university. His personal power, skill, or versatility are of |\nlittle moment. It is what he can discern in other men that gauges success.\nIt is his instinct to know what the best work of others may be and how\nhe can use it in the fabric he is building. A long head and long patience hei\nmust needs have, for he has often to wait years for men to grow to what he\nexpects of them, and others to find men to whom he can look for the right,\nkind of growth. He must have the instinct to judge men and to estimate;\nwhat men say of men. He must be keen to recognize in others quahties of\nworth he may not possess himself. He must have the wisdom to foster\nindividual freedom and the firmness to check that freedom that spends itself\nin futile, erratic, or sentimental efforts.\nIt rests with the president of the university, therefore, to construct it?\npurpose and its policy, to give its personality, its color, and its atmosphere i\nAbove all it rests on him to create its moral tone, for character-building \\i\nthe noblest work of the imiversity. Tho the function of the president may\nseem to be autocratic, it should not be so in fact. If he is to succeed, ii\nis because he becomes the servant of all, the helper of all. He should noi\nwish of himself to decide any question. He should only ask the sole privii\nlege of raising questions. No change should be made in academic matters\nexcept at his initiative and none adopted save with the approval of th<\nboard of trustees and of some representative body of the faculty. Thi\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n525\n\ndetails of the system may be worked out in various ways, but the fact of\ninitiative is essential.\nThe selection of a university president is the gravest duty of the board of\ntrustees and one for which their machinery is least adequate. It is a matter\nso vital to the welfare of the members of the faculty, that those men in the\naggregate most wise in university affairs should be officially consulted, and\nyet the decision cannot well be left with them, for any vital difference of\nopinion might threaten the stability of an administration resting on a\nmajority vote.\nThe qualities demanded in a successful president are many and the\ninsistence on each is growing greater with each year. Already the requirements of the position demand the impossible, and deans, secretaries, and\nother officers are appointed to reduce the strain. Of these, a professional\nbanqueter — after the fashion of Dr. Hale's \"Double\" — ^would perhaps\nhelp most.\nThe president has large duties toward the community, toward the professors, and especially toward the individual members of the student body.\nHe must be a scholar, in order to value scholarship. He must be a good\nteacher, in order to have a gauge of teachers' power. He is always under\ninspection. He cannot afford to be evasive or egotistic or self-indulgent.\nHe should not be too convivial, too \"clubable,\" or too fond of the tables\nof the rich. It would be better if he did not smoke, not on account of the\ndirect example of an undesirable habit, but rather because of the involved\nself-indulgence, the failure to refrain from a practice he knows to be harmfu\nto intellectual activity, for the sake of an enjoyment physiologically spurious. He cannot deceive anybody about anything and it is not worth while\nto try. In many institutions, he is supposed to spend his strength in the\nsearch for donors and donations. This is not his true business and success\nin this is likely to mean failure in more weighty matters. Solicited gifts\noften cost more than they are worth. If they must be sought for, it is better to employ a professional solicitor.\nWith all criticisms which may be made of individual presidents or of\nihuman shortcomings, the college or university presidency is a necessary\noffice as long as institutions of learning are in a state of growth. This is\nthe case in America now, and it may be so for a long time to come. The\nvery strength of the American university lies in its incompleteness. That\nmeans that it is still open to progress. And in that fact lies the reasonableness ofthe claim that the best American \\miversity of today has no superior,\nso far as actual effectiveness is concerned, in any part of the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nCINCINNATI\n\nMINUTES\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine\nVice-President — James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction\nSecretary — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nOrono, Me.\nRaleigh, N.C.\nChicago, 111.\n\nEvening, February 22, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Aley in the Emery Auditorium, Ohio\nMechanics Institute, at 8:00 p.m.\nThe general topic was \"Standardization — Wise and Otherwise.\" The following\npersons took part in the discussion: A. E. Winship, editor. Journal of Education, Boston,\nI Mass.; Carroll G. Pearse, president. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.; Nathan\nC. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; and Joseph\n[Swain, president, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.\n\"In Memoriam — ^James M. Greenwood\" was the title of papers read by Ben Blewett,\nsuperintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo., and Frank A. Fitzpatrick,\nmanager, American Book Company, Boston, Mass.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, February 23, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Cincinnati Music Hall.\nThe following papers were given under the general topic \"The Study of Education\nn the Normal School and the University\":\n\"The Normal-School Point of View\" — ^Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State\nTeachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\n\"The Compelling of Efficiency thru Teacher Training\" — A. Duncan Yocum, proessor of educational research and practice. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\nDiscussion: J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School, River Falls, Wis.;\nV. P. Burris, dean. College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio;\nV. T. Carrington, president. State Normal School, Springfield, Mo.\nUnder the general topic, \"Superintendent Problems,\" the following papers were preen ted:\n\"Preliminary Report of Committee on Superintendent Problems\" — ^John W. Carr,\nuperintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J., chairman.\n\"Problems Connected with the County Superintendent\" — P. P. Claxton, United\ntales commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION — ^Tuesday Afternoon, February 23, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:00 p.m. in the Cincinnati Music Hall.\nThe first topic under discussion was the \"Report of Committee on Tests and\n:andards of Efficiency in Schools and School Systems.\"\nUnder this topic, the following papers were read:\n\"The Aims of Education\" — Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public\n:hools, St. Louis, Mo.\n'\n527\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "J\n528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationil\n\n\"Reading Tests\" — Charles H. Judd, director, School of Education, University of\nChicago, Chicago, 111.\n\"English Grammar \" — WiUiam H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y.\n\"Morals\nin the Public Schools\" — ^J. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.\n\"The Results of Tests in Arithmetic\" — ^Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state\nsuperintendent of pubUc instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"The Use of Tests and Scales of Measurement in the Administration of Schools\"\n— George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration. Teachers College, Columbia\nUniversity, New York, N.Y.\nThe next topic under discussion was \"Health Problems in Education.\"\nThe following papers were presented:\n\"Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education\" — Thomas D. Wood.\nM.D., professor of physical education, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"Bidletin of Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds\" — Z. X. Snyder, president, State;\nTeachers College, Greeley, Colo.\n111. \"Co-operation between Physician and Teacher\" — Henry B. Favill, M.D., Chicago,\n\"Methods of Extending the Propaganda for the Improvement of Sanitary Conditions\nin Rural Schools\" — ^John M. Dodson, M.D., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nDiscussion: Frederick R. Green, M.D., Chicago, 111.; R. W. Corwin, M.D., Pueblo,\nColo.; and Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.\nWilliam B. Owen, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSTANDARDIZATION— WISE AND\nA. E. WINSHTP,\n\nEDITOR,\n\"JOURNAL\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nOF\n\nOTHERWISE\nEDUCATION,\"\n\nStandards are of two distinct classes: the one is the establishment of\nunits of measure, which are as near accuracy as can be made, and the other\nthe colors of the regiment or brigade carried to a rallying-point for an\nadvance alignment of the rank and file. Standardization in educatk)ij\nmust mean both. It must furnish accurate measurement for attainmcDlj\nin scholarship and educational achievement; but it must mean, also, a\nhigher and more advanced rallying-point in the attainment of youth.\nWhere standardizers of the weaker sort fail is in both these regards,\nThey forget that it is a crime to use the standards of the wrong measure\nto charge for a long ton when delivering a short ton; to use the Harvard\nYale-Princeton measurement for state universities; those of Columbia fo;\nAntioch; Ann Arbor for Olivet; Madison for Beloit; Oberlui for Ada\nand Purdue for Valparaiso. It were no more stupid to standardize tht\nmilk record of a Polled Angus by a Jersey, or the weight of a two-year-olc\nGuernsey by that of a Shorthorn. If a man pretended to be an expert anc\ntested the Hambletonian by his draft power and a Percheron by his trottin;;\nspeed, he would be styled a charlatan; but he would be no more a charlatar\nthan would the man, who, claiming to be an expert, uses the same standarc\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION— WISE\n\nAND\n\nOTHERWISE\n\n529\n\nof value for the work at Harvard, Berkeley, Logan, and Ada. It would be\nas great a crime for Harvard, Yale, and Princeton to spread out, as for Ann\nArbor, Champaign, and Boulder to soar like a waterspout; for Bowdoin to\ncompete with Orono, as for Storrs to try to rival Yale.\nAmerica needs the highest conceivable scholastic standards that can\nbe applied at Cambridge and New Haven; but it also needs the utmost\nbounds of educational opportimity at Iowa City and Madison. There is\nno appreciable educational problem at Yale, as compared with that at\nValparaiso. Luxury of luxuries in travel is on the Overland Limited, when\nyou pay ten dollars extra fare and go between Chicago and Oakland in less\nthan three days — never being behind time. To install this train service,\nthey had thirty-two entire steel trains built, thirty-two locomotives, thirtytwo combination buffet cars, thirty-two observation cars, and thirty-two\nPulhnan cars, each of three different styles. In every regard, there is the\nlatest suggestion for safety, speed, and comfort. At the end of each threeday trip, the entire train is skilfully investigated, so that virtually a new\ntrain starts out from each end every fourth day, with barber, bathrooms,\nvalet, free stenographers, and typewriters.\nThis is luxury of luxuries; and it takes little brains to conceive such a\nplan and no strain of brain to run it. Contrast this with the real problem\nin New York City, where a milUon men and women want to get street cars\nwithin two hours every morning, and again within two hours every night,\nand a multitude of other people want cars every two minutes ever)rwhere all\nday. Nearly every north and south street, and about every fifth cross street\nhas double car tracks; and the air above is deafening with rattling elevated\ncars, and the bowels of the earth are honeycombed by tunnels. Instead of\npaying ten dollars extra, the passengers demand the right to get on a surface car uptown, change to a local subway at i2Sth Street, change to an\nexpress at 96th Street, get ofif at 42d Street, take a local to 34th Street, get\noff and out of the subway, and get a transfer to a surface car to 6th Avenue,\nand there get a transfer to the downtown elevated, and all for a nickel.\nNo one has ever made a failure of the problem of an extra fare de luxe train;\nand no one has ever made a success of the New York City five-cent-fare\nuniversal-transfer transportation problem.\nThe Harvard- Yale-Princeton problem is that of the de luxe train. The\nstudent has been scientifically fitted for college; he chooses subjects to his\ntaste; he is not allowed to take too much work. His professors are among\nthe best equipped specialists in America; they lecture but once or twice a\nday, and have the brainiest and best-trained graduates of last year or the\nyear before to assist them in their arduous labors. The problem of managing\nsuch de luxe scholarship is the same, relatively, as running the Overland\nLimited.\nBut at Yankton, Antioch, and Washburn, the problem is not de luxe.\nStudents need and crave an education; they have not been luxuriating in\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nS30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nde luxe preparatory schools or in fraternity-blessed high schools; they are\ndesperately in earnest to get an education. But they are poorly prepared\nin conventional scholarship, more poorly prepared financially, and the eager\npresident, and more eager professors, want to extend a helping hand scholastically and socially and also find somebody to lend a hand financially.\nThe president has a real educational problem. This problem requires really\nbig men. Not one president in ten can fail in a great university, and not\none in ten can succeed in a small college. Drop a little lower or rise a little\nhigher, as you please, to Ada and Valparaiso, and the problem grows vastly\nmore complex.\nThe standards for de luxe universities should certainly be maintained.\nHeight, and not depth, altitude and not area, should be the standard of\nBowdoin and Dartmouth, Williams and Amherst as well as Yale, Princeton,\nand Harvard. Service of the few along the lines of traditional culture\nshould be demanded of them, and a degree therefrom should mean something distinctly glorious in the eyes of those who are artificially trained to\ndiscriminate between the exquisite and the vigorous. Let persons so blessed\nwrite after their degree the name of the college; but woe to him who does\nnot equally admire the majestic soul, the intense power, the glorious character of the youth who has secured that which he wanted and needed where\nalone he could get it.\nWhat can be weaker or more senseless than to attempt to have all\nAmericans place extra value upon some training, or to pretend that for all\nAmericans any university degree stands for more than other university\ndegrees? The value of a degree will always depend upon the class of\nAmericans who value it. To a multitude of Americans, degrees from\nLansing, Ames, Fort Collins, and Pullman will signify more than degrees\nfrom Columbia or Princeton. Without question, the degrees of the classic\ncolleges will count for more with the class of men who prize those degrees.\nThey represent a more classical, scholarly taste, talent, and achievement.\nThe broadest achievement is in starting students on the road to a higher\nor broader education. Who shall say that a broader education is nol\nworth fully as much as a higher education ? Is there any phase of educational life so unpardonable as the promotion of a scheme whose chief virtut\nis that it shuts some aspiring students out of all institutions of learning ?\nBrown University has been trying the experiment of letting a few stu\ndents who did not earn a clear title of admission into full privileges am\nthey made as good an average record as those who came in with gilt-edgi\ncredentials.\nThe highest standardization should be that whose slogan is: \"Taki\nin every youth who has the spirit, who gives promise of making good, an\ndo all in your power to help him make good.\" Wise standardization look\ninto the youth's past, seeks to learn the extent and intensity of his vision\nand demands that he bring to the institution a purpose, zest, abihty to mak\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION— WISE\n\nAND\n\nOTHERWISE\n\n531\n\ngood use of the opportunities that the institution offers. He would bring\nto Columbia, Cornell, and Chicago a different purpose, zest, and ability\nfrom those which he would bring to Houghton, Manhattan, and Corvallis.\nThe training would be higher, but narrower.\nA larger percentage of the graduates of Ada are occupying positions of\neminent responsibility selected by the voters, and making good in their positions, than of the graduates of many higher standard institutions.\nThere will be aristocratic colleges, scholastically aristocratic as well as\nsocially and financially aristocratic. To this, no one will object; only let\nthem be supported by the wealth of the aristocrats; let no public moneys\ngo to their support; let them be by profession what they are in fact —\naristocratic; let them claim all they please by way of superiority; let their\nprofessors be pensioned from the wealth of the mighty. But let them not\nexpect lovers of democracy to worship them. There should be, and there\nwill be, democratic colleges — purely democratic — because they are for all\nthe people all the time. Let these be so standardized that they will be\nrecognized for what they are; let them be supported by the taxes of all the\npeople; let the professors be pensioned by the taxes of all the people; let\nthe pension be as adequate as that of the aristocratic professors; let no\nprivate fund from the living or the dead be mingled therewith; let there\nbe no cross-breeding with the funds of the aristocratic and the democratic.\nNeither in libraries, in pensions, nor in any other way should the money of\nthe financial aristocrat dilute the money of all the people for all the people.\nAbove all things, never allow private aristocratic ideals to sit in judgment\nover the standards of democratic institutions. What greater tragedy can\nthere be in a republic like ours than for financial aristocracy, social aristocracy, scholastic aristocracy, to breathe its diluted life into the rugged, virile,\nnoble, democratic life of any institution that is of the people, by the people,\nand for the people ?\nA standard for rallying is always ahead, never behind, except in a\nmasterly retreat. Whoever wants the educational standard of his grandfathers ismerely trying to cover his retreat. The world is not likely for\nlong to accept standards as mere measures. It is more in keeping with\nthis age of the world to consider a standard as that about which we rally.\nIt was all right to measure scholarship by the amount of stuff we could pour\ninto young men so long as there was no use for the stuff after we had poured\nit in; but now that the world demands power, alertness, and mental speed\nI as a result of one's studies, we measure by the result of scholarship rather\nthan by the amount thereof.\nThe man who can inspire twenty men to go to college and do two years'\nwork satisfactorily and then gives them certificates of achievements in\nthose two years is heaven-high above the man who would keep those men\nout of college because they had neither taste nor talent for translating the\ndead or foreign languages, or, if well matriculated, would give them no\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(NaUoiul\n\nrecognition at the end of two years. President A. Lawrence Lowell ought to\nbe canonized for saying — even though he has half apologized for it— that\nthere should be recognition for the man who has done good work in college\nfor two years and then studied a profession.\nHarvard has long allowed a man to take his professional work after\nthree years in college. Many, probably most, Harvard law students\nspend but three years in college studies. True, they cannot get their A.B.\ndegree imtil after they have studied law a year: this much hypocrisy as a\ntribute to tradition. If a man can do four years' work in three if he is\ngoing into a profession, why not four years' work in three for everyone who\ncan do it ? K a man does four years' work in three why not give his degree\nwhen he has earned it ?\nThere is standardization of teacher training in normal schools and\ncolleges. In Massachusetts, where every person of eighteen has had an\nopportunity to get a high-school education free of cost, it is reasonable to\nrequire him to have such an education before commencing professional\nstudies; but in nine-tenths of the states there has been no such adequate\nopportunity until within the last five years, and it would be Uttle short of\na professional crime to say that in those states no one should come to a\nnormal school who has not obtained the imobtainable. In Massachusetts\nthere is no excuse for a normal school to have a preparatory department,\nbut more than one-half of the students in normal schools in other states\ncan get preparatory work nowhere imless they get it in normal schools.\nTo standardize the 140 state normal schools on the high-school qualifications\nof Massachusetts for entrance to the institutions is about as absurd as\nanything conceivable.\nWhen standardization means suppression instead of expression, when\nit is a lasso instead of the crack of the whip, it is not education. When\nstandardization means merely treadmill routine for grinding out tradition, it belongs in the catacombs where \"Innocents from Abroad\" can\nenjoy them. When standardization means perfection of petrifaction having\nthe form of knowledge with no organs of growth it makes education a\nmuseiun of stuffed specimens. When standardization would have a degree\nrepresent four years of useless youth it will need something more than\nmiUions to substitute it for twentieth-century aspiration. America will\nwelcome standardization by brains but not by bullion.\nThe chief mission of an educational institution of learning, as of every\nteacher and educational leader, is so to inspire young people with a desire\nto learn that they will make great sacrifices for the opportunity to learn.\nStandardization may be a measuring rod or weight, it may be a rallyingpoint, but it is never a barbed-wire fence for the keeping of anybody away\nfrom any good thing. This much for the repair shop side of the question,\nnow for standardizing that is wise.\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "CflandQ\n\nIN MEMORI AM— JAMES M. GREENWOOD\n\n533\n\nPlace every educational standard in country and city on some advanced\nheight. Standardize school sites to the greatest obtainable advantage.\nStandardize the size of school lots, the condition of school grounds, the\nuplift of schoolhouse and outbuildings at the highest obtainable point\nof wholesomeness and attractiveness. Standardize all appointments for\nsanitation, heating, ventilation, and cleanliness at the highest obtainable\npoint of eflSciency. Standardize school gardens, home gardens, applied\nnature study, manual training, domestic science, vocational guidance,\nand every other sanely progressive feature of school work to the highest obtainable point of excellence. Standardize the length of school\nyear to the utmost obtainable extent. Standardize teachers' salaries to\nthe highest reasonable amount. Standardize all results in educational\nessentials to as near 100 per cent as is feasible. Standardize the breadth\n<rf general information attained, in school and out, to the greatest elasticity\nobtainable. Standardize the service of the school to the child who is slow\nor alert, from a home of wealth or poverty, who is physically, mentally,\nor morally weak or strong, who needs curb or spur. Standardize the schools\nfor the greatest freedom for the teacher compatible with efficient teamwork.\nStandardize the administration of all moneys and efforts, so as to get an\n-honest return for every dollar expended. Standardize accounting of school\naffairs as scientifically as the highest wisdom can suggest. Standardize\nthe democracy of public education from bottom to top completely, uniformly, and universally. Standardize nothing backward nor downward,\nI but standardize everything forward and upward.\nStand fast, therefore, brethren, in the liberty wherewith we are made\nl| free and be not entangled with any yoke of bondage.\n\nIN MEMORI\nBEN BLEWETT,\n\nAM— JAMES\n\nM. GREENWOOD\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOn November 15, 1837, on a farm in Sangamon County, 111., a boy\niwas born. On August i, 1914, a great man died at his office desk in Kansas\nCity, Mo. Thus was the earthly beginning and end of James M. Greenwood, whose life for forty years was one of the strongest influences in the\ndevelopment of public education in America.\nThe chronology of his most significant activities in the National Education Association reads as follows:\nIn the Association:\nLife member since 1884\nLife director since i886\nTreasurer from 1891 thru 1895\nMember of Executive Committee 1891 thru 1895, 1898, 1899, 1911-13\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nati«nal\n\nPresident, 1898\nMember of Board of Trustees, 1898, 1905-14; Secretary, 1908-11, Chairman,\n1911-13.\n\nVice-President, 1899\nIn the National Council:\niC 1\nMember since 1885\nMember of Executive Committee, 1889, 1897, 1905-14\nMember of Committee on Membership, 1900-14; Chairman, 1905-14 •*'•\nMember of Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, 1901-14; Chairman, 1909-14\nOn Committees:\n1885 — Committee on Technical Education (Coimcil)\n1888 — Committee on Educational Statistics, Chairman (Coimcil) j\n1889 — Committee on Hygiene in Education (Coimcil)\n1894-96-97 — Conmaittee on Educational Statistics and Reports (Council).\n(Same committee as Committee on Educational Statistics in 1888 — ^name\nchanged 1891)\n1895 — Committee on Revision of Constitution (General Association)\n1898 — Committee on Reorganization of National Council of Education\n1901 — ^Advisory Board of Louisiana Purchase Exposition\n1901 — Committee on Selection and Publication of Material Relating to City\nSchool Supervision (Superintendence)\n1907 — Committee on Taxation for School Supplies (Council)\n1\n1907 — Committee on Teaching Morals in Public Schools, Chairman (General!\nAssociation)\n1907 — Committee on Co-operation with Educational Organization in Other\nCountries\n\nSuch statement might serve as the cold inscription on his tomb. His\nepitaph speaks in the quickened pulses of lives stimulated by the vigorous\nintellectual and moral forces that had their source in him.\nIt is no great stretch of the imagination to trace his strength to those\nsame influences that shaped the course of that great leader of the people\nwhose young manhood developed in Sangamon County. A happier fatej\nshielded the childhood of young Greenwood and kept from his placid brow\nthose furrows of foreboding which sculptured that of Lincoln. But the\ntouch with homely nature and the everyday affairs of a simple rural lif(^\nwhere the boy participated in the cares, labors, and conversations of men\neducated him into a human sympathy which the artificial barriers of a more\ncomplex social condition are likely to narrow or shut out. Such soda]\nenvironment may give to the child quicker insight into the motives which'\nmove men and an earlier understanding of their wants and of the means\nof approach to their heads and hearts. The boy of capacity under these\nconditions of real participation in the life of his elders soon gets sonn\nmeasure of his power, some comprehension of his needs, some strength 0;\nwill to cope with the problems that are put upon him. He is under th(.\nnecessity of being resourceful. If the needed harness or tool is not at hand\nhis ingenuity is aroused to create or shape it. Skill comes, too, in the adapta\ntion of crude implements to the work to be done. To such a boy a jack\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN MEMORI AM— JAMES\n\nM. GREENWOOD\n\n535\n\nknife is a box of tools, a half-dozen books are a library. Deprived of\nmany books, Lincoln focused upon the Bible the fervent heat of his intense\nmind and its pure gold was fused into the fiber of his intellect and emotions.\nChance, or we would rather believe Providence, brought to young Greenwood the treasure of a small number of choice books from the library of\na neighbor who had died. His training in self-help served him well in\nmastering their contents. He drank of their knowledge and was stimulated\nby it.\nWhen the boy was fifteen years old the family moved to Missouri.\nDuring the next two years he could snatch from his occupation on the farm\nbut scanty instruction in the opportunities of a frontier district school.\nFor the next ten years he took an extended course in the university of life.\nHis majors were the curriculum of a western seminary in which he broke\nhis health in attempting to do four years' work in nine months, four years\nin reading law, and three years of service as a soldier in the civil strife that\nset brother against brother and in men of character purged away the dross.\nOut of this training he came a matured and richly experienced man\ntwenty-eight years old. Life was a very real existence to him and pretense\nand tinsel were abominations, while genuine manhood could not be concealed byhomespun garments. The town school, the private normal school,\nthe small college, and the state normal school were the fields of his labors\nfor the following nine years. Mathematics, logic, and philosophy sharpened\nan analytical mind, which had singled them out as subjects of the greatest\ninterest. Their influence upon him was manifest in the comprehensive\ngrasp, the ordered marshaling of his thoughts, and the clear and vigorous\nEngUsh in which he expressed them.\nWhen at the age of thirty-seven he was called to the superintendency\nof the Kansas City schools, his new position found him peculiarly well\nfitted in the constructive ability which it required.\nIn his annual report for the year 1913, he gives a sketch of the conditions he found in 1874 and of the processes of evolution out of them. No\nskilful painter could draw as faithful a portrait of this man as he himseK\nhas sketched in this record of his understanding, his vision, his will, his\nsense of humor, and his incisive criticism. Commenting on his beginning\nyear he says:\nAt the time I assumed charge of the schools 20 per cent of the entire time in the\nelementary schools was devoted to formal written examinations from the third grade\nupward. These were reduced to 4, and the pupil's deportment was included as a factor\nin determining his class standing\nThe essential qualifications for successful teaching were enumerated as follows: (i) common-sense; (2) ability to manage and harmonize\nconflicting interests; (3) adaptability to schoolroom work; (4) a good knowledge of what\neducation means and what it is; (5) knowledge of the branches to be taught; (6) skill\nand ingenuity in imparting instruction; (7) a deep and abiding interest in the welfare of\nchildren; (8) a cultivated voice and manner; (9) a love of the work. The ke3Tiote chiefly\nemphasized was the co-operation of parents and teachers for schoolroom maladies.\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationii\n\nOf the year 1875 he writes:\nThe board, superintendent, and teachers succeeded in raising from various sources\n$995.50 with which to purchase books for the beginning of the public library. The\nfollowing things were done : The stress in keeping pupils back in their studies was relieved;\nmore than 90 per cent of the cases of corporal punishment were eliminated; emphasis\nwas placed on the science of education and methods of teaching; a cutting loose from\nsome old ideas and cautiously and noiselessly experimenting with the new marked some\nlines of progress. The greatest forward step was elasticity in grading and promoting\npupils and avoiding waste in school work.\n\nThis \"cutting loose from the old and noiselessly experimenting with\nthe new\" was the mental habit which made him the stimulating leader\nand the reliable counselor. His contempt for methods claiming to be\npanaceas is expressed in the homely strength of his comment on one of\nthem. He writes: \"This system spread like wildfire 'in several of the\nwestern states, but burnt out in two or three years, and is now found in the\neducational cemetery.\" His wholesome conservatism is further shown in\nhis comments made years ago on topics that are in the focus of attention\ntoday.\n\"School Myths,\" or erroneous ideas that many persons entertain in regard to what\nthe schools ought to take over outside their legitimate work, were first presented and\ncommented upon extensively twenty-eight years ago\nThe dangers of specialization\nin school studies prematurely made were commented upon. The contention was that the\nchild before spedah'zation begins shoidd have a broad and solid foundation in scholarship.\nThis is the only soimd educational thought at present.\n\nHis philosophic comprehension of the exalted aim of public education\nsubordinated to their right relations the means to the accomplishment of\nthis aim, and, at the same time, frequently carried him ahead of his generation inthe recognition of the practical significance of these means. His\nreport tells the story in illimiinated words. Of \"part-time work and\nplay\" he says:\nOwing to the crowded condition of the schools, half-day sessions were resorted to in\nsome of the schools. To furnish room was the constant problem then as now. This\nrecommendation was then made: \"As a matter of justice to small children imprisoned in\nschool for six hours, it would be far more rational that the teacher should instruct them\nfor three or three and a half hours in regular school work, and then devote the remainder\nof the school day superintending their play in the open air — in short, to act as 'dry nurses'\nfor the families of the district. By adopting half-day sessions, no time is lost in graded\nwork. The children are healthier. It is in accordance with mental and physical growth,\naccords with common-sense and experience, and is an act of justice and mercy to the\nchildren. \" It took thirty-six years for Kansas City to get partly aroimd to this topic.\n\nOf a school for incorrigibles, he writes:\nThe establishment of a separate school for incorrigible pupils was advocated. This\nwas urged very earnestly as a means of preventing crime or the tendency to crime in its\nincipiency. In this advocacy the writer was nearly thirty years in advance of public\nsentiment, which eventually culminated in the enactment of truancy laws and the opening of the McCune Farm and Home.\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coundll\n\nIN MEMORI AM— JAMES\n\nM. GREENWOOD\n\n537\n\nCommenting on the year 1891-92, he says:\nThe most important recommendation made by the superintendent in the annual\nreport was the opening of the schoolhouses of evenings for giving public lectures to both\nsexes of citizens, the lectvirers to be questioned by the citizens who felt so disposed. This\nwas to be an independent means of educating the people. The subjects recommended for\ndiscussion were education, hygiene and sanitation, economic and social problems. The\nboard was urged to initiate such a movement here. The matter was commented upon and\nurged at considerable length. Twenty years later the idea was put into operation imder\nthe amusement form, the instructional idea being only incidental.\n\nMaking what he calls a \"fitting close to this chapter of the report for\nthe year 191 2-13,\" he thus addressed the board:\nAs superintendent I have endeavored to secure unity and effectiveness in management, direction, and supervision. Thirty-nine years ago I began my duties in this field\nwith the highest educational ideals, and have consistently endeavored to attain these\nideals in the administration of the schools, never sparing expense or personal comfort in\nkeeping abreast of the educational thought in this country and in Europe, and utilizing\nevery safe, progressive measure as the conditions in our community permitted. It has\nbeen my aim in shaping the public schools of this city to spare the members of the Board\nt of Education as much of the specific details of school management as possible, while\ncarrying out conscientiously their fundamental policies. I have co-ordinated the administrative, directive, and supervisory labors in the school organization by never lowering\nan educational standard, ever sdmulating with proper incentives, and being always\nambitious for the organization's more scientific development, and always measuring the\nproduct by the standard. I have sought to keep the principals and teachers rich and\nfresh in efl&cient methods and expert educational knowledge drawn from all available\nsources. Conclusions have always been reached thru seasoned convictions on the substantial merits of questions at issue. Sudden bursts of sentiment may sweep over a community destrojdng all that is most valuable and leaving nothing in the place of what has\nbeen displaced. If a school system is to be well administered, there must be a large\namount of continuity in its policies, and definite, fixed principles must be maintained.\nOne of my chief concerns has been to discriminate between what is real, permanent, and\ngrowing and what is transient, artificial, and declining. In every matter connected with\nthe public-school situation I have sought a constructive control, never a destructive\nempiricism, believing that those in authority shoidd take judicial and comprehensive views\non all issues. Short views in educational affairs are most dangerous.\n\nThe same qualities which made him a great superintendent made him\nan invaluable member of the Council. His earnest desire to see and know\nthe strong men and women in the Association drew him as an onlooker\n187 1. His zeal in the cause of education gave character to all of his\nticipation in the work of the Association from his admission to it in\n1884 to the time of his death. As an ojQScer of the Association and of the\nCouncil his well-seasoned judgment was used without fear in their protecItion. In reports to the Association, his solicitude for its welfare gives to\nwords some tinge of suspicion and anger when he feels that selfishness\n[is attacking a common good. Under the caption of \"The Permanent\nfund and the Raiders,\" he says:\nAs soon as this fund was of sufficient size to attract the eyes of the covetous, aU\nis of schemes were devised to get hold of it and dissipate it\nAs chairman of the\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations, I have had exceptional opportimities\nof receiving communications and listening to those who had discovered (but were unap>preciated) the most wonderful and helpful things for the uplifting of the teaching force,\nand, incidentally, the youth of the country. Had an educational curiosity shop been\nestablished by the National Education Association since 1895, it would contain more\nreal specimens of great wants come to a prematiu-e end than any other intellectual museum\nin the world. There has been afforded an excellent opportunity to observe certain minds\nwandering among stars guided by one lightning-bug flash. While many of these sought\nto do things seldom wise and never important, yet there have been others whose proposals contained far-reaching ideas, and whose investigations have been real contributions\nto the cause of education.\n\nOn the morning of August i, 1914, this powerful man took his place\nat his desk to prosecute his work. A few moments later, a lifeless body\nsat where he had been. Never again shall his great spirit thrill us thru\nthe strong grip of his hand nor shall it look out at us from the bright windows of his eyes. What other consolation have we in this loss than in the\nbeUef that tho this body we touched shall dissolve our friend continues\nwith us?\nAs I have recalled my associations with him, I have thought of him as\nSuperintendent Greenwood, Dr. Greenwood, Jim Greenwood — the admin- 1\nistrator, scholar, man — and have realized it was Jim Greenwood whom\nI respected and loved because his great soul made administrative powers\nand scholastic attainments but means of expressing more effectively his\nhuman sympathies. We hesitate to open the sacred portals of his home for\nfear of trespass, but we have had permission to see him there as he seemed\nto her who for many years was his co-worker in the schools and who was\nhis dear wife in the declining years:\nI look upon thy face and think what thou\nHast been to me: My coimselor, my guide,\nMy champion, my star. Of high ideals\nThou wert the noiuisher. I had but thee\nOn earth, and thou wert all the world to me.\nAnd not insensible was I that thou\nCouldst liberate my thoughts to wing a flight\nIn altitudes beyond their wonted reach.\nThy spirit sweet of duty, beauty, truth.\nOf himian worthiness, of faithfulness,\nSo high a standard set that common ken\nLike mine could rarely apprehend or climb\nThe space between. I could not keep thy height.\nThat brow, those steady eyes, those mobile lips.\nThose features calm that questioning I scan.\nTrust absolute reveal, nor register\nA shadow of misgiving or a doubt\nThat love and faith live on forever more.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPOINT\n\nOF\n\nVIEW\n\n539\n\nEternal is all good. Ephemeral\nIs mortal blight of whatsoever kind.\nThen well I know that thou tho all unseen\nArt ever near and nearer than we think,\nBuilding us up, bidding us e'er be brave\nFor service here, nor care for bafflement,\nNor fiinch when disappointment stings full sore.\nHelp us to face with resolution new\nThe days to come, with courage never crushed\nThe gleam of thy example to pursue.\n\nTOPIC: THE STUDY\n\nOF EDUCATION IN THE NORMAL\nAND THE UNIVERSITY\n\nA. THE NORMAL-SCHOOL\nHOMER\n\nPOINT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF VIEW\n\nH. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe normal school. — The scope of this paper is limited to a discussion of\nthis theme from the standpoint of the normal schools that have been established bythe general assemblies of the several states of the United States.\nThe functions of this class of state-governed educational institutions are\nvariable because the founding acts defined their purpose as specifically\nvocational, that of preparing students for the service of teaching public\nschools in the said several states. The courses of study that have been\nadopted in these vocational institutions have been determined, therefore,\nby the specific character of their founding acts, by the statutes that have\nbeen adopted concerning the licensing of teachers, and by the expanding\nenterprises of the public schools in their endeavor to comply with the everchanging and advancing public demands. As a consequence of these\nnumerous conditions and variations, the national standardization of state\nnormal schools has been impossible, and even a satisfactory comparison of\nthe alleged merits of the dififerent systems adopted has not been successfully\nformulated. What the state normal schools were a decade ago or even what\nthey are today is no criterion of what they will be required to be in the immediate future, since new laws made by legislatures, new reorganizations of\nschool systems by public administrators, and even new developments of\neducational needs among the masses will each of them so reflect upon their\nundertakings and purposes that modifications the most progressive and the\nmost noteworthy must follow. Such public educational institutions have\nrightly recognized their province when they respond without delay to the\nnew requirements of the great movements in education originating in a\ndemocracy, because their initiative and their procedure are determined in\nlarge part by persons who are not directly connected with the boards of\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nation\n\nmanagement appointed by the states or the facuhies of instruction appointed\nby these boards. The uniqueness of this particular situation produced by\nstate ideals and conditions as to practical and vocational tendencies must\nbe recognized, as the problems involved modify continually the essentials,\nthe standards, and the conceptions of what constitutes a teacher's education and training. These facts and results are of a character that is easily\noverlooked and unappreciated by so-called experts in educational organization, administration, and endeavor, because the very strength, popularity,\nsuccess, and efficiency of this class of schools depend upon their absolute\nrecognition of state needs, because such schools must be readily adaptable\nto such revolutions in state demands, and because they are independent of\ntradition and are incomplete in their development toward absolute standardization. Itis for this reason that inimical or destructive criticism from\nany quarter whatsoever is always answered by constructive efforts on the\npart of these schools, that the rejection or repudiation of them as higher\ninstitutions of learning because they cannot be arbitrarily classified on some\nideal or imiform basis strengthens them in their acceptability to the masses,\nthat attempts to discredit them by making the transfer of their graduates\nto the higher courses of so-called standard institutions very difficult or\nimcertain compel them to advance their courses from year to year for selfprotection until they become actual competitors as to patrcmage and output\nwith the very institutions that desired to secure their limitation and suppression. All attempts that have been made to restrict, to proscribe, to\ncondemn, or to reject the normal schools have had the effect of making them\nequivalents to other forms and styles of higher education rather than\ninferiors or subordinates. Whenever any institutional undertaking is\nsufficiently supported by a public sentiment, such as that enjoyed by the\nmajority of state normal schools, its future growth, development, efficiency,\nand service are limited only by the public need and its adaptability to meet\nthat need.\nThe teaching atmosphere. — The compulsory vocational attitude found in\nnormal-school education gives it a notably inspiring atmosphere that must\nbe thoroly known to be fully appreciated. The benefits that have come\nfrom working under the influence of such a strong professional spirit have\ngiven special emphasis to the endeavors of the students in such institutions\nso that the teaching career has been enlarged and improved in their conceptions bythe spirit of sacrifice and service. To have the privilege of\nstudying and of developing in an enviroimient where selfish and mercantile\nideals have no place gives a trend of effectiveness to personal motives and\nto standards of life that from the standpoint of civilization's benefit has the\ngreatest value. The single end of leadership amid such surroundings\nbecomes, therefore, that of the uplift of the masses thru the help of education and training and develops a pure and noble idealism that is grounded\nin the highest and best in manhood and womanhood.\nPower, wealth,\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nGanndll\n\nTHE NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPOINT OF VIEW\n\n541\n\nprominence, and distinction become temporary and incomplete motives\nwhich cannot satisfy the consecration to duty and to service that develops\nthe true teacher — a condition of heart and of soul that is essential to those\nwho decide to give their talents and their lives for the weKare of the children\nof the state and the nation. Amid such surroundings, educational culture\nand training become technical and primary rather than liberal and secondary, positive rather than negative, constructive rather than preparative,\nand genuine rather than historical. Such a situation gives educational\norganization, endeavor, and management a large purpose and insures such\na definite end that everything prevents instruction and training assuming\nthe aspect of doubt or of experiment. The students and teachers of a\nnormal school are seeking the solution of specific definite problems in civilization rather than investigating an interpretation of a philosophy of living\nand thinking. The instruction and training are prized and \"emphasized as\nto thoroness, comprehensiveness, and distinctiveness because scholarship in\nany notable direction signifies an increase of individual usefulness and a\npositive definiteness of design. The faculty in such an institution has the\nprivilege of teaching the best students in the world because of this notable\nattitude. Such learners cannot be indififerent as to progress made, character\ndeveloped, and capability reached, and hence they respond with a heartiness\nthat is very decided. Their need for supreme accuracy is not forgotten,\ntheir demand for full mastery is not minimized, and hence those who instruct\nthem can require superior standards, expect cheerful responses, and secure\nultimate conditions without fear of being regarded as unreasonable, overexacting, or technical. These vocational influences, united with an earnest\nspirit of co-operation, are of assistance to a marvelous degree in the making\nof personalities into teachers.\nThe major study. — Education as a branch of study, instruction, and\ninvestigation in a well-regulated and properly conducted state normal school\nbecomes the major study of major studies in the entire curriculum of the\nstudent. Every department feels and honors this condition, grants it a\nplace in every chapter of academic instruction, and accepts such a condition as a means to an end by requiring without hesitation properly organized\nand systematic preparation in every line of training. This adaptation\nbecomes necessary on account of the domination of the vocationalprofessional spirit. Education in all the various kinds of knowledge found\nn civilization becomes, therefore, a unit, not a lot of separate combinations\n)f information and development, and as a result capability and eflBiciency\nire realized in all their concreteness and fulness, and the teacher-to-be is\n)orn by rational adjustment to a determined service, not made by the\nibsorption of mechanical regulations and devices. When students have\nnade a choice of a life-work, they have solved the most important problem\n>f their preliminary experience as to training, and hence are then prepared\n0 devote themselves, with full energy, abundant satisfaction, and faithful\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncontinuousness that determinedly aim at thoroness, masterfidness, and\ngenuineness, important factors in contributing to the certainty of an efficient\nand successful career. Education as a philosophy, as a science, as a concrete expression in practice, as an organized aim in civilization, as a means\nto an end in expanding and improving personality, is accepted then as a\nvital undertaking involving the solution of real problems which will be\ncontinually present in the chosen public service. It is a decided advantage\nto have this attitude of spirit in the students of a class in science, language,\nhistory, mathematics, psychology, or school management, because by it\npurpose is emphasized, appUcation is willingly given, and co-operation of\nthe greatest types is realized. With this maximum of advantage there\nmust come the maximum of returns. With this combination of talent and\nspirit, the outcome is certain, the uplift is positive, and the conditions are\npracticable.\nThe efficiency of the training. — From these causes the standard of accompUshment in training can easily be maintauied at the highest grade of\nendeavor, while the perfection of attainment in the excellence of preparation, in the thoroness of understanding, and in the comprehensiveness of\nself-mastery can be fully realized in every phase of the work. The knowledge and the training necessary to be acquired by teachers are such that\nthe mastery of the principles, the appUcation of the facts, and the utilization of the opportunities become imperative, while the investigation of the\ntechnique employed and of the method adopted arouses such interest and\ncompels such attention that efficiency and clearness of an intelHgible and\ninvaluable quaUty are natural consequences. Hence such students as\nwould-be teachers study to know, not to recite; they prepare illustrations\nto use, not to comply with requirements of the instructor; they master\ndetails to assist judgment and reason, not to gain a credit mark; and they\nrecite to test their power of apprehension and comprehension, not to gain\nthe commendation of instructors. Such a student attitude has an unusual\ninfluence upon investigation of problems and upon the definiteness of conclusions; such a conception of purpose gives remarkable results; such an\nidentification of possibility makes technical instruction in education an\nappUed science of the most attractive and practicable sort. In this exhibition of endeavor and capabiUty, every teacher of such students becomes\nan exemplar, every lesson a type of a model of style, every plan of work an\ninterpretation of the philosophy and the art of teaching, and every assignment of a task a privilege to be accepted as having a genuine object and an\nactual purpose.\nThe place of theoretical instruction. — With this imderstanding of the true\ncentral aim of the genuine normal school, the giving of systematic instruction in psychology, school management, methods of instruction, general\nadministration of schools, history of education, principles of instruction, and\nphilosophy of education, occupies a notably attractive field for both student\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPOINT\n\nOF\n\nVIEW\n\n543\n\nand teacher. Here are the interpretation of causes and results, here are the\nanalyses of motives of conduct, here is the determination of the practical\nmeans to meet emergencies that continually arise, here are the adjustments\nof individualities in the problems of management and instruction, and here\nare the studies of life from infancy to maturity with the inventions of nature\nand art to fit abundant civilization. It is the concreteness of the illustrations, interpretations, experiences, and decisions that appeals with such\nweight of authority to the student of education. Outlines, characterizations, plans of procedure, the true order of presentation of knowledge to\nminds of different development, the ultimate benefits of self-mastery and self direction, are all wonderful discoveries of a kind that never lose the strength\nof appeal. By these means, a constant evolution as to what is sensible,\nreasonable, adaptable, and serviceable continually appears in the teacherdevelopment of the student since he faces the realities in his study, in his\nrecitation, and in his practice. In the solution of problems of this professional nature, the student grows in stature and in solidity professionally, in\nstrength and breadth scholastically, and in character and efficiency personally. It is impossible to escape the real situation, to avoid the reaching of\nconclusions, to refuse to attain the essential ends, or to reject the obtaining\nof the right conclusion, as thereby the student in training for his vocation\nmust satisfy the active spirit of his inquiry, must have the consciousness\nof his positive adjustment to practical needs, and the satisfaction of appreciating the realities of success.\nThe place of applied instruction. — Thru the observation of expert teaching of others, thru direct personal efforts in the laboratory of actual teaching\nin attempting to prove their competency, thru criticism of supervisors who\nare humane and constructive, everything to be done occupies a concrete\nand an appropriate situation. The study of education now becomes a\nconstructive process, its endeavors applied psychology, and its ends the.\nattainment of freedom and capability as a teacher of children and youth.\nSchool management becomes the solving of the problems of the adaptabiUty\nof self to the controlling and directing of others, while the methods of\ninstruction assume the place of tools in the business of helping human minds\nto perfect their own activities. Observation lessons, demonstration lessons,\ncritic lessons, practice lessons, are accepted as essential ways in the training\nof efficiency, while the exemplification of real educational undertakings consists ofthe most valuable preparation for meeting the normal exigencies and\nemergencies that are to be expected in the difficulties and perplexities of the\nyoung teacher. Such practical training develops the faculties of judgment,\nenlarges the capacities of reason, increases the capabilities of discrimination,\nand demands the employment of the initiative in a multitude of instances\nso that personal serviceableness expands and adjustment of adaptabiUty is\nsecured. By the humaneness of this combination of science and practice,\nby the absolute quality of the transactions conducted, by the realization of\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nteaching as the divine plan for perfecting human nature, human character\nis enthroned on the pedestal of superiority and results are obtained for\ncivilization that are permanent and all-sufficient.\n\nB.\n\nTHE COMPELLING\n\nA. DUNCAN\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nYOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH\nUNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nTEACHER\nAND PRACTICE,\nPA.\n\nI. A new analysis of the factors involved in teacher training is made\nnecessary by the fact that education is changing from the study of academic\nbranches as wholes and the mental training incidental to it to the development of definite forms of efficiency usefvd enough and strong enough to control experience. The question that teacher and learner must now ask of\neach branch is not. Does it train the mind ? but What definitely useful forms\nof mental training does it contribute, how useful are its contributions as\ncompared with those made by other subjects, what parts and how much of\nits subject-matter are essential to their development, and by what method\ncan they be made permanent and controUing ? Such education means compulsion. Itcompels children to learn and compels teachers to be efficient.\nThe schoolmaster of tradition compelled children to figure and to spell.\nHis too scientific successor, thru fear of a figuring begun in the wrong culture\nepoch or a spelling contrary to natural tendencies, compels nothing at all.\nThe expert familiar with educational values must compel efficiency in the\nordinary learner as surely as learning was drilled into Helen Keller.\nTeachers who compel what is essential to the individual and to the state\nwill more certainly control the course of civilization than captains of\nindustry or rulers of warring continents.\nII. The teacher training that is to result in this sort of efficiency must\ncompel in the teacher the forms of training which control or compel the\nlearner: the cumulative impression which definitely centers permanent and\ncontrolling interests, ideals, and points of view; the vocabulary, which\ndetermines what experience shall be held in mind and the specific relationships which shall retain it; the varying interconnection or variation whose\nmany-sidedness and variabihty make possible all forms of originality thru\nthe discovery of new relationships; the habit and system which compel the\ninvariable repetition of essential things in their most useful relationships;\nand the transfer which insures for essential things as general application as\nis useful by carr)dng them over to situations or fields of experience other\nthan those in which they have been developed.\nIII. As factors in teacher training, these five controls or forms of formal\nactivity or educational efficiency must be considered from two points of\nview: (i) the pupil controls which must be so taught by the teacher as to\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\n545\n\ncompel efficiency in the learner; (2) and the teacher controls which must\ncompel the necessary professional efficiency in the teacher. As, obviously, the\nteacher must master both, the selection of the kind and amount of subjectmatter essential to teachers in each branch of knowledge is determined by\nits relative contribution to one or more of these teacher or pupil controls.\nIV. As the contribution of the various branches to each of the five controls isexamined, three points will stand conspicuously revealed: (i) the\nfact that teacher training and general education should parallel each other\nthruout the entire professional course; (2) that definite and permanent\nknowledge of relative educational aims and values is essential to teachers\nof all subjects which form a part of teacher training and of the general\neducation which should parallel it; (3) that what is essential to efficiency\nin academic specialization is largely hostile to efficiency in both teacher\ntraining and general education.\nV. In teacher training as in general education, cumulative impression,\nas a means to permanent and controlling interests, ideals, and points of\nview, is largely based upon forgotten experience, and, in place of the academic system or exhaustive detail dear to the specialist, requires persistent\nrepetition of impressive material or experience which may itself be forgotten.\nInterest in scientific research is better gained thru a glimpse at the more\nimpressive investigations of a variety of sciences than thru the detailed\nstudy of only one, and becomes permanent less thru what is remembered\nthan thru growing impressions of pleasure and satisfaction which linger long\nafter particular methods of investigation or the results of particular experiments have been forgotten. The ideal which compels a tired brain to persist in the face of a complex difficulty may result from the systematic study\nof mathematics or Sanskrit possible to a favored few, but it is just as certain and far more generally acquired if every learner is compelled to solve\nenough complex problems in every branch of knowledge to gain confidence\nin the face of complexity, as surely as he forgets the complexities themselves\nbecause they are complex.\nI. Altho, in similar fashion, relatively non-emotional points of view, as\ndistinct from feelings, interests, and ideals, are incidentally developed in the\nteaching of academic subjects, the specialist is little likely to give them the\ndefiniteness of direction to professional ends, and modification by nonacademic ideals, essential to their usefulness. To be educationally effective,\nthey must be centered upon educational ends and limited by other educational aims and facts. For example, the \"scientific attitude of mind,\"\nwhich accustoms the specialist to readjust his old belief under the compulsion of some new fact of natural science, has often failed to prepare him to\naccept the educational fact that only a little of his science is essential to\nthe mental training thru which he has always justified the science as a\nwhole. Even experimental pedagogy and the history of education themselves may fail to direct definitely the scientific point of view to educational\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nends, unless they consciously teach the necessity for continual educational\nreadjustment and reform as the result of scientific determination and social\nor political change. On the other hand, altho the \"genetic\" attitude of\nmind, with its emphasis of adaptation to childhood and periods of development, cannot but be given educational bearing thru the study of psychology,\nit is educationally misleading in the form of Montessorianism itself, unless\nit is modified by the fundamental educational viewpoint which insists on\ndeveloping activities when they are educationally most useful regardless of\nthe more natural interest and readier development of some later period. If\nthe genetic viewpoint is to be educationally safe and useful, even the\n\"educational\" psychologist must be dominated by fundamental educational\naims and values, as well as by his educational applications of psychological\nfacts and principles.\n2. Altho history, thru its dramatic content, and literature, thru its\nemotional form, are the branches most effective for emotionalizing ideas\ninto ideals that can control, the method of the academic specialist in each\nof these subjects tends to lessen or check emotion by turning the attention\nof the learner from the emotional passage as a whole to petty details of\ninformation or the means by which the emotion is produced. In place of\ndefinitely centering about fundamental ideas and activities what is most\nimpressive in the spiritual inheritance of the race, specialization sacrifices\nthe emotional appeal of historical fiction and even of literary form, for the\nsake of eliminating anachronisms that the general student never perceives\nor soon forgets, or the fictitious heroes and incidents that make larger\ntruths real. Playing \"the Yankee at King Arthur's Court,\" it substitutes\nfilthy anchorites and ridiculous knights — the petty by-product of a heroic\nage — for the \"Idyls of a King\" and the larger tendencies to reverence,\nromance, and chivalry that feudahsm not only produced but handed down.\nIn place of using the emotional appeal of the literature read in the high\nschools and normal schools to create a love for the beautiful and to idealize\nwhat is finest in human experience, specialization asks whether the king in\n\"Humpty Dumpty\" could have been Henry the Eighth and insists on an\nornithological description of the sea fowl in the \"Ancient Mariner.\" No\nbranch of human knowledge rich in the stuff from which dreams are made\nshould be torn into the shreds and tatters of information that any dictionary\nor encyclopedia can more economically supply. Nor is it the academic\nspecialist alone who squanders his richer substance. The same sacrifice of\nideals may result from a non-emotional teaching of the history and philosophy of education, which, in place of breathing the breath of life into men\nthat can teach us how to feel, classifies them into hiunanists, naturalists,\nand realists, like so many moth flies pinned on their several bits of cork.\nVI. Vocabulary, the second form of pupil and teacher controls, determines the things that are to be held in mind and the relationships in which\nthey are to be associated. It is not too much to say that the number and\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\n547\n\nkind of words in a teacher's vocabulary largely determine his thinking, by\nlimiting or increasing the amount of experience which he will retain and the\npossibility of its being related to other experience.\n1. The kind of words and ideas by which a teacher recalls his daily\nexperience determines whether it shall make him think of narrow school\nroutine, of facts from psychology and other sciences, or of fundamental\neducational values and relationships. For example, if he recalls the difficulty which young children have with finger movements as compared with\nfull-arm movements thru the word \"difficult,\" he does not think at all. He\neither persists in the drill that involves the movement or complains that it\nis too hard. If he has \"culture epoch\" associated with it, he insists that\nthe finger movement must not be required because the race used full-arm\nmovements at the period reproduced in the early life of the child. If the\nword that comes to mind is \"ganglion-cell,\" he will refuse to force a growth\nthat will come more readily when protoplasmic processes have developed.\nIt is only when he has difficulty associated with immediacy of usefulness\nthat he will think and judge from the standpoint of educational efficiency,\nand either reject the finger movement as useless, or develop it, because its\neducational usefulness is relatively high and immediate, however difficult\nor \"unnatural\" it may be.\n2. It follows that the development of the professional vocabulary of the\nteacher cannot be left to academic specialists or even to the psychologist,\nbiologist, or sociologist, ignorant of definite educational aims and values,\nbecause the words that preserve and interpret the teacher's experience must\nbe subordinated to what is basal for educational efficiency.\n3. Now, the educational efficiency of a word depends upon a definition\nwhich controls — a definition which, in place of merely identifying, reaches\nout after what is new, because it certainly associates with the name a few\nideas which suggest different kinds of knowledge and fields of thought or\ninvestigation for each new thing to which it is applied. For example, the\nword \"river\" physiographically defined makes each new river mean the\nsame thing. Each river is a river and nothing more — like the \"primrose\nby the river's brim\" or \"the flower in the crannied wall.\" But river, certainly associated with scenery, fertilization, navigation, and power, becomes\na vocabulary control by suggesting a variety of things for each new river\ndifferent from what is known of those that have been encountered before.\nThere is a difference between resting satisfied with knowing that the Nile\nis a river, and of surely associating with it, because it is a river, the thought\nof scenery that compels the learner to discover its pyramids, cataracts, and\nArab boatmen, the thought of fertilization, with the whole history of Egypt\nin its train, the thought of navigation with its conquest of the cataracts and\nthe dream of Cape to Cairo, and the thought of water power with the prophetic glimpse of the cotton mills that may clothe a continent. From this\npoint of view. Dr. Thorndike's valuable inquiry into the extent to which\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nchildren's textbooks contain a vocabulary related to the experience of childhood should be carried farther. For in every branch, in proportion to its\ncontribution to vocabulary, the teacher must learn to associate with each\nfundamentally useful word the few definite ideas that will most surely and\nusefully compel him to think and thru which he can compel his pupils to\nthink and to search after new knowledge.\n4. To words thus suggestive for general information must be added technical terms suggestive for professional knowledge and experience, by substituting for logical or philosophical definition the two or three associations\nwhich will compel teachers to think, apply, and adapt. For example, every\nteacher should be drilled into mechanically associating with \"mental training\" or \"efficiency\" the five controls: \"impression, vocabulary, variation,\nhabit, and transfer.\" If he is a specialist in mathematics, mental training\nwill then suggest, not merely logical system and habit, but the system of\nhabits that control everyday experiences. Impression will make him think\nnot merely of the few ideals that mathematics can develop, but of the multitudes ofideals, interests, tastes, and points of view which must be gained\nfrom other subjects. The thought of vocabulary will bring to mind the\ncontribution of mathematics to the words that hold ideas in mind, in comparison with that made by other subjects. The term variation will bring\nthe definite and unvarying system of mathematics into contrast with the\nconstantly varying associations that are possible thru more suggestive terms\nin other branches of knowledge, while the word transfer will quickly suggest the distinction between habits that are confined to particular parts of\nmathematics and those that not only can carry over, but are made to carry\nover, to other fields of experience.\n5. It is clear, not only that the academic specialist, even if he defines his\nterms effectively, will make them effective for specialization rather than for\nteaching, but that professional definiteness should find range for appUcation\nin academic work that parallels professional training.\n6. On the other hand, the task that the Society of College Teachers of\nEducation has imposed upon Professor Bagley must include, in addition to\nan agreement upon a uniform pedagogical terminology, agreement upon the\nfew definite ideas that must be certainly called to mind by each uniform\nterm, if it is to compel useful educational thinking.\nVII. The third form of pupU and teacher controls is variation, or varying interconnection, exercised thru the growing many-sidedness of ideas that\nmakes possible all kinds of new and unexpected associations. It involves\ntwo forms of control — the Herbartian \"many-sidedness\" and \"concentration\"— that is, quantitative control thru increasing the possibihty of any\nidea being related to any other idea, and quaUtative control thru increasing\nthe likelihood of varied association and compulsion for the most useful ideas.\nI. The same effective definition, or memorizing of effective associations,\nwhich makes a useful general term bring more ideas to mind, will put any i\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\n549\n\none of the resulting ideas into relationship with others that the effective\nassociation which recalled it has similarly recalled in other instances or\nfields of application. For example, when an investigator tests the efficiency\nof the phonetic method in reading, if the idea of efficiency always brings to\nmind vocabulary as well as habit, he will not limit his test to the habits\ninvolved in mechanical reading or thought-getting, but the term vocabulary\nwill make him think of testing for the contributions made by phonetic\nability to vocabulary expansion and of comparing the words it has added\nwith those contributed by etymology, history, mathematics, or science,\nbecause they, like it, have been associated in his mind with vocabulary\nexpansion.\n2. To this increase and control of varying mental interconnection thru\neffective definition must be added the varied interconnection that comes\nfrom association with many-sided periods and localities. Effective definition determines the two or three associations in which the most useful things\nare to be memorized. Many-sidedness of location and periods determines\nwhat the effectively defined words should be associated with.\n3. The unique service to mental training performed by history and\ngeography is that an idea is associated with any historical or geographical\nlocation or sequence within which the ordinarily intelligent learner will\ngather many other ideas, which, otherwise, might be so remote that their\nsimilarity would remain undetected. Think of good old Richard Mulcaster,\nRoger Ascham, John Sturm, Michel de Montaigne, and the Ratio Studiorum\nof the Jesuit Fathers as belonging to the Elizabethan Age, and you will not\nonly associate them with a hundred things Elizabethan — royal progresses,\nShakespearian drama. Westward Ho, and religious controversies — but you are\nmore likely to see the common effort of most of them to build up formal\nmethods and systems of instruction, and to understand the swing of the\npendulum which carries Montaigne from a system which taught him the\ncorrect pronunciation of Greek and Latin in his cradle to the extreme of the\nincidental and the informal. Think of Dr. Kerchensteiner's system of\nvocational training in Munich as German, and the chances are stronger that\nyou will associate it with military system and segregation into social classes\nand question its adaptation to democracy.\n4. If this historical sequence, partly acquired in the elementary grades,\nadequately taught in the high school, and kept alive thru systematic review\nin college, is followed by specialization and intensive study, why should not\na more partial concentration upon all of the periods that have contributed\nmost to the world's culture, with an emphasis of educational relationships and\ndevelopments, be as cultural and contribute as directly to the fundamental\naims of the historical specialist as exhaustive specialization in one or two ?\n5. This does not mean intensive work in the history of education.\nVariation in the sense of seeing educational ideas which belong to the past\nrelated to others in new, individual, and varying associations, is not\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "5SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfurthered by emphasis of local and temporary institutions or isolated facts.\nThe interconnection of educational ideas thru a knowledge of the past\nrequires a chronological framework built up from all periods that contain\nenough educational material for association to be many-sided.\nVni. Specific discipline, or definite memorizing and retention, the\nfourth means to pupil and teacher controls, is exercised thru habits and\nsystems of habits.\n1. Sharp contrast must be made between the academic system dear to\nthe specialist, and the efficiency system, which must become dear to the\nteacher. The logical system pecuHar to certain academic subjects, such as\nmathematics or a foreign language, is temporarily mastered by the ordinary\nlearner on account of a thoroness and completeness of detail which can be\nretained only by the speciaHst. Efficiency system must be cumulatively\nbuilt up thru the selection, memorizing, and never-ending review of the\nmost useful ideas and activities selected from all subjects in the definite\nrelationships that will make their usefulness most recurring and compelling\nin everyday life. The specialist insists on a system that only the specialist\ncan remember; the teacher must develop in the ordinary learner a system\nthat remains permanent and controls.\n2. Even in the strictly professional subjects which are supposed to have\na special virtue for teacher training, system, in the sense of exhaustive\ndetail, must be displaced by system which results from definite usefulness.\nThe worth of psychology and of the history, philosophy, and science of\neducation as means to professional efficiency is not inherent in their subjectmatter, but dependent upon the definite relationships in which what is\neducationally most useful is memorized and retained.\n3. If the system that controls is to be compelled, two fundamental\nconditions must be insured. Relative educational values must determine\nthe definite relationships which are so essential to the five forms of efficiency\nthat they must be certainly memorized, and every moment of the little\ntime effective for mechanical memorizing and review must be economically\nput to use. The reaction against mechanical memorizing should be checked;\nmemory drill should be limited to the proportionate time and particular\nperiods for which it is effective; the relative native retentiveness of every\nlearner should be determined; the most effective conditions and methods\nfor memorizing and review should be compelled; drill should not fall short\nof what is necessary for adequate memorizing or be continued beyond the\npoint where gain is in proportion to the time expended; nothing should be\ntemporarily memorized that is not to be permanently kept in mind; and\nno academic specialist must waste time in the memorizing of the details of\none subject at the expense of what is most useful in it and in other subjects\nin the definite relationships that compel both teacher and pupil controls.\nIf it is essential to the definiteness which compels efficiency, the slavery of\nmechanical memorizing is the price of intellectual freedom.\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\n55 1\n\nIX. The fifth and last of the pupil and teacher controls is exercised\nthru general application in the sense of the transfer of useful things to\ninstances or fields of experience other than those in which they are developed.\n1. While transfer as a factor in teacher training includes the idea of\npractice, it differs from the ordinary practice work of normal school and\ncollege in two essentials: first, it involves a practice which is not limited to\nthe actual repetition of certain details of instruction until they become\nhabits, but which compels the carrying over of habits to new situations;\nand secondly, it involves the application and carrying over, not merely of\nmethods of instruction, but of every form of teacher training that is general\nin its usefulness. It must discover and insure for each individual the conditions favorable to the most general and original application, not only of\nhabits, but of ideals, and the memory or interconnection centers essential\nto effective definition. Once determined, they must themselves become a\npart of the efficiency system whose usefulness they can multiply a hundred\nfold thru insuring the initiative, which, in place of resulting from quick\nreaction time and the natural temperament of the rusher-in, consists of\nrealization of personal efficiency in the sense of ability to meet a novel\nsituation.\n2. When practice means application in this broader sense of transfer,\nstudies of the kinds of usefulness and relative values exemplified in textbooks, courses of study, theoretical methods of instruction, and model\nclasses should precede and accompany what is commonly called \"practice\nteaching.\" The dominance of right ideals and points of view, the use of\neffectively defined professional vocabulary, the interconnection of professional ideas thru reading, reflection, and practice, should be as certainly\ndeveloped as effective habits of instruction. To insure them, practice and\ntransfer work, in place of being concentrated into a few weeks of actual\nteaching at the close of the professional course, must continue thruout the\nwhole period of teacher training and be related to every phase of work.\nX. If professional efficiency is to be compelled, nothing must be permitted tointerfere with the cumulative development of these five controls\nwhich I have called impression, vocabulary, variation, habit, and transfer.\nSince they can be developed in all kinds of training schools, the form of\ninstitution in which the training of teachers is carried on is rather a favorable or unfavorable condition to efficiency than one of its essential factors.\n1. To be sure, for the sake of general education itself, the high-school\ncourse must become more directly preparatory to teacher training thru its\nemphasis of material essential to pupil controls, its refusal to substitute\nspecialization in some one science or phase of a school subject for a general\nknowledge of what is most essential in all, and the employment of professionally trained teachers in the place of academic specialists.\n2. The normal school must meet these same conditions within the academic or content phase of its course, in the entrance requirements it imposes\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\non the high school, and in limiting its college-preparatory work to the\nentrance requirements of colleges that are not sacrificing general culture\nand social education to academic specialization.\n3. But in the higher training of teachers, the one thing fundamentally\nessential to efficiency is that thruout the college course academic and professional training shall parallel each other and be wholly committed to\nteachers who have been so professionally trained in educational aims and\nvalues that education means to them the development of definite forms of\nefficiency, rather than the false thoroness of exhaustive detail and the useless discipline of temporarily remembered system.\nThis whole discussion constitutes an argument against an ordinary college course superimposed upon a normal-school course but still calling itself\nprofessional training, or against teacher training thru a graduate school of\neducation superimposed upon a four-year arts and science course. The\nnegative argument against either is that four years of academic teaching of\nthe prevailing type unfits men for effective teaching, thru creating habits,\nideals, and points of view that are antagonistic to professional efficiency.\nOn the side of the graduate school, this is less true of law, medicine, or\ntheology, owing to the fact that their professional subject-matter is almost\nwholly different from that of the academic branches and their training has\nlittle or no relationship to the methods by which the academic branches\nhave been taught. With them, at the worst, such superimposition means\narrested development for a culture that should be continuing.\nThe positive argument against the superimposed graduate-school course\nis that a far longer period than two or three years of graduate work is\nnecessary to the building up of the cumulative and complex system of\nknowledge, ideals, habits, and practice which constitutes professional\ntraining. In the case of professions other than teaching, the only remedy\nseems to be the displacing of academic training and general culture by\na gradual working down of professional specialization into the college, or\nas is now the case in medicine, a lengthening of the professional training\nto five or six years of theory and practice beyond a four-year college\ncourse.\nIn teacher training alone is it possible to insure continuity to both\ngeneral culture and professional training in both normal school and college\nthru the paralleling and interrelating of one with the other. The teacher,\nwhile he is being trained, requires the subject-matter which he is to teach\nin the relationships that make it most efficient for the general student with\nwhom he is being taught. The college instructor who serves as the most\nhelpful model for the teacher is the one who thru his professional training\nand consciousness of educational aims and values compels the highest\nefficiency in both teacher and general student. The general student requires\ndefinite familiarity with educational aims and values to second intelligently\nthe methods of his efficiently trained teacher, to continue to teach himself\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\nSSS\n\nafter his college course is ended, and to perform intelligently the duties of\ncitizenship in so far as they are related to public education.\nBut no theoretical discussion will determine the form of institution in\nwhich this paralleling of teacher training and general education will be\nactually brought about. As has been already said, even the superimposed\ncollege or professional course is an unfavorable condition to efficiency rather\nthan an insuperable obstacle. It is one of the advantages of democracy\nthat in the educational field, as in all others, institutions performing the\nsame general service have grown up in a variety of forms thru adaptation\nto local conditions and varying stages of social progress. This in itself is\nan indispensable condition to efficiency, not only because in its absence the\ngreat mass of American teachers must remain untrained, but because it\naffords almost limitless opportunity for comparing the efficiency of one\ninstitutional form with another from the standpoint of continually changing\nlocal needs.\nEducational research has performed its proper service for teacher training when it suggests and determines the factors essential to efficiency, regardless ofthe institution thru which they must be applied. In each of\nthe institutional forms thru which the higher training of teachers is locally\nbrought about, the factors in efficiency which this paper has endeavored to\ndiscover must be determining for instruction. Their verification or disproval should be the most immediate aim of any educational investigation\ntruly scientific in its procedure, because it is preliminary to the definition\nof educational ends and the measurement of educational values, in the\ngreat branches of human knowledge, in preparation for each specific phase\nof social life, and in the method by which anything is to be taught. But\nwhatever the final analysis, one thing is sure — education is coming to mean\ncompulsion thru definite forms of control, the development of which becomes\nthe sole measure of the efficiency of teacher training. For teachers must be\ncompelled to teach efficiently in order that pupils shall be compelled to\nlearn.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. W. Crabtree, president, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. — Professor Yociim\ndoes not say exactly when professional training should begin in the university, but\nit seems safe to infer that he would have it begin in the Freshman year, or even lower\ndown, and that he would have it continue thruout the four-year course. I believe also\nthat he would segregate these teacher-training classes from other college classes in most\nof their studies and that he would make the course of study purposeful by including some\nof the actual studies which these teachers will teach in the public and high schools. At\nleast his reasoning leads to these inferences. And why should not both normal school and\nuniversity begin developing the teaching spirit and high teaching ideals as soon as the\nstudents are received from the high school ? Why not make the work pointed and purposeful bylaying emphasis on that knowledge which is later to be imparted to pupils and\nstudents? Why not compel Professor Yocum's teaching efficiency from the Freshman\nyear on thru to Commencement day?\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nIt is most encouraging to see the same general policies advocated by the leaders of\neducational thought who have just addressed us. Both college and normal school have\nfor many years given entirely too much time and attention to each other's shortcomings\nand far too little time and attention to an honest effort in getting at truth and fundamental\nfacts. The normal school has been hampered by tradition and by outside influence due\nin part to the old college notion that professional training is of no special value to the\nteacher. The teachers' college in the university has not had half the chance that the\nnormal school has had. At every step in its development it has been forced to meet\nthe strongest kind of opposition from the institution of which it is a part. It is gratifying\nthat this opposition is disappearing. It means not only that the normal school and teachers' college will from this time on be able to work more harmoniously with each other, but\nthat they will aid each other greatly in reaching better policies for efficiency.\nMembers of the Council have doubtless observed that the views of A. E. Winship\nagainst the standardization of state normal schools have been further sustained by these\naddresses. President Seerley mentions definitely that the standardization of normal\nschools is impossible. It might mean less stagnation even in colleges if those distributing\npension fimds and making liberal donations were to do their giving without making standardization demands. Institutions can hardly be proud of standards forced upon them\nby the use of pension and survey clubs. The normal school may well take pride in the\nfact that the foundations have not considered it worthy of pension consideration. Still\nthere is evidence of a desire to improve the normal school by means of a foxmdation\nsurvey.\nIn closing, permit me to emphasize the following statement made by Professor Yocum\nwhich I consider fundamental. In discussing the value of professional study, he says:\n\"Even in the strictly professional subjects which are to have a special virtue for the\nteacher training, system, in the sense of exhaustive detail, must be displaced by system\nwhich results from definite usefulness.\"\nW. P. BuRRis, dean, College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n— The question to which this Council is here seeking an answer, as I inferred from the\nstatement of the topic under discussion, is essentially this: In what important respects\nshoidd the study of education in the normal school and the study of education in the\nvmiversity differ from each other? I was disappointed, therefore, in finding that Professor Yocum had limited himself to a discussion of the work of educational research.\nThis work of research is indeed important, and work for which the university should\nbe well prepared, but in certain imjjortant directions, including that of \"determining the\nfactors essential to efficiency,\" many normal schools have an equally good opportunity.\nPerhaps on accoimt of the facilities for practical and experimental work, most normal\nschoob have a better opportunity for such work than is usually afforded to the uni-i\nversity, if we except the mvmicipal university. The question, therefore, if I have stated it\ncorrectly, finds only a partial answer in Professor Yocum's paper. He merely calls attention to an important work in education which can and ought to be done in the xmiversity,\nbut which can and ought to be done also in the normal school. This being true, we here\nfind an important respect in which the study of education in the normal school and in the\nuniversity should be alike instead of different. If, however, Professor Yoctun means\nthat it is an important part of the work in education in the imiversity to train research\nworkers for positions in the normal schools, we do then get an important difference. Ic\nmy judgment the normal schools do need more of such workers, and I think it is the business of the university rather than of the normal school to train them.\nBut there are other important respects in which the study of education in the twc\ntypes of institutions should differ. In general this difference can be characterized by thtterm comprehensiveness. This applies to the study of the history and theory of education,\nthe theory and practice of teaching, and the organization and administration of educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\n555\n\ntion, as well as to the study of those subjects which should be prerequisite or parallel to\nthe study of education proper, such as psychology, ethics, logic, social science, etc.\nIn a two-year normal-school course, the work in such subjects must be much more\nnarrowly limited. For example, on account of the immaturity of the student and his\ninsufficient scholarship, as well as on account of the time demanded by new studies,\nincluding agriculture, domestic science, and all the rest, the study of the history of education should be limited to the historical development of education since the time of Rousseau, with emphasis upon the common school. The university student, assuming that\nthe study of education is begun not earlier than the third year of the university course,\nshould have a general survey of educational tendencies and institutions since the beginning\nof civilization. In corresponding fashion, for the reasons named, the other subjects should\nbe less comprehensively treated in the normal school than in the university. On the\nother hand, the practice teaching should have greater emphasis in the former.\nThe university should also have a wider range of purposes in mind in the provision\nwhich it makes for the study of education than should be the case with the normal school.\nBesides the work of educational research and the training of research workers, there\nshould be professional programs for teachers of all types of educational institutions\nincluding the university itself. The work should be directed by a special faculty having\nexclusive jurisdiction over students engaged in such work and adequate provision should\nbe made for practice teaching. Otherwise there will be divided allegiance on the part of\nsuch students, and what President Seerley calls \"the teaching atmosphere\" will not be so\ngood as that of the normal school.\nThese are some of the important differences. There is time merely to envunerate\nthem without the support of argument. To a large extent, the reasons for such differences are quite obvious. I shall not attempt to give a complete catalog of such differences, but wish to name one more.\nThe normal school, as President Seerley concedes in his paper, must respond promptly\nto popular demands. On the other hand, on account of the freer atmosphere of the university, particularly of the university not dependent upon legislative appropriations, the\neducational problem is that of finding out the needs of our democracy, rather than that of\nconforming to its demands. The university is in a better position to engage in free and\ncritical discussion of current educational opinion and practice, to point out their shortcomings, and to become a center of propaganda in the interest of educational reform.\nThe university, therefore, differs from the normal school in the measure of responsibility\nwhich conditions impose upon it in training men and women for educational leadership, a\nresponsibility of which the universities are rapidly becoming more fully conscious.\nIn thus seeking to give at least a partial answer to what I have conceived to be the\nquestion before the Council, there is little time left for that extended critical discussion\ncalled for by Professor Yocum's paper. Needless to say I do not wholly disagree with\nhim. On some points I am not sure that I understand him. I confine myself to a few\nof the more important respects in which I dissent, if I understand his positions correctly.\nIn the first place, I do not agree that the demand for that which is immediately useful\nfor social efficiency, teaching efficiency, or any other kind, warrants the proposal that we\nabandon the practice of mastering academic branches as wholes. In the earliest stages\nof one's education, we may be guided by such a principle, but just in proportion as we\nbecome able to take the future into account, the possible future as well as the probable\nfuture, this principle must yield to another. Any attempt to make a rigid application\nof this principle all along the line in an attempt to escape an educational dualism would\nlead to educational chaos.\nThere is no way whereby we can obtain and maintain control of the different branches\nof learning so that they may become perennially useful, as circvunstances may demand,\nexcept thru the mastery of them as systems. What branches of learning and what applications ofthese branches are important depends, of course, upon present and future purposes.\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\nSS6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nand, so far as mental training is concerned, those studies and activities which are most\nuseful in view of such purposes may also be the most disciplinary, depending upon the\nmanner in which they are taught.\nIn teaching and teacher training, I prefer what appears to me a simpler and more\npracticable series of controls. On account of variation in circiraistances and individualities, Iprefer as far as possible to state these controls in the form of questions or problems\neven to be solved. The first problem is one of educational values the importance of which\nthe paper duly recognizes. As a constructive idealist, I believe in a hierarchy of ideal or\nabsolute values as controls in accordance with which scales of relative values become\npossible. The control questions or problems, therefore, in teaching and teacher training\nare: (i) What Are These Values? (2) What Values Are within the Appreciation of the\nPupil at Any Given Stage, and to What Extent ? (3) What Situations Can I Point to or\nCreate Which Will Progressively Reveal These Values to My Pupils as Motives for\nLearning and Behavior ? (4) What, Specifically, at Any Given Stage, Is to Be Learned\nor Done because of the Values Thus Revealed ? (s) What Is the Method by Which My\nPupils May Master the Valuable Things to Be Learned or Done ?\nThese, in my judgment, are the large questions to which the study of education,\nwhether in the normal school or in the \\miversity, so far as teacher training is concerned,\nshould be devoted. The answers to these questions furnish us conscious controls in\nteaching. We pursue various courses, academic and professional, we engage in practice\nteaching, we experiment, all for the purpose of finding the correct answers to them. In\none way or another, the controls submitted by Professor Yocum are involved, but our\nteaching controls must themselves be brought imder control and I submit the foregoing as\na means of doing this.\nIn one other important respect I find myself disposed to dissent. I refer to the\napparent disparagement of academic specialization on the part of one who expects to be a\nteacher. By itself specialization in some academic subject will not make a successful\nteacher, but it is not yet proven that such specialization, when accompanied by sound\nprofessional training, is a barrier to professional success. The recent study of Professor\nClapp, of the University of Colorado, published among the papers submitted for discussion\nat the meeting of the Society of College Teachers of Education at this meeting of the\nDepartment of Superintendence, shows that there is a relation between scholarship and\nteaching efficiency. I think that this must be the case and that, other things being\nequal, scholarship in the long nm must lead to the highest efficiency. Moreover, there\ncannot be the highest scholarship without specialization, hence, in this respect also, the\nuniversity should provide a superior opportunity for the study of education to that\npossible in the normal school, for, as we well know from many examples, scholarship\nitself is one of the controls which compels efficiency in teaching.\nW. T. Carrington, president. State Normal School, Springfield, Mo. — We are not\nmuch in sympathy with the impossible standardization sentiments often expressed by\nnormal-school men. When everything conspires to break sectional lines in social and\neconomic affairs, there is little need to emphasize differences in educational situations\nwhich are largely more imaginary than real. There seems to be an inadequate idea of\nwhat is meant by the expression \"standard normal school.\"\nAny standard must have definite imits of measurement agreed upon. These are\ncalled units in secondary-school work and semester hours in college-rank work. The\naccepted minimimi limit to secondary work is sixteen imits. All above that is college\nwork. No institution should be called a college that issues a degree on less than one\nhundred and twenty hours. An institution may be standard, however, that issues a certificate ordiploma stating the amoimt of preparation made by students who have completed only partial college courses.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\n557\n\nAn institution with acceptable equipment, with a teaching corps of high character,\nwith the necessary time elements, usually is designated as of standard type, since all\nstandards are largely based upon the quantitative element. The qualitative element is\neven more important, but not so easily determined. All agree that every educational\ninstitution must have large freedom in meeting social and economic differences in communities. There need be little trouble, however, in determining the vitality of the qualitative element in the attitudes and activities of both instructors and pupils.\nWhile we insist that the quantitative element should largely determine the question\nof standardization, no institution should be classified as meeting acceptable standards\nuntil the qualitative element is passed upon and accepted by some competent authority.\nIn this, however, we must not confuse the quality of the work with the subject-matter\nof the courses of study. It must be kept constantly in mind that the instruction to be\nstandard must be given to students with a sixfficient degree of maturity of mind and with\na determined amount of previous preparation.\nThere are very great differences in ideals and opportunities in the urban and rural\nsections of southwestern Missouri calling for more differentiation in teacher training than\nis necessary in preparing teachers for widely separated sections. The normal school with\nwhich I am connected is, by law, charged with the responsibility of suppljdng teachers,\nboth grade and high-school, for several cities and largely varying types of rural communities.\nIt must supply teachers to one city almost wholly a jobbing center with a rich and\ncultured population; for another city largely a mining center with a cosmopolitan population varying greatly in social conceptions and tendencies; for still another city a great\nraUroad center filled with people having advanced industrial ideas. It must supply\nteachers for rural populations varying from the dweller on alluvial soil, the raiser of\nblooded stock, the farmer who farms by scientific methods, to the log-cabin mountaineer.\nIt is thought that this normal school is of standard type and that it successfully prepares teachers for all kinds and grades of public schools, and, what is more to the point,\nthose who come to it as students from the least fortunate localities go back to their homes\nto reorganize their schools and redirect and remotivate the life of the community. Later\nby gradual steps some of them move up in the scale of usefulness and influence to the\nsupervision of city systems of schools and to the state inspectorship of high schools.\nThe most important eqmpment of this normal school is a large training school of ten\ngrades arranged for a maximum of observation and practice, containing classes of pupils\nfully representative of all the various types mentioned above, with a course of study plastic\nand varied enough to make its content work apply to the activities of different occupations.\nSuch a training school illustrates the best things in the public schools in city and country.\nThe formal work is so varied in application as to furnish opportunity to try out new\ntheories and adapt them to new situations. In the first six years, the formal elementary\nwork is practically completed. In the next four, the grammar school and the junior high\nschool, five-eighths of the time is given to constants to give unity to, and to form a basis\nfor, general culture. These are not lacking in local coloring and present-day tendencies\nhowever. The other three-eighths are alternate electives, giving opportunity for adjustment to the tendencies and to the environment of the students.\nIt is the purpose of those in charge of this training school to make it a model of what\nis best in the school system and to work out in the first ten grades as complete a preparation for the life-work of the students as possible, at the same time meeting entrance\nrequirements to the junior year of first-class high schools. This training school is a\npedagogical laboratory in which the study of education is made concrete and theories are\nillustrated and tested.\nThe supervisor of the grade has one-third of each day to work with the children,\nto keep that pedagogical laboratory in the best condition.\nShe has this time for the\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "5S8\n\n■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npurpose of gathering up any loose ends and keeping the work well rounded out. The director\nof observation controls one- third of the time of each grade in the training school, which is\nused for demonstrations of model teaching by heads of the departments in the normal\nschool, by the supervising critic, and by the director of observation. The director of\npractice teaching controls the other third of the time of each grade, which is devoted to\npractice teaching by students who have prepared for it in the study of general method\nand plan-making by a study of special methods under the head of some department, and\nby a term's work in observation and illustrative teaching. This practice teaching is\ndone under the direction of the supervising critic of the grade in co-operation with the\nhead of a department.\nA normal school with so large and varied demands made upon it may properly consist\nof two parts — the jimior normal school and the senior normal school.\nThe junior normal school has three years of work superimposed on what is called\nin Missouri a third-class, two-year high school; or it is two years of normal-school work\nsuperimposed upon a second-class, three-year high school, or it is one year of normal\nschool work superimposed upon a first-class, four-year high school. This junior normal\"\nschool curriculiun includes eight imits of standard secondary work corresponding to the\nlast half of the first-class four-year high school and thirty semester hours of professional\npreparation so arranged as to supply the needs of teachers in the different kinds and types\nof schools to which they will be called to begin their teaching work. These thirty hours of\nprofessional work are superimposed on a full high-school course or they parallel from four\nto eight imits of high-school work as the case may be. In the latter there is opportimity\nto give continuity of instruction so necessary to the cumulative development of teaching\nefiBciency and cultural growth. Such opportunity is not offered when all academic studies\nprecede the professional. Those who complete this course are granted limited certificates\nlegally qualifjdng them to teach in any public school. Altho the preparation is considered\nonly partial, it fairly well qualifies for beginning work in localities where salaries are\nnecessarily low and it is of standard type. This school does not accept students of publicschool age until they have completed the high-school work of their home districts.\nThe senior normal school has three years of work superimposed on the jimior normal\nschool. The subjects and the amoimt of work of the complete senior normal school consist\nof sixty hours of academic work and thirty hours of professional work, so arranged as to\nparallel each other thruout the three years. Note that the full normal-school course here\nmentioned consists of six years superimposed on two years of high-school work. These\nsix years may be designated as two years given to complete college-entrance requirements,\ntwo years to college academic work, and two years to the study of education. This plan\nof organization gives opportimity to fuse the professional work with the last two years of\na high-school course and the first two years of a college academic course. This fusing or\nparalleling of courses is the chief merit of the Missouri normal school. The academic work\nparalleling the professional puts a cultural substance into the study of theory and practice,\ninto the study of method and management, into the applications of principles, and into\nthe study of history and philosophy of education. The professional paralleling the\nacademic colors it, vitalizes it, gives it dominant influence in determining purposeful\nvalues. Every subject, both academic and professional, lends itself to the fixing of good\nhabits in thinking and doing, to the most careful adaptation of means to ends, to the development ofinitiative in making practical application.\nThe thirty hours of professional work in the junior normal school are devoted\nto a thoro study of the subject-matter of the elementary course of study and to the organization of this matter for its use in teaching, to general psychology and chUd study, to\nplan-making and observation, to the social and economic aspects of commimity life, and\nto classroom management.\nThe thirty hours of senior professional work are devoted in part to the study and\norganization of the subject-matter of the constants in the grammar school and junior high\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHRU\n\nTEACHER\n\nTRAINING\n\n559\n\nschool, to a thoro preparation in one or two lines of electives some of them leading to preparation to teach vocational or industrial subjects. The senior professional work is\ndevoted in a larger part, however, to practice teaching under ejqjert guidance and criticism,\nto the study of the principles of teaching and educational psychology, to the history and\nphilosophy of education, and, last but not least, to various phases of supervisory and\nadministrative work.\nOf the sixty hours of professional work about half are constants in the course of study\nand required of every candidate for a diploma. The other half is largely alternate elective\noffering opportunity for concentration on some one phase of school work, such as rural\nteaching and supervising, primary teaching and supervising, the teaching and supervising\nof manual, domestic, or fine arts, the teaching of some vocational subjects such as agriculture and homemaking arts and sciences.\nThe aim is a maximum of the general to give a broad view of the whole field of teaching and of general education, and a minimum of the specific to develop skill in handling\nsomething definite.\nThe main purpose of the sixty hours of college academic work is general cxilture, the\nsame as that assigned to the first two years of a college course when it is required for\nentrance to other professional schools. In general the element of pre-professional preparation isa consideration. Both general culture and professional ideals and efliciency are\nkept constantly in mind by both instructors and students in these studies.\nThere is a minimiun of constants and a maximum of alternate elective of academic\nsubjects. A system of majoring and minoring is adopted. In grouping majors and\nminors, there is no intention to specialize for investigation. The grouping is made rather\nfor purposes of broad cvdture and provision for specific knowledge to be applied in meeting\ncertain situations and in filling certjun positions in the schools.\nOne observation directly in line of this discussion on the study of education is pertinent. The time is past when the normal school can be content to have its graduates teach\nunder the direction and supervision of college graduates having possibly a high degree of\nacademic scholarship, but having littie sympathy with, or conception of, the problems of\nthe trained teacher. For the protection of its students in service as well as to supply\ncompetent superintendents, and because most institutions devoted to higher education\nrefuse to recognize the culture value in the study of education, the normal school must\ngive good academic scholarship, broad general culture as distinguished from specialization\nnow so emphasized in college and university and which unfits for teaching. The normal\nschool must also make the study of education include a preparation for teaching any\nsubject in any grade of public school. As the demands of the public school increase, so\nmust the function of the normal school expand. There can be no other limitations set\nto the study of education than the demand for well-prepared teachers. When these\ndemands are so varied in both kind and degree, the organization of the normal-school\nwork must grow out of a full conception of the whole school problem and adapt itself to\nsupplying teachers who may without a complete preparation render service for which\nthere is demand and for which such teachers are reasonably well fitted.\nThis is neither a novel nor an isolated situation to be met. It is not a temporary\nsituation. It is not a condition of pioneer life. It is life as we find it everywhere. The\nproblem of the normal school is to meet conditions as they now exist, to adapt its work to\nthe needs of teachers now in service, and to prepare teachers for such service as present\nconditions demand.\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\nS6o\n\n■ NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nTOPIC: REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS\nOF EFFICIENCY IN SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS\nA.\nBEN\n\nBLEWETT,\n\nTHE\n\nAIMS\n\nm\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF INSTRUCTION,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWithin the last century the etymological meaning of the word \"education\" has come to be much more generally accepted as an accurate definition\nof the process. An individual or a social group is educated by being led\nout or developed into a full realization of its natural powers. All things,\nall conditions, all actions and the laws that govern them, all contact with\nhuman influences and with the world outside of man — all these are means or\ninstrumentaUties aiding or hindering the process of education. Education\nin this comprehensive sense goes on in many phases without the control of\nconscious human planning or direction.\nThe education whose aim we try to define is the education planned and\ndirected by the state. It necessarily differs with the differing conceptions\nof the relation of the individual to the state. In a form of government\n\"of the people, by the people, and for the people,\" it must have regard\nfor the fact that the prosperity and happiness of the social whole depend\ndirectly upon the competence of the intelligence, integrity, and forcefulness\nof the individual citizens whose collective will is the state. The aim of\neducation in such a state is the development of a citizenship whose Ufe\nrealizes in the highest p)ossible degree the satisfaction of its needs, desires,\nand ideals.\nThe public school is the social institution organized and maintained by\nthe state for the specific purpose of accomplishing this aim, and it is charged\nwith the responsibility of selecting and directing the means and instrumentaUties thru which the aim may be most economically attained. Its\norganization shoidd be such as to offer the opportunity and stimulus for\nthe development of the powers, habits, sympathies, and ideals, and the\nacquisition of the knowledges that are the common needs in the life of the\ncommunity. It should be so flexible that the school might take over as a\ntemporary expedient the work of other institutions whose inefficiency is\nhindering the work of the school and might withdraw from such work when\nthese institutions whose business it naturally is have been stimulated into\nefficiency. The test of the efficiency of this pubUc education, which is also\nthe measure of its approach to the accomplishment of its aim, is the behavior\nof the pupils who have been under its full influence.\nThe state expects this life to manifest its character in two reciprocating\nenergies: first, it expects that the individual shall by his efficiency minister\nto the satisfaction of the needs of his fellows; secondly, it expects that the\ndesires of the individual shall be stimulated and controlled by such high\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n561\n\nideals that the demands for satisfaction which these desires make upon\nhis fellow-men shall evoke from them a skill and a spirit on a correspondingly\nhigh plane. If public education fails in either of these results, it falls short\noi its aim.\nB.\n\nREADING\n\nTESTS\n\nCHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nOF CHICAGO,\n\n, The most gratifying result of a year's work on reading tests is the fact\nthat a variety of different kinds of work along this line has been undertaken\nby a number of school superintendents and special students of education.\nISome of this work was reported directly to the Committee on Tests and\nStandards of Efl&ciency in Schools and School Systems, and a part has been\npublished thru independent channels. The following list of papers may be\nmentioned as evidence of the widespread interest in this subject.\nS. A. Courtis reports under the title \"Standard Tests in English\" in\n;he April, 1914, number of the Elementary School Teacher.\nH. A. Brown reports under the title \"The Measurement of Efl&ciency\n)f Instruction in Reading\" in the Elementary School Teacher for June, 1914.\nClara Schmitt reports under the title \"School Subjects as Material\nor Tests of Mental Ability\" in the November, 1914, number of the Elelentary School Journal.\nK. D. Waldo reports in the January, 1915, number of the Elementary\nchool Journal under the title \"Tests in Reading in Sycamore Schools.\"\n'his paper also presents a brief bibliography of earlier work.\nE. E. Oberholtzer reports in the Elementary School Journal of February,\n515, under the title \"Testing the Efl5ciency in Reading in the Grades.\"\n1 addition to the results reported, this paper gives a full outline of the\naterial that was employed in the tests.\nUnpublished manuscripts have been put into the hands of the committee\nam various sources. Miriam A. Besley, principal of the elementary school,\nate Normal School, San Diego, Cal., carried out a series of the Courtis\nsts and reports results.\nW. A. Schmidt, University of Oklahoma, has made an elaborate investition by photographic methods of the eye movements involved in oral\nd silent reading. A part of his manuscript is in hand; the remainder\n11 be ready for publication shortly.\nWilliam S. Gray is carrying on a series of tests in the elementary school\n' the University of Chicago. Mr. Gray's publications in the Teachers\n'lege Record and his publication in the Yearbook of the National Society\n^ the Study of Education indicate the general type of work which he is\n^ lertaking. He has made accessible all of his material now in hand for\n1 3 report and some reference will be made to his results.\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nat\n\nJohn N. Adee carried out a series of tests with reference to the powers\nof retention exhibited in the different grades. This manuscript is also in\nhand.\nSince completing the work of the survey which was reported in his last\nsuperintendent's report, Leslie J. Montgomery has been carrying on with\nsome of his teachers a series of tests in reading.\nIn addition to these investigations which are more or less completed,\nthe committee may report that it has had correspondence with a large number of superintendents and supervisors who are interested in carrying on\nwork of this kind. If this type of investigation can be somewhat more\nfully organized and directions for work can be made more explicit, there h\nno doubt at all that a large number of schools would participate in work\nof this type.\nIt may be well also to indicate at the outset that those schools whicli\nhave tried any of these investigations have profited not only in the results\nwhich they have secured, but also in the keener attention which the teachers\nof the schools have given to the whole problem of instruction in reading\nThe unanimous verdict of those who have attempted work of this kind i:\nthat it is valuable in itseK quite apart from the scientific results which ar(\nproduced.\nThere are two fundamental different points of view from which investr\ngations in reading may be carried on. In the first place, it is undoubted!;\ndesirable that the reading ability of students in one system of schools shoul(\nbe compared with the reading ability of children in other centers. For th\npurposes of such a general comparison, it is probably desirable that a serie\nof standard tests be developed. A nimiber of workers are preparin\nmaterial of this standardized type. The Courtis tests have already bee\nreferred to and the material prepared by Mr. Gray is also being used by\nnumber of superintendents in general tests.\nThere is, however, an entirely different t}^ of investigation which\nvery productive and which is somewhat easier to set up. If teachers wi\nuse some of the familiar material which is constantly being employed in tl\nroutine work of the schools, they can make comparisons within a smg\ngrade and can make comparisons within a single school system which will I\nproductive as comparative tests and will facilitate very greatly the caret\nanalysis of individual methods of reading.\n|\nThese careful analyses of the reading process are among the most imn;\ndiate and important results of any scientific investigation of school wor\nThis report will therefore deal briefly with three results of this analytic\nty^e which have been secured up to this time.\nT\n\nFirst, it can be shown that there are the widest divergences withii* J*\ngiven grade. Some readers are very slow, while others are rapid. It appeJ\nalso that rapid reading is accompanied by a larger retention than slow railing. We may draw from these facts the general conclusion that the chi\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n563\n\nwho reads rapidly is in possession of a habit or groups of habits which it is\nhighly desirable for every member of the class to cultivate. The teachers\nof any grade realize something of the divergences which exist among children. But if they will carefully tabulate the whole class in such a way that\nthey can distinguish between the different grades of efficiency, they will\nbe able to concentrate attention on two problems: first, the problem of\nstudying the more efficient children and discovering the methods which they\nemploy in their rapid and economical work; and secondly, the problem of\ndiscovering the point at which the slow children are deficient. All of the\ntests which have been made in different fields exhibit, as do these reading\ntests, the wide differences between children in the grades. A chart will be\nexhibited showing these differences in certain typical cases.\nThe second general result on which we may comment emphasizes the\ndistinction between the powers of recognition and retention, on the one\nhand, and the powers, on the other hand, of mechanical repetition of words.\nThe rate at which a developing child roasters the mechanical side of reading\ndiffers greatly from the rate at which he reproduces words. At first the\nmechanical side is ahead; afterward the power of retention grows more\nrapidly. Apparently children have to get out of the way some of the preliminary mechanical stages of the reading process before they can concentrate attention on the matter which has been read. A chart will make this\nclear. This fact is of great importance when one considers the methods\nthat are to be employed in dealing with children at different stages of intellectual maturity. If a child is at the stage where he needs to improve on\nthe mechanical side of the reading process, attention will have to be given\nto those devices which will improve his mechanical abilities. On the other\nhand, when the child reaches the stage where he can retain the material\nwhich he has read and can learn to interpret this material, more emphasis\nought to be laid on the methods which will cultivate in him the power of\ninterpretation.\nThe third and most significant result which comes out of these studies\nis the distinction between oral and silent reading.\nIt is much easier to test\nsilent reading than to test oral reading. Indeed, oral reading is a very\ncomplicated process, for the simple reason that the child does not read at a\nmaximum rate at any time. He can articulate words very much more\n'apidly than he does articulate them in ordinary reading. There is also a\ncomplication which arises when we try to discover in any exact way how\n■apidly a child can read to himself.\nSilent reading has not been cultivated\nn the schools as an independent art and the methods which are employed\nn the ordinary classroom tend to establish as a norm that rate of reading\nvhich is commonly adopted in the oral exercise.\nWe are driven, therefore, in explaining this distinction between oral and\nilent reading to draw a figure which is in part hypothetical, but which is\nustified in its details by known facts. This figure can be described briefly\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nby saying that a child in the first grade has a power of articulation which is\nfairly comparable to that which he will have in the eighth grade or in adult\nlife. The increase in efl&ciency in articulation is relatively slight. If we\nrepresent it in a chart, we must represent it by a gently sloping horizontal\nline which starts at a high level in the first grade and reaches only a slightly\nhigher level in the later stages of development.\nThe power of recognizing words, on the other hand, begins in the first\ngrade at a very low level and passes rapidly in the course of individual\ndevelopment to a point where reading is very much more rapid without\npronunciation than it is with actual articulation of the words. The line\nrepresenting improvement in the recognition of words is, therefore, a rapidly\nrising line and it crosses early in the individual's development the line which\nrepresents improvement in articulation.\nThe relation between articulation and recognition of words on the\nprinted page undergoes, therefore, a radical reversal. In the lower grades\nthe power of articulation is well developed, while the power of recognition\nis very low. In adult life the power of recognition is very high as compared\nwith the power of articulation.\nPutting the matter in terms of the methods of school work, we may say\nthat in the first grade when a child is called upon to read aloud he is utilizing a power which is very much better than his power of recognition. In\nthe eighth grade, on the other hand, when he is called on to read aloud the\npower of articulation is so much less highly developed than the power of\nrecognition that the act of oral reading tends to retard the natural progress\nof his reading abilities.\nSince the school emphasizes oral reading as much as it does, we shall be\nunable to get any general averages which will show the true limits of ability\namong children in silent reading. They are constantly held back by school\nexercises so that the average child never develops the maximum power\nwhich he might develop if he were not hampered by school methods. This\nconsideration undoubtedly explains some of the individual differences which\nwere commented on above. Some children break away from the oral\nmethods employed in the schools in spite of the devices employed in the\nschool, while others are unable to show this degree of independence.\nA number of charts can now be drawn from the results exhibited in the\nvarious investigations. These charts all show that the development ol\nreading at the outset is very rapid and that it very soon reaches a point\nwhere the results, so far as rate is concerned, seem to be fairly stable. A.<\nshown in an earlier paragraph, this period during which the mechanical side\nof reading does not show any great improvement is indeed a period during\nwhich the power of interpretation and retention is developed. It might bt\na period during which the rate of silent reading would improve greatly.\nI\nThese three sets of results are variously expressed in the different invest!\ngations to which reference was made in the first paragraph. It is to b(\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "CooncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS AND STANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n565\n\nhoped that other practical school people will join in these investigations\nand will derive the advantages for their schools of a careful, analytical\nexamination of the work done by the children in different grades and in the\nsame grade under the different individual conditions. The results now at\nhand justify, I believe, an organized effort on the part of the National\nCouncil of Education to promote a series of investigations of this type, not\nonly in reading but in each of the subjects with which the elementary school\ndeals.\nC.\nWILLIAM H. MAXWELL,\n\nENGLISH\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIn this report the discussion of standards and tests in English grammar\nI is pursued imder four heads.\nI.\n\nWHAT\n\nCONSIDERATIONS\n\nSHOULD\n\nDETERMINE\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nAND\n\nTESTS?\n\nIn order to determine standards of accomplishment in a subject, we\nmust know the objects it subserves. The first problems, therefore, confrontI ing the inquirer are the aims of grammatical study. These I venture to\nI catalog as follows:\nI. To cultivate the habit of orderly and logical thinking. — One of the\n{highest forms of mental activity is that which deals with abstractions.\nMathematics and logic are examples of abstract thinking. For the great\nmass of elementary-school pupils, mathematics is available in a single\nphase, arithmetic, and this again affords but a single phase of abstract\nthinking, the quantitative. Grammar is the gateway to abstract qualitative thinking for the young. As Professor Laurie says: \"It stands midway\nbetween language as a real subject, i.e., language conveying the substance\nof thought, and pure logic; it is logic in its concrete form and language in\nits abstract form.\" This may easily be exemplified by many illustrations.\nWhen, for example, we study a word that functions concretely as in explicating the subject, the examination of its precise function is an examiInation of the concrete; when we classify it in general terms as a verb, we\n•have an example of abstract thinking.\nI am aware that any affirmation of the value of grammatical study for\norderly thinking may seem to commit one to a belief in the conception of\nnnal discipline. Without either proclaiming or denying such a belief, I\ny be allowed to claim that grammar properly taught does require clear,\norderly thinking, and does give a definite notion of classification thru\nsifying the things we most frequently use — words, phrases, clauses,\nohn Stuart Mill thus states the reasons for studying grammar:\nConsider for a moment what grammar is. It is the most elementary part of logic.\nt is the beginning of the analysis of the thinking process. The principles and rules of\nammar are the means by which the forms of language are made to correspond with the\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nuniversal forms of thought. The distinctions between the various parts of speech, between\nthe cases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, the fimctions of particles, are distinctions inthought, not merely in words. Single nouns and verbs express objects and\nevents which can be cognized by the senses; but the modes of putting nouns and verbs\ntogether express the relations of objects and events which can be cognized only by the\nintellect; and each different mode corresponds to a different relation. The structure of\nevery sentence is a lesson in logic. The various rules of syntax oblige us to distinguish\nbetween the subject and predicate of a proposition, between the agent, the action, and\nthe thing acted upon; to mark when an idea is intended to modify or qualify, or merely\nto unite with, some other idea; what assertions are categorical, what only conditional;\nwhether the intention is to express similarity or contrast, to make a plurality of assertions\nconjunctively or disjunctively; what portions of a sentence, tho grammatically complete\nwithin themselves, are mere members or subordinate parts of the assertion made by the\nentire sentence. Such things form the subject-matter of universal grammar.\n\nEven the psychologists most radically opposed to the theory of formal\ndiscipline are inclined to admit that when good habits are formed in one\nfield of human thought they are likely to afifect favorably similar mental\nactivities in another field.\nStandards, therefore, should be established by which we may measure\nin our pupils the power of independent judgment and correct inference as\nto the relations existing between the things denoted or connoted by words,\nthe ability to give answers that are clear, pertinent, and well organized, and\nthe capacity to summarize the details of linguistic knowledge.\n2. To cultivate the power to interpret the meaning of language and to\nappreciate its significance. — In the first place, the exercises of parsing and\nanalysis by determining the classification of words, phrases, and clauses,\nthru a consideration of their fimctions, constrain the mind to seek out\ntheir meanings. The most prevalent lack in the education of our highschool and college graduates which I have discovered in recent years thru\nexamining candidates for Ucense as teachers is the inability to understand\nand interpret the meanings of words. This lamentable deficiency has\nsteadily increased as the teaching of grammar has been deferred to a later\nperiod in the elementary schools and as it has generally become less general\nand less intensive in the higher schools.\nIn the second place, a ready knowledge of the classification of the\nelements of the sentence and of typical sentence structures, and the\npower to analyze them into their component parts, enables the mind to\ngrasp and appreciate more readily the significance of what is read or\nheard.\nIt may be that the necessity for such power and appreciation is limited\nto exceptional constructions and that one may understand and feel the\nusual passages of both prose and poetry without preceding grammatical\nknowledge. Yet, aside from such exceptional constructions, I am of the\nopinion that a consciousness of the sentence elements, of their primary and\ntheir subordinate parts, of the varying meanings of time and mode, of the\nsignificance of conjunctions, in fine, of all that is included in this study,\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n567\n\ndoes lead to a readier and a sincerer appreciation whether of the clearness or\nof the beauty of what we read. Difficulty in reading may be caused not\nmerely by a vocabulary that is unfamiliar, or a style that is unpleasing;\nreading may be difl&cult because the reader lacks the key of grammatical\nstudy by which to unlock such difficulties as obscure relations, ill-placed\nmodifications, or rambUng phrases. Grammatical analysis is the perception of thought-relations. Quick and accurate reading is but the speedy\nand automatic application of the method of analysis.\nA standard of the successful study of grammar, therefore, is the ability\nof the pupil to master meanings and to perceive relations directly, and, as\ncorrect habits are formed, without hesitation. Standards should be established todetermine ability to classify words, phrases, clauses, and sentences\nin accordance with function as determined by meaning, to create an\nappreciation of their pleasing arrangement, and to teach a recognition of\nsuch arrangement in reading.\n3. To establish habits of correctness in oral and written expression.—\nIf the claim here implied be not sustained, then we may well question the\nvalue of the study of grammar. I know that the claim is questioned. We\nare frequently told that the pupil of good breeding may speak correctly,\nyet know little of grammar; we are reminded that a pupil living under less\nfavorable conditions may excel in his knowledge of the textbook, and yet\ncombine the use of his home or street idioms with a large disregard of his\nschool knowledge. But these are but affirmations of the law of the influence of environment and it is our business as teachers to overcome it by\nanother law. We may modify certain bad habits; we can surely establish\nin the pupil's own mind a consciousness of the norms of correct speech to\nwhich, in moments of hesitation and reflection, he may independently\nappeal. As far as we fail in teaching habits of correct speaking, it should be\na warning to us to discover a better arrangement of our courses of study, and\na better method of instruction. Who will withhold grammatical explanation\nor grammatical guidance from the one who says, \"he don't,\" or \"those kind\nof people,\" or \"you was\" ? What form of explanation, other than grammatical rule, shall we offer to correct such locutions unless we are to depend\non mere iteration of individual forms ?\nAbility to think and speak correctly is a standard of the mastery of\ngrammar even tho it may be difficult of application. There are, however,\ntwo criteria of universal application: (i) Does the study of grammar improve\nthe pupil's habit of speech ? (2) In case a pupil is reminded of an error,\nor in case he is uncertain as to the propriety of his own expression, has he\nthe power of appeal to a court that will yield right judgment and correct\nguidance ?\nCorrelative standards, therefore, are the ability to justify the use of an\nexpression, to detect errors in spoken or written speech, and to refer to a\ntextbook when in 4oubt.\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "S68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. To impart a knowledge of conventional grammatical facts or rides.-^\nSociety has fixed its own conventions of what it expects from the well-i\ninstructed and the educated person. A man might not know the capital of\nJapan or the place where Lee surrendered in 1865; he might, too, be imablb\nto spell some simple words like \"separate,\" or be imfamiliar with the expression, \"relative pronoun\"; withal, he might be a man of extended knowledge\nand great power. But such facts as I have mentioned, and hundreds more,\nare types of conventionalized knowledge that society demands, and no\nschoolmaster, as the paid agent of society, has a right to refuse such knowledge to his pupik. These conventions vary with time and place, but for a\ngiven time and place they are fairly constant. Whatever our personal\ntheories of their worth in the scale of things, it is our duty to impart\nthem.\nNotwithstanding the disagreement of the grammatical textbooks in\nminor matters, we can establish what these facts are, not merely as word\ndefinitions, but as guides to usage. A knowledge of them should, therefore,\nbe one of the standards of attainment.\n5. To organize a basis for, and to give facility in, the study of other languages.— The importance of this aim is very great. English is not a grammarless tongue. Its parent idiom was one of the most inflected of languages.\nNo language with a literature but must have its grammar, its rules, and\nstandards of usage. Whatever may be the idioms of particular tongues,\nall languages must have certain things in common. Tho I make no plea\nthat a foreign language be learned thru its granmaar, I take it that the\nmost strenuous supporters of the natural or direct method will admit that\nsome time, sooner or later, the grammar of a language must be studied.\nAnd when the grammatical elements that are constant in all languages have\nbeen learned — the facts of subject and predicate, of the parts of speech,\nand of sjmtax — ^we may begin our comparative study. Comparison implies\nat least two elanents, the known element and the element to be learned.\nThe boy who studies the intricacies of German gender, of French tenses\nand subjunctives, has a basis for comparison in a knowledge of the grammar of his own tongue. He is poorly prepared for the study of the more\ncomplex grammar of a foreign language who knows nothing of the grammar of his own.\nI suggest no standards for knowledge in this relation, however, because,\nif the standards mentioned under other preceding heads be appUed, they\nwill, in the beginning at least, serve here.\n. (*.\nI would, however, include one final general standard that is fimdamental: curiosity as to the meanings of words, taste in the selection of\nwords, an inquisitiveness as to the facts of language, and an attitude of\ninterest and enthusiasm toward the study of language and literature.\nThese are, I believe, unfailing marks of increasing power and progress in\ngrammar.\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Omm\n\nCOMMITTEE\nn.\n\nON TESTS AND STANDARDS\n\nTHE POSSIBILITY OF ESTABLISHING\n\nSOME\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\nEXACT\n\n569\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nHaving considered the aims of grammar, and some, at least, of the\nstandards that these suggest, we may now examine more closely how these\nstandards may be applied. The word \"standard\" itself has at least two\nmeaniags: the one, general, suggesting that proper tests be appUed to\ndetermine whether the aims in teaching the subject have been realized\nwithout any specific direction as to the precise questions that should be\nasked; the other, prescribing the form of test, even for individual years or\ngrades. In the latter case, set questions or exercises are laid down as\ndeterminants of successful study. Thus, in a fifth year, it might be required\nthat pupils should detect the verb in a series of sentences, or select the\nproper word to show agreement between subject and predicate. Naturally\nenough, such a method would involve quantitative determination. To this\nI shall later refer.\nIt is unnecessary to trace the genesis of the demand for quantitative\ndeterminants in education — a demand full of promise because of its clearness, and not free from danger, because of a certain inherent tendency\ntoward formalism. I wish to point out here, however, that standards of this\ntype, whether we are content to lay down classes of questions, or whether\nwe would more definitely insist on an agreement in the wording of the questions themselves, become tests. In this sense, every test, so far as it\nexpresses a teacher's opinion of what a pupil ought to know at a given time,\nis a criterion for judging the progress of the members of a single class. If,\nnow, all teachers or a considerable number of teachers agree that such a\ntest may be extended to a group of classes, under assumed uniform conditions, orif teachers will accept the opinion even of a single person, such a\ntest becomes a general standard.\nI shall myself venture, under the first four heads I have mentioned, to\nsuggest typical exercises which I think might apply. I have not, however,\narranged specific questions or even specific topics by grades. I do not\nbelieve that, as a committee, we have the right to lay down such specific\nstandards or to use the weight of authority or prestige to impose them.\nAside from the fact that even our curricula do not agree, that our textbooks show considerable differences in terminology — a not unimportant\nmatter for young learners — there is yet another reason which I beUeve to be\nfundamental. We have not yet capitalized our own experience, that is, we\nhave not ourselves determined what a sixth-year child ought to know, or,\nfor that matter, what such pupils do actually know. Our courses of study\nrepresent only what school authorities believe children ought to know,\nyear by year; they are an expression of opinion rather than of ascertained\nfacts.\nI would not be understood to discourage any attempt to standardize\nknowledge and reduce it to some common basis of quantitative measurement. As a matter of fact, we teachers for generations have assumed\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthat we could reduce attainment to rates per cent, altho we have admitted\nthat tests of the sort necessary to such a working system have required a\ntype of question and particularly a type of answer that have burdened\nboth the spirit and the matter of instruction. Especially is this true in\nthat field of knowledge which Herbartians have called the culture core. The\nartificially condensed question and answer is itself an offspring of the\npassion to reduce knowledge to conditions that make for easy testing and\nready marking. I do not beUeve that thoughtful investigators of the\nfuture will repeat this error. But even a well-graded test arranged for\nyears or grades may, at best, express an opinion that represents no conscious agreement. If, therefore, a series of questions or tests or standards in detail should be offered by individuals or committees whose study\nand effort will command respect, we should, as superintendents or principals or teachers, accept them for trial and investigation. We should\nuse them, however, not to try or test merely the worth of our instruction, but also the worth of the standards themselves. When these shall\nhave been fully tested in this fashion, by classes and schools under those\nmodifying conditions that are pertinent, we may reach conclusions as to\ntheir vaUdity.\nni,\n\nSOME\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR PRESENT\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nI. For orderly and logical habits of thinking. —\na) To determine a rule: Submit a series of words or phrases in sentences with variant connotations yet having a common agreement in\nsome grammatical quality. Require the pupil to detect the common\ngrammatical function. Modify this test by introducing one exception and\nchallenge the discovery of the exception by pupils.\nb) To make a summary of individual cases: After any one construction has been learned in its various applications, require the pupil to\nsummarize these by giving a definition or rule, or by referring to one in\nthe textbook.\nc) To apply a rule or a definition: (i) Submit the rule, then present\nconstructions and require pupils to state to which one the rule appUes.\n(2) Submit under a rule or a definition sentences using words spelled the\nsame way but different in use. Have pupils show which sentences illustrate\nthe rule, or have them state the function of the word in every case in which\nthe rule does not apply. (This exercise is especially valuable in estabhshing\na habit of determining the character of words according to their functions\nonly.)\nThese are merely suggestions for many other possible standard forms\nthat teachers may establish. Even with these few, however, there is opportunity for apphcation in all phases of grammatical instruction and in all the\ngrades in which grammar is taught.\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n571\n\n2. For correct interpretation and increased appreciation. —\na) Present a series of brief selections carefully chosen because of\ninverted or complex arrangement. Each pupil will rewrite each sentence,\nplacing the subject as near the beginning of the sentence as possible.\nb) Present longer and more difficult selections. Require the pupils\nto write each subject as before, and to complete the sentence, giving the\nmeaning, but as briefly as possible, (This exercise should not be one in\nparaphrasing.)\nc) Present more or less awkward arrangements of words, and require\ntheir rearrangement in the form most economical of the reader's or auditor's\nattention.\nd) Present words to be inserted in a suggested sentence and require pupils\nto place them according to the arrangement most economical of attention.\n3. Standards for correct oral and written expression. —\na) Present to pupils a series of sentences with right of selection from\ntwo or more given forms in each sentence; accompanying this exercise\nshould be a given set of rules, either on the blackboard or in the textbook,\neach numbered. The pupil should select the correct form and refer by\nnumber to the appropriate rule or reason.\nIllustration: Assign a Ust of sentences with indicated possible use of\ntwo or more forms: for example, present an alternative use of the indicative or subjunctive, and direct the pupil to refer by page, section, or number\nto the textbook rule that applies.\nh) Follow the same procedure but do not suggest a form. Let the\npupil supply it.\nc) Submit a list of imperfect forms not drawn from a textbook but\ntaken from the habitually imperfect locutions of the neighborhood. Let\nthe pupils be told that each form is an improper one. Ask for the correct\nform. Refer to section and number in the textbook for the reason. (When\nthe object is to insure immediate recognition of correct expression, the\ndemand for a reason may be omitted.)\nd) Assign for written composition or recitation an interesting subject;\nmake no reference to grammatical forms. Note the total number of grammatical errors in a given nimiber of words as a basis for comparison. When\nthe pupils are facile, a similar test may be employed in oral composition.\ne) Require the pupils to compose a sentence when necessary conditions\nare presented.\nExample: (The test or standard is abiUty to use the pluperfect tense.)\nThe following conditions are given :\nI agreed to meet a friend yesterday.\nHe came an hour after my arrival.\nWrite a sentence showing these facts, beginning it in the following manner:\nWhen my friend arrived at our meeting-place yesterday, I\nwaiting for an hour.\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nII\n\n[Nattood\n\n4. Knowledge of conventional facts and rules. — All the devices I have\nsuggested are a standard for detennining a knowledge of grammatical facts.\nIn addition, however, I suggest the following:\na) From a page of text pick out the verbs, or the nouns, or the prepositions, etc., and make a list of them.\nb) Limit this operation to some particular application in syntax.\nc) Extend the exercises to the important sentence elements, with such\nspecial applications as noun subject clauses, adjective clauses, and the like.\nd) Ask for the statement of rules that will apply to familiar and frequent\ncases.\nAt the risk of repetition, I shall state that these standard forms I have\ngiven are only types of others that the ingenious teacher will readily suggest.\nFurthermore, they are blank forms inasmuch as they do not contain precise\nquestions or references. For the reasons I have stated, I have thought it\nunwise to present exact questions or suggestions for particular grades.\nThere is no reason, however, why a principal or a teacher should not proceed to do this for his own school, provided always that the questions be\nframed so that the teaching will not degenerate into a coaching system for\ndrilling answers to certain specific questions. In arithmetic there are\ncertain numerical facts that are at once standard and specific, as the number\ncombinations. In grammar there may be comparable facts, definitions, or\nrules that are guides to practice. Whatever there is in grammar of rule\nor law, the possession of which gives power, that should be included among\nthe things a child should know.\nIt will doubtless occur to my readers that I have omitted many of the\nusual types of questions. There are none requiring the analysis of sentences,\nnor is there any requirement of the insertion of special grammatical forms;\nfor example, the addition of relative clauses to the subject of a given sentence. Such exercises in analysis and synthesis are excellent. I have\nomitted them, however, not for the reason that they should not be employed,\nbut because I desire that the suggestions that I have made should emphasize\nthe ultimate function or purpose of the teaching of grammar, rather than the\ngrammatical exercises per se. We should ask direct questions such as\nwould require analysis, synthesis, parsing, and we should employ other\nusual types of questions such as are foimd in our textbooks; but we should\ndo this always with the consciousness that the knowledge acquired is valuable as it is applied to the correct expression and appreciation of ideas.\nFor these reasons I have aimed in these illustrative exercises to lay especial\nemphasis on that relation.\nIV.\n\nHOW\n\nFAR THE ELEMENT OF SPEED SHOULD\nENGLISH GRAMMAR\n\nENTER\n\nINTO TESTS IN\n\nIn the standard tests that have been applied to the subject of arithmetic and penmanship, the element of time has entered. Speed, or quickness in judgment and expression, is an element of successful mastery, and\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n573\n\nin this truth lies a mistaken and perilous assumption. What is done speedily\nis done habitually. The genesis of a habit, however, and the mastery of a\nhabit are different things. What is unfamiliar must be slowly learned, and\nif we force the issue, the pupil either fails to learn, or he learns the wrong\nthing. A child might, for example, learn a definition very rapidly merely\nas a sequence of words. Many young people have a marvelous aptitude for\nquick, or shall I say hasty, mastery of forms. But for actual grammatical\nguidance such a definition may not have been learned at all. It may not\nfunction as a guide to proper interpretation or proper usage.\nWhen, however, we assume that a form has been properly learned, we\nhave a right to expect a ready command of knowledge. One should not\nhesitate in stating a law of correct agreement in a single case. We must not\ndawdle in our thinking; that is a vicious fault. Yet even after a definition\nor a rule has been learned, rapid application must not always be required.\nHesitation may not be dawdling; it may indicate a high type of thinking —\ndeliberation. We must not introduce speed, therefore, as an element when\nwe require a deliberating judgment.\nConsiderations of this character should lead us to examine, carefully\nand dispassionately, the value of standards that may be offered and to note\nto what degree the requirement of speed is of value.\nBefore concluding, I desire to call attention to the important general\nconsideration that standards, when adopted as a test of correct speech,\nshould be circulated among all the teachers of a pupil, especially among\ndepartmental teachers. Nothing is more mischievous than the isolation of\ngrammatical teaching to one teacher or to one period of the day only. Every\nerror of language should be noted at all times; correct grammatical expression should characterize all recitations without reference to the subject under\ndiscussion.\nMy last word, however, is one of welcome to any attempt that aims to\nrender more definite the character of the demands that society is making\nof us as teachers. Whether it be in grammar or in any other subject, we\nought to co-operate with those who, by means of proposed standards or tests,\nseek to discover what a pupil should know at the various stages of his school\nprogress. We should listen to their suggestions and co-operate with them\nin testing the validity of their methods. We need a clearing-house such as\nthis convention to pass on standards and tests. Finally, we should endeavor\nto inspire among our fellow-workers a genuine interest in the possibilities of\nstandardization of accomplishment, not for our pupils only, but for ourselves as well; we must have the courage of denial, but we must have, as\nwell, the courage of acceptance. All these things we must do earnestly and\nsincerely, for the worth of our work and the honor of our profession.\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nD.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMORALS\n\nIN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nJ. H, PHILLIPS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nBIRMINGHAM,\n\n[Nationj\n\n*|\n\nALA.\n\nFor OUT present purpose, the conception of morals as the art of right\nbehavior or the development of practical morality must suffice. The use\nof the term in this restricted sense renders unnecessary any consideration\nof the various theories regarding ethical sanctions, the nature of the moral\nsense, or the development of the moral judgment.\nAs elements fundamental to any scheme of moral instruction in our\npublic schools, under existing limitations, the following principles are\nassumed:\n1. The subject-matter of morality is himian conduct. The concrete\nfabric of morals is to be found in the social activities of individuals. Outside of social relations, the individual has no moral status. The subject,\ntherefore, involves the nature of the child and his reaction to his social\nenvironment.\n2. Moral instruction must not be confused with instruction about\nmorals. Excellent theories may be propounded without relation to practice. Noble precepts may be enunciated only to be ignored in conduct.\nHabits of action should therefore precede rules of conduct. The concrete\nfacts of morals should precede the learning of principles or the formulation\nof abstract theories of conduct.\n3. Without minimizing the importance of the motor activities and the\nintellectual element in education, the teacher must realize the transcendent\nvalue of the feelings and emotions. Here lie the springs of conduct; the\nemotional life of the child is the key to intellectual training, and the basis\nupon which character may be developed by inducing in the child selfdetermined and habitual lines of behavior. Modern psychology confirms\nthe principle that the best work in the industrial or the intellectual field\nrequires an emotional atmosphere; that any solid attainment in language,\nmathematics, or science depends upon the inspiring motive, the emotional\nattitude, and the impelling interest of the learner. High thought springs\nfrom keen emotion. It is the heart, even more than the intellect, that\nincites and directs himaan activities, mental and moral. The training of\nthe intellect alone will never produce an exalted character; neither will the\ntraining of the feeling alone. The school must train both intellect and\nfeeUng, thought and emotion, if an ideal character is to be the result.\nCharacter in the psychological sense may be regarded as identical with\nwill. The old Pythagorean problem in geometry has its analog in the\nrealm of morals. In the psychic triangle, the will, or the power to execute\nand achieve, is a constant resultant of knowledge and feeling in the individual, insociety, and in the race.\n4. The will is thus synonymous with character, and becomes the\nstarting-point as well as the end in all teaching.\nAny subject, process,\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n575\n\nmethod, or device that does not tend to develop the will of the child has no\nmoral value. But will training is an indirect process; the child's volition\nmust be reached thru his instincts, his impulses, his feelings, his perception,\nimagination, and reason, his sense of duty, obligation, and responsibility.\nThe motive to action must be grounded upon some feeling combined with\nan adequate knowledge of means and ends. Ethical training thus consists\nprimarily in the cultivation of right feelings guided by right knowledge\ntoward virtuous ends.\nWith this statement of the principles involved, we may consider some\nof the means and methods thru which the school may develop ethical consciousness and moral character in the child.\nI. The school organization. — When the child enters school, he is little\nmore than a bundle of selfish impulses. These native propensities are to\nbe directed, harmonized, and co-ordinated with his new surroundings.\nHis first problem is the adjustment of the self to the not-self. By barter\nand bargain with his fellows, by alliance, offensive and defensive, by play\nand work, the social instinct is developed and the foundation is laid for the\nindustrial co-operation and social interchange required in our modern\ncivilization. Due subordination of the individual will to the requirements\nof organized society can scarcely be expected of those who in their early\neducation have been deprived of opportunities for the development of the\nsocial instinct under institutional guidance. In the school, the child, for\nthe first time, is an active member of a social whole, to which he must\nadjust himself. His new relation and his reactions to new stimuli require\nconscious effort. His first activities may be largely imitative and without\nconscious motive. But imitation, tho low in the scale of ethical value,\ninvolves some degree of originality and volitional activity. He at least\nyields passive obedience to the requirements of the social whole. To him,\nthe habitual is the right, and to the extent the spirit and practice of the\nschool are ethically right, his reactions will crystallize into moral habits.\nIn the home, the child's obligations and responsibilities are limited to those\nwho are bound to him by personal ties; he has learned to obey his parents,\nto be truthful to those whom he loves, to respect their property rights, and\nto make sacrifices for their welfare. In the school this narrow code of\nmorals is to be expanded, and the child learns to recognize and discharge\nhis obligations to his teachers, his companions, and to the society of which\nhe is a member. The virtues of obedience, punctuality, truth, honesty,\nkindness, sympathy, and self-sacrifice have their roots in the home, expand\nin the school, and strengthen day by day into elements of character, as the\nemergencies of expanding experience call them into exercise. The school\nrepresents the circumference of an ever-widening circle, of which the home\ncontinues to be the center. The center remains fixed, while the radius of\nthe circles changes, and requires frequent readjustments in the everenlarging circumference. The annual or semiannual change of teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthus becomes of immense ethical value to the child. As he advances from\ngrade to grade, the class, with its diverse social elements, remains practically\npermanent — a fitting prototype of the larger community life whose varied\ninterests he must soon share, while the teacher, in some degree, foreshadows\nthe character and dignity of changing official life in a democracy. The\nschool organization thru its discipline thus develops the institutional spirit,\nenables the pupil to realize his higher and real seK as a social being, and\nimparts an ethical content to his character.\n2. The school curriculum. — The conventional studies of the school have\nbeen too generally regarded as exclusively intellectual. Reading, arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, and Uterature are valuable as instruments of mental culture, and their mastery as such is unquestionably an\nimportant function of the school. The child must acquire technical skill\nin the use of these tools, and must become possessed of the keys to the\nstorehouse of human wisdom. But this is not all. To justify their dominant position in the school curriculum, these subjects must be shown to\npossess within themselves elements of moral value as well as of mental\nculture. Their content as well as their form must be such as will gradually\nevolve in the child a conscious recognition of the laws which govern the\nworld in which he lives, and develop within him the power of self -direction\nand self-adjustment in conformity with these laws. Several years ago,\nWilliam T. Harris clearly pointed out the ethical values of the \"five coordinated groups of studies,\" which he characterized as \"the five windows\nof the soul which open out upon the five great divisions of human life.\"\nLikewise, the industrial and social activities of the school will be ultimately\nvalued in proportion to their contribution to the moral life of the individual.\nThe essential fact to be emphasized in the curriculum, however, is the\nrelation of the emotional element to the intellectual — the harmony of\nknowledge and feeling in the development of volitional activity. This\nfundamental principle is the key to the ethical content of the school curriculum.\n3. Methods of the school. — It is not enough that the subject-matter of\nthe curriculum shall have an ethical content; methods of instruction and\nof discipline must likewise conform to ethical requirements. The school\ncan never subserve sound moral ends until it recognizes the fact that it\nmust develop in the child the power of voluntary self-expression. Whether\nthe subject taught be arithmetic or a principle of morals, the teacher should\nnever forget the maxim laid down by WiUiam James: \"No reception without reaction, no impression without correlative expression.\" Impressions\ncommunicated to the chUd, that are not attended by \"proper motor consequences,\" are not only incomplete and wasteful, but produce in the mind\nan incapacity for responsive activity — a. species of will-paralysis.\nThe individual is too complex and many-sided to realize itself thru\none mode of reaction or one form of expression. The four co-ordinate\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n577\n\nforms of expression usually recognized by the school are: (i) oral description or spoken language; (2) the use of written or printed forms, or written\nlanguage; (3) pictorial representation, or drawing; and (4) objective expression, by making and doing things. The translation of thought from one\nmode of expression to another presents an important element of moral\nvalue to the child by enabling him to check up and test his various reactions.\nTelling is an important mode of reaction in the school, but there are many\nimpressions that can never be completely or appropriately realized in the\ntelling. So long as expression by telUng continues to be the chief method\nof the school, conduct and morality will remain largely a matter of words ,preaching and profession will be divorced from practice. The methods of\nthe school, in order to be moral, must enable the child to realize his impressions inconcrete forms, and in terms of his own habitual activities.\nHere, also, the aesthetic and emotional nature of the child must play\nan important part. He must be trained to know and feel the difference\nbetween doing a thing and doing it well; between telling a thing and telling\nit well. He must feel actually pained in the presence of the inartistic, the\nI inaccurate, and the wrong, in any form of expression. It is this element\nthat makes the difference between good speUing and poor spelling, between\n!goodEnglish and poor English, the neat and the slovenly, and between\ngood conduct and bad conduct. We may call this element pride, interest,\nambition, or what we will. In its last analysis, it is a combination of the\n'\nmoral judgment and the artistic sense; it is conscience in work as the result\nof an awakened moral sense.\nThe tests of the methods employed in the school, both for instruction\nI and for discipline, may be found in the feelings and motives they tend to\nengender. The dominant spirit of the school should be favorable to the\ndevelopment and exercise of right motives. Such motives cannot grow\nin an atmosphere poisoned by envy, jealousy, hate, anger, threats, and\nysical force. Nor are they likely to thrive in an atmosphere dominated\ny the competitive spirit of commercial life — the spirit engendered by class\nlonors, prizes, honor rolls, and other artificial incentives. Only in excepional instances should such incentives find justification, and then only\ntil higher motives can be made effective. They appeal to the baser\ninstincts of the child and tend to emphasize the more selfish impulses of\nWs nature. The motives induced are too low in the scale of moral values;\nthey are too closely allied with envy, malice, and the entire group of malevoent affections, to be considered as moral factors. The motives and incenives of moral conduct must be developed in the school, if they are to be\nealized in the life of the citizen.\n4. Informal instruction in morals and religion. — Systematic and formal\ncourses in morals and religion are frequently advocated. The best expeience, however, has proven that direct and formal instruction in morals,\nither orally or by means of textbooks, has been unsatisfactory. Repeated\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nattempts have been made to prepare textbooks containing a body of ethical\ndoctrine adapted to children. Such efforts have invariably proven futile.\nFormal religious instruction is of necessity excluded from the American\npublic school, and, in many states, the reading of selections from the Bible\nis forbidden by law, primarily because of the diversity of sectarian teaching.\nBut it does not follow that the schools are irreligious or godless because they\ndo not require as a basis for moral training the learning of a religious creed\nor the memorizing of a catechism. The teaching of our various sects may\ninvolve radically different beliefs and divergent interpretations concerning\nGod and the mysteries of Providence, but the rehgious spirit they seek to\ndevelop is one and the religious and moral virtues they seek to inculcate\nare practically the same. The public school assumes this religious spirit\nand strives to secure the practice of these religious and moral virtues as\nthe flower and fruitage of that spirit. When all sectarian differences are\neliminated, a valuable residumn of creed will remain as a common possession. These common fundamental truths — the existence of Gk)d, the\nFather and Creator of all, the brotherhood of all mankind, and the reality i\nof a life beyond death, intimately related to the present life, may be assumed\nas the common denominator of all rehgious faiths and may serve as an\nadequate religious sanction for a system of moral training in the school, if\nsuch sanction is deemed essential. The one vital religious element in the\nschool is the personality of the teacher, no matter what his rehgious creed,\nprovided only he is deeply imbued with the rehgious spirit. Such a teacher!\nwill find appropriate means to stimulate the rehgious instincts and to vitalize into moral habits the rehgious instruction obtained by the child in the\nhome or in the church. The teacher of children must be big enough to\navoid the things that divide, and with reverence and hvunihty bring to the\nheart of childhood those eternal verities that shall tend to unite humanit}'\nand develop a consciousness of the truth that shall forever abide.\nThe mere learning of the decalog has never made the heart of man\nunmistakably responsive to duty; the mere repetition of a catechism hae:\nnever evolved a high type of moral consciousness. The verbal expression\nis not the appropriate and final reaction for an ethical impression. That\na man must necessarily be law-abiding because he knows the law, that the\nintellectual process of memorizing the facts of ethics will insure mora\nconduct — this is the fundamental fallacy in moral training. Rules o*\nconduct can be taught only in terms of the child's activities. Incidents o\ndaily occurrence abound in the schoolroom and within the range of th.\nchild's experience, which will afford the best opportunities for efficien\ntraining in morals.\nContemporary history affords abundant material fror\nwhich even a primary class, under the guidance of a skilful teacher, ma;\nreceive practical and lasting lessons in morals. Literature, ancient an;\nmodem, history, sacred and profane, the biographies of great heroes an;\nleaders of men — all combined form an exhaustless treasure house from whic:\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n579\n\nlesson material, examples, and ideals may be obtained, suitable for all\nclasses, all stages of development, and all conditions of human experience.\nBut it may be objected that this incidental and indirect method of\ndeveloping moral ideals and inducing moral conduct is desultory and unsystematic. We must not forget that the facts of nature and of experience\ndo not come to us in tabulated forms or in prearranged systems. If the\nchild is trained ethically, it will be by the desultory and unsystematized\nfacts of human experience.\nE.\n\nTHE USE OF TESTS AND SCALES OF MEASUREMENT\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS\n\nIN\n\nGEORGE\nD. STRAYER,\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATIONAL\nADMINISTRATION,\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nTests and scales of measurement are being employed by a great many\nsuperintendents of schools in their work in supervision and administration.\nThese tests and scales are used by administrative officers for the following\npurposes: (i) to compare the achievements of children in one school system\nt with the achievements of children in other cities; (2) to compare the\nI achievements of children in the several school buildings or other administrative units within the school system; (3) to study the progress of children in\nI any given subject from grade to grade; and (4) to indicate for any period\nor succession of periods the progress made by any particular group or groups\nof children. An example of each of these uses, employing in each case a\ndifferent scale or standard test, will make clear the significance of this new\nI movement in educational administration.\nA comparison of the achievements of children in one school system with the\n\\work done by children in other cities. — Table I which follows gives the scores\nm arithmetic made in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades on the\nCourtis tests in the four fundamental operations.\nTABLE\nAddition\n\nSubtraction\n\nGrades\n\nv\nDetroit\nBoston\nOther cities\nButte\n\nVI\n\nvn\n\n3-9\n2.9 4.9 5-4\n3-7\n4-4 4-7\n3-9 4.6\n3-4\n\nI\n\n6.7\nVIII V\n\nGrades\n6.3 6.9\nVIII V\nVI\nVII 8.4\n\n5-5 6.2\n4-9\n4-5 6.1\n\n5-3 S-S\n5.6 7.8\n5.6\n3-8\n\nMultiplication\n\n7-3\n95\n8.6\n\n2.7\n6.5\n\nGrades\nVII6.S\n\n6.4\n\nvni\n\nVI\n\nDivision\n\n2-3\n\n6.9\n6.3\n\nGrades\nVII\n\nV\n\nVIII\n\nVI\n6.0\n\n75\n\n32-.36 4-S\n\n4-4\n2.0 4-3\n3-3\n4.3\n\n8.1\n\n8.8\n10. 2\n\n3.8 4-8\n\n7.8\n4.8 in order to discover\nThese standard tests were given 5in\nButte, Mont.,\n-8\nS-i\n7-1\n-2\nthe quality of work done in this field. As 7-1a result\nwhich\n9.8 41of the 5comparisons\nS.I\nwere instituted, it was suggested by the commission 50which was employed\n5-8\n3-6\n\n7.2\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n58o\nto survey the school system that Butte was doing well enough in the fundamental operations, and that possibly something less of time and energy\nmight be devoted to this field. The comparison of the achievements of\nchildren, whether among several school systems or among the several units\nof a single system, may often lead to the conclusion that the work is being\nwell done or even possibly too well done as compared with the other results\nachieved by the schools.\nA comparison of the achievements of children in the several school buildings\nor other administrative units within the school system. — The administrative\nofficer must always be interested in the relative achievements of children\nin the different schools within his system. Of course it is never to be\nexpected that each school unit will be able to show exactly the same accomplishment upon the part of children as each other unit or building. The\nbest single measure of the success of the teachers and principals in charge\nof a particular building is to be found in the progress being made by the\nchildren. It is well, nevertheless, to know of the variability which may\nexist, and on occasion to make provision for groups of children who are\nparticularly backward, or to relieve from some part of the work children\nwho have shown unusual ability in this particular field. An illustration89 of\nsuch a comparison is given in Table II.\n89\n\nTABLE n\nSXAMDINe OF THE SsVEItAL GSADES\n\nIN SPELLING ASSANGED\n\n87\n\nBY Schools'\n\nSchools by Numbers\n\nGrade II\n\nGrade rn\nGrade\nGrade\nGrade\nGrade\nGrade\n\nIV\nV\nVI\nVn\nVin\n\nAverage\n\nI\n\n84 3\n\n3\n\n75\n\n73\n77\n\n75\n73\n73\n\n676\n7\n75\n\n74\n80\n\n76. 5\n\n80\n82\n78. 5\n\n4\n\n80\n88\n\n82\n74\n81.2\n\n83\n82.8\n\n7\n\n2 in the tests scored ir;\nIn deriving the spelling lists which were used\n78 98\nTable II, it was discovered that the average ability of children was repre\n78 the\nsented by a mark of 70 per cent correct. In the schools represented in\ntable, all were above the average, and it might be suggested that91 the time\nwhich had been given in schools Nos. 3 and 4 to increasing the achievemen\n91 field.\nin spelling might have been used to better advantage in some other\n\"The words used in testing these schools are those derived by Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sag'\nFoundation. Copies of the lists given to each grade appeared in the survey of the Springfield, HI., scbook\npublished by the Russell Sage Foundation, and in the survey of the Butte, Mont, schools, published by th<\nBoard of Education, Butte, Moat.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TESTS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n581\n\nA study of the progress of children in one subject from grade to grade. —\nOut of the most significant uses to be made of standard scales and tests\nis found in a comparison of the achievements of children from grade to\ngrade. The diagram which follows indicates the progress made in English\n\nResults of Composition Tests\nPeRCENTA6E OF PUPILS AtTAININ6 GiVEN\n\nSCORES\n\nScORES\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n582\ncomposition thru the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The\nHillegas scale for measuring the achievement in English composition was\nemployed.\nTeachers frequently grade papers in English composition by marking\nthe best paper in the group at or near 100 and scaling from that point\ndown to the poorest paper. This process is repeated from grade to grade\nwith very little appreciation of the real progress or lack of progress on the\npart of the children of the class. A scale for measuring results in English\ncomposition has the merit of introducing an objective unit. The teacher\nwho has before her such objective units will be much more certainly able\nto know and to measure the progress of children during a semester or a year.\nWith such objective standards before her, it is fair to expect that she will\nwork with much greater definiteness for the development of skill in English\ncomposition.\nThe progress made by a particular group for a period or siiccession of\nperiods. — Table III indicates the progress made in penmanship during a\nperiod of twelve weeks. The Thomdike scale for measuring the quality\nof handwriting was used.\n^\n\nTABLE in\nAcmEVEMENT\n\n8.3\n8.3\nIV\n\n8.9\n\n8.7 Gkaoes\n\nv\nVI\n\n1st Measure-Median . . .\n2d\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n3d\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\nJ\n\nIN PENMANSHIP\n\n8.8\n\nI0.2\n\nII.\n9-52\n\n10.9\n\n10.7\n\"•3\n\nIX. 4\nII. 7\n\nvm\n\nVII\n\n1\n\nII. 8\n\nWhen standard tests or scales of measurement\nare employed by adminis9.8\ntrative or supervisory officers, we may expect both teachers and children\nto be interested in results. In the table given above, it will be noticed that\nthe median achievement of children in the sixth grade after twelve weeks\nis above that of the eighth grade at the beginning of these measurements.\nIt would, of course, be unwise to allow children to concentrate their time\nand energy upon a single field in which they expect to be measured. Over\nagainst this danger may be suggested freedom which may be allowed to\nchildren, to classes, or to schools that have achieved results which are considered satisfactory. It may be asserted with confidence that tests and\nscales of measurement will be used in increasing measure by administrative\nofficers because of the more precise knowledge concerning school condition!;\nwhich can be gained in this way, and because of the incentive for pupil;;\nand for teachers found in the very accurate comparisons which may bt\ninstituted.\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHEALTH\n\nTOPIC: HEALTH\nA.\nTHOMAS\n\nREPORT\nD.\n\nWOOD,\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n583\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH\nEDUCATION\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nM.D., PROFESSOR\nOF PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y., CHAIRMAN\n\nIN\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nThe joint committees of the National Council of Education and the\nAmerican Medical Association have issued one report on \"Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds\" and another entitled \"Minimum Sanitary Requirements for Rural Schools,\" Copies of these may be obtained from the\nUnited States Bureau of Education in Washington.\nYour committee is now studying the health conditions of country-school\nchildren and is advocating all feasible measures for the improvement of the\nchildren and the schools in the country.\nRural-school children have more physical defects than city-school\nchildren. A comparison of all the available statistics of health examinations\nof school children shows that, almost without exception in the list of defects,\nthe children in the country are less healthy and more handicapped than the\ncity children. Examinations within the last three years of 330,000 school\nchildren in New York City showed 70 per cent defective. Corresponding\nexaminations of 294,000 rural children in Pennsylvania showed 75 per cent\ndefective. The city children have received much more health attention than\nthe country children, and this is one reason to account for their better health.\nTwenty-two states have laws providing for medical inspection. In over\nfour hundred cities in these twenty-two states, medical inspection is provided. In only ten states is medical inspection even attempted in the\nrural schools, and with the exception of three or four states, the attempts at\nmedical inspection in the rural schools are so fragmentary and desultory as\nhardly to deserve mention. Compulsory as well as permissive medical\ninspection laws are much less frequently enforced in the rural schools than\nin city schools.\nIn considering the purpose and worth of the health examinations, the\niiscovery of physical defects is only the first and the easier step in the fulilment of the task. More important yet is the opportunity, nay, the duty,\n)f the state to provide thru the public schools for the promotion of the\nlealth, of the complete education, of the entire welfare of the children.\nRelatively much less effort is made in the country than in the city to follow\nip the discovery of physical errors in school children by provisions for\nemedying and correcting the health defects brought to light.\nIn rural England, under the operation of the Education Act of 1907,\nvith its more recent revisions, splendid work is being done for the health\nare of the children in the country. Rural America should not be outlistanced in a matter of such vital import to the present, and, even more,\n0 the future welfare -of the entire nation.\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "$84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nYour committee recommends the following measures as important and\npossible for the care of the health of children in the rural schools:\n1. Sanitary schoolhouses. Rural schoolhouses are relatively much less sanitary\nin construction and care than city schools.\n2. Adequate training of rural-school teachers in school hygiene. Rural teachers\nmust, in the nature of circiunstances, assume more personal responsibility than urban\nteachers for health supervision and care.\n3. Health examinations including dental inspection of all rural-school pupils once\na year.\n4. Health care at medical and dental clinics to be made available and reasonably\naccessible for country children.\n5. Follow-up health work by district and school nurses.\n6. Warm school limches are as important for country children as for city children.\nRural teachers testify that warm lunches resxilt in \"better afternoon school work and\nless need of discipline.\"\n7. More general and adequate inculcation of health habits and instruction in practical\nhygiene for all rural-school children.\n8. Co-operation of state authorities, conamimity, social, and fraternal organizations\nfor the promotion of the health and welfare of school children.\n\nAll of these measures have been tried sufficiently to demonstrate convincingly their worth and feasibility.\n\nB.\n\nMETHODS OF EXTENDING THE PROPAGANDA\nIMPROVEMENT OF SANITARY CONDITIONS\nRURAL SCHOOLS\n\nFOR THE\nIN\n\nJOHN M. DODSON, M.D., UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe topic assigned to me as the representative of the committee of the\nAmerican Medical Association in this symposium may be briefly presented.\nIt is necessary for me only to supplement the report which has been made\nby the chairman by a presentation of the plans and suggestions of the\ncommittee in reference to extending the propaganda for the improvement\nof sanitary conditions in the rural schools. The idea of urging upon the\nNational Education Association that it take up the health problem for\nconsideration was born of the conviction that this Association afforded an\nopportunity for the greatest service and realization of the benefits to be\nderived from the recent advances in preventive medicine. Preventive\nmedicine has been newly born in the last quarter-century. The possi^\nbilities in the way of lessening the mortality, diminishing the amount oi\nsickness with its attendant suffering, grief, and misery are dimly appre\nciated even in the medical profession, and not at all by the public at large\nIf we are to hope for large returns in the way of practical benefits fron:\nthese recent advances, it must be thru a universally enlightened public\nand this education of the public must come for the most part thru the\npublic schools. At the first meeting of the joint committees, held u\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIMPROVING\n\nSANITARY\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n585\n\nSt. Louis three years ago, it was unanimously agreed that the best results\nwould be secured by confining the work of the committee in the beginning\nat least to one topic, and \"The Sanitation of Rural-School Buildings\" was\nchosen because it is obviously the most fundamental.\nIt was further\nj agreed that the rural school should be made the object of the chief work of\nthe committee and the wisdom of this decision could not have been more\nstrikingly demonstrated than it was by the report of the committee pre; sented at Richmond last year in regard to the health conditions of the pupils\nin the rural schools as contrasted with those in the urban schools. When\nthe physical defects are found to be from one and one-half to four and five\ntimes as frequent in the children in coimtry schools as they are in the cityschool children, there is clearly something very wrong in the country schools.\nIt is still further agreed by the committee at this first meeting that the first\nstep should be an investigation of the existing conditions, for while the\nimpression was universal that the average rural school was seriously defective, no extensive and accurate investigation had been made of the conditions. F.B. Dressier, now a member of this committee, was found to be\nengaged in such an investigation, and his report supplemented by some\niurther ones which were made under the direction of the committee set\niown in no uncertain way the fact that the little red schoolhouse is far\nrem being what it ought to be. No school board, or superintendent, or\n)ther individual concerned in the location and construction of a school\n)uilding need any longer be at a loss for adequate information along these\nines. The problem which now presents itseK to the committee and to\nhis Association is to disseminate these facts as widely as possible, to the\nnd that every teacher, every superintendent, every school officer, and\nvery parent in the United States may come to know that an insanitary\nchoolhouse is a disgrace and a reproach to the community which tolerates\nts existence. The task of disseminating this information thruout the\nJnited States is one of great magnitude.\nHow shall it be accomplished ?\nFirst: By the wide distribution of circulars such as the one already\nrepared on \"Minimum Sanitary Requirements for Rural Schools,\" forty\nlousand of which have been distributed by the United States commisoner of education.\nSecond: By articles in newspapers, magazines, educational, and other\n)umals, especially in agricultural magazines, directing the attention of\nle public to the importance of such school sanitation and hygiene. It\nill not be sufficient, however, to rely wholly on the printed matter. This\niportant matter must be presented in addresses and discussions before\nachers' institutes, teachers' associations, farmers' institutes, meetings of\nomen's clubs, before state and county medical societies — in short, before\n1 bodies of individuals who have to do in any way whatsoever with the\nral schools. Your committee would suggest that steps be taken to present\nis matter by giving it a place on the program at every teachers' institute\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "$86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Natio\n\nand association held in this country during the coming year, while in the\nwinter months the same subject be included in the programs of farmers'\ninstitutes, women's clubs, and the like. The Council on Health and Public\nInstruction of the American Medical Association will undertake to see that\nit is made a topic for discussion at every county and state medical society\nwhich can be reached.\nAs has been suggested by the chairman, the sanitation of the rural\nschools should be made an important topic in the curriculum of every\nnormal school and institute to the end that every teacher receiving instruction in one of these institutions shall be informed upon the subject. It is\nfurther suggested by the committee that a system of prizes be instituted\nin each state to serve as a stimulus to school districts to improve the present\nconditions. This should be done by securing in each state some arrangement by which the state board of pubUc instruction would offer a prize for\nthe district or county showing the greatest ratio of improvement in the\nsanitary conditions of its rural schools in the next three or five years.\nYour committee has been engaged in the preparation of a score card based\non the schedule of minimiun requirements already issued. This score\ncard will shortly be ready for publication. The prize, it is suggested, might\nconsist of a moving-picture machine, with approved educational films, or\nof a circulating library, or of a series of reproductions of the great works of\nart which could be circulated among the schools in the county or district.\nIt is believed that the funds necessary for the purchase of such prizes can\nbe secured from the state or thru private donations. The committee would\nemphasize the fact that these prizes should not be offered for the best\npossible conditions found in the rural schools at any particular time irrespective ofthe financial resources of that district, but should be given for the\ngreatest ratio of improvement shown in the sanitary conditions in a given\nperiod of three or five years. Already in one state a committee of district\nsuperintendents with which the chairman has been asked to co-operate\nis arranging for such a competition, and steps have been taken to secure\nthe necessary funds.\nThird: If this work is to be conducted by the National Education\nAssociation thru a series of years — and such continuity of effort is imperative ifany considerable results are to be secured — some arrangement must\nbe made by which the committee can secure information from several states\nthru the state superintendent of pubUc instruction as to the progress which\nis being made. By such a plan, it will be possible by the end of five or six\nyears to determine how effectively this propaganda is working toward tht.>\nimprovement of the sanitary conditions of our rural schools.\nMay I say in conclusion that it has been very gratifying to the representatives ofthe American Medical Association to meet with such a cordial\nand hearty response to the suggestion that this great Association interest\nitself more actively than had been the case heretofore in this important\n\ny\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n587\n\nmatter of the health problems in education. This is an educational, not\na medical movement. It is your plan as educators, but the American\nMedical Association stands ready as it has in the past to co-operate in\nevery possible way to further this movement, and it hopes, from the work\nof this committee, for the achievement of important advances which will\nredound to the great benefit of the school children of the future.\n\nSECRETARY'S\nOAKLAND\n\nMINUTES\n\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nVice-President — James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction. . .Raleigh, N.C.\nSecretary — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, August 18, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the City Auditorium at 9:00 a.m., with President\n\\ley in the chair.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Purpose of a National System of Education\" — Carroll G. Pearse, president,\nState Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nTopic: The History and Development of American Education\n\"Elementary Education\" — EUwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland\nStanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. This paper as read constitutes\nhap. i of the author's book on Public School Administration (Houghton MiflBin Company,\nBoston, 1915). For this reason, it will not appear in this volume.\ndich.\"Secondary Education\" — Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit,\n\"Higher Education\" — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, chancellor, New York University,\nv'ew York, N.Y.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nAfternoon, August 18, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Aley at 2:30 p.m., in the City Audiorium.\nThe following papers were read under the general topic \"Present Activities and\nxcomplishments\":\nans.\"Elementary Education\" — Harry B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Topeka,\n\"Secondary\nEducation\" — Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools,\nugusta,\nMe.\nans.\"Higher Education\" — Frank Strong, chancellor. University of Kaosas, Lawrence,\nThe following report of the Committee on Membership was adopted:\nUGusTus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., Vice-President\nTerm expires 1918\nLLEN C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis., Executive Committee\nTerm expires 1918\nUGUSTUS S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., Committee on Membership. . .Term expires 1918\nj^^RROLL G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis., Committee on Membership.. .Term expires 1918\nI'HN R. Kirk, Kirksville^Mo., Committee on Membership\nTerm expires 1917\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "S88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nMEMBERS\nTerms to Expire in 1921\n\nf^m I\n\nSamuel Avery, Lincoln, Nebr., to succeed himself.\nFred L. Keeler, Lansing, Mich., to succeed Lewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nLloyd E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex., to succeed himself.\nGuy Potter Benton, Burlington, Vt., to succeed himself.\nHenry Siizzallo, Seattle, Wash., to succeed himself.\nLuther L. Wright, Flint, Mich., to succeed himself.\nGeorge M. Philips, West Chester, Pa., to succeed himself.\nNeil C. Macdonald, Valley City, N.D., to succeed himself.\nErnest E. Balcomb, Greensboro, N.C., to succeed himself.\nJ. E. Burke, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself.\nTeshs to Expire in 1917\nFrederic E. Farrington, New York, N.Y., to succeed E. C. Moore, Cambridge, Mass.\nGeorge L. Towne, Lincoln, Nebr., to succeed D. B. Parkinson, Carbondale, El.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nEvening, August 18, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the City Auditoriiun at 8:00 p.m., by President\nAley, and the following program given under the general topic \"Future Outlook and\nPossibilities\":\n\"Elementary Education\" — Grace C. Strachan, district superintendent of schods/\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\n\"Secondary Education\" — ^J. Stanley Brown, superintendent, Township High School^\nJoliet, lU.\n\"Higher Education\" — Guy Potter Benton, president. University of Vermont.\nBurlington, Vt.\nWilliam B. Owen, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE PURPOSE\nCARROLL\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF A NATIONAL\n\nG. PEARSE, PRESmENT,\n\nSYSTEM\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSCHOOL, MILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS\n\nCivilized nations, among them the United States, spend vast sums ir\nthe education of their people; the more completely civilized a nation\naccording to our standards, the more thoroly it attends to the education 0\nall its people. In the United States, the nation, state, and local community\npay out more each year for education than for any other governmentii\nexpense. What is the purpose of the people in pouring out thus lavishly\nof their wealth into this channel? It is sometimes said that with th\nAmerican people education is a passion; but it is fair to assume that .\npeople so generally disposed to view projects from a practical standpoiii\nmust have some strong imderl3dng reasons for this willingness to levy upc:\nits resources for the education of its youth.\nThe first purpose of education is to rear intelligent citizens. It is th\npurpose that the people shall have some familiarity with thatknowledg\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n589\n\nwhich is now the common heritage of civilized men. So far as that knowledge can be made their possession, the citizenship of the nation has a broader\nfoundation and a wider outlook for all the operations and affairs of life.\nIntelligent citizens have the art of reading and can lay under tribute the\nlibraries which they can reach, as well as the volumes not in libraries, and\nthe great river of periodical and occasional literature which can be made to\nserve their needs. They thus have that advantage in the formation of\njudgments which the possession of more extensive and more accurate information brings. They have also arrived at an understanding of the direction\nin which more knowledge lies and can utilize their skill in the art of reading\nto inform themselves as fully as is necessary upon any subject which they\nmay be considering.\nIntelligent citizens are able to enjoy pleasures of a higher type. They\nare not dependent upon sensual gratifications. The citizen who can read\nand who has even a very general knowledge of the treasures of literature\nhas open to him pleasures which are unknown to or unrealizable by the one\nwho has no knowledge of the rich stores which are laid away for his use in\nenlarging his personal wisdom, or in contemplating the wise or the witty or\nthe splendid thoughts of those who have set them down upon the printed\npage. He has eyes which see with understanding the plants and animals\nwith which nature surrounds us and he takes pleasure in tracing their likeness and variety, their forms and the adaptation of those forms to plant and\nanimal uses. He sees order and beauty and the operations of natural law\nwhich uninstructed eyes do not perceive. He looks upon the phenomena\nof the clouds and the rain, the frost and the sun's heat, the rivers drawn to\nthe sea, the lightning, the movement of the steam engine and the dynamo,\nthe electric light and the telephone, and these have a different significance\nand a more vital meaning to the citizen possessed of general intelligence.\nA.nd tho the education which has given general intelligence has not fitted the\nreceiver for a craft or vocation, like the blind man whose eyes had been\ninointed, he has a new vision; he has a knowledge of the world and of life\nmd its conditions which gives him a new standard of judging those things\n*vhich are worth while as contrasted with those things which are not.\nHis general intelligence has immensely widened his choice in the selecion of an occupation; to him a far greater range of employments is open\nhan to the uneducated citizen; and for this reason he has a many times\ngreater chance of judging correctly and taking up the one occupation in\nvhich his tastes and abilities give him the greatest promise of success. The\name general education has made him better able to perform more effectively\nny tasks which it may be his to do and better able to understand the\n'rinciples underlying, and the processes of any craft he may take up, and\n0 renders him potentially a more effective practitioner of that craft.\nThe nation educates in order that its citizens may be efficient. Effiiency requires good health and a strong and well-developed body able to\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncarry its share of the load of the world's work. A sound body requires\nthat the youth learn the requirements of food and clothing and exercise\nand sleep; and that he form the habit of observing those principles of\nhygiene which are necessary. He must acquire, too, a belief in health and\nin his duty to preserve or improve it.\nThe efficient citizen is an asset to himself and to the community at the\nsame time. His skill enables him to produce a better income and so he can\nlive with his family in better style in a better house, have better clothes,\neat better and more nourishing food, and give to the children better opportunities. The intelligent and efficient citizen is a better customer; not\nonly can he earn a better income, but he is a better spender; he knows about\nmore things which he would like to have, and with his better income he\nbuys them, giving added prosperity to the butcher and the baker and the\ncandlestick-maker and to all their kith and kin. This citizen is also an\nasset to the community in another way. The employers who need labor as\nan element in their business enterprises value the efficient worker, and\nhe thus becomes an element of wealth to his employer as well as to himself;\nthe efficient professional man who sells his knowledge and skill instead of\nhis labor is worth much more to the community as well as to himself.\nIn another way, too, if the state will understand its opportimity and the\nsigns of the time, the citizen will be trained to a valuable efficiency; he\nnot only will be willing but will be able to render his military duty to the\nstate. He wUl be trained in the elementary school of the soldier; he willi\nknow his facings and marchings and will be able to move and act in concert with other men; he will know how to live and be comfortable and preserve his health in camp; he will be taught to live and eat and exercise\nso that he may retain his physical vigor and effectiveness into and past\nmiddle life. This will be in contrast to the present situation of most\ndwellers in towns, too many of whom become fat and flabby and jaded\nafter the first flush of manhood is past. This training of men to possible\nmilitary effectiveness is almost wholly omitted in our present scheme oS\neducation, as are, in large measure, the education for, and training to, the\nduty and practice of retaining physical strength and soundness.\nAttention to this item of education will not mean that the nation has\nbecome filled with thoughts of conquest or is about to fall upon some near 01\nmore distant neighbor nation to deprive it of its lands or to reduce it to\nvassalage, but that nation which possesses fertile lands and accumulate!wealth cannot safely ignore the fact that opulence and the lack of powei\nto defend the borders of the state have, as long as the history of men has\nbeen written, tempted the hungry and hard-living to swoop down upon an :\nrend away the wealth to which the flaccid owners could no longer maintain\ntheir right. The world may some time establish an international pact ci.\npeace to be maintained by putting away the weapons of war and establish\ning an international police to enforce the agreement.\nBut, tho then\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n591\n\nare laws against pillage and murder and outrage by one citizen against\nanother, and policemen and courts to enforce them, it is not expected that\nyou or your neighbor will calmly submit to such injury if a robber visits you\nwhile the peace officer is not at hand to protect you; and if there were no\npeace officer, as there is now no international police, the man who lacked\nweapons of defense, or who deliberately neglected or refused to be ready to\nrepel attempted injury would have small respect shown him.\nA hundred years ago this nation could call to its defense a citizen-soldiery\ntrained to bear arms in the defense of their homes against savage men and\nsavage beasts or in the hunt for food for their tables; their muscles were\ninured to toil and long marches; they could live for days in the open and\n[ind food and shelter and maintain themselves. Today approximately\ntialf our people dwell in towns and rely on the bakeshop and the department\n?tore and the street car instead of depending on their own feet and on their\n3wn ability to find and provide shelter or garments or food; they are often\n\"orbidden by law to bear or use arms. The people have as much courage\nIS their fathers; but a few experiences have shown us that our present\n:heory that the entire able-bodied male population constitutes a \"citizenioldiery\" at all competent to act effectively in any important national crisis\ns, to quote a former distinguished citizen of the nation, \"an iridescent\nIream.\" The decay of physical power and virility in men and women past\nsarly manhood and womanhood is also a serious problem which demands to\n)e dealt with.\nThe state educates for economic or vocational efficiency; the citizen\nnust first choose — and the state is recognizing that it must supply him with\nnformation on which to base an intelligent choice — a suitable vocation; it is\nlot enough that he drift into one. And, having chosen, there must be\naciUties for a thoro training for the vocation chosen. For many comnercial employments, and for some of an industrial character, training is\ntill given in the employment itself, and the state may note this in making\nts provision for vocational training; but the state must see that for each\nrorker a way of preparation is open, whether for a profession or for a trade,\nr for some of the newer employments. The failure and disappearance or\nhe essential modification of certain trades and occupations under the\nidustrial and other changes of the day and the diminished opportunity\n)r apprenticeship lays upon the state a steadily growing responsibility for\nleeting this need in the best way.\nThe state educates for homemaking and the efficient discharge of\nome duties. So fundamental is the home to the state's prosperity that\nle state cannot neglect to see that all possible attention is given to renderig efficient in these vitally important duties the future heads of families\n^d the future house mothers. Wise vocational choice and thoro training\nrgely determine the income the home may have, and the income fixes the\naancial, and largely 'the social, status.\n\nThe young man's attention may\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1\n\n(Ns\n\nwell be turned to his responsibility for the supplying of the home, foi\nmaintaining its moral tone, and for assisting in the upbringing of the children which come into it. The future house mother may of right learn thd\nduties which will be hers as the spending partner, whose wise outlay of thi\nfunds suppUed for maintenance will do much to make the home efficient as!\na business enterprise; she should also be trained in the skilful doing ofi\nthe routine duties of the home, and in the care and feeding and training of\nthe children who come to bless it.* Both partners may well have learned the\nimportance and the methods of thrift in the home. Some of this knowledge referred to as needed is now given in the home, some is picked up incidental y iat\nf all. To prosper in the best way the state must see that either\nin the home or elsewhere the requisite knowledge and training are given.\nThe state educates for efficiency in citizenship. The intelUgent citizen\nknows the history of the state and of other nations, and has a knowledge\nbroad enough to point the way for him in the search for any further information which he may require; this citizen recognizes the proper attitude\ntoward his government of which he is an integral part. This type oi\ncitizen is vital to the continuance of a free government. The state must see\nthat the necessary information is given, and the spirit of duty to the statf\ninculcated. It is important not only that the citizen be able to judge and tc\nreach right conclusions; he must also recognize his obUgation to carry hi^\nshare of the load, to be at the polls on primary day and on election day, anc\nto be present on other important civic occasions. The state educates its\ncitizens to inteUigence in these matters of government, also, that it maj\nhave local and state and national officials who understand their duties, anc\nwho know how to inform themselves further concerning these when necessary.\nThe state educates its citizens in order that they may have a socia\nattitude — that they may not only recognize these social obUgations but act\nupon that knowledge. This attitude of mind should not only make th^\ncitizen a better neighbor to the man on the next lot or to the family in th(\nupper flat; he will feel also that it is of concern to him if the neighbo\nis ill, or out of employment, or in misfortune. He will believe and ac\nupon the beUef that the citizen may not fend for himself alone and that it iimsocial, even tho not illegal, for him, if he is gifted with talents of tha\nsort, to pile up a huge surplus of the world's goods, far beyond his needs\nHe will feel that he must be interested in politics, not as a matter of persona\nadvantage except as all citizens benefit, but for the good of all; that h>\nought to concern himself with the community's problems — housing anc\nhealth and transportation and education and recreation.\nThe system of education in a free state has for its purpose the rearm;\nof free and efficient and happy citizens. It is the gateway thru which ead\nmay enter upon that field of endeavor which is his choice because it is th£i\ninto which both his tastes and his abilities lead him. It is no part of th\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n593\n\nduty of such a system to provide for or train a class of citizens who enjoy\nadvantages and privileges above their fellows; nor, on the other hand, is it\nIany part of the duty of such a system to train a special class, skilled to\nrender particular service from which others benefit more than do the\nworkers themselves and their famiUes. Such a system if rightly planned\nv/ill furnish an opportunity for any youth, in whatever station born, to\npass freely thru the grades and departments which his mental endowment\nmay fit him to undertake, to any vocational and social goal for which he\nmay show that he has the necessary character and ability.\nAnd especially it is no part of the duty of a system of pubUc education in\na free state, so to direct the education of its people that there shall be built\nup within the state a powerful and perfect machine, whether industrial or\nmilitary or both, the parts of which shall spring together at the sound of the\ntrimapet, and, at the touch of the government upon its levers, shall run here\njr run there, to create wealth of which the government may exact such\nihare as it decides to demand; or which the rulers of the state may launch\nIt the breast of a neighbor state to crush it into subjection.\nWhen rightly conceived the purpose of a system of public education is\n0 produce free citizens, of desirable physical and mental and moral quality,\nvho are intelligent, and efficient, and social.\n\n^OPIC:\n\nTHE\n\nHISTORY\nA.\n\nCHARLES\n\nE. CHADSEY,\n\nAND DEVELOPMENT\nEDUCATION\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nSCHOOLS, DETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nChancellor Brown, in his Making of Our Middle Schools, divides the\nistory of secondary education into the colonial period with the Latin\nammar school, the period from the Revolution to the Civil War with the\n:ademy as the dominant form of secondary school, and the modem period,\nle period of the public high school. For all practical purposes this division\nay be accepted.\nOur educational ideals, like our political and social ideals, are closely\n;pendent in their origui upon the current ideals in Europe and especially in\nagland. To some extent they are marked by imitation, to some extent by\nvolt. The colonial grammar schools, best illustrated by the Boston\nitin School, were unquestionably established frankly in imitation of the\nitin grammar schools of England. It is true, however, that even in these\nrly beginnings the stem religious atmosphere of the New England colonies\ndically modified their character.\nFrom the beginning of our educational history, the expression \"free\"\nLs frequently applied to the public schools of secondary grade, altho the\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "m\nS94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmajority of the pupils were required to pay fees for various reasons. Thi:\nBoston Latin School, authorized by vote of the Boston citizens in 1635,\nmarks the beginning of public secondary education in the colonies. Othei\ntowns quickly established similar schools.\nThe Hopkins bequest, a portion of which was assigned to New Haven\nto aid in the support of the grammar school, probably aided the development of the theory of the school committee, the vote of 1664 establishing\nsuch a committee. However, the idea of full control by the town itsel'\nthru the town meeting was destined to control for many decades, slowl>\nto be supplanted as in other branches of local government by the theory ci\npower delegated to the elected representatives. It is impossible to note th»\nvarying forms of these schools, planned to prepare for the colleges with thei\nstrictly classical education.\nThe first general act establishing secondary schools was that of th<\nGeneral Court of Massachusetts of 1647. This merely made mandatory thi\nsystem already established in a number of the towns by voluntary ac\nthru the local town meeting, but it is of vast significance as establishing ■\ncivil system of education, along lines now accepted as our national educa\ntional characteristic — education controlled thru state legislation. Th\nclaim that this historic act furnished precedents for many other educationa\nacts is well substantiated. While much of the history of the colonis\ngrammar schools organized along the lines marked out by this and othe\nsimilar colonial acts is not inspiring, and while during the later colonic\nperiod the ideals of many of these schools were greatly lowered, their servic\nto America thru the maintaining of the idea of schools controlled by tli\ncommimity cannot be overstated.\nCoincident with the decay of the colonial grammar schools and there\ngious revival that was so marked a feature of the first half of the eighteen:\ncentury was the growth of a desire to have schools along lines similar to tl:\nacademies of England which had developed as an outgrowth of the not\nconformist movement and the necessity of educating the children of tl;\nnon-conformists who were practically denied an opportimity for trainii\"\nin the universities of England. These English academies, altho poor^\nmanned and superficial, had caught the idea of zeal for knowledge and f'\na wider range of subject-matter in the curriculum.\nPractically the diversity of religious belief coupled with a genuine desi\nfor schooling for their children and a contempt for the traditional narrow\nness of the grammar school forced the plan of co-operation upon the\ndesirous of better schools. The theory of schools governed by boards\ntrustees self-perpetuating was the outcome of the new need.\n,\nThe Philadelphia Academy, probably established in 1749 and certainj\nthe result of the statesmanlike plans of Benjamin Franklin, was the fi'\nschool of this type. Altho Franklin's ideals were but imperfectly realist\nthe institution certainly pointed the way to better conceptions of educatu\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n595\n\nand a different theory as to the purpose of secondary-school training. The\nschool was needed, so its trustees claimed, not only to furnish good education\nat home, but to overcome the lack of native-trained persons qualified to\nfill positions of trust. Another argument was that it would train schoolmasters of good morals. Originally the academy was divided into three\ndepartments, Latin, English, and mathematical, but, greatly to Franklin's\ndisgust, the tradition for classical training prevented the carrying out of\nthe plan to emphasize the study of English. We find here for the first time\na conception in many ways not dissimilar to very modern schemes of\nsecondary courses in English.\nProbably the Philadelphia Academy was the only academy corresponding to the ideals of the American academy of the nineteenth century established before the Revolution. We read of Marlboro Academy in Maryland\nin 1778, and Washington Academy in 1779, but the real commencement of\nthe period of the academy dates from the founding of the Phillips Andover\nand Phillips Exeter Academies in 1778 and 1783. We have here academies\nestablished with acts of incorporation which served as models for the\nnumerous similar institutions which flourished as the highest and most\nefficient type of American secondary schools until the present era of the\ngreat public high-school system. Many of the greatest men of the nineteenth century attended these schools and their history forms one of the\ninspiring chapters of American education. In their beginnings they mark,\nas has been indicated, a protest against the grammar school which practically assumed the existence of a lower class not expected to participate\nin the benefits of education. Democracy and the development of the selfrespecting so-called middle class demanded an education which would\nfurnish that which came to be called culture. Education as the developer\nof individual character was the dominant desire which the academy attempted to satisfy. We owe much of our later progress to the exaltation\nof the individual, and this social development was bound up most intimately\nwith the ideals of the academy.\nWhile the period of the dominance of the academy was transitional, it\nwas paving the way for real democracy. Both American education and\n\\merican civilization owe much that we value most to the ideals fostered\n3y the academy. Even the ideals of college education were broadened and\nnade more in harmony with the genius of the American people thru the\nstimulus of the academy. While the academies finally became in many\n:ases mere fitting schools for the American college, they were not so in\nheir early days. Not infrequently their courses included subjects not found\nn the college. To a considerable extent, the beginnings of broader college\ncurses were due to the presence of similar courses in the academy. The\nntroduction into the curriculum of courses in the English language and\niterature, history, astronomy, chemistry, algebra, geometry, and geography\nUustrates the tendency toward broader training which characterized the\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nh\n596\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINatioMi\n\nperiod. Presumably the same argimient of practical usefulness which now\nis used to justify new studies aided the introduction of this new material.\nThe academies were recognized also as the proper institutions for the\npreparation of teachers of elementary schools. In fact, they really are the\ndirect predecessors of the normal school. New York frankly accepted them\nas teachers' training schools and the early normal school in its organization\ndiffered only slightly from the typical academy. The academy also may be\ncredited with accepting the idea of co-education as feasible and economical*\nSome of the first academies to be founded admitted girls as well as boys,\nwhile seminaries for girls from which developed the early efforts for higher\neducation for women were organized in this same period.\nThe academy, however, effective as it was, could not remain permanently the prevailing type of secondary school in the United States. There\nwas no effective way thru which it could respond to the demands of the\npeople. Its board of control was practically a close corporation and was\nnot compelled to modify its ideals when there was local dissatisfaction.\nThe typical American citizen is not often in sympathy with a system of\neducation which he cannot directly influence. The same belief in public\ncontrol which manifested itself in other institutions resulted in a school\nwhich, while not sacrificing the broader culture which distinguished the\nacademy as contrasted with the traditional public grammar schools, should\nbe directly governed by the people. The class education of the colonial\ngrammar school was displaced by the school designed for the growing middle\nclass. The wave of democracy which brought the academy into being was\nfollowed by a still higher wave bringing with it the idea of a secondary\nschool for all, for the children of the poorest as well as for the children of\nthe well-to-do. The free public school was coming to be regarded as the\nreal American school and secondary as well as higher education was destined\nto be included as part of the school system.\nAs in the case of the classical grammar school so with the pubUc high\nschool, we find in Boston in the English High School our first example.\nThe epoch-making report of 182 1 really foreshadows all our modern vocational school theories when it said, in recommending the estabHshment\nof the new school, that \"a parent who wishes to give the child an education\nthat shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation for eminence\nin his profession, whether mercantile or mechanical, is under the necessity\nof giving him a different education from any which our public schools can\nnow furnish.\" This action of Boston was followed by similar action in\nother places. For the next forty years, the struggle between the public\nhigh school and the academy controlled by its board of trustees continued\nwith varying results. By the time of the Civil War, it could be seen that\nthe control of secondary education would eventually be accepted as belonging to the public and that public taxation must in the main be looked to as\nthe means of furnishing its financial support.\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coundll\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n597\n\nThe history of the development of public opinion which resulted in the\novertaking of the academy in popular favor by the high school shows that\nthe support of the public frequently wavered and serious reaction in various\nplaces frequently occurred. Some earnest advocates of the public high\nschool came to feel that the endowed high school would be the only way\nthru which this form of education could be assured a permanent foundation.\nThe sound theory that the public itself must be taught to maintain the\nschool finally prevailed. In the western states, thru the conception of a\ncomplete public-school system including higher, technical, and various forms\nof professional education supported by public funds secured thru both state\nand local taxation, a logical development from schemes of educational\ncontrol found in colonial legislation has secured genuine and effective\nrealization.\nState control, as yet in many states rather ineffective so far as secondary\neducation is concerned, is secured to a very considerable extent thru inspection either by the state university, by inspectors attached to the ofl&ce of\nthe state superintendent of public instruction, or by varying forms of inspection carried on under joint control. Whenever thru state action it becomes\npossible to furnish financial assistance to inspected schools securing favorable reports, the efficiency of state inspection and control increases. The\ndisinclination on the part of many communities to submit to any form of\ncontrol from larger administrative units, which not infrequently has manifested itself in protests against so-called domination by either the university or the state department of education, has of recent years greatly\nlessened. This is due to the desire to secure financial assistance and scholastic recognition and to a greatly increased feeling of mutual co-operation\nfostered by the conferences between secondary-school men and the colleges.\nThe realization that the public high schools need highly equipped\nteachers has resulted in a very general acceptance of the college degree as an\nevidence of minimum training, altho we are still far from having reached\na condition when such equipment is compulsory. The idea that special\ntraining in the art of teaching should be secured by all candidates for\nsecondary-school teaching is really yet in its infancy, but the remarkable\nextension of departments of education in our colleges and universities offers\nmuch to encourage one in the belief that we are soon to accept professional\ntraining as equally necessary in all departments of school work.\nThe tendency toward broader curricula first fostered by the academies\nwas accepted by the high schools in toto. This was secured not merely by\nintroducing more studies which were required of all students, but thru\nthe introduction of parallel courses and later by the idea of election of\nstudies. The story of the modifying of the curriculum from the narrow\none-course plan to the extended courses of the large city high schools is not\nessentially different from the similar development in higher education from\nwhich in later years it must admit much of its inspiration.\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "/■\n598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe tendency in our large cities to establish various forms of high\nschools, each aiming to meet the demands of certain classes of students, is\nstill opposed by those who believe that the interests of a community are\nbest subserved when all types of education are found under the same roof.\nCertainly the idea so dear to us all that all education should closely connect\nitself with the schools both below and above is somewhat endangered by the\npresent effort to specialize with the closest reference to the probable immediate future of the child. The development of the intermediate or junior high\nschool depends largely upon the final answer to our present discussions.\nThe public high school starting as a school controlled by the administrative board which directed the elementary school developed naturally as\npart of the general public-school system. In some sporadic cases, separate\nboards were organized, but it was not until the organization of the joint\nhigh schools and the county high schools, a movement designed to give to\nthe children of communities too small or too poor to support separate high\nschools the opportunity for secondary-school training, that the high-school\nboards of education became a factor in high-school administration.\nWhile I have tried so far as possible to avoid statistics, one is almost\ncompelled to call attention to the figures submitted by the commissioner of\neducation in his latest report. We learn from this report that there were\nin the United States in 1914, 11,515 public high schools of which 8,275 ^^.d\nfull four-year courses. There were in attendance in these four-year high\nschools 1,126,456 pupils. The public high schools now enrol 88.73 P^r\ncent of all high-school pupils, compared with 68. 13 per cent in 1890. So\nwe see from these statistics that the acceptance by our people of the public\nhigh school as the proper secondary school for the very great majority of\nour students of secondary grade becomes more universal from year to year.\nThe fact that the junior high-school problem is of constantly increasing\nsignificance is shown in the report that 168 cities report some form of such\na school while 57 cities unquestionably have definitely organized schools\nof this grade.\nStudents of American public education are always impressed by the\nremarkable harmony in educational practice which prevails from Maine\nto California. Altho local autonomy is in most places supreme and has\nonly recently been modified in some states thru state legislation, our ideals\nin education do not differ greatly in the various portions of the United\nStates. This has resulted from the innumerable state and national conferences on educational problems, the national constituency of many of our\nuniversities, the wise direction of the Bureau of Education, the increasing\nvolume of professional literature, the wide circulation of educational\nmagazines, and the constant interchanging of teachers who carry into\nevery place the progressive ideas of our wisest theorists.\nSometimes we become impatient at the slow progress and the ineffectiveness ofcertain school systems, sometimes we become convinced of the\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n599\n\nwisdom of certain forms of educational administrations as contrasted with\ntlie waste and misdirected efforts of others, and long for the speedier\nreforms which could come thru more highly centralized plans of public\ncontrol. Our calmer judgment, however, convinces us that the American\nidea of the closest connection with and control of the public school by the\npeople themselves secures in the long run the popular support which makes\npossible a school system of the people, flexible enough to meet the changing\ndemands of the community, always in touch with the people, and a sure\nsafeguard against the disintegration which otherwise might come to our\nsocial and economic institutions.\n\nB.\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBROWN, CHANCELLOR,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe organization of university control is not a merely formal concern.\nThe changes of organization which have taken place reflect changes of\npublic sentiment and changes of our society in its essential constitution.\nThese changes can be sketched only with the greatest brevity in such a\npaper as this.\nThe European universities established before our own came into existence were generally conducted under systems which seem to us cumbrous\nand compUcated. It is enough for our present purpose to say that they\nwere not, as is sometimes stated, under the direct control of the church,\nnor under the direct control of the crown, but were related to both. The\ntwo colleges established in this country in the seventeenth century, namely\nHarvard and William and Mary, partook of this complex governmental\ncharacter. Harvard, however, previous to the erection of its Board of\nOverseers in 1642, seems to have been for some years under the direct\ncontrol of the colonial legislature. This fact gives some justification for\nthe designation of Harvard as our first state university.\nIt was Yale, our third colonial college, which set, for this country, the\npattern of control by a simple, self-perpetuating board, without stipulations as to its membership after the first Ust of members, contained in the\ncharter, and without provision for visitation by any outside body, whether\necclesiastical or governmental. It was only after legislation of an experimental sort and experience extending over more than a generation that this\nextremely simple and workable form of corporation was adopted in 1745.\nWith some modification, the close corporation, namely that in which\nvacancies are filled by vote of the remaining members, was the prevaiHng\ntype of the six additional colleges which were erected during our colonial\nperiod. These six, under the names which they bear today, were Princeton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.\nDown\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto the time of our Revolution, in short, and for some years thereafter, public\neducation in this country, in the higher grade, of which we are speaking,\nwas controlled by private corporations. This higher education was largely,\ntho by no means exclusively, ecclesiastical in its trend and purpose. It\nshowed but little promise of a breaking away from established traditions\nand an entrance up)on new lines of public service.\nBut even in the colonial period, and much more during the Revolutionary War and in the generation succeeding, there was complaint against the\ncolleges. This took many forms and was directed to diverse ends. The\nstudent of our educational history finds much of interest in the pamphlet\nand newspaper warfare over this subject. The colleges, intrenched behind\ntheir charters, were hard to get at. It gradually became dear to those in\nopposition that the main question was not that of particular abuses or\ndeficiencies, but the question of public responsibility in general. Especially after the colonies had become independent states, with a sense of\nunlimited power residing in their legislatures, the attempt was frequently\nmade to determine the conduct and even the constitution of an estabUshed\ncollege by simple legislative action. I have found no evidence of such\nundertakings directed against Princeton, Rutgers, or Brown. But the\nremaining six institutions dating from colonial days were all, at one time\nor another, the objects of such endeavors. Columbia and Pennsylvania\nindeed had, each of them, its brief experience of direct state control.\nAs a matter of course, the college authorities offered resistance, and this\nwhole movement finally culminated in the Dartmouth College case, decided\nby the Supreme Court of the United States in 1819.\nThose familiar with the history of government regulation in this country\nknow what an epoch-making decision this was in its bearing upon the development ofour industrial and commercial corporations. By declaring that\na charter is a contract between the government and the chartered institution,\nit put a stop to attempts at governmental interference with such institutions. In so doing, it deferred for two generations any effective control\nof business corporations by statute. At the same time it turned the\nattention of those who were interested in the public responsibility of educational corporations toward the establishment of schools and colleges\nunder the direct control of the state.\nThere were those who had turned to this solution of the problem even\nbefore the Dartmouth College decision was rendered. That unique institution, the University of the State of New York, had come into existence\nin 1784. There had been early endeavors looking to the establishment of\na national university. South Carolina had provided for a state university\nin 1 80 1. North Carolina, while making a somewhat similar provision, did\nnot bring its state institution under direct state control until after the Dartmouth College case had been decided. Meanwhile, Thomas Jefferson, having given up the project of making over William and Mary College, had\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n6oi\n\nset about the establishment of a state controlled university in Virginia, an\nundertaking which was crowned with full success in 1825.\nThe great leadership of Jefiferson stamped the state-university movement with a predominantly southern character in the period preceding our\nCivil War. At the same time, however, a related movement was gaining\nheadway in the great Northwest. The Ordinance of 1785 had set apart\nlands for the support of seminaries of learning in the northwest territory,\nand the Ordinance of 1787 had put forward a high educational ideal for the\ngovernment of that territory. Indiana made provision for a complete\nsystem of public education in its first constitution in the year 1816. A\nyear later the territory of Michigan made the first of its three experiments\nin the establishment of a public university. Before the outbreak of the\nCivil War, President Tappan had thrown the weight of his great personality into the destinies of the institution at Ann Arbor, and with the added\ninfluence and prestige imparted by President Angell and a group of notable\nprofessors, this became the chief center of the movement for a generation\nfollowing.\nThe Morrill Act of 1862, providing federal aid for the support of colleges\nof agriculture and mechanic arts, has worked mightily for the upbuilding\nof education of a technical character since our Civil War period. A large\npart of this impulse has gone directly into the state universities, and even\nwhere the case has been otherwise it has, in a number of instances, furthered\neducation of college grade under state control.\nThe fact has often been remarked that even in states that had shown\nmuch dissatisfaction with the then existing colleges the Dartmouth College\ndecision was not everywhere followed by an immediate establishment of\nstate universities. This is no doubt largely due to the influential position\nto which the earlier colleges had already attained, and to the fact that the\nexpense of the undertaking deterred some of the states from making the\nstate-university venture when their needs were already met in part, even\ntho inadequately, by the old college foundations.\nBut now we must make note of the relations between the state-university\nmovement, when it was well begun, and the colleges and universities of the\nearlier ty^Q. The erection of such institutions, largely under the stress\nof denominational influence, had gone forward rather rapidly in the period\nprevious to the third decade of the nineteenth century, when the founding\nof the University of Virginia, following the Dartmouth College decision,\nopened a new era in the state-university movement. It must not be forgotten that the eigh teen-hundred-twenties and -thirties were with us a\ntime of great social and educational ferment. The air was full of new\ncauses, new projects, new aspirations. Our public-school systems were\ntaking on their modern aspect. The most conservative of our colleges\nwere conscious of new stirrings of the educational spirit. Some of\nthese old-established institutions strengthened themselves as against the\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "m\n602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(NaUonal\n\nmovement toward public control by responding to the new needs which\nwere finding public expression. And not all of the new institutions,\nerected in accordance with the new spirit of the time, were made subject\nto control by public corporations.\nBroadly speaking, then, the new movement appeared in two results:\nit gave us that new institution, the state-controlled university; and it gave\nus the old institution, the traditional college, as a remade and modern\naffair. The interaction of the two types makes a most diversified and fascinating story, but there is no time to tell it here. It is a story that has\ndeepened in interest as enormous private gifts on the one hand have been\nmatched by princely appropriations from the public treasury on the other\nhand. Already three of our states have gone far beyond the sum of three\nmillion dollars each in their biennial appropriations for university objects.\nThe list of \"public\" universities, colleges, and technical schools in this\ncountry has now gone up to the number of ninety-four, including some five\nor six institutions of a still newer type — the municipal college or university. And many of these are charged with the spirit of the saying of\nPresident Van Hise, that this university stands ready to render any educational service for which it shall be found the fittest instrument.\nTwo fimdamental considerations emerge from this history, and they\nare such as may well be pondered deeply by the makers of our educational\nsystems: (i) Both publicly controlled and privately controlled institutions\nhave a necessary place in our educational constitution. Their interaction\nshould become more fruitful and significant as time goes on, and as they\nfind each its own best way of contributing to the common good. (2) In\ncity, state, and nation our available provision of all kinds for the higher\neducation must be studied, co-ordinated, and reinforced, together with\nall manner of provision for science and the arts, till it shall all together\nbe wrought into a complete educational system, national in its scope, and\nadequate to the needs of this people at their highest estate and under the\nstress of their most compelling requirements.\n\n-#1\n\nTOPIC:\n\nPRESENT\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nA.\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nH. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nAND\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nEDUCATION\nOF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA, KANS.\n\nIn its development from a mere idea to its present state of efficiency,\nmany significant movements and tendencies have marked the progressive\nevolution of elementary education. Each thing which we now consider\nfundamental and indispensable to effective elementary education was once\nthe \" newest \" thing in its field. It occupied the center of attention and discussion. Each permanent addition to our scheme of elementary education\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n603\n\nwas at some period in the past regarded with due suspicion. The \"pros\nand cons \" were carefully considered and there was a period of experimenting\nand testing before an unquestioned right to a place in our system of elementary education was even tentatively accorded the \"newcomer.\"\nAmong the things which have thus struggled to a fixed and permanent\nplace in the scheme of things, the following may be mentioned by way of\nillustration: (i) the fact of an elementary school; (2) the maintenance of a\nsystem of elementary education at public expense; (3) the present state\nof efficiency in the physical equipment of schools; (4) the established ways\nand means, inadequate as they are, of promoting good health and physical\ndevelopment; (5) the fact of training requirements for admission to the\nteaching profession; (6) each subject of study in the curriculum of elementary education.\nIt seems possible to organize the current activities in modem elementary\neducation which are significant and characteristic under the following four\nheads:\n1. The improvement of the curriculum of instruction.\n2. The adaptation of the educative efforts of the school to different vocational ends,\nto varying social conditions, and to differences in individuals.\n3. The evaluation of the results of education.\n4. The adequate motivation of the work of the school.\n\nNo other instrument which has been developed in evolving the detailed\nmachinery of the elementary school is more important or far-reaching in its\neffects than the course of study. It is that its requirements may be met\nwith the largest possible educational return that the entire expense of public\neducation is entailed. In order that the children may derive the educational benefits which follow from experiencing the course of study under\nthe most favorable circumstances, expensive school plants are established,\nnecessary equipment in the matter of furniture, laboratories, libraries,\nbooks, illustrative material is supplied, and all of these are manned and\ndirected by a large force of teachers and other officers at great expense.\nThe course of study and the social relationships involved in its execution\ndetermine the intellectual, emotional, and social experiences of the children\nduring the period of their formal elementary education.\nUntil within recent years, a course of study consisted largely of a body\nof material, roughly classified by subjects, which tradition and rather careless experience had brought together. The use of this material was originally prescribed by the board of education or the school directors. Later\nthis function was delegated to the superintendent of schools, but the course\nof study continued to be an instrument prescribed by authority from above.\nIn a study of thirty-five representative school systems in 1910, to find how\ncourses of study were determined, I found that in all but seven of these\nsystems the courses of study were prescribed by the board of education and\nsuperintendent of 'schools.\n\nWhat was prescribed was determined by\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIN.\n\ntradition, imitation, and personal opinion. There were no carefully wrought\nout principles derived from careful studies in sociology and psychology and\nfrom careful measuring of the results the schools were producing underlying the development of the course of study which was prescribed.\nWithin the last decade, however, the progressive evolution of society\nhas produced the efficiency engineer. Fortunately for the advancement\nof education, the scientific study of the nature of children and the laws\nunderlying the learning process and of the conditions and needs of society\nwhich the formal educational agencies may help to meet had progressed far\nenough a few years ago that the educational efficiency engineer became a\npossibility and consequently very soon a reality. It is true that his advent\nwas hastened somewhat by a rampant public criticism of the schools, in\npart led and inspired by such leading educational journals as the Delineator\nand the Ladies^ Home Journal.\n\nThe work now under way in the reconstruction of the course of study\nfor city schools is well illustrated in the thorogoing and progressive attacks\nin Boston and St. Louis. In his December, 1914, report Superintendent\nDyer says (p. 20) :\nDuring the past year the attention of elementary teachers has been concentrated\non the course of study and especially on the fimdamental branches. The purposes of\nrevision are (i) to select the topics that deserve major emphasis and give them adequate\ntreatment; (2) to subordinate the topics of less importance in such way that they will\nreceive much less attention; (3) to omit obsolete or nonessential matter; (4) to indicate those facts or exercises which should receive repeated attention until they are\nunder the control and at the command of the pupil; and (5) to give as many illustrations as possible of the application of the topic or practice to the life of today or the\nexperience of the pupils.\n\nIn his report to the board for June 30, 1914, Superintendent Blewett\nsets forth in detail (pp. 299-321) the fundamental attack on the revision\nof the course of study for the St. Louis schools. These committees have\nendeavored to define the fundamental principles vmderlying education and\nto develop a statement of the function of the public school. To quote\nSuperintendent Blewett:\nIt shoidd apply this conception of the public school in determining the contents of\nthe coxirses of study, the total amoxmt of time to be devoted to it, the various kinds of\nsubject-matter to be introduced, the relative importance of the time of their introduction,\nand the length of their continuance and the amount of total time of the course to be\nallotted to each.\n\nEvery state survey which has thus far been reported has devoted\nlarge attention to the course of study. The constructive efforts which these\ninvestigations have stimulated are certain to be far-reaching. Bulletin\nNo. 51 from the Department of Education of Minnesota indicates the\nextensive effort imder way there to improve the course of study, altho no\nsurvey of the public schools of the state has taken place. In the survey\nnow under way in Illinois, there is a department devoting large attention\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n605\n\nto the program of studies in the charge of W. C. Bagley, of the University of\nIllinois.\nWithin very recent years, as we have come to emphasize the relation of\neducation to vocational discovery and efficiency and to understand scientifically the wide differences in children, we have made large progress in the\nadaptation of the educative efforts of the school to promote vocational\nefficiency and to suit these differences in children, whether they be due to\nnationality, to peculiar social conditions of living, or to other causes. Such\nadaptation is the essence of providing a system of universal education.\nA mere enumeration of the agencies developed for meeting the needs\nof children who vary from the normal type is striking evidence of the\nprogress which has been made in recent years and of the present emphasis\nupon the importance of differentiating the educational agencies in the\ninterest of serving every type of child. The agencies thus far developed,\naltho the terminology for describing them varies greatly, may be roughly\nclassified according to the types of children served as follows:\n1. Children with special physical defects, giving rise to agencies for serving the deaf; those with particularly defective eyesight; the crippled; those\nwith speech defects such as stammering and stuttering; those who are\nanemic and undernourished, or evidencing tubercular tendencies, giving\nrise to open-air and open-window schools.\n2. Children whose mental needs and characteristics vary widely from the\nnormal, giving rise to agencies for the better education of the supernormal\nor gifted child thru grouping the children on the basis of ability, as is\npossible in large schools, or thru preparatory schools such as are maintained\nfor the gifted in Baltimore and Worcester, or thru specially planned rapidprogress classes; the mentally defective, but improvable; the markedly\nretarded or overage children who are usually served thru review or opportunity classes; and the foreign and immigrant children, whose special needs\nare met in special classes until they have acquired the ability to participate\nprofitably in the regular English-speaking classes.\n3. Those who are morally out of step and who are not reached by the means\nadapted either to normal children or to the children falling in the two classes\nabove, giving rise to the disciplinary school for incorrigibles and to the\ndetention home or parental school, especially for truants. In many small\ncities, the effort to extend these types of advantage must be centered in\nwhat is known as the \"ungraded school,\" where the responsibility falls upon\nthe teacher serving each type of child as far as possible.\nIn addition to the agencies mentioned above, efforts are made to a\ndegree which was formerly unheard of to reach each type of child thru\nknowing him and helping him individually and thru making provision for\npromoting children at irregular intervals in the interest of enabling each\nchild to work at all times where he can accomplish the largest gains. In\nthe St, Louis schools, attention is called particularly to the fact that\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nprovision is made for reaching and helping the pupil who is \"bored\" by the\nwork of the school and who longs to get at the practical work of the world\noutside of school. For these, classes are maintained whose aim is to\nemphasize the conjunction between the two and to show how the school\nministers to efl&ciency of work outside the school. They also seek especially to serve those children who have difficulty with the abstractions of\nthe conventional schoolroom thru exercises of the manual type. Further,\nfor those pupils who do not plan to finish the elementary schools, finishing\nclasses are organized for thirteen-year-old children who have reached the\nfifth grade and who plan to leave school as soon as they become fourteen.\nThe object of these classes is to fit these children for taking up some type\nof work more adequately than would be possible if they remained in the\nregular grade work.\nIf we succeed in extending the adaptation of educational advantages\nuntil all types of children are adequately served, we shall have established\nuniversal education, which we must realize is quite in contrast with mere\npopular education. While service is the keyword for both types of education, popular education renders general service to all, whereas universal\neducation renders the largest possible service to each. Popular education is\nmass education; universal education is individual education. Popular\neducation seeks to aid the common people; universal education to aid all\nclasses, common and otherwise. Popular education is for the whole body\nof people; universal education extends to, includes, and affects each of the\nwhole body of people. Popular education makes a gross, general effort\nto render service; universal education is all-reaching, all-pervading in its\nmethods of seeking out the individual. One suits the general mass of\npeople; the other is adapted or adaptable to all and to various uses; one\nis for all, the other reaches all; one is general, the other specific; one provides general opportunities, the other differentiated opportunities; one\nproclaims its possibilities, the other secures results. One holds out the\nadvantages of a single, narrow course of study to all; the other varies\nthe details of a broad course of study to suit the different types of\nchildren in the schools. The first brings abundant help to the few to\nwhom it is adapted; the second adapts its efforts to insure the same\nrelative service to each child. The first opens the same doors to all;\nthe second opens as many doors as there are types of children and\nvocational ambitions.\nThe efficiency engineer has made his largest strides in the evaluation\nof the results of education. It is probably no exaggeration to say that the\nmost significant motive in American education today arises out of the possibility of measuring the accomplishments of the schools by the application\nof standard scales and units of measurement and by the employment of such\ncomparisons as the reliable data now accumulated make possible. The\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n607\n\nefforts to study the result of public^ education scientifically fall in two large\nfields. The first concerns itself with the financial aspects of public education, the other with the measurement of the attainments of public-school\nchildren.\nFormerly, boards of education and administrative officers merely concerned themselves with such bookkeeping as would show honestly and\ncorrectly the amount of money expended. The object was merely to enter\nan accurate record. Modern school accounting does not disregard this\nearlier object of bookkeeping, but it concerns itself particularly to make its\nentries in such way as to make possible an interpretation of the results\nwhich the money expended is producing. We are not satisfied to know\nmerely just how we stand, but we are concerned to know how far we have\ngone and what we have accomplished for the money expended. Progress\nin the matter of scientific school accounting has been both stimulated and\nmade possible by such scientific studies as Cubberley's School Funds and\nTheir Apportionment, Strayer's City School Expenditures, Elliott's Physical\nAspects of Public Education in American Cities, and Hutchinson's School\nCosts and School Accounting. Advancement in this direction has also been\ngreatly assisted by the aggressive activity of the Bureau of the Census in\ndeveloping standard forms for reporting the financial statistics of the public\nschools and in reporting annually the data thus produced in such form that\ncomparisons in cost between school units are possible. Updegraff's scientific Study of Expenses of City School Systems, issued as Bulletin 4\"/ 3 by the\nBureau of Education, was also a definite contribution to the scientific\nstudy of the financial aspects of public education.\nFar more difficult than the problem of reducing the study of school\ncosts to a scientific basis is the task of measuring the attainments of publicschool children. The last few years, however, have evidenced wonderful\nprogress in this field. While the primary objective has been the measurement of results, yet from this movement have resulted numerous inquiries\ninto the methods of securing results. In reality, therefore, the problem of\nmeasuring the attainments of children has split into two phases, one concerning itself more particularly with methods of securing results, the\nother, with the measurement of the results secured.\nThe attack on methods has produced such results as Earhart's Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools, Stevens' The Question as a Measure\nof Efficiency in Instruction, Kirby's Practice in the Case of School Children.\nThe Detroit Department of Educational Research gives as one of its aims\nthe helping of teachers to give greater assistance to individual children\n'So vitally related is the efficiency of the teacher to the results of public education that the present\nattention to the development of plans for measuring the eflSciency of the teacher demands a word here The\nsecond part of the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, by Boyce, provides\nan excellent summary of the efforts thus far made to estimate the efficiency of the teacher, evaluates the\nmethods employed, and not only recommends the procedure considered best, but shows the value, from both\nthe teacher's and the administrator's standpoint, of measuring scientifically the efficiency of the teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "608\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin accordance with their peculiar weaknesses. St. Louis has established\nin the public schools a psycho-educational clinic in charge of a trained\nclinical psychologist, in order that scientific study of the defects in children\nmay be possible and that scientific aid may be available in the development\nof ways for improving the teaching process. Seattle and Chicago employ\nsimilar ofl&cers.\n^,\nFar greater attention has thus far been bestowed upon the measurement/\nof the attainments of children. The numerous surveys described by JuddV\nin Part II of the Thirteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study ojffx\n\nI\n\nEducation, pp. 69-85, and by Buckner in chap, xxiv on School Surveys 'm^\nVol. I of the 1914 report of the commissioner of education, pp. 513-62, hav^\nbeen concerned largely with the measurement of the educational results\nproduced by the school unit under investigation. A mere list of the places\nthus far surveyed, which it is needless to give here, is overwhelming evidence of the prominence of this movement in current American education.\nThe change from the attitude of self-complacency so conspicuous a few\nyears ago in the reports of superintendents and boards of education to the\ncritical, judicial attitude now manifested by the majority of reporting\nofficers is undoubtedly due almost wholly to the scientific methods now\nemployed for measuring what the schools are accomplishing.\nRapid progress in this phase of school administration may be expected\nduring the next few years. As Strayer says (Vol. I, p. 35, 1914 report of\nthe commissioner of education) :\nThru the data accxunulated in the reports of superintendents, thru the work of special\ndepartments of research and investigation in our larger city-school systems, by means of\nthe collection of scientific data by state officers, by means of systematic inquiries or\nsurveys of educational activities in state, county, and city, and thru the study of education in our professional schools, we may hope to measure more significantly than heretofore\nour educational practice and to establish with greater certainty the principles upon which\nwe base administrative procedure.\n\nWhen the situation is grasped fundamentally, imdoubtedly the idea\nunderlying the present emphases upon the improvement of the course\nof study, the adaptation of educational agencies to individual differences,\nand the evaluation of the results of education, is the more adequate motivation of the work of the elementary schools. As never before, educational\nleaders are realizing that the schooltime of every child must count for the\nmost possible in his educational development. That this may follow, the\nprogram of work and the methods employed must be such as will enlist his\ninterest and his active attention regardless of the competition set up by\ncommercial inducements or outside pleasures and enticements. Not only\nmust the work of the school be worth while intrinsically but it must be so\nbrought to the child, and he must be so brought to it, that it is meaningful,\nsignificant, and purposeful to him at whatever stage of development it\nmay be brought to bear upon him. The work which he is doing in the\nschool must answer questions he has had, supply needs he has felt, and\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n609\n\nsolve problems which he has met. When the educational opportunities\noffered meet these requirements, the child's entire apperceptive basis\nfocuses upon the work in hand. Not only does his ability intellectually\nfocus, but large fountains of energy in the field of his emotional life, favorable to the work in hand, are released. The result is success and accomplishment on the part of children. They feel the stimulus of victory and of\nwinning.\nThe movement for greater eflBlciency seems to have as its central motive\nforce the slogan that everything — content, organization, technique of\nteaching — which maintains its present position of influence in the school\nmust be shown to be more serviceable in securing the ends sought thru public\neducation than something else. Unless it can meet this crucial test, it must\ngive way to the other type of thing which promises more. Until the educative agencies are so directed as to supply the largest possible motive to\nschool children, the ends required by efl&ciency shall not have been realized.\nThe foregoing discussion implies thruout that the day of the professional administrative oflScer and superintendent of schools is at hand.\nThe emphases which are dominant in modern education would be impossible\nunder the clerical type of superintendent. Not only would he not conceive\nthe problems which are dominant in modem educational progress, but he\nwould not be able to further their solution if they were brought to him by outside expert advice. A prerequisite to continued progress in the new fields of\neffort in the interest of eflSiciency is the further development of the professional superintendent of schools. Fortunately, large opportunities are\nnow available for study and training for this particular profession. Not\nonly are courses in the sciences fundamental to education and in psychology,\nsociology, economics, and government provided, but all of these are organized and interpreted with particular reference to their significance from the\nadministrative standpoint. Bodies of information are gradually accumulating and methods of procedure are being evolved which promise a subjectmatter so thoro and well directed as to constitute a science of educational\nadministration.\nB.\n\nSECONDARY\n\nPAYSON SMITH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nEDUCATION\nOF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA,\n\nME.\n\nThere is probably no other part of the school system of our country\nthat is more under the scrutiny of the pubUc than that field which we define\nas secondary education, and in view of the somewhat chaotic condition of\nsecondary education it may not be altogether easy to speak of its achievements. Nevertheless this very condition is itself an evidence of the\nliveliest interest. And certainly, despite the criticisms of the dissatisfied,\nthere is ample evidence that the pubUc high school has achieved popular\napproval and support.\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6lo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nFor example, it is within the memory of men not yet old when a large\nand controlling element of our people beUeved that the public was under\nno obligation to maintain any schools beyond those of elementary grade.\nNow, however, the great majority of our states give recognition to the\nabsolute obligation on the part of the people to carry educational opportimity at least thru the secondary-school age. A majority of the states aid\nby subsidies towns and counties that support public high schools, while not\na few of the states are now requiring all conununities to supply secondaryschool privileges to all of the youth who are in a position to profit by them.\nHence in the statutes of our land is a record of achievement in public\nconfidence in secondary education.\nMore striking, however, than the evidence of the law is that which is to be\nfound in the enormously increased and rapidly increasing attendance in these\nuniversities of the people. There are few communities in which the increase\nin pubUc high-school enrolment is not outstripping by several times the increase in population. The doors of the public high school are besieged\nannually by an enormously increasing throng of j^oung men and women who\nlook to it for a contribution to their growth and equipment. This increasing attendance, unparalleled in the case of any other educational institution,\nis a conclusive evidence of an achievement of popular approval and support.\nAgain, the readiness of our secondary educational institutions to accept\nthe new obligations that are being pressed upon them is an educational\nachievement of no mean order. With the larger public support and the\ngreatly increased attendance have come innumerable new demands for\naltered courses and more varied educational opportunity. These problems\nof secondary education involve radical changes in administrative procedure,\nthey involve entirely new social aspects of education, they involve a right\nperspective of that phase known as college preparation, and they involve\nthe proper connection of school work with vocational demands.\nNo other institution has ever been so suddenly called upon to face so\nradical a reorganization as that now being inaugurated for secondary education. The successful meeting of these new issues is the present-day\nachievement of secondary education that may very easily rank every other\nstep of educational progress of this generation. It is perhaps an easy\nprophecy that the most notable contributions to be made in any field of education within the next decade will be those made by the secondary schools.\nC.\nFRANK\n\nSTRONG,\n\nHIGHER\n\nCHANCELLOR,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nKANSAS,\n\nLAWRENCE,\n\nKANS.\n\nThe present situation in higher education is a complex one. Grants\nfor higher institutions of learning both public and private have been large.\nThe material equipment of colleges and universities has been increased\nas largely as one could expect.\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n6ll\n\nThat the spirit and purpose of American colleges and universities have\nimproved and kept pace with their material development is not so clear.\nIt may be doubted whether students and teachers have as yet understood\nand appreciated how serious is the problem of higher education and how\nnecessary it is that the learner should give himself to his task with great\nsingleness of purpose. There seems little doubt that the American university has not yet achieved entire success in imbuing its student bodies\nwith the seriousness of life and its preparation. We have not yet succeeded inputting first things first.\nAmerican colleges and universities have not solved fully the problem\nof their relation to the moral and spiritual life of their students, of the right\nbalance between the things that make for the higher and truer values in\nlife and those that make for the utilitarian and materialistic side. They\nmust learn that education alone cannot solve all of our problems, that a\nsound religious and moral life is fundamental to a nation. Our institutions\nof learning must be leaders in the strong social and moral movements that\nmake for the betterment of the race. If they cannot be leaders in the moral\nand spiritual life of men, they have lost their strongest claim to support.\nOn the other hand, the American public has to learn that it must not\nexpect the impossible from its schools. If the American people are seriously\ndisappointed in the public-school system as a whole, they are themselves\nto blame, for they have expected the impossible, have thrown the solution\nof the moral and religious problems that ought to be taken care of in the\nhome almost entirely upon the school and college. It is not too much to\nsay that the public conscience of the whole country must be aroused in\nfavor of movements that will compel the community, the home, and the\nchurch to fulfil their responsibilities and duties.\nWhile American colleges and universities are in general sound and\nvigorous and wholesome, a decided feeling of unrest is evident thruout the\ncountry as to these great institutions of learning. This feeling relates to\nprivate institutions as well as public. One notable feature in respect to\nprivate institutions is the passing of the balance of power, so far as the size\nof individual institutions is concerned, from private to public institutions.\nTo be sure, one private institution is by far the largest in enrolment of all\nthe institutions in North America. But with this exception, it is probably\ntrue that the largest institutions in enrolment are public universities and\nthat this is becoming increasingly true. A question of prime importance\nto private universities is their relation to the great American high schools.\nThis question is leading to a change in entrance requirements in an attempt\nto adjust the institutions to the work of the public high schools. It is also\nleading to a serious consideration of whether students entering private\ninstitutions from public high schools shall be entered on examination only\nor shall be entered by certificate as in the case of public universities.\nThe settlement of these questions may radically alter the complexion of\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n6l2\n\n■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[NaUoial\n\nthe great private institutions. On the one hand, comparatively few graduates ofpublic high schools of the Middle West enter certain of the private\ninstitutions of the East. The effect of this is to localize proportionately\nthe great private institutions so that at the present time, of all the institutions in North America, a state university is probably the institution\nmost completely national and international so far as concerns the number\nof states and countries from which its student body comes. This situation\ncuts off the private universities from close and intimate contact with the\ngreat democratic institutions that must more and more prepare the mass\nof students going into colleges and imiversities, and turns the stream from\nthe public high school to the public university. It seems possible, therefore, that the great private foundations may become less and less national\nand democratic in the distribution of their students and be confined more\nand more to the general locality in which they are situated. And what\nis more important, it seems possible that they may be restricted in the class\nof people from which they draw and thus become to a large degree class\ninstitutions. To my mind this would be a calamity, for there is an undoubted advantage to the nation in these great private institutions being\nmeeting-places of students from all classes and from all states of the nation\nand of the world.\nCoincident with this, there is a growing sentiment for the development\nof state universities in some or all of the original thirteen states of the\nUnion. Opinions might well differ as to the strength of this movement,\nyet there are some who say that it is stronger now than ever before.\nParallel with this is another striking tendency, relating itself entirely\nto state universities. In two states of the Union, at least, recent laws\nrequire the admission of graduates of four-year high schools, accredited by\nan agency named in the act, sometimes the state board of education or\nthe state department of education, into the state imiversity without further\naction. While this takes away from the state university the control over\nits own entrance requirements and transfers from the university to the\nstate department official oversight and inspection of schools, it also forges\nthe last link in the chain of public education, beginning with the kindergarten and ending with the graduate school of the state university. So far\nas one can judge, this method is likely to become universal and the effect\nof this action no one can yet foresee. That it is an action of unusual importance few will deny. It accentuates the difficulties in which private\ninstitutions find themselves and raises to still greater importance the question of the method of entrance into the institutions on private foundation.\nAt least two disquieting situations have arisen during the last year or\ntwo. The first is the unexpected and disturbing agitation in many states\nhaving state universities against the university in some form or another.\nThis movement has sometimes been directed against the university a?\na whole and has denied the institution adequate appropriations. Some-\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n613\n\ntimes it has been directed against some departments or activities of the\ninstitution on the ground that the work was not \"practical\" or that the\nuniversity was seeking to \"run the state.\" Again, it has been directed\nagainst some individual or individuals in the institution. However it has\narisen it has been so general as to be almost universal. Five years ago most\nadministrators would have said probably that the question of state higher\neducation was settled permanently and that state institutions never again\nwould be subjected to general disquietude. Now many have been compelled to feel that the matter either of the form or of the permanency of\nstate higher education is by no means settled. There are a great many questions tobe answered. Are the people as much in favor of state higher education as they thought they were ? Are they going to be willing to restrain\nthemselves and exercise the self-control that is necessary to keep their\nhands off the immediate administration of the institutions ? Are they going\nto be willing to leave their universities free and independent, to allow them\nto develop in sympathy with the life of the state to be sure but following\nthe promptings of their own inner spiritual life ? Is it going to be possible\nto separate state higher education permanently from the question of\npolitics ? Is it ever going to be possible to have great questions concerning\neducation and its support presented to a legislature and decided upon their\nmerits and not on the merits of some individual, some faction, or some\nparty?\nA subsidiary question concerned in all this takes this form: Does this\nagitation mean that state universities must become purely utilitarian institutions ? Must they give themselves up entirely to those things that have\nto do with the immediate economic advantage of the state ? Must they\ncut themselves off from that indefinable and yet enormously powerful\ninfluence that comes from the culture of the past ? Must the material and\nnot the spiritual be the guiding influence in state imiversities ? Is it true,\nor have we been mistaken in thinking, that the things that are vital and\neternal are the things that are unseen and spiritual, that the material things\nof this life are the things that so easily pass away ? If state universities\nmust become purely utilitarian institutions, then the hour of the private\nand denominational college has struck again and the nation will need and\nmust preserve at their fullest efficiency those institutions that concern\nthemselves primarily with the higher things of life.\nThe second disturbing feature of the present situation is related to the\nfirst. It is the question of the freedom and independence of the teacher.\nMost disquieting things have happened in many universities during the\npresent year. The statement has been made that there are at least ten\ninstitutions, one of them a great private institution, in which a teacher or\nadministrator has been dismissed without a reason so adequate as to be\nconvincing to the university community and to the public. Many of those\ninterested in higher education would have said four or five years ago that\n\nr\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "6 14\n\n■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nit is unlikely that the permanency of tenure or the freedom of the teacher\nwould be questioned seriously again, but within one year the question has\ncome up so many times as to make all real friends of higher education apprehensive. Our colleges and universities would be of little value without the\nindependence of the teacher and the full integrity and stability of his position. Uncertainty as to the independence of the teacher imdermines confidence inregard to everything that is done in the institution. It raises the\nquestion at once as to whether any work whatever of the institution is\nbased on perfect liberty of thought, upon freedom to search for truth, or\nwhether it is tinged with and warped by the fear of consequences. Can\nwe depend upon what university men tell us in economics, in history, in\nsociology, in science, or are they speaking the minds of some invisible person\nunknown to the public ? As one great American journal has said, gaggmg\nteachers because of ill-advised or radical sentiments throws doubts upon the\nsincerity of the utterances of aU those level-headed, true-minded men that\nnow speak with such authority and are the bulwarks of a soundly organized\nand administered community or state.\nThe great war in Europe has of course affected everything in the world's\nlife. It has affected American education. The most disquieting of these\neffects is the loss of confidence among a growing number of people in the\nresults of German scholarship. How widespread this feeling is I do not\nundertake to say. It seems to have reached considerable proportions.\nThat it should become exaggerated and go to extremes is greatly to be\nfeared. The basis of our education in America is partly German. We\nhave relied also on German psychology, on German philosophy, on German\nhistorical criticism and interpretation, on German biblical and textual\ncriticism, on German sociology and economics. The vital question that\nall this raises is, Must there be a substantial reconstruction of what has\nbeen based upon German conceptions? Must we reverify all of our conclusions? That is the logical conclusion of this wave of doubt. The\nwhole matter demands the sane, unbiased consideration of all true scholars.\nFinally I beg leave to call attention to the opportunity of American\nuniversities that the present war crisis presents. Who is going to make\ngood the inevitable letdown in the tremendous intellectual development in\nscience for which for the past fifty years Germany has been largely responsible ? What universities are going to assimie the burden that, to a large\ndegree, the great French schools are obliged to lay down? WTiat institutions are to supply the place that the great English universities must for\na time forego ? Nor is it a question of imiversity buildings, laboratories,\nequipment, and teachers only. The loss of vigorous alert yoimg minds is\nthe most serious loss of all and one that is well-nigh irreparable. To carry\nonward the present standards of life of Western civilization requires a constant stream of alert and vigorous manhood flowing into our universities\nand colleges for preparation for the highest intellectual service. That\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nACCOMPLISHMENTS\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n615\n\nsteady stream has been going on for years. Everything in our development ispostulated on it and its cessation must produce a great and paralyzing effect. There is no nation of the first class largely unaffected by\nthis terrible conflict but the United States, and it is from our country that\nthe material for the leadership of the world should come. America and\nits universities should become the center of the intellectual life of the next\ngeneration.\nIn order that American universities may perform their whole duty in\nthis crisis, several considerations must be kept in view. There must be a\nmore vigorous intellectual discipline in our colleges and universities.\nThere is no doubt, if American institutions are to play their full part in the\ngeneration to come, that an appreciable stiffening of the intellectual fiber\nof our institutions, a great increase in the seriousness of our intellectual\nand moral purpose, is necessary. One of the greatest difficulties that\nAmerican universities and colleges meet in this respect is the competition\nof secondary interests with the primary interests of intellectual development and the necessity of centering once more the main interests of the\nuniversity body on the intellectual side of university life.\nThe present crisis calls for a still greater and more unique creative work\nin research and investigation. The scholarship of our institutions cannot\nbe extended or maintained without research, investigation, and publication.\nOur advance as a people and our usefulness to the world depend in a real\nsense upon the extension of the boundaries of knowledge, upon discoveries\nand improvements, not only in scientific but in literary, historical, and\neconomic lines.\nThere must be so far as possible an increase in the primary sources of\nresearch and investigation. In some lines of research, primary sources\npermanently reside in Europe and European institutions. That the present\nwar will have a disastrous effect in this regard and do irreparable damage\nto the intellectual side of life is well demonstrated by what has happened\nto the library of the University of Louvain. But so far as possible the\nprimary sources of investigation upon which creative work must be done\nshould be transferred to America and here developed.\nAmerican universities must have a revival of true religious and spiritual\nideals. The war has shown that culture as the sole foundation for civilization isa failure. The crumbhng walls of the University of Louvain\nand the awful scenes upon the battlefields of Marne and Aisne and Galicia\ntestify to that. Our civilization is a failure and culture counts for nothing\nif its flower must be the production of great fleets and armies, and the establishment forever of militarism as the guiding principle in civilization. Our\ncivilization, if it is to stand the awful shock of this war, must go deeper than\n'Culture. It must go deeper also than purely formal religion. That, too,\njthe war has shown to be a failure. It must go as deep as the real unity of\nthe race and the real brotherhood of man. Universities and colleges have\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[NaUonal\n\nnot done their full duty in maintaining and extending sound spiritual life,\nand American universities in the present crisis will not do the work so\nnecessary for the next generation unless they shall humble themselves in\nspirit and purge themselves of whatever interferes with the development of\nthe highest and purest intellectual and spiritual life. The intellectual and\nspiritual burden of the world must in some large measure fall upon America\nand its institutions. It must be our task, so far as lies within our power,\nto help the nations withstand the tremendous shock that war is giving to\nWestern civilization.\nTOPIC:\nGRACE\n\nFUTURE OUTLOOK AND POSSIBILITIES\nA. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\n\nC. STRACHAN,\n\nDISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nBROOKLYN,\nN.Y.\n\n^\n\n|fi\n\nThe chief hope in elementary education is that the course of study\nshall be so closely and so wisely related to the life of the pupils that each\nchild shall have ample opportunity to become thoroly familiar with the\nmaster keys to the riches of literature, science, and art — the oft-derided\n\"three R's\" — and, at the same time, have full opportimity to study practically and extensively along the line which his nature and his capabihty\nindicate will best develop him to the end that he shall realize his best\nusefulness and happiness as an individual, a member of a family, and a\ncitizen of the world. This means that the course of study of every\nelementary school must be elastic enough to meet, in so far as it is possible,\nthe natural inclinations, the needs, and the abilities of the individual,\nwithout weakening his character, Umiting his world, or jeopardizing the\nrights and privileges of his neighbors. And it of necessity involves vocational training, and trade education, but it does not of necessity mean\nbreaking away from the formality and system necessary to develop strength\nof character, respect for law and order, and the mutual consideration and\nco-operation indispensable in a good citizen. Neither does it mean that\nthe child of a doctor must be educated to be a doctor or that the child of\na tinsmith must be trained to be a tinsmith.\n\nB.\nSTANLEY\n\nBROWN,\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT,\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH SCHOG!\n\nm\n\nJOLIET, ILL.\n\nThe future of any institution must have as its chief setting its present\nand its past. Secondary education in America means the public high school\nand the private academy. The great mass of secondary education in this\ncountry is found in the public high school. The growth and development of\n■f I-\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Cotmcil]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\n617\n\nsecondary education for more than two generations have been directed\naway from the private school. While there will always be a group of students ofsecondary-school age to be trained in private schools, the percentage\nof the whole group to be trained in public high schools will grow constantly\nlarger. The public high school has long passed the stage when it was not\nconsidered a part of the common-school system. The decisions of supreme\ncourts, the growth in public favor, the enormous increase in the amount of\nmoney expended for building and grounds, equipment and faculties, are a\nliving and continued evidence of the popularity and necessity of the public\nhigh school.\nIt is an incontestable fact that the public high school secured its first\ngreat recognition in the Middle West. It is probably true that a single\nsentence from the famous Ordinance of 1787 had as much to do with making\nthis development possible in the great Mississippi Valley as any other force.\nThis sentence reads: \"Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary\nto good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means\nof education shall forever be encouraged.\" This statement cast in bronze\nand placed in a prominent position in the University of Michigan, the first\n?reat state university established, has acted as a kind of leaven for all the\npublic-school systems in this great valley and probably for all the school\nsystems farther west. The reflex from this influence has doubtless had its\n3lace in the development of public secondary education in other sections\n)f the great nation.\nBut what of the outlook for this institution which is rapidly becoming a\neal people's college ? The public high school of today is not the institution\nvhich existed ten years ago. It has undergone a very rapid transformation\nn response to a similar change operating in society at large. In this evoluion which is in process now the keenest seers have discerned the meaning\nif the \"pedagogical barometer.\" The disappearance of the public free\nands, the rapid increase in population, the mad onrush to the great centers\n'f population, the keen penetrating competition of the modern business\n/orld, and the consequent comparison with conditions of production in\n3reign countries have driven us, with little or no notification, to adjust our\nchool system rapidly to the changing condition in society. In some secions of the country, it has seemed that such an adjustment could be made\nnly by dividing the forces of education into two separate and somewhat\nidependent organizations, the one styling itself the new and progressive,\nle other styled the old and somewhat conservative.\nFierce legislative battles have been fought by both parties contending\n11 the while that each had all the light and that the other was seated in\nirkness. These battles are on now. It is probable that when we have\nissed thru the present unstable interrogatory stage we shall find one\nstitution and one system rather than two. It is also probable that that\nstitution wUl in very many respects be like the institutions today, but\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "m\n6i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthere will be an effort to make a very direct and effective contact between\nthe education and the life in the school and the education and the life outside\nthe school. The yawning gulf, the aching void between school graduation and pubhc service, the hiatus, and the consequent period of unproductiveness on the part of the school's product will disappear. We shall then\nrecognize that where we have a constant fluctuation in society there must\nbe an increasing fluidity in the scholastic preparation of society for its ultimate duty. The period of reorganization and readjustment will be a\nconstant period and we shall in consequence change the place of emphasis\nfrom decade to decade if not from year to year. The pedagog will then\nrecognize and act upon the suggestion that society is not static but rather\ndynamic and that all systems which propose to deal with society must deal\nwith changing conditions rather than with permanently fixed conditions.\nThere can be no greater evidence of the future possibiUties in the field of\nsecondary education than the fact of expansion. Already in many centers the\nperiodof secondary education has reached down one or two years and in almost\nas many other centers it has reached up one or two years. In the first case,\nthe reaching down, its purpose has been to prepare more quickly and more\ndirectly the boys and the girls before the age of sixteen for the actual service\nwhich they are expected to perform in the manufacturing and business\nworld. Whether this movement will remain a permanent poUcy in the\ncenters where it is now being tried out can be answered only after the years\nof experimentation have separated the good from the bad and the public\nis ready to express its opinion on the results. Whether the extension\nupward so as to include in the present secondary-school course the work\nnow done by the junior college shall be extended beyond the confines\nwhere such experimentation has been found for ten or twelve years is likewise a question which only this kindred evolutionary process can determine.\nIt is, however, fairly clear now that the overcrowding of many of the universities beyond the high school can find its relief only by so developing the\ninstitution below it as to reduce the number to be cared for in the great\nuniversity. The junior college has apparently persisted, and many of the\ncenters which now boast of its existence would be released from their\nobligations with great hesitation.\nThe junior college is the newest distinct institution now developing iii\npublic education. It has seemed to come from a somewhat local demand\nfor an institution immediately and easily accessible to certain t>-pes of\nyoung men and young women who have finished the ordinary high-schoci\ncourse. It is not so much the extension of the curriculmn so as to include\nthe first two years of the college that has made this institution develop, but\nit is rather in the fact of the immaturity of the boys and girls finishing\nordinary high-school work and the consequent interrogation rising when the\nparent faces the necessity of sending the boy or girl seventeen years of age\nfar away from home influence, from parental supervision, and from an>\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n619\n\necclesiastical direction. Probably in this new institution we have come to\ninject more of the qualities which tend to make and mature womanhood\nand manhood and good citizenship than we have heretofore done. It is\nprobable that in this institution a responsibiUty shall rest for a more complete development of the citizen by close supervision at home than has\nheretofore been possible in any of the types of institutions to which such\nhigh-school products might be sent. This is a phase of expansion peculiarly\nresting on the jimior college and extending as never before the responsibilities and duties of public educational leaders. This movement is again\na new recognition of the place which the home may have in retaining near\nit the direction of the youths who are but citizens in the making. For\nmany years we have heard in conventions that the home has been neglecting\nits obligation to the boy and the girl and that it has been releasing itself\nfrom many of its obligations and putting those obligations squarely on the\nschool. With the development of the junior college, it would seem that\npubhc opinion and the home behind such development is making its answer\nto the former accusation and assuming again the proper and right direction\nof the education of the young man and the young woman during the middle\nof the period of adolescence.\nAside from these changes, which are largely expansions of the curriculum, there is a growing demand that the physical and moral welfare shall\nbe cared for in a very earnest and purposeful way.\nWe are now beginning\nto see that the adolescent must be developed as a human unit and that in\nDrder to do that we must properly care for and direct the physical, social,\nind moral life of the boy or the girl. It is a well-recognized fact that the\n3oy who does not know his eyesight is defective works under an inexcusable\nlandicap regardless of the time and effort he may make in a perfectly honest\nAray. We are now ready to act upon the basis that it is the business of the\n)ublic educational institution to correct a physical defect in eyesight, in\nlearing, in breathing, and give the individual so corrected a fair chance\n0 get results from his effort in school. We are beginning to put into the\nchool and its obligations the meaning which John Dewey put into it when\nle said \"The school is life.\" We are now beginning to interpret \"life\" in\nerms of physical, social, moral, intellectual welfare.\nThe future of the secondary school is beginning to show that the\nmphasis, which has heretofore been most largely placed on the training of\nhe intellect, is beginning to be shifted. We are now face to face with trainig and directing the physical, social, moral, industrial qualities of the\nouth. More of the criticism of the public high school has grown out of\ntie undirected social life and the misdirected moral and physical life than\nrem all other sources. We are beginning to feel now that the teacher whose\nusmess it is to train the physical being must be as expert in his field of\nctivity as is the teacher who is to train the intellectual side of the pupil,\nlore attention today is being given to organized, systematic, physical\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nati\n\neducation than ever before in the history of the country. The fact that\nin many schools physical education is a required subject applied to all\ncourses of study and to all students unless excused by some reputable\nphysician is a sufficient evidence of the trend of public opinion concerning\nthe necessity for physical education. No longer do we dismiss this subject\nby saying we have a coach for the football, basket-ball, tennis, track, or\nother teams, but we are insisting that physical education shall be as much a\npart of the daily effort of teacher and student and shall be as important ir\nthe development of the pupil as any other phase of his education. It car.\nscarcely be expected that all the student body will be equally interested iri\nthe side of physical education represented in the games and team contests\nof one kind and another, but it is clearly evident that the most progressive;\nboards of education and the educational leaders with greatest foresight\nattach the most serious importance to physical education. The charges\nof dishonor and graft and unsportsmanlike conduct, which were formerly\nheard with reference to athletic contests, are rapidly disappearing and m\ntheir place is the well-founded defense of giving physical training to the\nwhole student body.\nThe social and moral education is now being made a subject of supreme\nimportance, and the direction of this work has been looked upon with such\nseriousness as to justify the employment of a well-trained individual designated now as the dean of women whose supreme duty it is to give close personal supervision and direction of the moral and social life of the young\npeople in the school. It is possible, under such direction, to give close\nsupervision to all of the social activities of the school for which the school.\nin the mind of the public, may have any responsibility at all. The transition from a condition of undirected social life to one of direction and control is not always easy and is frequently embarrassing, but this problem\nlike all other big school problems, has to be met and is being met now in\nscores of places, and results are being secured which are fairly comparably\nwith the results in other departments of the school.\nGrowing out of the social and moral needs of the students of secondare'\nschool age, there will probably come the employment of a physician, as i\nregular member of the school faculty, and there may come the necessit)\nfor securing the services of a man equally trained to care for the eye, ear\nnose, and throat, and to make a careful medical examination of all tl.(\npupils in the school at least twice a year.\nIn the upward evolution of the high school into a junior college, it i\ndoubtless true that some considerable percentage of the small priva:\ncolleges will find it to their financial interest and to the interest of thei\nconstituents to become junior colleges. Some have aheady taken thi\nstep and others are contemplating it. We shall then have in large number\nwhat we have now in small numbers — a junior college supported at publi\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n621\n\nin some measure, the same field of education but appealing to a different\nconstituency.\nIn attempting to project the future of the secondary school, we are\nfirmly convinced that the private academy will persist only when it has\nsufficient endowment to maintain itself in the face of pretty serious opposition, and that, in many cases, the private academy will add to its curriculum the first two years of the college and join the junior-college field.\nThe example set by a few cities and towns in the establishment of a junior\ncollege must gradually lead larger and larger numbers of cities ranging in\npopulation from twenty-five thousand upward to establish and maintain\ntheir own junior colleges. This will mean a kind of upward evolution in\neducation somewhat akin to the development of secondary education in\nthe most progressive European nations. It will mean that we can, by such\ndevelopment, meet the demands of the business and professional world.\nIt will mean further that the present higher institutions, especially the large\nuniversities, will be relieved of what is to many of them now their most\nserious problem — the caring for boys and girls who have scarcely reached\nthe middle of their adolescent period. This prophecy is a new interpretation\nDf the state's obligation to supply education at public expense to the children of the state from the age of six to the age of twenty-one. So far as we\nire able to determine, there has been no court decision up to this time\ndenying the right of any young man or young woman, under twenty-one\n/ears of age, to apply to the public schools for instruction during this entire\nDcriod.\nThe development of junior colleges in large numbers of centers of popuation means that in the future the present requirements of the best colleges\n)f law, medicine, engineering, etc., will be fairly and legitimately met before\nhe young man or young woman has to leave his or her immediate neighborlood and withdraw from immediate parental direction and vocational\nguidance.\n\ni\n\nC.\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n4UY POTTER BENTON, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY\n\nOF VERMONT,\n\nBURLINGTON,\n\nVT.\n\nThose who have preceded us during the day in the discussion of this\n;eneral theme have been enviably advantaged. They have been privileged\n0 enumerate the educational ideals and accomplishments of the years and\n0 bring them up to date. We must attempt to speak convincingly of the\nuture outlook and possibilities of education in America. The underaking, at best, is one fraught with peril to those who have pride in mainaining reputations for sound thinking. With knowledge of the shifting\nonceptions of school, college, and university aims, as evidenced by the\nItered character of educational thought and discussion in the last quarterentury, who with any conscious certitude wiU dare to say what our\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsuccessors will be thinking and writing and speaking about twenty-five\nyears hence?\nLet it be clearly understood then at the outset, that I do not essay to\nforecast in detail the educational conditions of tomorrow and the day after.\nI only hope, in fulfilment of my accepted obligation for the discussion of\nthe future outlook and possibilities of higher education in our country, to\nfind safe mooring for some indisputable conclusions as to future probabilities\nby tying up to the self-evident truth that in the United States of Ameriai\nhigher education is the business of the state. The axiomatic character of\nthat statement is warrantable on the ground that it has become the fixed\npolicy of every state of the Republic to assume responsibility for the existence and direction of colleges and universities.\nSince higher education has thus become the settled business of the state,\nI shall devote myself to a defense of two propositions: first, that our American colleges must reorganize imder state leadership; second, that for considerations ofeconomy and efliciency, there must be, in every state, a\nworking correlation of all the institutions of higher learning. In short, the\ngeneral reform movement which American colleges and universities must\nundertake in the immediate future is one involving reconstruction and\nreadjustment.\nUnder the inspiration of direct legislative order, the gift of seminary\nlands, or the acceptance of the conditions of the Morrill Land Grant Law,\nevery state in the Union has established a state university or state college\nof agriculture and mechanic arts, or both, in addition to one or more state\nnormal schools. This assumption of the direct business control of highei\neducation by the state will make it increasingly the state's business to see\nto it that all colleges and universities supported and controlled by the state\nshall be encouraged to lead in setting and confirming right ideals of American life.\nBecause higher education is the business of the state, it is a safe prediction that considerations of increasing future usefulness will early make i(\nthe business of the state to encourage all its colleges and universities tc\nbecome business institutions. This does not mean that our colleges ano\nuniversities must find their chief claim to public approval in vertical files\nand faultless accoimting systems. Admitting the need of simple and easil>\nadministered but accurate and thoroly intelligible oflice systems, it is, aftei\nall, not the mechanics of business I have in mind when I aflGirm that the next\nstep in higher education will be that which makes it the business of the\nstate to order that state colleges and universities shall be business inst.\ntutions that know their business.\nHumiliating as the confession may be, those who love truth must admit\nthat American colleges and universities today do not know why they are\nwhat they are, or what they can be or should be. To make this admissior\nis not to disparage the value of the service already rendered to civilizatior\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "ouncUl\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n623\n\nly the colleges and universities of our common country. We owe much to\nur institutions of higher learning. The debt of America to its colleges and\nniversities can never be discharged. Even so, tho, the popular obligation\n/ould be infinitely greater than it is today if our institutions of higher\nducation had been founded and developed with better intelligence.\nThe ordinary American college or university in its institutional organiation represents a series of accretions. Most institutions of this type\ntarted with two or three faculty members and a very limited curriculum.\nLS the years have gone on and demands, either real or imaginary, have preented themselves, new instructors and new courses have been added.\nI?he result in most instances is an educational aggregation rather than eduational co-ordination. State institutions have been located by legislative\nuthority or direction, often on the basis of political expediency without\nefinite assurance of satisfactory financial support, and without any well\nnought out plan of institutional development to assure a growing service\nD the state.\nWith such ignorance of immediate needs in the days of founding, and\nith such circumscribed vision of future possibilities, the wonder is not that\nur American colleges and universities have failed to accomplish all that\n'as hoped for them, but rather that they have, under these limitations,\nccomplished so much that is creditable to the civilization of the new world.\n'he fact remains, tho, that our institutions of higher learning have been\n)llowmg lines of least resistance. They started with certain departments\nE instruction because those same departments existed in other American\nistitutions or in the older countries of the world. This inclination to\nlind imitation has grown until now it has become the controlling factor in\naming curricula. There is slight thought given to the question of real\need. The American college or imiversity of our day is a composite of\nnglish and continental ideals sprinkled all over with certain distinctively\nude American notions.\nThe 596 colleges and universities reported by the United States comlissioner of education in 1913, with their more than 30,000 instructors and\nrofessors and their 335,000 students, enjoyed a combined income of more\nlan one hundred million dollars, but nobody knows whether or not that\nrge sum of money was wisely expended. It was doubtless honestly devoted\n) specific purposes, but it is a warrantable belief that it might have been\nsed with greater benefit to the supporting constituencies of the several\nstitutions. The healthful development of our American colleges and\nliversities waits on a proper diagnosis of institutional disease. We cannot\nrescribe remedies until we know what is needed to guarantee educational\n-alth and effectiveness. We have been treating educational symptoms\nithout knowing their causes. The duty facing American colleges and\ndiversities in the immediate future is to find themselves. There is no\nnger justification for.doing certain things simply because they have always\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbeen done, or for doing things in a particular way because they have always,\nbeen done that way. With due respect for honorable tradition but with i.\nlarger regard for the proper demands of our changing social order and the\nrational evolution of civilization, our institutions of higher learning should\ncall a halt until some method is found for the evaluation of their work to the\nend, when values have been determined, that the superfluous or less necessary activities may be abandoned as necessary preliminaries to the permanent organization of the indispensable and more necessary operations.\nA state institution belongs to the commonwealth that supports it and\nnot to those employed in its operations. People of every point of viev/\nshould be enlisted in the effort to determine what a particular institution is,i\nwhat it can be, and what it ought to be in service to the public. As an\nadvance guarantee of right conclusions, constituents of every calling, trustees, alumni, faculty members, and even students within proper limitations,\nshould be set to the task of an honest attempt to discover institutional\npotentialities. Then, too, whenever and wherever expert coimsel or\nservice may be needed the great private foundations should be called upon,\nwith perfect confidence in their unselfish friendship, for the help they are\nbest fitted to give. By such use of the good offices of external and internal\nforces in combination, we may hope for the determination of what the\ncolleges and universities of America must do in their several localities if they\nare to be growing instrumentalities for the promotion of the general weal.\nThe entire abandonment of preconceived notions is a necessary preliminaiyi\nto the solution of the problems offered by an educational institution in a\ngiven location.\nIn every study of college and imiversity organization, the earnest effort\nto ascertain the needs of the legitimate constituency of the institution concerned should be made paramount. It will be necessary to forget, to some\nextent, what institutions in other sections of the coimtry are doing. The\nwork of higher education in the United States has suffered much in recent\nyears from obedience to untenable precedent. A college or university witli\nlimited resources may do more of harm than of good by the attempt to coveri\nthe same ground that larger and wealthier institutions differently situated\nmay properly perform. State environment, resources, occupations, and\nneeds are factors that should be taken into account. Within every state itshould be possible in the near future for institutions — state and private — so\nto adjust and correlate their work as to avoid a continuation of the present\nfinancial waste resulting from imnecessary duplication.\nIt has become the fashion in certain quarters to deride the undergraduate study of Latin and Greek, but even the most rabid educational reformer\nwill hardly insist that those who feel inclined by taste and talent to a study o^\nthe classics should be denied that privilege. The disciplinary and cultural\nvalue of these subjects is well established. It does not follow as a corollary\nthe that every college in a given state should offer opportunities for the\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": ":ouiicai\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n625\n\n.tudy of Latin and Greek.\nConditions are conceivable which would make\nt inexpedient, in some states, to offer these subjects in any of its instituions. Prophets with prophecies born of their own desires have worn themelves out predicting that the pendulum of popular approval would soon\nItegin to swing back in the direction of the old classical college, meaning\nihat the small college of the early fashion would come again to its own, in\nue time, as the only reputable type of higher educational institution in the\nountry. There is no strong indication that these predictions will ever be\nsalized in fulfilment.\nContrary to any tendency to move back toward the\nild, the trend of institutional progress is leading in the direction of those\noUege subjects which function with something real in the life of the student,\nnd that, of course, means that if the young collegian has a vital interest\n\\ linguistics the finest culture and the best discipline will come to him\niru study of the languages.\nStudents of differing talents or inclinations are not profited by a comilsory study of the classics if classics have less of human interest for them\nlan have the pure and applied sciences. There are no high-minded parents\nho prefer that their sons shall be educated without regard to religion and\norals, or social and economic problems. On the contrary there are those\niio want all the newest appliances in farming or the latest devices in\nansportation and engineering presented in college, but along with these\ney want their children to get an appreciation of the fine things in art, in\nerature, in history, in philosophy, and in ethics. May it not, then, be enely practicable, under the leadership of state-controlled institutions, to\n)rk out in the near future a more effective scheme for higher education in\n' ery state — a scheme of readjustment that will command the co-operative\n' pport of all those connected with the institutions of higher learning, deminational and private as well as public, in the interested state, so that\n< e institution shall assume the responsibility for courses in certain subjects\n' die another institution is guaranteed exclusive right for differing lines of\ns icialization that do not cross those running elsewhere in that state ?\nOne important object of collegiate training is the development of the\n; irage man, and when adjacent colleges and universities within states\nf erate for the avoidance of senseless rivalries and the abandonment of\n1- lecessary competition, we shall find it possible to eliminate the waste of\nr nay from which every state is now suffering in its laudable efforts to\nF 'secute satisfactorily the work of higher education. The ultimate outcie will be an improved civilization. Thru such co-ordination of work\nV hin states, it will be easier to call to the service of higher education men\na I women of the largest ability for whom both the material and spiritual\nr ards of service will be much larger than any that can be offered under\n^ present indefensible, slipshod, competitive method. Furthermore,\n^ b such co-ordination of institutional work, it will be possible to give to\ntl student constituency of every state the educational opportunities that\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Natb,\n\nmost of them may properly require without the mmecessary expense\nlong travel to other states, leaving many who have obtained the bacci\nlaureate degree free to continue their graduate studies at home in researc\nlines the state can best ofifer, with the added impetus of a desire to contini\ntheir studies in some greater university at home or abroad.\nThe study of existing conditions for the discovery of what each insj\ntution within the state has been, what it has failed to be, what it cad^i\nand, above all, what it should be as a part of a state educational system\ncommand the highest respect of the world of scholarship, will necessari\nprecede the unification of the work of higher education in each particul\nstate. Political state sovereignty is a subject on which honest men mj\ndisagree. Educational state sovereignty is absolutely essential to tl\npromotion of the public welfare. The state which shall lead in the effort |\nsweep away the debris of the years in order to get down to a solid foundati^\nupon which to build a better superstructure of higher education proper]\njoined together and harmonized in all its parts will become a pioneer thj\nother states will gladly follow in rapid succession.\nSo far as institutions of higher learning are concerned, the most beo\nficial educational movement of recent years has been that which found :;\norigin in the work of university extension. In the days of the old cloisterl\ncolleges of the continental type the street ran by the campus. Today it rui\nthru the campus, out onto the main highways and into byways that carry t;\nstimulating influence of the college or university to the remotest comersf\nthe state.\nIn 1906 the National Association of State Universities meeting t\nBaton Rouge received a report from one of its committees previous'\nappointed to propose a plan for the standardization of universities. Ttt\nreport failed of adoption. It seems altogether certain that for many yes\nto come the typical American university will continue to be \"a complexf\ncolleges\" — undergraduate, graduate, and professional. It will adhere pmarily to its original fimction as an institution for instruction; it vl\nperpetuate the best accomplishments of mankind in all ages, provid?\nwithout unnecessary duplication for the study of the languages, Uterat j ,\nreUgions, laws, philosophies, and customs, so that nothing that the hum\nrace has ever achieved shall be lost; it will extend the domain of knowletf,\nthru investigations of the phenomena of nature with the newer methods\nresearch in co-operation with scholars everywhere; it will disseminat\nwidely as possible by means of publications and otherwise the knowle\nits members have found; it will seek to discover and encourage unus\ntalent by recognizing rare abiUties among all classes; it will uphold\nhighest standards of scholarship and professional learning in law, in m(\ncine, in theology, in education, in agriculture, in mechanic arts, in inve\ngation and in scientific service; and, finally, its supreme reason for existed\nwill be found in the dedication of all its potentialities to the general welf^\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": ":ouncil]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n627\n\nSuch a university system within a given state as the culmination of the\n5ublic-school establishment will not be confined to a particular locality. It\nvill guarantee to every properly correlated part the enjoyment of its chartered or state-ordered privileges. Under the newer and better scheme of the\n|:oming day when intra-state colleges and universities shall be welded\nogether without sacrifice of institutional personality into one educational\ni)rganization of the highest efl&ciency, those departments supported and\nilirected entirely by the state will do no violence to high religious, political,\nir social ideals, but they will command narrow sectarianism to keep hands\nff. They will offer no hospitality to the designing politician. They will\nive no permission to the fanatical dreamer or to the social and reMgious\n:onoclast to get into the limelight thru use of a university professorship.\n'hey will give destructive caprice no protection under the cloak of academic\nreedom.\nSpecific prophecies may never be fulfilled. The general prophecies\nE improvement along the broad lines suggested must be realized as vindicaon of the right of colleges and universities to continued existence. The\nipreme purpose of public education should be the inculcation of a lofty\n)nception of individual and communal responsibility. Such a sense of\nisponsibility instilled in childhood and youth will later find its full fruition\nnewer and better ideals of character, of service, of democracy, and of\nitriotism. Our colleges and universities, with full appreciation of their\n•cial obligations, will hasten the realization of this high purpose of education\ntru independent institutional reconstruction and by inter-institutional\ntegration. These two inevitable steps soon taken will insure the increasg efficiency of higher educational work in America. It is the business of\ne state to lead the forward movement.\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Anna M. Stovall, supervisor and normal instructor, Golden Gate Kindergarten\nAssociation\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nVice-President — Myra M. Winchester, special collaborator, Kindergarten Division,\nBureau of Education\nWashington, D.C.\nSecretary — Anna I. Jenkins, director of Roosevelt Kindergarten\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 17, 1915\nThe depaxtment was called to order in the Auditoriiim Theater at 9:00 a.m., and the\nfollowing program presented:\nTopic: Kindergarten Legislation\n\"What the California Congress of Mothers Has Done for Kindergarten Legislation\"\n—Mrs. H. N. Rowell, president, California Congress of Mothers, Berkeley, Cal.\n\"Kindergarten Legislation in California — How We Secured It and Some of Its\nResults\" — ^LUlian M. Clark, Los Angeles, Cal.\nTopic: The Kindergarten and the Elementary School\n\"The Kindergarten-Primary Course in the State Normal School\" — Ruth C. Hoffman,\nprimary superviser, State Normal School, EUensburg, Wash.\n\"Some Adjustments That Might Secure Closer Integration\" — ^Mary C. C. Bradford,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo.\n\"Progressive Development of the Kindergarten Course of Study in the Elementary\nSchool\" — ^Lillian B. Poor, assistant director, Public-School Kindergartens, Boston, Mass.\n\"The Advantages of Placing the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades under the\nSupervision of One Person and That Person a Trained Kindergartner\" — C. E. Chadsey,\nsuperintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.\nWilliam N. Hailmann, pioneer leader and publisher of The Kindergarten World, was\ncalled to the platform and presented to the audience, who gave him the cordial reception\nwhich his long and honorable service merited.\nThe chair appointed the following committees:\nCommittee on Nominations\nFrances Newton, Sierra Madre, Cal., Chairman\nAda M. Hughes, Toronto, Ont., Canada\nHelen G. Dwyer, Evanston, HI.\nCommittee on Resolutions\nWilliam N. Hailmann, Pasadena, Cal., Chairman\nEUa C. Elder, Buffalo, N.Y.\nLucy T. Ellis, Phoenix, Ariz.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday 62Afternoon,\nAugust 17, 1915\n9\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 :3o p.m., in joint session with the International\nKindergarten Union.\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "m\n630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindeijarten\n\nAfter a program of songs by Nelly Laura Walker, San Francisco, Cal., the folJo'\nprogram was presented:\nTopic: The Kindergarten and Industrial Arts\n\nI ■• at\n\n\"The Influences of Modem Education upon Handwork for Yoimg Children\"—\nMarion B. Barbour, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"Practical Connections between Aesthetic and Industrial Values\" — Catharine R.\nWatkins, director of kindergartens, Washington, D.C.\nTopic: Child Study\n\nS\n\n\"The Trend of Progress in Child Study\"— Elisabeth Ross Shaw, director, School of\nMental Measurement, Evanston, HI.\n\"Modem Psychology in Its Relation to Discipline\" — Gail Harrison, State Normal\nSchool, San Francisco, Cal.\n\"Education in Relation to the Imagination of the Little Child\" — ^Maria Montessori,\nM.D., Rome, Italy.\nThe following officers were elected for the coming year:\nFor President — Mary B. Fox, director of Kindergarten Department, University of\nUtah, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nFor Vice-President — Ella C. Elder, supervisor of kindergartens, Buffalo, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — ^Fanny A. Smith, 863 Lafayette St., Bridgeport, Conn.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— TtJESDAY Evening, August 17, 1915\n\n^•\n\nThe evening session was called to order at 8:00 p.m. and the following program presented:\n\"Child Education as a Basis for the New Internationalism\" — May Wright Sewall,\nIndianapolis, Ind.; Harriet P. Thomas, secretary, Woman's Peace Party, Chicago, DL;\nJ. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe following resolutions were presented and adopted:\nResolved, That we recognize gratefully the splendid hospitality of the city of Oakland\nin affording us the opportunity of meeting in her magnificent City Auditorium as well as\nthe imiversal courtesy extended to us by her citizens.\n2. We appreciate keenly the hospitality of the East Bay kindergartners, our hostesses\nat the luncheon.\n3. We feel deeply indebted to the press, both of Oakland and of San Francisco, for\nits courteous and generous attention to our proceedings and their publication.\n4. Our thanks are due to the officers of the department for the excellent and inspiring\nprogram, and for affording us the opportunity of hearing May Wright Sewall, Indianapolis, Ind., Harriet P. Thomas, Chicago, HI., Maria Montessori, Rome, Italy, and\nNelly hauls. Walker, San Francisco, Cal., in her charming songs.\n5. We welcome with special gratification the co-operation of the International\nKindergarten Union in our meetings, and we trust that on futiu-e occasions we may be\nsimilarly favored by these leaders in the work of the kindergarten.\n6. We commend the hopefully progressive spirit that pervaded the discussions, the\ngrowing tendency to incorporate the kindergarten as an integral factor in public education,\nand the introduction of kindergarten principles and methods in the work of the elementary\nschool.\nAnna I. Jenkins, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nLEGISLATION\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTOPIC: KINDERGARTEN\nA.\n\nWHAT\n\n631\n\nLEGISLATION\n\nTHE CALIFORNIA CONGRESS OF MOTHERS\nDONE FOR KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION\n\nHAS\n\nMRS. H, N. ROWELL, PRESIDENT, CALIFORNIA CONGRESS OF MOTHERS,\nBERKELEY, CAL.\n\nIt is the purpose of the National Congress of Mothers and ParentTeacher Associations, of which the Cahfomia Congress of Mothers is a\npart, to further in every way possible the wise early training of children.\nTo this end it has been lending its influence for years toward the establishing\nof kindergartens in the public schools.\nI take it that you expect me to give some suggestions that may be used\nto obtain kindergarten legislation in states where the kindergarten is not\na part of the school system.\nIn California, the present law is the outcome of years of effort to awaken\nthe members of our own Congress and the public generally to the value\nand need of kindergartens. But even with the demand for kindergartens\nthat finally came, it is improbable that our bill would have received much\nattention if it had not had the backing of thousands of women voters.\nLate in the year 191 1 women were granted the suffrage in this state.\nWe had one year in which to plan before the next legislature met. The\nstrong women's organizations of the state formed a Women's Legislative\nCouncil and agreed on certain measures that each should advance, all\nsupporting all measures as far as possible affecting women and children.\nThe Congress of Mothers framed and supported a kindergarten bill which,\non account of its reasonableness, became the present law. It provides that\nupon petition of the parents or guardians of 25 children between the ages\nof four and a half and six (we had said four and six) residing within a mile\n(we had said half a mile) of an elementary school, the board of education\nshall establish a kindergarten in such school. The law provides for the\nI co-operation of the people, the school authorities, and the county supervisors. In the legislature it was referred to as giving \"local option in\nkindergartens.\"\nThe law does not purpose the wholesale estabUshing of kindergartens;\nthe growth has been gradual. Training schools have had time to meet the\ndemand for competent teachers. Two more state normal schools have\nadded training departments within the last two years. Only one state\nnormal school had a kindergarten-training department when the law was\npassed. As a result of the law 106 new kindergartens have been established\nand 56 more are promised for this fall. An amendment added to the law\nat the first session provides definitely for support to the extent of ten cents\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "™\n632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kinderpirten\n\non each hundred dollars of assessed valuation. Each school district supports its own kindergartens under the law. So the kindergarten situation\nin California is fairly satisfactory.\nWe believe, however, that every child, as far as practicable or possible,\nis entitled to this group-training in his formative years for the sake of his\nfuture social, moral, and physical efficiency. A wise college president said\na few days ago that everything is possible that is for the good of the children.\nThis gives us heart. Let us do all that we can to bring the knowledge of\nthe value of the kindergarten to parents, who are the voters and taxpayers,\nand in a short time the kindergarten will have its legitimate place as an\nintegral part of the public-school system.\nThe kindergarten director has a responsibility here. Every kindergartner should feel it to be an important duty to form mothers' classes or\nreading circles for the study and discussion of books on child-training that\nthe mothers may know how to co-operate with her in her methods for the\ndevelopment of the children; also that they may gain a truer appreciation\nof the value of the kindergarten. They will then be ready to assist in any\nmovement for better kindergarten legislation.\nWhen a group has formed a permanent organization, it should apply for\nmembership in the state Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations so that it may have the help and direction of the Congress, and so\nthat its members may assist the Congress in its work for the good of their\nchildren.\nI would say, then, as a basis for kindergarten legislation — organize and\neducate parents; give the suffrage to those most interested in child welfare.\n\nB.\n\nKINDERGARTEN LEGISLA TION IN CALIFORNIA— HOW\nSECURED IT AND SOME OF ITS RESULTS\nLILLIAN M. CLARK, LOS ANGELES,\n\nWE\n\nCAL.\n\nPrior to the year 19 13, there were fourteen coimties in California, eight\nof which were in southern California, having public-school kindergartens\nwhich had been estabUshed by the local boards of education and supported\nby local taxation, and forty-four covmties having no public-school kindergartens. There was no law in our political code providing for the estabUshment, maintenance, or government of kindergartens. Consequently each\ncity or town desiring one in connection with its pubUc school had to depend\nupon the will of its individual board of education in regard to its estabUshment. In many instances these boards of education, not realizing the\nimportance of the kindergarten as a part of the pubHc-school system,\nfailed to Usten to any and every request brought to them, and, because of\nthe lack of any compelling law, patrons of these schools were powerless to\ndo more than request and accept the refusal if their request was not granted.\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nLEGISLATION\n\nIN CALIFORNIA\n\n633\n\nThe California Congress of Mothers, keenly alive to the advantage of\nkindergarten training to every child in. the state as well as to the few,\nresolved to work for the adoption of a state law which would govern the\nestablishment of kindergartens as a part of our public-school system, and,\nif possible, to have this law passed by the legislature of 191 3, which was the\nfirst legislative session held after the enfranchisement of women in California. The kindergarten teachers of southern California, hearing of the\nwork which had been started by the Congress of Mothers, \"put their\nshoulders to the wheel\" also, enlisted the interest and support of the\nkindergarten teachers thruout the state, and did valiant work in furthering\nthe cause.\nThirty-six southern California legislators held a conference in Los\nAngeles in the latter part of December, 191 2, at which time people who\nwere interested in matters of proposed legislation were invited to be present\nland discuss such proposed legislation. The legislative committee of the\nILos Angeles City Teachers Club had a hearing before this conference, and,\namong other proposed measures which they were indorsing, included the\nrecommendation of the kindergarten section for some definite kindergarten\nlegislation. Some of the members were also interviewed personally and\ntheir support asked for bills which were to be prepared; and two legislators,\none from the Senate and one from the Assembly, promised to introduce\nthese bills when they were ready.\nThe president of the normal school in Los Angeles had tried in previous\nyears to have a certification bill introduced in the legislature, providing that\nthe holders of kindergarten certificates be allowed to teach in the primary\ngrades, but he had never succeeded in getting such a bill before the legislative body. While the question of kindergarten legislation was being agitated, we thought it an opportune time to introduce a primary certification\nbill also. Resolutions indorsing these two ideas — 3. state law for establishment of kindergartens and primary certification for kindergarten teachers —\nivere read and adopted by the Southern California Teachers Association\n:hen in session in Los Angeles.\nThis work was all done within one week. It probably would have been\nsetter planned and therefore better executed if we had had more time for\nhe preparation, but quick action was necessary if we were to take advantage\n)f the opportunity of a hearing at the legislative conference and the Southern\n-alifornia Teachers Association.\nOur coimty school superintendent, who was considered an authority on\ntate school law, was asked to formulate the two bills. After the legislature\nonvened and the committees were appointed, the chairman of the commitee on education of the Assembly was asked that an opportunity be given\nhe advocates of the kindergarten to appear later before a joint committee\n'n education of the two houses. This request was granted. In the meanime, some leaflets of campaign literature had been prepared. A meeting\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "M\n634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Kindergarten\n\nwas called in Los Angeles of representatives of the kindergarten teachers\nfrom each town within a radius of one hundred miles of the city, at which\ntime plans for an active campaign were formulated. These representatives\nwent home ready to do enthusiastic work in their several towns. Printed\npetition blanks and copies of leaflets were sent to each of these representatives for distribution. Copies of the leaflets were inclosed in a letter which\nwas written to every county superintendent of schools in the state and\nmany of the city superintendents. Leaflets were sent to every member of\nthe legislature. Letters were written to each member of the educational\ncommittee, and they were also interviewed personally by their own constituents. Many of the other legislators were seen personally and written\nto. Articles were written and printed in the daily papers. Petitions asking for indorsement of the bills were widely circulated and signed. A similar\ncampaign was being conducted in the northern part of the state also. We\nseciu-ed indorsements from the boards of trade and chambers of commerce\nin the different cities and towns, boards of education, city, and county\nschool superintendents, and various civic organizations and women's clubs,\nall over the state.\nOf all this campaign work done, we believe the educational literature\nsent out, and the personal interviews with the members of the legislature,\nwere the most effective means of molding pubUc sentiment in favor of\nkindergartens. One of the Los Angeles kindergarten teachers was sent to\nSacramento by the kindergartners of southern California, thru the courtesy\nof the Los Angeles Board of Education, which body generously granted her\na three weeks' leave of absence without any loss of salary. She was sent\nto represent them at the meeting of the educational committee and to do\npersonal work in the legislature. She carried with her letters of introduction and indorsement to the governor, lieutenant-governor, and a number\nof legislators.\nTwo bills had been introduced providing for the establishment of kindergartens. One was indorsed by the California Congress of Mothers and\ndesignated in the legislature as \"Local Option in Kindergartens\"; the\nother was drawn up in Los Angeles and provided that the kindergarten\nshould be made an integral part of the state elementary school system and\nreceive its support from the state school fund.\nAt the meeting of the joint committee on education, there were present\na nmnber of leading advocates of kindergarten legislation. A number 0;:\nthese people were given an opportunity to speak on the subject and were\nclosely listened to by members of the committee.\nIt soon became apparent that no work was needed to convert the committee to a belief in the value of the kindergarten in the school system;\nthat evidently had already been accompUshed thru the Uterature which had\nbeen sent out and the conversations that had previously been held. There\nwas a decided difference of opinion as to its being made an \"integral par:\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nLEGISLATION\n\nIN CALIFORNIA\n\n635\n\nof the state school system.\" It was shown that the state as a whole was\nnot ready for such a broad legislative measure, that it might work a hardship on some communities, and representatives from country districts would\nI not vote for it.\nNo recommendation was made for any of the kindergarten bills at this\nmeeting and the outlook seemed, at first, to be rather discouraging, but as the\nstrongest opposition was directed toward the idea of the kindergarten being\nmade an \"integral part of the state school system,\" rather than its establishment being optional with local districts, we decided not to give up but\nto try it again, this time with the \"Local Option\" bill. With the cooperation ofa member of the staff in the oflace of the state superintendent\nof schools, two of the legislators, and the supervisor of kindergartens in\nSacramento, the \"Local Option\" bill, which in its original form was incomplete and inadequate to fill the needs of the situation, was reconstructed\nin such a way as to meet the approval of all concerned. This bill became\nan active law in August, 1913.\nThe main points of this law are: \"Boards of education or school trustees shall upon petition of the parents or guardians of twenty-five or more\nchildren between the ages of four and one-half and six years residing within\na mile of an elementary-school building establish and maintain a kinderjgarten,\" and it shall be supported from the local district tax. The educajtional committee also passed, in an amended form, the bill providing for\nthe primary certification of kindergarten teachers. This bill as passed\nprovided that \"holders of kindergarten certificates who have had at least\none year of training in a state normal school or one year of teaching in an\nelementary school shall be entitled to teach in the first grade of the elementary school.\"\nAfter these bills had been passed by the Senate and Assembly, our\nattention was turned to the signing of them by the governor. We wanted\nto be sure he was thoroly conversant with the importance and advantage of\naavmg such laws on our statute books, and that in the signing of the multitudinous bills that had been passed these would not be overlooked and\norgotten. This work was done thru letters to the governor and a few\npersonal interviews by interested influential people and thru the personal\nwatchfulness of the Sacramento kindergarten supervisor. Much of the\nsuccess of our kindergarten legislation was due to the work done with individual members of the legislature in personal interviews.\nThe greater and most effective part of this work was done after the bills\nid been passed out of the educational committee and before they came up\nfore the two houses for adoption. That is by far the most trying of any\nrt of the work. To do this work successfully and acceptably, one should\n)ssess a great amount of thoughtfulness and tact, and must be able to\nI'ecognize and improve the opportune time for pleading her cause in a few\nagical, concise, and. telling sentences, and in such a dignified, womanly\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nmanner as to command the respect and attention of the man with whom\nshe is speaking, even tho he may not agree with her opinions or be able to\nwork with her. One must also avoid encroaching too long or too often upon\na busy man's time.\nI have been asked about the expense of our campaign. The expense\nto the kindergartners of southern California was about $145.00. This\nincluded printing, stationery, postage, etc., also the expenses of the representative sent to Sacramento, but did not include her salary for the time\nshe was there.\nThe California Congress of Mothers spent about $25.00 for similar\nexpenses. The kindergarten teachers of Sacramento, San Francisco, and\nOakland doubtless spent some money in the campaign also, but I have no\ndata concerning the amoimt. I judge, however, that it would not exceed\nthe amount spent by the Congress of Mothers, which would make a total\nof approximately $200.00 of actual money spent in the active campaign.\nThere had been several years of effort back of this on the part of the Congress of Mothers and others, however, to educate the people and to create\na public sentiment in favor of kindergartens.\nOut of all this experience we learned many valuable lessons. One of\nthe most important and probably the most significant one for anyone\nwishing to profit by our experience was this: If before any bUls had been\nformulated, or any work had been done with the members of the legislature,\nrepresentatives of the people in different parts of the state who were interested had gotten together and agreed upon some measure that would suit\nthe conditions of the state as a whole, and then had had one bill instead\nof two proposed, all the effort would have been concentrated upon that\none bill, and our results would have been accomplished much more easily\nand doubtless in a better manner.\nBefore closing, I want to give you a little idea of what has been accomplished as a result of the kindergarten laws, which have been in force for two\nyears:\nThru the efforts of the California Congress of Mothers and the National\nKindergarten Association, working thru its California secretary in cooperation with various women's organizations, 106 new kindergartens have\nbeen opened in 56 different towns, 50 of which had never had one before,\nand an additional nmnber of 56 new ones will be open in the fall of 1915 in\n36 towns never having one before. A new kindergarten training department has been added to one of the state normal schools which had none\nbefore.\nSeveral kindergarten teachers — ^I do not know just how many — have\ngone into first-grade work mider the primary certification law, and are\nearnestly working to help bring about the closer connection between kindergarten and primary school, which educators everywhere have felt was\nnecessary for the strengthening of our public-school system. In a number\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY\n\nCOURSE\n\n637\n\nof instances, kindergarten teachers have been assisting in the first-grade\nrooms of their buildings in the afternoons, thus helping more closely to\nconnect the work of the two classes.\nIn the legislature of 1915, the law for establishing and maintaining\nkindergartens was so amended as to make definite provision for the amount\nof tax to be levied for the support of the kindergartens. It now provides\nthat an additional tax of not to exceed ten cents on each hundred dollars\nof the taxable property of the school district may be levied for the use of\nthe kindergarten.\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN AND\nSCHOOL\n\nTHE\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY COURSE\nNORMAL SCHOOL\nRUTH C. HOFFMAN,\n\nELEMENTARY\nIN THE STATE\n\nPRIMARY SUPERVISOR, STATE NORMAL\nELLENSBURG, WASH.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nI. English\na) A course in the story and story method for kindergarten and\nprimary.\nh) A course in rhetoric to teach the method of simple, direct, and\naccurate expression, in both oral and written composition.\nc) The history of English literature from Chaucer to Pope. This\nshould include an intensive study of masterpieces with rapid\nsupplementary reading.\nd) The history and principles of language teaching in the grades.\ne) Reading and speaking. This should include a consideration\nof all \"methods\" of reading; voice as an interpreter of mental\nstates; technical vocal training.\nn. Education\na) Elementary child study with obervation as the basis; how to\nstudy; native impulses of children and their educational importance.\nh) Principles and practice in education; curriculum values and\norganization of subject-matter, program-making, class organization and the individual child.\nc) Rural sociology. To give an intelligent, sympathetic imderstanding of conditions as they are to be found in rural districts.\nRural-school problems considered; their administration, supervision, and factors influencing their efficiency and those attending their management and organization. Observation of actual\nwork being done in rural schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten'\n\nin. Practice Teaching\na) Class and group teaching. One period of forty minutes daily\nthru one semester, an equal amount being given to kindergarten\nand primary grades. Purpose — the study of class problems.\nThe lesson. Plans for same. The relation to child. Special!\nmethods and management.\nh) A second semester of practice teaching in charge of a room\nthree periods daily for one semester, with consideration\nprogram-making, balance, relation of subjects, adaptation to\nNote. — All students specializing in kindergarten work should take a course indudiagj\nFroebel's philosophy and literatiire for children and an extra semester in kinderg\npractice.\n\nIV. Handwork.\nThe vital and right relation of all expressive work.\na) To the development of the child.\nh) To the general subjects that make up the daily and yearly program for the child.\n',\nc) Actual practice and study in principles of design, freehand draw-^^\ning and painting, composition, clay modeling, basketry, weaving, *\nand methods of teaching the same. A short elementary course\nin manual training is very desirable.\n.-Ill\n\nV. Psychology. A survey of the topics of psychology of educational\nsignificance, with application to teaching. A special study of some\npsychological subject thru experimentation and reading.\n^\na) Psychology of the senses and of some of the mental processes\nstudied thru laboratory experiment.\nh) Psychology of thinking, the technique of experimental education, and a psychological experimental study of some problem\nin education.\nc) The psychology of special subjects — treading, writing, spelling.\nVI. History\n1*\na) Mediaeval Europe.\nh) The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Great events and\nchief elements in the development of the leading nations of the\nworld, including the United States to 1850.\nc) Recent progress of the world from the American standpoint.\nd) American explorations and settlements.\ne) Methods of study and teaching.\n\n\"ft\nat\n\nVn. Biological Science\na) Botany. To make the pupU familiar with the language of\nsystematic botany, to develop systematic habits of observation\nand some skill in manipulation.\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY\n\nCOURSE\n\n639\n\nh) Zoology. Study of types with all the classes and principal\norders of animals.\nc) Cellular biology. The cell considered to be the ultimate basis\nof life.\nd) Bacteriology. Parasites in their relation to human life, including some important phases in general human pathology and the\netiology of diseases.\ne) Neurology as a preparation for the study of psychology.\n/) Physiology of the sense organs.\ng) School sanitation and methods.\nh) Nature-study methods.\nVIII. Sociology\na) Sufl&cient for some idea of the laws of social development. The\nfactors involved in normal social evolution and the mutual\ninterdependence of the social organs involved.\nh) Temperance and hvmaane education.\nIX. Mathematics\na) Study and history of the development of arithmetic, algebra,\nand geometry, with their relative importance.\nh) Method of presenting each to primary and kindergarten children.\nX. Music\na) Study of problems of the kindergarten and primary schools.\nh) Study of material child voice.\nc) Ear training.\nd) Drill in rhytlim, intervals, and individual singing.\ne) Choice and use of material for various grades.\nXI. Home Economics\na) Dietetics. The basic principles of human nutrition with special\nreference to food requirements and nutritive values; relation of\ndiet and disease.\nh) Treatment of diseases. A practical course in the treatment of\nsimple ailments, the handling of emergencies va. the schoolroom\nand elsewhere, application of bandages and dressings; preparation of food for the ailing.\nc) Textiles. Astudy of the history of textile industries; the sources\nand characteristics of each of the textile fibers; a knowledge of\nfabrics and their adulteration. This study of textiles and\nfabrics includes a consideration of the factors influencing the\nselection of subject-matter for classroom use.\nd) Consideration of application of principles in preparing lunches\nfor children.\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nXn. Agriculture\na) Soil. Common types of soils; their relation to heat, moisture,\nand air with the practical bearing which these factors have upon ,>\ntillage, irrigation, drainage, etc. The elements of soil fertility,^,\ntheir sources, functions, and the means of increasing and con- •\nserving them.\nb) Crops. Staple farm crops of the country; growing, harvesting,\nand marketing,\nc) Horticulture and school gardening. Operations of the garden\nthru the different steps of soil preparation, plotting, seed testing,\nplanting, irrigation, and cultivation.\nXni. Physics and Chemistry\na) Design and manufacture of simple apparatus; soimd studii\nlight studied.\nb) The consideration of the common non-metallic elements; occurrence, properties, methods of preparation, commercial uses, the),\ncommon compoimds of these elements, their properties, methods i^'\nof manufacture or natural formation, and commercial uses; the;!,\nstudy of the mechanism of chemical reactions and their expres-i\nsions in symbolic form.\n»\nc) Descriptive chemistry and elements of qualitative analysb.^\nThe common metaUic elements, their occurrence, properties,*\nmethods of preparation, commercial uses, and chemical separa-'|\ntion and detection; the compounds of these elements; their i\nproperties, method of preparation, or natural occurrence and^;\ncommercial uses. A course in chemistry designed to assist the g.\n\nI\n\nstudent in the understanding of subjects presented in courses in '^\nbiology, agriculture, domestic science, etc.\nXIV. Geography, Geology, and Astronomy\n\na) Geography as the central subject of the earth studies. Physiog-'j!('\nraphy, geology, mineralogy, and astronomy studied more par-*\nticularly in their relation to geography.\nb) Specific methods of teaching geography and related subjects.\nXV. Physical Education\na) A course in planning and conducting gymnastic lessons suitabl^\"\nfor school and playground.\n%\nb) A course in the recognition and correction of defects and faulty \\\npostures among children.\n>\nc) Physical training for life activities of a nature to be continued |\nthru life; the relation of the teacher and the commimity in J\ndirecting the recreation.\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nB.\nMARY\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nSOME\n\nTO SECURE\n\nCLOSER\n\nINTEGRATION\n\nADJUSTMENTS THAT MIGHT\nINTEGRATION\n\nC. C. BRADFORD,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nDENVER, COLO.\n\nOF\n\n641\n\nSECURE\n\nCLOSER\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nIt is not necessary to defend kindergarten principles. They have\nabsolutely revolutionized the practice of the profession of teaching in all\ngrades and all branches. They have linked the school to life, irradiating\nthe schoolroom with the pleasant homely light of everyday happenings,\nand projecting some of the system of the schoolroom into the home and the\ncommunity, thus making a unit of the life of the child. They have been\nthe impulse from which have sprung new educational definitions, fresh\nadaptations of educational theories, and readjustments of educational\nliving. They have made schools more natural and life outside the school\nmore beautiful.\nYet when this acknowledgment has been made, it must be admitted\nthat there is not as perfect adjustment between the work of the kindergarten and of the primary grades as there should be if the child is to pass\nfrom the kindergarten to the lowest grammar grade without consciousness\nof a break in school ideals and practice. And that the child should do this\nis most important. An ever-widening horizon should be the aim, not an\nabrupt transition from the normal self-expression existing in the kindergarten to a system verging upon, if not characterized by, actual repression.\nThere can be no question but that kindergarten methods should be\ncarried thru the primary grades. The use of ampler thought-material need\nnot forbid the employment by the grade teacher of the sane ways and\nmeans used by the kindergartner. In fact in the best and most modern\nschools we find that many of the devices used by the students of Froebel\nand Pestalozzi are much in evidence, and that first- and second-grade\nteachers gladly avail themselves of these educational tools. Even when the\nthird and fourth grades are reached, and the various concrete aids to mental\nprocesses are being replaced by comparatively abstract means, the kindergarten spirit may and should mold the work.\nOn the other hand, I have a theory with which many kindergartners\ndisagree, and I, an outsider, almost hesitate to tell a body of professional\nFroebelians that I can see no reason in the world why reading should not\n|be taught during the last kindergarten year, always supposing that the\nd spends two years in this preparatory blossoming work. Why should\nit be considered unprofessional to advocate the teaching of reading in the\nkindergarten, provided the reading be so taught that the child will feel\nlittle if any distinction between that mental exercise and the others that\nlie undergoes in the child-garden ? There are many ways of making reading\n>pring naturally from living, and the printed symbols in the book should\nlot be more mysterious than other symbols that come to have significance\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nfor the kindergarten child. The consciousness of being surrounded by\ngarden methods rather than schoohoom rules may be preserved even in\nteaching reading, and should be projected into the school life of the child\neven thru the first four grades.\nWe all admit the need of a greater correlation of the elementary grades\nwith the kindergarten and this can be accompUshed in the various ways\nbefore hinted at and by adopting the plan of Superintendent Chadsey,\nformerly of Denver and now of Detroit, whereby the offices of supervisor\nof kindergarten and primary work are combined in one person, and, as\nDr. Chadsey suggests, that supervisor a trained kindergartner. If such a\nunification of the work of primary and kindergarten supervision were to\nbecome general, it would undoubtedly result in the much-talked-of and\nmuch-desired correlation of the educational agencies directly affecting the\nlife of the child from four to nine years of age. Of course, there should be\nsome standard professional requirements exacted of one holding this sort\nof position — requirements that would mean a background of broader\nscholarship than is sometimes required of kindergartners and yet making\navailable for all yoimg school children the specific and profoimd philosophy\nof the kindergarten system.\nLet us hope that the effort now being made by kindergartners and\nprimary teachers alike may result in a better understanding of the work of\neach and a more perfect unification of methods to the end that the children\nmay learn to know the truth, to respond to beauty, to work skilfully, and\nto serve lovingly.\n^\nC.\n\nPROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KINDERGARTEN\nCOURSE OF STUDY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nLILLIAN\n\nB.\n\nPOOR,\n\nASSISTANT\n\nDIRECTOR,\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nKINDERGARTENS,\n\nThe tragedy of our school system is the fact that we do not utilize to\nthe best advantage the experience of the preceding year and consequently\nwe fail to recognize the richness of the work of the previous grades as we\nplan our program for the coming year. This is true not only of the kindergarten and primary grades, but equally so of the steps between the grammar\nschool, high school, and college. One great problem of today is the blending\nof these breaks in the school system and so eliminating the loss of time\nwhich is boimd to occur in the adjustment of the pupil to the new grade.\nA child's education should be continuous, his development normal,\nnatural, and along lines of interest. At home he sings and plays, rims and\njumps, and talks freely of his experiences to a sympathetic listener. When\nleft to his own direction, he follows the interest which appeals to him most\nstrongly. This type of existence is quite generally approved for the little\nchild, and the kindergartner, knowing the home life of the child, builds\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nSTUDY\n\n643\n\nher work on this natural activity. She does not make the mistake of\nteaching the boy or girl that he has two feet to run with, or two eyes to\nsee with, but begins at once to teach him to walk gently, to see right\nthings, and to classify objects seen.\nThere should be no break between the kindergarten and the first grade.\nThere is no break in the child's life to demand it and there is every reason\nwhy there should be a natural expansion of the ground already covered\nso happily and with such richness of experience. The addition of new\nmaterial reawakens the interest in doing and the spirit of play continued\nthruout the grades stimulates the desire for achievement. Joy in doing is\nthe motive of the kindergarten and should be the motive of all education.\nIn the kindergarten the child learns the beginnings of citizenship, principles\nwhich are aroused by recognition of the rights of others and his duty\ntoward the world, which knowledge comes by degrees to a child. The\nfirst step is built on the relation of the child to the home. His outlook\non life is broadened gradually, losing nothing by the way.\nSo, too, the good primary teacher knows the work of the kindergarten,\nknows enough of its aims to have a clear idea of the type of experiences\ncompassed and a general idea of the amount of work accomplished. She\nwill know how to build on this basis and how to give the child who comes\nto her his just right, for it is essential for the highest good of the child that\nthe two grades should work together without loss of either interest or power\non his part. The error of ignoring the work covered by the kindergarten\nyear is a grave one. Particularly true is this if the primary class is made up\nof kindergarten-trained children. To this error is due much of the criticism\nof the kindergarten-trained child. No child will maintain interest in the\nformal development of a lesson long since thoroly learned thru the play\nof the kindergarten.\nThe kindergarten child should come to the first grade with increased\npowers of observation gained thru actual experience during walks, talks,\nand practice with the technical materials common to the kindergarten.\nHe should have added powers of seK-expression and creative ability — the\nformer the outcome of a wider interest in all life around him, the latter due\nto opportunities for representing experiences by means of the varied\nmaterials offered in the kindergarten. His vocabulary should be increased\nthru the freedom of the conversational periods connected with nature\ntalks, home experiences, and story-telling, which fill so large a place in\nthe kindergarten program. He should have better physical control,\ngained thru plays, games, and rhythmic exercises, together with sympathetic\nconferences between the mother and kindergartner in relation to the early\nforming of habits. He should know definite facts of form — number and\nsize, position and direction, color and design.\nIn considering the progressive development of education in the kindergarten-primary unit of our school system, which extends thru the third\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ngrade, let us always remember that the change from grade to grade should\nbe natural. Interests of one grade should overlap those of another. There\ncan be no dividing line; the change in method of instruction should be\ngradual.\nThe busy-work of the grades should be the outcome of the manual\nwork of the kindergarten and should be practically self-directed. We may\nsafely assume that the child knows how to handle certain material common\nto both kindergarten and the grades and is now ready to progress at the\nsuggestion of the primary teacher.\nChildren bring from the kindergarten definite ideas of nimiber. They\nare of the tj^e which deals largely with relative size and proportion and are\nthe natural outcome of their play with the gifts of the kindergarten material.\nThese number experiences which the children have imconsciously appropriated have not been tabulated, but the experiences are there ready to be\nfurther developed in the first grade and tabulated in the later grades.\nThe teacher who beUeves in the spirit of the kindergarten will agree\nwith me that such nmnber experiences shoidd continue in the first grade\nthru continued use of objects similar to those in use in the kindergarten.\nThe number work of our kindergarten extension classes in Boston is developed thru lessons with stick and rings, building blocks, and surface measures.\nMore definite work in grouping is encouraged in these classes than is practiced in the kindergarten. The kindergartner knows the ground which\nhas been covered, and takes up the extension work at that point, progressing\nfrom step to step, giving new mmiber experiences, or varying the old thru\nuse of new arrangements or new material.\nDefinite problems are offered to the class, and it is characteristic of the\nkindergarten child that each one works out his problem according to his\nown plan. In a lesson recently observed, the problem was the making of\noblongs on a large sewing-card. In the class of twenty-five children,\nseventeen different plans took shape, each child absorbed in the problem,\ncaring nothing for the ideas of his neighbor, but definitely working toward\nthe goal set for the class, happy and absorbed imtil the goal was reached.\nWhen a definite task is set, it is always an advance on any previous clas5\nwork. We also give many opportunities for original work requiring accurate\nstatements descriptive of the results accomplished.\nThe child brings from the kindergarten such knowledge of form that\nthe introduction of reading seems to be a natural step of progress. The\nforms of the letters are new and the mechanical difficulties involved ir\nreading and writing must be overcome, but it would seem logical to clain:\nmore rapid progress because of this general preparation in kindergarten\nThe acquaintance with nature, with human life, and with literature which\nthe child brings to Jiis reading lesson will give a meaning to the words which\nwill help to make them his own, and which cannot fail to enrich his progress\nthru the early days of reading.\n\n\\i\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nSTUDY\n\n645\n\nThe development of language takes on a more definite form in the first\ngrade. The kindergarten awakens the interest in good stories, touches a\nlittle on dramatization, and makes a beginning of original story-telling.\nThe first grade naturally builds on these beginnings. The dramatic instinct\nof a six-year-old child seems abnormally out of proportion to certain other\ntendencies, and opens up a wide field for character building, since the child\nwho creates a part in the drama lives that part.\nWe also have a great field in the primary school for original story-telling.\nThe child in kindergarten will tell a story that meets every requirement of a\ngood story. It will have a beginning that catches the interest, a series of\nevents, a climax, and an end, and all be compassed inside of forty words and\ntold in forty seconds. The story-telling of the kindergarten will naturally\nbe continued in the grades, for the children have plainly shown their need.\nThey are ready for stories of experiences of little children of their own age.\nThe primary teacher also builds her program on the child's love for\ncolor. Assuming the possession of knowledge of simple facts of color, she\nprogresses to harmonious combinations, to various color tones, and to\n\"color seeing\" in nature.\nIn fact, the kindergarten child has already mastered much of the art\nwork prescribed for the first grade. He is accustomed to the manipulation\nof materials and to the arrangement of simple designs. He has learned\nthe names and characteristics of simple geometric forms and will not need\nto dwell long on the description of a square or circle, nor will he need the\nreiteration prescribed in the average course of study. More time can\nwell be given to drawing from nature, to reproducing stories both in drawing\nand in free cutting, to definite construction work in folding and cutting\nfollowed always by free work, to creative work with clay or plasticine, and\nto weaving. The development of applied design to objects made in paper\nconstruction adds interest to the form and gives an opportunity for artistic\nexpression.\nMay we touch on music as one of the joyous beginnings made in the\nkindergarten? The child sings in kindergarten because he loves it, he\nsings at his play, and often unconsciously sings as he works. With many\nchildren, it is a natural expression of inner harmony, and any child, after\nsympathetic encouragement, lifts the low-voiced monotone to the singing\nvoice which is desired. The primary teacher is happy who finds herself\nin the midst of a class of singing children and will encourage singing, not\nonly in the morning exercises and during the few minutes allotted to the\nsubject in the program, but will use it as a bit of leaven when the children\nneed a rest or change of interest. A song sung while the children are working at their desks is a happy innovation. She will also encourage the\nmaking of sentence songs after any particularly rich experience.\nI have tried in this brief paper to show how the activities of the kindergarten produce a good foundation for the work of the grades, and how the\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nteacher of the first grade who knows the kindergarten program can build\nprogressively upon this program.\nThe spirit and purpose of the kindergarten prevail in our best primaryschools, but the conditions are such in many schools that the freedom of\nthe kindergarten cannot be maintained in the primary grades, for the spirit\nof play seems to disturb the spirit of order. We will, however, recognize\nthe fact that the child needs short study periods with rest periods between\nand such rest periods that there shall be opportimity for physical freedom.\nWe are watching with interest an experiment in play in one of our\nprimary schools in Boston. A special play teacher has been assigned to a\nbuilding of six rooms whose duty it is to supervise the play of all grades,\nAt no time during the day is the yard imoccupied. Groups from various\nclasses play for twenty minutes, return to the classrooms, read or do prescribed class work for twenty minutes, which is followed by twenty minutes'\ndesk work elective but related to the lesson of the day and finally by repetition of the same program. The children move quietly to coatroom and\nyard, return to seats and take up work without a word from the room\nteacher, who is occupied with the second section. There is no disorder,\nand at four o'clock the class is as fresh as it was at nine in the morning.\nIt certainly demonstrates the value of play in education. It also shows\nthat freedom is not disorder, imless you choose to permit it to lapse into\nthat condition. The child must play his way thru the early years of his\neducation if he is to receive all that rightfully belongs to him. He cannot\nsettle down into adult manners and customs without losing the glory of\nbeing a little child. A happy childhood is his just heritage. It is the\ngreatest gift we can aid in giving him and every joy we can bring into a\nchild's life helps in the general uplift of the world.\nIt rests with the primary teacher to decide whether she will find a waj'\nto continue what we believe to be the natural way to gain a response from\nchildren in the grades. Hill-climbing is a difficult experience until we\nconquer it in this spirit. The actual physical effort required to reach the\ncrest is the same, but the mind and the spirit are engrossed by a deUghtful\nexperience, not burdened by a continuous consciousness of the wearisome\nact of foot-lifting and placing.\nPoints of adjustment are coming to us one at a time, so that in these'\ndays of progress the teacher who wishes with all her heart will see the fulfilment ofher wish. The day cannot be far distant when recognition of\nthe kindergarten as a base of all education will be general, and when the\nideals of the kindergarten-primary unit of our educational system will be\nuniform and will be based on the best interests of childhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHANDWORK\n\nTOPIC: THE\n\nFOR\n\nYOUNG\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n1. THE INFLUENCES\nMARION\n\nAND\n\nOF MODERN\nWORK FOR YOUNG\nB. BARBOUR,\n\nCHILDREN\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\nCHILDREN\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\n647\n\nARTS\n\nUPON HAND-\n\nCAL.\n\nThe real meaning of popular education. — ^The democratic idea of edu, cation still causes many educators to shake their heads doubtfully. They\nfear beauty and culture are to be sacrificed, that education is becoming too\npractical, that the emphasis is too great upon industrial arts, in fact that\neducation is in danger of becoming degraded, dragged down to a mere\nbread-and-butter basis. They feel that eflSciency spells technical skill\nrobbed of all the finer aesthetic expressions of life. They have failed to see\nthat education is for the formation of character. By character is meant\nthat quality which renders the individual \"able to make good and valuable\nselection along all lines of living.\" In fact, their breadth of vision has\nbeen too narrow for them to see that the preparation of youth for a serviceible life rather renders him the more appreciative of all that culture implies,\norepares him \"for the higher life of the spirit and for participation in the\npublic life of ideas.\"\nIt is the appreciation of the problem which is, by its nature, close to the\n:hild's need, demanding of him the same kind of thinking inside the school\n:hat would be demanded of him in the world outside, which has brought\nibout present methods and subject-matter. This is plainly seen in the\n:haracter of handwork for young children. Our present kindergarten\nstandard consequently would banish from kindergarten practice all forms\n)f handwork which cannot be used by children and which can be of no real\nv^alue in their eyes.\nIt has been said that \"the crude beginnings of handwork in the kindergarten and primary cannot be classed as industrial product,\" nevertheless\n'thru these crude beginnings is the finished product of later years possible.\"\nConsequently it is just as important to start the child right along these lines\nIS to give him the right start in his reading and writing. This means that\nbrmalism must go and an overemphasis of technique be avoided. Techlique must always lag behind the idea and the idea must be the child's, not\nhe teacher's. As this becomes more fully appreciated, things not vital to\nhe child's interests or needs will be omitted. The child's demand has ever\n^een for houses, dolls, wagons, clay dishes, furniture, etc. If folding is to\n)e done, something of worth will be the result. There will be boxes, baskets,\nicrapbooks, a set of table linen for the doll's house, or a kite that will fly\nnstead of small models accurately and neatly folded and pasted in a book\n0 be taken home at Christmas or at the end of the year.\nMuch kindergarten work has been justly criticized for its insincerity,\n['he child has been pushed into a finer, higher expression than he can\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergartet\n\nunderstand or appreciate. The result is mere imitation, a parrot-lik(\nreproduction of the teacher's idea. Dr. Dewey feels that to stress tht\naesthetic sense may tend toward moral insincerity, the child not responding\nnaturally but because he is expected to.\nInflttence upon material. — ^The quality of instruction depends fimda\nmentally upon the quaUty of subject-matter. Let us therefore first consider the character of materials used in the handwork with young children,\nkeeping in mind that the criteria for selection depend upon the child himseL\"\nand his own natural selection and use of materials. This is first based upon\nhis instinctive manipulation, second, upon his play motives, and third, upon\nhis need to clarify thought. Just how does the use of materials clarif)thought? \"Materials are divine obstructions.\" The effort against them\nbrings back an enlarged view, an added strength and efl5ciency. So thought\ntravels out and comes back to itself. A child knows his own thought b}painting, modeling, doing. In this sense these obstructions are the reflection of his thought and result in self-consciousness, seK-revelation. For a\nchild, to quote from Dr. Dewey, \"does not have clear ideas and express\nthem, but he expresses that he may clear them.\"\nThe field for selection based upon the above criteria is a large one and\ncan be most abundantly and satisfactorily suppHed at httle cost to school\nboards. All, or nearly all, that is demanded during this first period of\nmanual expression is an abundance of large blocks, paper, paste, cardboard\nboxes, cloth, yarn, needles, thread, string, wood, nails, nature materials,\nclay, sand and water, with auxiUary material furnished by both the teachers\nand the children to help more fully express this idea or that.\nJust here I wish to offer one word of caution in regard to cheap material.\nCheap material should be furnished as long as inaccuracies do not harm\nconstruction.\nFor instance, it is neither economical nor educative to use,\npoor clay, which crumbles when modeled, or is so elastic that it is almost'\nimpossible to handle with any result whatever; or to use cardboard which\ncracks instead of bends when the need is to make a clean, firm fold; or tot\nuse scraps of too fine yarn. However, I do not mean by this that the child:\nshould be deprived from experimenting with different grades of material\nin order that he may make his own comparisons and learn to appreciate\nquaUty and hence relative values.\nBut it is vmwise to resort frequently tc\nmakeshifts. You cannot expect a fine house to be built with a blunt saw,\ncrooked nails, and a light hammer any more than you can expect satisfac-i\ntory work with children who have poor scissors or paint brushes, cracked]\nblackboards, or small sand tables. What is wanted, therefore, is material\nwhich has a significant and appropriate relationship to the child, offering\nhim opportunity and motive for the exercise of his powers, both mental and\nphysical; material which frees him, binds him down to no set rule, teacher's\naim or attitude, but gives him opportimity to try his strength and to measure himself against the abihty of others, and gives him confidence in his\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": ")epartment]\n\nHANDWORK\n\nFOR\n\nYOUNG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n649\n\njwn power to create and in his \"power to use ideas.\" For instance, a good\nUustration is the present demand for large sheets of drawing-paper, for\n;heets of blank printer's paper, rolls of manila and hardware wrapping\njaper which is tough, flexible, unglazed, and of good color, instead of little\nl-quares and circles in neat and expensive packages. There must be no\ncrimping, no small and \"finicky\" work, but everywhere freedom to think\nmd do for one's self.\nThe time has come when, according to our present manual arts concepion, gifts and occupations should no longer be considered separate phases\nf kindergarten practice, but as phases of one and the same thing embraced\nmder the one term \"handwork.\" A few years ago many kindergarten\neachers thought to meet the situation by a compromise, calling gifts,\ntable work,\" and occupations, \"handwork.\" Present standard will not\nccept this. It has small patience with empty terminology, with \" schools \"\nf work, based upon a prescribed use of didactic material. Didactic\nmaterial endangers the child's natural relations to Ufe for it is a death blow\n3 experimentation. Auto-education is valuable only when the stimuli\nflfer situations which grow increasingly diflScult to solve; then it builds up\nDund thinking and the making of judgments. Used otherwise, didactic\nlaterial develops a minimum of judgments. Modern kindergarten pracce has therefore eliminated all but the large blocks and sticks, and we\nlight add large rings and discs which are used not in \"consecutive series\nf work\" but as play materials. The other gifts are omitted because they\nre small and tend to induce nervous handling. They are abstract and\nlathematical forms and violate the order of mental development. On the\nther hand, big blocks supply a social and a practical adjustment that can3t in any way be given by small material. The big blocks are heavy and\n> encourage group work and the result from the contributive effort\nimanded may be enjoyed by all. Also the big blocks have great intelctual value, inviting analysis of thought.\nChildren of seven and eight years often work with blocks more intelli:ntly and with greater absorption in the idea than children of kindergarten\n;e. Because of this we must not fail to carry over the blocks into the\nimary grades.\nInfluence upon method. — In the education of very young children, the\nacher will always be of more importance than method or material. Frank\ncMurry, author of How to Study, states that the greatest factor in the\nvelopment of the individual is the personal relationship between pupil\nd teachers, for, as he says, \"the test of the quality of instruction is found\nthe activities of the children.\" It is the artist teacher, therefore, who\nes that method which forms good habits, habits which result in good\nnduct and purposeful activity. But good conduct from the modern edutional point of view is more than punctuality, regularity, and neatness.\nt is rather the correct habit of using the mind,\" which depends upon\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "6so\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarte\n\nhabits of motive, appreciation of values, organization, and independence\nThis calls for a balanced type of teaching, for healthy action and inter\naction between pupils and teachers. An instructor of manual arts in one c\nthe large schools of this state, in speaking to me of the attitude she hold;\ntoward her students, said: \"As soon as I have developed the mind process\nin any one of my students, my hours of 'teaching' that student are over\nfor from that moment I become his or her adviser and assistant.\" To thf\nacademic mind, to allow the child to come thru the learning process anc\nkeep hands off is agony. However, any teacher who cannot allow thi\nlearning process to take its course had better give up teaching little childrer\nand go into a \"higher grade.\" The only way to get good form in this work\nis thru self-expression. This at first must be crude. The habit of technique\ncan be found only thru self-expression, the crude results of which depres:\nthe form-loving soul. There really is no battle between spontaneity anc\ngood form if the teacher's attitude is the right one.\nThe learning process of life demands things in activity. Consequent)}\nwhen we enter a kindergarten and see on every hand evidences of forma\nwork, we know that the teacher has interpreted the child from above down\nthat she has not taken him as he is but as she wishes him to be. Such :\nmethod is not conducive to the learning process.\nThe teacher of young children who can sit down with them, acceptin;\nany play suggestion that they may give and still make sure that they find ;\nreal discovery, or result — the one who can work with any material and sti:\ncarry out a principle — this is the teacher who commands method. Ther\nis no one method, but a perfect blend of teacher, pupils, and material. 1\nis evident that this would give just opportunity for the activity of all thre\nfactors, opportunity to try a variety of ways of going about things to arriv\nat certain ends. Many people still think that the experimental method i\nimpossible, for they beheve that \"ends\" are necessarily imposed, or tha\nonce they are either originated or imposed the \"means\" becomes so fixe\nthat opportimity for experimentation is annihilated. Is this true of th\nadult problem ? If we watch children of all ages in their undirected use (\nmaterials at home and out of doors, we find they are either experimentinj\ndiscovering what they can do with them, or working with a purpose, makin\nsomething definite. Modern psychology has proved the fact that there\nno difference in the mind-process of the adult and that of the child. Tl\nonly difference is in the character of the problem. Common-sense woui\nshow that this does not prohibit a legitimate place for imitation, for suj\ngestion, and even for direction. There can be no tyranny of mind ov(\nmind. Tolerance and respect for individuality must be shown by t:\nteacher, for is not a six-year-old child as worthy of respect as a man ? Bac\nof all work with children there must be faith in their worth. Therefc:\nabove all the teacher must place the center of gravity upon them, she mu\nallow them to attack the problem for themselves, giving them first ti\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nHANDWORK\n\nFOR\n\nYOUNG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n651\n\nmaterial for free experimentation, that they may discover for themselves the possibilities and limitations of each. This is the only sane\napproach. In fact the \"experimental method\" which develops naturally\ninto the \"problematic method,\" thus giving every opportunity for the\ndevelopment of technique which comes thru the growth in the situations\nthemselves, is the perfect blend of all methods of which I have already\nspoken.\nLet us now consider the outside interests of children, which furnish\nmotive for their handwork.\nThere are the house, garden, community,\nmaking of toys, dressing dolls, making of paper dolls, the seasonal interests\n[which bring the need for kites, marbles, tops, boats, snow shovels, sleds.\nThen there are festivals and parties. These natural conditions set the\nmajority of children's problems. For instance, dolls create conditions out\n)f which the problems arise. The doll needs a dress, hat, cap, muff, and\nippet; she needs a swing and a rug, a set of dishes and linen for the table,\nier house must be furnished with beds, chairs, and tables; the windows\nnust be curtained and the beds supplied with pillows, mattress, sheets, and\n)lankets. If we had doll families and doll communities in the kindergarten\nind primary, many problems would therefore arise naturally and bring\nibout creative and constructive work. Toy animals are almost as great a\nlelp in giving opportunity for natural childish problems as the doll. There\naust be barns, sheds, and fences for the horse and cow, pens for the rabbits,\n. fold for the sheep. There must be wagons, carts, racks; roads must be\nlade and bridges built, for wagons open a whole field of possible activities,\ns do trains, brooms, tubs, washboards, stoves, and flatirons. In fact, there\n5 so much to be done in connection with all these that I have known Chilian to plan their work three weeks in advance.\nMaterials suggest problems to young children whose interest is more\nnmediate. With them the mastery of the material is in itself a problem.\n.s ideas grow out of the using, they in their turn suggest other ideas, with\nle result that there is growing definiteness which is really the beginning\nE purpose. The kindergarten must therefore select carefully for emphasis\nich material as can be shown to have the greatest significance.\nLet me discuss briefly these materials which are most commonly used\n1 the majority of kindergartens.\nClay and wood. — Clay is especially valuable as it makes possible repsentation in three dimensions. No higher degree of skill or accuracy is\n;pected with little children. The chief aim is to express and to awaken\nsense of proportion.\nThe work with wood should be introduced thru the handling of scrap\n3od. It is cheap and will be most suggestive. The youngest children\nn do Uttle more than assemble parts which have been gotten out for them,\nith the older children the projects are suggested by their own needs or\nose of their dolls.\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "m\n652\n\n■\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nPaper and cardboard. — All children delight in using paper and scissors\nand should be encouraged, as I have said, in free experimentation with these.\nOld newspapers cut up, fringed, and folded are excellent for this. The\nchildren may use these freely and not feel hampered, thus gaining power\neasily over tools and material.\nOutline cutting should be used very little, as its only value is in the\ntechnical training of eye and hand. Accuracy is needed most certainly,\nbut not at the continual expense of creativity. There is no reason wh>\noriginal cutting should not give suflScient opportunity for growth in tech\nnique.\nA few uses of paper which will develop from the needs of the child\nor of the dolls are: paper dolls, soldier caps, hats, flowers, pin wheels, fans,\nChristmas-tree decorations, scrapbooks. The use of paper in construction\nshould be carefully watched, as it is with this medium that much insincere\nwork has been done. Furniture that will not stand after it is made and\nwagons which will not hold anything encourage children in a deplorable\nuse of material.\nChalk, crayons, and paint are mediums which, leading to the fine arts,\nare considered in the handwork of young children. The teacher's part is\nto aid in the elimination of scribble and thus avoid an arrest of development\ncaused by the child's falUng into some one conventional representation.\nThe range of subjects is as wide as the child's experience, and will include\nhuman figures in action, events in Uterature and in the child's own life, and\nlocal occurrences, such as fires, parades, circuses, excursions, home life.\nBold work should be striven for, using the side of the chalk for masi\nrepresentation. Children should be given opportunity every day for large;\nfree drawing. Crayons and large paper either fastened to the wall or usee\non the floor will give the added enjoyment of color. With the crayons some\ndefinite art work may be attempted, such as simple borders in flowers anc\nconventional design to be applied to industrial arts work. Above all, th(\nchild needs large paper and plenty of blackboard space if his work is U\nbring satisfaction to himself. He cannot express anything worth expressing\nin a small area. One of the strongest reasons I can bring forward for thi\ndrawing is in the training of the large fimdamental muscles of the arm.\nI have heard many kindergartners say that they would have men\ndrawing if it were not for the chalk dust. I would advise them, as far i.\npossible, to put the blackboards out of doors. The children will not tak\ncold while they are exercising and the opportunity to work outdoors wi\ngive an added pleasure.\nj\nNature materials. — Chains of nature material may be made. There if\nan almost endless variety of these, including berries, nuts, seeds, reedf\nhollow stems of many plants. Melon seeds may be dipped in diamon'\ndyes and beautiful colors secured. Macaroni may also be painted in th\nlong strips and broken to string between the berries. Painted bright orang\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHANDWORK\n\nFOR\n\nYOUNG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n653\n\nt makes a beautiful harmony with the brown of acorn cups. These strings\n;hould first be made for the child's own personal decoration, since interest\n■n the decoration of the room comes later. Mistakes are too often made\nlibout this, and the child tires of such a waste of effort, since it does not\n:ount because there is no real interest.\nTextiles. — Sewing and weaving come under this head. The process of\newing is interesting to all children, but its possibilities in kindergarten are\nestricted by the fine muscular co-ordinations it ordinarily demands.\ni^Tienever it is used, the materials should be coarse in order to insure, so\n!ar as possible, large, crude work. A box of cloth scraps and a rag or\ntockinet doll for each child offer excellent opportunity for experimentation.\nVt first the garments are sewed on the dolls and the stitches are large and\nlexact, but later the need for better garments is felt and a pattern is necesary, in order, as a child told me, that \"we may not waste the cloth.\"\n)resses are then made that can be put on and taken off. Winter weather\nuggests the need of blankets for the dolls' beds and cradles. The ends\nlay be overcast with worsted. Many Christmas presents, as sachet-bags,\nincushions, dust-cloths, and holders, can easily be made. There are cosomes to be planned and made for the children's plays, such as an Indian\nDstume, fringed and decorated, a knight's costume for a tournament,\nhich includes a cape, shield, and plumed hat. Funny costumes may be\neveloped for Hallowe'en, thus encouraging the children to work out someling grotesque. Every opportunity for initiative, choice of materials,\niste in color, and originality in design should be given. The projects will\niclude, besides those mentioned, marble bags, work aprons, rag and yarn\njlls. Then there are the dolls' rugs, hammocks, hats, scarfs, and muffs\n) be woven on cardboard looms. As in the case of sewing, it is question3le whether much weaving should be attempted in the kindergarten on\n:count of the prolonged effort which most projects require and also because\nle nature of weaving is such that execution must be much more accurate\ntan is required in any other form of children's work. Because of this,\niper-weaving should be mostly omitted.\nThese are a few of the possibilities of handwork with young children,\neeting the requirements of child psychology and hygiene, and demanding\nthe child his interest, effort, and reflective thought.\nIf the kindergarten desires to remain a vital factor in the general educa)nal system, it must be consistent with its principles, for \"education is\n) longer a divorcement from but an identification with life.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "6S4\n\nB.\n\nPRACTICAL\nCATHARINE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCONNECTIONS BETWEEN\nINDUSTRIAL VALUES\nR.\n\nWATKINS,\nDIRECTOR\nOF\nWASHINGTON,\nD.C.\n\n[Kindergart ■\n\nAESTHETIC\n\nANI\n\nKINDERGARTENS,\n\ni\n\nThat the kindergarten is a living member of the great educationc\nbody is attested by the influence upon its thought and practice of eac\nimportant movement in modern pedagogy.\nAs a member it is not, and cannot hope to be, exempt from certain mocL\nfications and changes, nor can it expect to escape the problems which o j\ncomplex social life is now forcing upon the schools for solution. Perhaps \\h\nmost crucial of these problems is that of vocational training with its accorr\npanying demand for the introduction of industrial arts into theschcc\ncurriculum as a preparatory step.\nThe controversy which this question has precipitated between th\nadvocates of the old cultural, liberal type of education and the advocate\nof the new movement has sifted down into the kindergarten and largel\ninfluenced its thought and practice.\nWhile I do not claim that the technical side of this discussion has directl\naffected the kindergarten, the distinction which is now made in our kinde\ngartens between the industrial and the fine arts is clearly traceable to tb\ncontroversy which is at present dividing our best thinkers. Whatevf\ndistinctions it may be necessary to make higher up, they do not, in ir\nopinion, belong in the kindergarten, or even in the elementary schools,\nseems to me imwise to begin to differentiate before the child has had\nchance to gain command over his tools of knowledge or before he h\nhad a legitimate period of experiment in either field, which in their fin\nanalysis are not opposed but simply differ in controlling aims.\nWhatever approach we may make to industrial arts in the kindergarte\nI feel that it is a mistake to throw undue emphasis upon the utility of tl\nproduct or upon its relation to some form of industry, for it is thru expej\nmental process that the child finds his greatest opportunity for creatii\nself-expression. In representative drawing, for example, and in much of tl\nconstruction work done by Uttle children, the vague image with which th<\nstart is wholly lost in the joy of feeling themselves creators. The fin\nresult may be as unexpected to themselves as to the teacher, but the id^\nthus accidentally reached becomes the incentive for conscious creati\nwork. Each effort of the child cannot be related to some concrete situati(\nto some industrial project without a sacrifice of this period of experime\nWith the young child, ideas do not spring from the head full grown 1 '\nMinerva, but gradually take form thru the doing and are strengthened ak\nclarified in the process of expression. Even when the idea dawns, the ch>\ndelights in playing with it, repeating it, modifying, changing, or addi;\nto it, before it becomes fastened within the limits of a single project.\n\nIJ\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": ")epartment]\n\nAESTHETIC\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nVALUES\n\n655\n\nTake, for example, crayon work in the kindergarten. After a period\nf experiment during which no conscious purpose has controlled, a certain\nhythmic spacing or perhaps two or more colors used alternately may suggest adesign for wall paper. The children may act on this idea if they so\nlesire and consciously go to work to make a wall paper, possibly for the\nindergarten doU house.\nHere they have an opportunity to apply the technique gained in previus work, to compare their designs and workmanship, and to select the one\nest suited for the purpose. A designer tries dififerent schemes, compares,\nnd then selects. The child also should have a chance to compare and to\nilect that taste may be formed and guided. If, on the other hand, a wallaper pattern had been the clearly defined end in view when the crayons\nere first used, the period of experiment, during which ideas were clarified,\n3-ordinations of hand and eye established, and some degree of technique\nlined, would have been either wholly omitted or materially shortened.\nIn the industrial end to be attained, there should also be some provision\n)r the aesthetic values, that the children may gain some appreciation of\nle place which beauty holds in relation to industrial products. The two\n2long together, both \"function in life,\" for when the life interest ceases\nlere can be no real art of any kind.\nHarmony of line, tone, color, appropriateness to purpose, even the\n:ecution of the child's work, all of which are elements of beauty in the fine\nts, can be conscious goals in the teacher's mind. But in order to start the\nlild toward these goals, there must be a longer or shorter period of experient when the activity is an end in itself.\nThe simple units of design which grow out of experimenting with\nblets, sticks, and rings are repeated by the children and changed again\nid again with joy in the activity and in the feeling for rhythmic\nrangement.\nThis type of work, which clearly aims at developing an art sense, an\npreciation of some of the elements characteristic of the fine arts, need\nt exclude applied design. The children have many opportunities for\nilizing the knowledge thus gained in decorating the various little articles\nlich they make either for themselves or to celebrate some festival occasion\nthe kindergarten.\nDrawing, painting, free cutting — indeed all of the usual kindergarten\nndwork — may be thus used. To insist that every design in the kinder: rten must be applied to some article of utility or illustrate some form of\nlustrial art frequently results in attempting projects which take so long\ncomplete that interest is lost and real control of material, with its accom1 nying sense of power, sacrificed. In weaving, for example, may not the\n' Idren who have had a chance to experiment with number and color\n* nbinations and to create a few simple patterns in paper mats get a better\n1 a of process than they would if they had been limited to the weaving\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1\n\n[Ebdergaite\n\nof a rug or hammock, which takes so long to finish and which admits of n\nvariety ?\nThe two experiences are not mutually exclusive. There is no reaso:\nwhy the children should not apply in the more permanent play articles the\nknowledge of process and the appreciation of color gained thru work witt\nsimple materials.\nConstruction work with the blocks also offers excellent opportunitiee\nfor developing an appreciation of both the art elements and the social ^c\neconomic significance of industry in society. In illustration of this, let me\nbriefly describe the making of a city with the blocks, by which the children ir\nsome of our kindergartens consciously appUed the ideas gained in the perioc ;\nof free experiment and also gained some idea of the interdependence 0:\nsociety and of the numerous and varied factors which contribute to the\nsocial whole. The work lasted for several weeks, the buildings being sug\ngested from day to day by the children; the materials were selected by then\nand the work was imdertaken both singly and in groups. The capito\nbuilding was made after a visit of the entire kindergarten to our nationa\ncapitol and special attention was paid to the architecture of this and of th(\nother federal buildings. The capitol, which was in the center of the city\nwas built by several groups of children partly from memory and parti}\nfrom a fine picture of our capitol. Houses of many varieties were made\nand placed along the streets — stores, markets, churches, moving-pictun\nshows, their own school building with the name over the door and a flaj\nflying from the top, playgroimds, street cars — all were included in the fina\nrepresentation. Nor was the element of civic beauty forgotten, for tht\nchildren insisted upon parks, and rows of trees lined the streets. Some\ntimes groups of children experimented in the making of a particidar build\ning and thru the suggested criticism became conscious that the purpose 0\na building should determine its style of architectm-e. In other kindergarten\nwhere the children constructed their houses out of pasteboard boxes insteae\nof blocks, attention was directed to the art element in the furnishing of thi\nrooms and each child selected some color scheme for the wall paper and th'\nrugs — the latter being made out of paper, as possessing greater possibilitiet\nfor color combinations and original patterns. Here the previous period\nof free experiment in spacing, in balance, rhythm, and proportion — in wha\nhas been termed \"art for art's sake\" — contributed consciously to th\ndecoration of the miniature homes.\nIn endeavoring to make the work of the kindergarten of practical valu:\nindustrial processes have sometimes been introduced which were too detaile'\nand too prolonged to sustain the child's interest or to give him an appreci\nable share in the work — notably the effort to show how foodstuffs ar\nchanged in the process of cooking. A sequence familiar to the adult\nbecause built upon successive steps of experience, may pass over the child\nhead. The amoimt of labor involved does not enhance the value of th\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "department]\n\nAESTHETIC\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nVALUES\n\n657\n\nirticle in the child mind. Values, with the little child, belong to the realm of\neeling, and not to intellect. Such exercises, like the too perfect toy, leave\n10 room for constructive imagination. The play attitude here would do\nar more for the child — as in the game of the \"Mulberry Bush\" — in which\nhe activities of an entire week are relived in a few minutes. Thru dranatic representation in both stories and games, the child can begin to\nmderstand a few of the typical processes in our industrial life and to effect\nome of the important practical adjustments. In the play aspect we get\nIso an emotional content, a chance for putting one's seK in the place of\nhe worker, and thus awakening real feeling, which is lost when the appeal\n•■, primarily to the understanding. Imagination needs space, it is cramped\n: the \"play pretend\" attitude, which can compass all thuigs, is confined\nDO early in the actual. Thru imitative play, based on observation, the\nhild may gain a pretty clear idea of steps in the industrial process and of\nbe place of labor in the economy of life.\nWhile industrial arts, as a school subject, makes ample provision for\nlotor expression, its general purpose is not to develop technical skill but\n3 give the children \"a background of knowledge and experience which\nill enable them to appreciate the industrial aspects of civilization\" and\nhich will prove an influential factor in the formation of character.\nThe kindergarten can do more to further this comprehensive purpose by\nwakening a right attitude toward work and workers, thru all of its varied\nistrumentaHties, than by throwing imdue emphasis upon industrial pro;sses or products. Any differentiation at this early stage cannot but be a\nistinct loss to the child. His social relations, his relations to the physical\norld in which he lives, and his industrial relations are one by reason of\ns own undifferentiated experience. As in every new movement, there\nIS been a tendency in industrial arts to exalt the part at the expense of\nle whole and thus endanger a sane balance.\nPerhaps it is more difficult to keep this balance in the kindergarten than\nany department of education, for there is a strong temptation, when\n;aling with inexperienced plastic material, to try out every new movement\nid even to attempt activities and subjects which can be mastered with far\n5S effort later on.\nIn our zeal for results, \"we consume ourselves, we cannot ripen because\nis a waste of time hanging upon the bough.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nMODERN\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nGAIL HARRISON,\n\nSTATE\n\nCHILD\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nNORMAL\n\n[Kindergant\n\nSCHOOL,\n\n\"^11\nTO DISCIPLINl\n\nSAN FRANCISCO,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe great struggle in Europe this past year has caused many of j\nto think more seriously and analytically about the whole question of freedor\nand control, about the relationships existing between the governed and th\ngoverning. How much of freedom and control is necessary in variou\nsituations to the end of living eflSciently and happily ?\nThe very fact that a democracy throws so much responsibility up>\nthe individual is our best reason for working out the whole democrat:\ncreed in our schools. We must not forget the demands and needs of societ\nand overemphasize the demands and needs of the individual child. Oi\nschools from the kindergarten to the imiversity must be an embryon:\nsociety where the child and youth meet actual life situations and conditior\nand are thereby strengthened, disciplined, and prepared for effective livinj\nbecause they have the opportunity to live so every hour.\nAre we not realizing more keenly every year that the majority of 01\nyouth have respect for very little in this world; that they are an indulge(\nentertained, undisciplined group, sadly prepared for the art of living l\nsome worthy purpose ? Do not think me a pessimist about this. It\nessentially an optimistic viewpoint for the ciure seems well begun when v\nhave realized and frankly acknowledged the need of remedies. \"Man in\nproved education as he improved any other human activity, by ope*\nminded thought about it. Social pressure is required to prevent folly ar\ninjustice in education as elsewhere,\"\n,\nThe great problem for a democracy today is how far it is wise for til\nimmature to make their own laws or have a voice in their making and hoj\nfar the mature shall enforce them. Is there not a happy medium betwee\nfreedom and control in our methods of training children which will produ:\nchildren to be enjoyed and looked upon as blessings ? which will develc\nin them a respect for their elders and a desire to be with them, not awe n«\nfear, but a wholesome admiration for superior attainments ? Familiarit\nshould breed, not contempt, but admiration and aspiration.\nIn this whole matter of discipline, modern psychology is very encoura\ning if we would but heed the statements of experts leading in this field\neducation.\nChief in importance among the social instincts are: (i) gregariousne^\nor the liking to be with our own kind, which should afford daily opp:\ntunities for making social adjustments and discipline us gradually in\nbecoming members of a group; (2) mastery and submission, which develc\nour leaders and followers; (3) love of approval — an instinct which we u\nin too shallow and superficial a way, showering our approval upon tl\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO DISCIPLINE\n\n659\n\nveneers of life, upon the pretty clothes children wear, or upon their sugar;oated manners, rather than upon the virtues which really make daily life\nivorth while: kindliness, consideration for others, and duties done which\n;ontribute to the welfare of the home, the school, and the community.\nAs the first necessity in education everywhere is to know what man will\nDC and do apart from education, it surely behooves us to consider more\n:arefully the \"original nature\" of young children and how we may modify\nind redirect it toward the ultimate best.\nAll changes produced happen in accordance with certain fundamental\naws of change, and \"reason finds the aim of human life the improvement\nind satisfaction of wants.\" These laws are: First, the law of exercise.\n'Other things being equal, exercise strengthens the bond between stimulus\nind response.\" Secondly, the law of effect. \"Satisfying results strengthen\nmd discomfort weakens the bond between stimulus and response.\"\nThis stimulus-response concept is the pivot and core of all modem\n;ducational psychology and Thorndike feels that original satisfiers and\nmnoyers are the greatest levers education has at its command for redirectng, modifying, and eliminating original nature.\nThe satisfyingness and annoyingness of the states which follow the\nnaking of the connection between the stimulus and response are the chief\norces which remodel man's nature. This law of effect is the fimdamental\naw of learning and teaching. Upon this law and our wise application of it\n0 the training of little children rests the whole question of discipline or the\nack of it. If the satisfactions and annoyances followed consistently upon\nhe heels of the responses made, we should have less friction and more\nelf-control and self-government.\nIn the homes today let us take for instance the table manners of the\nhildren. How many children do you know whom it is a real pleasure to\nave at the table ? I am not expecting them to live up to the old tradition\nf being seen and not heard, for surely we have gotten beyond such rigidity,\nestraint, and discomfort. I merely expect them to take their place as\nlembers of the household who all have the same aim, that of an enjoyable\nleal where each individual proves his understanding of the law of reciproity. Any failure to contribute to this aim must result in some annoyer\nf sufficiently deterring power to make that child realize that he prefers\n0 stay a member of the group.\nChildren are very wonderful in the way in which they live up to the\nemands that are made of them. They behave as well or as badly as they\nre allowed to. The blame for their unpleasant ways must not be laid\npen them but upon those who have had charge of their training and have\nllowed them to grow into unsocial beings, unbalanced and disagreeable,\n^ fact, social nuisances. Mothers and teachers too often ruin their\nttempts at discipline by giving too many chances. A phrase I hear\nvery few moments at a friend's table is: \"David, if you do that again\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n]\n\n[Kindergarte\n\nyou cannot have your desert,\" tho never but once did this actually happen,\neven tho the misdemeanor was almost always repeated with slight varia\ntions.\nA child cannot be expected to behave well when there is companj'\nunless he has acquired the habit of behaving well when there is not; tha-.\nis a psychological impossibiUty.\nSo much of the talking might be avoided, and beneficially so, if thosii\nwho bring children up would do more and say less, if the annoyer administered were closer to the child's feelings, if he really cared about it, if it\nreally annoyed him! As long as children get what they want without behaving well or without doing things for other people, why should they change\ntheir actions ? So often the punishment or annoyer given means nothing;\nfor instance, the child is sent to the kitchen to finish a meal or is sent ta\nbed and allowed to have books and playthings. To a sensitive child there\nmay be ignominy in having to finish a meal in the pantry but to the average\none it matters not so long as the pie or cake is forthcoming.\nThen, too, if the child is constantly removed from the situation and\nstimulus which offers temptation, how is he to acquire strength and control to resist making the wrong response ? How is a child ever going to\nlearn how to behave in any given situation if he and the stimulus are kept\napart ?\nOpportunities for social adjustments must be constant and regular and\nmade among those contemporaneous in age as well as with their elders,\naway from mother or nurse or teacher who prompts, props, and prods his\nmoral and social responses, who is his conscience and who make his choices\nfor him. Social or life situations allow for the great factors of learning\nboth by imitating others and from the suggestions of others, and these\nare very valuable if the suggestions come from a sufficient variety of sources.\nMany children today are greatly to be pitied because too much is done\nfor them and dictated to them and they are deprived of the learning precesses. We seem to have dropped into an age of entertaining, a breathless\ngoing from one sensation to another, whether it be mechanical toys for tht\nfive-year-old or moving-picture plays for the sixteen-year-old. It noi\nonly destroys their power to think, but also makes happiness, contentment\nand resourcefulness impossible. At seventeen, life is spoken of as \"£(\ndull\" if there is not \"something doing\" every waking hour.\nIt is deplorable that one finds so few children who contribute anj\nservice in their homes. Is this not one very strong reason why time hangi\nheavily? We seldom value anything that we do not make sacrifices for\nThe law of contrast as expressed in the proverb \"Variety is the spice o\nlife,\" is a necessary one if we would have appreciation, but variety doe:\nnot mean fatiguing and nerve- wracking and incessant change.\nThe slogan for children today seems to be \"Make them happy.\" Con\nsequently they are planned for and about and deprived of the chance o\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\nDepartment]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nIMAGINATION\n\nOF LITTLE\n\nCHILD\n\n66l\n\nlearning the real joy of accomplishment and of overcoming difficulties.\nThey grow up without the ability to do so merely for lack of practice.\nDuties should be planned for children, especially if they are only children\nor wealthy ones. How shall we bring about an appreciation of all that is\ndone for them if they never are allowed to taste and learn thru daily need the\npleasure of working for others ? This slogan actually deprives them of the\ncurative side of remorse, which may follow a misdemeanor or a failure to\nget good marks at school. Something is done to divert and cheer them\nand mother defends and finds excuses for delinquencies if masters or family\nchide. No resolve to try and do better results from these failures and the\nchild grows to college age without developing the sterling qualities he is\nexpected to have.\nTo return to this fundamental question, Why have law and obedience ?\nFirst, because in a democracy they mean the protection of individuals\nagainst those who do not obey. Secondly, because in the home they\nmean the welfare and happiness of each member, and because they bring\nhabit formations. Thirdly, because in the school they mean conservation\nof both energy and time and protection of the weaker from the stronger.\nWhat may we do to help children win the right sort of freedom?\n(i) Study and work for a better understanding of the fundamental principles of democracy. (2) Apply these principles in the management of\nchildren in the home, school, institution, and commimity.\nChildren must be helped to discover that participation in the life of\ndifferent city states, as Colin Scott defines them, depends upon: (i) their\nown seH-control; (2) their power to use freedom in order that freedom\nmay be allowed at each stage of life when control means the power to\ngovern self and contribute to the welfare of any particular environment;\n(3) the fact that freedom is gained and held just so long as variation from\ntraditions means progress; (4) the fact that all life conforms to law and\nthat physical and spiritual freedom is obtained only by conforming.\n\nB.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN RELATION TO THE IMAGINATION\nLITTLE CHILD\nMARIA\n\nMONTESSORI,\n\nOF THE\n\nM.D., ROME, ITALY\n\nThe belief is very common that the little child is characterized by a\nHost vivid imagination and that because of this a particular education\n>hould be brought to bear upon him in order to cultivate such a special gift\n)f nature. His mentality differs from ours; he goes beyond our vigorous\niJid restricted limits, and delights in wandering thru the fascinating world\n)f the unreal, as is the case among savages.\nThis infantile characteristic also gave rise to the generalization of a\nnaterialistic idea now no longer held, that is, the life of the individual\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI\n\n[Kind«saTt«\n\nreproduces the life of the species, and thus the Hfe of civiHzation is reproduced in man, and therefore there are found in the httle child psychic characteristics peculiar to savages. For this reason the child, like the savage,\nis fascinated by the fantastic, the supernatural, the unreal.\nRather than give utterance to similar flights of a scientific fantasy, it\nis simpler to note that an organism still immature, like that of a child,\nmay distantly resemble mentalities less matured than our own. But allowing those who interpret infantile mentality as the \"savage state\" to keep\ntheir beliefs, the objection can still be raised that in any case this savage\nstate, being a passing state and one which has to be overcome, education\nmust help the child to pass thru it. It should not develop the savage\nstate or hold the child back in it.\nAll the forms of imperfect development which we find in the child bear\nsome resemblance to like characteristics in the savage. For example, in\nlanguage: the poverty of the vocabulary, the existence of concrete expressions only, and the generalization of words, because of which one word\nserves for many uses and also to indicate different objects; the lack of\nmodes in the verbs, because of which children use the infinitive only. But\nno one will say that for this reason we should artificially hold the child\nback within the confines of such a primitive language, in order that he may\neasily pass thru this prehistoric period. Tho some peoples remain permanently ina state of imagination in which the unreal prevails, our children\nbelong to a people whose mentality finds its delight in great works of art\nand in the civilizing results of constructive science. Such products of a\nsuperior imagination represent the environment in which our children's\nintellect is destined to mold itself. It is natural that the child in the nebulous period of his mind should be attracted by fantastic ideas, but we must\nnot, because of this, forget that he is our successor, the one who must outstrip us. The least we can give him for such a piupose is the maximum of\nall there is at our disposal.\nA form of imagination which is held as \"peculiar \" to infancy and almost\nimiversally recognized as creative imagination is that spontaneous work\nof the infant mind by which children attribute desired characteristics\nto objects which do not possess them.\nWho has not seen a child ride horseback on his father's cane, switching;\nas tho he were moimted on a real horse ? Consider what pleasure children,\ntake in making a wonderful coach by putting chairs together. Behold'\nproofs of imagination in the child!\nBut let us observe rich children, who possess docile ponies and habituall:'\nride in a carriage or automobile. They would look with a sense of disdain\nat the child nmning about furiously whipping a cane; they would be\nastonished to see children so happy under the delusion that they were being\ncarried along by stationary chairs. They would say of such children:\n\"They are poor and do this because they have no horses or carriages.\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\nDepartment]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nIMAGINATION\n\nOF LITTLE\n\nCHILD\n\n663\n\nAn adult becomes resigned, a child deludes himself. But that is not a proof\nof imagination; it is the proof of an unsatisfied desire. It is not an activity\nallied with gifts of nature; it is a manifestation of conscious noticeable\npoverty. No one certainly would maintain that it is necessary, in order\nto educate the rich child, to take away his h9rse and give him a cane, and\nneither is it necessary to prevent the poor child from contenting himself\nwith his cane. If a beggar had only dry bread to eat and were to seat\nhimself beside the iron grating of a fine basement kitchen, because in smelling\nthe food he imagines that he is eating delicious dishes with his bread, who\nwould prevent him ? But no one will maintain that, in order to develop\nthe activities of the imagination of those more fortunate, for whom the\nreal meals are destined, it is necessary to deprive them of their meat and\ngive bread and savory smells.\nA poor mother who loved her child very much gave him a piece of\nbread in this manner: she divided it into two parts and gave them saying,\n\"This is bread,\" and \"This is meat.\" The child was satisfied, but no\nmother would wish to undernourish her child in order to develop his imagination in this way. And yet I was asked in all seriousness if it would not\nhave been harmful to give the use of the piano to a child who was constantly\npretending to play the piano on a table. \"Why should it be harmful?\"\nsaid I. \" Because in that case, he would, it is true, learn music, but he would\nno longer be exercising his imagination and I do not know which of the two\nis the most useful,\" was the reply.\nSome of the Froebelian games are based on like beliefs. The child is\ngiven a block and is told, \"This is a horse.\" Then other blocks are arranged\nin a certain way and he is told \"This is a stable.\" \"Now let's put the\nhorses in the stable.\" Then the blocks are arranged in still other ways.\nThis as a tower; this other the village church, etc. In such exercises the\nobjects (blocks) lend themselves even less to the illusion than in the case\nof a cane used as a horse, where the child at least does mount and move\nabout and whip his horse. To make towers and churches out of the blocks\nwhich were first horses brings about the height of mental confusion. Furthermore, inthis case, it is not the child who \"imagines spontaneously\"\nand works with his own brain. He must picture for himself what the\nteacher tells him at that particular moment. Tho he is not quiet, tho\nhe really thinks that the stable has become a church, or tho his attention\nmay be wandering, certainly he would like to move about and he cannot\nbecause he must watch that sort of cinematograph which the teacher names\nin rapid succession, but which, alas, is composed of pieces of wood, each like\nthe other. What is nurtured in this way in such immature minds ? What\ndo we find of a similar nature in the life of adults that will show us the\ndefinite results of educating the minds after this fashion? There are\nmen who really mistake a tree for a throne and give therefrom kingly commands and some believe they are God. In more serious forms, \"illusions\"\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergaiui\n\nare the beginnings of false reasoning, the concomitants of deUrium. Tht\ninsane create nothing. Neither do those children who are condemned tc\nthe restrictions of an education which would unconsciously tend to develop\ntheir childish manifestations into illusions — that is to say, manifestations oj\nimmaturity in normal development.\nWe are wont to think that we develop the child's imagination very much\nby giving him to believe that certain fantasies are true. For example, in\nthe Anglo-Saxon countries, Christmas is represented as an old man covered\nwith snow, who carries an enormous bag filled with toys for the chUdreE\nand comes into their homes at night. But how is it possible for the child's\nimagination to be developed by that which is in truth the fruit of our;\nimagination? It is we alone who imagine and not they; they merel}beUeve; they do not imagine. Creduhty is indeed a characteristic of the\nimmatiure mind which is lacking in experience and in a consciousness of\nrealities. It is foimd where there is a want of an intellect which can distinguish the real from the unreal, the beautiful from the ugly, the possible\nfrom the impossible. Creduhty may exist even in an adult, but then it is in\nopposition to the intellect and it is neither its basis nor its product.\nCreduhty germinates in the state of intellectual darkness, and we are glad\nto have superseded that stage. We cite creduhty as a stigma of the lack of\ncivilization.\nEducation should not follow the path toward creduhty but rather that\nof inteUigence. The experience and maturity of the mind cause credulity\nto disappear httle by Uttle, and instruction is a help in this. Be it in peoples\nor in individuals, the evolution of civilization and of the mind tends to\nlessen the state of creduhty. Wisdom, as is often said, dissipates the error\nof ignorance. In this void, which is ignorance, fantasy easily wanders\nabout, just because it lacks that support which permits of attaining greater\nheights. Thus the Pillars of Hercules disappeared when the Straits of\nGibraltar became the passageway of the oceans.\nIs it perchance this illusive imagination founded on creduhty that we\nwish to develop in the children ? Surely not; it is not our wish that such a\ncondition should continue. In fact, when the child no longer beheves in the\nstories, we are dehghted and then we say, \"He is no longer a child.\" Such\nmust be the course of events and we expect it. The day will come when he\nwill no longer beUeve these stories. But, when this state of maturity is\nreached, we should ask ourselves, \"What have we done to help? What '\nsupport did we give to this feeble mind in order that it might strengthen\nitself ? \" The child overcame all his obstacles in spite of our impulse which\nkept him back in a state of illusion and ignorance. The child overcame\nhimself and us too, and reached the goal whither his inner forces of development and maturity lead. He, however, might say to us: \"How you have\nmade us suffer! Our hardships in the effort to develop were already great\nand yet you oppressed us.\" Would this not be the same as if one were to\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nIMAGINATION\n\nOF LITTLE\n\nCHILD\n\n66$\n\ntreat the gums in such a way as to retard the growth of the teeth just because\none of the characteristics of the newborn babe is its lack of teeth ? Would\nit not be like keeping the little body from growing because one of the\ncharacteristics of the preceding state was that of not being able to stand\nupright? In fact we did act in this manner when we tried to have the\nchild keep his baby talk, and so kept his language in a state of inferiority and\nlack of precision instead of helping him by letting him hear the sounds of\nwords clearly articulated and having him see the movements of the Ups.\nWe copied his rudimentary language and repeated the primitive sounds he\nemitted. So we detained him at length in the formative period — a period\nfull of difficulties — of great efifort on the part of the child, holding him back\nin the arduous state of infancy.\nThis is what we are doing today by our so-called education of the imagination. We amuse ourselves with the illusions, the ignorance, the errors of\nan immature mind, just as only a short time ago we delighted in the laughter\nof the baby who was being tossed up and down — a thing which is now considered dangerous and is condemned by chUd hygiene. In short, it is we\nwho are amused by the Christmas tales and the child's credulity. In\nadmitting this we should recognize the fact that we resemble somewhat\nthat lady who was interested in a dispensary for poor children, but who\nkept saying, \"If there were no more sick children I should be most\nunhappy.\"\nArtificially to halt one stage of development and amuse one's seK thereby\n—as in the ancient courts, where they were wont to arrest by artificial\nmeans, the growth of some poor victims in order to make dwarf jesters for\nthe king — is one of the unnoticed faults of our times. This assertion may\nseem harsh, but it states a real fact. We are unconscious of it, it is true,\nand yet we speak of it constantly, when we say, with such disdain for the\nimmature age. \"We are not children.\" If we did not arrest the child's\nunmaturity in order to contemplate this inferior stage, but instead would\ngive freedom for his growth, admiring the marvels of his perfecting of himself always in the way of greater conquests, then we would say of him as\ndid Christ, when he said that he who would be perfect should become as a\nlittle child.\nThat faith which is true is the basis of religion.\nI have often been told that the education of the imagination founded on\nthis basis of fantasy \"prepares the soul of the child for religious education,\"\nand that an education based on reality, such as this method would desire,\nIS too arid and drys up the spiritual springs. Such reasoning, however,\n:annot be shared by religious persons, for they well know that myth and\nfaith are at opposite poles and that tho the myth must cease to be real as\n'Oon as the child's mind matures, faith must accompany man to the end of life.\nRehgion is not the product of a fantastic imagination; it is the greatest\nreality, the only trut^ji for the religious man. It is the fount, the support of\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nhis life. The man who is not religious is certainly not one lacking in imagination but rather lacking in inner poise. In comparison with the religious\nman, he is less serene, less strong in misfortime. Not only that, he is\nmore vacillating in his own ideas. He is weaker, more imhappy, and in\nvain does he cling to his imagination in order to construct a world outside\nthe bounds of reality. But if he hopes by means of imagination alone to\nattain the goal of his true life, he may in a moment of supreme struggle feel\nhis feet sinking in the quicksands.\nWhen an apostle seeks to call a soul to a religion where he may rest his\nfaltering foot on a rock, he has recourse to the feelings, not to the imagination, for he knows that he need create nothing, but has only to call in a\nloud voice to that which slumbers in the depths of the heart.\nTruth is the basis of every great artistic production of the imagination.\nManifestations of art are also based on truth, even tho they are the most\nglorious proofs of the heights which the imagination may reach. Fine arts\nand Uterary works attain greater heights in a measure as they draw their\ncontent from truth — ^not copying the truth but constructing the original\nwork of the imagination on truth. Nothing is more fantastic than Dante's\npoem, where the imagination of the poet roams thru hell, purgatory, and\nParadise, and yet the imaginative beauty of the thought is gained thru\nsimiles, which reveal the poet as a potent observer of reality.\nIt is said that Michael Angelo was wont to walk up and down every\nevening looking far off into space. When asked what he was looking at,\nhe answered, \"I am looking at a dome which is being constructed within\nme,\" and this was the dome which he reproduced in St. Peters. But it\nwould never have been created and realized if a thoro study of architecture\nhad not furnished the material for its construction. Thus Greek art has\nsiurvived all other arts as tho it were immortal and superior to them all.\nTruth positively sought for is the basis of the scientific production of\nthe imagination.\nOur times mark a great progress in civilization as compared with past\ncenturies. This progress is due to the fact that man has used the positive\nresearch of truth as the basis of the imagination. It is because of this\nthat the imagination of man has been able to invent all the wonderful\nappliances in existence today in the fields of electricity, mechanics, chemistry, and biology. In their wildest imagination, oiir forefathers could\nnever have pictured a world where men could send messages from one\ncovmtry to another across oceans and speak in low tones between Paris and\nRome; where men could fly, and where, as guardians of mankind, they\ncould drive from them the scourge of infectious diseases. No one in\nthe olden times could have fantastically imagined the rich products of\nour day.\nEducation must prepare the modern child for the renewed civilization of\nour day, this civilization which is based upon positive research of truth\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nINTERNATIONALISM\n\n667\n\nthat is, the child whose hand, whose eye, and whose ear are eager to grasp\nthe truth with precision, and who becomes capable of mental concentration. In like order in which the body seeks the elements which satisfy its\nhunger and then transforms them in the inanimate workings of assimilation,\nso the child nourishes himself with truth, organizing within himseK the\nconstructions of the imagination which create the beautiful and the good.\nThus we will help his intellect, which tends to organize itself, to go on, to\nexperiment, to acquire knowledge until he can more easily and more perfectly accomplish the effort of intellectual growth. He is destined, therefore, not to represent our inferior humanity, but to surpass us.\n\nCHILD\nI.\n\nEDUCATION AS A BASIS FOR THE NEW\nINTERNA TIONALISM\nMAY\n\nWRIGHT\n\nSEWALL, INDIANAPOLIS,\n\nIND.\n\nWhat is the significance of the phrase, \"the new internationalism\"?\nIt implies an old internationalism. A contrast of one thing with another\noften gives a clearer perception of both.\nThe only internationalism known or practiced by hiunanity up to the\nmiddle of the eighteenth century was the internationalism which might\nbe classified as the internationalism of exploration, discovery, exploitation,\nand war. The first advance upon these forms of internationalism was made\nby the efforts of people, who had practiced all the preceding forms, to superimpose their own views of life, especially in regard to religion, government,\nand social habits, upon the people whom they had in turn discovered,\nconquered, and exploited.\nThe new internationalism implies abandonment of the effort to exploit,\nto conquer, or to compel to one's own beliefs and habits. Probably the\ncountry at the present moment best adapted to the exercise of the spirit\noi the new internationalism is the United States. The present tragic\nwar that involves the larger part of Europe and threatens to involve it\nall before its conclusion is the logical and inevitable result of the feeUngs\nLhat impelled all the forms and methods of the old internationalism.\nThere is no country involved in the tragedy which is not represented in\n:he schools of the United States. As it has been found easier to bring the\nchildren of recently arrived immigrants into kindergartens and infant schools\n5f all kinds than into any other, we may state that the kindergarten is the\njlace where all the principles involved in the new internationalism should\nie and may be most easily inculcated.\nThe cities which have the most composite population are the ones whose\nkindergartens offer to teachers the best field for this work. But, at the\niresent time, our population has become so complex, that, excepting in the\nnost exclusive localities, it would be hardly possible to gather in all of the\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchildren of a neighborhood without bringing together from two to a halfdozen or even a score of nationalities.\nWhat are the principles involved in the new internationalism? First\nof all, the sense of wholeness as applied to the human race. Secondly, the\nspirit of appreciation which will enable one to value the qualities and\ncharacteristics of each section of the race. Thirdly, an abatement of the\ntendency to overvalue the contribution of that section to which the\nmajority of the children in any kindergarten may belong.\n%\nn.\n\nHARRIET\n\nP. THOMAS, SECRETARY, WOMAN'S\n\nPEACE PARTY, CHICAGO ILL.\n\nIn the title to that remarkable book The Century of the Child, Ellen Ke}'\nhas briefly and happily expressed the tendency of modem education. From\nall parts of the world come reports of new movements and systems, of\nbureaus and laboratories and surveys, which have as their object the development of great universal principles of child study; and all about us are\nsigns that educators are beginning to demand the same selection and oversight for the beginnings of training which used to be required only for its\ncompletion.\nOut of the mass of psychological investigation and experiment which is\nconstantly appearing, we may lay firm hold on two great working principles\nin the development of child study. First, the whole of education may be\nsaid to be simply a matter of the attention. Secondly, we do not intellectualize life, but the springs of conduct lie in that subconscious region\nwhere impressions are stored long before any conscious processes are set\nup, a region from which memory is constantly drawing the most powerful\nStimuli for behavior. In connection with both these principles environmenti\nis of supreme imp)ortance.\nI use environment in Thomdike's sense, as including the entire universe so far as it may directly or indirectly influence an individual.\nNow every hiunan being is provided with a dominant reflex system\nalmost as complete as that of the animals and almost able to do the work of\nlife. Consciousness comes in to do what the reflex system cannot do. It\nis the distinctly human part of us. Included in this reflex system are the\nfundamental instincts: anger, fear, curiosity, hate, love, and the fundamental appetites of food and sex. All these are bom afresh with every|\nchild. They cannot be eliminated and it would not be wise to try to\neliminate them, but they can be greatly modified and sublimated. ^\nAn individual's nature and the changes that take place in it may bej\ndescribed in terms of the responses of thought, feeling, action, and attitude\nwhich he makes and of the bonds by which these are connected with the\nsituations which life offers. These connections are the starting-point lot\nall education or other human control. The aim of education is to perpetuate some of them, to eliminate some, and to modify or redirect others.\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nINTERNATIONALISM\n\n669\n\nIt is a first principle of education to utilize any individual's original\nnature as a means of changing him for the better, as a means of producing\nin him the information, habits, powers, interests, and ideals which are\ndesirable.\nSince it is the tendency of psychologists everywhere to become social\npsychologists, new social groupings are being created around the interests\nof the child, and new efforts are being made to bring him into helpful\nrelationship to his environment.\nEvery society, even the simplest savage society, tends to develop and\nencourage the social qualities and to inhibit the antisocial qualities, thereby\nsecuring safety, food, and life more surely. Every society, in fact, has all\nthe cardinal virtues: courage, self-sacrifice, benevolence, economy, patriotism, etc. The only difference in respect to the exercise of these virtues\nbetween the savage tribes and ourselves is that they have no theory that\nthey must behave well and virtuously toward members of other groups.\nThe code of the savage is to secure his own safety and well-being first, and\nhe does it group-wise, just as gregarious animals do, because of the obvious\nadvantages of teamwork. It was the code of the American Indian that\nhe was at war with all with whom he had not concluded a treaty of peace.\nThis is our real attitude also, but we do not admit it: It is in that subconscious region to which I have referred.\nRegard for others had its origin in family and tribal life. Society, thru\nreligion and education, thru the establishment of standards, thru the\nbestowal of praise and blame, has made a huge and partially successful\neffort to extend this interest in others; but in practically all literature the\nhero is still the one who does the maximum of damage to outsiders — Samson, Odysseus, Robin Hood, the generals on the side we happen to favor in\nthe world's battles.\nThe textbooks in schools have much responsibility for sectional differences and national vainglory. In our daily teaching, attitudes are set up\nwhich correspond to those of ancients toward the heathen.\nOur moral and social code applies only to those who are allied to us,\nakin to us, of our color, and our traditions. But we are beginning to realize\nthat almost any attitude is possible in an individual ajid in a society, according to the habit or mores of the group. Slavery may be in the mores or\nfreedom; toleration or persecution; aristocracy or democracy; exploitation\nof the people or service of them; war or peace. All these things lie in the\nregion of the unconscious or incompletely conscious; and this is the region\nof the sentiments which are warmer and more precious to us than any of\nour rational values.\nThe rational world is after all a mere accommodation to these irrational\nvalues, something erected in their interest. The hopeful thing about the\nsubconscious memory is that it is a region open to reform, conversion, and\ncontrol. In this connection our first priaciple — education is a matter of\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATOINAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergartei,\n\nthe attention — is of the utmost importance. From infancy upward, we\nare continually building a picture of ourselves and our world. The misfortune isthat our impressions are so often of things defective and of types\ndegraded, so that our ideals are correspondingly limited or selfish.\nK you want to make an idealist, you must catch him young. Out of\nthe vast and varied social repertory you must select his traditions; you\nmust beautify and spiritualize his surroundings. Swedenborg has declared\nthat the end of the senses was to see God. We might say that the end of\nsocial consciousness is to make us see Utopia, and seeing, create it.\nIt has been a matter of great interest and astonishment to me to see\nhow readily children accept scientific and social truths. Children are provincial only when made so by having their attention constantly engaged\nby provincial models. It is comparatively easy to extend their vision stage\nby stage to the larger outlooks, first of region, then of nation, of Occident,\nof Orient, and thus of all mankind. Long before a child comes to the point\nof studying civics in an academic way, he may have acquired a perfectly\nlogical conception of the expansion of family life into community, state,\nnational, and international life, and of his own relationship to each of these\ngroups.\nThe idea that a new generation is necessary to a thorogoing reform\ndepends upon the principle of creating a new set of subconscious memories.\nIn this connection, teachers have a rare opportunity to make the arts and\nsciences serve himaan welfare by engaging the attention of children on the\nside of constructive processes and of research.\nThe Panama Canal makes a wonderful story of the conquest of the\nmaterial forces of the world — 3. greater victory than any ever won by arms.\nTremendous imagination is required in scientific investigation, as well as\nin the quality and the determination of the explorer.\nHow can Uie imagination be more exquisitely invoked than by these\nlines by Keats ?\nI felt like some lone watcher of the skies,\nWhen a new planet swims within his ken.\n\nt^Bi U\n'^P r\n\nNow that there are practically no more worlds to conquer geographically, the explorer has to turn to other regions. The discovery of the\ngerm theory in medicine was as important to the world as the discovery of\nAmerica, and in this connection teachers have a great body of material\nthru which to make an appeal to the imagination and sympathy of\nchildren.\nThe teacher must be psychologist, sociologist, eugenist; and, in order\nto develop new values and new models for the attention of the child, and to\ncreate a new store of subconscious memories, I suggest to you a Uttle bit\nof Nietzsche's philosophy: \"Let the value of everything be determined\nafresh by you.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Margaret E. Schaixenberger, state commissioner of elementary schools,\nDepartment of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Cal.\nVice-President — Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state superintendent of\npublic instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\nSecretary — Marv E. Foster, superintendent, Cass County Schools\nPlattsmouth, Nebr.\n\n'.■>\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION— Friday\n\nForenoon,\n\nAugust\n\n20, 191 5\n\nThe department was called to order in the City Auditorium at 9:00 a.m.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Some Factors Making for Growth of Elementary Teachers in the Field\" — C. Louise\nBoehringer, county superintendent of schools, Yuma, Ariz.\n\"Welfare and Efficiency of Teachers\" — Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of\nphysical education, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Teacher's Field in Public Health Work\"— Elizabeth W. Allison, M.D., medical director of state normal schools of Wisconsin.\n\"Standardization of Rural Schools\" — E. F. Carleton, assistant state superintendent\nof public instruction, Salem, Ore.\n\"The Efficient Country School\" — David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal\nand Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C.\n\"Community Center Work\" — ^Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of\npublic instruction, Olympia, Wash.\n\"The American Elementary School\" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal\nSchool, Milwaukee, Wis.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — Friday\n\nAfternoon,\n\nAugust\n\n20, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. in the City Auditorium, and the following program presented:\n\"Some New Problems for the Old School\" — ^M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of\nschools, Charleston, W.Va.\n\"The Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Probational in Discipline in the Public Schools\"\n— ^James W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School, River Falls, Wis.\n\"Working Plans for the Home Teacher\" — Amanda Matthews Chase, representing\nCommission of Housing and Immigration for California.\n\"The New Citizenship\" — Fannie Fern Andrews, secretary, American School Peace\nLeague, Boston, Mass.\n\"Unconscious Discipline — The Blend of the Self-acting Group\" — ^John R. Kirk,\npresident, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n\"What Becomes of the Grammar-School Graduates and the High-School NonGraduates?\" — H. E. Van Norman, vice-director and dean, University Farm, Davis, Cal.\n\"The Large versus the Small Unit for Rural-School Administration and Supervision\"— Edith K. O. Clark, state superintendent of public instruction, Cheyenne, Wyo.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following names:\nFor President— Ada. Van Stone Harris, director of elementary practice teaching,\npublic schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Vice-President — Bertha M. McConkey, assistant superintendent of schools,\nSpringfield, Mass.\nFor Secretary — Marie Turner Harvey, Department of Rural Education, State Normal\nSchool, Kirksville, Mo.\nThese officers wer© duly elected for the coming year.\n671\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nSESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 19x5\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the City Auditorium at 8:00 p.m., and the following program presented:\n\"Some Fundamental Principles of Elementary Education\" — P. P. Claxton, United\nStates commissioner of education, Washington, D,C.\n\"The Special\nTeacher\" — Susan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools,_\nLos Angeles,\nCal.\n\"Address\" — William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. %■\nRome,\"The\nItaly.Organization of Intellectual Work in School\" — ^Maria Montessori, M.D.,\n\"Supervision\nthe Elementary\nSchool in\nPhilippine\nIslands\"\n— Frank\nL. Crone,^\ndirector.\nBureau ofofEducation,\nDepartment\nof the\nPublic\nInstruction,\nManila,\nP.I.\nMargaret E. Schallenberges, President j\n\nPAPERS\nSOME\n\nFACTORS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nMAKING FOR GROWTH OF ELEMENTA\nTEACHERS IN THE FIELD\n\nC. LOUISE BOEHRINGER,\n\nCOUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nYUMA, ARIZ.\n\n^\\^\n^\n^Z\n\nThe problem of the growth of teachers m the field is of vital importance\nnot only to the teachers themselves, but is significant also for school\nsupervisors, for those having in charge the administrative affairs in o\\ir\nschools, in town, city, county, and state, and for the patrons of our schools,\nwho in this day are taking no small part in matters of school advancement.\nPreparation for the work of teaching is the first important factor making\nfor future growth on the part of the teacher. The teachers coming from\nour normal schools and from our colleges and universities with departments\nwhere the problems of education are studied at least as seriously as are the\nproblems in mathematics and physics have an excellent basis for growth in\nthe profession.\nIt is a matter of encouragement to all interested that the nimaber of\nteachers with such preparation is increasing. In numerous towns and cities\nof this great West, the proportion of such teachers nms as high as 95 per\ncent of the teaching body.\nPreparation, however, is but a beginning, for growth is a continuous\nprocess. There is no middle ground. Either we advance or we fall behiad\nin the forward march of educational progress. The story of progress is one\nof continuous venturing, seeking, and giving.\nSome teachers make marked progress largely by their own direction;\nothers need the support and inspiration that come from competent supervision. The teacher who by her own initiative seeks for growth will continue her study and investigation of problems in psychology, child study,\nand sociology, and will verify her teaching efforts thereby and will find a\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\n673\n\nlarger scope for them. Often she will become conscious of problems which\nin the close range of the classroom have escaped her attention.\nSince the fields of psychology, child study, and sociology are comparatively new and rapidly growing ones, the teacher who has been out of the\nnormal school or college for three or four years finds that new problems are\nclaiming attention and that new investigations have been tabulated. Then,\ntoo, when the teacher has had several years in the schoolroom with a definite\nwork of her own with problems that have grown in her consciousness, she\nis in a position to derive new gains from a study of these fields which were\nfirst opened for her in the normal school.\nThe growth of the teacher is in no way a distinct process separated from\nthe growth of the individual as a man, as a woman, as a member of a social\ngroup. Every influence and every experience which affords a fuller understanding oflife, a more complete realization of its opportunities and its\nresponsibilities, and a more sincere appreciation of its values and its beauties,\nmeans enrichment and growth for the individual. Such a one, if a teacher,\nbecomes a growing influence in the lives of children and young people,\nprovided these values are made to function in the relationship between\nteacher and children.\nThe great world of literature is recognized as one of the most potent\nagencies for growth in imderstanding and appreciation. Several times I\nave heard the statement made that teachers are not as wide readers and\ninterested students of literature as are persons in other professions and\nwalks of life. The first time I heard this statement I resented it. Since\nthen I have come to know there is too much truth in it to make a denial\nof it. If such is the case, there are conditions responsible therefor which\nshould be changed. The truly growing teacher is a reader of the world's\nbest literature.\nIn the secondary school and in the advanced grades of the elementary\nschool, we often find departmental work for which teachers have made\nspecial preparation. In so doing, they have chosen some field for which\nthey have a personal inclination and have proceeded to make themselves\nproficient therein, and if they are in the class of growing teachers they seek\ngreater proficiency.\nMore and more primary and intermediate teachers are finding satisfaction and growth for themselves in acquiring more than a general knowledge, understanding, and appreciation of certain subjects and activities\nin their departments. I call to mind a superintendent in a small town in a\nmiddle western state who, as a teacher several years ago, began a special\nstudy of literature. Since then he has won a reputation in his state as one\nwho is more than an ordinary student and interpreter of a certain phase of\nliterature. He is asked to participate in numerous district and state\nprograms. The real significance of his case is not in that he has won\nrecognition far andr wide in his state, but in the fact that his study has\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementaiy\n\nmeant growth for him and that he is an influence and inspiration in the lives\nof his teachers and students.\nThere are teachers here and there in towns and villages and rural\ncommunities where departmental work is not in use, who find a similar\ndevelopment for themselves in making a special study of some particular\nfield, and who are thus able to render wider service. With the everincreasing field of literature made available for use in the elementary school,\nwise discrimination and selection is necessary, and teachers who make a\nspecial study of this question for their schools find a broad and stimulating\nfield of endeavor. The same holds true in a special study and investigation for nature study, folk dancing, or for any field of study and activity\nin the elementary school. The study and effort put forth in gaining more\nthan an ordinary working knowledge in a certain field means growth.\nThe opening of the school plant for wider service makes new demands\nupon the teachers in the field. In thousands of communities, the schoolhouses will remain closed from a third to a haK of each school year and there\nwill be no combined commimity effort for advancement except as the\nteachers promote this work. The teacher who succeeds in this work\nstudies community conditions, assets, and needs and wins the co-operation\nof the people in work to be undertaken for community welfare.\nThe parent-teacher association, with all of its many opportunities for\nco-operative effort, may be one of the most forceful factors in making the\nwork of the school effective and in extending the scope of its usefulness.\nThis organization does its best work when teachers as well as parents take\nan active and sympathetic part in the work.\nThe rural teacher who is a student of rural sociology, who has made a\nsurvey of neighborhood social assets and needs, and has opened the schoolhouse for wider service to the commimity finds himseK growing in leadership. The knowledge and insight gained by the teacher in making the\nschool a social center and in extending its service makes it possible to keep\nthe daily work of the school more closely related to the problems and\ninterests of life.\nThere is much in the way of growth for teachers in participation in\nvarious community organizations such as the commercial club, civic organizations, and woman's clubs. In them the teacher and superintendent hear\ndiscussions by local persons which often give them a new perspective for\nschool activities, and by their interest and participation they win for the\nschool and their efforts a respect and support which mean much for the\nadvancement of school interest.\nIt is not imusual in some schools for the superintendent to relieve the\nteacher of some duty in order that she may give a paper or address at a\nwoman's club, and superintendents and principals find time and opportunity\nto participate in the discussions and movements of civic and commercial\norganizations in their afternoon or evening meetings.\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\n675\n\nVoluntary clubs and organizations of teachers for study purposes or\nfor social purposes have demonstrated their value in affording opportunities\nfor self-expression and growth. Especially is this true in our larger towns\nand cities. This is a movement that should receive much encouragement\nfrom supervisors and teachers in our smaller towns and outlying rural\ncommunities. Besides the growth that the teachers find for themselves\nin the interchange of ideas in discussions, and in the inspiration and direction in lines of study and investigation, these organized groups of teachers\nare great forces in promulgating ideas and in advancing such movements\nas consolidation of schools, the circuit system of special teachers of music,\ncooking, and manual training for village and rural schools, the county unit\nsystem, and others of equal significance — movements that depend for their\nmoral and financial support upon the vote of the people concerned. The\nday for the realization of these and similar movements is hastened by the\nconcerted activity of teachers and patrons in educating and interesting\nthe general public. Any measure which gives to the teacher greater freedom and fosters conditions making possible greater service on the part of\nthe school is worthy the attention and support of teachers.\nThe supervisor who has clear and sympathetic vision is a very important\nfactor in the growth of teachers. Teachers are of such varying stages of\ngrowth and experience that the work of the supervisor demands great wisdom. While striving for unity in the work of certain groups of teachers,\nthe most important problem of the supervisor is so to stimulate and direct\nthe efforts of the teachers that they may make the best and most wholesome growth of which they are capable. Teachers clarify their ideas thru\nself-expression and gain confidence in their efforts thru co-operation.\nCourses of study and plans of work should not be thrust upon teachers by\nthose in authority, but should be the product of teachers and supervisors\nworking and studying together.\nProvision for more intimate supervision of our thousands of schools in\nrural communities is a most urgent need. The duties and obligations of the\ncounty superintendent are such that only one or two visits per year can be\nmade to most of the schools.\nThe supervisor who is a student of rural sociology and economics and\nwho has an intimate acquaintance with the problems of the rural school and\ncommunity knows how to assist the teacher and local leaders in making a\nunit of a neighborhood or community and how to make the school minister\nto the best development of country boys and girls and of the older members\nof the neighborhood. These are some of the factors making for the growth of\nelementary teachers in the field. While all are significant, none is more so\nthan the self -directed effort of the teacher who has found herself in her work\nand who is daily inspired to her best effort by the presence of boys and girls.\nThe growing teacher is a student of psychology, child study, sociology,\neugenics, and in the light of these examines and verifies her efforts. She is\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ngrowing in the knowledge and appreciation of the great values of life; she\nknows that there are definite problems in the lives of boys and girls that\ndemand her ablest and most sincere effort.\nShe has learned that there are several ways by which adjustments are\nmade, and that her best work is being done when she makes her schoohoom\nan atmosphere in which the child can grow naturally because she combines\nthe elements calling for adjustment in such a way that he makes the largest\nand best responses of which he is capable. Her realization of the manysidedness of the problem keeps her open-minded, and she is willing to\ninvestigate and to accept from others that which is good. The teacher\nwho is truly growing is learning thru self-realization that the great goal of\neducation is service.\n^b i\n\n— ^\n\nTHE TEACHERS\nELIZABETH\n\nWILSON\n\nFIELD IN PUBLIC\n\n#1\n\nHEALTH\n\nWORK\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDIRECTOR, STATE NORMAL':OF WISCONSIN\n\n|\n\nALLISON, M.D., MEDICAL\n\nIt is significant that the normal schools are beginning to realize their\nopportunities and duties in the far-reaching activity known as preventive\nmedicine or public health. The right of society to health is one of the latest\nrights to be recognized and the obligation to secure and protect health is\nmore and more evident. Many of the accomplishments in sanitation and\npublic health are the result of education. The instruments used for publichealth education have been lectures, congresses, exhibitions, pamphlets,\nbulletins, and books. This education has aroused public sentiment, which\nhas given rise to much gratifying co-operation.\nIn this tremendous but not superhuman task of teaching health, there\nseems to me no more effective method than to commit it to those who are\nand are to be the teachers. Progress in these matters cannot be made without an intelligent understanding on the part of the teacher. It is therefore\nimportant to teach the teacher. It is said that the normal school is historically the only institution in the country which has aimed to deal with\nthe teaching problem.\nThe Board of Regents of the normal schools of Wisconsin felt the need\nof making the normal schools of the state instnmients of public health and\nin 191 2 appointed a physician for this work. The work as organized consists of: (i) exclusion of the physically unfit among the normal-school\nstudents; (2) detection of remedial physical defects with suggestions in\nregard to same; (3) instruction in preventive medicine.\nI. The term \"physically unfit\" is very elastic, but we should have some\nphysical standard. The public has not been in a position to protect itself\nagainst those physically unfit in the profession, but it is beginning to make\ncertain demands. For example, what community will now tolerate a\nteacher who is known to be tuberculous?\nIt is well to enlighten these\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\nWORK\n\n677\n\nphysically unfit, and stop the source of the physically undesirable, as we\nwould the intellectually undesirable.\nMy experience with several thousand young men and women during the\nlast three years has shown me that the health habits of teachers need\nimproving. I recall a statement made by one of our young men students\nin which he cited his keen disappointment as a child when he learned\nthat a much-admired teacher ate candy. I have a similar feeling of\n(disappointment when I hear statements like the following: \"I do not\n(iiave time to eat breakfast\"; \"I wear the same weight clothes in winter\nas in summer\"; \"I hate rubbers,\" etc. When the teacher does not live\nsanely, she cannot have as wholesome an influence upon her pupils as she\nmight exert.\n2. In the normal schools of Wisconsin a health-record card for each\nstudent is on file in the department of physical training. The side filled\nDut by the physical-training teacher consists of a record of height, weight,\nind lung capacity, the neck, chest, and hip measurements, and a detailed\nrecord of posture. The physician's report includes a record of the past\nmedical history, personal history, sex history, family history, and the present\nrendition of nutrition, skin, eyes, ears, nose, throat, teeth, glands, lungs,\nlieart, and elimination. Each student is advised in accordance with the\n:onditions which are found.\nThe average conditions of the above for the eight normal schools with\nEour thousand students are as follows:\nFaulty nutrition\nSkin diseases\nHeadaches\nTV f .•\n• • /needing glasses\nDefective vision|^^^^| 1^^^^^^\nDefective hearing\nAdenoids\n\n2.8 per cent\n6.0 \"\n15.0 \"\ni4-3 \"\n^J^ »\n5.9 \"\n2.5\n\nCatarrh\nDiseased tonsils\nGoitre\nNervousness (marked)\nHeart action abnormal\nTuberculosis of lungs\nMenstrual pain\nConstipation\n\n9.0 \"\n5.0 \"\n22.0 \"\n4.0 \"\n5.5 \"\no. i \"\n13 .0 \"\n9.0 \"\n\nThere is very little information as to the health conditions among the\nteachers of the United States. The record of illness among English teachers\n^hows respiratory troubles and nervousness as the most frequent of the\nTiorbid conditions. In Sweden, the morbidity records of the 18,000\n::eachers of that country show an average of 4 per cent of the male elementary teachers and 9 per cent of the female elementary teachers who are\njnable to attend to their school duties for one month each year.\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementar\n\n3. Instruction in preventive medicine consists of individual advice anc.\nclassroom instruction as follows:\na) Personal hygiene. This supplements what they have studied from\nthe text and what they have received from the instructors of hygiene and\nphysical training.\nb) A couple of lectures are given on the physical examination of school\nchildren. Teachers should be taught the essential facts about defectivii\nvision, defective hearing, adenoids, catarrh, diseased tonsils, nervousness,\nand mental defects. The seriousness of every trouble and its particular\nrelation to school progress and to the general public should be recognized.\nThe teachers should be taught to communicate the information to the\nparents in an intelligible manner. The parents will understand that the\nteacher has no ulterior motive in recommending treatment, whereas if a\nphysician recommended the same he might be considered as having aii\n\"axe to grind.\" The way to get defects remedied is to convince parents\nthat they should be remedied. There is no one who can influence them as\nmuch in these matters as the teacher.\nThe teacher should have an intelligent understanding of the health of\neach child so that the nature and the amount of the work will be in accord\nwith his or her capacity and physical development. A child who comes to\nschool without the proper ratio existing between work and play, and\nbetween work and rest, is physically and mentally handicapped.\nc) Lectures are given on the cause, avenue of infection, mode of transmission, period of incubation, symptoms, complications, results, and prevention ofthe following communicable and preventable diseases: measles\nscarlet fever, chicken-pox, smallpox, miunps, whooping cough, grippe, pneumonia, tuberculosis, diphtheria, meningitis, and infantile paralysis. Teachers should know that \" children's diseases \" are not necessary. They should\nhave a desire for the best in sanitation. The significance of modem biological cleanliness can come only thru education and example. Normalschool training should do something to overcome the poor sanitation of thf\npublic schools. Many health problems are complicated with economic anc\nsocial difficulties. Preventive medicine has become a basic factor in the\n\"science of society.\" Teachers should be acquainted with some of the\nefforts and accomplishments of the local, state, and federal health service\nVery little has been done in state organization of school health, but the\ndevelopment of health work in schools imder city control has been ver>\nrapid.\nThe results of a course in public health for teachers cannot be estimatec\nbut the teacher profits directly from the lessons learned, the child profit;\nfrom attendance at a school which has due regard for his physical wellbeing, the home profits from the lessons of sanitation and hygiene which are\ncarried into it, and the state profits indirectly as these lessons are appliec\nas a matter of course in the home of the future citizen.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n679\n\nThe attempt to make the normal schools of Wisconsin helpful in forwarding the health movement by example and training finds its foundation\nin the fact that education of the mind alone may be harmful, and that the\nhealth of the child and his teacher, as well as the sanitation of the school\nbuildings, is of fundamental importance. It finds its mathematical verification in the statistics of the relation of school life to health and disease.\nIt finds its financial justification in the greater conservation of human\nhealth. It finds its moral justification in the altruistic ideal of race welfare\nand human happiness.\nWe rejoice in the wonderful achievement of the completion of the\nPanama Canal. That we may gather inspiration for public health work,\nlet us recall that the important factor in making the Panama Canal a reality\nwas the making of the Panama Zone a healthful place in which to carry on\nthe work — a most brilliant achievement in preventive medicine.\nLet each ask himself or herself: \"What is the problem in school health\nwhich I should help to solve ? \"\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF THE RURAL\n\nE. F. CARLETON, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nSALEM,\nORE.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nLady Somerset, in an article for the North American Review, writes\nas follows:\nHere at the back of the hills nothing happens. Day after day we look out at the\nunchanging face of our narrow world, little grassy fields where a few rough cattle\ngraze on pasture that is mostly moss and rushes, and a sluggish stream, bordered\nby willows, winding in and out among them. Here and there in the hollows stand\ndamp stained cottages from which men and women, gnarled like the apple trees in\ntheir gardens, come out to labor on the poor farms. The children, wild as mountain\ngoats, leave the hamlet early in the morning to cross the hill to the nearest school,\nthree miles away. Once they have gone, there is no sound of life. There are no\nyoung girls to be heard singing or laughing at their work; they have gone off to service\nor to business in the towns that might be a thousand miles away for all we hear of their\nbustle and stir. The young men go too, except a few who stay to plod as laborers on the\nfarms and to lose their youth in monotonous days of dull, heavy work. News comes\nslowly over the hills, and when it does come our dull minds rarely grasp its meaning;\nit seldom touches us; for we have been left so long in ignorance that we have grown like\nthe slow-moving beasts in the pastures. Yes, and we have grown coarse and brutal, too.\n\nIn a few brief strokes the writer completes the picture by describing\nthe little church which they attend.\nThe rector discourses on Rehoboam, Abijah, and Sennacherib\nWe hear of\nno more gracious personalities. From the rector's teachings, the Kingdom of God and\nhis Christ are as little heard of in our backward parish as in Central Africa.\n\nWhile wonderful improvements have been made during the last few\ny'cars in rural life, no one who has lived for a period of time in the country\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Elementary\n\nand is familiar with rural conditions thruout our nation can fail to recognize that there are still such communities to be foimd even in this country.\nWhy are our city schools advancing so rapidly ? Why have our rural\nschools, with a few occasional exceptions, remained as they were years ago ?\nSome of the causes I expect to trace and to show what place our plan of\nstandardization has in the improvement of the rural schools and the betterment of our social welfare.\nWith our ever-increasing tendencies to do away with representative\nforms of government and to give to the people all power direct, as witness\nthe initiative, the referendum, and the recall, the stability of our institutions and our hope of any advance in civilization depend upon the public\nopinion of each community. This pubHc opinion simply means the governing thought of a majority of the individuals. If their ideals are low, theiilives mean, narrow, and cramped, then each institution of such community\nwill be of little account, and the state as a whole must suffer in proportion\nto the number of such communities it contains. Those of us who hope\nto make the rural school efficient must realize that we must first put mto\nthe hearts of the people affected a desire to have better schools.\nAs I consider this phase of our work, I am reminded of a painful incident which I witnessed a few years ago. A powerful young man, almost\nphysically perfect, was caught in some machinery, and his body and arms]\nterribly mangled. The victim was imconscious and showed signs of\nsevere shock. Finally the sensory nerves began to readjust themselves,\nso that they could carry the message of anguish to the brain. Then began\nthe fight for the mind to assume control once more over the crushed and\nbroken body. As the cries of pain would escape, those standing by would\nbeg of the attending physician to repeat the injection of morphine which\nhad at first been given. What would have been the result? The tired\nbrain would so gladly have given up the struggle. That condition known\nas shock would have gained the mastery. The patient would have passed\naway within an hour. The doctor was firm and the pain of the torn muscles\naroused the mind from its lethargy. The nerves controlling respiration,\ncirculation, and the other functions of the body began imder the terriblei\nstimulus to take up their work, so that in due course of time the patient\nwas in a proper condition to respond to the treatment of the physician.\nIn the typical rural district today there is an apathetic condition. I^\nanyone suggests some new plan, he disturbs the seK-satisfaction of the\npeople and many of them cannot stand even the slightest pain.\nLest I may be misunderstood and be interpreted as condemning the|\nfarming p>eople as a class, let me say right here that this attitude, or condition of mind, is true of the people of any community. The difference is\nonly in degree. Someone has said that the inhabitants of a large city are\nthe most provincial in the world, and I am inclined to think the statement\nis true.\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": ")epartnient]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n68l\n\nAnd yet rural conditions will never improve until someone makes these\nicople, who live somewhat out of touch with the busy rush of the world's\n/ork, very discontented with their lot. Only last July, I spent a day with\nfriend of mine — a book farmer, his neighbors call him. He had in one\nomer of his farm a small field of hay, twenty acres. In the spring, when\ne was preparing the soil, the neighbors ridiculed him. They told him that\nliat particular field had not produced a crop for years, that the soil was\n^om out. He sent for a man from the Oregon Agricultural College to test\nle soil. Acting upon this expert's advice, he spent seven dollars for the\nroper kind of fertilizer. The yield was just two and one-half tons of hay\n5 the acre, while the next best crop in the neighborhood was only one ton.\nhe other farmers are now willing to look up to this college man, but they\nre suffering from more twinges of pain. The college man showed my\nlend how much more economical it would be to have a gasoline engine\n) pump the water used and a pressure tank to furnish both hou^e and bam\nith a good supply. The changes were made, but now another improvelent has been suggested.\n\"The college is changing my standards, and\nly neighbors have decided that no book farmer will have better improvements than they have,\" this man said to me. The labor and anguish is so\niinful that one cannot help wondering at times if it would not be better\n) administer the opiate, \"let well enough alone,\" and allow them to sink\nick into the peace of unconsciousness as to what is taking place in the\nIter world.\nTo such a people, how can you make the appeal for better schools?\ny making them discontented, arousing their pride, and taking advantage\nthe primal instinct to imitate others. Several years ago in Oregon, the\nate superintendent in talking to his coimty superintendents in convention\nid:\nYour rural people think their schools are as good as they are in any other state.\nley know of no way to measxire their usefulness, or more exactly speaking, their usesness. Try to work out a standard to which each rural district must bring its school,\ntneasuring-rod whereby the farmer may be convinced that he has not as a rule been\naviding house and grounds for the school children equal to those for his cattle and horses,\nIt he has not been demanding the same grade of eflSciency of the rural teacher as he\n3 of his hired hands.\n\nThe county superintendents went home and a number of them set to\n)rk formulating a set of standards for their rural schools. A brief descrip)n of what took place in one county will do for all. Fifteen requirements\nr standardization were printed on a large card, and one was hung on the\n>nt wall of each rural school. The type was large so that the card could\nread easily from any place in the room. To be standard, a school was\nluired to have a model school plant and a trained teacher. The detailed\nluirements are published in pamphlet form by the Oregon State Departmt of Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elematai;\n\nA gold star was fastened opposite each p)oint to which the school wi.\nentitled. Then came the work of the county superintendent. He begai\nin one of the best districts, and, with the co-operation of the teacher, h\nheld a meeting of the patrons. By dint of much urging and many per\nsonal invitations, he secured the attendance of nearly every father ai;'\nmother in the district. Twenty questions, typewritten on sUps of papej\nwere distributed among the farmers, and the chairman of the board c\ndirectors was requested to preside over the meeting. The questions wer\nall on local conditions. Each in tium would answer his question, and th(j\nthere would be a general discussion. At this first meeting, it require\neffort on the part of those directing the meeting to bring out many exprcj\nsions of opinion, but that was nearly five years ago. The plan of holdb\nthis kind of meeting has now been extended to every district in the count}\nThe people are called together at regular intervals, and everyone he\nlearned to talk.\nThe result of the first meeting was that the people decided to levy\nlocal district tax and to have the honor of being the first district in tl\ncounty to have a standard school. With the money raised, the directoi\nemployed carpenters to take out all of the windows on the right-hand sic\nof the building and to build as many more on the left. They drained tl\nplaygroimds, built cement walks to the outbuildings, provided for janiw\nservice, and instructed the teacher to see that the outbuildings were supplit\nwith disinfectants recommended by the State Board of Health. In tl\nplace of the old stove which was in the center of the room, they piu*chast\na modem heating plant equipped with a ventilating system. The schoc\nhouse was painted inside and out, and a beautiful, tho not expensive, repri\nof one of the old masters was purchased and hung in the schoolroom.\nA great celebration was held in this district when it had earned all ;\nthe stars and the first standard school was presented with a beautiful penant, on which was inscribed the name of the school and the words, \"Staiifard School.\" Accounts of the meeting were given in all the county paps\nand thus the campaign for better schools was launched. An appeal )\nlocal pride was made in every district. There were miany discouragemeS\nand an endless amount of hard work for the county superintendent and fi\nteachers; it meant many long midnight drives and much work that is rt\nprescribed in the school laws of Oregon among the duties for county suj)intendents. But they kept at it.\nThe work has continued in this county for nearly five years and ro-t\nof the rural schools have become standard; really better than standal,\nfor to prevent stagnation the requirements were raised slightly every y'-'The neighborhood meetings are becoming a part of the community 1Last year the county superintendent and his assistant conducted to\nmeetings a week, making a total of 128 meetings held during e\nschool year under their direct supervision. Interest has grown so tiit\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n683\n\ni)ne entire day is given up to an annual meeting in each district. The\narmers and their wives come early and all bring luncheon. The meetings\nisually begin at ten o'clock in the morning and close at four o'clock in the\niftemoon. The state educational institutions have been called upon to\nlelp. There is always one outside speaker to give an address on some topic\n)f vital importance to that particular community.\nIn the meantime other counties thruout Oregon have taken up the\ntandard plan. The State Department of Education thru its succeeding\nuperintendents has encouraged and helped with the work. An enlight:ned public opinion has developed to such a degree that it was possible for\nhe present superintendent when he took up his work at the head of the\nOregon schools to establish a state standard and in doing this to receive\nhe hearty approval and co-operation, not only of his county superintendnts, but of all those interested in education thruout the entire state.\nThe reason that the plan of standardization for the rural schools is\nound to succeed is that, in order to progress, there must be some way for\ncommunity to measure its growth, to compare what it is doing with what\nthers in similar lines of endeavor are accomplishing.\nThere must also be found some way to arouse the pride of our people\n-) that they will look about to see what others are doing and then an opporjnity must at once be provided for their better impulses to express them3lves in action, so that the ones aroused may not be victims of what the\nsychologists term \"suppressed emotion.\" Those who made the investiitions for the Russell Sage Foundation found this to be true, for after a\nloro study of all the school systems of the United States, they recomlended in their \"Comparative Study\" that each school district should\niways have power of levying a special tax in order to stimulate local pride\nid initiative. The success of the Oregon plan has been largely on account\n: the fact that the administrative school officers, the county superinindents, and the state superintendent meet twice a year for a week's\n)nvention. Plans are discussed, policies are formulated, and the county\niperintendents learn what others are doing. Stimulated by this contact,\nley go home to organize their teachers into a loyal band to work for the\nivancement of the rural schools and the development of a better social life,\nhich, taken together, makes one of the big units in the greatest of all works,\nle uplifting of humanity, the betterment of the condition of mankind.\nTHE EFFICIENT\n\nCOUNTRY\n\n^VID B. JOHNSON, PRESIDENT, WINTHROP NORMAL\nROCK HILL, S.C.\n\nSCHOOL\nAND INDUSTRIAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe efficient country school is the most vital educational need of this\nlole country of ours. The whole rural problem which is probably our\n3st vital problem is \"'practically the problem of the country school.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elemental\n\nFarms are being abandoned by the owners and agricultural progre?;\nand production are failing to keep pace with growth in population and witt\nprogress in other directions mainly because the country school has failec\nand is failing to relate its work to the life of the rural community.\nThe startling exodus from the rural districts to the cities is general]^\nattributed to the lack of proper educational and social conditions in tlcountry which the properly organized and conducted country school migh\nhave supplied.\nFrom social and economic surveys, it has been found that in Illinoi\nabout 95 per cent of the landowners who move to town do so because <d\nthe inadequacy of the country schools; that in an area covering i,7()\nsquare miles of the best farm land in Illinois 53 per cent of the farmers ar\ntenants; and that in many p>arts of Missouri more than half of the farmer\nare renters. The agricultural conditions in these two states are typica\nof those in other states.\nThe evils of farm tenantry are impressively brought out in a recen\nbook by Jack London. He calls the average tenant a \"land-hog\" wh\ntakes everything possible out of the land and puts nothing back into i<\nHe gives instances of where tenants had \" skinned \" enough out of the rente\nland in this state in three years to buy land for themselves. He recalls tb\nstory of an old farmer who told a professor at an agricultural experimer\nstation: \"They ain't no sense in tryin' to teach me farmin'. I know a\nabout it. Ain't I worked out three farms?\"\nAccording to the census of 1910, 45 . 6 per cent of the land in this countr\navailable for agriculture is not cultivated by either owners or tenants.\nJ. L. Coulter, of the George Peabody College for Teachers, has asce\ntained from the census of 19 10 that during the ten years from 1899 to 19c\nagricultural production in the United States increased only 10 per cent ov<\nthat of the preceding decade, while the population — the number of moutl\nto be fed — increased 21 per cent.\nEggleston and Bruere, in an admirable book on the work of the rur\nschool, hold that it is \"the menace of hunger that is turning the natic\nto the rural school as the only instrument capable of averting widegpref\ndisaster.\"\nConfronted by the danger of a shortage in the production of the ra\nmaterials used for feed, forage, and clothing, \" the nation is turning to \\s\nrural school because, owing to the changes wrought by the last centur>^\nour economic and social life and more especially in the economic and see;condition surrounding agricultural production, the rural school more tin\nany other one instrument today controls the food supply of the nation.'\nAltho the prosperity of every other calling and of the coimtry itsf\ndepends mainly upon the prosperity of the farmer, the wealth-producer f\nthe country, his interests have been overlooked in legislation and in torganization of courses of study in educational institutions until compai-\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nlively recent years. There is now common\n\nSCHOOL\n\n685\n\nagreement with Gifford\n\nPinchot in the opinion that \" no nation can continue to prosper unless its\ncivilization is built upon the abiding foundation of a strong and satisfied\nlife in the open country.\"\nThe efficient country school which is to improve agricultural conditions\nand to keep good citizens on the farms and make good citizens on the farms\nmust relate its work to the community life of the people served by it; must\neducate the children for country life instead of away from it; must teach,\ntherefore, agriculture, and must relate universal elements of education to\ncountry community needs; must train the children for their future work\nin the home, on the farm, and in the social life around them; must be a\n\"community center of education, instructing both children and adults in\nterms of country life and pointing the way to community prosperity and\nwelfare\"; must concern itself with the business and social life of the people,\npromoting helpful and profitable co-operation and neighborliness. It\nmust also help to better the rural home and the condition of the farm\nwoman.\nSomeone has called the lack of sociability in the country, the tendency\nof the countryman to live to himself — country individualism — \" the tuberculosis ofAmerican farm life.\" The efficient country school cannot neglect\nthe health, the recreation, or the social ideals of the people. Frederick T.\nGates, of the General Education Board, in a publication of that Board\nunder the title The Country School of Tomorrow, places attention to health\nDf the pupils and sanitation of the homes first among the duties of the country school of tomorrow. He sums up the work of the efficient country\nschool to be to make rural life, just where it is, healthful, intelligent, efficient,\nto fill it with thought and purpose and with a gracious social culture not\nwithout its joys.\nThe efficient country school must be housed in a properly constructed\nschool building with good light and ventilation and school furniture and\nequipment and sanitary closets. The grounds should be ample and properly laid off for all kinds of recreation. There should be gardens in connecion with the school to be worked by the pupils, and the school should\nmcourage the pupils to work small gardens at their homes and should superase them. We are now trying as an experiment in our state small demonstration farms in connection with a limited number of country schools in\n'ach county. The efficient country school must interest its pupils and their\n)arents in the boys' corn clubs and the girls' canning and poultry clubs.\nt must give credit for home work.\nThe redirected course of study needed for the efficient country school\nnust be determined by the needs of the social and economic life of the\nimmunity as determined by a social and economic survey of the comaunity. You cannot ''hitch up education to life\" without knowing what\nhat life is— the prevailing aspirations of the community, \"its economic and\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementety\n\nsocial resources and possibilities, its deficiencies and needs.\" It is not to\nbe understood that it is proposed to discard the fvmdamental studies; it\nis proposed to relate these studies more closely to agricultural life. For\ninstance, in arithmetic, instead of teaching stocks and bonds, Troy weight,\ncube root, and such subjects, it is proposed that problems relating to the\ndairy, the feeding of cattle, and other farm activities be given. It is proposed to put new leaven into old essentials, discard some subjects of the\nold traditional curriculum which fail to express the activities and needs of\nthe community, and add new subjects that are needed for agricultural\nprogress, such as nature study, agriculture, manual training, domestic\nscience and art, farm management, marketing, and rural sanitation. There\nare still some who contend that there is great danger of making the schools\ntoo materialistic by stressing the practical in education, that real education\nis secured thru the study of the so-called cultural subjects. Our position\nis that there is culture in the study of practical subjects and more — ^namely,\na living. Any country that does not include the practical subjects in its\nsystem of instruction may expect the same fate which befell China. That\ncountry stood still for two thousand years because its system of education |\nhad to do only with the philosophical, the literary, the historical, and had\nnothing of the concrete or practical in it.\nAfter all is said and done, however, there can be no efficient countr}\nschool without an efficient teacher — and that means a teacher trained\nspecially for teaching a country school in the right way, one who is in sympathy with rural life. The efficient teacher for the country school must be\nnot only a good teacher of subject-matter, \"giving instruction in terms of\nthe local environment of the child,\" but also a good community leader.\nShe must be able to stimulate local campaigns for rural progress. Under her\nleadership there will be road improvement, good farmers' clubs and institutes, and country church progress.\nShe must be imbued with the spirit of civic service, A distinguished\ncollege president upon his inauguration not long ago said that the master\nword of the eighteenth century was \"liberty,\" of the nineteenth \"knowledge,\"\nand that of the twentieth would be a blending of these two into a noble:\nand richer ideal — citizenship or service — in which individual liberty and\nthe acquisition of knowledge for the sake of knowledge would be unselfishl}\nsubordinated to the welfare of the people as a whole. Every teacher, bu:\nespecially the country teacher, must catch this spirit of the twentietli\ncentury and be governed by it. I believe that permanency of position\nand adequate salaries will soon follow such service. Many of the normal\nschools have recognized the need of special training for country teacher-:\nand have provided for it. It is to be hoped that all will soon do so.\nAt Winthrop College we require all of our normal students to take\nagriculture and to make and work school gardens. Our seniors are requirec\nto observe and practice in the training school where school gardens ar«\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\nWORK\n\n687\n\nvorked by the children. We give two courses for country teachers — the\nural-Iif e educational course of four years and a one-year course for teachers\nilready in the field. The efficient country school cannot be maintained\n.0 any extent without trained supervision. To meet this need, we have a\nitate supervisor of rural schools and a woman county supervisor of rural\n;chools in some counties. We have an experimental rural school designed\njspecially to show how a single teacher can make her school a factor in the\n'ife around it. Children from an adjoining district are brought to the\nichool in a regular school transportation wagon.\nIt has been the efiPort in the school to work out a course of study specially\nidapted to the needs of the children of the country without regard to any\nraditional course of study. All precedents have been ignored. The\nbought always in mind is to train the farm children for their work and life\nn the country home, on the farm, and in the social life of the country. All\nhe activities of the school are based upon work in the garden and have\n;rown out of such work.\nProper recreation for the children and social gatherings for the parents\nlave not been overlooked. The children have been led to take an interest\na the boys' com clubs and the girls' canning and poultry clubs.\nWe do not claim by any means that we have worked out yet the plan\nar the best organization, management, and course of study for the most\nfficient country school, but we do believe we are working along right lines\nnd hope that we may contribute something of real value to the final\nolution of the problem. Our students preparing for teaching in country\nchools are given practice in our rural school under the direction of the\neacher of the rural school.\nWe have arranged to transplant this school from the college campus\n3 a school in the country with the purpose of demonstrating for our state\nnd section how the country school may be made a community center,\nslating and directing, in a way, all the social, religious, recreational, educaional, and industrial activities of the countryside.\n\n,^.\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\nWORK\n\nJOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nINSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nIn the brief time allotted each speaker I could not hope to do more than\nrely refer to the many excellent results brought about by community\nenter organization.\nSo I have determined to confine myself to one subivided phase of the subject, the home for the teacher provided by the\nlool board.\nWashington now has 112 teachers' cottages. Thirty of our thirty-nine\naunties possess from' one to twelve of these homes, varying in cost from\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n$50 to $3,200. Some of these residences are movable shacks that can b?\nset on a logging train and moved when the camp moves; some are humbh\n\"lean-tos\" built against the side of the schoolhouse; in one district on the\nColville Indian reservation the teacher Uves in a combination house and\ntent; in several instances the upstairs of the schoolhouses have been fitted\nup for housekeeping; in many cases the old school building has been worked\nover for a house for the teacher when a new schoolhouse has been erected.\nBut the majority of the cottages are the serviceable, sensible, well-built little\nhouse of from two to six rooms, standing near the school building. We\nhave two double houses, the one at Amber, and the other at Eureka. In\nboth cases the principal and his family occupy half of the house, and the\nyoung women assistants occupy the other half.\nWe feel proud of the development of the cottage idea in our state\nThe movement had a very modest beginning. Eleven years ago next\nSeptember, when I was assistant county superintendent of WaUa Walla\nCounty, a yoimg woman came to me in much distress. It was the olc\nstory: she had been out to the community in which she was to open schoo\nthe next week, and she had found that no one there was willing to board\nher. The family that had always boarded the teacher had moved to towr\nto send their children to high school. We were much troubled over the\nsituation, and I suggested that I could give her another school in th(\ncounty, for I considered that the district in question had failed in its dut)\nto her. We had about come to the conclusion that this was the only thin^\nto be done when an idea seized her: \"In the farmyard across from th«\nschoolhouse I saw a portable cook wagon. If the district will put thi;\nhouse in the schoolyard for me I will furnish it and keep house.\" So thi;\ncookhouse was fitted up for the brave young woman. It was not the mos;\ncomfortable residence that one could wish. When the heavy fall rains se\nin, her property, her clothes, and her bedding were often soaked. But hen\nshe hved with her twelve-year-old brother, and she taught the school \\^\nthe end of the allotted term. When school opened in that district th(\nfollowing fall, the teacher again occupied a residence supplied by the schoo\nboard, but this time it was a neat two-roomed cottage. The first teache;\nwho lived in this first real cottage in Washington taught in the districi\nthree years, a long time for a rural teacher to keep the same school. Sh\nleft to complete her college course.\nHow do these cottages reflect upon the elementary education of on\nstate ? The prime need of a rural school is the strong teacher, the teache\nwith initiative, leadership, experience, high ideals, broad sympathies, at*\neducation. The rural school needs teachers who will stay in the com\nmunity long enough to understand that community, for it is agreed tha\na teacher can do better work the second year than she did the first yeai\nand that her work increases in value along with her tenure of office. It \\\nnot an unusual condition for teachers to spend a lifetime in the same schoc\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\nWORK\n\n689\n\nin Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and England. How may we work toward\nthat goal?\nI wonder if there is anyone in this audience who at any time in the past\nwent out to teach a country school full of enthusiastic plans for the work.\nHe found a reasonably well-cared for schoolhouse and grounds, but when\nit came to finding a place to live it developed that the families in the most\n:omfortable circumstances did not \"care to be bothered\" with a boarder.\nSo the teacher, after considerable difficulty in procuring any place at all,\nfinally was taken in by one of the poorer families. If you have had this\nexperience you will recall the difficulty you experienced in trying to prepare\nyouT work for the next day in a poorly heated, poorly ventilated room with\nI family of vigorous children playing about, and the regular duties of the\nlousehold in progress. After an hour spent in a vain effort to study,\n:)erhaps you went off to a cold room that served as a sleeping apartment\nor other members of the household, one or more children often occupying\nhe bed with you. The food served the next day was doubtless in keeping\nvith the rest of the entertainment.\nI certainly do not intend to convey the impression that we have not as\n;ood country homes in Washington as can be found anywhere. We have,\ncan think of many, many districts where the teacher obtains the very\ninest accommodations that could be asked. She has wholesome food,\n. heated room where she may work undisturbed, and the proper environnent of refinement, three qualifications that I hold must be provided by a\nlistrict for its teacher if that district gets the best service that the teacher\ns capable of giving.\nThe reports coming from our cottaged districts are highly encouraging.\nVe find that a cottage attracts the very best teachers, and for less salary.\n>et it be known that a district furnishes a cottage for the use of the teacher,\nnd that district practically has its choice from among the best teaching\nalent of the state. It is noticeable that the teacher who has the use of\ncottage is not anxious to make a change each school year. The district\nith a cottage is able to secure as a teacher a married man with much fine\nxperience. I have in my office a list of the men who lived with their\nimilies in school cottages last year, most of them men who would not have\nDnsidered for an instant a country school position had not the living\nccommodations attracted them. We have a number of instances of cotiges being built to keep a strong teacher. These families usually occupy\n^e cottage during the vacation months, improving the property, and\nlaintaining a supervision over the schoolhouse and groimds.\nIt is a source\nt much gratification to these men to feel that they can actually establish\nhome while teaching a country school, and it means a great deal to them\nnancially to be able to have a garden, a cow, chickens, etc.\nThe cottage is one of the greatest factors in our \" wider-use-of-thehool-plant\" movem'ent.\nOur rural schoolhouses are more and more\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elemental\n\nbeing used for other purposes than for the day instruction of the childreii\nIt is pleasant to see the country schoolhouse often lighted up for a con ■\nmunity center event. With his home on the school grounds, the teacher\nis able to do a distinct service to the people about by having a good firti\nand the lights burning when the time for beginning arrives on a cold wintt;:\nevening. We have received many expressions of appreciation of this littl«\nbenefit derived from the cottage. The teacher is in a position to supervijii\nthe janitor work and the playground activities at all hours. District;\nthat had had trouble in property being injured, windows broken, etc.\nreport that the presence of the cottage with its teacher overseer has com\npletely done away with this undesirable situation. The teacher's residenci\nseems to stimulate the desire for other improvements at the school, and ij\nalso stimulates a community spirit. One teacher writes:\nYou may be interested in reading about other improvements that have been add*\nsince the teacher's residence was built. They include a gymnasiimi 38X 28 feet, equippei\nfor basket-ball; a manual-training shop, completely outfitted; a private water syster\nby which the school is supplied with piure spring water; new seats, bookcase, wall map;\n^obe, and encyclopedia for the schoolroom; sanitary supplies such as liquid soap, papc\ntowels, drinking-foimtain, and first-aid cabinet; a grafonola with about forty careful!\nselected records; and a moving-picture machine with which we show new educatiom\nreels every week. Add to this that we have an attractive playground, and you mus\nadmit that we are as well equipped as any one-room rural school in the cotmtiy. Tb\nsalary paid the teacher this year is $1,000.\n\nThe greatest change has come over many commimities. The peopl\nare taking pride in keeping the schoolhouse and cottage homelike and i\nbeautifying the school grounds. This pride has extended to their home:\nwhich receive much better care. Knowing that the teacher's cottage, an\nthe way the teacher or the teacher's wife cared for the cottage, would i\nmany cases serve as models for the entire community, we have taken cor\nsiderable care in planning two suitable residences, one a single and on\na double house, and in suggesting that the most accurate attention shcnilj\nbe given these homes. In anticipation of the rapid growth of the schoo\ncottage idea within the next few years, we have made arrangements whereb\ncomplete building plans will be furnished to school boards at a nomiri!\ncost. We are suggesting that the heavy furniture be supplied by thes\nschool boards and that a small rental of perhaps one dollar a month t\npaid the district to cover the wear of this furniture. We want the teach(;;\nto bring their own rugs, carpets, bedding, table linen, and dishes. ^\\\nfeel that infinite care in the minute decorations and equipment of the\nhouses is time well spent, for the kitchen especially will mean much ;\na model. Therefore our kitchen plans, while simple, include those pric\nless modern conveniences that would reform most country homes and gi^\nthe country woman the conception of an easier method of doing her wor\nThe teacher's cottage, then, assures a living place for the teacher,\nattracts better teachers, it increases the tenure of office, it makes tl\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "NEW\n\ni Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nFOR THE OLD SCHOOL\n\n691\n\nI teacher infinitely more efficient in schoolroom and in community, it brings\nI about a wider use of the school plant, it serves as a model for the neighborIhood. It is one of the prime factors in our Washington community center\nI organization.\nSOME\nM. P. SHAWKEY,\n\nNEW\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nFOR THE OLD SCHOOL\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, CHARLESTON,\n\nW.VA.\n\nThe public schools of our country have been the subject of a good\nmany attacks recently. Some of these attacks have been made by ignorant\nand hostile critics and some by intelligent and friendly persons. The schools\nhave been declared inefficient. In one place it is charged that the pupils\ndo nothing but play all the day. In another it is charged that the children are being overworked. In one place it is charged that the methods\nare old and antiquated. In another it is charged that the schools have\nbeen ruined by the introduction of so many frills and \"new-fangled\"\nIldtions. In one place it is charged that the schools have abandoned the\ndamentals and in another there is a lament that they spend all their\ne on the same old things. In one case it is charged that the teachers\nstick to the textbooks too slavishly while in another the charge is that the\ntextbooks are not learned. One of the most common complaints is that the\nschools are not practical, but on the other hand there are some very inteUigent critics who complain that they are emphasizing the utilitarian too much.\nIndeed there is a class of radical critics who pronounce the old school a\nfailure and propose to substitute some new scheme of education for it.\nThis paper cannot concede that the old school is a failure. It holds that\nits fundamental principles are eternal and that therefore it will last as long\nas there are human beings to be educated. Any possible change that may\nbe made will be a mere incidental and will not affect the fundamental\nture of the school. The old school faces some new problems. They are\nt problems that demand a new kind of school but they do demand some\nimportant readjustments of the old school. These problems are fruits of\nfthe new developments in our industrial and social life. As has been pointed\nlUt so often by our magazines, the apprentice system is gone. Labor is\n[highly specialized. It takes thirty-nine tailors to make a coat. One man\nused to do it and he wasn't much of a man either. Every one of the thirtymine tailors must be a specialist. The school formerly prepared men to live.\nThere is now even greater demand that it prepare men to make a living.\nIf the apprentice system is gone and there is no other means of preparing\nithem to make a living, then it is a problem for the public school, a probto meet which will require some readjustments of a striking character,\ne school will not fail to meet these new demands upon it. It cannot do\nfor it is its mission to serve and the needs of society must ever determine\ne character of its service.\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementiy\n\nThe new industrial life presents the school with its most obvious newproblems but it is the changed social life that presents it with its most\ndifficult and most important new problem. It is infinitely more difficult\nto produce a man than it is to produce a mechanic but it is also infinitely\nmore important that we produce the man.\nThe changes in our social life in recent years have been much more\nradical than the average man realizes because of the easy and noiseless way\nin which these changes have come about. Within the past three or four\ncenturies particularly the social life of the race has reached its highest and\nbest and that social life has clustered around the family as a center.\nLet us study the American family for a moment. Sixty years ago the\ntypical American family consisted of father, mother, three sons and four\ndaughters, living lovingly and happily under a single roof, but today the\nt)T)ical American family consists of father, mother, and son, or father,\nmother, and daughter, or father, mother, son, and a poodle dog. This is !\nnot mere sentiment. The statistics of the government show that the\naverage family in this country decreased from 5 . 6 in 1850 to 4 . 5 in 1910, or\na decrease of almost 20 per cent in less than an allotted lifetime, and that\ntoo in spite of the coming into this country of thousands of Eiuropean\nfamilies of large size. A small family, one with a smgle child or two children only, is not an efficient social organization. The smaller the family\nis the less efficient it is socially.\nBut the diminishing size of the American family is not the only hindrance to its social efficiency. We are rapidly becoming a nation of city\ndwellers and city life tends to break up the coherence of the family organization. For instance, how many thousand families now live in apartments where the various members sleep, eat a hasty breakfast, and then\nhastily scatter off to a distant office, factory, or school from which they\nreturn in time for a late dinner at night or perhaps only for a late retirement ? Such a family life is in strange contrast to the old-fashioned family\nwhere the children gathered around a family board three times a day with\nfather at the head and mother at the foot, where the whole group spent\nthe evening hours about a wholesome fireside, and then took a half-hour tC'\nread the Bible and sing the psalms before retiring. Yet that is rapidl}'\ncoming to be the typical American family, which means that as a social\norganization the American family is speedily going into bankruptcy.\nThe relation between the school and the home is intimate. What;\nrights over the child or what opportunities to serve the child the home\nsurrenders either voluntarily or involuntarily the school should assume.\nThe old school is therefore being confronted with a very important new\nproblem, namely, the moral training of the child. It must do for the child\nwhat its parents do not care to do for it and what they cannot do for it\nbecause of the new social and industrial conditions. It is not surprising\nthat many parents believe the school more competent to give the child the\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeotl\n\nNEW\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nOLD\n\nSCHOOL\n\n693\n\nmoral training it ought to have than they themselves are, nor is it difficult to\nsee how poorly such training must be done by either the father or mother\nwho leaves the home early in the morning and gets back to it late in the\nevening, eating but one or two meals of the day with the children whose\nmoral training is dependent upon them.\nI do not hesitate to say that I consider the moral training of the child\nthe most difficult of all the problems confronting the school at the present\ntime. The desire to earn money may quicken the interest of the child in the\nmechanical skill which the teacher wishes him to acquire, but there is no\nsuch tangible incentive to lead the same child to acquire the good habits\nwhich the teacher knows he must possess in order to become the man of\ncharacter which she hopes for him to be. Pride may drive a child to study\nhis lesson for the honor of knowing it, but the homely virtues so necessary\nto strong character are neither alluring nor popular in the general crowd.\nThe life of a child in this country before the introduction of the consoUdated school, the trolley, the automobile, the cheap story book, the illustrated newspaper, and the moving-picture show was quite simple and free\nfrom many evil influences that have come with these modem developments,\nbut the school today must compete with all the alluring devices that\na greedy commercial age can devise. Of all these devices there is none\nmore effective than the moving-picture show. Reports of the \"movie\"\nconcerns recently made public show that the people of this country paid out\nlast year an aggregate of $300,000,000 for admissions to these shows.\nThe reports do not reveal what proportion of this mass of money was paid\nby children, but certainly it was a large proportion. First, is it not teaching children extravagance — and extravagance is our national sin — to let\nthem spend money in such large amoimts for a thing that is for the most\npart a mere amusement; and, second, what is the moral tone of the average\nmoving-picture show ? The first query I leave for you to answer but on\nthe second I have some evidence to offer of a definite character.\nFor many months I have been accustomed to study the intent group\nof children that constantly crowd the entrance to the \"movies,\" especially\nIt the opening and closing of the school sessions. Since the pictures\nseemed to have such a firm grip on the children, I was led to inquire into\nthe nature of the matter presented by the shows. Passing down a leading\nstreet in a city of something less than one hundred thousand population\nin the central part of the United States, I listed the picture shows into\nwhich young people were pouring by the thousands. Here are the attractions offered:\n1. Negro Burlesque\nCivil War scene in which an officer has his sword drawn against his own son\n2. Christie Mathewson\nA policeman separates two young men in a quarrel over a girl\n3. Frohman in Belasco's May Morning — pretty ante-wedding scene\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "{Wwnpif\n694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n4. A young man tempted away from his innocent sweetheart by the beauty of a rii\nof the street\niA t\n5. A haunted house\n1 w I\nAn old man and two young ones — one with a pointed revolver threatening murdi 1\n6. A cowboy girl and two men in the rough life of the ranch\nAn Indian stealing up to stab the woman asleep\n7. A burning-ship catastrophe\nA desperate first fight\nI j1\nA yoimg man drugged and robbed by two companions\n\nIn a city of forty thousand population, an investigation of all the shows\npresented during an entire month revealed the facts that\n25 per cent might be classified as \"good\" and \"not bad\"\n75 per cent might be classified as \"bad\" and \"very bad\"\n35 per cent showed cigarette smoking\n50 per cent showed drinking\n50 per cent showed gun play and murder\n\nDeceit, intrigue, jealousy, and treachery were leading features of at\nleast 40 per cent of these shows.\nThe picture show is a great teacher but it must be rescued from its\npresent evil ways. It must be made an ally of the school.\nTo meet the new industrial and social demands upon it, the school\nmust be enlarged in scope and extended in means of doing its work. ItJ\nworking day should extend from eight in the morning till five in the evening.\nand from the first day of July till the last day of June. It must have not\nonly a Ubrary at its command but also a workshop. It must have not onl>\nground to work but also ground to play. It must teach the child both ho^\nto live and how to make a Uving.\n\nTHE\n\nWISDOM OF A WIDER USE OF THE PROBATION AL IN\nDISCIPLINE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nJ. W.\n\nCRABTREE,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nRIVER\n\nFALLS, WIS.\n\nThe probational in discipline has always been used more or less by successful teachers. During the past decade not only the schools but the\ncourts have resorted less than ever before to the plan of meting out a definite\namoimt of punishment for a definite amount of misconduct or crinw'.\nProbation in the discipline of the school has the same general meaning as\nprobation in the practices of the court.\nIn its strict sense, \"probation,\" according to high authority, \"is a\njudicial system by which an offender against penal law instead of being\npunished by a sentence is given an opportunity to reform himself undei\nsupervision, and subject to conditions imposed by the court, with the ena\nin view that if he shows evidence of being reformed no penalty for his\noffense will be imposed.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "apartment]\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nIN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\niS It is easily seen that the deep-seated purpose of the suspended sentence\nand the probational period in the courts is to save men and to make fairly\ngood citizens out of those who have shown evidences of moral weakness.\nThe results have been most gratifying wherever probation has been thought[fully employed in dealing with wrongdoers and criminals. The results in\nIndianapolis may be taken as typical: during the past year in Indianapolis\nsentence has been suspended in 236 cases and judgment withheld during\ngood behavior in 3,474 cases. The majority of these were first offenders.\nIn the cases where the judgment was suspended, the court has had to set\nllaside and commit the defendants in only two cases, and, where the judgment has been withheld, less than 2 per ceat have been returned to court\nfor a second or subsequent offense.\nThe reports of the probation oflScers in Indianapolis, Cleveland, Denver,\nand other cities are full of evidence of heroic and successful efforts toward\nright living on the part of those who have been permitted under supervision\nand with sympathetic help to reform themselves. This method of dealing\nwith one who has broken the law retains whatever self-respect he may have\nand brings out the best elements of his nature, whereas heavy fines and\nserving jail and penitentiary sentences not only bring humiliation and disgrace upon the family, but have a tendency to develop the worst in the man's\nnature, and give him back to society a worse criminal than before.\nAt first it was thought that the principles of probation could safely be\napplied only to youth and to men whose offenses were considered trivial.\nThe reports of the courts in cities and states show, however, that each year\nthe advantages of probation are extended to larger numbers of men and\nmore and more to those who have committed grave offenses. The courts\nhave themselves been surprised to find that extending probation to the more\nserious cases has not apparently increased the number returning to court\nfor a subsequent offense.\nThere are instances where the operation of the law of probation has\nbeen unsatisfactory, because of incompetent judges or inefficient probation\noflScers, but the world has been astonished at the success and achievements\nof probation for both children and adults. The courts will continue to find\nmen who are not considered worthy of a chance for living among other\npeople while they strive to reform themselves, tho the nimiber of such\ncases will doubtless be greatly diminished as the method of probation\nbecomes more fully systematized, organized, and developed.\nThe plan of probation works essentially in the same manner in the school\nas in the courts. The most refractory pupils are segregated by law from\nthose to be taught in the public schools. These are taught in day truant\nschools, reform schools, or industrial schools for unmanageable pupils.\nSo far as the public schools are concerned, the plan is carried out somewhat as follows: The refractory pupil has his hearing; he is convinced of\nguilt and promises that he will not commit the offense again. The teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Elementtt;\n\nsuspends sentence, placing the pupil on probation, possibly under thj\nsupervision of a probational officer or other person. During the probational\nperiod, the teacher enlists the co-operation of the home and every usabh\ninfluence and in every way helps the pupil to keep his agreement. Thi\nmost unmanageable pupils are given advantage of a probational period.\nVery often the pupil is given a second or even a third chance befwe he\nfinally receives his sentence. It would be a great surprise to you to know\nhow few ever actually receive sentences at all.\nThe juvenile court borrowed the idea of the probational period from the\nschool. Nothing had been done by the schools to work out a plan for\ngeneral use. Very little had been said about it and nothing at all had been\nwritten. Conmion-sense told each individual teacher to deal in some sucli\nmanner with children. Practically all teachers known to be successful\nin dealing with refractory pupils used the principle of probation in some\nform. But strange as it may seem, it remained for the juvenile court, not\nthe school, to systematize and work out a plan for general use.\nJust as the juvenile court is saving hundreds of children from becoming\ncriminals in large cities, the principles of the probational system as appUed\nin the schools save many times that number of children in these same cities\nand this in spite of the fact that superintendents and teachers have been\nslow to appreciate the saving force of probation and that so little time and\nattention has been given to it as a means of reforming refractory pupils.\nThis system is so important as a means of saving children that every teacher\nand every superintendent should become better acquainted with it and make\na more extensive use of it in dealing with wrongdoers.\nOne superintendent makes use of the idea in this manner: Teachers\nsending pupils to him for pimishment hand in a statement of the case\nincluding their reasons for considering the pupil guilty. The pupil is\ncalled before him and subjected to a process of questioning. The pupil is\nalways impressed with the superintendent's fairness and also with his\nfirmness. If in need of further evidence, time is taken to secure it. All\nthe essential facts are finally noted down in a vest pocket memorandum,\ntogether with the pupil's agreement. The principal then releases the pupil,\nsuspending the sentence during good behavior, showing absolute confidence\nin his keeping his promise. He has had less than 10 per cent of these pupils\nreferred to him a third time. Many superintendents have had similar\nresults. Where this principle is used by teachers, very few cases ever\nreached the superintendent.\nWithout the period of probation, the number coming for a second and\nthird punishment is very much greater. Being released on good behavior\nleads the pupil to make an effort to control himself that cannot result from\nthe simple memory of past punishment and pain. This plan not only\nreduces punishing to the minimum, but it decreases in corresponding degree\nwrongdoing among pupils. It means that the worst mend their ways and\n\n11\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n697\n\nremain in school. It means higher moral standards and better self-control\non the playground and in the schoolroom. The wise use of probation practically does away with all forms of corporal punishment.\nThe probational system of the juvenile court is used successfully in\nmanaging truant and industrial schools. These most refractory pupils\nneed probation. They need firm teachers with big hearts to apply probation. The government must reach the home life of the pupil and the work\nof the school must in some way influence and direct even the outside and\nhome play of pupils. Probation and an abundance of industrial and purposeful work and study are actually reforming a large percentage of this\nworst class of pupils in a number of institutions thruout the country. Best\nof all, a wider use of probation in the public schools will reform most of these\nworst pupils before they become so refractory as to make it necessary to\nsend them to the truant or reform school.\nR. W. Himehck, principal of the normal school of the city of Cleveland,\nwho has made a careful study of the causes of truancy in both Indianapolis\nand Cleveland, finds wrong home environment to be the first cause and\nwrong methods of discipline to be the second cause. He says:\nIn my judgment most of our school punishment is of a vindictive, revengeful sort.\nAs soon as a pupil steps over the line, the teacher wants to exterminate him, that is he\nwants to get him out of the way. The teacher works on the plan that such a pupil is\nwholly bad, and assumes on the other hand that reforms should be instantaneous. This\nattitude of mind and heart on the part of the teacher naturally makes the pupil worse.\nWe have many strong teachers, but I have foimd many instances where the child was\nplainly made worse by wrong methods of control on the part of the teacher until it became\nnecessary to segregate him from the other children. There is certainly a demand for a\nmuch wider use of probation in the public schools.\n\nThe following is what Charles W. Eliot, ex-president of Harvard College, has to say on this question:\nPupils who are decidedly and persistently \"refractory\" shoiild, in my opinion, be\npermanently eliminated from any ordinary public school. They belong in a school by\nthemselves — a school conducted with the intention of reforming its pupils, and not of\ncaerely punishing or imprisoning them. For pupils that are only occasionally refractory,\nexhortation, the creation of new interests, and brief periods of probation are the most\nsuccessful methods. The school for refractory pupils should make large use of farm\nabor and manual work of many sorts, in the effort to secure relief from bad inheritances\nir dispositions thru interesting hard work.\n\nHerbert Brownell, of the University of Nebraska, says:\nProbation, after all, in dealing with people, young or old, is but affording a fair opporunity for them to get right and make good after having gone wrong thru ignorance of\nvhat are better ways, or from impulse misdirected. Probation assimies the sanity of\nluman nature in general and that the desire for doing right is natural. All home training\nif children worthy of approval is but a series of probationary steps. The school is an\nxtension of home instruction and training and may well use the probationary methods\nmployed in the best homes.\n\nThe probational system implies faith in pupils who desire to correct\n)ast mistakes. It is an accepted fact that one is likely to find that for which\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Eleme\n\nhe is looking. This is especially true of the teacher who plays the part 1\nthe detective in order to learn of the wrong acts committed by any pupil\nand true also of the teacher who searches for good in any pupil. He does\nnot permit his teacher to be disappointed in the quest.\nThere is no surer way of developing the bad in the nature of the child\nthan to distrust him and no surer way of developing the good than to\nhave faith in him. The impelling force in my life has not come from my\nteachers who were suspicious of me, but from my parents, teachers, and\nfriends who looked upon my errors as accidents and were glad each time\nto give me another chance and who made it plain that they had faith in me.\nProbation implies faith. Let us use probation more widely and more wisely\nin our public schools.\nWORKING\nAMANDA\n\nMATHEWS\n\nPLANS\n\nFOR THE HOME\n\nTEACHER\n\nCHASE,\nREPRESENTING\nCOMMISSION\nIMMIGRATION\nFOR CALIFORNIA\n\nOF\n\nHOUSING\n\nAAD\n\nMy text is the Home Teacher Law passed by our last California legislature. Here is its gist:\nIt shall be the duty of the home teachers to work in the homes of the pupils, instructing children and adults in matters relating to school attendance and preparation therefor;\nalso in sanitation, in the English language, in household duties, such as the purchase,\npreparation, and use of food and clothing, and in the fimdamental principles of the Ameri-i\ncan system of government and the rights and duties of citizenship.\n\nWe of the coast feel this to be a momentous and far-reaching piece of\nlegislation. Not that we claim to have invented the visiting teacher.\nUnder many names, she is already part of the public-school system in several\ncities of the United States. We do claim, however, that California leads\nin giving the movement state-wide backing.\nThe home teacher is employed by the people, and to the people her\nservices are due, not donated. The pressing need for the home teacher is\nin the foreign quarters of cities, since immigrant education is at present a\ncritical issue between the United States and destiny. As rapidly as may\nbe, however, the home teacher will be placed in all congested districts.!\nOur present bill allows no more than this, but the work will, in time,\ndemand its logical extension to wherever, in town or village, living conditions and domestic ideals fall short of our American standards. But alii\nthat will be another story, when it happens. In blazing trails for our first\nyear's eflFort, we need consider only what the home teacher can do in and\nfor a congested neighborhood.\nThe new law broadens our base of activity in such a school districl.\nHeretofore the cry has been \"Americanize the children and they will Ameri-|\ncanize the home!\" This topsy-turvy method flies in the face of natural\nsocial evolution. What it has brought into the home is confusion and often\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWORKING\n\nPLANS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nTEACHER\n\n699\n\ndisaster, since un-Americanized parents lose control over their Americanized\nchildren who consequently are liable to fall into lawless ways and frequently\nbring up as delinquents before the juvenile court. The fault does not lie\nin giving the children too much education but in dividing the family against\nitself by bestowing too little on its other members.\nLatterly we have been more assiduous about gathering the foreign\nfathers into evening schools and we have still more sweeping efforts in contemplation for this severely important labor. The immigrant mother, however, has been left almost entirely out of accoimt. We have ignored the\nnatural homemaker and yet tried to Americanize the home. We now see\nour error and are undertaking, here in California, to educate the entire\nfamily instead of discriminating against that important member, the\nmother.\nThe degree of success which we shall be able to bring to your attention\nnext year largely depends on the working plans with which we put our new\nact into execution. The act is as explicit as it is the business of such a law\nto be. Its very elasticity is in its favor if we have the wisdom to use that\nproperty wisely in formulating our corollaries. For corollaries we must\nhave. A compulsory education law, for instance, is not intended to take\nthe place of a course of study and a school program. Even so, our home\neducation law must be supplemented by instructions to home teachers\nregarding the presentation of the designated subjects, these instructions\nI roughly corresponding to the grade teacher's course of study. The home\nI teacher should also be provided with a program, even tho it be an indiarubber one, able to stretch indefinitely at the pull of emergency.\nIt is not desirable that the school district have two heads. I believe\nthe status of the home teacher is that of a specialist responsible to the\nprincipal of the public school with which she is connected, a part of the\nI field force of an elastic system.\nWhile the bill is noncommittal on the point, it seems natural to speak\nof the home teacher as feminine, since most of the activity outlined is such\nas would naturally be assigned to women. There is in the field, however,\ni place for a lesser number of men to attend to certain phases of the work,\nparticularly along the survey line, finding out where the men and the boys\nspend their evenings and their money, whether or not and why the saloon\nis the pleasantest spot in the district, dealing with men's lodging-houses,\nand rendering other valuable service along lines not practicable to women.\nNow to indicate sketchily a tentative working program for a home\nteacher.\nIt would be quite natural for her to wish to be at her public school before\nnine o'clock in order to confer with the principal and teachers regarding any\nspecial children whose homes they particularly desire to have visited. The\nforenoon would just as naturally be passed in making those visits and others\non her own initiative.\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "^\n706\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementaiy\n\nAt every house her first endeavor should be to wm the friendship and\nconfidence of the mother. These visits must be imhurried. If the visitor\nis being initiated into the very heart of some particular home, its problems,\nand difficulties, that is her time to hear the whole story even tho she gets\nno farther that forenoon.\nA certain pastoral element enters into these interviews. Irving King\nin his Social Aspects of Education, remarks on the modern tendency of\nsociety to gather up one and another function of changing institutions and\nbestow them on the public school. Those two dear old-fashioned friends\nand advisers, the family doctor and the family pastor, have shed each a scrap\nof his mantle on the shoulders of the home teacher. Like them she is to\nbe a real intimate possession of the family. May she be endowed with\nwisdom and grace to be worthy of this high phase of her profession and may\nshe emulate doctor and pastor in the sense of the sacredness of confidence.\nShe must refrain from making the morning's experiences the theme of racy,\ngossiping narratives to entertain her friends or fellow-workers. She will\nsurely never use the word \"slmn\" and will be chary of the word \"case.\"\nWe shovddn't like to be \"cases,\" not even to the angels of heaven, nor\nshould we appreciate hearing those same angels refer to their earthward\nflights as \"slumming expeditions.\"\nThe opening wedge into many family situations will be \"attendance and\nthe preparation therefor.\" Indeed, one of our prominent California educators rejoices in the home teacher as a \"glorified attendance ofllcer.\" To\nread backward into the causes why the children of some particular family\nattend school irregularly or in poor physical condition is to diagnose the\nweakness and perhaps the tragedy of that family preliminary to the work\nof social reconstruction.\nFor this, the home teacher will call to her aid the various ameUorative\nagencies of the community, the charities, district nurses, and the like, as\nthe need of their services is indicated by her investigations. She must not\nherself be connected in people's minds with the bestowal of material gifts.\nShe will, however, have some share in problems of employment since she\nwill natiu^y come to know something of the quality of the workers.\nRealizing the narrow, limited lives of many foreign women in this\ncountry, she will make every effort in her power to connect them with\nmimicipal centers of recreation, playgrounds, and parks.\nJuvenile diflSculties which the home teacher is endeavoring to settle out\nof court should take precedence of all other business. It is in ways like\nthis that the need of a flexible program is apparent. It must allow her tc\nadapt herself to the necessities of her own particular neighborhood. It\nmust give her liberty in hours and in days that her people may be served.\nIt must not prevent her throwing herself into any emergency she comes\nacross and relinquishing it only when proper assistance is available.\nSo much for the mornings. Let us now consider the afternoons.\n\nta\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nWORKING\n\nPLANS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nTEACHER\n\n701\n\nEvery school located in such a neighborhood as will require the services\nof a home teacher should have, as part of its equipment, a \"school cottage\"\nor its equivalent in housekeeping rooms within the school building. This\nmust be a model American home, small but complete, attractive but simple\nand inexpensive.\nDuring the forenoons, this cottage can be used in connection with the\ngrade work in domestic science. But afternoons it should be entirely at\nthe disposal of the home teacher. I doubt the advisability of her actually\nliving here as it is after all only a modified schoolroom and the teacher must\nkeep in human touch with the outside world, but decidedly it should be her\nofficial residence. Here she should be distinctly a hostess welcoming the\nmothers as into her own home.\nThe cottage itself will be a vital object-lesson. How can we expect a\nforeign woman to imitate a variety of house-furnishing and housekeeping\nwhich she has never seen ? Here is something intelligible to go home and\ncopy. Hence the ultimate ideal for the afternoon work will be to have it\nconducted for groups of mothers assembled in the cottage every school day\nixcept Friday, Friday afternoons being reserved for special uses.\nAt the cottage, the home teacher may be assisted by the instructors in\nsewing, cooking, and music. In addition to being hostess, she herself will\nteach English, civics, sanitation, and other subjects. Weaving may be\nncluded in the cottage instruction. The home teacher should interest\nlerseK in fostering such handcrafts as she finds the people have brought\n:rom their own countries and in connecting them with a market for their\n^ares. The sewing should be practical and include garment-making,\ntnending, and making over.\nThe cooking taught in the \"real kitchen\" of the cottage should be conined to simple, wholesome dishes. About once a month, each cooking\n:lass should jointly prepare a complete dinner, set it forth on a white\n.ablecloth with flowers in the center of the table, and partake of the feasts.\nVet nothing must be too fine or elaborate for home copying.\nIn teaching civics to foreigners, the heart must be appealed to quite as\nnuch as the understanding. The fundamental principles of our governnent are such as to arouse patriotism when properly presented. These\nmpressions should be deepened by hero tales, patriotic songs, and flag\nixercises.\nThe teaching of EngUsh to adult foreigners, many of whom are illiterate\nn their own tongue, is a fine pedagogical art with a psychology of its own.\nThe instruction must be live, practical, interesting, even dramatic.\nNow to dispose of the left-over Friday afternoons. Let them crown the\nabor of the weeks.\nOne should be for a \"Mothers' Day\" celebration in the assembly room\nvhen all the mothers of all the groups are entertained with a program furlished by a different grade each month.\nThere should be an address of\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n702\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfElementi; i\n\nwelcome by a pupil, songs and recitations honoring motherhood. Aftei\nthe program, the mothers are invited to inspect a display of pupils' work\nRefreshments are served by the children. The lesson of seeing thei;parents the honored guests of the school is a wholesome one.\nAnother Friday afternoon is needed for an \"At Home\" in the school\ncottage when the mothers may display their handcraft work, exchange lace\npatterns, sing folk-songs, and feel almost as if they had enjoyed a brief\nsojourn back in the far lands from which they came.\nThe remaining Friday afternoons could be given over to a special variet}of visiting — the distinctly social call, only long enough for the exchange of\namenities. That these calls constitute a tour of inspection looking for\nevidences of cottage instruction in the houses will be the home teacher's\nprofessional secret. All improvements will be noted with heartfelt praise.\nIf the visitor has added some special touches to her dress, it will contribute\nto the joyous spirit of the occasion. As to her ordinary costiune, let it not\nbe a uniform. There is nothing undemocratic in the district nurse's uniform\nsince she would wear it when called professionally to the richest dwelling.\nBut the home teacher must give the impression of dressing like other!\nteachers. Her working gowns can easily be simple and sanitary without\nemphasizing these qualities to a conspicuous and pharisaical degree. Every\nfamily, foreign or native, should be visited, but necessity should place the\nemphasis.\nThe home teacher may reasonably be required to spend one evening a\nweek at her civic center and thus she can do much to keep the neighborhood\nin touch with the advantages there offered them.\nFinally, those who enter this splendid pioneer field must realize the\nunity imderlying the few and simple provisions of the Home Teacher Billj\nThe general aim for these next years is to put immigrant mothers in command of their own situation by correlating them with the best America\nhas to offer. Hence no visit or lesson can be limited or hteral in its import.\nIt must open out beyond itself into the vision of the whole achievement.\n\nTHE NEW\nFANNIE\n\nFERN\n\nANDREWS,\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nSECRETARY,\nAMERICAN\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPEACE\n\n\\\n\nLEAGUTj\n\nIn the midst of the European upheavals, when civilization is hanging\nin the balance, the United States stands out as the one great nation at\npeace capable of extending her good offices for the re-establishment of la^^j\nand order. Her unique position and her traditions give her the leadership\nin creating a new form of world society which will lay the foundations of a\nhigher world life. We cannot escape this responsibility, for this country\nhas become an active part of the world and as such must play her part in it\nIf civilization breaks down in Europe, we shall suffer just as vitally, althc\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n703\n\nnot SO directly, as the European countries who are now engaged in mutual\ndestruction. Not only in the interests of civilization then, but for the\npreservation of our own ideals must we assume this new obligation. The\ndevelopment of the American ideal depends on the way in which this country will react on the military, economic, and moral conditions of the world.\nThis reaction means the beginning of a new citizenship which in the future\nmust demand a knowledge of the forces which advance or retard the\ngeneral betterment of mankind. Every citizen of our country should be\nconscious of this new obligation and should understand the method by\nwhich the United States, in this critical time, may render this service to the\nworld.\nOur greatest opportunity lies in working out a plan which will secure\nthe world against another such catastrophe. The beginnings of reconstruction which will follow this war can be made only by a neutral people who\nfortunately find themselves free from the terrible and bitter animosities\nwhich now control warring nations. No nation is more fitted to perform\nthis world service than the United States, whose laws are founded on the\nprinciples of democracy and the ideals of human brotherhood. This, our\nhighest service to humanity, can be rendered only if during the war we are\nable to keep ourselves from being drawn into the maelstrom of hate,\nrevenge, and fear. But we cannot avoid this danger by isolating ourselves; there is no such thing as isolation for any nation in the world today.\nWhether or not the United States may be privileged to play the part of\nmediation, it is distinctively her opportunity, after the peace settlement\nconference, to press the plans for a political organization which will give\nsecurity to each nation and allow it to pursue its own ideals thru an interdependence necessary for an unhampered progress of civilization. This\nmust be the first step in reconstruction — the first advance which can be\nmade to re-establish the spirit of harmony and good- will which was making\nsuch distinct progress before the war. In the world congress, which must\nsurely follow the peace settlement conference, civilization will either retard\nor advance, and it may be that on the attitude of the United States will\ndepend in large measure whether one or the other takes place. Obviously\nhere the United States will assume a new role, for this is a critical departure\nfrom her national traditions.\nOur education should react to the meaning of all this, should make ready\nto train future citizens to undertake the duties involved in the changed\nconditions. Henceforth, American citizenship must assimie these broader\nfunctions. To point out the methods by which the schools may teach these\nnew obligations is the purpose of the American School Peace League. In\nmy article on \"The War: What Should Be Said about It in the Schools,\"\nI endeavored to point out the new responsibilities of the teacher occasioned\nby the European war. I emphasized at that time the importance of arresting the development of race antagonisms and of teaching that the great\n\nli\nt'\ni\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementaiy\n\nidea of American patriotism is to wipe out racial prejudices. If the teacher\nis to follow the forces which are to make such changes in civilization, it\nwill be necessary to keep abreast of the practical plans offered for the reform\nof international relations. The most feasible idea yet advanced is that of\nthe League to Enforce Peace, organized in Independence Hall on June 17,\n191 5, and indorsed by groups of eminent men in England, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and other countries. This indicates the trend of international thought. Providing for a judicial tribunal to settle justiciable\ndisputes between nations, a council of conciliation to consider non-justiciable\ncases, and periodic conferences between the signatory powers to formulate\nand codify rules of international law, this League, which is headed by\nex-President Taf t, contemplates the building up of a judicial and legislative\nbody capable of dealing with world relations. In further providing that\nthe signatory powers shall jointly use forthwith both their economic and\nmilitary forces against any one of their number that goes to war before\nsubmitting its dispute to the judicial tribimal or to the council of conciliation, the League guarantees a sanction for its judicial decisions and paves\nthe way for gradual disarmament among the nations. This League therefore contemplates a government which will minister to the welfare of the\npeople.\nThe time is not far off when international organization will be taught\nin our schools if only to elucidate the real functions of our national government. Our teachers can begin at once, however, to teach the spirit of\ngood-will, for the reconstruction which is to follow the war is dependent upon\nthe dissemination of this spirit. The American School Peace League has\npublished \"A Course in Citizenship — With Good- Will Doing Service,\"\nwhose aim is to instil in the child, in his gradually widening life-experiences,\nan intelligent spirit of co-operation and good-will. The eighth grade of this\ncourse introduces the new conception of citizenship, and deals with the\nlarger social group, the world. Here the purpose is to show that civilization progresses only by the mutual assistance of all nations, each making\nits peculiar contribution. The course leads to an appreciation of all these\nefforts, explains the various agencies which have brought the world into the\nfamily of nations, and develops the thought that good-will is the fimdamental principle in the promotion of international harmony. By teaching\nthis spirit of citizenship, the teacher is inculcating a broad and sympathetic\noutlook toward the people of all nations and is implanting just and Uberal\nthoughts with regard to human society.\nThe teaching of history offers a distinctive opportunity of interpreting\nthe new efforts for world organization. One of the most important activities of the League is that undertaken by the history committee which has\nnearly completed a general course in history for the elementary schools and\na series of type studies from the fourth grade to the eighth. Many educators have long felt that our histories place far too much emphasis upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n. THE\n\nNEW\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n705\n\npolitical and military phases of history and far too little upon the development of the social institutions which have, in their particular fashion,\ninfluenced the destiny of our nation. So, too, the relation of the United\nStates to world history has been too much slighted. The committee points\nout that the problems of developing our resources, of extending our industries, ofdeveloping education, and of working out the unique experiment of\na federated nation have been solved by the representatives of different\nnations imbued with the American spirit of liberty and justice, and that the\nactivities involved in the solution of these problems form a conspicuous\npart of the history of our country. The committee further points out,\nin the type studies on \"The United States and the World\" and \"The\nWorld Family,\" that our country has always been a part of the world and\nthat in the future it is destined to play a still larger part in the councils\nof the nations. The committee urges teachers to develop in their pupils\nan intelligent and sympathetic understanding of foreign affairs and states\nthat the use of the course and the type studies should result in the development of the ideal that the economic and moral welfare of humanity demands\nuninterrupted co-operation among the nations and the reign of reason and\njustice founded upon international good-will. Such instruction will teach\nthe high significance of those things which enter into a true conception of\ncivilization.\nFrom its first inception, the American School Peace League has aimed\nto enlist the co-operation of the teachers of other coimtries \"to promote\nthe interests of international justice and fraternity,\" and for this purpose\nits secretary has addressed the principal educational bodies in most of the\ncountries of Europe. The School Peace League of Great Britain and Ireland was organized after an address by the secretary of the American League\nbefore a representative group of British educators. The League is a member\nof the Litemational Association of the National Federations of Teachers,\nand sends a delegate to each annual meeting which is held in the different\ncountries of Europe. Peace Day bulletins, modeled after those prepared\nby the secretary, have been published in Holland, Belgivun, and Himgary,\nand have reached the great mass of teachers in those coimtries.\nBefore the war, then, a beginning had been made among the teachers\nof the world to co-operate in the promotion of international harmony, and\nwe must not lose sight of this spirit, even at this time when the teaching of\nhatred toward the enemy is officially prescribed. The solidarity of teachers\nis the greatest hope for eliminating the deep underlying causes of war. The\nteachers of the world can accomplish this, and here again it becomes the\nopportimity of the American teachers to make the first advances in the\ncommg reconstruction period. Only by the spread of intelligence, knowledge, and good-will can we hope for the permanent reform of international\nrelations necessary for the future well-being of the world. The new citizenship should be permeated with the imiversal spirit of good-will.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNCONSCIOUS\nJOHN R. KIRK,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementaij\n\nDISCIPLINE— THE BLEND OF THE\nSELF-ACTING GROUP\n\nPRESroENT,\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nKIRKSVILLE,\n\n^\n*\nMO.\n\nFor the patent seat fastened to the floor in order to obstruct school\nactivities, we begin to substitute movable chairs that allow comfort and\ncontribute to activities. The rural and village schools, as well as the cit)\nschool, begin to have the telephone, the portable organ, the swinging globe,\nthe stereopticon with storage battery always ready for instantaneous use\nin the geography lesson, the literature lesson, the history lesson, and all the\nlessons. AppUances multiply for manual arts, household arts, and the elemental sciences; likewise libraries, decorated schoolroom walls, ventilated\nindoor toilet, shower bath; regulated heat and ventilation; the power\npump to give running water; the gasoline engine and electric generator;\nbut all these external accessories of education may be mechanically operated\nwithout any adequate appreciation of the one great fundamental and everlasting internal vibrant force, the stream of throbbing life in the children\nthemselves.\nI therefore draw for you in simple language a life-picture illustrating\nmy theme. It comprises a few hundred children. They typify any small\nvillage or consoUdated school, children from four years of age in the kinder-l\ngarten to seventeen years of age in the high school. They are always inl\nmotion. Recitation programs are broken into quite freely. The children\nplay a little, then work awhile. From the out-of-door games they rushl\nback to their studies with glowing countenance and rapid pulse and healthy\nperspiring bodies. They are self-vitalized. The school gives them opportunity for that which is wholesome and enjoyable. They respond with a\nwillingness not otherwise to be seen in school education. Children do not\nhave to be taught how to study. When given natural conditions they do\nno droning over assignments. They anticipate what is needed in thdij\nlessons. They have a new intellectuaUty, an increased capacity of interpreting problems. They read with penetration. They sense the situation\nin study as they do in play. They are unconscious of discipline and\nco-operate with generous unselfishness.\nI\nIn the organized game and play, the teacher is leader part of the time\nbut the children constantly think out things for themselves. They rise tcj\nunlooked for excellence in the interpretation, idealization, and dramatiza,-'\ntion of their Uterature, their history, and their other regular studies. The\nshirk and the idler disappear. Children are not naturally lazy or indifferec t\nany more than bugs and mosquitoes are naturally lazy or indifferenii\nChildren are not active in body and sluggish in mind. Under all natura'\nconditions both their bodies and minds are active. How imnatural it is\nwhen we fasten the children into immovable patented furniture and seek\nby all available means to force them to be inactive! How abnormal it i?\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "epertment]\n\nUNCONSCIOUS\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n707\n\n|for us to expect their minds to be active and receptive and responsive while\nre compel them to inhibit all their natural impulses and to hold their\n)recious bodies in fixed attitudes for many minutes without change! How\nlure retard the heart action, and by rendering the circulation sluggish, also\nlecrease nerve action, and thereby repress mind action! But we begin to\n)w better and to do better.\nEach morning the children come running happily to the call to lessons,\n/\"ith vigorous heartbeat, they read, they work, they study a little while.\nThen we send them in groups for a few minutes to the indoor gymnasium\nrcise or the out-of-door game to receive them back in exhilarated state\nibody and mind ready to do what we would have them do, even in an\n-time \"study,\" and ready to do it with a will because they know they\npresently be called again to participate in the song or the folk-dance\nar the manual arts or the fine arts or the household arts or other motivating\nit activity of body and mind. Thus with movable furniture and other\nlodem appurtenances, and with impressionable, sympathetic, wholeouled, sane-spirited teachers, the children find school never repressive,\nirer tiresome, but nearly always joyous and nearly always exhilarating.\nWith one-third of the time systematically given over to organized physiactivity, the children in the other two-thirds of the time accomplish\n\"more in their studies than they did under the old-time screwed- to- the-floor\nscheme and glued-to-the-seat discipline.\nI venture one illustration of what I saw this year. It was a practice\nschool of a teachers' college, with children from four to seventeen years of\nage. From September to May, there is a twice-a-month extemporized halfliour program given by all the children from fom: to seventeen years of age,\nall assembling at one time on a specially constructed platform. The kindergarten children are in front, the high-school children at the rear, all being\nmassed somewhat compactly. They assemble in the presence of seven\nhundred teachers and intending teachers.\nIn the program the children of one group sing beautifully. Those of\nanother group co-ordinate mind and body action in the sword dance or the\nrhythmic rubber-ball game or the Highland fling or other folk-dance.\nSome give relay races, others competitive games. From the old point of\nview, the children are quite irregular in their coming and going. They are\nnot massed in straight hne, they do not keep step. Some sit on the floor,\nr)thers stand up. They all eagerly watch all the games. No one gets into\ndisorder, for disorder spoils the game. Since all the children participate,\nall the children enjoy. All the children desire all others to have a chance.\nA.11 the children desire to see what all the others can do.\nThe old-time solo performance is discarded. Cultivation of introspection and personal awkwardness thru standing alone and saying declamations\nIS not permitted. Embarrassing self-consciousness disappears. As soon\nas the game is well learned so that it begins to be performed somewhat\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n708\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlElementery\n\nautomatically, it is cast aside and not given again because it has lost its\neducative force. Nothing is allowed to become automatic. Thus mental\nconcentration and mental alertness are constantly stimulated and human\nmanikins are not produced. No child is left to act in isolation. No child\nis so placed as to center his attention upon himself to the exclusion of others.\nOpportunity for self-consciousness is not given. Hence the children leani\nthru co-operative and sympathetic group action to play their parts in the\nsocial whole.\nThru plays and games appealing to children's instincts, the raw recruits\nthe partially trained children become alert and impressionable and responsive. The bad child, if there is such a thing, is swallowed up in the selfacting group of good children. The awkward squad grows anxious and,\nsensitive, alert, receptive, and responsive. The child unaccustomed to\nco-ordinating mind and body is awakened by the force of semiconscious\nimitation. And there comes about an unconscious discipline, a self-control\nand co-operating spontaneity. It is the blend of the self-acting group.\nBy intermixing study and class exercise and play thruout the school, a\nnew purpose animates the children. We therefore freely and intentionally\niiitermix at all hours of the day the study lesson, exercise and game, arithmetic and song, woodwork and spelling lesson, play and study, sunshine\nand shower bath. Each school exercise functions in stimulating each of\nthe others to the highest attainable effectiveness. And the child loves the\nschool. Thru constantly changing the program in the intermixing of\nstudies and play the children learn to love school and to love right conduct\nand to grow more happy and more healthy and more sanely self-active.\n\nWHAT\n\nBECOMES OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GRADUATES\nAND THE HIGH-SCHOOL NON-GRADUATES?\n\nH. E. VAN NORMAN,\n\nVICE-DIRECTOR\n\nAND DEAN, UNIVERSITY\n\nFARM, DAVIS, CAI.\n\nSo many young people completing the grammar-school courses in our\nAmerican schools have never entered the high school, or, if entering, never\nfinish the high-school course, that the question of why this is so is receiving\nthe serious consideration of thoughtful educators. The answer made i:\nthat the courses are not adapted to the needs of these particular younj2\npeople, as they do not expect to go on to the college or university courses\nIn the rural communities, as well as in the city, probably an even large!\nproportion of boy graduates from the grammar school fail to complete theii\nhigh-school course. Observation shows that many of these young meii\nafter they are too old to go back to the high school awaken to the need ol\nmore education.\nTo these young men between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five, tht\nstate of California offers at its University Farm School at Davis a three\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUPILS\n\nWITH\n\nUNCOMPLETED\n\nCOURSES\n\n709\n\nyears' course in agriculture — a course in which the only mathematics given\nis that which applies to the solution of agricultural problems, such as the\narithmetic of balancing feed mixtures for live stock, the making of fertilizer\nmixtures for crops and orchards, the computation of irrigation ditches, the\ncomputation of building materials, etc., as well as that necessary in ordinary ranch survey practice. The work in English is confined to business\nforms and the oral and written expression incident to the work of the\ncourse.\nIn the sciences, those which are the foundation of agricultural practice,\nsuch as chemistry and botany, plant pathology, bacteriology, etc., receive\nthe most attention. Practice work is given in every branch of instruction\nwith a view to illustrating fundamental principles and providing sufficient\nmanipulating skill to make reasonably sure that the student has acquired\nan understanding of how and why to apply the theoretical knowledge to\nfield practice. The judging and feeding of animals, the operation of incubators and brooders, the planting, pruning, and spraying of fruit trees, the\nplanting and cultivation of garden plats, the assembling and operation of\nfarm machinery, the making of butter and cheese, and many other and\nvaried practical operations are included in these courses.\nThe success attending the efforts of graduates of the university farm\ncourse suggests that it is helpfully adapted to the needs of young men\ngoing out into the business of making a living on the land. The question\nis how can this help be brought to the attention of the thousands of young\nmen in this and other states offering similar opportunities to the public, for\nmany of the states offer some form of opportunity in agricultural education\nto this class of young men. California has set aside a ranch of 779 acres\nwith its live stock, poultry, orchards, fields, laboratories, creamery, dormitories, etc., for their education. How can they be made aware of this fact ?\nInvestigations already conducted show that nearly 50 per cent of the\nstudents answering the question why they came to the university farm did\nso because some friend told them of it, suggested, advised, or urged them\nto go. Others discovered it thru their own reading or accidental visit.\nThe grammar school, the high school, and the university keep track of\nthe university or college student until graduation, but who knows where the\nyoung man is who dropped out of the grammar school on completing his\ncourse or out of the high school before completing this course ? How may\nhe be made aware of the opportunity the state offers him ? What agency\ncan inform him of his opportunity, can urge him to take advantage of it, can\nencourage him to overcome the diflSculties which to him may seem to prevent\nhis attaining the education which at fifteen he may value lightly and at\ntwenty may want without realizing that it is attainable ? What can the\nhigh-school teacher, the school principal, the country superintendent, the\ncounty-school officers, and the one-room rural-school teacher do for this\nlarge class of non-high-school graduates ?\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elemem\n\nFew of those who finish the grammar school finish the high school.\nOf those who drop out in a rural state, many should be interested in training for success in agricultural pursuits. What can our educational system\ndo for this class of yoimg people? We have an outdoor school for the\nailing; we have a reform school for the vicious; we have a school for the\nfeeble-minded ; we have a night school for those who must work in the daytime; we have the truant oflficer to keep in the schoolroom those whom the\nlaw says must be schooled in spite of themselves. But what are we doing\nfor that large class of wholesome, healthy, eflScient young men who, thru\nmisfortune or short-sightedness, discontinue their education with the\nminimum the law permits, only to discover their mistake at eighteen to\ntwenty-five (the average age of the entrants to the University Farm School\nis twenty years and one month) ?\nIn the opinion of the speaker, the teacher in the rural schools, especially the one-room schools, whose social life is cast among the rural young\npeople, is in the best position to know which of the young men should be\ninterested in adding to their present education and practical ranch experience the training and knowledge to be secured in the University Farm\nSchool course in agriculture.\nIf in addition to any personal encouragement the rural-school teacher\nmay give the possible future farm-school student, she would send his name\nto the school, its influence added to her own would often induce the young\nrancher to increase his earning power, broaden his view, and stimulate\nhis ambition by study and work with other ambitious young men in the\nagricultural course.\nTHE LARGE\n\nVERSUS THE SMALL UNIT FOR RURAL-SCHOOL\nADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION\n\nEDITH K. O. CLARK, STATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nCHEYENNE,\nWYO.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nIn studying the relative merits of the large versus the small unit for\nrural-school administration and supervision we find a problem, or rather\nthe solution of many problems, of the rural school. One-room schools will\nalways exist, but individual boards of education for each school are not\nnecessary. It is just as unreasonable as to have a distinct and separate\nboard of education for each school building in a city and just as fatal to\nprogress.\nIt is probably not necessary to present arguments against the one nor\nin favor of the other, but more profitable to spend this time in briefly\nemphasizing a few of the most conspicuous advantages of the larger unit. I\nThose states and coimties which have been wise enough to avoid the tragic\nmistake of cutting their districts up into small bits, which would isolate\nindividual schools into weak and meaningless units, are to be heartily con- 1\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n71 1\n\ngratulated. They have had the wisdom and courage to combat the narrowminded prejudice which clamors for the smaller unit and have preserved\nto their schools the possibiUty for growth and development which will\neventually place the rural school on par with that of the well-organized\nand well-equipped city system.\nThe advantages of the large district may be grouped under three general\nheads from the standpoint of (i) financing, (2) supervising, (3) standardizing. Ihave placed these heads in this order because often the greatest\ndrawback to well-equipped schools is the question of funds. In the large\n(iistrict this is simplified. A part of a county or commimity may be so\nfortunate as to contain a railroad, a mining district, a rich agricultural or\nstock country. Other parts of the community may be newly settled and not\nyet yielding taxes altho contributing indirectly to the business prosperity\nof the railroad, village, or other richer sections. It is just as reasonable\nthat the funds for school purposes shall come from a general tax covering all of the larger district as that county roads, government, etc., shall be\nsupported by a general county tax. The schools of a community are one\nof its public enterprises and should be supported on that basis and not be\ndependent upon a limited local tax. The question of finance also includes\nthe possibiUties for equipping the schools in the district with the necessary\nbooks and apparatus. Large districts buying supplies in large quantities\ncan secure much better prices. All of the schools may have the benefit\nof the supplementary readers in various subjects without the expense of\nsupplying each school with the full assortment necessary to thoro and comprehensive work, because sets of various texts may be circulated among\nthe schools. After being used in one for a given number of weeks or\nmonths, they may be exchanged with another, in this way avoiding monotony and keeping the child's interest constantly aroused by presenting new\nand attractive work to be done. Not only is this system practical for\nsupplementary readers, but for texts in other subjects in which it is important to have a broader understanding than that made possible by being\nlimited to one authority year after year. School libraries might be exchanged among the buildings in the larger district.\nWithout dwelling longer upon the advantages of the large unit from\na financial point of view, let us consider the question of supervision. It\ncannot be disputed that to make a school system eflBicient there must be a\nreasonable amovmt of wise professional supervision. In the small rural\ndistrict this is impossible. District trustees are not qualified nor willing to\ndevote time to school supervision. Often they have not the training nor\nexperience which would render them competent to advise a teacher in the\nmatter of methods by which the best results might be secured. The county\nsuperintendent cannot give the time to the individual schools which they\nneed, due to the fact that her territory is too large to permit of frequent\nvisits. Eliminating the possibility of supervision from these two sources,\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe small district school is left to work out its own salvation, and as a result\nit is left out of the forward movement which must carry with it all educational plants that are really to serve a purpose in training the youth\nof our country.\nThis lack of supervision and consequent deterioration of rural schools\nis responsible also for the impossibiUty to secure well-trained and efficient\nteachers for such communities. Teachers who are looking toward advancement feel that they cannot afford to accept positions in schools where conditions do not offer a field for up-to-date and constructive service. They\nseek employment where their modem training may find support and\nco-operation and naturally apply in the district where there is a school\nsystem. Until recently this classification could be appUed only to the city\nschool, but patrons and trustees are realizing the imperative need for bringing about a changed condition in the country and the result is the practice\nof consoUdating into one large district, often fifty by twenty-five miles in\nextent, the many small, one-building districts which formerly occupied\nthis territory. The board of education is increased to six members and\na district superintendent is employed to act as executive officer of the board,\ngiving all of his time to supervision, systematizing the curriculum and\nadapting it to the local needs and interests of the community. The district\nsuperintendent looks after the purchasing of suppUes, the repairs of school\nbuildings, the qualifications of teachers applying for positions, and, in short,\nby devoting his entire time to the work, makes possible that unification\nof the schools into an organized system which is described in the third head\nof my outline as \"standardizing.\"\nThis final accomplishment of the larger district is the most vital of all, 1\nsince it is only in this way that the rural schools can ever hope to attain\nthe efficiency of the city which year after year calls from the country those\nwho wish to give the best educational advantages to their children. It\nshould not be necessary, and, under the plan just discussed, would not be\nnecessary for people ever to have to take their children into the city for\nschool privileges. Every large district would have its own system adequate :\nto the needs of its people and providing its boys and girls with a rural high |\nschool of high standard which would offer courses especially fitting the'\nneeds of the community.\nThis is not a dream of imattainable ideals, but a very practical statement of conditions which could and should exist in every rural community.\nThe plan has already been tried in some parts of Wyoming and is being!\nadopted in other sections of our state with gratifying results. Thinking\npeople are realizing that it is the only possible way of giving to the rural;\nboys and girls educational advantages equal to their city cousins without\nsending them away from home.\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "artment]\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nTHE SPECIAL\nSUSAN\n\nTEACHER\n\n713\n\nTEACHER\n\nM. DORSEY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nA recent definition of the \"special teacher\" should be quoted: \"One\nrho teaches any subject not given in school in the days of our forefathers.\"\nam indebted to a special teacher for this illuminating definition, given\nIjoubtless in a spirit of jest. It illustrates two points: the bewilderment of\n|lhe general pubUc at the great array of new subjects finding place in our\niools which for want of a better generalization are referred to as special,\nid the unthinking attitude of many educators who accept these subjects\ni something inevitable or as something striking and appealing without any\nconviction of their worth or any adequate realization of their educalional significance.\nFor the purposes of this discussion, I shall define the special teacher as\nwho gives training in those subjects which obviously connect with the\nitmde community life and respond easily to the child's need for action and\n^ression. These subjects include all manner of manual work, involve\nor less of activity, and serve to introduce the child to the physical\nKties of life.\nThese educational readjustments are proving more or less puzzling\nses and just at present the stress is falling on subjects that have to\n•largely with the physical realities of life. A great group of such subjects\ndeveloping, calling for a somewhat different type of teacher from the\niitional schoolmaster. The call is for those who can train in the funda|iental processes by which the race has been wont to satisfy its physical\nThe \"special teacher\" has evolved.\nI shall ask you to consider the relations of the special teacher to other\n•achers and the school and then the relation of special work to community\nfe.\nIn broadening the scope of instruction in our schools, the opportunities\nr misunderstanding have been countless. The advocates of intellectual\naining only once looked askance at the introduction of music and drawing\nid later on their feeling was akin to disgust when one by one the \"breadid-butter\" subjects knocked for entrance. Into this atmosphere of disust and suspicion the poor special teacher has made her entry. Small\nnder that there have been clashes and heartburnings. Even now, in the\ntual working out of programs and salary schedules, there are many opporiiities for unpleasantness that detract from perfect harmony and remain\nechoes of the one-time distrust and dislike of the special teacher interper.\nThe first condition that tempts to misunderstanding is the fact that the\necial teacher often works in a room not her own as in the case of music\nid drawing. She enters a place where, to a certain extent, the atmosphere\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "7t4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Eementa\n\nhas been already created. Possibly the regular teacher is not sympathet\ntoward her particular brand of special work and is not careful to conceal h\ncontempt for such \"efifeminate\" subjects as music and drawing, or he ma\nhave deprecated the fact in the hearing of the children that time should b\ntaken from arithmetic and reading to be spent on sewing, sloyd, ar.\ngardening. It is not always easy for the special teacher to overcome th;\nhandicap and win from the children a hearty co-operation in a subjec\nagainst which a suspicion of unworthiness has been lodged. HappUy, sue\nprejudices are fast disappearing and in many school systems diversified wor\nholds an honored place.\nAnother difficulty of atmosphere sometimes confronts the speci:\nteacher who enters a room in which there is no prejudice against speci;\nwork, but in which there always pervades an air of distrust, confusion, d\ndisharmony. The regular teacher and her pupils are not at one and as\nresult the special teacher can bring the children into a mood to respon\nhappily to their work only by the expenditure of much nervous energy an\nvaluable time. It is not an imknown thing for the room teacher to stan\nidly by watching the distressing process. Out of sorts herself with hi\npupil contingent, she finds, perhaps imconsciously, a selfish satisfaction 3\nthe embarrassment of the special teacher, for does it not furnish confirmir\nevidence of the general unworthiness of this particular student brood?\nAnother hindrance in the way of the special teacher is the ranking <\nher work as recreation and relaxation. The latter it surely should be,\nthe extent that all change of work should prove relaxing. No annoyanthat the special teacher has to encoimter is more trying, especially if tl\nchildren have imbibed this misconception from their elders.\nIn meeting these difiiculties, the teacher is aided somewhat by t\\\nnature of her subject, which appeals to the child because it offers oppcf\ntunities for expression or because it deals with concrete material rather tha\nwith symbols as is the case so largely in reading, grammar, and arithmeti\nit enables the child to make something. The enticing nature of the suject, however, cannot relieve the special teacher from high endeavor if h\"\nwork in wood, metal, weaving, sewing, cooking, and the like is to prove a\nagency thru which shall be brought home to the child some of the priml\nnecessities of the race.\nThis leads me to the next point. The work of the special teacher ca5\nfor a high type of excellence. Not everyone or anyone will do — ^m(t\nemphatically not. The special teacher must be able to adapt herself aii\nher work to several grades. This calls for varied experience and a gol\ndegree of adjustibility.\nThen, too, the very method of the special room is markedly social a 1\ntends to disorder. There is much of action and interaction among ta\npupils, which call for a teacher who understands moods, who is undisturhi\nby physical activities and their incident hum, who enjoys the processes f\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": ")epartment]\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nTEACHER\n\n715\n\njroduction, and enters into the child's love to create. These are large\nlemands. They imply warmth of nature and a certain enthusiasm in seeng the chips fly not possessed by everyone. There is sometimes a dis)osition to minimize the difficulties in special teaching. Let music serve\n,s instance of the many things that must be attended to at once. There\nnust be correct tone at the right time and good tone quality, else something\n)esides music will result. Let any piece of handwork be considered — a\nhair, for instance. There it stands in its naked ugliness and clumsiness,\n»r in its beauty of tight, evenly fitting joints, its smoothness and polish,\nts correctness and elegance of design, and the teacher must be able to secure\nhese results.\nIf the regular teacher fails at times to be en rapport with the work of the\npecial teacher, the converse is equally true. Absorption in her little realm\nnakes her somewhat forgetful of the other educational factors in the school,\n,nd the narrowness of specialization shuts out the broad vision of the whole\nleld from which rich illustrative material and varied analogies might be\nirawn. Have you ever met an enthusiastic teacher of folk games who\nould not give an intelligent account of the origin and significance of the\name she taught ? Have you ever met teachers who were painfully ignoant of the history of the materials they were using or the age-old story of\nheir particular craft ? Have you ever met special teachers who were sadly\nicking in background, and who, therefore, could not just say where their\n•articular contribution to education would naturally fit in ?\nIt is sometimes urged that the special teacher must spend more time and\nloney in preparation than the regular teacher, that she must be constantly\n)oking ahead for changing conditions and fashions which call for more\nraining on her part if she is to keep abreast the community moods. This\n'■>hardly the case. World-life is mobile, never static. Every teacher who\nxpects to remain acceptable must renew her spirit. It is more than a\nlatter of learning a few processes or acquiring a little knowledge. It is a\nlatter of interpreting aright human life and the great world-soul, from\n'hich emerge all social movements and their expression in physical processes,\niehind all art and invention is the cry of the human need, which is the one\nig, insistent thing to reckon with. Every teacher to be successful must\n2ek at times those who understand and can interpret, whether the teacher\n'ork in physical material, or in artistic and literary symbols. So much for\ntie special teacher in her relation to the school, her difficulties, her responibilities.\nMy second point has to do with specialization in its relation to the\nommunity. If there is any place in the whole realm of education where\n0 sort of an apology should be accepted for failure to associate the work\nf the school in a helpful way with homes and community activities it is\nere. The advocates of the practical have too long derided the dead\nmethods and unproductivity of the Latin teacher, where years of work still\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[i\n\nresult in inability to read Latin books. It is now wholly unsafe for ther\nto fail in the most convincing demonstration that shop work, sewing, cook\ning, music, and the like furnish experiences that respond directly to sodg,\nneeds.\nDoubtless some in this audience have known music teachers whc\ncautioned their pupils not to perform for the entertainment of others, as\ntho some virtue might depart from them should they make their art cor\ntribute to the amenities of the home. The music taught in our schoo':\nshould be a community blessing of which the more given out the mor(\nremains in the soul of the child, like Longfellow's song, \"breathed into tti\nair\" and \"found again in the heart of a friend.\" Drawing taught then\nshould be of a kind which inspires the pupU to keep his drawing pad dos^\nat hand, ready to sketch, to draft, to design, to use: it should not be a talen\nfolded in a napkin. Said a business man to me: \"The one thing I ha\\i\nneeded again and again in my business is a knowledge of lettering. Mj\nschool drawing taught me to make a conventional design for linoleum o\nwallpaper.\" Possibly available knowledge of lettering might be found use\nful to many business men. The object of teaching girls in our schools t\nsew is not achieved when a few neatly stitched models are hid away to b\nshown to grandchildren as we now view the \"samplers\" of a forme\ngeneration.\nIn all this special work there should be a distinctly social motive\nGirls should learn in school to sew that at home they may make clothes an\ndam stockings for themselves and the other members of the family. Tb\nspecial teacher has failed in her work if she has failed to make this corr\nmunity connection. Cooking is taught, not to furnish a drawing card fc\nthe school exhibit thru a fine display of tempting edibles, but rather th:\ngirls may acquire some training which will be of actual service in the hom\nin helping to solve the problem of the family needs and the high cost (\nliving. We have a right to expect that the expert knowledge of the speci.'\nteacher translated into terms of the child's experience shall serve the homi\nThe teaching of gardening has not come into its own if it results in nothir\nmore than a few neat plots in the school garden, however much the wor\ninvolved may have relieved the overwrought nervous tension of the chi!\nthru exercise in the fresh air. Even the habits of industry, order, promp\nness, and observation required in gardening will not fully justify the su!\nject. These habits may be acquired in the study of spelling and arithmett\nThe ultimate object of school gardening is achieved only when the child\nback yard blossoms into a flower bed or develops into a vegetable gardt\nor when the unsightly vacant lot next door becomes a patch of beauty a\ncontributes to the family support.\nA few suggestions may be offered just here. This teaching of speci\nsubjects should not be directed toward the demonstration of one or anoth'\npedagogical theory. It should not be too highly valued for its entertainii;\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF INTELLECTUAL\n\nWORK\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n717\n\nand interesting qualities nor even primarily for the purpose of satisfying\nthe child's inclination for physical activity. The real motive in all special\nwork should be to give experiences in types of community processes, so\nthat our children may be at home in the common work and ways of\nhumanity for the sake of their own preservation and development and\nfor the help of others. Evidence of such result is proof of the value of\nspecial subjects.\nThe special teacher is highly favored in that the social motive underlying her subject is perfectly obvious. It does not for this reason follow\nthat the social motive will be liberated and permitted to realize itself.\nAll this work may be done in so perfunctory a way that it has no more to\ndo with present-day activities and experiences than the embalmed remains\nin the tar pits of La Brea Rancho. On the other hand, the regular subjects\nmay be so surcharged with the social spirit as to be actually vibrant with\nresponses to community needs, desires, and aspirations.\nThis leads me to revert in closing to a suggestion offered in the opening of this duscussion, namely, that the segregation of certain subjects into\na group called special is based on a wholly superficial distinction. There\nare really no special subjects, but there should be a special method, a social\none, in aU education, which should recognize the oneness of the child. By\nthis special method, our public schools should become so far as possible\nembryonic communities in which the child may gain thru his own experiences an understanding of the physical realities of life as well as of the\nage-old literary symbols and material. All is needed if the child is to enter\ninto his complete social heritage.\n\nTHE ORGANIZATION\nMARIA\n\nOF INTELLECTUAL\nMONTESSORI,\n\nM.D.,\n\nROME,\n\nWORK\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nITALY\n\nThe organization of the work of which I intend to speak consists in an\naggregation of those means of development which I have determined by\nexperiment and with which the children work in school in order to develop\ntheir intellect. What I am about to say has reference therefore not to\nschools in general but to my own school in particular.\nYou must, therefore, first of all, have a picture of the environment.\nThe children enter the classroom, each one chooses some work, selects some\nobject, and works with it at his own pleasure without ever being interrupted\nby the teacher. There are practically no collective lessons, but instead\nshort individual lessons, which is suflScient for the teacher to start the child\nin a long work which he can finish by himself. The work which each pupil\ndoes when it is not the direct command of the teacher is a free, spontaneous\nlabor. The process thus developed is a process of intellectual autoeducation — of auto-ihstruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Element\n\nThe didactic material plays a most important part in this development\nThese objects are presented to the child; they are graded according to the\ndifficulty, and correspond to the psychic needs of the child. And that\nthe reason they attract the child's attention so strongly as to make hi\ndeUght in his work and incite in him a marked power of concentratioi\nFrom simple objects which primarily attract the senses the children pa\nto objects which teach reading and writing, and later grammar, arithmet\ngeometry, drawing, music, etc. The main argument of this treatise is\nspontaneous development of the intellect in its relationship to the organi\ntion of the intellectual work which I have just touched upon. We mi\ntake a brief siu^ey of the procedure of the work.\nThere is no fixed program or schedule which from without directs\nchildren's activities, nor does the directress hold herself to any fixed pla\nfor the day's work. The child has already reached a certain plane\ndevelopment and as he enters the room he does not enter lacking interest\nHe is neither ready nor resigned to submit to the work which a teacher ha\nprepared for him and his companions. On the contrary he enters possesse\nof a definite interest. He knows what he has to come to do. Perhaps the\nhours have seemed long to him since last he worked with the objects which\nhe so desires and which he needs. He immediately takes some one object\nand carries it to his little table or to some place which seems to him most\nsuitable for concentrated work. He knows that no one will disturb him,\nbut should he need help he will at once receive it in such a way as fuUy to\nsatisfy him without annoying him and without depriving him of one mite of\nhis enthusiasm or one instant of his time.\nThis inner force comes from his own intellectual development; his\ninterests are intelligent interests. He wishes to know the colors better, or\nperhaps his greatest desire is to compose words with the movable alphabet,\nor the thought of solving new problems sends him eagerly in search of the\narithmetic material. K he is older, problems in geometry or grammar may\nclaim his entire attention. Perhaps he may wish to isolate himself to read\nagain a poem which the day before attracted him, but did not satiate him.\nThe best thing to do, therefore, in this case, is to stand aside and see what\nhappens. And just this should be the attitude of the teacher who, like the\nchildren, is filled with an eager interest. She is alert and keen and has at\nhand all the objects which may, in orderly succession, be given to these\nchildren who are ready to seize upon what they already know; but the\nunknown, which represents for them the future path, she stands ready to\npresent to the child as soon as he shows that he is satiated with that which\nhe has and asks for something else. This unknown may be some other\nobjects or some other exercises, which answer the unanswered questions\nraised by the preceding object, as the successive chapter headings of an\ninteresting novel vividly attract the attention, awake the thought, incite\nthe memory, and at their end provoke the question, \"What is the sequel ?\"\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF INTELLECTUAL\n\nWORK\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n719\n\nThe teacher is there, ready to offer the sequel. What she does is to\nobserve the entire phenomenon of these interested children who are working\nunder her eyes without ever disturbing or interrupting them. What has\nbeen said gives an idea of the phenomenon. It is, however, not as simple\nas it sounds. It is not an interest of given material which is carried over\nfrom chapter to chapter. It is not the outward thing (the graded material)\nwhich directs the phenomenon. The direction of the phenomenon comes\nfrom within. The natural development of the work is the real guiding\npower. It is, indeed, the psychological fact and not the ingenious construction ofthe material which gives us the key to understand and to follow\nthe development of the intellect, altho the graded material may be the\nmeans of gaining this development.\nIn order to analyze and to render more clear the phenomenon about\nto be developed, we will make use of the accompanying chart.\n\nThe line A A represents a plane of quiet and repose, the curved line\nrepresents the average of work. The child enters the room, looks around\nquietly, then chooses an easy piece of work already familiar to him, such as\nthe shading of colors; tljis he soon exchanges for something harder, tho\nalso familiar and often repeated, such as composition of words with the\nmovable alphabet. This comprises the first period of work — ^not too\nintense — which I call work of \"entertainment\" or of preparation {B and C),\nand this lasts from 9:00 to io:oo a.m. At this p>oint there is a pause (D).\nThe child stops work without at once desiring some other object. He seems\nsomewhat excited, and wanders around the classroom. A teacher who did\nnot understand the work would think that the child was tired. Probably\nshe would try to have him rest by taking him into the garden and letting\nhim play. But the teacher who knows the method knows that this is a\nperiod of false fatigue. After a moment, the child goes directly and chooses\na harder piece of work, one more difficult for him or new to him (writing,\ncomposition, arithmetic, and the like), and the real concentration of thought\nand prolonged attention have begun. He will work for an hour and a half\nat the same thing with intense interest. This is the period of prolonged\nwork (£). When the child finishes this work he is not excited, but calm\nand serene and often he is laughing and sociable. He takes an interest in\nhis companions' work or draws near the teacher to confide in her — his is a\nthoughtful attitude (F). This stage is quite different from that of false\nfatigue (D), where the child showed he was excited. Now, if an incautious\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Element\n\nteacher had interfered at this stage of false fatigue in order to have\nchild rest or to distract him, he would not only have lost the power of gre\nconcentration, but he would not have regained that final serene calm,\nthoughtful attitude. Evidently this is a characteristic phenomenon;\nis the first work of \"entertainment.\" Along with the excitement of the\nfinal choice, it forms part of a whole cycle which must be completed in its\nentirety in order that the child may at the end feel rested, calm, and satisfied. It is to this last stage, which follows the completed cycle of work,\nthat I wish to call the attention of those interested. For it is worthy of\nnote that the child does not rest, in the general sense of the word. That\nis, he does not rest because he is tired. On the contrary, he has the rested\nappearance of one who has exercised enough to renew his forces. For\nexample, he who comes from his sea bath full of vigor and satisfaction and\nstretches out on the sand does not do this because he is tired and seeks\nrespite from strenuous labor. When we have had some pleasant exercise\nin the open air and then stop to sigh from sheer delight and to smile at our\nfriends, certainly we are not to be taken for tired people resting from our\nlabors. Rather do we feel like those who eat any excellent meal in peace and\ntake a nap in order to assimilate the food. Surely we cannot say that these\npeople are resting from the work of masticating and swallowing a good\ndinner.\nHere we have the child who has finished the cycle of work chosen spontaneously, who has had an intellectual feast and has enjoyed it, and afterward feels better, stronger, more satisfied.\nIt is at this stage in the period of final rest in the normal cycle of work\nthat the gradual transformation of the child's character manifests itself.\nIt is evident that in this stage he does not rest, but rather rejoices in th^\ninner fruits of his labors, matures them and assimilates them.\nHis bearing is worthy of notice. He is calm, strong, master of hi\nserene, satisfied, and feels an inner well-being. He is expansive, he\nenriches his forces by outward expansion. His expression is thought\nHe goes around observing things inteUigently or withdraws within hims\nas if a more orderly and better balanced intellect were being formed in\nWhen such exercises are continued methodically each day withoij\nuseless interruptions from others, but following freely their own paths\ndevelopment, the children not only acquire a tendency to work constant\neven out of school, but they become imusually obedient, ready at\nslightest sign to execute another's will and with evident joy. The follow\nexamples may serve to illustrate this phenomenon: Outside of the\ndren's school hours, I give my training students lessons in anthropoloj\nand I take two or three children as subjects. These children must a\\\ntheir turn to be measiured, and while waiting they voluntarily go and\nsome work, such as lacing. When we are ready to take their measi\nments, we have only to make a sign and they quickly take off their shoei|\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF INTELLECTUAL\n\nWORK\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n721\n\nand take their place on the anthropometer. I dismiss them and they return\nquietly to their work. I call them again and they reply again in the same\nmanner.\nAnother example: The period for the examinations of the student\nteachers is at hand and the children must be used for the practice lessons\ngiven by the students. While waiting, the children work quietly; for\nexample, painting postcards with water colors. At each call they nm,\npresent themselves for the trial lesson of the pupil teacher, and then return\nto their painting, and so on ten times in succession.\nIt is evident that this obedience is not caused by submission, but that\nit is the result of inner richness and inner equilibrium which have been\nattained, and because of which the children have acquired a great power of\nadapting themselves to environment, without losing their inner equilibrium,\nas one who, having absolutely mastered the equilibrium of his own body, is\nable to adapt himself and respond to rhythm, and take ever more and more\ndifficult steps, full of expression, without ever wavering or falling. No\none has directly taught obedience and the love of work, and yet these\nqualities have developed in such an excellent and extraordinary manner\nthat those used to treating children by other means remain astonished and\nincredulous.\nHowever, the fact that methodical exercise may indirectly develop\ncertain qualities is not entirely new. For instance: Monks, in order to\nacquire moral strength to live a rigid life, go as missionaries among savage\npeoples; and to remain constant thru life to a difficult task, do indirect\nexercises which are, in their last analysis, exercises of concentration, such\nas prayer, solitude, silence, and, above all, meditation, and these are constantly repeated at certain determined hours of the day. It is not preaching, exaltation, or impulse that causes all this. It is not that the monk\nthinks: \"I am a superior man and wish to become a hero, so I will depart\nand go among savages, to meet my death.\" No; it is because the monk\nhas regulated his life so that he concentrates and orders his peculiar power —\nthat is, he becomes fortified and organized. Thus he surpasses other men\nin moral strength. This is logical and easy to comprehend. For a simple\nexample, the water of a flooded plain can never be used as power, but\nonce concentrated in a river, the same quantity of water acquires a motor\nforce which, for instance, may be utilized for the production of electricity.\nUp to the present we have not applied the laws of life to the intellect\nin such a way as to strengthen it, rendering possible the maximum utilization of its powers. To make use of the intellect up to the present day has\nsignified utilizing it for learning or culture, which often means dissipating\nit. It is as tho we used the water of a small river for irrigating the meadows\n— the more the meadows were irrigated, the more the possibiUty of utilizing\nthe river as a motor force would be diminished. This may not be a very\ngood comparison, but it serves to call attention to the two dififerent directions\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ntaken by the intellect — namely, dispersion and concentration of energy.\nAny teacher can dissipate the intellect of his pupUs by directing it into\nchannels prescribed by himself, but concentration can be attained only by\nthe child himself. These are, therefore, two opposite methods.\nIn order that concentration may come about, it is necessary that\nchild should have at his disposal means of development which he is free\nuse — that is, it is necessary to organize intellectual work for him. Now\nis evident that the mind cannot concentrate except upon an object wo\nof such an effort. It must contain the means of learning in the most rational\nway. A faulty or useless object could never attract the lively intellectual\ninterest of the child. This interest, therefore, guides us in constructing\nin a perfect manner the means of learning and in obtaining that which in\n\nm\n\nthe regular schools would be called \" the maximum efficiency of study.\" It\nis only by a method which, in giving intellectual learning, concentrates the\ninner powers, that one observes the direct influence of the learning upon the\ncharacter and the moral quaUties. Without such a method this co-operation\nwould not result, because surely it is not merely by the study of geography\nor mathematics that man becomes honest or heroic. Neither is it possible\nthat a weakling should gain strength by committing to memory the history\nof heroes.\nIt is concentration of power which gives strength and whatever be the\nmeans that provoke this concentration, they become a means of building\nup of character.\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident — George E. Marshall, principal of high school\nDavenport, Iowa\nVice-President — EuMA J. Breck, head of English department,\nUniversity High School, Oakland, Cal.\nSecretary — Claude P. Briggs, principal of high school\nRockford, HI.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, August 23, 1915\n\nIn the absence of the president, the meeting was called to order by the vice-president,\nEmma J. Breck, head of the English department of the University High School, Oakland,\nCal., at 9:00 A.M. The department met in Ebell Hall.\nHerbert Lee, principal, University High School, Oakland, Cal., was appointed to\nact as secretary pro tempore.\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal. Township High School, Joliet, 111.; Milo H. Stuart,\nprincipal, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind.; and Arthur P. MacKinlay,\nLincoln High School, Portland, Ore., were appointed as a nominating committee to report\nat the close of the afternoon meeting.\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal. Township High School, Joliet, 111., presented his paper\non \"The Place and Function of the High School in the American System of Education.\"\nR. T. Hargreaves, principal. North Central High School, Spokane, Wash., followed\nwith a paper on \"The Possibilities of the High-School Library.\"\nDiscussion: C. C. Certain, head of department of English, Central High School,\nBirmingham, Ala.; Herbert Lee, principal. University High School, Oakland, Cal.; and\nothers.\nC. C. Certain, of Birmingham, Ala., moved that the chairman of the Department of\nSecondary Education appoint a committee to study the problems of high-school libraries\nand report at the next annual meeting of the department.\nThe motion was carried imanimously.\nThe following committee was appointed subject to such additions as might later\nseem advisable in order to secure the necessary geographical representation:\nC. C. Certain, head of department of English, Central High School, Birmingham,\nAla.; Hannah Logasa, Chicago, 111.; Ella Morgan, Los Angeles, Cal.; and R. T. Hargreaves, principal. North Central High School, Spokane, Wash.\nThe objects of the committee are: (i) to bring high-school teachers to a realization\nof the value of the high-school library as a center of intelligence and refinement in school\nlife; (2) to demonstrate its helpfulness to all subjects of the high-school curriculiun; (3)\nto determine the best method of control in order that it should contribute the greatest\ngood to the school.\nThe committee will arrange for a joint meeting of the Department of Secondary\nEducation and the Library Department to be held in New York at the time of the 1916\nsession.\nThe duties of the committee are to be specific, not general. Hence there will be no\nduplication of its fimctions with the functions of the Committee on High-School Libraries\nof the Library Department, with which it will co-operate. The specific functions of the\n723\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(SecondaryJ\n\ncommittee are: (i) to discover thru investigations made in the high schools in the several!\nsections of the country the organic relationship between the library and English, modem]\nlanguages, history, mathematics, science, commercial subjects, manual arts; (2) to dis-|\ncover imder what conditions this relationship can best be fostered.\nEach member of the committee is expected to submit a report to the chairman not '\nater than April, 191 6.\nGeorge C. Thompson, principal of high school, Alameda, Cal., and Mary P. Putnam,\nvice-president, Manual Arts High School, Los Angeles, Cal., discussed the following topic:\n\"Faculty Advisers in the High School — ^Their Need and Function.\"\nFrank L. Crone, director. Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction,\nManila, P.I., read a paper entitled \"The Secondary Schools of the Philippine Islands.\"\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — Monday\n\nAfternoon, August 23, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Ebell Hall at half-past two o'clock and the following program was presented:\n\"Extra-curricular Activities — Their Relation to the Curricular Work of the School\"\n— V. K. Froula, principal, Lincoln High School, Seattle, Wash.\n\"Practical Arts for Girls in the High School\" — ^Mary P. Putnam, vice-president,\nManual Arts High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"High-School Efficiency and What It Means to a Community\" — ^William H. Snyder,\nprincipal, Holljrwood High School, Hollywood, Cal.\nThe nominating committee made the following report:\nPa. For President — Edward Rynearson, principal. Fifth Avenue High School, Pittsbxugh'\nFor Vice-President — Emma J. Breck, head of English department. University High\nSchool, Oakland, Cal.\nFor Secretary — W. J. Beggs, teacher of Latin, Johnson High School, St. Paul, Minn.\nThese officers were unanimously elected.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\nEvening, Augtot 23, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Ebell Hall at 8:00 p.m., and the following program\ngiven:\n\"The Organization of High Schools into Junior and Senior Sections\" — P. P. Clazton,\nUnited States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n\"The Future High School\" — ^Lewis B. Avery, assistant superintendent of schools,\nOakland, Cal.\nHerbert Lee, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE PLACE AND FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL IN THE\nAMERICAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION\nJ. STANLEY\n\nBROWN,\n\nPRINCIPAL, TOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL.\n\nIt is only within the past five years that any state has attempted to\nanswer for itself. What is a high school ? What is a college ? What is an\nelementary school? and even in such cases the definitions have been so\nflexible as to produce little or no interference with the ambitions in other\nstates to supply a continuous curriculimi of education for the boys and girls,\nyoung men and young women, thruout the legal school period, six to twenty-\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n725\n\none years of age. No one may discuss what the high school was without\n[ giving credit to the University of Michigan as the one institution which\nblazed the way for all the great state institutions in the Ohio and Mississippi\nI Valleys and farther west. The supervision and inspection of high schools\nby these state institutions constitute one of the great stimulating forces in\nthe development of the high schools just as the influence of the eastern\nnon-state institutions constituted and yet constitutes one of the great\nstimulating forces to the growth and development of the private secondary\ninstitutions in the East. The careful inspection by capable men from the\nlimiversities, their recommendations to the boards of education, superI intendents, and principals touching equipment in laboratory, Ubrary, and\nifewnilty, the insistence of these university representatives upon adequate\nI scholarship, adequate pedagogical training, size of classes, hours of recitations, and other things having to do with the physical development of the\nhigh school have had an important place in the development and evolution\nof the public high school.\nThe great variations in the methods of taxation and support of the high\nschools in the various states have of necessity much to do with the way\nthese institutions have developed, and for this reason there are various\ntypes of high schools in various states. The most numerous and probably\nthe best known is the village and city type as a part of a village and city\nsystem of schools. In some places we find this type entirely supported by\ntaxation, local and state; in other places we find this type supported partly\nthru private endowment, sometimes in the form of buildings, sometimes\nin the form of bequests. These endowments in buildings or other bequests\nare supplemented by local or state taxation, but the institution itself\nremains a public institution for all the people of high-school age. It is\nsafe to predict that, since some of the great state institutions have received\nlarge endowments in lands and buildings, the public institution of secondary\ngrade may in the future receive large endowments in buildings, lands, and\nmoney. The constantly increasing interest in this type of institution\nwould seem to argue that benefactions may be more properly bestowed\nhere there are hundreds of thousands to participate in the benefits than\nwhere there are simply hundreds, and our own convictions concerning the\npreservation of democracy would seem to justify in large measure the\ninvestment of large private fortunes in public secondary education.\nThe diflference of opinion existing in the older and newer states concerning the question. What is the best unit of school organization — district,\ntownship, or country? and the relation of this difference of opinion to\ndensity of population and to fundamental notions of government has led\nto the establishment of a second type of high school outside of those mentioned.\nThe township high school of Indiana is one specific type whose function\nis to serve a larger 'community whose population is mainly rural.\n\nThis\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "11\n726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nt)T>e of high school is popular, performs a somewhat different function from\nthat of the metropolitan school, but continues to defend the doctrine that\npublic education extends to persons from six to twenty-one years of age.\nThe township high school of Illinois is a somewhat different type oi\ninstitution from that of Indiana and kindred institutions. This type is the\nonly pubUc educational institution supported entirely by local taxation.\nIt does not receive a penny from the state, it is not subjected to control by\nthe state department of education, and it is therefore free to develop accord-,\ning to the direction of the local community, the township board of education, the superintendents, and principals of such institutions. This LjI\na popular type of institution in Illinois, and the communities in which these\ninstitutions are placed vary in population from a few hundred to sixty\nthousand or more, and these schools serve as the only public high school in\nsuch villages, cities, and rural communities.\nAnother specific type is the county high school whose name implies\nthe county as the unit of taxation. Various southern states and various\nwestern states have this type of high school. Probably the best example\nof this type is found in the state of Kansas. The organization of this instil\ntution is akin to the notion which the great Jefferson projected at the time\nof the estabhshment of the University of Virginia when he believed that\nthe great central state university ought to have very close organic coni\nnections with the secondary institutions from which it would receive its\nstudents.\nIt is clearly evident from these various types of pubUc secondary insti-i\ntutions that there cannot be a single kind so long as local government has\nsway and so long as the individual has an important part in determining\nwhat he shall do. It is for this reason that there are so many grades c'\nhigh schools in various states and that these grades may be defined in terms\nof years. An institution may be a high school with a single year's worki\nwith two years, three years, four years, five years, or six years. The comi\nmunity whose school provides only one or two years of high-school worl\nbeyond the elementary school is as fixed in its opinion that it has a higl\nschool as another community that has four or five or six years beyond thi\nelementary school.\nThe commissioned high school receives its name because some stat^\nauthorities give it a certain standing. It is not unlike the accredited higl\nschool in other states, which has received its standing by virtue of an inspec\ntion at the hands of some college or university authority.\nStill another kind is called a recognized high school, the term definet\nin law as a school providing a course of two or more years of work approve(\nby the superintendent of pubUc instruction. If the high school is of ai\naccredited character and has the right kind of equipment in laboratory\nlibrary, and faculty, its board of education may extend the course to fi\\'\nor six years and then the high school becomes a junior college.\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE AND FUNCTION\n\nOF HIGH SCHOOL\n\n727\n\nIn my judgment, the place of the high school in an American system of\neducation is in a constant process of evolution, and for this reason neither\nits number of years in its course of study nor the nature of its curriculum\nnor the extent of its powers to tax can be permanently fixed at one point.\nIts place must be determined more largely according to the demands of the\ncommunity which it serves than by any other cause. The high school has\nshown itseK to be the most important educational institution supported at\npubUc expense. Read the program of this convention, read the program\nof any great educational, business, or religious convention, and you will\nfind the high school continually referred to, occasionally in terms of approval,\nfrequently in terms of reproach, but always in such a way as to convince\nyou that this institution has a very vital place in the life of the people.\nThe high school is probably subjected to more criticism from uninformed\nand misinformed people than any other type of educational institution.\nThere is some reason for this because it is the one institution whose function\nit is to take care of the education of hundreds of thousands of young men\nand women during the period of greatest mistakes; that is, the first half\nof the adolescent period. This is the period of physical, social, ethical,\nintellectual, industrial, and ecclesiastical experimentation. Not all of this\nexperimentation proves successful, but all of it seems to be necessary in\norder to produce a man and a woman capable of dealing with the realities\nof life. Favorable comments and bitter criticism are heaped upon the\nhigh school because it is a kind of impersonal center where all blame for\nany disorder, for any mistake, for embarrassments of any kind may be\nplaced, but in these criticisms it is of rare occurrence that a statement is\nmade so specific as to admit of a real investigation. It is a rare occurrence\nto find either a man or a woman willing to make an investigation of the\n! gossipy reports which are very wilUngly listened to, and it is to the great\noedit of this institution and its place in the community that in spite of the\nmistakes made by the high-school boys and girls, by the faculty and the\nboard of education, that the public, whose eyes are fixed on this institution,\nI are yet willing to vote larger and larger sums of money for the support of\nthis institution. This, after all, is the biggest kind of a test of the real\nplace which the school holds in the public mind. The great Lincoln once\nid, \"If we could determine whence we came and whither we are bound\nwe would know better how to steer.\"\nWe have tried to show briefly something of what the high school was\nand something of its future place and function. It must, above all things,\nserve its constituents in rendering such service. It will be necessary to\nextend the number of its curricula in some cases, to extend the number of\nyears in the course of study in other cases, to extend the school day in many\ncases, and to extend the school year.\nThe impatience and restlessness of an American youth, coupled with the\nsupport and anxiety of the American parent, are continually pressing ]ipon\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\npecon.\n\nI\n\nthe school administrators to use every effort to make the boy or girl ready\nto enter college, to enter business, to enter some profession, or to enter the\naffairs of some kind of life outside of these three mentioned. There is\ncontinually pressure to reduce the time to prepare for these activities I\nhave mentioned when the parent and the boy or girl are brought into conference. There is continual legislation when the state, the social, and other\norganizations looking to human betterment are brought into conference\nto extend the period of youth, to extend the period of preparation for all\nprofessions, to extend the period of preparation for business, in order that\nthe man or the woman may enter upon such activity with more mature\njudgment and better-trained mind than were brought to such activities\na generation ago. The public high school in maintaining its place and\nperforming its proper function must meet its newer obh'gations, and, in\norder to meet these newer obligations, it needs more time, more money, more\nequipment in teaching force, laboratory, and library. If this institution\nis to maintain its place and to perform its proper function, it must be so\nequipped as to meet all the demands made necessary because of legislative enactments providing for a longer period of preparation on the part\nof a student before he enters upon a business or professional career. The\nnew demands of industry must mean very soon that the school shops of all\nkinds and the related equipment of the school must be in operation during\nthe vacations as are the business activities with which these shops are most\nclosely related. The spirit of co-operation peculiarly belonging to the\ntwentieth century must mean that the school is to be more and more completely linked with the industrial business and commercial life of the city\nin which the school happens to be located. We must arrange, in larger and\nlarger ways than we have yet done, for the yoimg man and the young\nwoman to work in the school from eight o'clock in the morning until twelve\nand then be permitted to work in some kind of productive employment\nfrom one o'clock until five. In some industries, it will be necessary for\nthe periods of co-operation to be two weeks in alternation, in others one\nweek in alternation, and in still others the afternoon of every day with a\nfull day on Saturday. These are some of the demands which are being\nmade now and which are perfectly legitimate and with which the school\npeople and the business people ought to be in the greatest harmony and\nco-operation.\nProbably the largest factor in determining what is to be the place and\nfunction of the high school in our American education is seen in the struggle\nbetween the individual parent and the boy or girl on the one hand, and the\nmanufacturer, the business man, and the industrialist on the other hand.\nThe former take the position that the child has the right to develop his\nown life in the way which seems best to his parent and himself and that his\nduties as a citizen demand that he shall have training related to the develop-\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n729\n\nmerit of citizenship. Social, ethical, and religious organizations demand\nthat he shall have a physical education, and that his moral and social life\nshall be developed and unhindered during the formative years. These\norganizations maintain that the preservation of the race and its development\nin the right direction mean that the body must be as carefully trained to the\nperformance of every organic function as it is possible for the expert teacher\nof physical education to secure. They further maintain that the basis of\nmoral, social, and civic life rests first in a physical basis, and that none of\nthese factors which combine to make up the complete character can be\nomitted without detriment to both the individual and the state. There is\na clearer and clearer atmosphere at present recognizing the obligation of the\ncommunity and the state for a higher and better development of the individual. The tendency of such development, as is contended for by these\norganizations, means a lessening of crime, a discontinuance of many of the\ntypes of correctional institutions now maintained by the state, and a constant procedure in the direction of an ideal citizenship in a democracy.\nThese are the contentions which place sentient humanity above non-sentient\ncupidity of material things.\nIn many cases the manufacturer, the commercialist, or the industrialist\nwishes to make every individual employee subordinate to the production\nof his particular institution. With him it is not most important that the\nindividual employed shall be the best citizen, the most honest and careful\nman, but that he shall be able to turn out from the factory, or from the\ncommercial institution, the things which bring the largest financial returns\nand pay the biggest dividends on the dollars invested. EflSciency is interpreted, not in terms of human character, right living, and good citizenship,\nbut rather in terms of material products turned out by a given number of\nindividuals in a given time. The speeding-up process may increase dividends and profits by mental and physical and muscular exhaustion in a\nconcentrated effort to do in thirty minutes what was before done in forty\nminutes, but if by so doing we diminish, by the same ratio represented, the\nperiod of usefulness or the period of service, there is grave reason to believe\nthat some way must be devised to put a check on efficiency secured in this\nway. The place and function of the high school will clearly show that\nwaste can be eliminated and that efficiency can be maintained up to a\ncertain point, but that beyond the point where the manufactured product\nhas to be turned out at the expense of reducing the years of life and the\nterm of useful and active citizenship it may not be permitted to go. The\nhigh school is under no obligation to supply ready-made human units or\ncogs for a machine whose sole interest is not in the human unit or the human\ncog but in the turning out of a product which may be sold for money.\nI have tried to set forth in this paper that the place and function of the\nhigh school is to serve and that in this service the order mentioned in the\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "73©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfollowing paragraph from the Ordinance of 1787 ought to be observed:\n\"Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government\nand the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall\nforever be encouraged.\nTHE POSSIBILITIES\nR. T. HARGREAVES,\n\nOF THE HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPRINCIPAL, NORTH CENTRAL\nSPOKANE, WASH.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe function of the high-school Ubrary is a constantly growing one.\nEach year finds the Ubrary extending its work over an ever-widening field\nof endeavor. It is changing from a passive to an active force in education.\nThe time was and still is in some communities when the Hbrary was content\nto consider its full duty performed if it kept open its doors during school\nhours, suppUed its patrons with the necessary books of reference, and\nprovided space sufficient for those who wished to do reference work.\nIts success was measured in terms of the nimiber of patrons who\nsought entrance. These passive features still remain in the best modem\nhigh-school Ubraries, but they are no longer the mark of its success. During\nthe past three or four years, the hbrary has developed initiative power.\nIt has become fired with an ambition to render constructive service to the\ncause of education; it has developed social features undreamed of a decade\nago; it has imdertaken to give Hbrary instruction to all the pupils of the\nschool; it has joined forces with the high-school bureau of vocational\nguidance and placement in an effort to direct the reading of the pupils\nalong the lines of their occupational interests; it has sought the pupils and\nis constantly urging them to spend their off periods within its doors, that\nit may have opportimity to teach them how to use their leisure hours and\ncultivate in them a taste for the best books and the best magazines.\nHow these special phases of library work may be put into effect each\nschool must determine largely for itself. There are no fixed methods which\nwill operate equally well in all communities. At the risk of being personal,\nI will outline as briefly as possible the efforts made to render some of these\nspecial phases of library work effective in the school which I have the honor\nto represent.\nImmediately following the close of the first faculty meeting of each\nschool year, a social tea is given to both the men and women of the\nfaculty in the high-school hbrary. Here the new teachers are made\nacquainted with all the members of the teaching staff and also with the\nUbrary and its facilities. All books acquired during the vacation months\nare placed upon tables where they may be inspected by the faculty and\ntheir titles noted. On the third Saturday evening in November, the\nschool gives its annual \"At Home.\" Invitations are sent out by the\nprincipal's office to all the parents and patrons. All departments of the\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n73I\n\nschool are thrown open for inspection. The library makes much of this\nopportunity. The student library board together with the librarian act\nas a reception committee to conduct all the visitors about the library.\nEach visitor is given a printed circular bearing the title \"A Student's\nReference Library\" with the explanatory note that it is a list prepared in\nanswer to the question frequently asked by parents and pupils, \"What\nreference books shall I buy first ?\" In January and again in June of each\nyear, all the 8-A classes of the grammar schools north of the river are invited\nto visit the high school the same afternoon. They are met by the 9-B\npupils and taken to the auditorium, where an entertainment is given them.\nAt the close of the entertainment, they are conducted about the school,\nfinishing in the Ubrary where they are welcomed by the librarian and the\nstudent library board. By means of these social features, teachers, parents,\nand prospective pupils are brought in touch with the library. In order to\nawaken in the pupils a feeling of ownership and to give the librarian more\ntime to serve the individual pupil, all matters pertaining to order and discipline in the Ubrary have been placed in the hands of a student library board\nof eleven members elected from the three upper classes. All the affairs\nintrusted to this board during the two years it has been in charge have been\nadministered with splendid success. This work of socialization has focused\nthe attention of the pupils upon the library. In a word, it has brought\nthe library to the pupils.\nLibrary instruction has been made a part of the work in the department\nof English. This work is required of all Freshman pupils during their first\nsemester. Ward's Practical Use of Books and Libraries is used as the textbook and a series of lessons is based upon it. Sample pages of the standard\ndictionaries and encyclopedias have been secured from the publishers.\nThese are furnished to the classes in sufficient numbers so that each member\nof the class may have a page before him while the teacher explains the character and arrangement of the material. Early in the semester these same\nFreshman classes are sent to the library, where they are instructed by the\nUbrarian in the use of the card catalog and method of arranging and classifying the books. Here they are given a practical test by the librarian of the\nknowledge which they have acquired about the library in the classroom.\nThe teacher follows up the work done by the librarian with the assignment\nof a subject for a bibliography to be worked out and handed in as a written\nexercise. Then a series of lessons is given on the use of magazines and The\nReader's Guide. Back numbers are loaned to the classes for this purpose.\nThese lessons are followed by a written exercise requiring the use of The\nReader's Guide. In a similar way, the pupils are taught the value and use\nof the standard reference books such as the almanacs, gazettes, atlases,\nconcordances, etc. Two lectures are given by the librarian: one to the\nFreshmen on \"The Use and Abuse of Books\" and one to the Seniors on\n\"The Choice of- Books for a Personal Library.\" The formal instruction\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin the use of the library is given during the Freshman year that the pupils\nmay be able to use the Ubrary effectively thruout their high-school course.\nIt would doubtless be better if all this Ubrary instruction could be given\nby a trained Ubrarian, but this is manifestly impossible in a large high school. \\\nThe present plan has one advantage in that it brings about a close cooperation between teacher and librarian and makes a working knowledge\nof the Ubrary and its facUities a necessary part of the teacher's equipment.\nExperience has convinced us that this method of giving Ubrary instruction\nworks. The verdict of the Ubrarian, who is in the best position to judge, is\nthat it is practical, while it appeals to the pupil and the teacher as one of the\nmost interesting features of the EngUsh course.\nWe made our first experiment with vocational guidance and placement\nlast year. The part of the Ubrary in this experiment has not progressed\nbeyond the estabUshment of a vocational bookshelf and an attempt to\ndirect the reading of the pupil along the line of his vocational interest.\nFoUowiug his conference with the vocational adviser, the pupil is sent to\nthe librarian with a request that he be given a bibUography of the references\navailable on the occupation in which he is most interested or for which\nhe seems to be best fitted. Part of this material he must read before he\nmeets his adviser for a second interview. It is evidently too early to venture an opinion as to the value of this phase of the work. The avidity\nwith which the pupils read the references given in these bibUographies is an\nencouraging sign.\nIn some, even of the larger high schools, the Ubrary is open only to\npupils who have reference work to do. What a pathetic mistake! What\nconception can such a school have of the possibiUties of the high-school\nlibrary ? Little wonder that many boys and girls graduate from high school\nwith the idea that all books may be divided into three classes: fiction, tasks,\nand texts.\nThe bookstores feature the popular novels with their catchy titles and\nattractive covers. The news venders continually display a host of magazines with covers designed to appeal to the eye, many of which are as cheap\nin content as in price. The average home is supplied with the current issues\nof some of these cheap magazines and an occasional best seller either purchased orborrowed from the pubUc Ubrary. Too frequently such magazines\nand books constitute the only reading material easily available for a large\npercentage of our pupils during their leisure hours. This situation presents\na great opportunity to the high-school Ubrary which is awake to its possibiUties for service. The pupil who has an off period should be encouraged\nto come to the school Ubrary and spend the forty-five or fifty minutes in\nreading for the sheer enjoyment of the reading. His interest should be\nawakened in the best periodicals and books. The illusion that all nonfiction Ubrary books are tasks should be dispeUed and an attempt should\nbe made to cultivate his taste for reading and, so far as possible, his powers\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nOF THE\n\nHiGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n733\n\nof discrimination. The high school is the place and the high-school age\nthe time to cultivate the habit of self-betterment thru a wise use of leisure\nhours and the power for self -direction during the frequent periods of leisure\nwhich will occur when school guidance has ceased. The alarmist will object\nthat if pupils are urged to go to the Ubrary to read they will neglect their\nclass work. Undoubtedly this will occasionally occur in individual instances but that does not warrant a school in making a task room out of\nthe library and destroying its opportunities as a dynamic factor in education.\nBetter that a few pupils should abuse the hospitality of the library than that\nmany should dawdle away their off periods in a large study hall in spasmodic efforts at study amid the ever-present distractions of sheer nimibers.\nTo get the pupils to use the library up to its capacity every period in the\nday should be the ambition of every school administration. This can be\naccomplished thru the co-operation of the teachers, thru the use of posters,\nannouncements on the bulletin boards, and thru the library page in the\nschool paper. The library itself should endeavor to make its quarters the\nmost attractive in the building. Equipment, mural decorations, bits of\nstatuary, novel posters, and interesting chppings posted in conspicuous\nplaces all help. But most potent of all will be foimd to be an atmosphere\nof welcome and a spirit of unobtrusive and gracious service.\nCommodious quarters, the most modem facilities, and financial\nprovision adequate for maintenance and growth are essential to the successful operation of the high-school Ubrary, but the vital thing is trained leadership. Better a poor equipment and a trained librarian than the finest\nequipment with an untrained director. Unfortimately the idea is quite\nprevalent that anyone who has some famiharity and acquaintance with\nbooks is competent to administer a school library. Most people are accustomed to accept without question the fact that trained leadership is necessary in the classroom, in the gymnasium, and on the athletic field, yet it is\ndifficult to convince these same people that special training is equally\nas important in the library. Is the difiSculty one of fatuity ? I have no\ndesire to labor the point, but if I were asked to organize a high school with\n1 faculty of more than half a dozen teachers I should insist that one of them\nbe a trained librarian. The work of all the departments, both academic\nmd vocational, of our high schools is outlined in a definite manner so that\n\"ach teacher knows exactly what he has to accomplish during the year.\nN^ot so with the library; it is a self -directing institution. The service that\nhe library must render depends, therefore, upon the scholarship, the invenive fertility, the tact, and the devotion of the librarian. We are accus-omed to be exacting in the qualifications we demand of the teachers, yet\n-ach teacher comes in contact with a comparatively small number of pupils,\n'vhile the librarian has a point of contact with all of them. Have we not,\nherefore, a right to expect that she be the equal of the other members of\nhe faculty in scholarship, talent, and teaching powers ? Is it too much\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto ask that she have a college degree in addition to her library training ?\nAn academic training will give her a wider knowledge of books and develop\nin her a confidence in her own judgment. It will inspire confidence in her\nadvice and make her counsel respected and sought by teachers as well as\npupils. If she has been fortunate enough to have had some teaching experience, itwill prove an advantage in giving her the teacher's point of view of\nthe service which the library should render and it will also help her to a\nbetter understanding of the needs of the pupils. In addition to those quali- 1\nfications already mentioned, I would add likability. This is one of the\ngifts the gods give men. It defies analysis. It arrests our attention but\neludes our scrutiny. In a librarian it attracts the pupils to her and thereby i\nincreases her power for service, for after all the high-school Ubrarian who\nhas not the good-will and confidence of the pupils can accompHsh httle in\nany attempt she may make to influence their choice of reading or to lead\nthem to a discovery of \"fresh modes of access to hvmian nobility and human\nThe high-school library has so much latent power that he who would\njoy.\" of its future possibilities must needs have prophetic vision. Whether\naugur\nit shall be a passive factor or shall undertake special phases of work and so\nbecome a dynamic force in the life of the school, whether or not it shall\ncatch a glimpse of possibilities for service beyond the range of its presentday achievements, depend ultimately upon the originaUty and vision of its\nleader, the Ubrarian.\nTHE SECONDARY\nFRANK\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF THE PHILIPPINE\n\nISLANDS\n\nL. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT\nINSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.I.\n\nOF PUBlldj\n\nThe PhiUppine pubUc-school system has been extended to every suflSciently populated island in the archipelago and to the most remote mountain\nsettlements. In it are now enrolled 600,000 pupils, who are taught by\n10,000 teachers, in 4,300 schools. Courses are offered from the lowest\nprimary grades thru the last year of the high school.\nUnder the head of secondary instruction, I shall include all instruction\nover and above that offered in the Philippine elementary schools. Second\nary instruction will therefore include not only the general high-schoc\ncourses, which resemble in a general way the high-school courses given r\nthe United States, but certain other special courses offered after the com\npletion of the elementary grades. Normal, trade, and commercial courses\nand courses in nursing, surveying, navigation, forestry, and agriculture wil\nbe included.\nThirty-seven high schools in the Philippine Islands give the genera\nhigh-school course. These schools are for the most part provincial in char\nacter but include also the Manila High and Central schools. The comple\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF THE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\n735\n\ntion of the general course prepares the student to enter the university. There\nare enrolled in these schools about six thousand students. From these high\nschools there graduated last year four hundred students. A large percentage of these graduates enter the university. The general course offered in\nthese high schools differs somewhat from the course usually offered in\nAmerican high schools. Foreign languages are omitted and more emphasis\nis placed upon English literature and composition. English is to the\nFilipino student in a sense a foreign language and supphes much of the\ncultural value which is here assigned to the study of Germanic and Romanic\nlanguages. The only other language is a year's optional work in Latin.\nCertain special courses have also been introduced to meet the particular\nneeds of the Filipino student, including the materials of commerce, colonial\nhistory, and economic conditions in the Philippines. The related courses\nin biology and in physical geography, and the materials of commerce for the\nPhilippines and economic conditions in the Philippines aim to incite interest\nin Philippine economic and industrial problems. The course of study\ntherefore includes a year of algebra and of plain geometry, with another\nhalf-year of advanced algebra or solid geometry offered as an optional\nsubject, double courses in literature and composition during the first three\nyears of the high school, and one course during the fourth year, one year of\ngeneral history and a half-year's work in physical geography, government,\nUnited States history, colonial history, and commercial geography, and a\nfull year's work each in biology, physics, and economic conditions in the\nPhilippines.\nThe student who completes the elementary courses in the Philippine\npublic schools may enter the normal school, where he will pursue a fouryear course. When the student successfully completes his work at the\nnormal school, he receives a certificate which gives him the standing of a\nsecondary graduate and also shows that he is prepared to teach in the\nintermediate schools. A graduate of the normal school is not required to\ntake the civil-service examination to be eligible for regular emplo3anent as\nteacher in the Philippine service. In addition to the regular lines of school\nwork offered at the normal school, each student is compelled to do two\nyears of industrial work and each male student is obliged to take one year\nof home and school gardening. There is also offered at the normal school a\nspecial two-year domestic science course. The normal school turns out more\nthan a hundred graduates each year, of which one-third take the domestic\nscience courses.\nIn the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, students are admitted to\nthe trade courses at any tune after they have completed the prunary grades.\nIf, however, the student has completed the elementary grades he may after\nfour years of successful study receive the diploma of a secondary graduate.\nSome years ago the Bureau of Education established a school for nursing,\nwhich was later turned over to the Philippine Bureau of Health. The school\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secon,\n\nis now under the direction of the Bureau of Health and receives male an!\nfemale students who have completed elementary grades. Altogether about\ntwo hundred are in attendance, male and female. The course offered is a\nthree-year course.\nThe Philippine Bureau of Lands has found it necessary to establish\nclasses for the training of the surveyors needed in its service. The academic work is given in the Manila high school by public-school teachers,\nthe technical instruction being given by a teacher detailed from the Bureau\nof Lands. The young men who take this course receive a small allowance\nwhile continuing their studies and are later employed by the Bureau of\nLands, where they are assured regular employment and steady promotion.\nThe Philippine Bureau of Forestry gives instruction to a number of\nyoung men with a view to training them for the forestry service. To receive\none of these scholarships the student must have completed three years of\nhigh-school work. High-school graduates are of course preferred.\nThe College of Agriculture of the University of the PhiHppines accepts\nstudents who have completed the elementary grades in the PhiMppine\npublic schools. After a six-year course they receive the degree of Bachelor\nof Arts. It will be seen that during four years out of the six they are doing\nsecondary work.\nThere is in Manila a PhiHppine School of Commerce. The attendance\nat this school is about four hundred and fifty. There is also a night school\nwhich enrols about the same number. The following courses are offered:\na four-year course in commerce, a two-year course in bookkeeping, a threeyear course in stenography, and a two-year course in stenography. The\nstudent who enters after having completed the elementary grades may\nafter four years of successful study receive a certificate indicating that he has\ncompleted the high-school course as well as the business courses offered.\nThere is in the city of Manila a nautical school in connection with the\nPhiUppine School of Arts and Trades. This school enrols about fifty students and gives two years of work in mathematics, Enghsh, physics, geography, drawing, and seamanship. After having spent twenty months on\nboard an inter-island boat, the students are given a certificate of graduation.\nIn addition to the public schools offering work as secondary grade,\nthere are a number of private schools which are recognized by the government and authorized to issue high-school certificates. The instruction may\nbe entirely in English, or partly so. The courses given in these schools\nare for the most part similar to the general high-school courses offered in the\npublic high schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXTRA-CURRICULAR\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nEXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES:\nTHEIR RELATION\nTHE CURRICULAR WORK OF THE SCHOOL\nV. K. FROULA, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN\n\n737\n\nTO\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, SEATTLE, WASH.\n\nThe two policies until recently in common practice in dealing with\nextra-school activities have failed. Trying to stifle the natural manifestations of the youths' social instincts proved as futile as letting them run\namuck was stupid. Both led to pathological conditions tending to disintegrate school work and school organization and both led to the disruption of\ngood school discipline. One poUcy fostered the insidious danger of the\nsecret societies and cliques; the other led to a chaotic condition of mismanagement, offering a field for play to outside officious and venal influences. Insidious intrigue on the one hand and commercialism running riot\non the other hand: these were the two horns of the dilemma with which the\npedagog was confronted as a result of his shortsighted policy toward extracurricular activities.\n\"Well-developed notions of the significant social side of school work are\nonly beginning to make themselves felt.\" It is gradually dawning upon\neven conservative school men that much of the \"cussedness\" of the youthful enthusiast of former days was nothing more than the outcropping of\nhis natural buoyancy and craving for activity and amusement not furnished\nby the classroom. It is dawning upon the teacher, too, that by entering\nmore into the play-life of red-blooded youth, and by giving them the benefit\nof his experience, he may direct their social cravings into useful channels.\nThus he utilizes what was once such a thorn in his pedagogical flesh to\nfashion a better school out of his tempestuous institution, and to make\nbetter boys and girls out of his students by furnishing them a favorable\nopportunity for learning in action much that they will need to know as\nmembers of society, for \"there are a thousand things which can be learned\nonly by being an active member of a well-organized social group.\"\nNow what is there about the extra-curricular organizations that the\ncurricular aggregations do not share ? The answer is implied in the con•trasted words \"organization\" and \"aggregation.\" The one pulsates with\na unified life and purpose, the other owes its existence to a coercive regime,\nloosely connected and highly artificial. The extra-curricular activity has\nwithin it many of the essential traits of a real social group; it is in a sense\na real unit of society. It is a spontaneous organization developed with\nreference to common aims. The whole is vitally affected by the actions and\nbehavior of each member. It means team play. Literally, in such a group\n\"no one liveth unto himself alone.\" The significance and educational value\nof this group-hfe to students is better understood when we realize that men\nhave never lived alone, and that \"hiunan nature is not something existing\nseparately in the individual, but a group nature,\" which can be acquired\nonly thru real fell(Jwship.\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondaiy\n\nThe individual's relation to society is only recently coming to be better\nunderstood and appreciated. A real group organization takes cognizance of\nthe individual and of the development of his powers, but forbids the selfish\nuse of these powers. We complain of the selfishness of our day, of the degeneration ofliberty into license, and of individuality into selfish individualism, forgetting that the man has become what the boy was taught to be.\nThere would be even more to complain of were it not for the coimteracting\ninfluences of the club, the press, the gang. The school system, fortunately,,\nis not the only agency of education, even in our day of overemphasis on\nformal schooling. Emerson's statement that \"we send our children to the\nmaster, but the boys educate them\" comes to us with new force when we\nrealize that the companionship of this or that boy is of greater concern in\ndetermining his intelligence and character than any study he may pursue\nin school, for his interests are expanded by contact with various minds,\nespecially those of similar level.\nEducation properly aims, not at the mere absorption of knowledge or\nacquisition of power, but at living — living with one's fellows, necessarily.\nOur more recent notion of education as \"a preparation for complete\nliving\" or for \"effective social service\" would come nearer fulfilment if\nopportunity for such service were provided in the school itself. \" Complete\nliving\" has a tremendous social reference and ethical implication. But\nin all strictly curricular activities the social aspects of education are sadly\noverlooked and by common consent the most neglected field in our educational scheme is the ethical. Our ciurricular activities with little or no\nsocial implication are not even a satisfactory preparation for living, let\nalone the ambitious program involved in \"complete living.\" Now to\nrealize all that is implied in the socializing of the curricular work is wellnigh impossible under present conditions and hence we must look to the\nextra-curricular work to supply that need and to teach us gradually how to\nintroduce into classroom studies what is finding its way spontaneously into\nstudent activities.\nIt has been said that \"all the abuses which are the objects of reform\n.... are unconsciously amended in the intercourse of friends.\" K this\nbe true, does it not suggest a full explanation of the boy's zeal for his team\nand the advisability of organizing the whole school on a social-group basis ?\nIn the boy's mind, the football team is not only an aggregation of individuals\norganized to play, but a social instrument with common needs, working\nalong common lines, and embodying a common purpose. Nothing in the\ncurricular work of the school can fiu*nish him with such a clear notion of\nsocial service. \"The team is not only an extension of the player's consciousnes ; is\nt a part of his personality. His participation has deepened\nfrom co-operation to membership. Not only is he now a part of the team,\nbut the team is a part of him.\" When an activity thus develops a sense\nof unity in the individuals participating, it begins to possess a real social\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXTRA-CURRICULAR\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n739\n\nsignificance tending to make each individual serve the whole unit. Under\nsuch circumstances it becomes as painful to do wrong as to suffer it. How\ndifferent a classroom would be if it could be imbued with such a sense of\nharmony and total interest which every member of the class would strive\nto promote! Here, indeed, we would have something approximating a\npreparation for \"complete living.\" The extra-curricular activities fix the\nyouth's attention on mutual co-operation for the good of the whole. Here\nwholesome public opinion is generated and becomes an ally of good behavior.\nThat is why many a youth behaves better and studies harder during his\nparticipation in athletic sports which are organized on the social-group\nbasis, but slumps when such a motive is removed. And the same may be\nsaid of dramatic and other activities. It is no wonder that the boy who\ndisobeyed a rule of regular attendance upon rehearsals for a class play laid\nhimself liable to a \"ducking\" in a pond near the school building. Have\nyou not often noticed the sudden manly development of some of your\nerstwhile rebellious boys after a brief training in one of these social-groups ?\nHave you not noticed the transforming effect on the doltish student of\nFrench when he was given a part in a French play ?\nBut, in another sense, the extra-curricular activities serve a need which\nthe curriculum fails almost entirely to provide for. I refer to the adolescent's craving for sociability. This is his most marked characteristic and\nto fail to provide for it is to do violence to his nature. It is a commonplace to say that men make few friends after the youthful years, but to the\nyouth that is the easiest thing in the world. It is a spontaneous process\nwith young people to form groups for their sociables. The recognition of\nthe school as a society has led school men to introduce many modifications\ninto the formal side of its life, but even with these modifications it must be\nadmitted that adequate provision for social training is far from having\nbeen made generally, altho the school is pre-eminently adapted for that\npurpose. \" It is the natural center for the promotion and proper regulation\nof this side of the pupil's life.\" The several class organizations form\nnatural units for the promotion of genuine sociability. These organizations\nare divided transversely into other groups of intimate associations and\nclose interests. The literary society, the French club, the athletic team,\nand other similar units in every large high school have within them elements\nof a true corporate Ufe, affording opportunity for adequate expression of\nhuman association. The social training which comes from participation in\nsuch primary groups would be sufl5cient justification for the encouragement\nof these time-consuming activities. But when to this are added the opportunities for social recreation the extra activities become more justifiable.\nNormal youth is the best preparation for normal manhood. On that\nground alone, the satisfaction of instincts and harmless desires becomes\na part of the educational process. \"The youth who has no social life is\nusually unhappy and is sometimes driven by his solitude to vmfortunate\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhabits of thought and conduct.\" Whatever, then, contributes toward the\nyouth's happiness and social development is decidedly commendable.\nNow when we consider the complete equipment of a modem high school\nfor the promotion of the student's social and recreational life, we wonder\nwhy that equipment is not more fully utilized. No other agency at the\ncommunity's command is so well prepared to handle this matter. Here\nis the auditoriimi fully equipped for the dramatic or musical part of the\nprogram. Here is the lunchroom ready to minister to the youth's insatiable\ngastronomic cravings. And there is the gymnasium with its slick floor for\ndancing and its broad spaciousness for games. Very few homes are in a\nposition to afford a club life that could make such generous and such wholesome provision for their children's recreational needs.\nBut, perhaps, the greatest dividends which are to be realized from\ninvestments in extra-curricular activities will be ethical. These primary\ngroups become the rich soil upon which will grow and flourish those basic\nqualities, such as loyalty, honesty, justice, sympathy, from which character\nis molded. The best method of imparting moral training to the youth is to\nget him to take part in the actual social life about him, for every ounce of\nmoral experience is worth a pound of ethical instruction. School life as\nseen by the student thru the classroom is artificial and too remote from\nhis life-experiences. And we make bad things worse by continually\nharping on the school as a preparation for something in the distant future,\nthus creating a feeling in the student's mind of insufficient motive for the\ntasks at hand.\nNow motives in student activities are vital and easily discerned.\nEverything the youth does here has a visible organic connection with a\npleasant and immediate end. Hence every effort becomes purposeful, a\nnecessary condition for the establishment of desirable habits. Nothing\nin the school makes for good conduct like the intercourse and co-operation\nof a social group as manifested in student activities. The group life of the\nschool has within it ethical possibilities such as the classroom regime has\nrarely realized. It provides the youth with ethical experiences, which is a\ndifferent thing from furnishing him with moral precepts. Every moral\nexperience is a bridge by which moral ideals are rendered capable of transference from one set of conditions to another entirely different set. Without such a bridge good habits formed in the classroom may not manifest\nthemselves elsewhere. The mere fact that a boy has learned to make a\nsquare joint in the shop is no guaranty that he will do the square thing in a\nhistory examination. We have already learned that a voter's ability to\nread his ballot has not necessarily kept him from selling his vote. Our\nuniversal education has failed to accomplish what was fondly expected of it\nlargely because it has been devoid of social reference. Principles which lie\nat the basis of a democratic society must govern the education of the youth\nwho are to be members of that society. For such an education the develop-\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXTRA-CURRICULAR\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n741\n\nment of initiative, self-direction, self-reliance thru mutual co-operation\nand emulation is essential.\nBut if student activities are destined to play an increasingly important\npart in school work, as we have reason to believe, we must prepare to deal\ndiscriminatingly with the problems that are certain to follow in their\nwake. In the first place, there is a danger of placing too great emphasis\non social group work. If it is wrong to exalt the individual at the expense\nof his social connections thru which alone he may fully realize himself,\nthere is at least an equal danger of stifling the individual in our zeal for the\ngroup. In his book on the Social Aspects of Education, Irving King calls\nour attention to the fact that society is an organization and not an organism. \"It is an organization of individuals, intimately bound together in\nall they think and do and yet each possessed of a life of his own. No individual exists merely for the good of society.\" However highly organized\nthe social group may become, then, there must be leeway for individual\ninitiative and effort and the individual's zeal for books and their contents\nmust receive proper respect.\n-— '\nIn the second place, it is important that true leadership in the social\ngroup be recognized and developed and not confused with braggadocio and\nmere self-assertiveness. Just because a boy by his manipulation has\ngained temporary prestige and won an election he may become deluded\ninto the belief that he is a true leader. Such a fellow is likely to put a great\npremium on his ability to bluff his way or outwit a teacher by some clever\nturn. With a toss of the head and a disdainful tone such a self-satisfied\n\"flunker\" sometimes announces himself as a student of \"men\" and of the\n\"world,\" and manifests his disgust for books and the \"bookworm.\" His\ntraining in manipulating class or other elections may be a promise of\nfuture success, but certainly not in the ranks of municipal reform or civic\nvirtue; it is more likely to equip him with the wily ways of the unscrupulous\npolitician and with skill in outwitting the law of the land. \"At present\nour society suffers more from the lack of true leadership and the kind of\ninsight and morality necessary for such a function than from any other\nfault.\" The chief field of extra-curricular activities is the development of\ntrue leadership, which always implies self-control and often subordination\nof self, for he who would command must first know how to obey.\nAnd finally, there is a danger that he who has natural gifts for leadership and diversified ability may be encouraged to undertake too much in\nthe way of student activities and thus jeopardize his curricular record or\nundermine his bodily strength. Here is the teacher's greatest opportunity\nfor the display of judgment and unselfishness. It is a temptation for each\nteacher who is intrusted with the advisership of a student activity to look\nfor the best material so as to make a showing. Thus the same boy or girl\nwho manifests exceptional aptitude may be found in the leading rdle of\nseveral enterprises simultaneously.\nUnder such conditions there is bound\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto be a breakdown either in scholarship or in physique, and that is certainly\nunfortunate. It is worse than unfortunate. In the very things which J\nshould make for democracy and wide participation, to encourage the\ndevelopment of individual stars is highly undemocratic.\nSuch a practice!\ntends to defeat all that is good and sensible in the extra-curricular activitiesj\nand must be controlled by clearly defined regulations in each school.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nWILLIAM\n\nEFFICIENCY AND WHAT\nCOMMUNITY\n\nH. SNYDER,\n\nPRESTCIPAL, HOLLYWOOD\nHOLLYWOOD, CAL.\n\nIT MEANS\nHIGH\n\nTO A\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe endeavor of the efficient high school is not simply to prepare a boy\nor girl to make a living, to go to college, or to assume a smattering of culture.\nVocational education, college preparation, culture may well all enter into\nthe high-school scheme, but they must be supplemented by something\nmore before they will render the school efficient. Plato was right when he\ninsisted that the aim of education was to produce good citizens. The\ngood citizen must make a creditable living for his family. The high school\nmust therefore present courses which will help him industrially. The good\ncitizen who has ambition and ability must be helped to develop his abDity\nto its highest fruition. The high school must therefore offer courses which\nwill prepare for higher institutions. The good citizen must lead an honorable, clean, straightforward life whose aim is not exploitation of other\npeople, but productiveness. He must persistently, honestly, and forcefully\nperform his civic duties, seeking to advance the good of the community and\nnot his own selfish ends. He must be democratic, realizing that in a free\ncoimtry there can be no such things as classes and masses. The high school\nmust therefore make an earnest endeavor to develop in every possible way\nthese traits in its pupils.\nHere is where mere curriculum fails and where the extra-classroom\nconditions and activities of the school must be largely relied upon. Its\ninfluence in this direction, if it is to reach its fullest efficiency, must extend\nto the entire community. It must therefore attract both the rich and the\npoor. A class school is both undemocratic and un-American. In certain\ncommunities one of the most serious problems of the high school is to attract\nthe children of the well-to-do and the rich. A school that appeals simply\nto the poor or to the rich cannot be efficient in its commimity. Fully to\nserve its conununity the school must epitomize the community. To it\nmust be attracted the boys and girls from all kinds of homes and here they\nmust meet on a common basis and learn to appreciate that humanity is one.\nNo high school will ever reach its highest efficiency until it is able to\nbecome the melting-pot in which are fused the different elements of the\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "bepartment]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nt^FFICIENCY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n743\n\ncommunity. Here the rich and poor, the refined and crude must mingle\nand learn to know and respect each other's good qualities and tolerate\neach other's weaknesses. The school may fail in many other respects,\nbut if it is able to implant the feeling among its pupils that worth,\nnot influence, is the criterion which should determine standing, it has fulfilled one of its greatest missions. The ability to instil the principles of\nreal democracy must be the foundation principle in the construction of the\nschool building, the planning of the course of study, and the administration\nof the school.\nThe fact must never be lost sight of that the aim of the school is to\nserve the entire community. Since no two communities are exactly alike,\nno two schools should be exactly alike. The necessary variations may be\nslight or they may be very marked. A high school for an agricultural\ncommunity and one for a manufacturing community should differ greatly\nin buildings and curriculum and to some extent in administration. Each\ncommunity must therefore be carefully studied and those in charge of the\nschools must be able to come into close touch with both its social and its\nindustrial life. They must know the prevalent condition and ambitions of\nthe boys and girls and be able to get their point of view. Only in this way\ncan the life of the school be made part of the life of the community and the\ncommunity kept in close sympathy with the ideals of the school. The\nschool should be a small community within the larger community, where\nthe conditions are more ideal than it is possible to have them in the larger\ncommunity. The closeness of companionship and interest will make its\nunity of action easier and under proper management will break down\nartificial social barriers. It is easily possible to have all the social functions\nsuch as can be readily participated in by the different members and to\nmaintain a hearty spirit of good fellowship among all. Each pupil must\nfeel that he has a civic duty to his school community and must learn his\nresponsibility as one of its members. He must become imbued with a spirit\nof self -forgetful, co-operative helpfulness and must find out that the greatest\ngood for the greatest number is the greatest good for himself. He must\nlearn that the proper kind of school spirit is the spirit that builds up the\nstandards and morale of the school; that in school the fellow who plays to\nthe grandstand and for his own aggrandizement is a cad; that only as he\ndoes his part in the activities of the school will he be of account to the school.\nWherever co-operative work such as music, dramatics, debating, or athletics can be undertaken, the necessity for teamwork will be emphasized\nand the impossibility of accomplishing great results by isolated individual\naction will be demonstrated. The spirit of community helpfulness and\ndemocracy, when once fully established in a school, will unconsciously\ninfluence the life of the community, breaking down, at least to some extent,\nartificial standards and foolish conceits. If it can be maintained, it will\ndo more for the upbuilding of a community than any other one force that\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary i\n\ncan be brought into it. The high school is usually the only institution 'm\\\na community which has no rival, no competing sects, lodges, or societies.:\nIt is the one place where factions can be eliminated, where dififering com-j\nmunity interests can be brought together, and where all have a common pur-|\npose. It is indeed the people's college. Recognizing, then, that the future]\nworth of the boys and girls is the only standard by which the efficiency ofij\nthe school can be measured, that a school must be so adjusted to the needs]\nof the community that its training will prepare its graduates to be more]\nuseful than they otherwise would have been, and that a school which imparts!\nto its pupils the ability and desire to be of service has fulfilled its highest]\nmission, what are the fundamental conditions necessary for the development of such a school? I believe they can be smnmed up under three']\nheads: first, a stable, wise, and sympathetic faculty; secondly, such build-j\nings and equipment and such surroundings that all classes of the commimity j\nwill be attracted; thirdly, a flexible course of study which is adapted to]\nthe needs and ideals of the community.\nNo school which has a continually shifting faculty can understand or I\nmeet the needs of its community.\nIt takes time and patience and continued j\neffort to find out what are the real conditions and what are the dominant\naspirations of any school constituency. But even if it were possible quickly\nto discover and understand the needs of a community, it would be impossible\nto adjust school conditions so as to meet them in the best manner without\nadequate acquaintance with the individual pupils and their home surroundings. The spirit and morale of a school are, after all, its most important\nassets. These take years of patient and persistent work to estabUsh. The\nefficiency of a shop can be computed when the completed product has\nbeen turned out, but it needs at least ten years after graduation for the^\nefficiency or non-efficiency of a school fully to show itself. It is the resulting impress left by a school upon its pupils working itself out in their future]\nlives which determines whether a school has been successful. No groupj\nof teachers can be rightly judged by the apparent results of one or two years '\nof work. No man who has the unobtrusive stajdng quaUties which usually\ncharacterize the efficient worker can show what he has in him for a school\nor a community unless his influence can be exerted for a term of years.\nThat the rolling stone gathers no moss is tremendously true of the peripatetic teacher. A boy's hide is not pierced by the first slap upon the\nback or the first short talk, and unless a man gets below the tan and down\ninto the warm current of his pulsing heart he will be able to do Uttle which\nis really worth while for the boy. The school must be a character molder\nand the molding cannot be done by workmen who are on the run. No\ncommunity which does not see to it that there is a permanency in the highschool faculty has the right to expect that high school to be efficient.\nIf a school is to serve a community, it must attract the boys and girls\nof the community.\nTo accompUsh this the buildings, surroundings, and\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n745\n\nequipment must be a little superior to that of the average home of the\ncommunity. If they are inferior to these, the children of the more wellto-do families will experience a sense of distaste and depression and an\nunwillingness to attend. If they are much superior, there is likely to be\nengendered in the minds of many of the pupils a discontent with their own\nconditions and a feeling that in some way they are entitled to an extravagant use of public money and should be able to demand from the public\nluxuries which they could not hope to provide for themselves. Extravagance ought to be discouraged in every possible way. Perhaps no tendency\nwhich is not strictly immoral has more baneful influences upon young people\nthan the tendency to live beyond their means. If there is one trait above\nall others which we Americans need to cultivate it is thrift. This cannot,\nhowever, be taught in the classroom. It must be instilled by constant\nunconscious exemplification.\nThe course of study must be so flexible that it will appeal to each boy\nand girl of the community. It must simi up in itself the most vital aids for\nattaining at least some of the aspirations of each individual to whom it\nministers. Of course it cannot expect to help in the realization of all the\nvisions which come to the young people of the community, but it should\nbe such that it can help in the realization of some of these. It must enable\nboys and girls to find themselves. It must bring them down from dreaming about what they would like to do by giving them a chance to see if\nthey have any real aptitude along the lines which lead toward the attainment of their hazy aspirations. The only way a boy can fully be persuaded\nthat he can or cannot do a thing is by giving him a chance to try it or something like it.\nSome boys and girls will desire to go on to higher institutions so that\nthe ordinary high-school course presents to them what they desire, but there\nis a larger number who, at the time they are ready for high school, have no\nwish to go to college. They are, however, still too yoimg to make the\naiost of themselves if they leave school. Nevertheless, unless courses\nire offered which appeal to them, they will discontinue their studies at the\nmd of the grammar school and simply drift for a series of years. This is\nremendously to their disadvantage and to the disadvantage of the comnunity. Loafing cultivates a taste for loafing and loafers are among the\njreatest evils that ever come to a community.\nWork must be provided\nII the high school which will attract these boys and girls. Commercial\ni^ork, shop work, domestic science, art, music, agriculture, and similar\nourses which appeal to both their utilitarian and their aesthetic propensiies usually do this. The conditions of the community itself should determine the particular features of these subjects which are to be emphasized and\nhe manner in which they are to be treated. If the community is a resiential community qf some wealth, the artistic sides of the handicraft\nourses will need to be accentuated.\nIf it is a community in which a larger\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\npart of the pupils will be engaged in industries, then the vocational side of\nthe work must be most carefully developed. In planning courses of this\nkind more than in the planning of so-called academic courses, the condition\nand desires of the community must be carefully considered. There are\nplaces in which even domestic science has been an absolute failure because\nthe teacher taught it in a manner which did not appeal to the community,\nwhereas in neighboring schools of similar communities the course was most\npopular and highly valued. The kind of work best for a school is that\nwhich conforms largely to the good judgment of the community. The\ncommunity will, as a rule, stand by the school that does the kind of work\nit can appreciate.\nExcept in large cities and in communities where there are peculiar\nindustrial conditions, it is doubtful whether a strictly vocational course\nshould be given in the high school. There are very few American children\nof high-school age who are competent to decide in their thirteenth or\nfourteenth years what vocation they will be best fitted to follow. If they\nenter upon strictly specialized coiurses it will be almost impossible for them\nto readjust themselves. Many a boy, upon entering high school, thinks\nthat he wants to go immediately into business, but, by the time he is a thirdyear student, he decides that he wants to go to college. If his course has\nbeen strictly vocational, this change will be very difficult and expensive in\ntime. It is one of the functions of the efficient school to conserve the timei\nof its pupils and to enlarge as far as possible their desires and ambitions,\nnot summarily to restrict and thwart them. The courses must be so\narranged that they lead toward the ambitions of the pupils, and at the same\ntime are wiser and broader than these ambitions; they must be such that\nthey enable the boy to reach out toward a wider and wider hori2»n and not\nsuch that they hold him down to one definite and fixed point.\nIf you will kindly allow a personal allusion: In the high school with\nwhich I am connected there are three aims in the course of study: (i) td\nprepare boys and girls for higher institutions; (2) to provide a course con\ntaining subjects sufficiently diversified that the boys and girls may, :\npossible, discover their individual aptitudes; (3) to develop just as far a^\npossible all those subjects which have to do with the home and home\nmaking. Every boy and girl expects some time to have a home and\ninterested in those things which have to do with it. The chances are ninety\nto one that, whatever they may do in life, these subjects will prove useful\nTo accomphsh this last desire, the course contains such subjects as hoir\narchitecture, plumbing, furniture building, intensive agriculture and horti\nculture, automobile repairing, physics of the home, bacteriology of tli\nhome, domestic chemistry, cooking, sewing, miUinery, care of the sicl^\nhome decoration, laundering, art, music, and so forth. Such subjects no\nonly help materially in saving money but tend to preserve the interest an\nlove of home which is so necessary for the well-being of any communit)\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS— JUNIOR\n\nAND\n\nSENIOR\n\nSECTIONS\n\n747\n\nThey attract the pupil, they appeal to the good sense of the community,\nand they are of lasting value to all who take them. Whatever a boy or\ngirl may later decide to do, it is never felt that the time which has been\nspent in learning how to help make a home has been wasted. Such subjects, Ibelieve, generalize the type of vocational subjects suitable to all\nkinds of high schools.\nNo school can be efficient, however, unless the community in which it\nis situated takes a deep interest in it and endeavors to give it not only the\nmaterial resources it needs, but as well that spirit of loyalty and helpfulness which is indispensable. The community and high school are parent\nand child. Their ambitions, aspirations, and limitations must be mutual.\nThey must help encourage and inspire each other. The community, like\nthe parent, must endeavor to make the high school better than itself and\nthe high school must strive not to disappoint the hopes of the community.\nIn all education there is one great and ever-abiding truth which must\nalways be remembered. The school is for the child and community, not\nthe child and the community for the school. Big pay-rolls, good roads,\nfine houses, fine fire departments, and splendid police forces are all right,\nbut happy, industrious, loyal, serviceful boys and girls in the high school\nare worth more in the community than all other things put together.\nHhese are what an efficient high school means to a community and it is in\nhelping to provide them that a high school demonstrates its efficiency to\nthe community.\n.\"^\nTHE ORGANIZATION\n^PHILANDER\n\nP.\n\nCLAXTON,\n\nOF HIGH SCHOOLS\nSENIOR SECTIONS\nUNITED\nSTATES\nWASHINGTON,\n\nINTO JUNIOR\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nD.C.\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nConditions in the United States have vastly changed. Wealth has\nEnormously increased and with it our great problems of transportation,\ntpublic utilities, civic life, and education have become correspondingly\npcomplex. Public schools, elementary and secondary, are costing this year\n;hundred million dollars. International commerce has become enormous\nid problems of tariff and constitutional provisions are more and more to\n[the fore. More and more also are we depending upon the direct action or\njreferendum vote of the people themselves. What does all this mean ? It\nIsurely means the necessity for a much more thoro training of the average\njcitizen whose vote is to sustain or to overthrow the great and growing\njinstitutions on which our very existence as a great and mighty nation\niepends. The simple elementary type of education of pioneer days, the\nlitative, habituative type of education, no longer suffices. There is little\nUse for mere hands in industrial life today. Men must use heads as well\nlis hands. Men must have initiative.\nMen are needed who can do things\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "nduy\n\n748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secon,\n\nwithout having to be told all the details. Mere learning won't do. Mere\nobedience to a superior's commands is not enough. Today even in matters\nof religion we are no longer content to quote glibly the dogmas of our\nfathers. Men are thinking out the problems of life and death and are\nbrave enough to doubt, to weigh, and to come to their own conclusions.\nAnd, too, things are done on such a colossal basis. In place of the little I\nsteamboat is the stupendous turbine-driven merchantman of today; in\nplace of the little city hall is the civic center of today costing millions of\ndollars.\nSo in agriculture, in mining, in architecture, in commerce, a\ndifferent kind of education is now demanded for the masses of the people.\nWhat does all this mean to the schools?\nSurely that we must be nc.\nlonger content with the per cent entering the high school.\nNo! Everjl\ncitizen, since he is to face and help decide such tremendous problems, must\nhave a greater measure of education. How shall we bring about this ver}\ndesirable change ? We shall divide our school into two sections of six!\nyears each. In the first six, we shall teach the minimum essentials to all,\nthrowing away much chaff that has come to clog the educational machine;,\nin the second six, we shall enrich the life of the adolescent to prepare himi\nfor the great problems that sooner or later will confront him.\nDifferentiation should here take place, since talents differ. The school and industrial|\nlife should co-operate with the training of the boys and co-operate wiselyJ\nThe half-time plan of the University of Cincinnati is well known.\nIn a\ncotton-mill town down south a plan is in vogue by which a school of one\nhundred is divided into two sections, one section working a week in the\nschool while the other section works in the mill, the sections exchanging each\nweek.\nThis is exceptional but the principle is good. The student shoul<]\ntake some part in the industrial system and help to pay his way.\nThen b>\nall means let us have the right kind of vocational guidance — and what wi;\nhelp us more in this than to try our students out in various industrial line;\nof work during their school life ? The second six years should be divide;\ninto two divisions of three, so that those who must may stop at the end 0\nthe first three with some definite accomplishment.\nIn the last three;\nteachers wiU be more in the nature of specialists in subjects and work wil\nbe of definite secondary character.\nThus shall we be able to build a trul;\ncollegiate education and lead the world to higher lines of imiversity thought\n\nTHE FUTURE\nLEWIS B. AVERY, ASSISTANT\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND,\n\nCA\n\nThe organization of the coming high school is already foreshadowc'\nin its beginnings now with us. There will be the junior high school, aftc\nthis the high school proper, and then the junior college.\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n749\n\nLet me give a few words to the intermediate school, or junior high school.\nThe mere consolidation of schools has long been known and acknowledged\nas a forward step educationally and economically. Whole states have\nadopted the system on a large scale and have thus replaced many poorly\nhoused and ill-taught schools with a few good and efl&cient ones. It is\nproposed in this state to allow children of the seventh and eighth grades\nin several adjoining districts where union high schools already exist to\ncombine at the high school and thus form intermediate schools in connection with rural high schools. In cities, with their well-developed transportation facilities, such union of seventh and eighth grades should be\ncomparatively easy. With such combinations of, say, seventh, eighth, and\nninth grades, it becomes possible to furnish better teaching service and\nadditional privileges of curriculum. Such schools may be housed with the\nlower grades, as sometimes occurs of necessity, or, better, with high-school\ngrades, where the larger use of the more expensive plant is thus made\npossible; but the future junior high school, or intermediate school, will be\nseparately housed wherever possible. This will be for sound educational\nreasons, both social and scholastic. Children of primary age are better\nkept separate from those of early adolescent age, with whom life-problems\nare dawning, and they, in turn, can be better guided and guarded separate\nfrom the older ones who are in pretty complete touch with the great world\nabout them. Modes of control, kinds of advice, and treatments of lifetopics may well be different with these two groups. The curriculum of the\npresent intermediate school, or junior high school, is not largely different\nfrom the corresponding grade curricula. The coming junior high school will\nhave a new curriculum, textbooks yet to be written, and methods differing\nwidely from those now in use in either grades or high school. It will be the\npurpose to cover the realm of human knowledge with the aim to inspire as\nwell as to inform. Abandoning the logical and chronological order of teaching, itwill be a school in which that which is near and concrete will form the\nbasis of instruction, and vital interests will decide the lines of departure.\nIn saying these things, I am not intending to discount the other phases of\neducation, including drill and scholarship, but these will not be primary in\nconsideration in this new school. Another valuable contribution of such\na school endeavoring to cover the realm of knowledge in a comprehensive\nway will be the preparation of its pupils for making rational choices before\nbeing projected into the arena where the making of choices becomes their\nimmediate and vital business. The courses in high school may be more\nwisely selected by pupils who have consciously joined in the exploration\nof their own capacities and interests and in whom some intelligent responses\nhave been aroused, and, if the field of choice is outside of school walls,\nthese awakened ambitions, interests, and judgments will be none the less\nvaluable.\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "7SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAs the junior high school has been a development downward of the high\nschool, so its development upward into the junior college is well under way.\nIn California, ten high schools have added a regularly organized junior\ncollege. I have not the time to discuss the work of this school already so\nadequately set forth by others in this convention. I will refer you for\nfurther enlightening discussion of this subject to the circular on \"The Junior\nCollege in California,\" issued by the University of California last July — a\npamphlet of over 50 pages.\nThe high school proper, which is expanding thus upward and downward,\nis expanding outward in no less degree. It is the livest educational institution of its time, if growth and expansion are any indication. In the study\nof educational problems and the growth of educational theory, it is rapidly\ntaking a leading place. A few years ago, when the period of normal-school\nexpansion was upon us, the elementary-school teacher was the live student\nof educational affairs. But now the high-school teachers are given much\ntheoretical preparation in addition to a larger academic education, and, what\nis still more to the point, they are up against such a multitude of complex\neducational problems in their real experience that they are getting a remarkable education whether they seek it or not. The publication in the present\nyear of such a book on methods of teaching in high schools as that of Parker\nshows a remarkable advance in the application of live educational theory to\nthe present high-school practice.\nThe future high school will be a clear expansion of the present high\nschool. The studies will be presented for the election of the pupil, but\nelection will be based on a rational preparation therefor in the intermediate\nschool, or junior high school. An attempt will be made to have the course\nof study of each individual promote the development of the individual rather\nthan fit him to anything or for anything, I do not go the length of some of\nthe advocates of the idea that the doctrine of formal discipline is wholly\nexploded. The explosion of a theory cannot deter those of us who have seen\nthe transformation in character, purpose, and power that takes place in the\nlives of many of our youth in high schools from recognizing the facts of\neducation and culture and their vital connection with teachers and schools.\nMy hope and prophecy for the future high school is that these three attributes of highest manhood and womanhood — character, purpose, and\npower — will be primary considerations, and that scholarship and even\nefficiency will wait on them, as they do now in the final destiny of us all.\nI have no quarrel with the doctrine of efficiency that is everywhere\nstirring up a new interest in getting things done, but only with its assumption of finality. In every quarter it has invaded it seems to bring all back\nto a material basis and introduce a wholly materialistic spirit. Without\ndoubt, the knowledge of the weak points of a school system, and the measure\nof the measurable product, are valuable data if it be understood that after\nthe machinery is set right we have the spirit of the concern to reckon with.\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n751\n\nThe new high school will have to settle scores of questions that are now\nunder discussion and they will have to be finally settled upon the basis\nof the prevailing purpose of the high school and that purpose is at present\nin some doubt. We find the opinion developing on one side that high-school\neducation should be primarily directed to promote and secure the solidarity\nof the state and society, and on the other that the development of the individual should be the aim. These aims are somewhat reflected in the educational systems of Germany on the one side, with social and state efficiency\nas the goal, and on the other by the more individualistic aims of English\neducation. It may be that the results of the present war will temporarily\nswerve us one way or the other, but the final outcome seems to me certain.\nWe shall successfully imite the two aims, but shall keep in mind that with\nus the freedom of the individual is fundamental, and neither labor nor\ncapital, neither society nor state, neither theories of efficiency nor the\nacknowledged attractiveness of industrial and social solidarity shall keep\nus from making the high school first of all the bulwark of individual freedom.\nIt will be the problem of the coming day to secure this freedom in the midst\nof a growingly complex and interdependent civilization and finally to make\nit contribute to those very ends of social and political solidarity it seems to\ncontravene.\nOur high schools have been gathering into great plants. Economy and\nefficiency have been promoted thereby. Different schools have taken\ndifferent and somewhat specialized aims. Some are commercial, some\ntechnical, some agricultural, and some frankly classical. There is, however,\na clear tendency on the part of each to include all, or at least the fundamentals ofall. We insist that the integrity of the school shall not be a chief\nconsideration; we do not imdertake to prepare pupils for a certain niche\nin life and unprepare them for others; we do not allow the state to insist\non its notions of its own necessities. We are giving increasing respect to the\nchoice of the pupils. True, we have given them little basis for rational\nchoice, but that we are going to endeavor to remedy, for character is largely\na matter of choice, and manhood is largely a matter of character, and only\nby cultivation of this comparatively virgin field — the education in the\nmaking of choices — can the future high school justify the large liberty it\nis doubtless going to grant to the individual in high-school education.\nIf I have thus far read the tendencies aright, the answer as to what must\nbe the character of state control in the high school of the future is fairly\nclear. State high-school systems will stand for local autonomy, excepting\nin so far as may be necessary to keep one part of the system from undue\nencroachment upon the other.\nOf the minor problems which the future high school will have settled, I\ncan take time to mention but few. Without doubt the school plant will be\nmore continuously and more widely used than now. The great flouring\nmills of Minneapolis changed their entire machinery without stopping an\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "il\n752\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Seconda^ ■\n\nhour out of the twenty-four. We make no pretense of using our school\nplant more than an eighth to a sixth of the total time in the course of the\nyear.\nThe community is becoming interested at first hand in the schools.\nFor many years the school authorities bemoaned the lack of interest in the\nschool on the part of the home. Now mothers' clubs have been formed and\nparent-teacher associations organized, and these are interested, not only\nin the school, but in the children in the school. School authorities do not\nseem to know what to do with this new interest now they have it and are\ntempted to regard these organizations with suspicion and greet them with\nsilence. Without doubt they may be a menace, but they may also be a\nsource of assistance and inspiration. A large city has solved the problem\nby taking them into the school system, and they have served to keep the\nboard of education in touch with the homes.\nSome are calling for segregation of the sexes in high school on grounds\neducational, hygienic, and moral. It seems probable that the objections\nto co-education on educational and hygienic grounds can be met when\nunderstood in the mixed school as well as in the separate school. There will\ndoubtless be more of separate instruction, care, and advice. As to the\nargument based on morals, those who are practical students of social conditions are fairly unanimous that the free association of the sexes under\nproper and normal conditions is essential to obviate association under\nconditions improper and abnormal; that a considerable and wide acquaintance among young people of opposite sexes is the best guaranty that we can\nhope to get for fortunate choices and happy homes; that the breaking up\nof the united home by reason of flats, apartments, clubs, cheap shows,\nand the thousand city conditions that prevail even in small towns, so that\nthe father, the mother, the boys, and the girls frequently go in different\ndirections after the evening meal, can be met only by such a social center\nas shall once more bring fathers, mothers, and children together with the\nschool as the basis of the center. It is certain that the whole social education of our young people — at present a haphazard affair — needs sympathetic\nand authoritative direction with co-operation of home, school, and young\npeople. The future high school will not frown on social intercourse,\nproperly conducted, among its young people, but will systematically promote and regulate it. Many a young person would behave well in society\nif he knew how and it were the thing to do. The future high school will\nshow him how and make it the thing to do.\nThe success of the continuation schools and correspondence schools\nsuggests that the future high school will not forget its pupils immediately\nwhen they have passed out from under its roof, but will keep in constant\ntouch with them to advise and assist in their further education, and that\ninstead of insisting that the four years of regular work is the only road\nworthy of choice, will offer, as many good schools do now, courses of instruc-\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n753\n\ntion that will so appeal to the thousands that are now doing the blind-alley\nwork of our cities that they will be encouraged to drop this work for a year\nto get a renewed hold on larger possibilities.\nWhat of military service for young men and their instruction in the art\nof the defense of nations ? I do not believe that patriotism is dead or dying,\nbut I regret to see the materialistic basis to which it is reduced; Love of\ncountry is more the product of what we do for it than of what we get out\nof it. If our young people, for several weeks of each year, were organized\non a military basis but for the purpose of making a definite contribution\nof labor for the public welfare, could not the results be woven into patriotism ? Such a military organization would be constructive, not destructive,\nand would be equally valuable in peace and war.\nI cannot in this brief view touch many of the important problems of the\nhigh school or indicate their possible or probable solutions. I can only\ninsist that, however valuable the material and technical aids to education,\nthe high school will not save or be saved by its palatial housing, its courses\nof study, its technical training, its trade education, its vocational guidance —\nnot by the abundance of things it shall have or do, but only as these shall be\nmade to contribute to a higher and spiritual service. Scholarship and\nefficiency may be good, and no one questions that, but character, purpose,\nand power are fundamental, and these are produced by the same sort of\nfaith and hope and love in the school that are active in the home. The\nwatchword of the new era will be service — a word that shows the devotion of\nefficiency to spiritual ends.\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Livingston Farrand, president, University of Colorado\nBoulder, Colo.\nVice-President — MsxviN A. Brannon, president. University of Idaho\nMoscow, Idaho\nSecretary — ^John E. Rouse, director. School of Education, James Millikin University\nDecatur, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Thtjrsday Forenoon, August 26, 191 5\nThe meeting was called to order in the Ballroom of the Hotel Oakland at 9:00 a.m.\nEllwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University,\nStanford University, Cal., gave an address entitled \"University Surveys.\"\nDiscussion.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, August 26, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 130 p.m., in the Ballroom of the Hotel Oakland,\nand the following program presented:\n\"Reed College and Civic Service\" — William T. Foster, president. Reed College,\nPortland, Ore.\n\"Higher Education in the Philippine Islands\" — Frank L. Crone, director, Bureau\nof Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President — Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford\nJunior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — Sidney E. Mezes, president, College of the City of New York,\nNew York, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — ^John E. Rouse, director. School of Education, James Millikin University, Decatur, 111.\nJohn E. Rouse, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\nELLWOOD\n\nP.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nSURVEYS\n\nCUBBERLEY,\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION,\nLELAND\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY,\nCAL.\n\nSTANFORD\n\nThe university survey represents a very recent movement, being copied\nlargely from the city school survey, which has become somewhat common.\nIts purpose, if properly directed, should be to seek light on the organization\nand administration of a college or university, and to offer aid in directing\nthe authorities of the institution in the task which they are trying to carry\nout. Its purpose should be helpfulness,\nand the recommendations made\n7SS\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Higli\n7S6\nshould be constructive and helpful. The idea is closely akin to the expertii\nof a business.\nIt is very probable that we shall witness rather a large number of collej\nand university surveys, particularly in our state institutions, within the ne\ndecade.\nWith the increasing cost of higher education, we can probablj\nexpect people in the different states to demand some investigation into\nwisdom of the large expenditures which our state universities are making.\nA college or university survey can be made very helpful to an institutioi\nor it can be made very harmful, depending almost entirely upon the attituc\ntoward the problem assumed by those who are responsible for the surve\nIf those in charge assume that their purpose is to study the problem care\nfully in its local setting, to evaluate the work and the needs of the institutic\nin terms of the best standards found elsewhere, to offer only constructi\\\ncriticisms, and to render aid to those charged with the administration,\nsurvey can be made of large service in supporting educational authoritie\nin the good work which they are doing, and in informing the people of\nstate as to the value of the work which their university is carrying on.\non the other hand, the survey is not a survey but an investigation, if it\npurpose is agitation rather than education, if it tries to raise probler\nand not to solve them, and if as a result of the work the university is le\nin worse condition than it was before the investigation began, the result ^\nalmost certain to be demoralizing and harmful to the best interests of highe\neducation.\nWe have had one conspicuous example of each type. The first was\nrecent survey made of the Drexel Institute at Philadelphia, the purpos\nof which was to find out what were the problems now presenting themselve\nfor solution in the neighborhood of Philadelphia and within the financ\npossibility for the Drexel Institute authorities.\nThe report is an excellei\nexample of the experting of an educational business, and proved so helpfi\nto the Board of Trustees that its members invited the surveyor to becoi\npresident of the Institute and carry his own report into effect. On the\nother hand, the so-called survey of the University of Wisconsin was a most\noutrageous investigation.\nOne cannot read the report without feeUng that\nthe actuating purpose of those in charge of the survey was criticism and\nagitation. The undoubted effect of such a document is to leave the university ina worse condition than if the survey had not been made, and,\nif the University of Wisconsin report is to characterize the university surveys\nof the future, then either the survey movement or the universities are\ndoomed.\n\nThe problems which a university survey might well consider would\ninclude the place and function of the university in the system of education\nprovided by the state, or its place in the local conmiunity if in a state institution; its administrative organization, with a view to determining the\nefficiency or inefficiency of the same; its teaching force, their training,\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nREED\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nCIVIC\n\nSERVICE\n\n757\n\nsalaries, work, and organization; the educational organization of the institution; the curriculum, the direction headed, and desirable possible changes;\npossibly an evaluation of the work which the institution is doing; its needs\nin plant and equipment; the care of its students, and their needs; the university finances; and the probable future of the institution. In the case\nof a state university, the report could well point out to the people of the\nstate the great importance of the work which their state university is\ndoing, and how, while it costs large sums of money, it nevertheless returns\nto the state, economically, socially, administratively, and morally, a very\nlarge return on the investment. In other words, the university survey\nshould be a helpful presentation of the university's position, work, and\nneeds made to the directing board and to the people of the community or\nstate.\nREED\nWILLIAM\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nT. FOSTER, PRESIDENT,\n\nCIVIC SERVICE\n\nREED\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPORTLAISTD,\n\nORE.\n\nYou have courteously asked me to speak about Reed College and its\ncivic service. The college is established on a private endowment, with no\nobligation to state, city, religious denomination, or individuals; that is, no\nformal, specified obligation. Our conception, however, is that the institution\nshould serve the entire city; and our aim has been from the outset that no\nindividual in the city of Portland should fail to gain some benefit from\nReed College. We are not particular exactly how, or where, or when, or\nunder what circumstances we shall reach him; we want to help him, somehow, sooner or later.\nThe fact that the city has contributed no money for the support of the\ncollege, and has been asked to contribute none, has not prevented us from\nco-operating effectively with the city administration. Members of our\nfaculty have co-operated in the work of the art museum, the public library,\nthe vice commission, health bureaus, and the home for delinquent girls.\nThere, for example, we have had experimental psychologists under the\ndirection of our faculty. One of our faculty is the head of the Oregon\nCivic League, an independent organization of voters for promoting good\ngovernment. One of our faculty was the first chairman of the committee\nof one hundred which carried on a campaign that resulted in carrying the\nstate of Oregon for prohibition by some thirty thousand majority. One of\nour members is president of the Oregon Social Hygiene Society, an organization which has received $35,000 in aid from the state. Five members of\nour faculty, working under this organization, have given lectures on social\nhygiene to public schools and to the employees of department stores,\nfactories, railroad companies, and lumber camps. Members of our faculty\nare on the boards of the Congress of Mothers, the Parent-Teacher Associations, the Drama League, the Peace Society, the Archeological Society, the\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n758\nAcademy of Sciences, the College Equal Suffrage League, the Dental\nEducation Society, and the Advertising Law and Ethics Committee. The\nhead of our department of biology is an adviser of the Fish and Game\nCommission, one of its experiment stations having been constructed\nthe expense of the state on the college campus.\nThe college has endeavored to aid the city in solving some of its prol\nlems, thru the activities of both faculty and students. The college aims\nhave faculty and students work together for the welfare of the city,\nthis co-operative work we give our students certain kinds of training an^\npractical experience similar, in the field of social service, to the co-operati\\\nplan in engineering at the University of Cincinnati. The young psycholc\ngists, for example, are doing field work in psychology. These students\npreparing themselves for work as experimental psychologists in connectic\nwith agencies for the care of the feeble-minded and morally delinquent\nand major students in our courses in commerce and industries are worl\nwith the Chamber of Commerce on an industrial survey of the city.\nOur campus and athletic fields were all turned over to the city dep£\nment of parks this summer for a public playground, and our advance\nstudents in physical education took charge under the municipal authoritie\nWhen the city commissioners were faced with the problems of motion\npicture and vaudeville shows, the mayor of the city called upon us to fumis\ninformation. We organized a cormnittee of sixty investigators, covere\nevery theater in the city, and made a report to the mayor. The mayoi\ncommissioners, and all the people of the city are led to understand that the\nare free to call upon the college for aid of any kind at any time and the\nare constantly doing so.\nLast winter, for example, we studied the problems of the unemploye\nNo well-devised, thorogoing means of taking care of them had been brougl\nforward, and last winter emergency measures were taken to house\nfeed some three thousand men who for part of the winter were unemploye\nAgain the city called upon us for information. Naturally we took\nscientific way of going at the problem. Members of our faculty in charg\nof social economics took a group of students and an assistant in the department and studied the problem of imemployment. The students and faculty\nwent among the unemployed, slept with them, and got life-histories of 431\nof these men. They got some of the accurate information which is necessary\nas a basis for intelligent action, and the college published the report.\nSignificant of our attitude toward the city is our extension course on\n\"The Voter and the City of Portland.\" This course aims to present to\nevery voter in the city of Portland the kind of information he ought to have\nin order to exercise intelligently his prerogatives as a citizen, and to present\nit in a concrete, non-partisan, accurate, up-to-date, and interesting way.\nFor that purpose, we had the co-operation of every department of the city,\nand our faculty and students — because, as I say, all this work is usually done\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREED\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nCIVIC\n\nSERVICE\n\n759\n\nby students and faculty together — went into every department of the city\nand endeavored to learn all they could. Thus they presented to voters\nmany timely items of information never before available to any except a.\nfew on the inside. Our work was to bring out the facts, whether they were\nfavorable or unfavorable to any individual, or to any political party, or to\nany form of government. We sent out word that anybody, anywhere,\nwho would get together an audience could hear this course of six lectures.\nBy that means we reached groups of voters at twenty-one places.\nThis course served as laboratory work in public speaking because our\nstudents gave many of the addresses.\nWe continued this field work in public speaking by having competent\nstudents explain to voters the measures on the initiative ballot. Our\nstudents have spoken on street corners, in public parks, social halls, public\nlibraries, schoolhouses, churches — in fact, wherever the people would listen\nto them — and people are always ready to listen to speakers who know\nwhat they are talking about, who explain what is meant, for instance, by\nproportional representation, which was one of the measures on the ballot.\nWe could not co-operate more effectively with the public libraries of\nthe city if we owned the libraries. Every room in the main library, every\nroom in every branch library, is made available by our progressive library\nboard and staff for our extension work. The total attendance at extension\nlectures the year the college was founded, in 1911-12, was 3,360; last\nyear the total was 13,547. Next year we shall offer fifteen free courses.\nAnother branch of our work has been the annual conference, in which\nwe have endeavored to get together at Reed College the representatives of\nevery organization in the city of Portland which was in any way seeking\nto promote the welfare of the city. This annual conference has thus been a\nkind of clearing-house for agencies for social, moral, economic, and political\nprogress. I do not know at this moment of any organization in the city\nof Portland, private or public, which was working for some definite improvement, which was not represented at the Portland 19 15 Conference held at\nReed College. Over 150 organizations were officially represented thru\nexhibits and speakers. About five thousand persons attended. The entire\nprogram of that conference and of the one of the preceding year is available\nfor distribution, and gives a better idea of the scope of the work than I have\ntime to give here.\nThe college has been in operation only four years. Much of our work,\ntherefore, is tentative, and most of our plans are as yet visions of things\nhoped for. Four years is not a long time in which to find and use every\nopportunity for service to the city, especially since there were four years\nago no campus, no buildings, no books, no faculty, no students, no college —\nonly an endowment and an opportunity. Yet, in these few years, I have\ncome to the conviction that a college in a city like Portland, Ore., is limited in\nthe possibilities of service only by the limits of its own intelligence and faith.\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "76o\n\n■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nHIGHER\nFRANK\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nL. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU\nOF EDUCATION,\nOF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.L\n\n[Higher\n\nISLANDS\nDEPARTMENT\n\nThe Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellan in 1521 ; from tha]\ndate until the American occupation the people of the Islands enjoyed\nWestern civilization after Spanish ideals. The first evidence of interest o]1^1\nthe part of the Spanish government in education in the Philippines\nfound in a Royal Decree of 1634 in which Philip IV ordered all archbishops\nand bishops to take steps toward the education of the Filipinos in the\nSpanish language and in Christian doctrine. There is reason to believe that\nvery little attention was paid to this edict, however, since another decree\nwas issued in 1686 in which the king invited the attention of civil and\nreligious authorities to their failure to observe the provisions of the decree of\n1634. It was not until 1792 that practical steps were taken toward the\nproper financing of the scheme of education. Primary education did not\nsecure a real foothold until 1863', when primary schools were planned for\nevery town of the Philippines. Instruction in Spanish was not always\nor even generally given. In 1892 there were 2,173 schools the attendance of which was small and irregular. From the beginning of the\ninsurrection against Spain in 1896 imtil the beginning of the insurrection in 1899 against the United States, most of these public schools were\nclosed.\nVery early, attention was given to higher education in the Philippines.\nThe College of San Jose was founded in 160 1 and the university of Santo\nTomas in 16 10. These schools were originally established for the education\nof Spanish children but later both admitted Filipinos. Other institutions\nof higher learning were estabUshed, one of the chief functions of which was\nthe education of the native clergy. A number of these old schools are still\nin existence, most of which have now conformed their courses of study to\nthose prescribed in the state institutions and have secured the necessary\nauthority for granting higher degrees.\nIt was early seen that it would be necessary to establish a government\nuniversity which would give instruction along more modem Unes and place\nmore emphasis on practical education. As a result the University of the\nPhilippines was established, and its organization was completed in 1910.\nBefore that a School of Medicine and Surgery had been in operation and\nthis became the College of Medicine and Surgery of the new university.\nAt the present time, the enrolment in the University of the Philippines is\napproximately 2,000. The attendance is rapidly increasing. The university includes the following colleges: Liberal Arts, Medicine and Surgery,\nLaw, Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Engineering, and the Schools of\nDentistry and Pharmacy in the College of Medicine and Surgery, the\nSchool of Forestry in connection with the College of Agriculture, the School\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\n761\n\nof Education in connection with the College of Liberal Arts, and the School\nof Fine Arts.\nThe courses offered in the University of the Philippines follow in general\nthe lines of American universities. A special effort, however, has been made\nto adapt the courses of study to the particular needs of Filipino students,\nand wherever there is a conflict between the life-needs of the students and the\ndesirability of giving courses equivalent to those of American universities the\nformer is given most weight. In the College of Liberal Arts the degree of\nBachelor of Arts is given at the completion of two years of college work.\nThis is in a sense a concession to Spanish ideas. The degree of Bachelor of\nArts was formerly granted by Spanish schools at the completion of nine\nyears' study from the time of entering school. The degrees of M.S. and\nM.A., however, are given at the completion of five years' college work, as in\nthe United States. The School of Education grants a certificate to students\nwho have secured the degree of B.A. and successfully completed a year of\nwork in the School of Education. The College of Medicine and Surgery\nrequires five years of successful study before granting a diploma. Advanced\ncourses in tropical medicine and public health are also offered. The\nSchool of Pharmacy which is connected with the College of Medicine and\nSurgery offers two courses of three and four years respectively. A School\nof Dentistry has recently been organized in this same college. The College\nof Law offers a three years' course leading to the degree of LL.B. The\ncourses of instruction are similar to those offered in American colleges of\nlaw, with special adaptations to the law of the Philippines. The College of\nAgriculture is the only college of the university located outside of the city of\nManila. It is located at Los Bafios in the province of Laguna. This college\naccepts students who have completed the intermediate courses in the public\nschools and gives them a course of six years. High-school graduates may\ncomplete a course in two years. Advanced courses in agriculture are also\noffered. In connection with the College of Agriculture is a School of\nForestry, the principal function of which is to prepare foresters for the\ngovernment service. This school requires the completion of three years\nof the high-school course for admission. The College of Veterinary Science\noffers theoretical and practical courses in veterinary science and grants the\ndegree of D.V.S. at the completion of five years of study. The College of\nEngineering offers a four-year course, at the completion of which the degree\nof Bachelor of Science in Engineering is granted. . The School of Fine Arts\noffers courses extending over a period of five years, but special courses are\noffered students who are unable to devote so long a time to their studies.\nThe only funds at the disposition of the University of the Philippines are\nthose provided by the Philippine legislature. Annually a sum of money is\nset aside for the current expenses of the university and for the construction\nof necessary buildings. The control of the university is vested in the\nBoard of Regents, of which the Secretary of Public Instruction is chairman.\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Secretary of the Interior, the Director of Education, and the Chairmi\nof the Philippine Assembly Committee on Public Instruction are ex offii\nmembers of the Board of Regents; one member of the Supreme Court is\ndesignated by the governor-general to act as a member of this board. Six\nother members are appointed by the governor-general for stated periods of\nservice.\nIt will be noted that the university was established a number of years\nafter the public-school system, and it has always been the policy of the\nuniversity to allow the public schools to work out their problems in their\nown way without interference from the university. Since the courses in\nthe public schools are designed to meet the special needs of the majority of\nstudents who are unable to take courses in the university, it is not always\npossible to conform high-school courses to meet university demands.\nWhere this happens the university puts in special preparatory courses, and\nit does not presume to force the pubUc schools to adapt their courses to\nuniversity needs. While the imiversity authorities are desirous of offering\nevery possible opportimity in every line of education, the peculiar economic\nand social needs of the country demand that particular emphasis shall be\nplaced upon the training of teachers, doctors, farmers, engineers, and\nveterinarians. The authorities have seen these needs clearly and are\nplacing more and more emphasis upon the courses which prepare directly\nfor useful careers in the directions indicated.\nThe university has come to attract the attention of other oriental\ncountries and it is not unreasonable to expect that the Philippines will\nbecome the center of Western higher education in the Far East and will,\nthru the University of the Philippines, come to exert greater influence in the\nfuture upon neighboring countries.\nA number of private institutions have been recognized by the government and are authorized to grant degrees. These institutions are for the\nmost part conducted under church auspices. Instruction is given wholly or\nin part in English.\n.X\n\ns\n4k\n\n■\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nCINCINNATI\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — D wight B. Waldo, president, State Normal School\nVice-President — Tbouas W. Butcher, president. State Normal School\nSecretary — Waiie A. Shoemaker, president, State Normal School\n\nKalamazoo, Mich.\nEmporia, Elans.\nSt. Cloud, Minn.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, February 25, 1915\nJoint Conference with the City Normal School Association\nThe meeting was called to order in the Auditorivmi of the University of Cincinnati\nat 9:30 A.M.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Place and Scope of Sociology in the Normal School\" — John A. H. Keith, president, State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.; W. S. Dearmont, president, State Normal\nSchool, Cape Girardeau, Mo.; W. H. Parker, assistant professor of social science, University ofCincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\"The Relation of the Practice School and the Normal School — The Practice School\nas the Laboratory of the Normal School\" — ^John H. Withers, president, Harris Teachers\nCollege, St. Louis, Mo. ; Abbie Louise Day, College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati,\nCincinnati, Ohio; Charles A. McMurray, director of Normal Training School, DeKalb,\n111.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — Thursday Afternoon, February\n\n25, 1915\n\nA conference of the members of the Department of Normal Schools and those interested in normal-school work was held in the afternoon at two o'clock, and the following\nprogram was presented:\n\"The Question of Federal Aid for Normal Schools\" — William C. Bagley, director,\nSchool of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n\"Normal-School Extension Courses in Education\" — Charles H. Judd, director,\nSchool of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nUnder the topic \"Normal-School Extension Courses in Five States\" the following\npapers were read:\nI. \"History of the Extension Movement in Illinois\" — Walter P. Morgan, president,\nState Normal School, Macomb, 111.\na. \"Extension Service for Iowa Teachers\" — ^Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa\nState Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\n3. \"Extension Courses in Michigan\" — Robert M. Reinhold, director of extension\nservice, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.\n4. \"Normal-School Extension in Ohio\" — Clement L. Martzolff, director of extension\nservice, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.\n5. \"Extension Courses in Virginia\" — ^William R. Smithey, director of extension\nservice. State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va.\nDwiGHT B. Waldo, President\n\n763\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nTHE PLACE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nAND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY\nNORMAL SCHOOL\n\nJOHN A. H. KEITH, PRESIDENT,\n\n[Nonnalj\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nIN THE\n\nSCHOOL, OSHKOSH,\n\nWIS.\n\nInquiries made by a committee of the American Sociological Societj\nreceived replies from 65 universities and colleges of which 30 had coUegesl\nor schools of education.\nOf this 30, 6 made sociology required, 24 made itj\nelective, and 10 had a special course in educational sociology. Of thej\nother 35 institutions, 27 reported that sociology is taught and 7 reqi\nit of students intending to become teachers.\nF. R. Clow, of the Oshkosh State Normal School, found in 19 10 thati\nabout 40 normal schools were teaching sociology and most of these in the\nnorth-central states. The questionnaire sent out in 1913 by the Mississippi\nValley Historical Association increased the number to about 55.\nIt may be well to inquire into the reasons for the study of sociology\nand the values which such a study, if properly pursued, has for those\nintending to teach.\nIt is evident that the process of education as a process is one of socialization. Itis not merely a process that goes on in an individual mind.\nThe reference preceding the individual's mental process and his subsequent\nreference are alike social. In a broad way, the process by which one grows\ninto a civilization is synonymous with the process of education, and the aim\nto be sought thru our educational machinery and particularly thru the\nschool part of the educational agency is the production of individuals who\nare socialized. Again, society supports the school and it does this, not so\nmuch for the benefit of the individual, as for the advancement of what it.\nconceives to be its own interests. Society recognizes that only thru the\nagency of the school can it retain its present level of civilization and only\nthru the schools may it hope for substantial advancement for the futiu*.\nThe teacher ought, therefore, to understand the structure, the modes of\nacting, the ideals, and the processes of society, and these should be understood, not simply as matters of knowledge, but sympathetically and concretely.\nIt is only on this basis that the teacher can both feel and know that the\ncourses of study with which she deals in the schoolroom are in reality society\ntransplanted to the schoolroom. Any one subject or any one section of a\nsubject now taught in schools will, if examined, reveal its social connections.\nIt grew out of the social situation and its value lies in the possibility of its\nfunctioning in a serviceable way in a social situation. This does not mean\nto imply at all that the child is not an important factor in the process of\neducation. The teacher ought to study the individual child and should\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIOLOGY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n765\n\nnever forget that it is the individual mind that acts and that learns and\nthat becomes. But on the other hand, the teacher ought to have such\ninsight that she sees in what she is teaching, not merely knowledge, not\nmerely information, but the real material which when constructed by the\nindividual child makes him progressively social.\nIt seems to me that with this insight the teacher can awaken the proper\nmotive in the child. She can not only find the point of origin in the child's\nexperience which will have greatest value in enabling the child to understand the new which she wishes to teach, but she can also find the incentive\nand thus inspire the child with the proper motive. Say what we will,\nwhen children do things because of an appreciated value, because of a feeling within themselves that they need to know, they are rapidly transformed\nthereby. When the child works with a broad socialized motive, he lives\nin a school as well as learns.\nFor these reasons, it seems to me highly desirable that the subject of\nsociology in the normal school should be studied from the genetic standpoint. The teacher needs to know not only the analysis of a highly developed society, but she needs to know society in its development, in its\ncruder forms, in those stages in which it is moving from a lower to a higher\nform. There can be no more fruitful field for this than is found in the study\nof local history. I mean the study of local history from the standpoint of\nthe development of the community rather than from the standpoint of\nisolated historical facts such as when the first house was built, when the\nfirst hotel was built, when the first railroad was built, when the first\nopera house was built, and so on thru the dreary catalog that sometimes\npasses for local history. If one really gets concretely and individually in\nmind such a genetic view of what has happened in a society of which one\nis now a member, he has the concrete background in terms of which to\nunderstand and appreciate many of the terms of social analysis that would\notherwise be largely matters of abstraction.\nIt seems to me also that the stressing of topics in the study in the\nnormal school should be paralleled by a study of local conditions and the\neducational aspects of the social movements current at the time and place.\nTo study what textbooks have to say about the labor problem without\nknowing anything of the labor situation in one's town is a kind of abstraction of which the normal schools should have long since been freed. I do\nnot believe that any two schools should select exactly the same topics or\nstress these selected topics in the same way, but I do believe that the study\nof local conditions and of current social movements should become a part\nof the work in the normal school.\nI shall very briefly indicate what in my mind should be the topics taken\nup in sociology in the normal school: (i) the factors of society, including\nlocation, population, human nature, communication; (2) social organization, including primary groups, the social mind, social classes, institutions,\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ngovernment; (3) social progress, including man's career, variation, natural\nselection, telic selection; (4) special institutions, including the family, the\nstate, industrial, cultural; (5) the relation of sociology and education,\nincluding sociology as a science, education as an art, and the teacher's\nsocial relations, as well as the social character of the school.\n\nTEE QUESTION\nWILLIAM\n\nOF FEDERAL\n\nC. BAGLEY,\n\nAID FOR NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,\nOF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIn this country, it cannot be said that we neglect the factor of education.\nWe spend from our public treasuries upward of five himdred million dollars\nannually for educational purposes. But of this amoimt less than teii million,\ndollars annually is given to the specific purpose of training acceptable\nrecruits for the educational service, and a proportion that is infinitesimally\ninsignificant is devoted to purposes that might tend to make maximally\nattractive the teacher's career. Happily the situation is improving, but\nthe rate of improvement at the present time is not at all proportionate to\nthe necessity for improvement.\nIt is the purpose of the present discussion to raise the question. Would\nfederal aid to the teacher-training agencies in the several states facilitate\nthis improvement? Some light on this question may perhaps be geiined\nby comparing the state normal schools with the state colleges and universities that receive federal aid. I should not assert, of course, that the\npresent condition of the land-grant colleges and universities is due entirely\nto the fact that they have been subsidized by the national government,\nbut it may safely be assumed that this is one factor in their prosperity,\nand for reasons that I shall discuss in detail a little later.\nFirst, then, to compare the normal schools with the state colleges benefiting by the Morrill acts and other federal legislation in favor of agricultural and mechanical education. The most striking contrast between these\ntwo types of institutions is the relatively low maintenance cost of the normal\nschools. For a rough comparison, I have divided the annual maintenance\nbudgets of a number of typical schools by the figures representing the annual\nenrolment. In the case of the normal schools, I have included in the\nenrolment only those students who are reported as normal students, omitting students of secondary grade and pupils in training schools. I have\nalso reduced summer-session enrolments to terms of annual enrolment;\nthat is, if a summer session is one-sixth of the regular year, I have added\nto the yearly enrolment one-sixth of the summer registration. The figures\nrepresenting the normal-school enrolments, then, are much smaller than\nthey would be if the numbers usually given in published reports and catalog were taken as a basis, and the ratio of maintenance to enrolment is\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFEDERAL\n\nAID\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n767\n\nconsequently higher than it would be otherwise. Nevertheless, with all\nthese allowances, there are wide discrepancies between the normal schools\nand the state colleges. To give you a few illustrations: In California the\nexpenditure for each student enrolled in the land-grant university is more\nthan double the corresponding figure for the normal schools; in Montana,\nthe land-grant college spends annually more than three times as much as\nthe normal school for students enrolled; in Massachusetts, education in\nthe agricultural college is also more than three times as expensive as in the\nnormal schools; in Wisconsin, the discrepancy is not quite so wide, but the\nland-grant university still shows more than double the per capita cost of\nthe normal schools; Iowa and Minnesota reveal a much wider discrepancy,\nthe difference in each case being practically fourfold; Michigan shows a\ncloser approximation of the two types of institutions, but the balance is\nstill decidedly in favor of the agricultural college; in Oklahoma, if my\nfigures are correct, the expenditure at the agricultural college proportionately to the enrolment is more than five times that of the normal schools;\nIllinois again shows a closer approximation, but the university still has a\ncomfortable lead; Colorado presents the closest approximation that I\nhave discovered, but even here the balance is in favor of the agricultural\ncollege.\nThe question at once arises. Are these discrepancies justified? It\nwould be absurd to maintain that the land-grant colleges are too liberally\nsupported, but it is fair to ask whether the normal schools are not too\nparsimoniously supported. The justification of these wide discrepancies\nmay be sought in differences in function. The state colleges have a wider\nfield; they provide a large amount of extension service; their essential\nequipment in the way of land and laboratories also entails expenditures\nthat normal schools do not have to meet; and a portion of their teaching\nis on the senior college and graduate level, while the normal schools in the\nmain confine themselves to the junior college level — that is, to the first\ntwo years after the high school. In many cases they do a great deal of\nsecondary work. It is axiomatic that the per capita cost of instruction will\nincrease very rapidly as we pass from the lower to the higher levels.\nWhether one or two years should make differences so wide as these is\nanother question, but there is no doubt that one or two years do make\nthese differences under present conditions.\nI am convinced, however, that all of these factors combined — the wider\nfield, the broader extension service, the higher cost of equipment, and part\nof the work upon a higher level — will not justify the wide discrepancies\nbetween the public support of the land-grant colleges and the public support\nof normal schools. The normal schools have a narrower range of work,\nbut the work is of the greatest significance to the welfare and prosperity\nof the country. Anything which tends in any way to discredit normalschooljservice, of to make the normal schools anything less than maximally\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nattractive to the very best type of students, is unfortunate and shortsighted public policy. And yet what else can result when we find such\ndiscrepancies as the following: the median salary of 8i normal-school\npresidents is $3,500; the median salary of 41 presidents of land-grant\ncolleges is $5,400. Next to the presidency, the most responsible position\nin a normal school is that of director of the training department. The\nmedian salary of 72 directors of training is approximately $1,900, which is\njust about the average minimum salary of full professors in 46 land-grant\ncolleges. Thus, in terms of salary, the most important and responsible\npost in a typical normal school is reckoned as no more significant than the\nleast responsible and least important chair in the typical land-grant college.\nTaking heads of departments in normal schools (other than heads of training departments), and comparing them with full professors in land-grant\ncolleges, we find that the best paid normal-school department heads in 55\nschools have a median salary of $2,125, while the best-paid full professors\nin 46 land-grant colleges have a median salary of $3,015, or nearly 50\nper cent higher.\nEven more significant than these contrasts are the differences in the\namount of classwork allotted to teachers in the two types of institutions.\nIt is impossible to find comparable data for most of the institutions, but I\ncan contrast in this respect four normal schools, which are I am sure quite\ntypical, with the eleven state colleges also quite typical. The average\nallotment of classwork in the normal schools is 24 hours each week to each\nteacher; corresponding figures for the land-grant colleges show 11. 4 hours\na week. Teaching-programs totaling 30 hours a week are not unknown\nin some normal schools. Programs of 24 and 25 hours a week are very\ncommon. Programs involving more than 14 hours of classwork are very\nrare in the state colleges.\nOther contrasts could be drawn, but enough has been said to indicate\nthe striking difference between these two tj^jes of institutions, both of\nwhich are supported by the public. Someone may be able to justify these\ndiscrepancies. I cannot do so. Public-school service already suffers under\nsevere handicaps. If Mr. Coffman's conclusions are correct, one-half of our\nfive hundred thousand public-school teachers have had only high-school education or less. Our schools need close to one hundred thousand new teachers each year, or five times as many as all of our normal schools, public and\nprivate, state, city, and county, graduate from their professional courses.\nThere is every reason why normal-school education should be cheap to the\nstudent, but it is aa unwarrantable conclusion that it should be a cheap\nsort of education. Money invested there can be made to return to the\npublic the very largest dividends. If I were a dictator with absolute power,\nthe very first thing that I would do would be to make normal-school teaching the most attractive kind of teaching. I would have it so attractive that\nthe very best men and women would seek its service. It is needless to say\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFEDERAL\n\nAID\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n769\n\nthat many of these seek its service now and remain in this service thruout\ntheir lives, but they do it at a sacrifice, and they do it at the price of certain\nprivileges and emoluments that no one to whom this great responsibility\nis delegated ought to be asked to pay. No one who puts his life and his\nsoul into his teaching can afford to carry a program of 25 hours a week,\nor of 20 hours for that matter, when he is working with students on the level\nof development that has been reached by most normal-school students.\nThe public should not ask him to carry so heavy a teaching program. It\neffectually precludes in many cases the work that is essential to keep one's\nteaching materials fresh and stimulating. It effectually precludes anything\nin the way of individual research and investigation, and this research and\ninvestigation is nowhere more sadly needed than in the field which the\nnormal school represents and toward the development of which it should be\ncontributing more than any other type of institution.\nSalaries and emoluments may easily be overemphasized in theory; there\nis little danger of their ever being overemphasized in practice in our field.\nYou cannot underpay and overwork a group of people without disastrous\nconsequences to the regard in which those people and the work that they\nrepresent are held by the public. This, I believe, is where the influences\nof the low scale of normal-school salaries are most unfortunate from the\npoint of view of sound public policy. The individual, here as elsewhere,\nmay be negligible, but the work that this individual represents is the most\nsignificant item that affects public welfare. If you will tell me of the\nelementary schools of any nation, I can give you a pretty fair estimate of\nwhere that nation stands in the scale of progress. It is the universal elementary school that bears the closest relation to a nation's welfare and a\nnation's progress. And, by the same token, the institutions that train the\nteachers for these schools should be the most significant factors in their\nefficiency.\nWhat would be the probable result of the granting of a federal subsidy\nto the state normal schools? To answer this question, let us first ask\nanother, namely, What were the results of federal subsidy in the development of state colleges ? This question, in the absence of an extended historical investigation, can hardly be satisfactorily answered, but one may\nat least find out what have been the accompaniments of this federal subsidy, whether one assumes a causal relationship or not. I have been unable\nto find complete statistics prior to the year 1896, but taking the growth of\nland-grant colleges from that time to the present, several important facts\nare revealed. In the first place, the appropriations from the state treasuries\nto the land-grant colleges have increased eightfold in nineteen years; the\nappropriations from the state treasuries to the normal schools have increased\nduring the same period only threefold. In the second place, the enrolment in\nthe normal schools has just about doubled. In the third place, the ratio of\npublic appropriations to enrolment has increased in the state colleges from\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Normal i\n\n770\n\n64 to 146, or 128 per cent; the ratio of public appropriations to enrolmentij\nin the normal schools has increased from 56 to 89, or only about 60 per cent.\nIt would be idle to assert that the federal subsidy caused this remarkable\ngrowth of the land-grant colleges, or that lack of federal subsidy caused th«\nretarded growth of the normal schools; but it would be just as idle to assei\nthat federal subsidy has been entirely without an influence. Any type oi\neducation that is recognized by the federal government as especially worth]\nof national aid will be given a sanction that cannot be without a decide\ninfluence upon public opinion.\nEasUy the most significant legislation ever enacted in the interests oi\nhigher education was the first Morrill bill in 1862. The arguments in favoi\nof that legislation were based on the need of vocational education. But the\npassage of the bill stimulated not only vocational education, but every\nof education. I believe that a recognition by the federal government of the\nimperative and fundamental need for trained teachers would stimulate the\ngrowth and heighten the efficiency of the normal schools in a measure out\nof all proportion to whatever federal subsidy might be granted. It woulc\ngive the nation's sanction to the calling which is of first importance to the\nnation's welfare. Education is vastly more than a matter of merely Ic\nconcern. I personally have no sympathy with any plan to build up ai\nelaborately organized national system of education with a central\ndirector of authority. But we do need a national system of education an<i\nwe are gradually evolving one along what appeal to me as precisely the\nright lines. This great meeting represents the centralizing force that\nmaking our education national without involving the centralization\nauthority or the creation of an educational hierarchy on the French plar\nSome measure of uniformity there must be in our educational system if wfi\nare to be a united people; but that measure of uniformity is easily anci\nreadily and naturally provided by these meetings of professional schc\nmen. It is one of the best expressions of a real democracy.\nBut while we do not want a national system of education in the forma\nsense of the term, it still remains true that the nation as a whole must be\"\nvitally concerned with school efficiency in every section. A community\ntoday that in matters of education lives to itself alone — that is satisfied\nthat its own schools are good, and rests content when it has done well for\nits children — such a community is shortsighted in the last degree. With\nour mobile population there can be no such thing as educational localism.\nRelatively few of the pupils who are now in attendance upon our public\nschools will spend their lives in the communities that educate them. From\ntiie mere standpoint of expediency, the efficiency of the schools of every\npart of the country is significant to every community.\nNational aid to public education, then, does not mean that the federal\ntreasury is to be tapped as an act of charity to the poorer states. It is rather\nto be thought of as a justifiable policy of the nation to insure national prog-\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n771\n\nress and, in the terms of the Constitution, to promote the general welfare.\nAnd the point where national aid will do the most good in the shortest\ntime is in connection with the training of teachers. There is abundant\nprecedent in the land grants, in the distribution of the surplus in 1836, in\nthe money grants of the second Morrill bill, and in the recent legislation in favor of agricultural education. Every argument that will justify\nfederal aid for agricultural education will justify federal aid for the training\nof teachers. Industrial education of all types was neglected prior to the\ndevelopment of the land-grant colleges, and this neglect was the chief\nargument of Turner and Morrill in projecting the early legislation. If the\nfigures that I have given do not prove that the training of teachers is being\nneglected today, I cannot conceive what is demanded in the way of proof.\nThe early land-grant legislation was dominated by the laudible desire to\nstimulate a type of education that would promote material prosperity.\nIt has gone far beyond this, for it has stimulated liberal education as well,\nand in a very pronounced measure. Federal aid to normal schools will\nstimulate both types of education and both types are needed. It is well\nto stimulate material prosperity thru vocational education, but a nation\nthat assumes that this is the only kind of education that fundamentally\naffects national welfare, a nation that in its legislation implies that liberal\neducation is ornamental rather than useful, is doing itself a very grave\ninjustice.\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nCOURSES\n\nCHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nIN EDUCATION\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF CHICAGO,\n\nThe demand for normal extension work grows in part out of conditions\nfor which we have to apologize. There is no other great civilized nation\nwhich tolerates as little preparation on the part of the members of the\nteaching profession as do we in the United States. Less than 20 per cent of\nour teachers have any professional training whatsoever.\nThe individual teacher is not to be held responsible for this condition.\nSo rapid has been the growth of our schools that it has been quite impossible\nfor even the wealthier states to make provision for the training necessary\nfor the teachers who are imperatively demanded for their schools. The\nnormal schools, even in the oldest states, have never kept pace with the\ndemand. The higher institutions of learning have only recently attacked\nthe problem of training teachers, and their contribution to the needs of the\nschools is very meager. The result is that even if states should make the\nrequirement that only trained teachers be employed in public schools there\nwould not be an adequate supply of such teachers. In this respect the\ncondition of affairs in the United States compares most unfavorably with\nconditions in other great civilized countries. We are distinctly behind\nGermany, France^ and England in this matter.\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(No:\n\nSince there are many teachers who never have the opportunity to gai;\n3SS\nproper training before they begin to teach school, obviously it is the business\nof the state to make every efifort to supply them with the opportunity\nsupplement their meager training during the period of their service.\nExtension work carried on by higher institutions suggests itself as oi\nof the devices that may be employed for this purpose. A normal school\nwhich is constantly dealing with the training of teachers ought to have\ncourses which will be valuable to a neighboring school system.\nThere are other motives for extension of normal courses. Let us\nassume that a teacher has all of the training that can be given in a normal\nschool or college before she begins her work in the grades. There is still a\nvery legitimate demand that she continue her studies. It is quite impossible\nin any course of preparatory training to give a teacher the whole of the body\nof knowledge which she ought to possess. Even in purely professional\nlines it is quite impossible to give a teacher all of the preparation that she\nneeds. She will not be able to understand many of the recommendations\nthat are made to her by her teachers of methods until she has had some\nexperience in the schools themselves. The body of academic material\nwith which she has to deal is imdergoing such rapid changes that it is\ndesirable that she continue her studies under the guidance of someone who\ncan help her to develop beyond the point which was reached in her preparatory course.\nHere again local agencies are likely to be inadequate. It is very desirable that we develop in this country a system of conferences between small\ngroups of teachers and that we encourage teachers to keep up their advanced\nstudy so that they may help the other members of the teaching staff. In\nother countries provision is made for evening classes among teachers and\none of the teachers takes charge of such classes. If we can develop in this\nway teachers of teachers, if one teacher interests himself in botany or\nzoology or natural science and gives the others the benefit of his more\ncomplete researches, we shall imdoubtedly find in teachers' conferences a\nuseful instrument for the training of teachers. But we shall not be able to\nmeet our needs in this way for a long time to come. In the meantime, we\nmust depend upon specialists whose regular work is in higher institutions.\nThe extension of institutional instruction by members of the faculties of\nnormal schools, colleges, and imiversities is the most obvious method of\nsupplementing local supervision in the continued training of teachers in\nservice.\nIn addition to these two general arguments for extension work which\ngrow out of a consideration of the needs of teachers in the schools, equally\nstrong arguments can be set up from the point of view of the normal schools\nand other higher institutions. There is a grave possibility in every institution that the members of the faculty will grow farther and farther away\nfrom the social life which it is their duty to serve. There is a grave possi-\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n773\n\nbility that the members of a normal-school faculty will come to be absorbed\nin the local institution in which they are at work and will fail to understand\nfully the life of the public schools to which their students go. The changes\nthat are taking place in the organization of public schools are so rapid and\nfar-reaching in importance that no one who has studied geography or\narithmetic in an earlier generation knows the present-day problems in these\nsubjects unless he has kept himself informed of the changes that are going\nforward. Keeping one's self informed of the changes is a very difficult\nproblem if one does not come into actual contact with the schools. Sending\nstudents to the schools is not enough. Teachers of educational methods are\nin grave danger of sending out students with the notions and devices that\nwere common in their own school days.\nThis demand that normal-school faculties go out in some way into the\nschool systems can be further pressed by emphasizing the fact that it is\ncontact with the mature teachers in the schools which will be most illuminating to members of the normal-school faculty. Sometimes a normalschool faculty is encouraged or required to inspect the work of their own\nstudents. But the advantage of knowing merely one's own students\nis slight as compared with the advantage that would come from a\nthorogoing acquaintance with teachers who have had broad experience\nbased perhaps on training different from that offered by the single normal\nschool.\nThis demand is also the more urgent in view of the fact that normal\nschools have been in the past and are at the present time somewhat outside\nof the ordinary currents of higher education. The isolation of the normal\nschool from colleges and universities has often been commented upon. It is\na great misfortune both for the colleges and for the universities on the one\nhand and for the normal schools on the other that the same currents of\nstudent life and of faculty employment do not flow directly thru these\ntwo groups. The normal-school faculty is likely to be prejudiced against\nthe work of the colleges, and the colleges set up arbitrary discriminations in\ndealing with students from normal schools, because there is so little commerce between these two institutions.\nThe normal school can correct this difficulty in very large measure by\ndeveloping certain types of research appropriate to its own field. There are\nadvanced problems which ought to be solved in the interests of the schools.\nThe normal schools ought to attack these. Mature teachers ought to be\nbrought back to the normal school not merely for the purpose of indicating\nto the faculty what is going on in their grades; they ought to come back and\nparticipate in all sorts of educational work of an advanced type. Normal\nschools ought to turn themselves into laboratories for the collection of\nprofessional material. They ought to be the centers for research with\nregard to the students in public schools and with regard to school methods\nthat are useful and successful.\n\nTeachers' meetings ought to have their\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal^\n\ncenters in these normal schools and ought to find there not merely inspirational discussions of educational problems, but genuine information an\nopportunity to compare school experiences.\nA normal school that will seize its opportunities as a center for th<\nteaching profession will very shortly discover that it has developed a t;\nof advanced intellectual work which is comparable to the type of wor]\ncarried on in universities. Furthermore, it will very shortly attract t\nits faculty those who see the possibilities of research in these lines and a:\ninterested in promoting their own intellectual development and impro\nthe schools.\nOne of the ways in which this movement can be opened up is\nextension work of a high type. For the time being, while the teachers an\nacquiring the habit of coming to the normal schools for their meetings, thi\nnormal school must go to the teachers and must there organize these foro\nof advanced research and discussion of educational problems. The urgen\nof this work for the advantage of the normal school itself cannot be overestimated.\nThese arguments in favor of extension work, both for the advantage ol\nthe\nthe teachers and for the advantage of the normal school, are, of course, met\non the other side by grave difficulties which must not be overlooked in the\norganization of the work.\nExtension work has always been looked down upon as relatively W(\nand inefficient in its academic character. The grave temptation of\nextension teacher who sees his class once every week or once every two\nweeks is to give them some easy material which they can readily assimilate.\nThe temptation is to lecture to the class and to demand a minimum of\nintellectual effort on their parts. This temptation is the stronger because\nextension work is expensive for everybody who is concerned. It is so\ndesirable to keep up the numbers of the class that one must not alienate\nanyone who has the necessary price of a ticket by asking him to furnish\nat the same time intellectual energy which is likely to make more of a draft\nupon him than the money which he pays for admission. The lectures\nbecome, therefore, weaker and weaker in their demands upon the members\nof the class, and only the instructor who is able to entertain and amuse is\nlikely to get a full class.\nFurthermore, extension work is likely to suffer because it is a purely\nincidental matter with the audience. Whatever may be said in the way of\nadverse criticism of the student body of an educational institution, it is\ntrue in general that the chief occupation of these students is to prepare\ntheir work. They may do it badly, but there is an atmosphere of devotion\nto studies which one does not find in an extension class. For the members\nof the extension class attendance upon the lectures breaks in upon the\nordinary routine of life. The main business of the members of this class is\nto go somewhere else besides to the extension lecture. The minds of some\n\nI\n\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n775\n\nof the members of the audience are full of engagements and distractions, with\nthe result that the actual work in hand gets very little concentration. As\nsoon as the lecture exercise is over, the distractions become so imperative\nthat further concentration of attention upon the same subject is very\nunlikely, if not indeed quite impossible.\nAny readings which are supposed to be required are slighted and again\nthe motive of the instructor and of the audience is the same, namely, the\nmotive of getting as much return for as little expenditure on the part of\nthe audience as possible.\nThe situation is made still worse when the members of the extension\nclass are required by some external force to attend the class. Some teacher\nwho is not at all interested in pursuing higher studies is compelled by the\nrequirements of her superintendent or of a state law to get professional\ntraining. This teacher does not really expect to get very much that will\nimprove his or her individual work, but is trying to fulfil a legal requirement.\nThe teacher regards the whole requirement as irrational and as a menace to\nhis personal comfort. He does not intend to comply with anything more\nthan the exact letter of the requirement. He comes to the class, therefore, in an attitude of rebelliousness against the whole scheme and in an\nattitude of complete absorption in other matters, with the result that he\nnot only does not naturally devote himself to the subject, but has a positive distaste for it.\nSometimes the instructor is in much the same state of mind as his audience. The normal school has made up its mind to come in contact with its\nneighbors and so it goes to its various officers and persuades them that it is\nnecessary for the life of the normal school that each member of the faculty\ngo to some neighboring center. Some of the members of the faculty, feeling\nthat they do not have very much ability as public lecturers and knowing\nthat they cannot amuse their audiences at all, do not wish to accept the\ncommission, but they are told that it is a part of the regular work of the\nschool and that they must go. Consequently they have to undergo all of\nthe inconveniences of traveling back and forth, and these are by no means\nslight. They feel the burden of this additional work quite as much as do\nthe extension students who have been driven into the classes by the purely\nartificial requirements which are mentioned above.\nThe coming together of instructor and extension student under these\nconditions not only is unproductive for intellectual life, but is likely to\nmark a period of actual intellectual deterioration. Neither the members of\nthe faculty nor the students in the class get out of such an exercise intellectual profit commensurate with the social effort which has been expended\nin the organization of the work.\nWhile there seems to be a certain economy in the organization of extension work, it is as.a matter of fact a very expensive type of work. To send\nexperts with any high degree of training to remote and scattered centers for\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Norma\n776\nthe sake of gathering up the intellectual life which has been allowed tc\nlapse or which has never been cultivated to its appropriate point of pro-|\nfessional ability is an expensive undertaking.\nEvery extension scheme\nwhich has been tried has proved to be very expensive.\nEither expens\nbecomes a burden or instruction deteriorates in quality.\nIn a nimiber of centers in the United States, extension work was takei\nup with great enthusiasm in the early days when it was first established\nour higher institutions of training. In general it has deteriorated. The\ndemand for extension lecturers has been confined in very large measure tc\nthose subjects where very little effort would be required on the part of the\naudience. It has been very difficult to keep in the extension faculty mei\nand women of capacity. They prefer the stable positions of the ordinar\ntype where they can remain at home and do their work with classes whic\ncome to them rather than with classes to which they have to go. There\nhas proved to be, therefore, grave difficulty in the way of the development\nof extension work, and normal schools will doubtless find like difficulties ii\nthe future.\nThere is one analogy which encourages me to believe that the norma\nschool may find extension work more productive than have the universities*!\nThat is the analogy of agricultural extension courses.\nFarms cannot be\nbrought to the universities; hence the teacher of agriculture has found it\nprofitable in the interests of developing the farms to go to them.\nIn the\nsame sense, schools and school systems cannot be brought into the normal]\nschools. The schools are inviting laboratories to which the student of\neducation must go. This laboratory idea seems to invite consideration.\nThe public school should be more thoroly understood than it is at the^\npresent time. Its problems should be solved thru the active co-operation\nof as many experts as can be brought to the problem of studying the needs\nand successes of the various grades and subjects. Let us abandon altogether the idea that extension work can be made economical. Let us make\nan effort to develop at local centers as strong supervisory corps as possible\nwith the definite understanding that part of the duties of the school administrator isto be research into educational problems and the more complete\ntraining of teachers. Let us send then to the aid of this local supervisor\nas often as possible an expert who will give him the benefit of special training\nand will give the teachers new insights into educational problems. Let us\ndemand as a part of the educational movement that teachers participate\nas a part of their professional duty in the investigations of local problems.\nThere ought never to be an extension course which is merely a lecture\ncourse. There ought never to be an extension course which is merely a\nreading course. Every one of these courses ought to require reports from\nthe teachers so that there shall be an accumulation of intellectual material\nproduced in the schools themselves as the result of careful investigation of\nactual school conditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nIN ILLINOIS\n\n777\n\nTeachers of one school system who have been thus stimulated to mvestigate their problems ought to be brought into contact with others who have\ninvestigated like problems in other centers. Local extension centers ought\nto associate with other centers so that the comparison of experiences may\ngo forward on a larger scale. There will be no successful extension movement in normal schools if it issues merely in the holding of short lecture\ncourses at local centers by visiting instructors who work without the\ndemand that a return be made from the local center itself. Normal schools\nmay meet a pressing temporary need by sending out special officers to carry\non such classes, but there can be no permanency in such an undertaking.\nIf the extension movement is to be more than a short-lived device, it must\ndevelop a genuine relationship between the normal school and the school\nsystems that are included in the scheme.\nWe come, therefore, from this discussion of difficulties to the same conclusion that we reached in our original statement of the advantages of the\nextension system. Normal-school extension will be successful only if it\ndevelops a group of institutions where mature teachers are led to center their\nwork for purposes of careful investigation of their problems. The spirit\nof research must pervade the whole scheme or it will fail to be efficient in\nstimulating genuine intellectual life in the students who are drawn into the\nextension classes. There must be liberal support and broad-minded organization or the movement will collapse imder the weight of its inherent\ndifficulties.\nTOPIC:\nm\\\nA.\n\nHISTORY\nWALTER\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL EXTENSION\nFIVE STATES\nOF THE EXTENSION\n\nP. MORGAN,\n\nCOURSES\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nPRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL\n\nIN\n\nIN ILLINOIS\n\nSCHOOL, MACOMB,\n\nILL.\n\nThe extension movement referred to in the above heading has to do\nwith that effort which the normal schools of the state of Illinois have put\nIforth in trying to 'carry on the regular work which they offer in residence\n(to the teachers who are actively engaged in teaching their schools during\n^the winter. The basis for such an undertaking is that many of these\n[teachers are not financially able to give up their teaching work during an\nentire year and pay their expenses which come from attendance in residence\nat a normal school. The result of such a condition is that many of the\nteachers who have initial ability and a love for the work continue teaching\nwithout normal training and thus do acceptable but not superior work.\nThis is not a matter that has been discovered by normal schools alone, but\ncounty and town superintendents are equally aware of the fact, and are\nlikewise equally insistent that something shall be done to overcome the difficulty. So far as I know the first normal school in the state of Illinois to\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nundertake to assist in this matter was the state normal school located at\nMacomb. It was in the winter of 191 1 and 191 2, following a consideration\nof the matter during the previous school year by the president of the state\nnormal school at Macomb, the director of the department of education\nin the same school, the superintendent of schools at Quincy, 111., and the\nboard of education of that city, that the first practical test of the matter\nbegan.\nAlfred Bayliss, who was president of this state normal school from 1906\nto 1 91 1, and who was formerly state superintendent of public instruction\nof the state of Illinois for a period of eight years, was very familiar with the\nneeds of the public-school teachers. J. E. McGilvrey, who was director\nof the department of education, had had a very wide experience in training\nteachers and in dealing with public-school problems. E. G. Bauman, who\nwas and still is superintendent of schools in Quincy, is a man who has had\nnormal-school training and public-school experience both as a teacher and\nas a superintendent. He was fortunate enough to be fully backed by his\nboard of education in the city of Qmncy in securing for his teachers what\nthey needed.\nThus, thru the operation of the normal school and the city-school system\nof Quincy, arrangements were made whereby a regular teacher in the normal\nschool should go to Quincy once each week and there teach classes in regular\nnormal-school subjects just as they are taught in the school itseK. Classes\nwere organized in psychology and principles of teaching. There were about\nseventy teachers who enrolled for one or both of these courses. They\ncarried the work thruout the year, and by this means some had thirty or\nmore recitations in each subject. The work, as it was carried on, proved\nvery satisfactory both to the school oflBicials and to the teachers, and the\nreports made such an impression on the president of the school and the|\nboard of trustees that they decided to place a regular man in the extension\nfield so that he could devote his entire time to the work. The plan of\nprocedure was to reorganize on the following basis: The extension director,\nas he was to be known, was expected to organize ten extension centers in\nvarious parts of the district from which this state normal school draws its\nattendance. At each of these centers, two, or at most three, courses were\nto be offered. These were to be selected from the following four courses:\npsychology, principles of teaching, history of education, and sociology.\nEach of these courses was carefully outlined, and the outline was printed\nin pamphlet form, so each teacher had a definite statement of just what she\nwas to do at the beginning of the work. A regular textbook was selected\nas a basis for these outlines and for the recitations. A supplementary bool:\nwas likewise selected for each course. These books were chosen becausc\nthey presented correlated material to that in the regular text. Under thie\nplan it was realized that not more than twenty recitations could be givei\"\nin each course, and that, therefore, a good deal of correlative work wouli.\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nIN ILUNOIS\n\n779\n\nhave to be prepared by those taking the courses. This supplementary\ntext was used for a basis for the preparation of papers which were to be\nhanded in at each meeting by the members of the class. These papers were\nrequired to cover the topic and to range from six to ten pages. Thus at the\nend of the course each one who took it would have about twenty recitations\non the material in the regular text and almost as many papers in the collateral work besides much outside reference work which was suggested in\nthe general outline of the course. This plan enabled the extension director\nto make the rounds of these ten centers once in two weeks. The time\nrequired to complete a course, therefore, was from thirty-five to forty\nweeks, or about the length of an ordinary school term. The credit given\nfor such a course was to be a regular normal-school credit, or one of the\ntwenty-four required in an ordinary two-year course.\nDuring the first year, 384 enrolled for the work. They enrolled as\nfollows: psychology, 220; principles of teaching, 197; history of education,\n52; sociology, 29; geography, 58.\nDuring the next year the same plan was followed, and 488 were enrolled\nfor the various courses. The demands have grown for such work and\nduring the present year it has been necessary that four members of the\nfaculty assist the extension director in the work. Thus during the present\nyear something over 500 have enrolled for the work which has been offered,\nand the success of the undertaking is no longer a question. The problem\nwhich is involved now is that of making further arrangements adequately\nto meet the demands which are coming from the entire district, and the\nintention is, if the finances will permit, to put at least two regular extension\nmen in the field next year.\nWhen the extension work was first proposed, there was some objection\nto it because it was supposed that it would be carried on in some such\nI manner as university extension work was carried on at first; that is, that\na line of reading would be planned; four or five or six lectures given, and\nI an examination set, the satisfactorily passing of which would entitle one\nIto a normal-school credit. This was never intended as the plan and it has\nI never been operated in such a way. The plan is this: the extension director\n^assumes the position of a regular normal-school teacher, but transfers the\nplace of work from the institution itseK to some town suitable for an extension center. He does not give lecture work, but pursues the ordinary\nrecitation plan in which he asks questions and leads in the discussion.\n[These recitations are accompanied by collateral readings which are assumed\n|as a basis for the preparation of papers on the topics set forth in the reading.\n[A careful grading of the same, a set examination at the end, and the class\nBcitation determine the fitness of the one who carries the course.\nThe claim is made that .the additional work which each one who takes\n3ne course must do by reading the collateral assignments and preparing the\npapers on the same, together with the opportunity which is afforded for\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "bmuil\n\n780\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[N.\n\na teacher actually engaged in teaching to apply such subjects as pedagogy,\nprinciples of teaching, history of education, etc., makes as valuable work,\naltho with fewer recitations, as does a regular course pursued in residence\nat the institution. Some of the other normal schools of the state have been\ninterested in the experiment this last year. The state normal school\nsituated at Bloomington tried the experiment. Last year it organized\na center at Joliet, which is a city of 35,000 and about 150 teachers. It was\nconducted by the director of education. If I am correctly informed, they\ncarried on the work in school administration until the middle of the year,\nat which time the county superintendent of the county in which Joliet is\nsituated requested all of the teachers of that county to make preparation\nto take the teachers' examination before the new certificating law, which\ntook effect in Illinois in July, should be inaugurated. Many of the teachers\nwho were carrying the extension course yielded to the request of the county\nsuperintendent and began preparation of the subjects in which they were\nto be examined. On that account, it seemed best to abandon the extension\nclass. Even with that interruption, it was evident to the authorities that\nthe work had merit and this year it was undertaken again. A director of\nextension was selected, and centers have been organized at four points,\nJoUet, Dwight, Pontiac, and Clinton. The subject taken at each of these\ncenters is principles and methods of teaching. The classes remain in\nsession one hundred minutes each evening and the time is divided between\nthe discussion of the previous assignment and a lecture by the director.\nOccasionally written papers are required. Each person is required to\nspend not less than four hours per week on the one study. Each class is to\nmeet thirty times during the winter, and one term credit will be given for\nthe work accomplished. It will be noted that the actual contact of the\nteacher with the class is just as great as if the student were taking the same\ncourse in the institution. A total enrolment in each of these four classes\nis 108 students.\nThere are several advantages which the extension work is manifesting.\nFirst, it is giving professional training to teachers actually engaged in\nservice who are not able to give up their salaries and do residence work\nin a normal school. Secondly, it is giving a large nmnber of practical\nteachers an appreciation of the value of professional training and a desire\nto complete a normal-school course. Thirdly, a large number of those who\ndo extension work during their school terms attend the normal schools\nand work further toward a normal-school diploma during the midspring\nand simimer terms. Fourthly, school officials all over the normal-school\ndistricts are asking that we provide professional training for their teachers.\nThey are appreciating the value of the work ofifered, and are urging their\nteachers to take it and follow it up by the completion of a normal-school\ncourse. Fifthly, the value of such an undertaking is quite evident in the\nimprovement it is working in the public schools themselves.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nB.\nHOMER\n\nEXTENSION\n\nEXTENSION\nH. SEERLEY,\n\nSERVICE\n\nSERVICE\n\nFOR\n\nIOWA\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR IOWA\n\n781\n\nTEACHERS\n\nPRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe Iowa State Teachers College mamtains the following varieties\nof extension service: (i) the study-center system; (2) the teachers' institute system; (3) the demonstration rural-school system.\n1. The study-center system. — ^This endeavor consists of organizing classes\nof teachers in the several counties of the state and furnishing teachers to\nmeet them Saturdays for instruction and conference. This plan now has\ndeveloped into 54 such organized centers, enrolling 3,146 teacher-students\n(January 30, 191 5). It will probably reach 4,000 teacher-students before\nthe close of this college year. The management of the teacher studycenter system is in the hands of a director who gives his personal attention\nto the courses to be given, the instructors to be sent, and the plans to be\npubhshed. Under the supervision of the president of the college, he is\nauthorized to make such arrangements and devise such methods as his\njudgment and experience approve. His administration is final and does\nnot need the approval of the members of the faculty, as a whole, or even\nof heads of departments, reports being made directly to the president and\nthru the president to the board of education. He is assisted by a supervisor who does much traveling to complete arrangements and assist in\ngiving instruction to the teacher-students that enrol in these study centers.\nThe course of study used as a basis for the first year's work has been published bythe department of public instruction for the elementary schools of\nthe state, each instructor preparing mimeographed outlines and suggestions\nfor the study and preparation of the work assigned these teacher-students.\nBy so doing, the work has been made of immediate practical benefit to the\nteachers at work in the schools and has gained their hearty support as well\nas the co-operation of the county superintendents. The members of the\nfaculty assigned to do the work of the study centers make special preparation\nfor their lessons and give three class hours each Saturday to the lessons\nassigned. As many instructors are sent to each center as the number\nenrolled may require. These instructors are paid pro-rata salaries for the\nservices they render, in addition to the expenses of travel and entertainment. With the expansion of this work it will be necessary to employ as\nmembers of the study-center facility suitable teachers who are not in the\ncollege and give them such direction and suprvision as the work to be done\nwill require, holding such training schools of preparation and supervision\nas circumstances show to be necessary.\n2. The teachers^ institute system. — The next endeavor consists of giving\nassistance as to instructors and lecturers during the two days' institutes\nheld in each county during term time, at which teachers' institutes all the\nteachers in the counties are required to attend. The college has been taking\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\n782\n\nentire charge of a number of these county institutes, giving them a speciallj\nplanned organization, furnishing all the instruction and lectures require\nand making the expense to the counties much less than the common pi\nof management that has previously existed. For this work as well as fc\nother appointments in these county institutes the college receives remune^\nation from the coimty institute fund, and since the time given comes oi\nof the regularly contracted time of the teachers of the college the mone\nreceived properly belongs to that institution. This work gives publicit\nto the college service in the training of teachers and acquaints the membei\nof the faculty assigned with the situation that exists and has the effect\nadvertising the work that is obtainable in the regular sessions of the colle\n3. The demonstration rural-school system. — The last activity that\nbeing employed is that of accepting the privilege of consolidating\nco-operation twelve rural-school independent districts and developi\nthem into effective working condition as to the school work of the childrei\nas to the industrial everyday work during the whole year of the childre\nand as to the social and educational improvement of these rural commi\nnities. This work is managed by rural-school supervision of the facult\nand not by the general faculty. It is conducted as a special service of\ncollege and is planned to demonstrate the great value of consolidation\nco-operation as a plan of rural-school management.\nIt is evident\nphysical consoHdation by destruction of original imits that exist is but a\npartial solution of the rural-school problems and that many local rural\ncommimities would be as well served by co-operative consoUdation that\nunites them with the towns or villages where they do their business and\ndoes not destroy the entire control of their schools. It is possible for a\nsystem to be organized and conducted where the superintendent of the town\nor village would be able to supervise and direct a number of nu^l schools\nin the near-by rural-school districts with benefit to both the town schools\nand the rural schools. The experience had with this new system is very\nencouraging, having pleased all concerned and at the same time given\nschools of a quality and of an efficiency that are unusual in every way.\n\n1\nC.\nCLEMENT\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nL. MARTZOLFF, DIRECTOR\nOF EXTENSION\nUNIVERSITY,\nATHENS,\nOHIO\n\nIN OHIO\nSERVICE,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe nonnal extension idea in Ohio has come from the teachers thonselves. It was in response to a feeling on their part for better professional\ntraining. The steady and substantial growth of the two state normal\nschools and the establishment of two others besides the numerous summer\nschools created a spirit thruout the state in the profession and laity for a\nhigher teaching standard. But there were thousands of teachers who were\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nIN OHIO\n\n783\n\npractically shut out from this training. This class embraced those who\nfound it necessary for financial reasons to get into the profession as soon\nas possible. There was also a much greater mmiber who had had some\nyears of experience, who had resting upon them the care of families and could\nnot stop even for a season to go to a summer school. There was also a\nconsiderable number who had been compelled to abandon college work and\nget to earning wages.\nIt was at this time that your speaker conceived the notion of applying\nthe extension idea to normal training. The same texts could be used, the\nsame readings assigned, the same written work required, the same examinations demanded. It would be easier and cheaper for the teacher to go to\ntwenty students than for the students to go to the teacher. No state\neducational institution, supported by state tax, exists only for the few who\nby favorable conditions can avail themselves of its opportunities. Since\nschools are public institutions, recognized by the state as forming the very\nwarp and woof of the state's perpetuity, then it becomes the sacred duty\nof the state to put into these schools the very best teachers.\nIn the autimin of 1910, we organized the first normal extension class.\nThe results to instructor and class exceeded expectations. The teacher\nfound that the character of work done compared most favorably with the\ncollege classroom.\nThe second influence to demand this method of professional training\nhas come as a result of legislative action. The growth of the curriculum has\nhad to be met by the teachers. Subject after subject has been added.\nAnd beginning with the first of the year the standard has been raised higher\nthan ever. The result is that hundreds of Ohio teachers are disqualified\nand some very proficient instructors are being forced to the wall.\nIt is manifestly unfair for the state to make demands of its teachers\nwithout giving them an opportunity to make good. There are not enough\nnormal schools in Ohio to give to its teachers the training demanded of them\nby 1920 without putting out of business many who are experienced and\nsuccessful. Normal training by the extension plan is not intended to take\nthe place of work done in residence in college halls. It is not provided\nthat the teachers may have a choice of the one or the other plan, but it\npermits teachers to get some training.\nThe standardization of schools and the certification of teachers has made\nit imperative on the state to furnish numerous opportunities to the teaching\nbody. It was with this view that the institution with which the speaker is\nconnected asked last year for a special appropriation to carry on this\nparticular phase of normal training. The request was granted, and during\nthe present college year the work has been carried on more successfully\nand more extensively than ever before. I am speaking not only for my\nown institution but for the other state-supported colleges and normal\nschools as well. At Ohio 77 appUcations were filed for extension centers\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Noi\n\nand 49 of them were granted with an enrobnent of 1,040. The work is don^\nby the director of extension, three assistants, who give their entire time,\nand members of the faculty to take care of classes near the college.\nThe work at Kent began in 191 2, and at Miami in 1913. Kent had\n35 and Miami had 26 centers. The work in all three institutions is under\nthe supervision of a director. The studies offered are professional and\nacademic with a preponderance in favor of the first. The length of the\ntime in the course varies somewhat in the different institutions. At Miami,\nthere are ten recitations of two to three hours each; at Ohio, fifteen of two\nhours each; at Kent, fifteen of two hours each. Supplemental libraries\nare furnished in all cases. There seems to be an undue concern about\ncredits. At Ohio, we give two semester hours, but the fact is that but few\nof these students will ever go to a normal school to complete a course.\nThe question of uniform preparation of students has been raised, and\nindeed it has some merit. But if the same requirements for entrance into\nthe extension classes are demanded as in residence, the number of classes\nwould be greatly decreased, especially in rural sections. Perhaps the mission of the extension work would thereby be defeated.\nThe enthusiasm with which the extension plan has been received by\nthe teachers of Ohio is evidenced in the number of centers organized and\nenrolled. The school men of the state wherever the extension work has\none are practically unanimous in its approval. There have come to our\ndesk within the last month such statements as these:\n\"I just live on what I get at one lesson until time for another.\"\n\"Considerable objections to the requirements of professional training in the new law\nave been removed by bringing the college to the teachers.\"\n\"The result is better teaching, nxmierous instances of which are noted.\"\n\"The many suggestions in the solution of the rural problems were immediately put\ninto practice.\"\n\"Our extension work has been altogether worth while.\"\n\"I find my respect for the extension work growing day by day.\"\n\"The extension class has been a great benefit to me and my teachers.\"\n\nExtension work seems to the teachers of southern Ohio what castoria\nis to a child — they cry for it. One young man has driven fourteen miles\nfrom his school every Friday evening to get a course in agriculture. Another\nman and his daughter drive six miles over the mud road of Gallia County.\nThe members of one class in order to get a recitation in history agreed to\nmeet at seven o'clock in the morning. Several of them walk more than a\nmile, and one, two miles, to reach the place of meeting at that early hour.\nOne teacher walked three miles from his school to a station and then went\nby train fifteen miles and then stayed overnight.\nCertainly the plan has had its \"knockers.\" The criticism is made that\nit is inefl&cient and that it cannot take the place of regular work in normal\nschools. We do not argue that it does but before closing I wish to say that\nthe system has some advantages over the other. The majority of extension\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n785\n\nstudents are experienced teachers. They have some notions about the\ntheories that are advanced. They subject them to a keen analysis in the\nlight of their experiences. Your untried teacher accepts them without\nquestion and has to verify them in the practice school. But the presence\nof your experienced teacher in the class introduces into the discussions\nquestions, problems, and conditions never dreamed of in regular normal\nclasses. Again your extension student can apply the principles learned\nin her school the next day and put them to the test. There is seldom a\nrecitation but that some teacher brings from her school a practical problem\nto be considered.\nI am convinced that normal training extension work has a place in our\neducational system. It is subject to abuses, of course. What has ever\nexisted that is not ? But if the idea that it is an easy way to get credits is\nkept away, it possesses features which will be of incalculable value to the\nteaching profession and to the schools.\n\nSECRETARY'S\nOAKLAND\n\nMINUTES\n\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Dwight B. Waldo, president, State Normal School\nVice-President — ^Thomas W. Butcher, president. State Normal School\nSecretary — ^Waite A. Shoemaker, president, State Normal School\n\nKalamazoo, Mich.\nEmporia, Kans.\nSt. Cloud, Minn.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 24, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 9:00 a.m., with President\nWaldo in the chair.\nG. S. Lasher, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans., was appointed secretary pro\ntempore.\nThe following program was given, under the topic \"Preparation of Teachers for the\nElementary Schools\":\no) \"The Relation of the High School to the Normal School\" — ^Allison Ware, president, State Normal School, Chico, Cal.\nb) \"What to Stress and What to Slur in the Preparation of Elementary Teachers\" —\nA. J. Matthews, president, State Normal School, Tempe, Ariz.\nc) \"They Who Sit at Our Feet\"— M. Madilene Veverka, State Normal School,\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, president. State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal., read a\nletter from C. H. Judd, director. School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago,\n111., advocating the standardization of normal schools. On account of the present chaotic\nconditions, it was stated, universities refuse to recognize credits from normal schools at\nfull value altho they accept credits from coUeges that are much inferior in equipment,\ntraining, and standard of scholarship. A motion was made and carried that the outgoing president and the incoming president appoint a committee of the niunber they\nthink advisable to investigate the desirability and possibility of a standardization of\nthe normal schools and the fixing of a just minimum standard of entrance requirements\nfor high-school graduates.\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\n^ |\n\nFor President — Livingston C. Lord, president, State Normal School, Charleston, 111.\nFor Vice-President — George H. Black, president, State Normal School, Lewiston,\nIdaho.\nFor Secretary — ^Dimon H. Roberts, superintendent of Training Dep>artment, State\nNormal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, August 24, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m.\nThe following program was given:\n\"A Decade of Progress in the Training of Rural Teachers\" — Ernest Bumham,\ntor, Rural-School Department, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.\n\"Library Training in the Normal Schools\" — Carroll G. Pearse, president,\nNormal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\"The State Normal Schools and the Training of High-School Teachers\" — Homer\nH. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Evening, August 24, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 8:00 p.m., and the following papers read:\n\"The Peciiliar Problem of the City Normal School\" — William B. Owen, principal,\nChicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\n\"The Possibilities of Research in the City Normal School\" — William M. Gregory,\nhead of the department of geography, Cleveland Normal School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nG. S. Lashes, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\nTOPIC: PREPARATION\nA.\n\nTHE RELATION\nALLISON\n\nWARE,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF TEACHERS\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR THE ELEMENTARY\n\nOF THE HIGH SCHOOL\nSCHOOL\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nTO THE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL, CHICO, CAL.\n\nIn considering the relations of the high school to the normal school,\nI shall have in mind the t)^e of normal school that sets the following\nstandards: (i) its admission basis is high-school graduation; (2) it main- '\ntains a minimum course of two years for elementary teachers; (3) this\ncourse trains for service in all grades and subjects; (4) it seeks recognition\nas a strictly professional school designed solely for the efficient training of\nteachers.\nTwo fields of normal-school work are distinctive, and the normal schools\ncannot shift responsibility for them upon any other institution. These\nare the development of professional skill and the establishment of professional ideals. But in the field of academic knowledge of subject-matter,\nparticularly in so far as that subject-matter consists of elementary grammar,\narithmetic, history, spelling, writing, and the rest, there are certain demands\nthat the normal school may justly make upon other institutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n787\n\nOne hope, then, that we have for a better normal-school product is\nthat ultimately we may get as candidates for training those whose academic\npreparation is already strong enough to sustain the weight of professional\ntraining. In plain terms, one of the most pressing problems of normalschool efficiency is this: What may be done to improve for our purpose\nthe students that we receive from the high school ?\nIn California, 16 per cent of the high-school graduates enter normal\nschool and 29 per cent the university. The latest figures from the commissioner ofeducation show a similar ratio thruout the land. Upon this\nbasis, the normal school should have at least half as much to say as the\nuniversity. Consider the matter from another angle. Approximately\nonly 5 per cent of all students who enrol in high schools later go to college\nor the university (in California 10 per cent), and yet the course of study\nof all has been made in the alleged interest of this small fraction. That\nis to say, the university requirements, founded upon an organized compulsion so strong that it has not been necessary for it to give reasons,\nhas set the training not only of the 5 per cent but of the 95 per cent\nas well.\nA different situation confronts us. If the preparation we ask were a\npeculiar thing to be used only in normal schools, it would be iniquity for\nus to demand it at the expense of life-preparation. But as it includes the\nstaple world-used and world-demanded things, vital in any walk of life,\nour failure to demand it must be not only our loss but the world's loss as\nwell. Every day that we neglect to urge our claim upon the high school\nfor a sound elementary education we are recreant, not merely to our own\nneeds, but to the educational needs of all the people.\nI would not be thought in this connection to be in an attitude unfriendly\ntoward or harshly critical of the American high school, but, without discussion or comment, I simply state here as a fact demonstrated by every\nsurvey and test that has been made that the average high-school graduate\nis not prepared to pass fair tests demanding a standard of world-efficiency\nin the common-school essentials. Your schools and mine have proved it\nagain and again. In fact, the actual entrance conditions enforced by\nnormal schools generally recognize the present impossibility of demanding\nhigh standards in the subjects that most count. In the Wisconsin survey,\n125 out of 192 normal-school instructors reported their students as very\nweak in the fundamentals of the common schools. In answer to strictly\nelementary questions set by the survey commission the average grade of\nhigh-school graduates was:\nArithmetic — 65 per cent\nHistory — 60 per cent\nGrammar — 67 per cent\nGeography — 56 per cent\nGeneral Information — 57 per cent\n\nI believe these results are at least as good as and probably better than the\nnational average.\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Non\n\nBefore I outline in brief the details of the plan that I propose as a coi\nstnictive remedy for this situation, let me call your attention to the scheme*\nnow in general use in normal schools as a makeshift for the improvement o^\nthe elementary education of our students.\nRoundly speaking, one-fourth to one-half of our time is spent in elc\nmentary patchwork and repair. I know of only one normal school tha\ndoes not set aside at least one-fourth of its course for elementary revie\\\nIn that school an elaborate series of tests is given to entering students and\nthose who are deficient in any respect are remanded without credit\ncourses of study and reading and are thereafter retested. Substantially,\nthis school has increased the burden of normal-school work one-third,\nbut it has maintained at the same time a two-year course. Much of this\nacademic review is inevitable, and much is strictly professional in its character. Such parts we should not seek to fasten upon high schools. We\nshould not seek to shift upon any other institution the necessary study of\nemphasis and arrangement of subject-matter and its division into lesson\nunits, for these are professional problems, the problems of teachers.\nThe courses that I now refer to, however, we should resent as an intrusion into normal-school work. Their presence there is a reflection upon\nevery part of the public-school system, for they deal with elementary\nknowledge of common-school subjects.\nConsider the subject of English. What we need in our students and\nwhat the world's culture demands of all is, first, an intelligent and interested appreciation of the durable things that have been written in prose\nand verse. A true appreciation of the virile literature of life is what we\nwant, and to get it the content must be built up of those things that still\nserve to shape the ideals and move the hearts of men.\nSuch results in literature as we desire cannot be secured by the method\nof formal analysis such as has been introduced in high-school classes in\nimitation of the method of advanced research scholars in English. Methods\nof post-graduate research in a university that may have high potential\nvalue there, become mere pedantry in the high school, a reproach to those\nwho use them, and an injustice to every student upon whom they are\nvisited. I would see the normal schools urge a four-year course in literature:\nliberal, modern, world-serving, founded upon appreciation, and resulting\nin sound reading tastes and habits. But this is not enough. The English\nclass should be charged justly and inflexibly with handing on imimpaired\nthe elements of all allied English branches.\nThe world still demands that people of good intelligence should be able\nto spell commonly written words. It still demands that everyone shall\nwrite a legible hand. It still requires, at least among those who claim a\nfair standard of culture, the use of correct oral English. It still prizes the\nability to write sentences in the English language with the proper attention\nto persons, number, case, subject, predicate, capital letters, and periods.\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n789\n\nIn addition to these, the schools demand an elementary understanding of\nthat system of rules, classifications, and language relationships known and\ncommonly studied under the name of grammar.\nThe business world will join with us in the demand for accuracy in the\nsimpler operations of arithmetic.\nIn history, we need in our students what the world requires of every\nintelligent man, namely, a knowledge of the main lines of the story of\nhuman progress, with an understanding of the principal forces that have\nbeen involved, and with an appreciation of the great names and episodes\nwith which it has been marked. Particularly do they need to know the\nmain lines of our nation's growth; and most of all they need a knowledge\nof the world as it is today: its institutions, its enterprises, its social, economic, and political problems. They need, too, a dynamic national civics,\na civics that has to do with active citizenship, not unacquainted with the\nrealities that are about us.\nIn science, we would ask for an understanding of the great principles\nthat rule the natural universe, such as evolution, conservation of energy,\ngravitation, indestructibility of matter, geologic change, and all the mighty\nways in which the cosmic energy ebbs and flows thru its varied manifestations. Inone field of science peculiarly does the teacher need the training\nthat no one can safely be without. I refer to that department that has\nto do with hygiene and health and the physical care of the body. We\nhave good high schools in this state, according to the standards of university preparation, but there is not one of them that I know of in which\nit is necessary for a graduate to know anything about the care of his own\nbody and the defense of his neighborhood against disease.\nSome definite preparation, also, is needed for life no less than for work\nin the classroom concerning the ways of other lands and other people.\nWhether it be called descriptive geography, current events, or modern\nhistory, the horizon of common culture has been pushed back to include\nthe whole world and we can count no one well informed who is ignorant\nof the circumstances xmder which other races live, the problems which\naffect them, and their relations to us.\nAs long as drawing is a required subject in the elementary schools,\nteachers must know how to draw. I can see no reason why we should not\nexpect a student who has had a year of high-school free-hand drawing and\ncolor work to be as skilful in it as he would have been had he, instead of the\nhigh-school work, taken one-half a year of work in a normal school. We\nneed to this end, however, an intelligent minimum standard.\nIn music, the situation at present is chaotic. In the normal schools and\nin the world as well, the musical education of our people is lacking today,\nnot so much because music has not been taught, as because it has not been\ntaught upon any standardized plan. If this assemblage should go no\nfarther than to outline the purpose and content of a useful high-school\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "79©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nor\n\ncourse in music, it would have justified all the time and energy that\ngone into its making.\nThe following outline, taken from a recently published normal-schc\ncatalog, seems to me to state in plain English a sensible standard for sue\na course:\nImitation: To repeat accurately the singing of any ordinary phrase of gra\nschool songs.\nUse of voice: (a) to sing in original key for at least sixteen measures; (b) to fe\ndegrees of emphasis and contrast, and to express them by changing voice qualit\n(c) to sing primary-school songs with taste.\nRhythm: (a) to discover the measure of music played upon the piano; (6) to Ic\nprimary stress; (c) to tap correctly notes used one to a beat, then beats divided by two\nthree, and four.\nMelody: (a) to recognize common melodies sung without words; (6) to find the keynote, its third and its fifth, of simple songs sung by teacher or the class; [c) to distinguish\nbetween major and minor tonality; (d) to read from the staff melodies in one key selected\nfrom any textbook of common use in third primary grade; (c) to apply the syllables do,\nre, me, fa, sol, la, ti in singing a simple melody at first hearing.\nThe results of this work are tested solely by individual answers, expressed by singing,\nreading, writing, and the expression of musical judgments. No literary product, i. e.,\ndefinitions, theory, history of music, or second-hand information, is of the slightest value\nif offered as a substitute for personal power.\nStudents who prove, by test, that they have qualified to meet the standards required\nfor the completion of this course will be given credit for the work and will be excused from\ntaking it. It is very much to the advantage of high-school students who expect to attend\nthis normal school to take work that will cover the simple essentiab of this preparatory\ncourse.\n\nK I have been at all successful in my presentation of the foregoing\nfacts, I have made at least one point, namely, that there is a fund of preparation, vital for the welfare of the elementary teacher and vital to the\neducational welfare of every individual, which should be the product of\nthe schools of general training; that up)on this product the normal school\nshould expect to build; that it is our duty to stand for the increased efficiency and service of all educational institutions of general training in a\ndemand for this result. If this point be clear and acceptable, then as\npractical men the question before us is: How can we get the high school to\nperfect this work that should stand as foundation training for teacher work\nand at the same time that serves as a genuine cultural foundation for all the\nwork and play of life ?\nFirst of all, we can be good natured about it. We should proceed, not\nas faultfinders, but as fellow-workers interested in a common problem.\nSecondly, let those of us who maintain preparatory departments of oiu* own\nset model standards of preparation and results in these lines. Thirdly,\nlet us in all ways, jointly and severally, urge model courses of study upon\nhigh schools thruout the land. Each catalog, each bulletin or pubUcation,\nall public utterances that we send out or control should set forth the normal\nschool's standards, which are at the same time the world's normal standards\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n79I\n\nand demands. Fourthly, let us, with the courage of our convictions and\nacting in line with the straight logic of the situation, frankly offer advanced\nstanding to anyone who enters our doors with knowledge that now must be\nsecured as part of the normal-school required work. That is to say, if we\nteach grammar, just plain academic English grammar, and give a half-unit\nof normal credit for it, and if we find that nine-tenths of our beginners\nmust take it in order to learn later to teach grammar, it seems to be perfectly just and fair for us to give the same half-unit of credit to anyone\nwho enters the normal school already possessed of the particular preparation that the normal-school grammar course is designed to give. Such a\nprinciple, properly applied, would place not less than two and one-half units\nof the standard twenty-unit two-year normal-school course in the realm of\nwork that might be done in any sound high-school course.\nThat the relegation of such preparatory work to the schools of general\ntraining will benefit normal schools, setting them free to do work strictly\nprofessional, there is no doubt. That it will benefit the high school,\ndefining for it true standards of living culture, there is no question. It\nwill prove a force to give to all the graduates of high schools a better preparation for life and incidentally for the work of the teacher.\nSome may say that such an offer of advanced standing would be a\nlowering of the normal-school standards, but such is not the case. If\nwe could thus in a few years establish a new standard of academic\nfitness for our matriculants, the time would soon be ripe for a further step\nforward. That is to say, when 50 per cent of those who enter normal\nschools show themselves to be prepared in the different subjects substantially as outlined, then these subjects may be made at once the minimum\nstandard for matriculation into a two-year course without any advanced\nstanding at all. In such an event, those who might thereafter enter without\nsuch prepartion would be required to make up such deficiency by outside\nstudy or by special work in classes organized for the purpose, but without\nnormal-school credit.\nI have proposed this method of offering advanced standing for academic\nwork properly done in high school, not as a permanent status of the whole\nmatter, but as a plan to start the introduction and emphasis of such work\nin the secondary school. Let us give as much credit for work of this sort\ndone before students enter normal school as we now give to them after\nthey enter.\nIn regard to special credentials in manual training, domestice science,\nagriculture, music, and art, and for all forms of departmental work, we\nmay establish even more advantageous relations with the high schools.\nIn training teachers for these special fields a special underpinning of\nknowledge is required. As a result, much of our special training is\nfrankly academic, of exactly the sort that is given in high schools and\ncolleges.\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[NonnalJ\n\nIf we compare the cases of the academically prepared and unprepared]\nspecial students, we find that the latter greatly compUcate our problem.'\nThe prepared student is already well taught in the subject he desires to teach.\nThe unprepared teacher has to make a hurried cram of it. The prepared^\nteacher may be given professional problems and technical training from the\nmoment he takes up the normal work. The unprepared has a year of\nacademic work ahead substantially no more like real professional trainingj\nthan any of the other general work he may have taken. The prepare\nstudent may be made ready for successful work in a year. It may take\ntwo years to get the other into shape.\nIn one year we can train into a master teacher in music or French a\nstudent who is already master of the subject. But who will undertake in\ntwo years or even in three to turn out high-grade teachers in either of these\nsubjects from those who enter without special academic preparation ?\nIf we know this to be true, and we do, why is it that we still make so\nmuch ado over the time element in special training ? Schools boast that\nthey have a two- or a three-year course in this or that and laws and rules\nprescribe our standard in terms of time. Such time standards rigidly\nenforced ofteno perate to keep out the best prepared. Let us have standards in terms of work done and results secured. In any case, let us freely\nrecognize and encourage academic preparation made elsewhere.\nI suggest as a practical means toward this end that we start in by\nwriting all our special diplomas in terms of the actual work done rather\nthan in terms of time spent in the normal school. We should indorse on\nthe back of each diploma a detailed statement of exactly what work, both\nacademic and professional, the holder has done in preparation for his work.\nSuch a course, frankly recognizing worthy academic preparation made in\nhigh schools and colleges of general training, will do much to set us free for\nprofessional work. It will incidentally save the money, time, and energy\nthat are now being spent in normal schools upon unnecessary duplication of\nwork done in high schools and colleges.\nWe cannot get results imtil we know very definitely what we want.\nThe university gets what it wants, no matter how astounding it may be or\nwhether it be what the world wants or not, because it has the sense to make\na plain and definite demand. First, then, as a practical proposition, we\nmust frame a reasonable and specific statement of what we need. We\nmust set a standard to which we will all agree and which we will all urge by\npersuasion, rules, advanced standing, or whatever proper methods are\navailable.\nI propose, therefore, that a committee of five be here appointed to\noutline the basis for a better academic relationship between the normal\nschools and the high schools; that it state in specific terms the academic\npreparation that should be demanded for normal-school work; that it\nconsider the best available plans for the establishment of such academic\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\n793\n\nstandards; that it secure the widest possible discussion of its findings;\nand that it report at the next meeting of this Association with recommendations for further action.\nDo not misunderstand me. I am not one who believes that all normal\nschools should be operated with the same program clock. Each should be\nfree to make discoveries. Each should have before it the constant objective\nto do things better tomorrow than they were done today. At the same\ntime, I will not do my profession the discredit to believe or to say that\nafter a hundred year's experience in the normal schools of America there\nis still nothing definitely known or knowable; that there is still no standard, no guideline, no safety zone established beyond the power of any\nindividual or institutional whim of caprice. If this is a working body, can\nit not now begin to form and enforce some academic standards that will\nset us free to do the work for which we have been established ? Shall we\nnot earnestly undertake this work that for high schools and normal schools\nalike lies straight in the path toward better service ?\n\nB.\n\nWHAT TO STRESS AND WHAT TO SLUR IN THE\nPREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS\n\nA. J. MATTHEWS,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL, TEMPE, ARIZ.\n\nIn treating this subject I shall take a comparative position and refer\nchiefly to such subjects and principles as in my estimation should be\nstressed more than at present. It is conceded that the elementary teachers\nshould be well prepared in general academic education, but it is more\nessential that they should be well prepared in the art of teaching and in\nscientific knowledge of the physical and mental development of the child,\neven if some forfeiture has to be made along other lines. This fact has been\nso generally accepted that the growth of normal training and summer schools\nand departments of education in colleges and universities within the past\ntwenty years has been almost phenomenal, and at the present time in some\nstates it is impossible to secure a position in even the smallest rural school\nwithout presenting credentials that the candidate has had some professional\npreparation. I would not give the impression that it will ever be considered\nabsolutely necessary for elementary teachers to be graduates of a college or\nuniversity, but I do desire to emphasize that in their preparation it is as\nnecessary to stress all subjects relating to the art and science of teaching as\nit is for the'doctor or the lawyer to pursue strictly professional courses.\nNeither would I be understood to affirm that the assiduous study of\npsychology, pedagogy, methods, child study, and the history and philosophy\nof education, etc., must necessarily produce a successful teacher, but I do\naffirm that, everything else being equal, a broad and thoro knowledge of\nthese professional subjects is more necessary than a broader academic or\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\ncollegiate training.\nSome elementary teachers seem imbued with the idea\nthat their chief duty is to acquire knowledge of a general character, and as\na result they neglect the professional side entirely or consider it of secondary]\nimportance, whereas they should realize that their greatest work is that of j\nimparting knowledge to others, an accomplishment which is the very foundation of the teacher's profession and one which requires the most intensivel\npreparation. George Herbert Palmer, of Harvard University, altho a|\nuniversity man, puts the idea tersely when he says:\nOne who is interested in laying hold of wisdom is likely to become a scholar; and\nwhile, no doubt, it is well for a teacher to be a fair scholar, that is not the main thing.\nWhat constitutes the teacher is the passion to make scholars; and again and again it\nhappens that the great scholar has no such passion whatever.\n\nTeachers must be trained to discover and eradicate as far as possible\nall frictions of the individual child mind which are a hindrance or a perplexity to gaining perceptions, without being continually obsessed by any\nthought of method or child study as such. Their training should be so\ncomplete professionally that they will automatically adapt their teaching\nand methods to the varying conditions confronting them. It is such preparation and the subjects and courses leading to it that should receive the\ngreatest stress. Not only should teachers be so trained as to direct their\nenergies to the best advantage, but the training should prepare them for the\nequally important and scientific ability of spontaneously recognizing the\nconstantly changing physical, mental, and social conditions of the same\nchild during different periods of development and unconsciously adjusting\ntheir efforts to meet the same. This principle of pedagogy is as old as\nComenius and is recognized by all educators, but recognition means nothing\nwithout the ability to practice it. As Froebel puts it, \"The full and\ncomplete development of each stage is necessary for the development of\nsuccessive stages.\" When elementary teachers are confronted with the\nvastness and the possibilities of preparation necessary to meet these conditions,believe\nI\nthat no further argument will be required to convince them\nthat the knowledge of most worth to them is that knowledge which pertains\ndirectly to the mental and physical development of the child. There is no\ndanger of overtraining in this direction, for, as one writer says, \"So deep\nand intricate is the problem that it is almost beyond the comprehension of\nthe human mind.\" This statement is eminently true and is borne out\nby the fact that in the history of the world but few really great teachers\nhave been developed.\nI have thus far dwelt mostly with the strictly professional side of the\npreparation of the elementary teacher because I am firmly convinced that\nit is the side that should be most emphatically stressed, at least as compared with the extensive preparation in the subjects to be taught. It is\ngenerally conceded that teachers have a sufiScient knowledge of the subjectmatter of the elementary schools and to designate any special subjects as\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\n79$\n\nbeing more worthy of special consideration than the others would be to come\nin conflict at once with the various ideas of individual teachers.\nThere is but one subject that all seem to agree should be stressed, and\nthat is English, with arithmetic, reading, and writing as close seconds.\nThese elementary branches seem to be considered fundamental, with history,\ngeography, nature study, agriculture, manual training, domestic science,\nand all other subjects as secondary and auxiliary. I cannot, however, resist\nthe temptation to dwell on a few subjects that to my mind should receive\nmore stress than is given them at the present time. In doing so, I will\nfirst repeat what I have already said, that teachers cannot be too well\nprepared in what are termed the \"three R's,\" especially English.\nThen I shall mention the training of teachers in elementary library\nscience that they may be competent to instruct all pupils above the sixth\ngrade in the library methods applicable to each grade. The courses of\nstudy are making greater demands upon the school and to such an extent\nthat it is now as much the function of the elementary teacher to direct the\nreading of children as it is of the library school to train professional librarians. The teachers of today should be prepared to instruct their pupils\nin the use of the periodical index, card catalog, table of contents, dictionary,\nreference books, and other library facilities. They should be competent\nto make selections of children's books suited to the various grades and\nshould have definite ideas as to how to establish a standard of selection.\nThere is a crying need for reform along this line and normal schools should\nnot consider their work complete until all prospective teachers graduating\nfrom their schools have received such training as will properly qualify them\nfor this important work. It should also be considered a reflection on the\nwork of elementary teachers if pupils who complete the grammar schools\nare not equipped to make intelligent use of such instruction.\nAnother subject is receiving more attention than formerly but is still\nslurred too much in the preparation of elementary teachers, namely drawing.\nIts importance as an educational factor is recognized by all educators and it\nis emphasized more or less in most of our city systems, but there has been\nbut little if any movement toward uniform requirement. Elementary\ndrawing should be as generally taught in all our schools as arithmetic and\nwriting, and this can never be accomplished until it is an absolute requirement in the preparation of elementary teachers. The subject is generally\nunder the direction of supervisors, while the teaching itself is done by grade\nteachers who know little about the subject. Supposing that we undertook\nthe teaching of English or geography in the same way, what could we expect\nthe results to be? And yet, from the standpoint of comparative importance of the subjects, it is not denied, in fact it is frequently asserted, that\ndrawing is not excelled by any subject in the curriculum. Time will not\npermit of any extended argument to substantiate the claim that drawing is\nentitled to equal consideration with fundamental subjects in the school\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ncurriculum. I will simply quote that \"instruction in drawing gives to every\nchild, no matter what his life-work, a better sense of form, proportion, and\nsymmetry, of harmonious grouping of things, of neatness and cleanliness.\nIt gives dexterity and deftness to the fingers; it trains the hand, eye, and!\nmind in those habits of co-ordinated activity which are a constant advantage\nto the individual.\" In drawing there is constant application of the two\neducational movements of seeing and doing, which gives fulness andj\ncompleteness to educational processes. It is a substitute for manual training\nin the lower grades and the best preparation for it in the higher grades. It\nis high time that these advantages be possessed by every pupil in the public\nschools and I repeat that all teachers should be a3 well prepared to teach\ndrawing as to teach the three R's.\nSchool music should also be stressed more than at the present time and\naU elementary teachers should be prepared to teach it. Like drawing,\nsystematic instruction in school music is confined to a few of our larger\ncities and is under the direction of specialists, but the rank and file of the\ngrade teachers who have to do most of the real teaching are not competent\nto teach it and are not required to include it in their preparation for teaching or the requirements for a diploma. Music should be taught in every\nschool in the United States and every teacher should be competent to give\ninstruction in it. Why should we hesitate to advance music to a standardized place in our educational curriculum and require all our elementary\nteachers to qualify in it ? It need not be a matter of time so much as one of\nadjustment, proper gradation, and continuity of the subject. The entire\ntime allowed me could profitably be given to the presentation of evidence\nthat proficiency in school music should constitute one of the factors in the\npreparation of teachers and that it is only thru such a system that the\nwonderful influence and educational value of music can be secured for\nthe children of American schools.\nIn enumerating thus briefly a few of the subjects to be stressed in the\npreparation of teachers, there are many others that should be mentioned\nand their not being mentioned is not intended to indicate that it is the\nwriter's opinion that they should be slurred. Only such subjects have been\nnoted as in the writer's mind are not sufl&ciently stressed. Teachers'\nresponsibilities in looking after the health of their pupils, their duties relating to the religious, moral, civic, social, industrial, and patriotic phases of\neducation must all receive attention and be nicely adjusted by securing the\nco-operation of pupils, parents, and school officers if teachers would become\nthe important and influential factors in the community that they should be.\nBut perhaps more important than the teacher's education, culture, special professional training, and skill in methods are the preparation and\ntraining of one's personality for the greatest work in the world. Personality has to do with one's character, morality, leadership, enthusiasm, and\nsympathy for and love of children in a general way. It may seem that the\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHEY\n\nWHO\n\nSIT AT\n\nOUR\n\nFEET\n\n797\n\npossession of these characteristics constitutes the ideal teacher, which few\ncan hope to be, and that many of them are impossible of attainment, as\nthey are innate factors of our own individuality not susceptible of change\nthru any amount of training. Therefore they should not be considered\nunder the preparation of a teacher. Granted that the possession of all\nthese characteristics in a high degree would represent the ideal teacher,\nshould not all teachers have in their mind's eye the ideal teacher when they\ndecide to take up the work and prepare themselves for it ? Without the\nideal well fixed, they cannot hope to achieve any real success. I am\ninclined to take issue with the theory that most of these characteristics\ncannot be achieved, if not naturally possessed, by earnest teachers with\nthe proper ideal established and knowing wherein they are deficient. I\nhave known beginners who taught with harsh, disagreeable voices, with\ndiscontented, unhappy faces, with a nervous irritability when approached\nby children, and with an impatience at any boyish disorder, but, having\nthese defects brought to their attention by a kind and tactful critic teacher\nor principal and having a real desire to become successful teachers, they\novercame the deficiencies and the interest taken in the process of overcoming them developed an interest and enthusiasm in the whole work which led\nthem on to success.\nThe Scripture says, \" They that instruct the youth unto life shall shine\nlike stars in the firmament.\" Newman says of the teacher, \"He is a\nprofessor eloquent, a missionary and a preacher displaying his science in its\nmost complete and winning form, pouring it forth with the soul of enthusiasm, and lighting up his own love of it in the breast of his hearers.\" In\nthis great work personality weighs more than methods and more than profound scholarship. A personality, then, that includes character, morality,\nsympathy, love for children, and a sincere love for teaching is the acquisition\nof greatest worth to the teacher and no matter what qualifications or\nspecial preparation may be stressed or slurred it is worth whOe to stress at\nall times along such lines as will not only make better teachers but that\nwill inspire them and their pupils to become better men and women, better\nfathers and mothers, and better citizens.\n\nC.\nM. MADILENE\n\nTHEY\n\nVEVERKA,\n\nWHO\n\nSIT AT OUR FEET\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nWe have collected a body of scientific knowledge concerning the teaching of children. This knowledge is adequate and easy of access and comprehension. We know that young and inexperienced teachers guided by\nthis knowledge may proceed definitely and correctly; we feel the necessity oftesting. all agencies, old or new, which make claims for education,\nbecause the normal school is undeniably the leader in the experiment. Its\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nomud\n\nbusiness is to know. It is strongly indicated that in order to furnish\nteachers for the ever-increasing new fields the opportunity for preparation\nmust be increased.\nIt seems to be quite definite that, since the school is constantly reaching\nhomeward to the years of early childhood, and since we are becoming more\nconcerned about these years, women are sure to constitute the large body\nof elementary teachers.\nThese then are some of the questions which concern us normal-school\npeople: How shall the teacher best exchange the traditional tools of learning with so much of race heritage in them for the pressing demands of\ntoday ? What sort of a pedagogy must we give her that the children may\nbecome good, intelligent, and happy, able to utilize the heritage of the race\nto this end, and yet fit into life now and here with a specific work in the\ndirection of highest natural endowment ?\nWe of the normal schools are new in our knowledge. We feel our\ninsecurity in this complicated scheme of training teachers. We have had\nso little time and there has been no one to teach us. We are rather selfmade. Even now, we hardly hold an imdisputed place for ourselves. It\nis not strange then that we make meager and indefinite demands upon the\nstudents coming to us. The requirements vary almost as do the schools\nthemselves. And yet good teaching is good teaching the world over.\nTeaching of children calls for no small or obscure powers, and those will\nreveal themselves to him who is bent on discovery.\nBut what shall those characteristics be upon which a normal school may\nbuild, and which warrant the time and preparation ? I must see something\nbehind the effervescence of youth. There must be a real promise more than\na sentimental liking for children. I must look for something in these young\nstudents that will assure me the time and toil will be worth while. What\nare these specific marks of promise, that rare quaUty or sum of qualities\nthat make a teacher ?\nWhen I think of the classes of young women who come and go thru my\ndepartment and when I come to classify these young women, in the order\nof excellence and promise, they spring at once into classes, and the class that\nstands out most clearly is made up of wholesome young women. When I\nimagine these young women with groups of children, they all seem strangely\nhappy and I am conscious of a warmth of relationship. There is a pecuhar\natmosphere that they create about themselves. I wonder what it is that\nenables this teacher to throw herself so completely into the children's\nbusiness; and I conclude it is because she is so human and motherly. This\nkind of teacher is at home with little children. She is a little deaf and a\nlittle blind to childish impulses. She knows how to forget and yet how to\nremember all that is vital. She is close enough to her own childhood either\nin years or in imagination that she has not forgotten how to play. She can\ndo so many things without being told. Her life has been hved largely in\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHEY\n\nWHO\n\nSIT AT\n\nOUR\n\nFEET\n\n799\n\nordinary situations where a fund of common-sense counts for most. She is\nnot afraid of hard work or responsibility. She has a keen sense of human\nvalues. She takes time to live and in living helps the children close to the\nsimple experiences belonging to childhood. The American people have\ngreat need of this kind of teachers. We are coming so fast to be a nation\nof urban people, and the modern conditions of life use up our childhood too\nfast. We like to say that schools should provide experience. We might\nfar better say that schools should shield the children from too much\nexperience.\nThen a teacher-to-be must have personality — that elusive will-o'-thewisp that defies analysis and definition. The gods seem to bestow it on\nthe favored ones only. There seems not enough to go around. Surely\nit is a gift much to be desired. But we are looking afar off for something\nquite at home. If a young teacher can teach children, you may be sure she\nhas personality, for anyone who can do anything with people has personality.\nMy student gives promise when she radiates health. Teaching is\nproverbial for the inroad it makes upon our daily allotment of energy. But\nso long as our system continues to break both students and teachers, let\nus start our teachers well and later we may learn how to keep them so.\nShall we not have learned people to teach our children? Too much\neducation may incapacitate for teaching. We must have a high-school and\nand should ask for a college preparation if that does not kill the wholesome\ncuriosity and love for study. Let us, for the joy of it, and the necessity\nof it insist on greater academic preparation than we now demand, but let\nus have nothing beyond the point of open-mindedness, where all knowledge\nstill allures us.\nThe necessary condition of first importance to bring out whatever of\nteaching ability a prospective teacher may have is the presence of children.\nUnless a normal school has its school of practice teaching, it is compelled\nto go away from home to give its students this opportunity. There must\nbe a place where the timid effort of the novice may have every chance possible under the most favorable conditions. Teaching is an art to be sure,\nand as such it has its technique which is to be seen and heard. The student\nmust see teaching first of all to become familiar with children and their\nvarious responses and interests. Here she sees teaching by experienced\nand trained teachers so that class organization and schoolroom procedure\nand routine become familiar. Here the theory of her other educational\ncourses is converted into actual doing. We need not be fearful that our\nstudents will imitate our teaching. We shall teach them principles so well\nthat they will outgrow imitation long before they have left us. And too\nimitation is a handmaiden to progress and most of us in our early teaching\nwere fortunate if we had something worthy to imitate. When our school\nof practice becomes in reality a place where every course given may be\ninterpreted and where every theory must stand or fall upon its merits there,\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nthen will our normal-school professors realize they have much to learn\nfrom their own schools of practice. They will be more cautious about\nwhat they say lest they be asked to demonstrate with children. Indeed,\nwhen our normal-school faculties get into the habit of teaching children\nthey will be better able to teach teachers and not violate their own pedagogy. Ifthey attempt to teach children, they will grow vastly in sympathy and respect for the little novice who is just beginning.\nThe practice school is a marvelous laboratory, but let us not ask students\nto test out new theories and devices. That kind of work must be done and\nmust be seen, but let us leave it to the mature teacher with more or less\nexpertness of judgment. It is enough that the student gain confidence and\nrelative skill and habit in doing work along definite lines of accepted doctrine. Ifshe can master a few things well, we must be satisfied that she\nwill master others, because we aim to do little more than to give a good\nfoundation. In our training school she must convince herseK that she can\nteach, not that she is a finished teacher. The best must be made to seem\nvery possible and desirable. If we can awaken in her a confidence that\nmakes her impatient to teach and test her power, we have done well.\nBut who is it that must unify all this experience and all these school\nactivities for the young teacher ? Her training teacher must ever be the\nunifying spirit. She is always the mother-pedagogical to some group of\nchildren and a big sister to her student group. First of all she can teach.\nHer work is at the fine-art point. It is good to look at, and, best of all, she\nmakes teaching look so easy and attractive that it has a sort of invitation\nabout it. It gives you the feeling that you want to begin at once, for you\nfeel that you can do it too. She can bring the volumes of pedagogical\nprinciples into actual schoolroom conditions. She knows her children\nboth Uttle and big and does not forget for a moment that they are all children. She is more human than scholarly, but her scholarship must rank\nwell with that of any professor in the school. She has common-sense enough\nto fill in all the places for which books do not provide. She has confidence\nin her department so that she can make demands for it. She disciplines\njust because she is there. She has a sympathetic ear for all griefs that seem\nso big. She has time for everything because she knows what things are\nworth while. She minimizes difficulties for her students. She takes time\nto live, because she has a big share in all hmnan interests. Most of all she\nhas a big philosophy of life, which is not taught or preached, but suggested\nin her coming and going. Somehow when you go you take this with you\nmore than even her method or pedagogy. She criticizes you in such a way\nthat you come away chastened and strengthened. You seem clothed in a\nnew vision and purpose and greater confidence. She can do all this because\nshe has been thru the dark places herself and understands. She has had a\nlarge teaching experience and knows the work far on each side of her own\ngrade. If she is a primary teacher, she knows the kindergarten just as well.\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN THE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOP RURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n8oi\n\nand if she is a kindergarten teacher, she is at home in any of the lower grades.\nHer specialization has not made her narrow, but it has made her deep.\nShe can interpret to her students the ideals of the American school, because\nshe is an American and knows the peculiar genius of this glorious people.\nThe place where she is throbs with life and reality, a picture of which the\nyoung student carries away with her until she can make of her own school\njust such a place.\nNow what is it this young teacher is that she was not ? What have we\nadded to her which she did not have when she came ? First, she has convinced herself and her faculty that she can teach. The normal school has\nadded to her a knowledge of a few pedagogical principles, rather than a\nvast hazy mass of theory and detail. If there are sixteen methods of teaching reading, we have seen to it that she must know at least one of these\nwell. She has a lifetime to study the other fifteen. Can she organize a\nlesson ? The training school has not only fortified her with knowledge, but\nit has given her skill. She can teach writing, no matter what a fund of\nknowledge she may have about penmanship. She does not lose her psychology in a maze of device. She can assign a lesson. She can ask questions.\nShe may know much or little about literature, but she has a fund of stories\nwhich she can tell. She views education in larger and larger terms. She\ndoes not cling to the idea that all children are angelic and therefore that all\nerror must be in herself. She recognizes that parents do have a right to\nconcern themselves about their children, even if that concern does not meet\nour approval. We must have made her acquainted with those educational\nleaders of this time and other times who have thought out big thoughts for\nus, so that she may learn early to look in their direction. She is on her way\nto knowing children. She knows the value and limits of a textbook. If\nwe have fully realized our responsibility to the public, we will have sifted\nout during the course, hard tho the task appears, so many that we can guarantee these few things concerning those we do send.\n\nA DECADE\nERNEST\n\nBURNHAM,\n\nOF PROGRESS IN THE TRAINING\nRURAL TEACHERS\nDIRECTOR, RURAL-SCHOOL\nSCHOOL, KALAMAZOO,\n\nDEPARTMENT,\nMICH.\n\nOF\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nThe Committee of Twelve pointed out in 1895 that normal schools\nwere originally intended to prepare teachers of the rural common schools\nbut were doing little for these schools and explained that entrance requirements had risen rapidly and thus set the normal schools too far ahead of\nthose whom they were intended to serve; that many rural teachers could\nnot aflford the expense of two years in the normal schools; that salaries did\nnot remunerate for such expense; and that attendance at normal schools\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nis in inverse ratio to the distance between these schools and the homes, a\nfact especially true for short courses.\nThis committee suggested summer terms for rural teachers in every\nnormal school in the United States and the use of agricultural colleges and\nhigh schools, with model and practice rooms attached, as supplementary\nsources. The Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural\nCommunities ten years later, in 1905, added the suggestion that the compulsory introduction of industrial subjects must not outrun the preparation\nof teachers in such subjects.\nThese fundamental considerations and the constantly revivified ideal of\na teacher as an individual of personality, education, and specific training\nhave formed the foimdation for such institutional evolution as has characterized the progress of the past decade in training rural teachers.\nIn a personal questionnaire study, conducted during the past two\nmonths, out of 18 state departments of education responding to the inquiries,\n16 were doing no special work in high schools or in county training classes\nto prepare rural teachers ten years ago; and 12 out of 20 state departments\nreported no special work for rural teachers in normal schools at that time.\nOf 18 of the same states there are 11 which have special courses in high\nschools and 4 which have special county training classes for rural teachers\nat present, while 20 out of 21 states reported special efforts by their state\nnormal schools to prepare rural teachers. These items show in the past\ndecade an approximate advance of 450 per cent in the use of highschool classes, of 100 per cent in the use of county training classes, and\nof 140 per cent in the use of state normal schools for the training of\nrural teachers.\nThis same research revealed that 6 out of 18 states have not advanced\nthe minimum requirements for beginning teachers in ten years, while 4 out\nof 18 have advanced the certification requirement academically, and 8 out of\n18 have added an entrance requirement of professional training. Twenty\nstate departments of education show that a median estimate of 15 per cent\nof rural teachers had some professional training in 1905 and a median\nestimate of 50 per cent of rural teachers had some professional training in\n1915, an advance of 230 per cent. A comparative study of several hundred\nstate statutes on education passed in 1905 and a comparable niunber of the\nstatutes of 19 15 showed a shift in emphasis from the certification to the\npreparation of rural teachers.\nIn a questionnaire research directed to state normal schools, out of 38\nstates responding, 29 offer special courses for rural teachers and 9 do not;\n3 began to differentiate courses for rural teachers before 1905, 6 between\n1905 and 1910, and 20 have begun such differentiation since 1910, while 7\nhave begun in the current year. Out of 35 states 28 replied that differentiation isincreasing, while 29 out of 36 states offered evidence that there is a\ndemand by local school authorities for specially prepared rural teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF RURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n803\n\nSeventeen of 36 states had normal-school courses for rural supervisors\nand superintendents in 1905, and 29 of 36 states had such courses this year,\na gain of 70 per cent. Nine of 30 states had courses for rural supervisors\nand superintendents in higher institutions of learning in 1905, and 21 out of\n30 states have these courses now, a gain of 130 per cent. The results of the\ntwo questionnaire studies are presented for what they are worth as approximations ofthe facts.\nNormal-school activities in training rural teachers in the year 1913-14,\nas summarized by the federal Bureau of Education, showed: Out of 121\nnormal schools reporting, 36 have distinct departments for rural teachers;\n19 others offer special courses, altho not equipped with distinct departments; 28 offer instruction in some subjects for rural teachers separate\nfrom general courses; while 41 of 121 normal schools make no special provision for rural teachers. The 19 14 report of the United States commis ioner ofeducation mentions one state which had 7,000 rural teachers\nattending summer schools in 1914, and reports one state teachers' college\nwhich has established 50 student centers to enrol 3,000 active teachers for\nSaturday instruction.\nThe foregoing paragraphs clearly indicate the types of institutional\nagencies which have emerged as the training of rural teachers has progressed. These types are the high-school training course, the county\ntraining class, the department of rural education in state normal schools,\nand courses, mostly for advanced students, in such higher institutions as\nagricultural and teachers' colleges and schools of education in universities.\nProgress within the high-school and county-class types turns upon\npractically the same considerations, namely: financial resources, entrance\nand completion requirements, academic and professional content of courses,\narticulation with the school system, and the selection of qualified instructors.\nThe local classes are now subsidized by the states, or the states and counties,\nto the amount of from $500 to $1,500 annually for each class. Entrance\nrequirements are now two and in most cases three years of high-school work\ncompleted and many high-school graduates are already enrolled. In\none state after September, 1917, the requirement for admission will be the\ncompletion of a four-year approved high-school course. The one year of\nwork is distributed among academic reviews of the elementary-school\nsubjects, courses in psychology, management, and method illuminated\nby observation and practice, and special instruction including method in\nthe content subjects recently introduced in the rural-school curriculum.\nArticulation with the school system involves adequate provision for\nobservation and practice, the definite evaluation of the year's work for use\nas entrance or advance credit at normal schools and universities, and the\nappointment of the graduates to teaching positions. Such progress as is\nreported in these respects does not lend itself readily to a summary. The\npreparation of the instructors employed in these local teacher-training\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nagencies exhibits variety and wide disparity. Some instructors have had\nbut one year beyond the high school, the majority are normal-school\ngraduates, and some have completed four or more years of work in teachers'\ncolleges and universities. The selection and training, including the inspiration, retention, and adequate remuneration of the instructors of these local\nseed beds of rural teachers, is a sensitive and promising point of progress at\npresent.\nDepartments of rural education in state normal schools are a growth\nof the past decade. The chief internal progress made by these departments isevidenced by the number and kind of students enrolled ; by careful, not rapid nor yet too slow, elevation of the academic and professional\nstandards enforced for admission and graduation; by such searching\nanalysis of the materials of instruction used as will sensitively eliminate the\nobsolete as well as judiciously incorporate new subjects and methods; by\ndeveloping the most convenient observation and, if possible, practice\nopportunities in real rural schools; by finding the proper place of dignity and\nimportance for this newcomer among the long-recognized leading departments of the normal schools; and by the participation within the department of instructors of equal training, capacity, and power with the best\nworkers in all departments of normal training.\nProgress in the foregoing particulars is as yet much more a matter of\nobservation than of definite and summarized records. Close familiarity\nwith several departments of rural education in state normal schools gives\nfacts sufficient to justify the following statement of progress for the past\ndecade: The number and, as a rule, the qualifications of the students in\nthese departments have shown a sure if not spectacular advance altho\ntemporary setbacks have affected the numbers when some too long step\nahead has been taken in academic standards, a movement which has been\nslow but constant. Sixty state normal schools have been equipped for\ninstruction in agriculture, which is the largest growth in new instruction\nmaterials, and also in the field and other demonstration work in this and\nrelated subjects possibly the greatest advance in method has been made.\nTwenty-one normal schools and two agricultural colleges are equipped\nwith observation or practice rural schools or with rural schools used for\nboth observation and practice.\nThis is a recent and a very significant growth, which has taken two\nforms: the building and complete equipment of a one-teacher school illustrating every physical possibility of such schools, and the use of this model\nschool plant for the best demonstration of the human excellences of such\na school for the observation and in some cases the participation of prospective teachers. The other form is developed by sympathetic and financial\naffiliation by the normal school of one or more outlying rural schools (one\nnormal college has 20 such schools) in which the community initiative,\nquickened by the leadership of an exceptionally able teacher, selected by\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF RURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n805\n\nthe district and the normal school and paid jointly by them, is allowed to\ntake its course in the realization of an adequate school plant and other\nmodern teaching equipment. This afifords, for the observation of teachers\nin training, a current demonstration of the possibilities of leadership by\nteachers in the community as well as within the school.\nOne of the most subtle and difficult progressive adjustments for departments ofrural education in state normal schools to make is that of finding a\nrecognition in the institutional life which is in equilibrium with the relative\nimportance of the work. To overemphasize or to minimize disproportionately in comparison with what is being done in other important matters is\nthe ready pitfall of new departments in old institutions. The rural departments which have been directed from the start by men of training, maturity,\nand salary equal to those of heads of other departments have been most\nsuccessful in outgrowing mere novelty and becoming inconspicuous as they\nhave grown in strength and influence within the unity of the larger institutional life. The recognition of the men and women employed in normalschool departments of rural education as measured by the salaries paid and\nby the responsibility given them in the institutional polity has in most cases\nbeen encouraging. That the commanding importance of these positions is\nnot fully recognized in salary and in type of person selected is no doubt due in\npart to limits of available funds, in part to the undeveloped vision of the work,\nand in part to the scarcity of adequately prepared and experienced persons.\nThe fourth type of institution which is beginning to lend its facilities\nand thought to the study of rural education directs its effort to the preparation of county and special supervisors, of teachers in the types of rural\nteacher-training agencies already mentioned, and rural supervisors in\nstate departments of public instruction.\nTo revivify the situation, which has already been presented in general\nand somewhat unsatisfactory terms, a definite illustration of progress in\nexact particulars of each of the four agencies now in service in the training\nof rural teachers is added. One state began with 13 high-school training\ncourses in 1905. This state had in 1914, 106 high schools giving this course\nand 1,129 teachers were graduated. The number of these high schools is\nnow 120, and the enrolment last year was 1,256. Special teachers for these\ncourses are as a rule normal-school graduates with successful experience\nand strong personality. They are paid from $600 to $1,000 annual salary\nand are supervised by a woman of most unusual ability and accomplishments who is paid an annual salary of $2,000. This state's commission on\neducation, after a thoro study of the high-school training course, last year\nrecommended that the state subsidy of $1,000 annually be increased to\n$3,000 and that $1,200 salary be paid to worthy teachers of these courses.\nThe commission said that these courses were in the way of developing to a\npoint where it will not be necessary for any rural school in the state to do\nwithout a trained* teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal j\n\nSeveral states have already safeguarded progress from the future;\nretardation which the rapid influx of teachers of only secondary-school;\npreparation might involve by statutes requiring a graduated increase in\npreparation. And notably in the South, growth in service is insured by thej\nrural supervising teachers, really traveling normal-school instructors, who]\nare training the rural teachers by demonstration and suggestion in the\nown schoolrooms as they are confronted with their difficulties and are in aj\nreceptive frame of mind.\nIn another state there were in 1905, 8 county normal-training classes, |\nwhich graduated 84 prospective teachers. In 1915, this state graduated\n667 teachers from 48 county classes, and in the ten years the admission to\nthe classes has been raised from two years of high-school work completed\nto three years. In the ten years, a total of 5,925 teachers have graduated\nfrom the county normal classes of this state. There are two special teachers\nin each of these classes who are normal-school or university graduates and\nare paid from $700 to $1,100 annual salary. The number of these classes\nis slowly increasing in this state, but as yet there is no adequate state supervision ofthem. In this state approximately 63 per cent of the teachers in\none and two-room schools have now had some professional training and\napproximately 40 per cent of these teachers have had at least one whole\nyear of such training.\nOne state normal school in 1905 graduated from its department of rural\nschools 4 teachers from a course which was academically equivalent to two\nyears of high-school work, and in 1915 this school graduated 36 teachers\nfrom a rural course which was equivalent to four years of high-school work\ncompleted and 24 from a rural course which requires one year and a summer\nterm of work after the completion of the course of an approved four-year\nhigh school. In the past decade this department graduated 480 teachers.\nThe director of this department of rural education has had three years of\nuniversity graduate work in education and he is paid an annual salary of\n$2,700. The teacher of method and supervisor of observation and practice\nhas had one year of normal-school graduate work and she is paid an annual\nsalary of $1,300. The teacher of the rural demonstration school is a\nPhi Beta Kappa graduate of the state university and she is paid an annual\nsalary of $1,200. In 1904 there was one such normal-school department\nand there are now more than fifty such departments either in operation or\nto begin their work this fall.\nAn illustration of a higher institution working in rural education is\nfound in a large teachers' college which gave its first distinctively rural\ncourse to a handful of students in the summer session of 1912. In the summer of 1913 there was an enrolment in rural-education courses of 35 students\nfrom 24 different states. During the regular year of 1914-15, two courses\nand a practicum in rural education enrolled in all 75 students, and this\nsummer 128 students were enrolled in eleven distinctively rural courses,\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n807\n\nnamely, social institutions, productive organizations, curriculum, supervision, administration, training of teachers, high schools, household arts,\nagriculture, cookery, and carpentering. There was also a well-attended\nweekly evening conference of rural students. The director of this work says\nthat in personal character a goodly number of the students give promise\nof taking unusual positions of leadership.\n\nLIBRARY\nCARROLL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE NORMAL\n\nG. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL, MILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nInto the hbraries of the world is garnered the stored-up wisdom of the\nworld; whoever would be free of this wisdom must have the \"open sesame\"\nto the treasures these libraries contain. After the art of reading, which not\nonly gives the key to libraries, but opens all other literature which has not\nyet found its way into hbraries, no art is more certain to be constantly useful\nand usable than the art of finding in libraries the information which is\ndesired. But, important as this art is, few topics receive less attention in\nour schools. We insist upon the use of the gymnasium and provide an\ninstructor who sees, not only that the gymnasium work is done, but that it\nis done in the proper manner, and that students not only know the use of\nthe various pieces of apparatus, but are trained to use them in the best way.\nThe use of the science laboratories and their equipment and the manualtraining tools and machinery and materials is carefully explained and\ndemonstrated, and the instructor follows up his instruction by watching over\nand coaching his students to the most advantageous use of both materials\nand tools. But how many schools are there which, as a regular part of\ntheir work, first instruct and then train their students in the use of this,\npotentially, the most valuable of all laboratories — the mental laboratory\nof the school ? The pupils in our schools, from the time they can read well\nenough, should be taught to go to the library for the answers to many of\ntheir questions. If teachers keep this in mind, the habit can be quite well\nand firmly fixed even in the elementary school.\nBut to lead pupils in the way they should go, and to train them to\nwalk in it, teachers must themselves have been trained and must have\nformed the habit. Few teachers have had this training given to them,\nand few of those who are coming to the normal schools now to be trained\nfor teaching have received it. Hence, if the teachers of tomorrow, and\nthe next week, and the next year are to have it, the normal schools\nmust proceed to give it. An especial reason for placing this responsibility\nupon the normal school exists in the fact that in those schools the work\nwill be done with reference to the student's future use of the knowledge\nin his teaching work. In no other institution is this Ukely to be the\ncase.\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nor\n\nAn additional and strong reason for assigning this work to the norma\nschools exists in the fact that, at present, and for such time as we can see\ninto the immediate future, only the larger public high schools will be able\nto bear the expense of a trained person to devote all the time to the Ubrary*\nand its work; for all the smaller high schools and for practically all elementary schools, it will be necessary to employ a teacher who can tak(\ncharge also of the library and the training of pupils to use it, or a libr;\nwho can also devote a part of the time to teaching.\nLibrary training is not all given when the use of books has been taught;\nthe librarian must not only be able to show and train pupils to use and enjoy\nthe treasures of the Ubrary, but he must be qualified to select and install\nand care for and keep up the school's collection of books. The general\nprinciples on which books should be chosen, the art of selecting for the special\nneeds of the particular school the librarian is serving, the mechanical work\nof cataloging and accessioning must be taught to the embryo librarian,\nas well as the manner and places for buying to the best advantage.\nThe responsibility of the normal schools is increased because the pubUc\nschools must be depended upon to give this appreciation of the value of\nbooks and some skill in their use. A few persons learn at home the use of a\nlibrary; a small number acquire the art from some library or under the\nsuggestion or guidance of some librarian; a few pick up the art unaided;\nbut all these constitute a small minority. The public schools get practically\neverybody; and it is to the public schools that we must intrust the formation\nand fostering of this library habit. It is true with this, as with so many\nother imp)ortant things: \"What you would see in the life of a nation, you\nmust put into its schools.\"\nSome agitation to bring about this desirable end has been done. The\nLibrary Section of the National Education Association has been most\nactive and earnest in advocating that the normal schools begin to include\nlibrary training as a part of the regular normal-school course. A committee\nof the department has reported more than once, and a uniform course of\nstudy in library work has been reported. Some progress has been made.\nThe state of New York, long a leader in library work, provides by law for\nlibrary training, which, Ln that state, must be given in pubUc schools of\ncertain classes, and the state helps to pay the expense of giving the instruction. In Wisconsin the state law requires that applicants for teachers' licenses\npass an examination in library methods. These advance steps may very\nweU be imitated by other commonwealths. But the speediest and the\nmost efifective way to arrive at the result will be for the normal schook\nin all the states to make library training a part of the normal-school course\nof study, and to insist that all the students sent out by them with diplomas\nentitling the holders to teach in the schools of the state shall be able to\nguide their pupils in the use of the library and train them until such use\nbecomes a habit.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nTHE STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS AND THE TRAINING\nSCHOOL TEACHERS\n\nHOMER\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nH.\n\n809\n\nOF HIGHCOLLEGE,\n\nTeacher training. — During recent years much differentiation in the\nplans of training public-school teachers has been adopted by the state\nnormal schools of the United States. This differentiation has taken place\nin the attempt to give practical and efficient preparation for the kinds of\nwork that individual teachers are, by personal qualifications and fitness,\nbest able to do. The specialization adopted is exhibited in the organization of the courses of study and in the standards of scholastic and professional training that are accepted as essential to meet the public need.\nThis change in public policy has abandoned the notion that the education\nand training of teachers is general in character and has established as a\nresult the special teacher as the necessary product for the teacher-training\ninstitutions to develop. In such a condition it becomes necessary for the\nstudents of state normal schools to determine early in their career to what\nparticular kind of educational work they will devote their public services\nand to seek by specialization to reach superior capability and strength as\neducators. This solution of the teacher-training problem has developed\nfrom economic and professional reasons rather than from theoretical and\nphilosophical reasons, since the preparation of a teacher is limited in time\nand in subject-matter to a few years, and quality, skill, and efficiency are\nthe standards that are the evidences of success.\nThe function of the normal school. — State normal schools have their\nfunctions decided by statutes made by legislatures rather than by precedents, customs, or experience possessed by generations of educational\nphilosophers. They are regulated by grants made by general assemblies\nand respond with readiness to the public demand of common-school authorities who purchase their output. They are not created by official boards\nof management or by faculties of instruction, as their mission and their\nservice are easily changed and their endeavors quickly remodeled. They\nare authorized to accomplish a specific work in a notably efficient manner\nand they are compelled to find their way over a new and untried field of\nprogress. While undertaking a new enterprise, they are public institutions\nand every movement and expenditure must be accounted for in formal public\ndocuments printed and distributed by the state. While given unusual\nfreedom of action, they are still subject to biennial reviews by state officials\nand to sundry investigations and surveys by regularly constituted authorities. In addition, they are visited, inspected, studied, and discussed by\nstudents and administrators of education who recognize the problem of\ntraining public-school teachers as the one live topic in educational movements and the differences of opinion that exist as furnishing abundant\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nor\n\nmaterial for investigation and discussion. These potent influences anc\ndisturbances make such schools the most aggressive and vital organizations\nthat exist in modern civilization with a future as to prospects and to out4\ncomes that cannot be defined, anticipated, or conjectured at the presentj\nSuch institutions, having originated from the public attempts to satisf\nexisting conditions, unmet by other established institutions, represent\nopportunities and privileges that are unlimited in their possibilities foij\nwisdom in plans and for skill in execution while they are surrounded bj\ndifficulties and by emergencies that are created by popular demand fo^\nsuperior results and by public exigencies of enormous consequences.\nSpecialization as a means to an end. — The developments that have comd\nfrom three-quarters of a century of normal-school activity have resulted in\nthe adoption of a policy of specialization as the means to an end for securing decided efficiency in the training of individual teachers. Out of this\ngrowth of the conception of how best to give capability thru training has\noriginated the classifying of teachers-in-training according to their particular adaptability for the service they are to perform later into kindergartners,\nprimary teachers, grade teachers, rural teachers, teachers of public-school\nmusic, art teachers, manual-arts teachers, home-economics teachers,\nphysical-education teachers, commercial teachers, and department highschool teachers. When this entire field of training is not covered by a state\nnormal school, the work that it is assigned to do partakes more or less of\nthese differentiation characteristics by its endeavoring to train each student\nfor notable efficiency in some one line of teaching service. The success\nthat this system of specialization has reached has attained such a high\ndegree of acceptability that it is rapidly becoming the plan of organization\nthat is approved as the most effective in its possible results and in its\neconomic benefits. This specialization has not been sufficient when it has\nbeen applied to the planning of the courses of study and of training, as its\npurpose must be emphasized equally in the spirit of the management and\nin the personal developments of the right attitude of those who are to\nrepresent the motive and the aim of such endeavor in the service they\nrender society. The creation of this wholesome atmosphere of helpful\nservice rendered by the soldiers of the common good is fundamental to all\nthe enterprise and to all the work that originates and is maintained in the\nlife and accomplishments of a true normal school.\nThe high-school teacher. — ^There is no good reason why the training of\nhigh-school teachers is not the proper fimction of a state normal school.\nIt is true that some of the states have not made any provision at all for the\ntraining of high-school teachers. It is probably true that some of the\nstates assume that high-school teachers do not need special training.\nThese states have done without such a plan so long and are so well satisfied\nwith their accomplishments at the present that they are not interested in\nsuch a proposition more than they would be in the founding and maintaining\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n8ll\n\nat public expense of a state university or a state school of law or medicine.\nIt is also true that where training of high-school teachers has developed in states thru the service of state normal schools, it is in these very\nstates that colleges and universities are most active and most progressive\nin undertaking this kind of work. So important and so prominent has\nbecome this service in a large number of state normal schools that the leading members of the faculties of such schools are expected to make extended\npreparation in educational and technical courses beyond the regular college\nstandards and to have in addition notable experience in teaching in order\nto have competency to do the exceptional work demanded. The state\nnormal schools have the environment and the training facilities to the\nhighest degree, they have experience in training students to be teachers that\nis notable, and they are so affiliated with the public schools of the communities where they are located that the work to be done is never subordinated\nby the presence of other educational endeavors that are commercialized\nand self-centered. Becoming a high-school teacher demands of a student\nan attitude toward life that is difficult to get where teaching is not represented as a great vocation and as possessing opportunities sufficient to\nsatisfy the truest ambition and the greatest personal talents. This condition must exist at a genuine normal school and it is in such an atmosphere\nthat the training of high-school teachers can reach its best and most\nproductive development.\nThe high school as a part of the system. — Since the high school is a part\nof the public-school system, since high-school teaching cannot be divorced\nfrom other public-school teaching, and since principals, supervisors, and\nsuperintendents are safely selected from experienced high-school teachers,\nit is of the greatest importance that high-school teachers in their training\nshould have the largest opportunity to become thoroly acquainted with\nthe work of the elementary and primary grades and thereby be better able\nto fit their instruction to the attainments of their pupils and at the same\ntime be able to appreciate the limitations and the difficulties of the elementary and primary teachers as will be shown in the pupils they prepare\nfor the high school. Such acquaintance and experience while in training\nwould abbreviate the time that must be spent in actual service before the\nteacher can be well qualified for the more prominent undertakings in management and supervision and would give efficiency and strength in the\npersonal and executive endeavors to be maintained without experimentation or delay, giving initiative and intelligence and security such as would\notherwise be unrealized and unappreciated. Possessing authority conferred\nby appointment to executive work and responsibility does not guarantee\nthe necessary wisdom or the power of success. Despite the fact that many\nof the most lucrative positions in educational work are still classified as\nnon-professional and as not depending upon standards of scholarship,\nquality of personal attainment, or quantity of acquirement, the individuals\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Norma\n\nSO appointed being ranked side by side with the local politician and the ^\nordinary public official, yet it is evident that there is a gradual improvement\nin the popular conception of the need for more recognition of capabiHty\nand efficiency as factors in administration, so that promotion from thi\nranks of the well educated and the well trained is more and more the custo\nRight standards of training. — That high-school teachers should havi\ndefinite qualifications as to general scholarship as well as to special scholarship isuniversally recognized.\nGeneral scholarship must mean an elementary knowledge of college-grade English, mathematics, physics, chemistryj\nearth science, biological science, history, political science, and drawing,\nwhile special scholarship must mean an advanced\nknowledge\nto\nsuperior degree of some one kind of scholarship, such as English, foreij\nlanguage, social science, physical science, natural science, or mathematic;\nTo make this special scholarship truly effective requires the addition of\nsome second kind of knowledge which so co-operates with the expert attainments of the first as to add strength and breadth to the instruction that can\nbe given by the trained teacher. In addition to these majors, minors, and\nelementary courses there must be notable and thoro knowledge of education\nas a science and as an art.\nThe state normal school that plans properly to fit high-school teachers\nfor successful service cannot afford to subordinate scholarship of the best\ngrade in any respect. It must do better work rather than poorer work\nthan the standard college because of its professional status and ideals as\nan institution. It must meet the highest conceptions of quaUty and quantity, but it does not need to be bound by tradition and by pride to standards\nthat are more academic than effective. While recognLzing the value of\nacademic standards, it is possible to go so far in legislating on these elements\nof the training of the high-school teacher that other important and more\nvital things may be omitted or overlooked. There is a possibility that a\ncollege student can specialize so much that he may not be quaUfied to do\neffectively the elementary work that is necessary in high-school courses.\nIn fact, it is no uncommon thing to find a teacher so infatuated with his\nattainments in scholarship that he cannot come down to the level of the\npupils he is employed to teach and hence makes a failure to do for the school\nwhat is essential in every case to be done. In a similar way, it is equally common to find a teacher so overwhelmed with his attainments in the professional\nstudies of his college course that he fails to adapt his instruction to the\nmental capabilities of his class or to recognize the necessity for simplicity\nof language and concreteness of illustration, and hence suffers from lack\nof appreciation and popular favor so essential to professional growth and\npersonal happiness.\nThe state normal school's duty to the state. — ^When the imiversities and\ncolleges as now organized have contributed all they can to prepare welleducated and well-trained teachers for the high schools, yet there are then\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nnot half enough recruits to fill the ranks of the army of teachers that are\nneeded. With the advent of the village and the country high schools,\nwhich new institutions promise to surpass in numbers even the city high\nschools themselves; with the increasing demand for a more practical and\nmore complete secondary education for the vast majority of boys and girls;\nwith the development of normal training in high schools in many of the\nstates; with the expansion of educational opportunities for the masses\ndemanding multitudes of supervisors, principals, and superintendents;\nit becomes the duty of the state normal schools to be active factors in helping the people to realize their rights and their obligations. If the universities and colleges could double their capacity for output by increasing\ntheir immense expenditures, yet the results could not be reached, since the\nteaching class must be recruited from the ranks of those who cannot afiFord\nto add any expense to their present sacrifices of time and money. It is\ntrue that college and university life is continually on an ascending scale and\nthat many would-be teachers are obliged to seek institutions where living\nexpenses are on a cheaper basis, if they are to get their education and training. In such conditions as these, the state normal schools can meet the\nemergency, as they are the one class of institutions conducted on a basis\nof great simpUcity and of rigid economy, such as is not now equaled anywhere in higher educational administration. In addition the legislatures\nof the several states stand ready to provide the means necessary to place\nthe work of these popular institutions on the highest standard of efiiciency\nin order to prepare competent and capable teachers for their common\nschools. With such a situation and with the problems of popular education\nnot half solved, the duty of the state normal schools is that of meeting the\nobligation in full by undertaking the task of thoroly preparing teachers\nfor all grades and kinds of public-school work. When this conception of\nduty has been accepted and the fruits of the endeavor have been fully\nreaUzed, then the education and the training of high-school teachers will\nhave reached a proper standard and the public schools will be unified in\npurpose and enlarged in scope so that they are able to meet the full demands\nof the masses.\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "4\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nAND PRACTICAL ARTS\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education,\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nVice-President — Martha Van Rensselaer, president, American Home Economics\nAssociation and professor of home economics, Cornell University. . . .Ithaca, N.Y.\nVice-President — Carl N. Werntz, president, Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. . .Chicago, III.\nCorresponding Secretary — ^Florence Marshall, principal, Manhattan Trade School\n'J\nfor Girls .... New York, N.Y.\nRecording Secretary — ^Wilson H. Henderson, Extension Department, University of\nWisconsin\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\n^'\nFIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, August 26, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order by the president in the Auditorium Theater, Oakland,\nCal., at 9:00 A.M.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\"Art in Its Relation to National Growth\" — Frank A. Parsons, president, New York\nSchool of Fine and Applied Art, New York, N.Y.\nThis paper was discussed by Florence E. Ellis, art director, American Crayon Company, Sandusky, Ohio.\n\"Home Economics Applied to Life\" — Martha Van Rensselaer, president, American\nHome Economics Association and professor of home economics, Cornell University,\nIthaca, N.Y.\n\"The School Shop and Breadwinning\" — James Collins Miller, provincial director\nof technical education. Department of Education, Edmonton, Alta.\n^>\nSECOND SESSION— TmmsDAY Afternoon, August 26, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 P.M. by President Chamberlain and the\nfollowing program presented:\n\"Vocational Education and the Labor Problem\" — Carroll G. Pearse, president,\nState Normal School, Milwa\\ikee, Wis.\n\"Vocational Education, Its Wider Implications\" — Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School\nof Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Social Phases of Vocational Education\" — Richard G. Boone, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nThese papers were discussed by Edwin R. Snyder, commissioner of vocational education for California, Sacramento, Cal.\n\"Some Social Phases of Vocational Education in the Philippines\" — John S. Potter,\nchief clerk. Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President — Frank A. Parsons, president. New York School of Fine and Applied\nArt, New York, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President — A. H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education,\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — ^Leonard W. Wahlstorm, head of manual training department, Parker School, Chicago, 111.\nOhio.For Secretary — Florence E. Ellis, art director, American Crayon Company, Sandusky,\nWilson H. Henderson, Secretary\n'\n\n81s\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l6\n\nFRANK\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nART IN ITS RELATION\n\nTO NATIONAL\n\n(Vocational\n\nGROWTH\n\nALVAH PARSONS, PRESIDENT, NEW YORK SCHOOL OF FINE AND APPL:\nART, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nil\n\nTo be fruitful of any concrete results, a limited discussion of this subject must impose certain elemental and fundamental premises to which,\nfor the time being at least, those concerned can all subscribe. The meaning of art is the first of these.\nArt, more than any other term in the EngUsh tongue, has been misunderstood, juggled with, and misappUed, until a clear conception of its\nreal meaning is well-nigh impossible. Art, so far as it relates to our subject today, \"The Plastic Arts,\" is a quaUty, and, like other qualities, is\nsubject to certain limitations and qualifications depending upon the problem with which it is associated. Art is that quality which results from\ncertain combinations of color and form which are in perfect harmony with\nthe idea which they express and with each other in the unit which they\nrepresent. These combinations of color and form, which I shall, for want\nof a better term, call \"significant forms,\" occur in man's work in materials\nonly when they are first present as a mental state. The habitual condition\nof consciousness in which a state of harmony in these combinations is\npresent is an artistic state, and a person possessing this state of mind is\nsaid to be artistic. Art is first of all then a state of mind and may be\ncultivated in exactly the same manner as any other state of mind and by\nthe same educational processes.\nMan in all stages of his development instinctively craves beauty, which\nis the natural stimulant for the universal aesthetic sense. He also, by the\nfundamental laws of life, strives to express beauty. Naturally he attempts\nthis in those fields in which his most intense interests Ue. This is the reason\nfor the art expression in Greek temples, Gothic cathedrals. Renaissance\npalaces, frescoe paintings, colonial houses, and modem touring cars. The\namount of concentrated interest present and the kind of interest determine\nthe quality and kind of object. There is one art only, but as many manifestations ofit as there are life-interests, and the emphasis of its excellence\nat any time is directed at the particular thing most strongly focal in human\nconsciousness. This is true both of the nation and of the individual and\nis the reason for the \"periods in art.\"\nIt may be well to discuss for the moment here some of the things which\nart is not, that a clearer vision of what art is may appear.\nFirst, art is not nature. Every element in nature's plan has its place\nin material, texture, form, and color in relation to the stupendous whole\nof which it is a part. In its place, undisturbed by man, each element in\nnature plays its part in the sublime beauty of the universe. Remove an\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nART\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO NATIONAL\n\nGROWTH\n\n817\n\nelement from its natural environment, adjust it with unrelated materials,\nforms, and colors, make it do the work for which it was not intended, and\nit is no longer nature or art, nor has it beauty. The supreme effort of the\npast one hundred years in this country seems to have been directed against\nart by a gigantic effort to compel students to copy or represent nature\non and in every known material from the hair wreath to the bent iron animal\nkingdom. Instead of adapting nature's suggestions in suitable form and\ncolor, expressed in suitable material, nature's characteristics have been\nmade to play the part of false representations in every field. Art is not\nnature nor the representation of it. It is creation and should be used as\nthe expression of creative ideas adapting nature's suggestions, like suggestions from other sources, for particular use under the laws of decorative\ntreatment only.\nA more intimate intercourse with Italy and France in the last quarter\nof a century has aroused an abnormal interest (born largely of curiosity) in\nthe antique. For this reason and in this way our mental attitude has become one of labels, dates, and costs, instead of one which can react normally\nto that which is beautiful, be it old or new. Art again is not antiquity,\ncuriosity, nor cost. It is quality, and I must possess that quality personally\nif I am to react to it in objects which possess it.\nStill again art is not necessarily associated with the painted picture.\nThe insistent belief on the part of painters, teachers, and the public in\ngeneral that an art exhibit is necessarily a picture exhibit has led finally\nto making the picture idea an essential element in all- decorative art. This\nmistake is responsible for the seemingly impossible situations that exist\nwhen one sees roses in the carpet \"as natural as life,\" lilies and grapes upon\nthe walls withering and wilting before one's eyes, and fish, fowl, and beast\n\"hand-painted\" on china which should arouse in the human mind visions\nof the aquarium, the natural-history museum, and the primeval forest, but\nnever, never can this touch the aesthetic sense. Never can it be art,\nnor can it by any chance be a help to the appreciation of what art really\nmight be.\nEducation is the adjustment of the individual to the time and the\nenvironment in which he finds himself. Times change. Every change\nbrmgs new needs. From these, new demands are made and new creations\nappear. Art remains the same quality and must be an element of the\nobjects in which we now have interest to make its true appeal to modern\nminds or to be of lasting service in modern life. It is the business of education to meet new demands, and now the demand is for better food, better\nhomes, better furnishings, better clothes, better implements for use, and\nbetter advertising signs. In short, it is our business to adjust man to his\nactivities and his conditions as we find them now. This is certainly as\ntrue of art education-as it is of any other field of work, and the problem must\nbe solved in the same scientific, sensible, and sympathetic way as any other\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n8l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIVocaUonal\n\nefficient educative work. We must consider the individual, the principles\ngoverning the subject, and the subject-matter or materials we shall use\nin bringing the subject to the mind of the individual himself.\nThe power of environment as an educative factor is too well recognized\nby this body to need comment, and yet may I ask you to realize with clearer\nemphasis than ever before its essential bearing on the subject of art education. A national art means art in the national consciousness. The quaUty\nof the national consciousness can be no finer than the average of its individual elements. The solution of the problem of the nation's art is answered\nin the quality of the intimate environment in which the individuals of the\nnation Uve. This environment in which we are bom, grow up, and learn\nto feel at home will find its reflection in the consciousness of all. Think\nnot for an instant that a school which owns a few good pictures, a home\nhousing an onyx statue of the Venus de Milo, a city with a sculptured\nfountain or two, or even a museum of art objects can take the place of this\nart environment. Any effect they might have had is quickly neutralized\nby the house, the shop, the imcanny park, the billboard, and the movingpicture show, each a moniunent of supreme ugliness in itself.\nClearly there are some quite definite things to teach even in art. First,\nlet us teach what art is; that it is a quality whose two elements are use and\nbeauty; that perfect fitness to use is the fundamental consideration in\nso-called \"applied and industrial arts\" where personal ideas of beauty and\nsentimental impulses must not be allowed to destroy one's intellectual\njudgment of what is fit.\nSecondly, we must not confuse the art quality with its visible language\nof expression, which is such combinations of color and form as will excite\nthe aesthetic sense. This language, like other symbols of expression, is\nsubject to specific laws of structure and ornament both in choice and in\narrangement, and, to become operative, must be taught scientifically as\nwell as intuitively.\nThirdly, we must teach that the use of an object is generally the reason\nfor its being; that we may not when decorating it interfere with its usf\nquality, but rather by decorating it we call attention to its structural and\nuse qualities by the application of a decoration to it. Further, we should\nlet it be known that we are decorating the object to satisfy our natural\ndesire for beauty, being certain that our standard of what is beautiful is;\nclearly conceived, that is, that we have a conscious concept of what beaut}\nis. We must bear in mind, too, that decoration exists to make more beautiful the thing which it decorates and not to exploit itself. When this unit}and sequence are not observed between the object and its decoration, the\ndecorative idea itself is thereby destroyed.\nFourthly, manual skill and the knowledge of processes must not b.\ncalled art, but recognized as essential elements of good technical expression\nonly. Not that the importance of them should be minimized; but the>\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO NATIONAL\n\nGROWTH\n\n819\n\nshould not be mistaken for what they are not. Much of the so-called correlated work in art and manual training, in the arts and crafts, and in\ndomestic art recognizes the necessity of their technical facts only and\nbelieves this to be art. This work is chiefly notable for its absence of the\nart quality.\nFinally, we must teach the facts and principles by which and thru which\nthe symbols of this language (color and form) are expressible in such\n\"significant forms\" as shall stimulate the action of the aesthetic sense.\nIn the use of these symbols first insist on expression of fact and truth, then\non an individual imaginative use of them. This is teaching art, and its\nhabitual practice is training in good taste or art appreciation.\nThe growth of a nation is the sum of the growths of the individuals\nwho make it. The directions in which the activities of a nation manifest\nthemselves are the same as those in which the activities of the individuals\nexpress themselves. Viewing the matter in the simplest possible manner,\nwe must choose between a development which has for its avowed object\nthe growth and expansion of a people whose sole aim is material power,\nwealth, and national material aggrandizement or we must accept the truth\nthat man has a spiritual nature which is the master, not the servant, of the\nmaterial world. Whichever of these views is taken, art is a mighty factor\nin the realization of what is called a normal national life.\nIt has often been said: \"We can have art here in this country. If we\ncan't produce it, we can buy it.\" Unfortunately art is one of the things\none cannot applique on to consciousness, nor is a rudimentary aesthetic\nsense any more capable of digesting and assimilating a subtle aesthetic\nconcept than is the most elementary digestive system able to accept and\nuse a ten-course French table d'hdte dinner. Because of this, even if we\naccept purely the material viewpoint, the nation can ill afford to ignore the\nmoney value of an art education which is a natural element of our industrial\nlife. In this art quality lies the difference in value of most of our imported\nmaterials. On the other hand, if we accept the view that man's material\nexpression is influenced by his mental or spiritual self, the argument for a\nfuller knowledge, a higher standard, and a more profound respect for art\nbecomes clearly of vital importance to us, both as individuals and as a\nnation.\nArt is truth or harmony expressed. In whatever way or in whatever\nmaterial it is expressed, it is a constant reminder of the eternal fitness of\nthings and is a silent urge to better thinking and better living.\nQuite apart, however, from the normal problems of national evolution\nis the special one with which we are grappling today. With the civilized\nworld engaged in a life-and-death struggle for political and commercial\nsupremacy, this nation is confronted with the most stupendous commercial\nproblem in its history. Our social and industrial fabric is rent asunder\nby the forces of materialism as they grapple with man's inherent demand\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocation\n\nfor standards of beauty and spiritual ideals. We must, in the near futureJ\nnot only supply ourselves with textiles, furniture, carpets, wall papers,|\nclothes, and other necessaries furnished by Europe, but we shall, in manj\ninstances, be asked to supply South America and even Europe itself wit\nthese same things. In matters of natural resources, mechanical skill, anc\nphysical energy, we are ready. In matters of art, we are crude, uncertai\nand, worst of all, in many instances, satisfied. Until there is a change\nattitude as to what art is, as to its proper values as an element in life, we\ncannot compete, even in matters of commercial rivalry, for art is as essent\nto man's perfect satisfaction as any material quality can be.\nThe solution not only of this special problem, but of the problem of art^\nin its relation to our national growth, lies in a frank acknowledgment and\na clear understanding of what problems present themselves, and in what\nstate of preparedness or unpreparedness we find ourselves to meet these\nproblems. The solution demands an awakening to a keener sense of the\npower and natural function of art as it relates to man's normal activities\nand to the educational system of which we are a part. We must cancel dead\ntraditions about our teaching and approach the subject in the same fairminded manner in which all other subjects are approached. We must\ndenounce the idea that art is a fad or a frill and accept it as man's natural,\nnormal, necessary inheritance. We must educate more art teachers and\nfewer drawing teachers, keeping in mind that art is a quality of consciousness, that understanding of it, appreciation for it, and personal reaction\nto it by a nation mean individual possession of that quality in personal\nconsciousness.\nDISCUSSION\nFlorence E. Ellis, art director, American Crayon Company, Sandusky, Ohio.—\nOne point I wish to emphasize in Mr. Parsons' talk is that environment is the strongest,\nsurest, and quickest force in furnishing art appreciation.\nThe home, the first environment of the child, makes a strong and lasting impression.\nIf the home serves best its children and the nation, it must furnish art environment.\nArt must be lived to be really appreciated, and in the kitchen as well as in the parlor;\nin the back yard as weU as in the front yard; in the furniture as well as in the pictiire on\nthe wall.\nArt as related to the home has, until recently, received but meager attention in the\nschools. Teachers of art had little preparation along practical lines; teachers of domestic\neconomy and manual training had little or no art training. Art for everyday living, the\nsubject of greatest importance in art teaching in elementary and high schools, received\nlittle consideration. This can no longer be |x>ssible in any progressive school.\nArt in the home signifies simplicity, harmony, beauty — everything done in the best\npossible way. Art has banished over-decoration, imnecessary furnishings, things whose\nonly superiority is cost, and elaborate entertaining which renders hospitality often\nimpossible.\nArt has a place in even the most ordinary duties of living. A lady showing with\npride her kitchen said: \"Even dish-washing here is a pleasure.\" Over the sink was a\nlong horizontal window commanding a wonderful view. To wash dishes looking at that\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\nAPPLIED\n\nTO LIFE\n\n821\n\nscene of ever-changing beauty wotild be a pleasure. The kitchen was light, airy, and\nopened on to a porch and garden. The woodwork was a soft gray. The curtains were\nblue and white of inexpensive Japanese linen. The cooking utensils were white with a\nband of blue. A few flowers were pleasingly arranged on a table. Everything was\nsimple, inexpensive, harmonious, and beautiful. Even the vegetable garden was an\nexpression of love of beauty and joy of living. Amid such surroimdings, an appreciation of\nbeauty would become second nature, fewer daughters would dislike home duties, fewer\nmothers would be nervous and broken in health. Beauty is as necessary in the home as\nsunshine.\nArt is a spiritual quality. In the place of crude materialism it brings idealism. The\nappreciation of it opens the mind and sovl to a larger vision, loftier aspiration, and greater\nachievement. Art reaches out into a realm limitless in possibilities.\nThere is a vast difference between drawing and art. Art is an outward expression in\nmaterial form of the beautiful within. Beauty must be felt before it can be expressed,\nand a mere representation of objects does not develop such aesthetic sense. A state\nsuperintendent of schools in looking thru an exhibit of drawing came to a group of stilllife studies. \"Those are fine,\" he said, \"but of what practical service will that be to the\ngirl after she leaves school?\" The supervisor of drawing replied: \"It teaches grouping\nof objects and good color combinations, and that will be of use in the home.\" He said,\n\"But I have watched that for seventeen years and it has not done it yet.\" If a little\ntime had been devoted to color combinations as related to the furnishings in a home, the\nplacing of furniture in a room, to the hanging of pictures, to the arrangement of fruit\nand flowers in receptacles best suited to them in color, size, and shape, such a criticism\ncould not have been made.\nAccurate drawing is not sufficient in art study; good construction is not sufficient in\nmanual training. A feeling for beauty is equally important.\nTo deprive the boy or girl of an appreciation of art is to limit enjoyment, achievement,\nand earning power. The ideal is the practical. To the individual it brings satisfaction,\ngreater efficiency, higher aspirations, and larger financial returns. To the nation it means\nbetter manufactured objects, a larger commerce, a more capable and happier people.\nIndeed art determines largely the happiness, the prosperity, and the standing of the\nnation.\n\nHOME\nMARTHA\n\nECONOMICS\n\nAPPLIED\n\nTO LIFE\n\nVAN RENSSELAER, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN HOME ECONOMICS\nCIATION AND PROFESSOR\nOF HOME ECONOMICS, CORNELL\nUNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y.\n\nASSO-\n\nThe purpose of home economics is to improve home standards thru\napplying the principles of art and science to home problems. Since the\nhome is the nucleus of all social groups, home economics will more and\nmore play a part of fundamental importance in establishing right commimity\nideals as well as home ideals. In a general way, the statement may stand\nthat education will advance only so fast as education in home economics\nadvances, for progress ultimately rests on home standards.\nWe are emerging from one view of home economics as a subject dealing\naltogether with certain phases of cooking and sewing. We are advancing\nso fast in our conception of education that we even see educational value\nin mere cooking and sewing. We are recognizing them as tools of importance in solving some of our large educational problems. Not only is the\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "822\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocationall\n\neducational value of home economics being accepted, but its professional\naspect also is gaining for it a place of first rank. So home economics\nmust be conceived as something which is very inclusive and which will\ninclude in its definition the arts and sciences as these are applied to\nhome betterment. Both secondary schools and colleges are thus gradually beginning to contribute education which concerns itself directly with I\nupbuilding the home, and this will inevitably act as a stimulus to alll\nforms of education.\nIt is strange that we have waited thus long to realize the value of giving\ntraining thru that channel of greatest interest or experience — the home.\nMusic, art, literature, and history have seldom been taught thru the home ^\npoint of view. One home-economics expert has suggested the use of the\nOdyssey as a poem of thrilling interest in home economics. Adam Bede,\nLorna Doone, and other standard novels depict home life in a way to\nstimulate the imagination. It has been of absorbing interest in one of our\nstates to note the effects of an appeal to change the music in the home and\nto substitute \"songs that live\" for cheap ragtime and vicious popular tunes.\nFrom changed home ideals of music will come improved community ideals.\nArt may find its first expression in some of the simple problems of food,\nshelter, and clothing. Art will never permeate the masses and artists will\nstarve if it begins and ends in a studio. Something must create the feeling\nfor art in the common mind if it is to be felt in the larger community.\nThe home may give ample opportimity to open the minds of the people\nto an appreciation for art ideals. The children whose standards at home\nare determined by plush albums and wax flowers may walk thru parks and\npicture galleries with minds and eyes closed to beauty.\nWe are living in inartistic surroundings because we have no common,\nworkable ideals of art. The artist's soul is troubled and the real teacher\nof design is here and there making an impression for better things.\nFormerly domestic art in the school program meant sewing. Now as fast\nas the schools will turn out teachers of design, principles of design will be\napplied to house furnishing and house planning, to sewing and dressmaking,\nwhich will change the face of our dwellings and secure a new art in dress.\nA simple rose in a glass bottle on a window ledge may be a more hopeful\nsign of appreciation than the creation of an inferior picture. There are\nfew who cannot appreciate art principles if they may be applied to the\nnecessary events of life, as the purchase of the right necktie or hair ribbon\nor colored socks and fancy shoes, or a good design and color for a dress, or\nbeautiful and simple lines of furniture.\nNow so poorly trained are we in the home application of art principles\nthat the people behind counters guide us in our purchases with remarks\nso commonly heard in department stores: \"It is very becoming,\" \"Everybody iswearing it.\" These remarks are made too often by those who have\nno principles to guide them.\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\nAPPLIED\n\nTO LIFE\n\n823\n\nWhat are the art ideals of the homes from which have come the painters\nof houses, the decorators of rooms, the carpenters who in small villages and\non farms are also the architects of country houses, the designer in the factory who determines the color and the form of articles which we commonly\nhandle ?\nHome economics is concerned with the expenditure of the dollar to\nderive from its spending the greatest good for the welfare of the family.\nMany women are not trained in bookkeeping, and family accounts are\na burden. Boys are trained to earn money and girls are spenders without\ntraining. The result is a lack of business system in housekeeping; kitchen\ntools are often understandardized; time studies are not made for the\nperformance of duties which consume an endless amount of time.\nA large proportion of the family income is spent for food, shelter, and\nclothing. Earning money has become standardized; spending it is more\nor less haphazard. Girls must know the value and the feeling of money\nin the pocket, the value of commodities, what to buy and what not to buy.\nAn eastern city has at its entrance the words, \"Upon the women of this\ncity depends its financial success.\" It was a department store advertisement. Whatever the women demanded, this store and others must\nproduce.\nHome-economics education generally begins with a study of food. The\nvivid appeal that it makes to the large majority of students is not because\nof something \"good to eat,\" but because of the opportunity to make something; the ability to express even in a simple way creative force. That the\nresult is good to eat is important, not only practically in interesting the\nstudent, but ethically because of its effects on human welfare.\nNowhere is science more busy than with the problems of conserving\nhuman life and almost every day something new is added to the body of\nscientific fact which makes the subject of foods and nutrition, of sanitation\nand hygiene of tremendous scientific as well as vital interest. The educational value of a study of foods and nutrition, hygiene and sanitation is not\nonly obvious but the effects upon the home and the community of ignorance\nof these subjects are apparent to the blind and the deaf. The teaching of\nthe principles of food preparation and nutrition, of hygiene and sanitation,\nwill not only affect the health of the members of the community but will\ngive an incalculable stimulus to interest in science.\nIt will take time to weld into the home the high standards of food\npreparation, nutrition, and sanitation which will be needed to reflect themselves back thru the young people who become the teachers of home\neconomics, bakers, stewards, dietitians, inspectors, and homemakers.\nThe problems of public health indicate that there is a lack of respect for\nscience. Connecting science with the home will have a salutary influence\nupon those who are required to quarantine and keep clean for the public\ngood.\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\n\\\nThe public has a reverence for the label on the bottle because blind\nfaith is a common human trait. Science must teach the lesson of questioning the label before the demand will come for wholesome surroundings,\nclean milk, clean water, clean workers, and clean streets. Public-health\nlaws will take care of food adulterations and quarantine, but the home must\naid in prevention, and may teach public sanitation thru such homely\nproblems as clean refrigerators, clean clothing, and clean personal habits.\nHome economics is the meeting-place of the sciences and the arts.\nIt is the medium of carrjdng into the home the principles of both science\nand art whereby to establish high standards of living. These standards\nwill create a healthful demand for whatever makes this world a better\nplace to live. When any vigorous force is untrained, society is jeopardized;\nwhen guided by instruction it helps to lay the foundation-stone of social\nprogress.\nTHE SCHOOL\n\nSHOP AND\n\nBREADWINNING\n\nJAMES COLLINS MILLER, PROVINCIAL DIRECTOR OF TECHNICAL\nDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, EDMONTON, ALTA.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nIt is to the development of science that we owe the appearance of the\nshop in the school. Fields of activity formerly of a simple and relatively\nundifferentiated character have become complex and highly specialized.\nThe old system of personal apprenticeship has passed away to be replaced\nby a new and longer apprenticeship in which the school plays a most important part. If for political, religious, intellectual, and cultural motives\nthe potential breadwinner is taken from the shop, these same motives as\nwell as the requirements of the new apprenticeship demand that the shop be\nincorporated in the school.\nIf the shop is to be in the school, it must of necessity be influenced by,\nand bear a relationship to, the functions of the school as an institution.\nBriefly stated, the school is asked to perform three major functions. Its\neducative function is that of fostering the growth of a child's personality and\ndeveloping its capabilities in such a way as to enable it to meet successfully\nthe demands of life and to attain to a realization of itself. In its protective\nfunction it safeguards the child against the unfortunate tendencies of his\nown nature, unworthy parentage, avoidable physical unfitness, and the\neconomic pressures which bring adult responsibilities before maturity.\nIn performing its selective function the school must provide a sufficient\nrange of experience to enable the variations in abilities to reveal themselves.\nIt must foster the development of the special abilities so revealed and assist\nthe youth in finding the place where his particular abilities will bring the\ngreatest return for himself and for his fellows.\nTo what extent does the shop contribute to the attainment of these\nthree central functions of the school, all of which are basic in the problem\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSHOP\n\nAND\n\nBREADWINNING\n\n825\n\nof winning the bread of life ? To the performance of the educative function\nof the school it may be said to contribute the following:\n1. The experience, appreciations, and sympathies of those who in afteryears will not be directly related to the activities in the shop are broadened\nby participation in the shop activities in the schools.\n2. The experience, appreciations, and sympathies of those who in afteryears will be directly responsible for carrying on and directing the activities\nof the shop and factory will be broadened by participation in the activities\nof the school apart from those of the shop. Social cleavages will thereby\nbe less marked and the possibilities of co-operation in after-life increased.\n3. The shop experience if rightly organized should greatly foreshorten\nthe period of apprenticeship which would otherwise be necessary. Not\nonly should the period of apprenticeship be shortened, but the quality and\nrange of experience during that period should show an enrichment in\nintellectual, social, and technical values which would unavoidably be\nabsent in the ordinary experience of the trade or craft.\n4. The shop provides also the practical objective experience with\nmaterials and processes that is fundamental for those who go forward into\nthe more advanced fields of applied science, technology, and art.\n5. The shop outside of the school as now organized fails to provide,\nand cannot properly provide, for adequate apprenticeship.\nTo the performance of the protective function of the school the shop\ncontributes the following:\n1. It protects the child from too early participation in the work of the\nshop in the industrial world.\n2. It protects the youth from inadequate preparation for active participation inthe activities of the shops of the industrial world by providing\nshop experience in the school itself.\n3. It fortifies him against the deadening effect of the repetition and\nroutine, inseparable from the experience of the workers in modem industry,\nby giving him wider knowledge, appreciations, and interests.\n4. By so doing, it helps to keep the vision of life's varied possibilities,\nboth within and apart from the particular field of skill in which he may\nbe occupied, clearly before him.\nTo the performance of the selective function of the school the shop may\nbe said to contribute in the following ways:\nI. The presence of the shop assists the school materially in discovering\nthe range of abilities in each student and in its student body as a whole.\nThe great majority of those who attend school will be either directly or\nindirectly engaged in solving the problem of dealing with materials and of\narranging and controlling natural forces. It is of the greatest importance\nthat the school discover those whose ability and interests lie in these directions and that those abilities and interests be fostered and developed. The\nwelfare of both the individual and the society will profit thereby. Apart\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[VocatiSS\n\nfrom the shop the school offers little to stimulate these interests and develoj\nthese abilities.\n2. Having discovered and developed the special abilities of the students,|\nthe school should assist them in finding their place of service on leaving\nschool. If the youth is to win the bread of life and not merely the bread oi\nphysical necessity, he must not be a misfit but must find himself in a fiek\nof service that lends itself to an expression of his strength.\nGranted that the shop iu the school is to contribute in these ways\ntoward the fulfilment of the school's function, we at once face the problem]\nof the teachers who are to be the schools' special agents in this work. Ii\nmany centers the difficulty in securing instructors technically qualifiec\nis rapidly being overcome. In some centers it has been possible to do af\ngreat deal toward strengthening those technically qualified along the educational line and those partially qualified educationally along technical\nlines. I know of no center where the problem of adequately trained\nspecialists for the school shop has been solved.\nCourses in the history of education and psychology, in school administration and management, in sociology and economics are being required of\nthose who would qualify as special teachers, but to what extent have those\nadministering these courses kept in mind the field of responsibility into\nwhich the specialist is to enter ? The point to be made here is very well\nillustrated by the following incident in a imiversity: Those responsible\nfor the applied-science courses wanted their students to receive some\ntraining in English, particularly with the view to stimulating in them an\ninterest in good literature. The department of EngUsh arranged to receive\nthem into one of its classes. To the surprise of the applied-science faculty,\nthey were admitted to the class that was making an intensive study of\nChaucer's works.\nBefore the school shop can meet its full responsibilities, those who are\nto be responsible for its activities must be more fully equipped. Upon the\nbasis of adequate technical knowledge both of the shop within the school\nand of the shop outside of the school, there must be developed a real professional course which will give us a group of educationists able to share\nin the responsibiHties of the school as a whole and to appreciate all the\nvaried bearings, not only of the work of their own department, but of all\ndepartments and of the school as a unit, upon the life of the children and\nthe welfare of the community. The so-called professional subjects, history\nof education, psychology, sociology, school administration and management, after a general preliminary study, must be closely related to, and\ndraw their concrete material from, the fields of the specialists concerned.\nThe problem of the school shop and what it implies has been one of the\nmost difficult that the educational administrator has had to face. The\nreasons advanced for the introduction of the shop in the school have been\nso many and so varied and have changed so much from time to time and\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSHOP\n\nAND\n\nBREADWINNING\n\n827\n\nplace to place that the administrator has been at a loss to know what to\ndo. The expenditures and organization involved are considerable. If\nincurred for purposes suggested today, will they be of value in the light\nof purposes suggested tomorrow? This element of indefiniteness as to\nfunction and purpose has affected the organization of the work itself, the\nquality of the instruction, and the results obtained in the training of the\nstudent.\nWith the developments which are now taking place in the field of school\nadministration we may hope for more satisfactory results. When the\nauthorities of the state and municipalities undertake to adopt as careful\na system of educational and financial accounting as is now adopted in good\nbusiness practice we may hope for more clearness regarding both the\nimmediate and the ultimate purposes of these as well as other branches of\neducational work and for more definite standards of measuring results.\nThe analysis of the student body by age, grade, and sex classification, the\nprevocational guidance and training, the vocational guidance of the more\nmature whether in school or out, the careful study of the social and economic\nsituation outside of the school into which the graduates must go, all of\nthese are contributing to an analysis of the situation which will make it\npossible to determine purposes more clearly and therefore secure more\nadequate organization, better qualified instructors, and better methods of\ninstruction. Then the shop may be in this institution or in that, but in\neither case the public, the administrator, instructor, and student will know\nwhat it is there for and be able to determine whether it is accomplishing\nthe purpose it was designed to accomplish.\nFor religious, political, cultural, and economic motives, the potential\nbreadwinner has been brought into the school. The developments in\napplied science have made it necessary and economically possible to hold\nhim in the school for a lengthened period. The nature of industrial and\ncommercial organization eliminates the possibility of a satisfactory apprenticeship ofthe old type and the other educational demands now made upon\nall for future citizenship also contribute toward making the old apprenticeship an impossibility. The school must therefore provide a new apprenticeship which shall be an apprenticeship for life, a life that involves labor,\nwork, recreation, and leisure. It must train the boys and girls for the\nrace in life if the bread of life is to be won. While education for leisure\nis important and increasingly important as man's productive power increases\nperhaps the greatest need on this continent today is the education for\nlabor and work, for the winning of the bread of life, not merely the taking\nof what appears to be the bread of life. The leisure class is in greater need\nof an education for labor, work, and service than are those whose circumstances compel them to labor. The mere appropriation of what nature\nhas so abundantly provided will soon be over and the real problems of\nbreadwinning as it has been faced in Europe for generations will soon be felt\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(VocatJonal)\n\nwith sufficient keenness to make us conscious of them. As this change'\nbecomes more and more complete, the relation of the school to breadwinning\nwill become more and more fully realized.\n\nVOCATIONAL\nCARROLL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nG. PEARSE, PRESIDENT,\n\nAND\n\nTHE LABOR\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nPROBLEM\n\nSCHOOL, MILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.J\n\nThe discussion of this question naturally separates itself into two\nparts: first, vocational education as it concerns the supply of qualified]\nlabor and as it concerns the opportimity of the youth to qualify himself'\nfor a skilled trade or mechanical vocation; secondly, vocational education\nas it concerns the workers, present and prospective, in skilled mechanical\nemployments.\nFor more than four thousand years, vocational education has been\ngiven. Until comparatively recent times, it was the custom that such\neducation should be given by the practitioners of it. The lawyer was\ntrained by another lawyer, or by a group of them; the doctor learned his\nbusiness in the same way. The silversmith was apprenticed to a silversmith; the would-be maker of gloves, to a glover; the armorer, to a master\nof that craft. In this way not only the trades but the professions were\npassed on from generation to generation; the skill of the practitioners was\nkept alive, and the practice of the vocation was generally improved.\nBut for a few generations, preparation for the learned professions has\nbeen quite generally taken over by schools, which have given a knowledge\nof the law and of medicine and of engineering and of other employments of\nsimilar character to those who were in future to make a livelihood in those\nlines of work. But it is only in very recent years that schools have felt any\nresponsibility for, or attempted to give any training in, those employments\nwhich are recognized as skilled handicrafts or trades. There are, perhaps,\na number of reasons for this.\nThe removal of so many industries from small shops, operated by their\nowners, to large factories, where the tools are owned by an employer whom\nall the workers serve, has taken away the places where boys formerly\nlearned trades, and has taken away also the conditions which made it possible for the master of the shop or his journeymen to give personal attention\nto the apprentice and train him up in all the knowledge and usages of the\ncraft. Each worker has become a unit or cog in the system of the factory.\nThe owner does not know his workmen, especially the least important (to\nhim) of all — the lads who are just beginning to learn the work. Neither\ncan the workmen know each other, nor take an interest in each other as they\ncould do in the small shop. The journeyman must hustle along with his\npart of the work or with the machine he tends, and the boy has no one to\ntake an interest in him and in his progress, or to show him.\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLABOR\n\nPROBLEM\n\n829\n\nThe changes in plans of manufacture have also had a great effect on\nthe chance which the boy has to learn a trade. Formerly all the processes\nnecessary to complete the finished article went on in the same shop, in the\nsame or in adjoining rooms; the apprentice saw them all and helped about\nthem all, and, as he progressed in his trade, he had to do them and learn\nthem all. Now very likely the lad works in a factory with many acres of\nfloor space, with more huge rooms in it than the number of years which\nwill span the years of the boy's life. He learns one or two, or at least a\nvery few, of the processes which go on in the plant; he becomes the tender\nof a machine, or an expert in turning out a single part of a machine or an\narticle. He has no chance at all to get a general knowledge of all the\nprocesses of the trade, or to understand the underlying principles.\nIt is true, also, that certain skilled trades which once flourished have\nalmost passed away. The work of the molder is tremendously influenced\nby new machines which have been invented; the trade of glass-blower is\nalmost obsolete; the shoemaker, the wagonmaker — the crafts of all these\nare shrunk like the stream that is almost dried up. But a new trade, that\nof plumber, has come in during two generations; the electrical worker has\ncome upon the scene in two decades; the chauffeur has come of late in\nswarms; and many new and highly complex employments are now demanding trained workers.\nIt has become necessary, therefore, that workers trained in the elements\nof the new and in many of the old trades be made available for the industries. Workers who have had careful drill in the use of the hand tools and\nother tools and in all the processes of the crafts must be made ready to\nmeet the demands of industry, which has almost ceased to train its own\nworkmen. For generations the conditions of life among us have been such\nthat skilled craftsmen have come to us from abroad; but this stream has\nnow almost dried up. If our race of expert, all-around mechanics is not to\nbe extinct, our educational system must now be prepared to supply this\ndemand.\nThis can be done in two ways: The day trade school can take youths,\ngirls or boys, old enough to enter upon apprenticeship, and give them a\nthoro grounding in all the knowledge and processes of the craft, sending\nthem out graduate apprentices, and fit to take up the work of journeymen\nin practically all respects, their lack of speed, which is soon acquired, and of\npractical knowledge gained in the work, being offset by their more thoro\ntraining in all the elements and processes, and the use of all of the tools of\nthe trade. Or, in evening, or \"special period\" classes, the school can take the\nyouth already entered upon an apprenticeship or the young man or woman\nwho has already become a \"journeyman,\" and give to such a one the knowledge of those principles and processes with which he has not had an opportunity tobecome familiar, or train him in the use of those tools with which\nhis exDerience in the particular shop where he works has not brought him\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\ninto touch.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nThus the schools may either become a substitute for, or supply\n\nthe deficiencies of, the older type of vocational \"trade\" training.\nThe school may also supply a sort of training which has become more\nnecessary as trades, formerly skilled vocations, are more and more broken\nup into separate operations or parts of trades, or, as they are sometimes\ncalled, trade specialties. Training will be needed for parts of trades, or\nfor special processes, as well as for complete trades. It is doubtful if the\nschools have any call to give such training as this in any other way than\nin \"continuation\" classes, organized for those who have left school and\ngone to work, and who, to acquire greater efl&ciency and usefulness, find\nthat they need instruction and training in the particular work which they\nhave to do. This training to give immediate greater efficiency and so\ngreater value to these occupational workers is probably a proper responsibility ofthe school. It should not, however, have any place in the school\ntraining of youth who are still of an age when the law requires their continued regular attendance at school. For such boys and girls, the school\nshould aim to give, or guide toward, a complete and thoro, rather than a\npartial vocational education.\nTurning now to a consideration of vocational education from the standpoint of the worker, the first question is perhaps that of a possible oversupply of trained workers. The regulations as to apprenticeship were, in\nsome cases at least, intended to guard against too large an increase in the\nnumber of craftsmen. Is there serious danger that industrial vocational\ntraining will overstock the market with skilled workers? It is no doubt\ntrue that in some cases and for a time this might result. It is true also\nthat there are at times and in places too many lawyers and doctors and\nengineers. Yet the schools still train for these professions and are likely m\nto continue to do so.\n\"fll\nThis danger of oversupply can be guarded against in various ways. \"\nNo community ought to go into a scheme for such vocational training imtil ^\nit has made a thoro survey of the needs of industry within its borders and ■■\ncan act intelligently in establishing training for those vocations which the\ncommunity most needs. Such a study should show also the quantity of\nthe demand, and the capacity of the school can be regulated, in a reasonable degree, to provide about what is needed. The supply of trained labor\nthus produced will never, either, be wholly a local matter; there will always\nbe more or less scattering into other communities and other states. And\nwhile this overflow wiU probably never be enough to glut any outside\nmarket, it will frequently bring about local relief when that is required. It\nmust be remembered, also, that the youth trained for these vocations in\nschools such as we are considering will not be without some general education and will be better able both to rise into the higher grades of positions in\nhis vocation, or, if necessary, to pass over into a somewhat different but allied\nline of work, thus permitting another method of relief from overcrowding.\n\n-\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLABOR\n\nPROBLEM\n\n831\n\nThe fear that the schools cannot give a good education and thoro\nefficiency thru their mechanical vocational education is, I believe, no\nlonger entertained. There was reason for this fear once; certain private\nso-called \"vocational\" or \"trade\" schools, many of them carried on by\npersons themselves not well versed in the trade, and interested chiefly in\nthe fees they could get from their students, who were often pushed out half\nprepared to make room for more students from whom more fees could be\ncollected, gave trade schools and trade education in the beginning a bad\nreputation. But in the past decade public trade schools like those in\nMilwaukee and Springfield and New Haven and Boston have established\nthe quality of their product upon so high a plane that the capability of their\ngraduates is no longer open to question.\nThe fear that the public trade schools might breed \"strike-breakers\"\nseems to have been equally unfounded. These schools have given to their\nstudents and graduates a wholesome self-respect which has usually kept\nthem out of enterprises of this character; the graduates have seldom been\nwithout desirable and well-remunerated employment, their wages often\nbeing better than the most tempting offers made on occasions of the sort\nreferred to.\nIt is also true that the number of young people attracted to these\nschools by the prospects offered in the various trades has not been large\nenough to occasion alarm as to what might be the result even if they should\nshow a different disposition from that which has so far been noted.\nThere has been some apprehension that the students trained in schools\nof this sort might not be ready to consider themselves on the same basis\nas other members of the craft and so might bring in a discordant element;\nbut this does not appear to have been true. A good many of them have\nworked up soon into better positions, carrying more responsibility and\nbetter pay; almost any father who is a carpenter would be glad to see his\nson, who had followed his father's trade, do this. But there does not seem\nto be any body of testimony to show that those who remain in the work of\ntheir crafts as journeymen have any very different attitude toward their\ntrade, or the trade organizations, or the interests of the craft than is shown\nby those who enter it thru the door of the old-fashioned apprenticeship.\nNo doubt the source to which these schools have looked for their supply\nof teachers of trade subjects has had much to do with this. Sometimes the\nmen who teach the shop mathematics or the drafting or the science as\nrelated to the trade have not served a regular apprenticeship or worked as\njourneymen; but, on the other hand, very often they have had trade\nexperience as well as the training of the schools. For instance, the head of\none trade school with which the writer is very familiar served an apprenticeship offive years and worked as a journeyman; he is also a graduate\nof Worcester Polytechnic Institute and of Cornell University. But practically every teacher in the trade subjects in such schools has had the regular\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\ntrade training and experience. Usually these are men who stand high in\ntheir unions and very often are men recommended by their unions or by\nthe union officers. With a supply of teachers drawn from this source, there\nis little reason to fear that the students, when they graduate and are themselves ready to become journeymen, will have \"hifalutin\" notions, or will\nbe above their business, or will consider themselves better than their\nfathers or uncles or older brothers into whose trades they have entered.\nFrom the needs of industr}\"^ and the needs of our youth who can no longer\nget industrial training as their fathers and grandfathers did, it would seem\nthat industrial vocational training has come to stay. From our experience\nso far, it does not appear that there is any great danger of an oversupply\nof skilled mechanical labor; it also appears that the danger of such an\noversupply can be guarded against and minimized. Further experience\nseems to show that there is no danger of inferior craftsmen thus trained,\nand that there is little or no reason to fear that graduates of such schools\nwill constitute a dangerous element or one which cannot be assimilated into\nthe trades which they choose.\n\nVOCATIONAL\nTHOMAS\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nITS WIDER\n\nM. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nIMPLICATIONS\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIt is not my purpose to discuss vocational schools. I am profoundly\ninterested in the movement to establish them; I myself established the\nj&rst public, or municipal, trade school in this country in 1898 at Springfield, Mass. It is my purpose to point out the significance of the vocational\nideal or motive for what we call general education.\nVocational education is often regarded as having a mercenary motive,\nas having for its aim merely to prepare the pupil to earn his daily bread.\nIt is sometimes stigmatized by the representatives of \"hberal education\"\nas \"utilitarian,\" and therefore as a lower type of education than general\nor liberal training.\nMuch might be said even in favor of vocational education on this basis.\nTo earn one's Uving is surely not an unworthy motive. Thrift, the sense\nof independence, the honest accumulation of property, are not usually\nlooked upon as serious faults. On the contrary, they are imiversally\nregarded as virtues fundamental to character and to our social life.\nBut vocational education means far more than this. A man's vocation\nis not merely his means of securing a livelihood, but it is his most effective\nmeans of rendering to society the life-service which every man owes to his\nkind. It is his chief means of realizing his life, its aims, its ambitions, and\nits duties. Surely the physician, the minister, the teacher, the lawyer, and\nthe engineer would be unwilling to have their calling regarded as nothing\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nITS WIDER\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\n833\n\nmore than their means of earning a livelihood. As a mere means of acquiring wealth, these professions are confessedly a failure. Their significance\nlies in the fact that they open to a man opportunities for rendering a service\nto society of the highest value. No more should we regard the trade of the\ncarpenter, the machinist, the electrician, or any honest calling, as solely\na means of earning a living, but we should consider it also a means of rendering a service to mankind.\nVocational education, so far from appealing only to mercenary motives,\nmakes its appeal to the highest ethical motives as well; and as an educational ideal expresses more adequately the highest meaning of a human\nlife than the ideal of \"harmonious development\" which it is the professed\naim of \"liberal education\" to realize.\nThere are many types of mind, and we are just now learning that schools\nmust be differentiated to meet the needs of all types. But for my immediate\npurpose these types may all be grouped under two — the scientific and the\npractical. The scientific type is characterized by broad and deep intellectual interests; it is interested in knowing truth because it is true; it\nhas almost a universal curiosity to know regardless of any practical application ofthe knowledge acquired. The highest representative of this type\nis the man of pure science, the philosopher, and to a certain extent the literary man. The practical type, on the contrary, is chiefly interested in\nknowledge as a means of doing, of achieving some practical end. To this\ntype of man, knowledge is interesting only as a means, and unless it can\nbe applied to practical ends it has no interest for him. While the scientific\ntype finds its deepest interest in pure science, this type finds interest only in\napplied science.\nOur schools and colleges until recent years have imfortunately been\norganized to meet only the needs of the scientific type. The aim has been\n\"general education\"; in the colleges, \"liberal culture.\" The teaching\nof trades, more particularly, was supposed imtil about fifteen years ago\nto be outside of the function of the public-school system; and our colleges\neven now credit rather grudgingly any professional courses toward the\nBachelor's degree.\nOur whole educational system is even now ill adapted to meet the needs\nof the practical type, and every step taken in the direction of broadening\nour courses and differentiating our schools so as better to meet its needs\nhas invariably resulted in a rapid increase in attendance. This has been\nthe case in our secondary schools since we have developed the different types;\nit has been the case where higher technical schools have been established;\nand the differentiation of courses and the elective system have been in\nlarge part responsible for the rapid increase in attendance in our colleges.\nOur whole educational system from the college down must be recast so as\nto meet the needs of both types; and as the large majority of the human race\nbelong to the practical t)^e, very considerable readjustment will be necessary.\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nThe fundamental significance of interest is today universally recognized\nby students of education. A curriculum which does not appeal to the\nstudent's interest is for him an ineffective one; and all knowledge acquired\nwhich does not interest is soon shed by the mind and fails to affect character and life. The chief source of interest is the racial instincts. We may\ntherefore say that education to be effective must be grafted upon the\nracial instincts.\nIn a large majority of pupils in the public schools above the age of\ntwelve, and in a majority of students in the higher institutions of learning,\nthe vocational interest is the deepest interest which they have in the studies\nof the curriculum. This interest develops at the beginning of adolescence\nand remains strong all thru middle life. In the case of this large number\nin which the purely scientific interest is weak or virtually wanting, education to be most effective must be based on the vocational interest.\nVocational education must, however, not be narrow; it must include\nall the studies, both practical and academic or scientific, which have a\nclose relation to the vocation and render the pursuit of the vocation more\nsuccessfid, the essential thing being that the student realize their intimate\nconnection with his future calling and feel in them a vocational interest.\nThe teaching of a trade must include instruction in all the academic branches\nwhich have an important relation to the trade. A knowledge of the common branches is essential in all trades; in many of them physics, mechanics,\nand mathematics are essential; in others, chemistry; in all, a certain\namount of conunercial instruction and the ability to write a business letter,\ninstruction in the economic aspects of the trade and in its social and ethical\naspects. By grouping these so-called academic studies around the specific\ninstruction in the trade, and relating them closely to this instruction, they\nbecome invested with an interest which they do not otherwise have for the\nstudent. It is under such conditions that he can be interested even in\nstudies for which he has no natural taste.\nThe learning of a trade in this broad way is, for at least one-half of the\nhuman race, the broadest and most effective general education which their\nminds can take on. To keep pupils of this type of mind on a general\ncurriculum after the age when the vocational interest awakens is to waste\ntheir years in relative idleness in school and to lead them to form bad\nintellectual habits if not bad moral habits. We must recognize that vocational education is, after all, education; that it makes men as well as\nmechanics, doctors, and lawyers; and that an aimless general education for\nminds of the practical type continued too long fails to make men. We must\nfree our thinking of the fetters of the traditional distinction between what\nis \"cultural\" and what is \"practical,\" at least to the extent of not denjring\na high culture value to practical studies.\nIt is often argued that pupils should be kept on a general curriculum\nuntil the upjjer teens in order that they may make the choice of their\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nITS WIDER\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\n835\n\nlife-work more intelligently and with a more settled purpose. There is force\nin this argument; and yet if a pupil at the age of twelve has lost virtually\nall interest in the studies of the general curriculum and must be kept in\nschool by law and the truant officer, it is better that he should follow a\ncourse which will appeal to his vocational interest, even if he select a vocation which he afterward decides not to follow. In such a case, the learning\nof one trade, taught in the broad way suggested above, is the very best\npreparation for the learning of another later. This is a point which is not\nyet recognized in our thinking on the subject of industrial education. To\nhold such a pupil to a general curriculum in which he has no interest is\nthe poorest preparation which a school can give him for the learning of\na trade.\nSo far as secondary education is concerned, the vocational ideal has\nalready given us three types of high schools, the literary, the technical, and\nthe commercial, with the agricultural in process of rapid development. It\nis this broadening of the scope of secondary education by recognizing the\nvocational ideal that is the chief cause of the phenomenal increase in attendance which we have been witnessing for the past two decades.\nWhat effect will the vocational ideal have upon the college of arts and\nscience ?\nThe college confessedly stands for general culture in distinction from\nprofessional education, and it evaluates studies on the basis of their supposed \"culture value\" in distinction from their practical value. In most\ncolleges, there is strong opposition to crediting toward the Bachelor's\ndegree any practical study unless it is supposed to have also a high culture\nvalue. Moreover, the college continues general education, or liberal\nculture, for four years beyond the secondary school, which is two years\nbeyond the course in general education in any country in Continental\nEurope. Thru a mistaken policy of raising the conditions of admission\ninstead of increasing its own efficiency in teaching, the college has, during\nthe last forty years, thrown upon the secondary schools virtually the\nequivalent of two years of work and pushed its own curriculum by about\ntwo years beyond the proper limits of general education into the domain\nof university training. In consequence of which, it carries on secondary\ninstruction for the first two years and makes an imperfect attempt to do\nuniversity work the last two years. This prolonged course of liberal\neducation must necessarily embrace many studies which are so closely\nrelated to the professional courses of the university that they could be much\nmore effectively taught in such professional courses where their close relation might be clearly brought out and would be appreciated by the student.\nLinked closely with his professional studies, they would appeal to the student's vocational interest as they do not when taught in a general course\nin the college. While many students in our colleges do faithful work, a\nlarge minority are wasting their time and are forming bad intellectual\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[VocaUonaij\n\nhabits. The course to this latter class seems aimless and to have no!\nconnection directly with their future life-work.\nThis situation makes a reorganization of higher education only a question of a comparatively few years more, by which the college in its present j\nform will be eliminated and the first two years of its work assigned to the !\nstrong high schools and the last two years incorporated in the professional\nschools and the graduate school of the university.\nThe first step toward this reorganization was taken more than a dozen\nyears ago by the University of Chicago when it divided the collegiate\ndepartment into \"junior\" and \"senior\" colleges, the first two years forming Junior and the last two the Senior College. In some states, especially\nin California, a number of the stronger high schools are now doing the first\ntwo years of college work and are fitting the pupils to enter the Junior year\nin college.\nIn some states, especially in the South, some of the smaller colleges are\ngiving up their Junior and Senior classes and are converting themselves\ninto junior colleges.\nThe medical schools, the law schools, and various other professional\nschools are very generally fixing upon two years of college work as the maximum standard for admission desirable. Only a few professional schools\nventure to make a Bachelor's degree a requisite for admission.\nWith this standard of admission to the professional schools, it is obvious\nthat the colleges will not be able to maintain many years more their Junior\nand Senior classes. The present expedient of crediting the first two years\nof the professional school toward the Bachelor's degree is a temporary one.\nThere will, no doubt, evolve from this reorganization a new type of high\nschool, and also a new type of junior college which may drop the word\n\"jimior\" and retain simply the name college. In this way, we shodd\nchange the institution and retain the name, which is not an unfamiliar\nresult of an institutional reform. The new high school will itself consist\nof two t)^s, one having a six-year course, including the present two years\nof college; and one having an eight-year course, including also the last\ntwo years of the elementary schools. These two tj^pes would correspond\nroughly in organization to the secondary schools of Europe.\nThe new type of college will probably incorporate in its curriculum the\nlast two years of the present high school and the first two years of the\npresent college. In the smaller communities, there is likely to develop\na third type of high school embracing in its ou-riculum two years of the\npresent elementary school and the first two years of the present high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nTHE SOCIAL PHASES\nRICHARD\n\nG.\n\nBOONE,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\n837\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nIn a cursory consideration even of this thing we are calling occupational\npreparation, certain primary theses stand out as important: first, all education, including modern efforts at vocational training, is social in its origin;\nsecondly, while individual on the surface, the results of such education\nhave characteristic group meanings; thirdly, the method and processes\nof vocational education are sharply distinguished from the individualistic\nmethods of the traditional school; and finally, the attitude of the student\npredisposes him to the following of social purposes and to work with a\nsocial spirit.\nCharles W. Eliot, with his fine analytic discrimination, says: \"The\nreal cause of the American tendencies in education is the new and complete\ndependence of modern industries, commerce, and government on applied\nscience, working thru mechanical power, machinery, the wider utilization\nof natural resources, and the varied skills which human beings must possess\nin order to direct these agencies.\" Not for industry only in the economic\nuses, but for what, wanting a better term, we call culture, as well, new\nstandards for valuing results and new modes of achieving them must be\nrecognized. Education is a social as well as an individual fact, and in a\nparticular manner is that education a matter of social concern which aims to\nfit for the vocations. If it be true, as has been estimated, that more than\nnine-tenths of the social energy of a people is directly applied to the problems of getting a living, there is needed a knowledge of industrial materials\nand industrial processes, and an efficient skill, and co-operative social\nhabits, on which this dominant life-activity is based. Under the existing\nconditions, the school seems to be, if not the only agency, at least the most\navailable one, for providing this knowledge and skill and these habits.\nIf it be necessary [says Egerton] for the welfare of the nation that each man in it\nshould be prepared to take his part in the work of national defense, it is at least equally\nnecessary that he be able to aid in the work of building up the greatness and strength\nof his country, which depend, not on wealth, not on armies, but upon the lives and characters of its men and women; upon the nature of the work that is done in it, and the\nspirit in which that work is done. Only the vocational school can supply a due appreciation of the ethical, spiritual, intellectual, and moral value of work, whether it be industrial,\ncommercial, or something else.\n\nIf ignorance is dangerous to the state, idleness is not less so. And untrained\nfaculty in competition with skill and intelligence tends, if not to indolence,\nthen to idleness, unemployableness, and its inevitable bitterness, suspicion,\nand brood of hates. There results an incalculable loss to any people in the\nmanifold neglected, or untaught, malformed capacities of its members.\nAs reflecting the new and comprehensive demands of society upon the\nschools, Dr. Kirchensteiner, of Munich, who has done as much as anyone to\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocation\n\nmake real a conception of the socially regenerative influence of an educa-^\ntion for the vocations that shall reach all individuals in a community,]\nascribes to the public schools three obvious duties: (i) the duty of\neducation whose specific function is the preparation for a vocation; (2) the\nduty of teaching the ethical (social) value of a vocation; and (3) the duty|\nof teaching the essentially ethical character of a community within whic\nthe vocation is to be carried out. It will be apparent how much more\nincluded in such a program than inheres in any narrowly conceived tradeschool, agricultural, or commercial training. But that the newly\ncovered need is primarily social in its origin and in its realization is also\nobvious.\nOnce more, as bearing upon the ethical character of this demand for\ndefinite occupational training, I venture to refer you to Dr. Snedden's\nrecent work on Educational Readjustment (chap. viii).\nUnder the caption \"Six Debatable Issues,\" he names: (i) the desirability, the forms, and means of articulating vocational and liberal education; (2) the callings in which vocational education is possible under school\nconditions; (3) the type of such education that can best be furnished for\nboth boys and girls from fourteen to sixteen years of age; (4) the relative\nemphasis to be placed upon productive work (a salable product) in day\nvocational schools as compared with the collateral studies and practice\nthat seek to enlarge industrial intelligence; (5) the desirableness and the\nopportunity for part-time work between industries and the school system;\nand (6) the character of evening vocational education. All of these,\nexcept possibly the first, have, as basic determining conditions, welldefined social meanings. Such discussion reveals, again, how widely\neducational thinking has departed from the once dominant conception of\neducation as merely personal culture.\nEqually with the causes and the occasions, the results, also, of vocational education are social, or find their excuse in commimity uses. While\nindividual on the surface, they are primarily of group significance. Skill,\nconstructive intelligence, economic interest, productive effort, mechanical\ningenuity, resourcefulness, the habit of industry, all find their issue and\ntheir meaning in the group life of which one is organically a part. In the\nvocation, no one lives to himself. \"The precise relation,\" says Charles\nHam, \"of the useful arts to social and economic conditions is that of\ncreator.\" It is a commonplace with social welfare propagandists that\n\"poverty is the chief scourge of society.\" Of poverty, ignorance and\nincapacity are the twin causes. With wise forethought and an intelligent\nfitting of each individual with some wage-earning skill and with a knowledge of the related arts and sciences, much might be done to eliminate\nboth ignorance and incapacity.\nA right vocational education, too, should have a wholesome stimulative\neffect upon certain conflicting social conditions. The antagonism between\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n839\n\nthe prevalent more or less selfish objects of industry of both employer and\nlaborer might be appreciably lessened, it is believed, by an education thru\nsuch training as would reveal occupational skill as a means toward right\nliving. \"The moral and religious reformers,\" says Hobson, \"should never\nforget that, in order of time, material reform comes first.\" And a sound\nvocational education that looks beyond a particular skill to the dignifying\nof labor and to fixing a habit of thinking each employment as one phase\nonly of public wage-measured service, and that regards a vocation, not as\none's choice of activities merely, but as expressing or satisfying a need of\nthe consumer class, must be included among the recognized means of social\nreorganization.\nIn a recent memorial of half a million representatives of organized\nlabor in New York on vocational education, it was urged upon the board\nof education that this phase of the work for schools be made the object\nof critical investigation, to the end that it be such as to meet real economic\nneeds. It was pointed out, and rightly, too, that \"education which is not\napplicable to genuine social needs is a luxury,\" that vocational training\nmisapplied is as much a cloy and extravagance as, to many persons, is a\nstudy of Greek or Latin. To fit anyone for an occupation, or for any stage\nof an occupation to which industrial society has no open door is so imjust\nto the individual and so fruitless to the community as to furnish youth having faculties for the concrete only and who are dependent upon daily toil,\nwith abstractions, the embellishments of culture, and the ideals of leisure.\nThe movements for both vocational training and guidance force upon the\nschool questions of an articulation of the school with the occupational\nworld. Incidentally, the problem is a social problem of the classroom.\nIt involves both what shall be taught and to what end, and the school must\nhere find important incentives to new adjustments in both curriculum and\nmethod, and, more clearly than heretofore, come to regard its product as\nbrought to the test of public need and measured by its economic standards.\nHere is the final test. Both knowledge and intelligence, as well as their\nincidental skill, not only grow out of the conditions of standard productive\nwork, but fit their product to that need.\nCorrespondingly, the method of vocational instruction is sharply\ndistinguished from the individualistic methods of the traditional school.\nIn all manual-arts instruction, since its introduction a generation ago, the\nschools have been subject to the inevitable temptation to use this work as\nso many additional \"subjects,\" to be organized and standardized and\nvalued as other subjects in the curriculum and to be presented after much\nthe same methods. Any real productive effort of the individual even does\nnot lend itself to external dictation and doctrinaire uniformity. Initiative\nceases to be initiative if the action be prescribed or ordered. The independent resourcefulness needed by society, in civic or economic interests, in\nethical organization or in the market, comes by altogether different ways.\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Vocational Bl\n\nThe self-started, self-ordered project of the shop has its own virtues and\nthey are neither few nor unimportant. Its execution is crippled by the\nintrusion of an alien will and a different purpose. The shop director may\nprescribe standards of excellence in the work and insist upon them, but the\noriginal will to do and the ideal of the student must not be too much interfered with if self-helpfulness is to be stimulated.\nBut self-set problems in the shop are the ABC only of socially productive effort such as true vocational education contemplates. Industrial\ninterests are co-operative in conception and aim. Industry is, at bottom,\na social institution. The industrially minded youth is so far socialized;\nand the really socially minded person will, therefore, interest himself in\nsome sort of productive effort. School exercises that are merely constructive— the manual arts, school gardens, cooking, sewing, scientific\nexperimentation — are all valuable in their way, but their flowering is in\ndoing with the vocation motive. All vocational training looks toward\nco-operative effort, which is the framing structure of the industrial and\neconomic order. Creative work that is infused with the life-motive is\nsocial as neither academic effort nor the individual manual arts can be.\nThe method of vocational education, therefore, is the method of participation, of mutual sharing and responsibilities. Production finds its\nexcuse in consumption, and it must come to be so in the school, if we hope\nto acquire the vocational attitude. The need of the production of one is\nlimited by the production of all and by the want of those who would be\nconsumers. The vocation motive that regards this mutual dependence of\noccupations and parts of each occupation, of things made and things used,\nof goods and markets, of materials and processes, is the true social motive\nin learning, and must determine the method to be used, the mode of pro-J\ncedure, in the school's training. No academic proficiency can begin to\nmeasure up to this as a fruitful means in the process of socializing the\nindividual and effecting group solidarity. The modem tendency in educa- 1\ntion, then, is best exemplified by the inclusion in school programs of'\nexercises to satisfy and stimulate the creative instinct in the individual.\nVocational training, as it is coming to be recognized, adds the forward\nlook and farseeing motive; it is creative, but with a life-purpKDse, an abiding\ninterest that transcends the particular project in hand. It means working\nfrom and realizing purposes, creative purposes, under established social\ncodes and after occupational standards of time, efficiency, the adaptation\nof materials and products to social needs, the market, competing skills, and\nmanifold wage-earning limitations.\n\"If such schools are to be effective, therefore, shop, or office, or market\nconditions must prevail. Instruction cannot be definitely industrial\nimless it is designed so as to meet industrial conditions; and the only\neffective test of the material product is the place it can take in fair competition in the open market.\"\nBetween a school where boys and girls are\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n841\n\nmaking things for themselves and a workshop where the same things are\nbeing made for others and for the general market there is all the difference\nbetween pretense and reality. The one is personal, with a fringe of social\nadvantage in the product; the other is social, with scarcely less of individual\nbenefit. An education that is intended to be incorporated in the common\nlife and in the daily economic and social behavior must have social conditions in mind in the process. The social aspects of vocational training\nare manifold and determining.\nDISCUSSION\nEdwin R. Snyder, commissioner of vocational education for California, Sacramento,\nCal. — The first topic suggested by the papers which I wish to discuss is that relating to the\nattitude of organized labor toward vocational education. In the past, two fundamental\nreasons have been set forth for the anticipated introduction of a system of vocational\neducation in the public schools of this country. One of these reasons has dealt solely\nwith the economic aspect. It has been pointed out that, owing to the fact that we are\nnot producing skilled workmen, the United States is suffering in its competition with\nEuropean countries, that the apprenticeship system has practically disappeared in this\ncountry, and that we have established no adequate substitute therefor. In Europe,\ngenerally speaking, wherever the apprentice system has broken down, the state has\nprovided special education to train the youth for the industrial occupations which it\ndesires to nurture. That the individuals who present this phase of the subject establish\ntheir case cannot be questioned. However, there is another and a more important consideration which should precede this.\nIn a democracy we should think first of what an anticipated educational system is\ngoing to do for the individual. We would be untrue to our ideals and to our educational\npractice were we to allow the economic idea to cause us to establish a system of education\nthat failed to take into consideration the individual needs of our children. It has been\nmy experience that organized labor is not only willing but anxious to co-operate with the\nschool authorities in establishing any form of education so long as it is designed for the\npurpose of bettering the opportunities of the children who are to receive it. In the state\nof California, organized labor is co-operating fidly with every movement that wiU make\nthe children of this state economically, socially, and morally more efl&cient. It is true,\nhowever, that an education which fits the individual best for economic production will\nalso provide best for the economic welfare of the state, because if all the youth are so\neducated as to enable them to produce their maximum contribution then the state itself\nwill be in a position to produce its maximum product.\nA second topic which was suggested and which I wish to discuss is that of the content\nof vocational education. For many years we have been struggling to establish in our\nschools an educational content composed not alone of current knowledge of political\nand social events, but of current knowledge of commercial, industrial, or other human\noccupations. We have largely failed in securing a body of knowledge which deals with\nthe economic life of the community because of the fact that we have never been able\nto organize the content of the various occupations. When we shall have solved the\nproblem of vocational education, we shall have acciunulated a thoro detailed content\nof all of the common occupations. This material will make a wonderful source of knowledge, not alone for vocational training but for general CTilture as well.\nAnother topic suggested deals with the problem of grading and graduation. Mr.\nBalliet pointed out the fact that the universities and colleges have, as a rule, established\nat least a junior-college requirement for entrance upon the professional courses. This\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "^42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nl\\'ocadonal\n\nsuggests the question as to why our school courses should be adjusted in such a manner\nas to provide that one group of individuals shovdd graduate only after four years of training and another only after an additional four years. It seems reasonable that the length\nof time that an individual spends in school should bear some definite relation to his total\nproductive capacity after the school period. Many individuals have spent years in a\nschool, have ended a long course of training but have acquired little or no productive\ncapacity as a result.\nWithout doubt when we shall have established an educational system that fits each\nindividual leaving school to enter into some occupation, we shall be graduating individuals\nnot alone from the four years' course in the high school or the four years' coiu^e in the\nimiversity, but from all of the years of the secondary and collegiate period. It is not\nimprobable that in the future when we establish a system of education which will give\nboys who are going into blacksmithing an opport\\mity to learn the rudiments of their\ntrade, we shall graduate them at the end of the tenth year, and perhaps those who pursue\na course preparing for one of the building trades may complete their school work at the\nend of the eleventh year, while those individuals who are preparing for wood manufacturing may complete their course at the end of the twelfth year. In fact so long as individuals are dropping out of school as young as fifteen years of age, we should provide courses\nin our system which will enable the children of any given group better to fit themselves\nfor the occupations which they enter, and they should be permitted to enter upon this\ninstruction before the school loses them. When we have brought about this situation,\nwe shall cease to graduate individuals from schools and shall graduate them from courses\nthat fit them into occupations or into special courses in higher institutions.\nThe problem which interests us most vitally as an administrative problem in California isthat of having established in the technical high schools of the state courses that\nare distinctly vocational in character. We have in this state, as we have in the United\nStates, many splendid technical high schools that were originally established for the\npxupose of preparing individuals for practical occupations. These high schools have not\nsucceeded in preparing individuals for industrial occupations, but they have succeeded\nin preparing, exceedingly well, individuals to enter the technical courses at our universities\nand colleges.\nThe main difference between a technical course and a vocational course, in so far\nas they relate to high schools, is that in the technical coiirse the major subjects are to be\nfoimd in science and mathematics, and these major subjects are usually interpreted thru\ncertain limited experiences in laboratory or in field; while in the vocational courses the\nmain and controlling subjects are the practical shop courses, and only such science and\nmathematics is given as is essential to the intelligent interpretation of the practical\nexperience.\nA similar distinction may be made in the different types of agricultural courses given\nin our high schools. The most common type is that in which we have science taught\nagric\\Uturally. What we need in the secondary school is farming taught scientifically.\nThe aims and purposes of farming in a high school are entirely different from the aims and\npurposes of agriculture in the university or in the college. The product of the high-school\ncourse in farming should bear the same relation to the technically trained agriculturist as\nthe trained nurse bears to the physician. It is the fimction of the agriculturist to diagnose\nand prescribe: it is the business of the farmer to nurse plant life.\nThe other topic is suggested by the paper of Mr. Pearse, which profoimdly impresses\none with the immensity and complexity of the vocational educational problem. There\nare very few large centers of population in this country where it woiild not be absolutely\nsafe to establish vocational courses of an industrial, commercial, and agricultural character. After we have solved the problem of establishing courses in a few of the more\nimportant occupations, the establishment of courses in those occuparions which employ\nthe smaller groups can be brought about with accxiracy and ease.\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nJOHN\n\nSOCIAL\n\nSIDE OF PHILIPPINE\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nSOCIAL PHASES OF VOCATIONAL\nTHE PHILIPPINES\n\nS. POTTER,\n\nCHIEF CLERK, BUREAU\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\n'OF EDUCATION,\nMANILA, P.I.\n\n843\n\nIN\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nThe problem of vocational training in its special forms in a country\nlike the Philippines may differ somewhat from the problem in this country;\nbut the general aims everywhere are about the same and the methods will\nbe more or less similar. Vocational training is a general term; many of its\nbranches have long had attention, particularly the professional lines which\nhave trained our supply of lawyers, doctors, and clergymen. It is the\nindustrial branches which employ manual labor that have furnished our\nmost recent and most animated educational controversies. Whether we\nlike it or not, plain figures show us that the very great majority of boys and\ngirls do not get more than an elementary education. In the Philippine\nIslands, they do not get more than the four years of primary education.\nEarly dropping out of school is not always from necessity, but often, I\nventure to say, from choice.\nFor the great army of children who must be the masses, the laborers of\nthe future, the primary unit of four years gives the usual academic work\nand emphasizes hygiene, civics, good manners, and right conduct; plays and\ngames, and home industries for both boys and girls, plain sewing, cooking,\nlace and embroidery, hats, mats, baskets, bamboo and rattan furniture,\nwoodwork, and gardening. At the end of this unit, the pupil may to\nadvantage drop out of school and go to work with a preparation for work\nand with a feeling that something definite has been accomplished; or he\nmay to advantage continue with his studies. In the intermediate unit\nof three years, the pupil may take up a general course — a course for teaching,\na course in shop work and the trades, a course in farming, or a business\ncourse. At the end of this unit, the pupil again has the choice of dropping\nout and going to work with something definite accomplished, or he may from\nany of these courses continue to advantage in higher education. The\nsecondary-course imit of four years provides a general course, a normal\ncourse for teachers, a course in nursing, a course in shopwork and the trades,\nan agricultural course, a commercial course, a course in surveying, and a\nnautical course — the last named of great importance in this island community. The last unit, the university, provides from two to seven years'\nwork in the following colleges: liberal arts, law, medicine and surgery,\nveterinary science, agriculture, engineering, fine arts.\nWithout a doubt the biggest social phase of our vocational work is the\nspecial training we are giving Filipino girls for home service. I wish I had\ntime to picture to you something of the home conditions which have existed\nand which still exist to some extent — poverty and disease and neglect of\naffairs just because these people do not know. And we cannot expect any\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Vocational\n\ncomplete change of affairs iintil the girls who are being trained in the schools\ntake over the management of homes. The little mothers in their early\nteens are still to be foimd, the result of the early marriages customary in\ntropical countries; but the special training for girls may be counted uponto remedy this. Even the little work given in the third and fourth grades ;\nof the primary course in hygiene and sanitation, good manners and rights\nconduct, care of the home, cooking, and plain sewing is having a wonderful\ninfluence upon home standards. The intermediate grades give a special\ncourse for girls in housekeeping and household arts. Here is further work I\nin cooking and housekeeping, hygiene and home sanitation, plain sewing,\nand a course in ethics specially appropriate for the Filipino girl. In addition to this, provision is made in all grades for teaching lace and embroidery\nand sometimes hand weaving, so that all girls may have a knowledge of a\ncraft which will net something toward their own or the family support.\nMany girls are given the advantages of a dormitory life under school supervision in the intermediate and higher grades, certainly a potent factor in\nmolding their characters and an experience which will make them leaders\nin social and domestic affairs. Women have always had a prominent place\nin the Filipino home, for it is the housewife who holds the purse strings,\nand she will know how to apply other home measures effectively as fast as\nshe learns them.\nStandards of morality are largely economic. Our courses in good manners and right conduct for all children, and in ethics for girls in the intermediate grades, are teaching Filipino girls what is right and appropriate;\nbut it is the new independence which the Filipino women feel on account\nof their needlework and other crafts which gives them the greater moral\nstrength and security.\nInfant mortality from neglect and ignorance has always played havoc\nwith Philippine population figures. In several ways the schools are aiding\nto change this. The instruction of girls in the care of infants; the course\nfor trained nurses; the general instruction in home sanitation; in personal\nhygiene; in cooking, and particularly in the boiling of water, have all their\neffects. Improvement in mortality figures for the past few years are convincing argument. The school instruction given in hygiene, sanitation,\nand similar lines has been a big factor in bringing about the change in\nhealth conditions which is one of the real achievements of the American\ngovernment in the Philippines. Smoking a few years ago was universal\nfor women and girls in tobacco sections of the Islands. This vice will not\nbe found among girls who have been in the public schools. About two\nyears ago the Bureau of Education issued its bulletin on plain sewing;\ntoday the effects of that course are evident on the streets of every town\nand village in the Philippines.\nThe course for nursing is a vocational course which is just beginning to\nbe felt. It was imdertaken only a few years ago and already many of the\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nSIDE OF PHILIPPINE\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n84$\n\nprovinces can boast of several Filipino trained nurses who are doing\ntheir country more good than they ever dreamed of. Remember that\nsome of these provinces until in recent years have not had a resident\ndoctor of medicine — not a single doctor among hundreds of thousands\nof people. This great service of doctors and trained nurses for the\nprovinces is the direct result of vocational training and guidance. A few\nyears ago prevalent traditions required a sick person to be locked up in\na room and absolutely shut off from light and air until he got well\nor died.\nThe second big influence which affects vitally the home life of the\npeople — the food supply — is gardening and farming. Besides some three\nthousand school gardens, we have approximately forty thousand home\ngardens cultivated by the pupils at their homes and supervised by their\nteachers. We have settlement farm schools for regions inhabited by roving\nmountain peoples. These schools are most peculiar and interesting.\nEstablish a school in the territory of these roving people; get their children\ninto it, where they may be properly housed and fed upon the product of\nthe school farm; teach them and their parents the advantages of living\nin permanent settlements where the food supply is sure the year round;\ninvariably such a school becomes the nucleus of a permanent settlement\nwhich will win these people from their nomadic life.\nThe food campaign embraces activities looking to the increase of foods\nauxiliary to rice, which is the staff of life. During the past school year\nsome forty-three thousand boys were engaged in corn-production contests\nand eleven thousand girls in corn demonstrations. In three years of the\ncampaign, the total corn harvest of the Islands has increased 61 per cent.\nDuring the same period, for some reason or other, the rice importations have\ndecreased 62 per cent so as to save to the FiHpino people several millions\nof pesos. I cannot say that all of this change has been due to the corn\ncampaign, but the coincidence looks significant. The school girls have\ntheir opportunity in teaching the people how to prepare corn foods. In the\npast, corn has been generally despised as a human food. Corn demonstrations are arranged for all towns and villages during the year. Besides corn\nexhibits, machine exhibits, and similar country fair propaganda, girls form\nthemselves into a corps to cook and serve palatable corn foods in simple\ndishes, to explain the merits of these foods, and distribute recipes. The\nwhole countryside is invited to participate and the corn demonstration\nbecomes a corn festival.\nWe have our arbor days, and we have garden days and exhibits of\ngarden stuff. The farmers participate in them and get great benefit from\nthem. We have an annual series of popular lectures for the instruction of\nthe adult masses in civic and other topics. At the close of the clean-up\nweek held last December the Philippine Islands were cleaner than ever\nbefore in their history.\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nUnder the general caption of household industries, we are teaching\nthruout the schools the making of lace, embroidery, crochet, basketry,\nhats, slippers, mats, macrame, light furniture, and many similar lines which\nmay be called minor industries. These are each year becoming more and\nmore important in the home life of the people, for they, more than any other\nlines, present almost unlimited possibilities in the economic development\nof the country. They are taught in all the schools and a big task now before\nus is that of extending them into the homes generally. In them is employed\nto advantage the natural skill of the Filipinos in the handicrafts, and they\ntake up the spare time of boys and girls and men and women which is so\nplentiful in a tropical agricultural region — in past years, leisure or idle time.\nIt is these industries which will provide the ready money for the purchase\nof articles not otherwise obtainable. In connection with this industry,\nthe task of the school has been to make economic surveys of the Islands\nand locate the native materials, for the handicrafts are to be based as far\nas possible upon the materials available locally. Next from the central\noffice are decided the industries which shall be taught in each town of the\narchipelago based upon information obtained from the surveys. From the\ncentral office are issued also a series of designs and instructions as to suitable\nforms, sizes, etc., these designs based as far as possible upon native Philippine design motifs so as to give a typical Philippine mark to the exported\nproduct. An industrial accounting system has been organized to adjust\nthe matter of cost and selling price and to provide for the pupil's share in\nthe profit of his labor. Next comes the more difficult problem of providing\na market for the product, not only of school children but of those outside\nof the schools, and of handling the product in a big commercial way.\nMost of this product is for the export trade. For the light furniture\nthis is not so. From the bamboo and palms which grow everywhere, at\npractically no expense, and with the simple knowledge acquired in the\nprimary grades, the boy is able to furnish his own home with furniture\nwhich is attractive and comfortable, a great step forward when we consider\nthat in the past the more homely dwellings have had few of these comforts.\nI shall only mention the normal school which is provided for the preparation of teachers; the commercial course for business; the college of medicine and surgery, veterinary science, engineering, and fine arts; the several\ncourses in the trades, provided in the eighteen trade schools operated in\nthe provincial capitals and in many other shop departments. All of these\nhaye a direct bearing upon the home and social conditions in the Islands.\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Lucy K. Cole, supervisor of school music, instructor in music. University\nof Washington. . . .Seattle, Wash.\nVice-President — ^Wn.1. Earhart, director of music, public schools\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nSecretary — Heruan E. Owek, director of music, public schools\nSan Jose, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, August i8, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order by President Cole in the Auditorium Theater\nat 9:00 A.M.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\" Forces at Work for the Betterment of School Music \" — Frances E. Clarke, chairman,\nCommittee on Public-School Music, National Federation of Musical Clubs, Camden, N.J.\n\"Elementary Music Education as a Basis for Secondary and Higher Music Education\"— ^J. Lawrence Erb, director. School of Music, University of Illinois, Urbana, HI.\nA short discussion participated in by A. E. Winship, editor. Journal of Education,\nBoston, Mass., and others, brought out the fact that a number of colleges and universities\nthruout the country offer extended courses leading to the degree of Bachelor of Music.\nAlso the fact that in many of these schools a student may major in music in a regular\ncollege course and receive the degree of Bachelor of Arts.\n\"The Teaching of Harmony in High Schools\" — Alice C. Bumbaugh, John C. Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal.\n\"College Preparation for Teachers of Music in Secondary Schools\" — Irving M.\nGlen, professor of music and dean of the College of Fine Arts, University of Washington,\nSeattle, Wash.\n\"Uniformity of Standards in Secondary Music Education\" — Gertrude B. Parsons,\nhead of music department, Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe paper on \"The Teaching of Harmony in High Schools,\" by Miss Bmnbaugh,\nwas followed by a class demonstration by students of the John C. Fremont High School,\nOakland, Cal. After some written work upon the blackboard, the following songs,\nwritten by students of the school, were sung: \"Tomorrow's Land,\" by Marie Whitmore;\n\"June,\" by Edgar Thorpe; \"Fate,\" by Irene Granlund; \"Fate,\" by D. Lyle Gould;\n\"Love Divine,\" by Connie Keefer; \"Still, Still with Thee,\" by Edgar Thorpe.\nEdward Berwick, of Pacific Grove, Cal., spoke of the importance of music in the\nestablishment of a world-peace. In order to stimulate the writing of such songs, Mr.\nBerwick offered a prize of one hundred dollars for the best peace song which should be\nwritten for a contest to be conducted by the Department of Music Education of the\nNational Education Association.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nAfternoon, August 18, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order in the Auditorium Theater at 2 : 30 p.m., with\nPresident Cole in the chair.\nThe program was preceded by a number 84of\n7 selections on the giant victrola. Several\npeace songs were sung by the audience under the direction of Glenn H. Woods, director\nof music, public schools, Oakland, Cal.\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThe following program was then given:\n\"Instrumental Music and Instnmient Study in the Oakland Schools\" — Glenn H.\nWoods, director of music, public schools, Oakland, Cal.\n\"The Eurhythmies of Jaques-Dalcroze\" — Grace Smith, Berkeley, Cal.\nThe paper on \"EurhjiJimics\" was illustrated by many exercises from the Dalcroze\nsystem.\nOwing to the absence of Charles H. Miller, director of school music, Lincoln, Nebr.,\nthe paper assigned to him on \" The Accrediting of Private Music Study by High Schools\"\nvyas thrown open to general discussion. A large number of supervisors and others took\npart. The general consensus of opinion was that credit should be given for outside study,\nbut that reasonable demands shoxild be made of the student before such credit be granted.\nSome definite standard should be established by examinations and thru the co-operation\nof the private teacher and the teacher of music in the high school.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President — Hollis E. Dann, professor of music, head of Department of Music,\nCornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President — T. P. Giddings, Minneapolis, Minn.\nFor Secretary — Constance Barlow-Smith, assistant professor of school music, School\nof Music, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\nTfflRD\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nEvening, August 18, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 8:co p.ic., in the Auditorium Theater, with\nPresident Cole in the chair.\nThe topic under discussion was \"The Music of the Orient,\" and imder this topic a\nseries of short papers were read, illustrated by native musicians using native music,\ninstruments, and language, as follows:\n\"Music of Japan\" — K. S. Inui, the Japan society of America, San Francisco, Cal.\n\"Hawaiian Music\" — Helen Grace Cadwell, Oahu College, Honolulu, Hawaii.\n\"Music of the Philippine Islands\" — Josefa Jara, City of Iliola, P. I.\n\"Chinese Music\" — ^L. Shew.\nHerman E. Owen, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nFORCES\n\nAT WORK\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\n\nFOR THE BETTERMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nFRANCES E. CLARKE, CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC-SCHOOL MUSIC,\nNATIONAL FEDERATION OF MUSICAL CLUBS, CAMDEN, N.J.\n\nNo subject in the curriculum is more important than school music.\nTwenty years ago no one had dreamed of the possibilities that existed in\nschool music or of the development of the subject that has really been\naccomplished since that time. Schools are now reading standard choruses\nand operas as well as simple hymns and chorals. It has fallen to my lot\nto touch hands with both the old regime and the new. These reminiscent\nmoments take me back to the time when I began teaching. I found a set\nof books in the schools when I first took up school music in which the method\nused was that of taking up one line of the staff at a time. As the tones on\none line were learned, a second line was added, and then a third. After\ncontinued practice and study the classes were allowed to sing from all five\n\nI\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBETTERMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\n849\n\nlines. One of the first movements toward improvement was the introduction of motion songs, in which the crudest motions of the hands and feet\nwere indicated by footnotes at the bottom of the page and they were usually\ncarried out without any idea of grace. However, there was a principle\nlying back of these motion songs.\nAbout this time William L. Tomlins came forward with his call for\nproper interpretation of children's songs and a splendid method of tonebuilding. This work had a great influence in the schoolroom and it was\nfollowed by a movement to base the study of music on song singing. Out\nof this developed two factions in public-school music, one standing for song\nsinging and the other for music reading. I am glad to say we have passed\nthru that period now and have arrived at a development where we have\nboth song singing and music reading and also tone quality and proper interpretation ofmusic. We have also come to take the position that music in\nthe schools is not only education in music but the education of the whole\nchild. Music has indeed become the servant of education, and more forces\nare at work for it and more people interested in it at this time than ever\nbefore.\nI shall mention several forces which have been influential in giving music\nthe important place it now holds in the educational system. First, there\nwas a real demand for better school music and the supervisors themselves\nbecame aware of the broader conception of their work and of the important\nplace music held in education. Out of this feeling came the organization\nof the Music Supervisors' National Conference, which has become a large\nand influential body. At the meeting held in Pittsburgh last spring, over\nthree hundred members were enrolled. The annual meeting of this body\nhas become the forum for the discussion of the questions of school music\nand the clearing-house of all the ideas which have grown out of experience\nof the members as they have experienced new visions of the increased\nimportance and usefulness of their subject.\nA second influence was a call for supervisors who were better prepared.\nIt is a sad fact that in the early days of school-music supervision very many\nof the supervisors were not musicians. This was partly due to the fact that\nthere was no place for them to go to get a special drill in the supervision of\nschool music. Many of these supervisors were doing excellent work in the\nschools in spite of that fact. If we will look over the field for twenty-five\nyears, we shall find that only two schools making a specialty of training\nschool-music supervisors existed in this country — the Thomas Normal\nTraining School at Detroit, Mich., and the Normal School at Potsdam, N.Y.\nIn this connection it should be said that schools conducted by the book\ncompanies have done very valuable work in giving supervisors better\nequipment for their special work. Today we find that every state has a\nnumber of important schools that have established courses for music\nsupervisors,'so in the future there will not be the^ excuse iQx poor prepar9,tiQii\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "8so\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nwhich has existed in the past. In the third place, in fonner years many\nsuperintendents and leading educators of the country did not recognize the\nmusic supervisor as a musician or as an educator. In recent years this\nattitude has changed and public-school music is now recognized as one of\nthe livest propositions of education. The supervisors themselves have\nlargely brought this about thru their national organization and thru the\nfact that a great many supervisors are now in the work who have very wide\ntraining both in education and in music.\nIn the fourth place, there has been a general awakening in all lines of\nmusic in this country. America spends six million dollars every year for\nvarious performances of music in public. Another indication of this general\ninterest is the fact that both the National Federation of Women's Clubs\nand the National Federation of Music Clubs several years ago adopted a\ndefinite policy of encouraging the development of music in the schools, and\nappointed efficient committees to carry out that purpose. As chairman of\nthe committee appointed by the National Federation of Women's Clubs,\nI have printed and circulated circulars calculated to increase the interest\nof the local clubs and have sent them out to the women's clubs of the country. In many cities the women's clubs have acted upon the suggestions\nof the committee and have been active in bringing music into the schools.\nReports have been made showing that the members of clubs have appeared\nin the schools on two hundred occasions, thus bringing a high class of music\nto children who otherwise would not have heard it. They have also invited\nthe supervisor of music to bring school music into the club meetings by\nhaving classes sing at some of the meetings. In Rochester, N.Y., they have\ngiven a series of concerts of one each month, some of which were chronological, the course ending with the presentation of American compositions.\nOther women's clubs have raised money to buy orchestral instrmnents to\nbe used in the schools. This is a most commendable activity. Still other\nclubs have created a sentiment in favor of music in the schools by having\npapers read and by having the organization give special programs in the\nschools.\nAnother reason that interest has increased in music in the schools is that\na number of prominent educators have been very pronounced and effective\nin proclaiming the value of music as education and in advocating its general\nuse in all the schools. President John W. Cook, of the State Normal\nSchool at DeKalb, 111., is one of these, and it should not be forgotten that\nat the Denver meeting when a committee recommended that the Department\nof Music Education be dropped from the National Education Association he\nappeared on behalf of the music supervisors and succeeded in having the\ncommittee change its recommendation. President John R. Kirk, of the\nState Normal School at Kirksville, Mo., has also been outspoken in his\nsupport of school music. Two others have been extremely active in behalf\nof public-school music and their influence cannot be overestimated.\nUnited\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nHIGHER\n\nMUSIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n851\n\nStates Commissioner of Education P. P. Claxton and A. E. Winship, editor\nof the Journal of Education, have been traveling all over the United States\nmaking addresses in which they have spoken in the most urmaeasured terms\nof the value of music education and have urged its general use and its better\nteaching. It is a great satisfaction to those of us who have been a long\ntime in the work to realize that we have lived to see many of our dreams\nof a great development in public-school music come true.\n\nELEMENTARY MUSIC EDUCATION AS A BASIS FOR\nSECONDARY AND HIGHER MUSIC EDUCATION\nJ. LAWRENCE\n\nERB, DIRECTOR,\n\nSCHOOL OF MUSIC, UNIVERSITY\nURBANA, ILL.\n\nOF ILLINOIS,\n\nIt is sad but true that even the so-called educated classes are too often\nskeptics and deterrents the moment one approaches them with a proposition\nwhich is out of their particular line. Now musical education in particular\nbeing considered for years as a thing apart from the general educational\nscheme, has felt the effect of this tendency. First it has been the object\nof a profound indifference on the part of educators and people in general,\nbecause it has been out of their line. People who would blush to think that\nthey had not kept apace of the latest book or the latest play on the one hand,\nor that they were deficient in their knowledge of Latin roots or conjugations\non the other, show not the slightest interest in music, its history, or its\nliterature.\nOr there are our \"highbrow\" friends who insist that music never was\nand never can be of any real educational value, that musical educational\nsystems are absolutely unscientific, that they involve no genuine intellectual\ndiscipline, and, at any rate, that you cannot make farmers and laborers\nsee the value of music in an educational scheme which is primarily designed\nto help the children earn their bread and butter. The present slipshod\nmethods must continue, therefore, and music must be forever doomed to\nremain outside the fold of the Elect! One hears this sort of talk all too\noften from men and women who ought to know better.\nThen, too often pointing the very moral which the \"highbrow\" would\ndraw, the members of the music-teaching fraternity either are careless in\ntheir choice of material and methods, or else they sacrifice educational\nvalidity for the sake of the advertising value of a novelty or of some highsounding but meaningless rigmarole. Left alone all too long by the seriousminded educators, the music-teaching fraternity has evolved some fearful\nand wonderful \"methods,\" so called, which may have been sincerely\nbelieved in by those who were responsible for their inception, but which soon\ndegenerated into a trademark, an advertising slogan, whose whole use is to\nbefuddle the public and to entrap the unwary.\n\nSuch terms as \"Italian\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nmethod,\" \"pressure touch,\" \"Leschetizky method,\" \"Liszt pupil,\" and a\nhost of others illustrate what I mean by terms which meant something\noriginally but which have been robbed of all or most of their value except\nthat of dazzling the unsophisticated.\nNow I suppose nowhere has the wool been pulled over people's eyes more\nrepeatedly or more successfully than in elementary musical education.\nThe wave of interest in primary education which swept over the land a\ngeneration or more ago, and which took on, for the moment, all the force\nof a fad but fortunately had enough vitality to persist, did not fail of its\neffect in the music-teaching world, tho in the main the response was slower\nhere, as it always is, than along the usual literary lines. Soon methods\nfor children began to appear, some of them good, many of them childish,\nand some almost grotesque, and each, of course, because the spirit was in\nthe air, taken up by the teaching fraternity because it was new. And the\ngreat outstanding feature of most of them was that they were the product,\nnot of pedagogically trained minds, or minds alive to the principles of\npsychology, but of men or women whose education was often absolutely and\nentirely technical in some musical specialty, without any broad fundamental basis, and with no real outstanding success even in their own\nspecialty to justify their posing as authorities. The fact of the matter is\nthat the proportion of music-teachers, until within a quarter-century, who\nhad any general education beyond a high-school course was woefully small;\nso that the number of persons equipped to speak with intelligence and\nauthority upon any educational question was so insignificant as to be\npitiful. There were fortimately a few great leaders to whom all honor is\ndue and upon their foundations we are proud to build.\nNow in considering the subject of the primary musical education in its\nrelation to secondary and higher musical education, it is exactly this fundamental fact that needs to be borne in mind. A great amount of material\nhas been accumulated, the bulk of which is purely conmiercial and only by\nsheerest accident really educational. It is not the intention of this paper\nto go into the technical details of any plan, but rather to outline in a broad\nsort of way what should and may be done, particularly in and thru the\npublic schools, in this matter of primary musical education.\nAs the general education of the child begins long before the specific,\nand as the process is oral long before it is written, so should the musical\neducation begin in a general way and orally. That is, the first step in\nmusical education must be the creation of an atmosphere. Much of the\nmost important part of a child's development results from the absorption\nof early impressions, especially such as are reiterated or persist for some time.\nOf course, we are all aware that in many cases the impressions are not such as\nmake for the best development of the child, and their effects must be corrected or combated. That is largely why we need schools. But making\nallowance for a vast amoimt of ignorance or for the half-knowledge which is\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nHIGHER\n\nMUSIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n853\n\nalmost worse, the fact remains that a tremendous residuum of true educational worth is the product of the environment, the unconscious and unpremeditated forces which produce impressions upon the receptive minds and\nnervous systems of children and are there recorded.\nThe first step in music education, therefore, should be and must be to a\nconsiderable extent the education of the grandfathers and fathers, the grandmothers and mothers, the aimts and uncles and cousins who, being older,\nproduce the environment of the child. Here is where the pianola and\nvictrola and other mechanical music-makers in the home are creating an\natmosphere that is tremendously favorable to the development of musical\nculture in the coming generation — this in spite of the undoubtedly crude\ntaste of a host of famiUes who possess such instnmients, tho it is always\nencouraging to remember that no matter how crude music may be it can\nnever be an injurious moral force.\nEvery influence which will encourage the members of the family to\nmake and support music — the town band, the church choir, the Sundayschool orchestra, the singing school, and, of course, all concerts — will also\nincrease the interest and intelligence of the child in music and matters\nmusical. It is usually easy to sense the interests of the family by observing\nthe sort of things about which the children talk. It is not only great\nendowments but favorable environments which produce Bachs or Mozarts\nor Beethovens or Mendelssohns. So I place first in the educational factors\nthe environment, and I commend it to the music-teaching profession as\ntheir most important work to see to the creation of a proper environment.\nAnd if some should demur, contending that they are not paid to do that\nsort of work, I would remind them that neither is the business man paid to\nadvertise but it pays to advertise, and the best advertisement is generally\nthat which includes an element of free service to the community. The\nmusic-teaching profession might well ponder this fact and act upon it. The\nmere use of printer's ink is not in itself advertising.\nBut of course environment is not all. There must be a deliberate\nprocess of education based upon scientific pedagogic and psychological\nprinciples. It is already recognized that the musical education should begin with the study of music, rather than the study of notation or technique,\nthat the first thing to do is to interest the child in music and then to help\nhim to make music. The environment will perhaps have supplied the\ninterest and even the beginnings of expression. In such case the work of\nthe teacher is easy. Otherwise the learning of easily comprehended\nmelodies, with later the singing (or whistling) of them, is necessarily the\nfirst step. Personally, I believe that this is the first step in the study of\nan instrument, just as in singing, just as I believe that the difficulties of\nthe teacher of instrumental music will be much lightened if the pupil be\nencouraged to siftg the obscure passage. Certainly the understanding will\nbe quickened by such means.\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nBut I am stating only what is already the practice of many teachers.\nThe choice of the actual material must always be largely a matter of\npersonal opinion and preference. Folk songs have been and should remain\nan important feature of this phase of the work, tho I would rather see the\nuniversal, time-honored ones used than that the remote corners of the\nearth should be continually scoured for new ones of less merit. Remember\nthey are new to the children, if not to you, and that in the piano world we\nhave not yet outgrown the Bach Inventions and the Clementi Sonatinas and\nthe Mozart and Haydn Sonatas, even tho they were old to our grandfathers.\nThe next step, it would seem to me, would be the study of the elements\nof expression, rather than the study of notation, tho if one element be taken\nat a time there is no particular reason why its notation may not profitably\nbe studied at the same time. But it is undoubtedly true that a form of\nmusic education which is so haphazard that it attempts to teach melody and\nrhythm at the same time can hardly claim to be pedagogically sound, and\nmany teachers try to teach even more than that to beginners. Here, I\n\nI\n\nthink, is where most current \"methods\" sin. Their choice of material is\nmost attractive, but their method of presentation is not always sufficiently\ndetailed.\nFor instance, in the presentation of rhythm the first work should not\nbe musical at all except as the beat of a drum is musical. It ought to ■\nconsist of tapping first simple and then more compUcated rhythms in unison. ■\nThe motion songs and marching songs and dances supply this element in\npart, but there is no question in my mind that the deplorably universal\nrhythmic deficiency which one finds in music students is due to the fact\nthat they have never taken the time and trouble to study rhythm for\nits own sake. Working out the values of notes in fractions is not enough,\nfor that is merely a mathematical problem. Nothing short of the actual\ntapping of the rhythm in strict time will accomplish the result. I know of\nno better cure for rhythmical imcertainty than the combination of a\nmetronome and a pencil for tapping, backed by a persistent teacher,\n\"behind the gun\" as it were. In the same connection, the rhythmic signature should be studied first with regard to the niunerator of the fraction,\nand then the denominator, before the entire fraction is considered. Of\ncourse nothing of this is new, but we need sometimes to be reminded of\nwhat is such a commonplace that we have forgotten to include it in our\ncalculations.\nThe ordinary elements of musical education should be taken up in the\nsame way, one by one. Voice culture, a much discussed but as yet little\nunderstood element, cannot possibly at first be combined with anything else.\nI have heard housekeepers say that if a particle of dirt be ironed into a\nfabric, it becomes almost impossible to rub it out. So, if a misconception\nbe allowed to accompany the presentation of a truth, or if a wrong condition\nbe allowed to accompany an educational process, it becomes vastly difficult\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nHARMONY\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n855\n\nto correct the misconception or wrong condition. Therefore, each element\nneeds to be presented alone in its pure unadulterated form if the resultant\nblend is to be perfect.\nNow, with regard to reading, there is only one thing to be said. The\nperson who cannot read is forever dependent upon others for his information. Occasionally one with an unusually bright mind will acquire a fair\neducation without the ability to read readily, but we never hear of a person of\nany prominence who is not a ready and accurate reader. That goes without\nsaying. It is fundamental. Just so it is difficult to conceive of anyone\nas a musician who is not a ready and fluent and accurate reader. Therefore,\nevery school child ought to be able to read music just as readily as he reads\nprint. Do not scoff. He ought to be, and he would be, if he had had the\nproper training. It is a significant fact that ready, rapid reading of English\nwas much facilitated by the introduction of the \"word-method,\" whose\nprincipal virtue is that it focuses the attention upon the reading itself,\nnot upon spelling or some other extraneous thing. So music-reading will\nbe vastly improved when we do much more of it, leaving the harmonic\nanalysis by syllables and whatnot to take its proper place with spelling\nand grammar — elements of education, it is true, but of vastly less importance than the reading with which they interfere if introduced in connection\nwith it. Reading first, then solmization and harmony, as English reading\nfirst, then spelling and grammar.\nJust where in the educational scheme to introduce each element I would\nnot presume to say, whether in the first or second year, whether in the\nprimary or secondary grades. I believe that the public schools — including,\nof course, the high and normal schools with their capstones the colleges\nand universities — ought to furnish a musical education complete in all its\ndetails; that a person ought to be able to pursue at the expense of the state\nevery phase of his musical training from the C-scale to the concert stage or\nthe composer's desk.\nIn this connection, I am willing to hazard a prophecy. I believe that\nthe time is soon coming when the public schools will accept freely every\nphase of practical musical education. What is more, I believe the public\nschools will furnish facilities for practice, just as now they furnish laboratory\nfacilities in the study of science. They do not expect each high-school or\ncollege student to purchase his own apparatus, but for a small laboratory\nfee they furnish the best which the community or institution can afford.\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nALICE C. BUMBAUGH,\n\nOF HARMONY\n\nJOHN C. FREMONT\n\nIN HIGH SCHOOLS\nHIGH SCHOOL,\n\nOAKLAND,\n\nCAL.\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to discuss at length the status of\nmusic in the general educational scheme. From present indications we\nmav conclude, however, that the day is not far distant when it will no\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\n\nlonger be considered a thing apart, reserved for the favored few, but will be\nincluded in the curriculum of all high schools as a major subject. When the\nhigh schools of the country have well-organized music departments, as\nthey now have history, EngUsh, mathematics, and science departments,\nharmony will be taught as a matter of course.\nBecause the subject has not been offered in such schools until recently,\nharmony teachers have faced a serious problem caused by the lack of suitable texts. The standard texts were not written for high schools, and tho\nsound theoretically, bear much the same relation to our work as do the\ndictionary and encyclopaedia to the teaching of English — valuable as aids,\nbut impossible as texts. As substitutes for these older books, a number\nof others have been offered, but in most cases the subject is treated in such\na superficial manner that the student's knowledge at the end of the course\nis correspondingly superficial. With efficiency as the educational watchword, such results are not to be tolerated.\nNo phase of music is more suited to students of high-school age than\nharmony. As a matter of fact, experience both with high-school students\nand with adults has convinced me that the former master the subject more\nreadily than the latter. But it must be treated as a serious educational\nsubject to which are applied methods found successful in the teaching of\nother branches. A prominent musician writing of the work as frequently\npresented said: \"These are the results obtained by that class of school\nmusicians who, tho they do excellent work in other respects, have so little\nknowledge of harmony that they place the apex of achievement at the point\nof abiUty to attach a few chords to a tinkling time of obvious reminiscence.\"\nIn the larger high schools of this state, where well-organized music\ndepartments exist, a two years' course in harmony is given. I have been\nasked to outline the method used in a number of these schools — a method\nwhich has aroused the enthusiasm of teachers and students and has won\nthe approval of musicians who have visited the classes. Since it is manifestly impossible to discuss the subject in detail in a paper of this length,\nI shall confine myself to the most important points of departure from\nmethods with which most of you are famiUar. From the nature of the\nsubject the statements must, to a certain extent, be technical.\nLittle reference need be made to the preliminary stages of the work,\nthe very thoro drill in writing scales and intervals, except perhaps a mention\nof the treatment of the minor scale, which differs from most methods in that\nthe normal minor scale is taught without reference to those chromatic\nalterations which are necessary for harmonic and melodic purposes. Thruout the work, which is cumulative, effort is directed toward the mastery\nof one thing at a time; and for this reason chromatic alterations of the\nminor scale are not taught until the student has occasion to use them.\nAt the outset exercises are worked over a given bass, but early in the\nwork melodies are introduced with very definite rules for harmonization.\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nHARMONY\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n857\n\nand thruout the course both phases of the work are presented. A threepoint harmonization is employed, by which is meant the inclusion of all\nharmonies used by the classic composers in the famihes of tonic, dominant,\nand subdominant chords. The result of this classification, which we hold\nto be theoretically sound, is greater facility on the part of the student in the\nuse of dissonant chords, as well as an increased power of analysis.\nA most important feature is the writing of melodies from the three\nupper voices over a given bass; the harmonization of basses thus becoming\na study in melody-making, as the harmonization of melodies is a study in\nthe appHcation of chords.\nAn extensive classification of non-harmonic tones is adopted, and these\nare freely used in all voices, both for melodic and for rhythmic purposes.\nModulation is presented both from the melodic and from the harmonic\nstandpoint very early in the work. Another valuable feature is the use of\nintensifying chords in extended cadences, and their employment for the\nformation of harmonic structures from which original melodies may be\nevolved. When students are able to write good melodies from harmonic\nsuccessions of their own choosing, there is little danger of those \"tinkling\ntunes of obvious reminiscence\" to which I have referred.\nThe subject of imitation is given unique presentation, and, as in other\ncases, is approached both from a given melody and from a given bass.\nNear the end of the course, attention is given to the writing of chorals after\nrhythmic figures selected from hymnals, the melodic and harmonic elements\nbeing supplied by the students.\nThese are some of the most prominent features of the work, which I\nhave selected for demonstration by the students present this morning.\nI am frequently asked these three questions: What about ear- training ?\nDo not students find such technical work uninteresting? What is the\nultimate aim of the teaching of harmony?\nAs to the first question, every lesson is a lesson in ear-training. Students\nare required to state at the end of each exercise submitted that they have\nplayed it or heard it played. They are advised to do both. They are\ntaught that rules of harmony are the result of the established practice of\nthe great composers, and that the ear is the court of last resort. By this\nis not meant, however, the untrained ear of the immature student.\nAs to the interest of students in the subject, I refer you to anyone who\nhas visited classes in schools where this course is followed. Students\ndelight in any subject in which instruction is definite. The study of harmony\nis found uninteresting to the student only when he is left to flounder amid\na confusion of hazy ideas.\nThe ultimate aim of the teaching of harmony is, to my mind, what\nshould be the aim of all music teaching in the public schools, the enrichment of the life of the student thru an increased power of music appreciation. For those students who plan to make music their profession after\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "8s8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nleaving school, the study of harmony is essential; the future composer, if by\nany happy chance he is found in our classroom, will be given a language in\nwhich to express himself, but our work is not designed especially for these.\nAny student who has sufl5cient foundation to undertake the work will have\ndone more to escape from that state in which listening to music is \"a\ndrowsy revery relieved by nervous thrills,\" to quote Thomas W. Surette,\nthru a study of harmony than by many so-called courses of musical appreciation.\nCOLLEGE\n\nPREPARATION FOR TEACHERS\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nIRVING M. GLEN, PROFESSOR OF MUSIC AND DEAN OF THE COLLEGE\nARTS, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON,\nSEATTLE, WASH.\n\nIN\nOF FINE\n\nIn a conversation with a superintendent of city schools this summer,\nhe complained of the difficulty that he invariably experienced in securing\nteachers of special subjects. He desired instructors who were trained\nbroadly enough to work sjonpathetically with the other teachers of the\nhigh-school staff, all of whom were college graduates. His experience, he\nregretted, represented a general condition. Now as these special subjects\nincluded music, our interest was at once enlisted in ascertaining the causes\nfor this condition and in seeking a possible remedy.\nWhile the situation may be, in a measure, due to the American tendency\ntoward haste, toward economy of time and effort in preparation, it would\nbe manifestly unfair to attribute it entirely to this desire for \"short cuts.\"\nThe general attitude of the \"body pedagogic\" evidences a desire not to\nescape preparation but to acquire it. By thousands, teachers are enrolling\neach year as students in the summer sessions of colleges and imiversities\nfor the purpose of enlarging their preparation for work. The average\nteacher possesses the desire for the best equipment possible. If school\nofficers desire broadly trained teachers, then, and the teachers themselves\ndesire more liberal training, where is the difficulty ? Why are there comparatively few liberally trained teachers of music available for our secondary\nschools ?\nThe principal difficulty seems to me to be that of opportunity. There\nare many special schools and conservatories of music, but their courses\nlead primarily to performance rather than to culture. They are largely\nlacking in the academic elements necessary to a liberal training. On\nthe other hand, the curricula of colleges and universities generally are\nso organized that if one spends four years in working for a Bachelor's\ndegree in arts or science, there does not remain to the average student\nenough either of time or of physical energy, which if applied to the study\nof music would be sufficient to enable him to acquire adequate preparation\ntechnically. That would necessitate five years or even six years, and while\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARING\n\nSECONDARY-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nTEACHERS\n\n859\n\nthat amount of time could be well spent, it is, I believe, an unjust demand\nand absolutely beyond the reach of the majority of those who desire to\nbecome teachers, since it defers too long the earning period.\nWhat then can be done ? Where can the opportunity for liberal and\ntechnical preparation for music teachers be offered? The conservatories\ncannot be expected to furnish it. They have their own field, which is\nvaluable and not to be neglected. Our hope lies in the colleges and universities. They must act more generally in our behalf.\nThe American university, imtil very recently, has possessed the conservatism ofa dead man. Only recently, fearful of acquiring too many\nof the characteristics and perquisites of inanition, it is responding to the\ndemand of industrial and vocational forces, and is beginning to vitalize\nits influence. It must respond also to our demand.\nI am not out of sympathy with classical training and classicism generally. The more largely one comes into intelligent contact with the glorious\npast, the more keenly can he appreciate the present, the practical present,\npalpitating with unput questions, perplexed for plain paths that will lead\naway from the possibility of an inglorious future. Today demands,\nhowever, from our colleges and universities men and women who not only\ncan appreciate the present and realize its problems, but who have in their\npossession the agents for the solution of these problems — men and women\nwho have not only liberal but technical training as well. The universal\ndesire for improvement demands this. The universities are beginning to\nrespond. They responded to the demand of the medical profession by\nintroducing premedical courses. The bar demanded better trained lawyers\nand again the universities adjusted their courses. The structural industries\nand scientific vocations raised their voices for more workers, well equipped,\nand ancient and honorable tradition \"moved over\" again to make room\nfor engineering — civil, mechanical, electrical, mining, chemical, hydraulic,\narchitectural, sanitary, even political. In the interests of other activities, we have departments of journalism, schools of commerce, schools\nof forestry, schools of pharmacy, and extensive courses in home economics.\nAll of these evidence the growing recognition of the universities that they\nmust serve the needs of the age.\nBut what have the universities done for music ? What are they doing\nto supply the demand for effective musical leaders ? The attitude of the\nAmerican mind toward music has changed amazingly during the last ten\nyears. Children in the grades are acquiring a knowledge of music and\nthings pertaining thereto that their parents, in many cases, never possessed,\nand which in their public-school days were considered nonessential. As\nhigh-school students, these children have the best opportunities that school\nboards now can provide for continuing their musical study. What are the\nuniversities doing in the way of providing opportunities that may enable\nthese students to pursue further this work as they may their study of\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\n\nmathematics, or history, or the modern languages, or science ? What are\nthe miiversities doing in preparing better equipped teachers for these highschool students?\nThe attitude of the popular mind toward music is no longer one of irritated or amused tolerance. Music is not so often a subject that testifies\nonly to the limitations of the humorist. The laugh is not nearly so spontaneous now, and it is just as likely to be at him as it is with him. The\ncolleges and universities, as leaders in the development of cultural influences,\nshould be quick to recognize and serve the demands that this increased\ninterest in music is making upon them. It is time for them to recognize\nmusic, as they have various industries and professions, with the dignity\nof an academic status, and they are moving in this direction so slowly.\nProbably the fingers of one hand would be sufficient on which to count the\nuniversities in this country that are doing musical work, well organized on\nan academic basis. In a few more institutions music is taught thru affiliated schools or conservatories, but not as real university work. In other\ncolleges, practically nothing of importance is done. A senior dean in\none of the largest and best known universities of this country expressed to me great surprise recently, when, in response to a question,\nI answered that our University of Washington chorus and orchestra,\nin spite of practically changing their membership completely once every\nfour years, were steadily improving in quality. He asked how I accounted for this. My answer was that every year brought superior\nmaterial from the high schools. Again he was surprised, for he said: \"I\nhave considered the money spent on music education in the schools less\nproductive of results than probably any other similar expenditure, and that\nit was largely money wasted.\" His university reflects his attitude. It\nis doing practically nothing to improve the condition musically in the community that it seeks to serve — nor are colleges and universities generally.\nWhat lethargy, when the constituency of these universities — the people —\ndesire the work, and the secondary schools furnish an increasing nimiber that\ndemand it, and school boards are seeking men and women with the kind\nof training that would produce still more effective results in the public\nschools!\nModern sociologists are seeing in music a material aid in solving the\n\"leisure time\" problem; they recognize the same solution advocated by\nthe Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, centuries ago. Music is\nbeing recognized as a human necessity.\nThe central labor council in a large western city recently adopted\nunanimously a resolution addressed to the state federation demanding\nlegislation that would result in the increased development of facilities in\nthe state university for the study of music and the other arts. Why?\nFor the sake of the homes and the children of the laborer. The demand\nupon the higher institutions of learning is genuine, not fictitious, and the\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARING\n\nSECONDARY -SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nTEACHERS\n\n86i\n\nlonger they delay in recognizing their responsibilities in this regard, the\nlonger will be deferred the day of American music.\nWith the universities as contributing factors, we have developed American finance, engineering, scientific achievement, letters, diplomacy, that\nhave won international recognition. Where are we in the way of developing an American music? What American music expresses this country\nas Grieg's expresses Norway, as Wagner's reflects Germany, as Verdi,\nDonizetti, and others represent the characteristics of their countries ? We\nspeak of French composers, and a procession of immortals passes before\nus. Germany, Italy, Austria, Russia, England, each has its group of great\ncomposers, and some of them are of our own day and generation. What of\nAmerica ? We have had a number of composers in America who have done\nwonderfully good work, but only now and then is there sounded a different\nnote, one that might be characterized as American. The spirit generally\nreflected is that of their European models. We have lost time, and we must\nwork the harder. What the universities have done for law, medicine,\nengineering, and other professional work, it is their duty to do for music.\nThey must recognize it as worthy of study; they must provide courses\nthat will be designed to produce teachers of broader attainment, and to beget\nenthusiasm, clearness of vision, and catholicity of interest that will increase\ntheir possibility of leadership. The resulting confidence and respect on the\npart of the student and community will lead to an earnest consideration of\nmusic as a study to which one may honorably devote his entire energy, his\nlife. When this general condition prevails, then we shall hasten with\nstrides toward the goal which should be one of the definite objects of the\nAmerican college and university — ^American music.\nWhat kind of college course then should be offered to meet the requirements of those desiring to become teachers of music in oiu- secondary\nschools? As general a course as can be provided without sacrificing the\nmain interest, music — a course, roughly speaking, half non-musical, half\nmusical. It should, however, be designed to stimulate the impulses that\nlead to independent study and research, to make a habit of desiring to\nknow. All the academic work desirable cannot be required until the high\nschools themselves send to the colleges students who have ahready had training in the fundamentals of music, so that the time now necessary to devote\nto the pursuit of these courses can be applied to the election of other college\ncourses not directly musical. But pending the arrival of that condition, a\ncourse such as we have at the University of Washington works very satisfactorily. This course requires, in addition to high-school graduation or\nan equivalent for entrance, four years of study of the piano and the requirement of physics as the high-school science. This latter requirement is\nbecause of the later course in college in acoustics. After entrance, in addition to English, there are required courses in French, German, and Italian.\nIf any part of this work has been done in high school, the student is credited\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nwith it and is allowed to elect courses in other subjects to the extent of\nthese credits. A course in physics (acoustics), political or social science,\nin philosophy (psychology or aesthetics), with six hours elective, which the I\nstudent is advised to devote to European history, completes the nonmusical requirements. The work in music is treated as nearly as\npossible like the study of the languages. It is a language, eloquent\nbeyond the eloquence of human speech, with accents that liu-e like\ntresses of tangled sunshine, with measures more melting than the eyes of\nlove, with cadences softer than the notes that \"coo the rapture of the\nwooing dove.\"\nAs a language then the student should be able to interpret music, be\nable to express himself thru some musical medimn (voice or instrument),\nand be able to create or compose. His courses fall into two general groups,\ntheoretical and applied. The theoretical group includes harmony, history,\nappreciation, counterpoint, canon and fugue, form and analysis, and composition. His apphed courses consist of four years of work in his chosen\nmedium of musical expression. It is possible for students to do intensive\nwork in either group or in music education, public-school music.\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to attempt to prove that college\ntraining will insure success in teaching music or anything else. College\ntraining can never substitute for lack of personality or good breeding. It\ncan never put an edge on pot metal. But other things being equal, the\nteacher having the more liberal college training should be in a greater degree\nan inspirational force. He should be more prone to recognize in music a\nculture influence, kindred to other culture influences, and so present the\nsubject for the student's consideration. High-school courses in music\nshould at least stimulate appreciation and desire. Both are the result of\nquickened imagination. How can it fail to stimulate the imagination of\nthe student if, instead of presenting Bach in a detached way, simply as a\nmaker of music, he be presented in connection with his times as a man in\nthe world of men, doing a man's work in his chosen field of endeavor, as\nwere other men? How can a student grasp appreciatively the statement\nthat Bach composed wonderfully unaffected, severely classical music,\nimdistiurbed by the activities of the outside world, unless he knows something of Europ>e outside of Eisenach ? It could only increase the interest\nof the student to know that while Bach in his simple surroundings in\nGermany was composing his immortal music. Pope, Addison, Steele,\nDryden, Swift, Samuel Johnson, and DeFoe were making their immortal\ncontributions to the field of English letters; that John Wesley was beginning\na reUgious movement that should encompass the earth; that in America,\nBenjamin Franklin was carving his niche in the Hall of Fame; that Mirabeau in France and Goethe in Germany came into the world to shake it\nand shape it, just before Bach passed out, and that in the year in which\nhe left the world Gray wrote his wonderful Elegy.\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNIFORM\n\nSECONDARY\n\nMUSIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n863\n\nAgain, many of the forces represented by these men just named may be\ncited as causes of the marked difference between the music of Bach and\nHandel, his contemporary for sixty-five years, who was affected by the\nornate artificialities of external conditions. This is only one example, but\nit will serve to show how the study of music may be vitalized, how music\nmay be brought into contact with other culture influences; how inspiration\nmay be kindled in the student. But these things can be done only when\nthe teacher desires to make his work vital. This is the type of teacher that\ncolleges should send forth — not teachers of musical performance only, but\napostles proclaiming a new creed:\nI believe in music, molder and maker of hiiman mood and inspiration, beautifier\nof waste places, restorer of despairing souls; I believe that thru music can be brought\nabout the salvation of man from many misspent hours, from unworthy impulses, from\npremature spiritual decay, thru greed for gold and lust for ofl&ce; I believe in music as a\nchannel of commimion between man and his nobler self, between man and nature, between\nman and God; I believe in and shall labor to hasten the day when our country's music\nshall be deemed more valuable than its merchandise, more potent than its coiirts and\ntribunals, more distinctive and excellent than its letters.\n\nUNIFORMITY\nGERTRUDE\n\nOF STANDARDS IN SECONDARY\nEDUCATION\n\nB. PARSONS,\n\nHEAD OF MUSIC DEPARTMENT,\nSCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nMUSIC\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nHIGH\n\nIt is with great satisfaction that we witness the widespread interest in\nand growth of music in secondary education during the past few years, and\naltho advancement has seemed much too slow we still congratulate ourselves\nthat some recognition has been obtained. Now that a foothold is established, we can expect further impetus to come by leaps and bounds.\nGradually public-school music is coming into its own, and just so fast\nas we can show results of merit just so fast will we be given recognition.\nIn a recent issue of a well-known musical magazine, our weakest point, to\nmy mind, was forcibly expressed in an article on \"Flaws in Public-School\nMusic.\" The writer concludes as follows:\nThe authorities do not consider music a suflSciently important subject to require\nspecially trained teachers in that branch. Hardly one teacher out of ten in the elementary\nschools is fitted either by training or by inclination to teach the subject and the same in a\nsomewhat lesser degree holds true of the music instructor in the secondary schools. The\nreason for this is that the profession is not considered sufficiently attractive by the better\ntype of musician who enters the more lucrative employment of the concert stage or\nprivate teacher.\n\nIt is evident that the writer is not prejudiced, that he is perfectly justified in his statements, and that his experiences with public-school music in\ncertain localities' at least give him the right to speak in no mincing terms\nconcerning its worthlessness. But, on the other hand, I wish to quote\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nfrom a well-known musician, a teacher of piano and expert accompanist,\nwho asked for a position in a high-school music department, stating as her\nreason that the majority of her studio pupils were imreliable, that, barring\na few instances, they lacked power or inclination to work, their lessons\nbecame an uncertain quantity, and she preferred identifying herself with an\norganized body and an assurance of a definite salary. We must look the\nmatter squarely in the face, however. We can have no standards in the\nmusic education of our secondary schools until our teaching body becomes,\nfirst of all, a corps of musicians.\nIt is true we have a pitiful sort of standard, that of examination, but\nthe sort of examination given has not thus far proved real musicianship.\nWe hear much about standardizing the music profession and in several\nstates (I know of nine) an adoption in some form thru state music teachers'\nassociations has been effected. Last February a general body was organized\nmade up of officers, present and past, of the Music Teachers' Association\nof America, its purpose being to bring all the bodies together for systemization of examinations. Reports have not yet been received concerning the\nfinal deUberations of this body. Those who oppose examinations argue that\nart cannot be standardized, but without question the teaching of it can be.\nThe authorities permit no other subject in our pubUc schools to be presented in so inadequate a manner or with so little careful preparation as\nthat of music. But with opportunities offered for more thoro training,\neither thru our colleges and universities or thru musical institutions of real\nworth, followed by proper certification, the first step in the improvement\nof our teaching force will be attained.\nGranting that we have the well-equipped teacher, the next step is to\nconvince the powers that be that the subject of music is a dignified one,\nworthy of a dignified place in the curriculum, side by side with English,\nhistory, mathematics, or whatever, and that it should receive due consideration. How to accomplish this is, in many cases, a difficult question. The\nNational Federation of Musical Clubs with its various branches is doing\ncommendable work in this line. During the recent convention in Los\nAngeles the work of a music club in a middle western town was brought\nespecially to my notice. The superintendent of schools absolutely opposed\nall music work, especially in the high school, but the music club, composed\nof prominent women, was strong enough to defeat his opposition, and thru\nthe insistence of its members the work was organized and a teacher\nemployed, and altho her musical pathway was a thorny one and she was\nanxious to resign, she was prevailed upon to remain for the good of the\ncause, and is receiving the loyal, unswerving support of the town's musicians. The women's clubs of this country are becoming very strong factors\nin dvic life and with their co-operation we can effect many needed reforms,\nand, rightly presented, the public-school music problems will receive due\nattention and support.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUMENTAL\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN OAKLAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n865\n\nI question any formal, definite uniformity of standards in music education in secondary schools at this time. Conditions vary so materially in\ndifferent parts of district and state, and even different localities of a city\nhave such varying problems, that uniformity is not desirable. The great\nproblem constantly before us is the child, and, altho we may have most\nidealistic standards, we must approach him according to his condition, both\nmental and physical, his temperament, his environment, his particular\nneeds. However, there is a common ground of purpose upon which we can\nwith certainty agree. We are of one mind, I think, first, last, and always,\nin endeavoring to cultivate a sense of musical appreciation, tho each may\nchoose his particular method or scheme for developing that sense. With\nunceasing, never-tiring effort must we foster a desire upon the part of the\nstudent to know something of the musical world; inculcate in him an enthusiasm for music study; create a demand for certain phases of music life;\norganize singing clubs, instrumental clubs, clubs for study, interpretation,\nand creation; and, most important of all, inspire a motive for music study.\n\nINSTRUMENTAL\nGLENN\n\nMUSIC AND INSTRUMENT\nOAKLAND SCHOOLS\n\nH. WOODS, DIRECTOR\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE\n\nOF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OAKLAND,\n\nCAL.\n\nNo phase of education in music in the public schools of the United\nStates has received such a sudden impetus in the last half-decade as the\nstudy of instrumental music. Instrumental music refers directly to the\ninstruments used in the orchestra and the band and omits the piano for the\npresent. The large number of symphony orchestras thruout this country\nhas awakened the public to a much keener appreciation of orchestral music.\nEvery large city and nearly all communities have their regular season of\nconcerts; the homes have their victrolas and pianolas; all of these are good\nagencies for promoting the desire for good music among the people. If\nsuccessful orchestras and bands are to be developed in the high schools, it\ndemands preparation in the grades, else it were impossible for the more\ndifficult and unusual instruments to be represented in the complete instrumentation desired in the high-school organization. While it is rarely\npossible to secure complete instrumentation in each band and orchestra\nin every school in the city, it should be the aim of the community at least to\nassemble one complete orchestra or band from various schools by selecting\nthe best players, thus securing, not only complete instrumentation, but a\nbalance of parts as well as a balance of tone.\nInstrumental study in the Oakland schools. — ^There are forty-two gradeand five high-school buildings in Oakland. In the grade schools there are\ntwenty-nine bands and twenty-nine orchestras, including the combined\nhigh-school orchestra, the combined high-school band, the elementary-school\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ncombined orchestra and combined band. The membership in each organization isfrom six to fifty. Many pupils \"double\" from the band and\norchestra, particularly those pupils playing brass and reeds.\nTo instruct these organizations, the board employs and pays two\nteachers for band and orchestra in the high schools and two in the grade\nschools. Six other teachers not employed by the board are permitted to\ngive lessons in the school buildings during school hours. The pupils pay\nthese instructors twenty-five cents a lesson for a twenty-minute lesson\nonce a week. The pupil may be excused from his class, recitation, or study\nperiod, as the principal indicates, provided he keeps up in all his other\nstudies. If he begins to fail in any of his classes, the special privilege of\ntaking his music lessons during school hours is irmnediately denied him.\nThis plan has proved very satisfactory in the grades, with the result that\nmost of the boys are regular attendants in the bands and orchestras, and\nvery few of them fail in their studies.\nInventory in the year 1913 showed that $13,870 worth of instruments\nwere owned by pupils then enrolled in the schools. These instruments were,\nof course, good, bad, and indifferent, and mostly solo instruments, such\nas comets, clarinets, altos, baritones, trombones, flutes, etc. At the\ntime of this inventory, few orchestras were organized, so no violins or\nstrings were included in the estimate. It was found that parents were\ngenerally willing and ready to purchase solo instruments that could be used\nin the home, but were decidedly imwilling to spend money on string basses,\ntubas, drums, oboes, bassoons, and altos, or mellophones. In order to\ncomplete the instrimaentation of the various organizations, the board of\neducation decided to purchase such instrvmients as were either neglected\nor omitted because of their large, awkward size, their expense, or thdr\ninavailability as a solo instrument in the home.\nFor the high schools, the following instrmnents were purchased: From\nCarl Fischer, New York City: 4 f-size string basses; 3 buffet oboes;\n3 buffet bassoons; i set of tympani; i set of deagan bells. From Wunderlich, Chicago, 111.: 4 French horns, single. From Aschon, Oakland, Cal.:\n3 cellos. For grade schools, the following were purchased: From G. G.\nConn, Elkhart, Ind.: 25 E flat basses; 13 E flat altos; 14 mellophones;\n6 Fluegel horns; 2 trumpets; 6 French horns; i piccolo, D flat; 2 quartettes\nof saxophones, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone; 2 string basses; 2 oboes;\n2 bassoons; i trombone. From local dealers: 12 sets of drums, including\nbass, snare, and cymbals; second hand: 2 trombones; i string bass;\nI tuba; I baritone. This year have been added: 8 violas; 4 mellophones;\n1 baritone; 2 ^-size string basses; 8 sets of drums. The retail price of\nthese instnmients is close to $10,000.\nThese instruments are loaned to students free of charge, but they\nmust give bond for the full amount of the instrument and case, signed by the\nparent and a property owner, and are liable and must pay for all damages\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUMENTAL\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN OAKLAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n867\n\nand repairs. All of the instruments are in use and the demand for more\ninstruments in the grades is greater than can be supplied.\nThe slowest progress has been made on the oboe. An erroneous idea\nhas gone forth concerning the injurious eflfect attending the study of the\noboe. It is quite unfortunate that this fine solo instrument should suffer\nfrom such a report. The fingering is quite easy, but the control of the\nreed and the breathing presents a very difficult feature to master. The\nintense grip of the jaw and compression of the facial muscles is quite\nfatiguing, and at first very painful. The wind pressure is generally quite\nintense, as the lungs are overcharged for the amount of wind necessary\nto produce a tone. These features are difficult to overcome, and, as a\nconsequence, oboe players are very scarce, but I have never heard of anyone who has suffered any mental derangement occasioned by the study of\nthe oboe.\nThe bassoon is more frequently studied, as the reed is not so hard to\nmanipulate, but the fingering is more difficult. If one's fingers are all\nthumbs, then the bassoon should be studied without delay, for success is\nassured without a written guaranty.\nFrench-horn players are absolutely necessary for both band and\norchestra. Expert players are very rare, but a great many average players\ncan be easily developed, provided students have had previous experience\nin playing brass instruments, either alto, mellophone, or comet.\nAmericans, unfortunately, have recognized only four instruments:\nthe piano, voice, violin, and cornet. Only in recent years have conservatories had sufficient demand to employ expert teachers upon the unusual\ninstruments of both band and orchestra. It is strange that such necessary\ninstruments as the flute, cello, oboe, bassoon, viola, and the double bass\nshould be so lamentably neglected. The flute is a very easy instrument\nfor girls to learn to play.\nThe cello is a little awkward to carry, but it is one of the most noble\nsolo instruments. Parents should consult with the instructors in the\nschools when choosing instruments, for they will give advice concerning\ncertain instruments, their adaptability to the child's needs, and the child's\nphysical adaptability to the instrument chosen.\nInstrumental study in many cases is preferable to vocal study. The\nperformers are generally more accurate and are better readers, which condition isoccasioned largely by having to play with other performers. This\nnecessitates keeping accurate time and learning to count measures correctly.\nAll boys should be compelled to have band experience during the time they\nare in the grade schools, for at that time their musical appreciation is\nmore easily appealed to, and the vigor of the tone of the brass band later\nresolves itself into a keener appreciation of the refined orchestral tone.\nIt is strange to note how anxious the band boys become to acquire orchestral\nexperience as they are promoted into the high schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niMn\n\nIn 1915, including grade and high schools, the June Survey of Instrumental Music in the Oakland Schools reports the number of students asl\nfollows: violin, 183; viola, 10; cello, ii; string bass, 8; piccolo, 14;^\nflute, 13; clarinet, 93; oboe, 5; bassoon, 6; saxophone, 16; comet, 202;\ntrumpet, 3; Fluegel horn, 10; alto, 53; mellophone, 25; French horn, 12;\ntrombone, 40; baritone, 39; tuba, 37; snare drums, 37; bass, 13; total\nstudying, 912; total in bands, 519; total in orchestras, 389.\nIn scrutinizing programs given by various high schools thruout the\ncountry this year, I have observed with some amazement the acknowledged\nincomplete instrumentation in many of the orchestras, yet they were playing selections in public that demanded complete instrumentation and of\nnecessity were omitting many of the parts.\nWhile the parts are cued in for other instruments to play as a substitution, yet these very instruments that were to be used and could be used as\nsubstitutes were not listed in the instrmnentation of the orchestra giving the\nprograms. I cannot but avail myself of this opportunity to censure the\nall-too-prevalent practice in the majority of high schools of playing for\npublic performance music which looks well on a program but which sounds\nentirely diflFerent to those who are unfortunate enough to have to listen to\nits performance. If only six different instruments are in evidence in the\norchestra, then only such music should be played as can be played and\nsound well with a six-instrument arrangement. Most of the selections\ngiven in the programs under question demanded full symphonic instrumentation, twenty parts, and were played by fewer than ten different parts.\nThe best and surest results will be attained by having teachers in charge\nof the work who can perform upon some orchestral instnmient, preferably\nthe violin, and their work would be much more successful if they knew\nsomething about brass and reeds. Moreover, these same instructors could\nlearn enough in one year's study of the cornet and clarinet with competent\nteachers to make their efforts much more effectual. But any teacher\nhaving ability to lead and direct can organize and conduct a band or an\norchestra and so make a creditable start.\nIf we expect to make America musical, instrumental study will accomplish itmore quickly than vocal study, and the more numerous the instrumental players, the greater the musical activity of the community. A\ncommunity is judged musically not so much by its vocal and choral societies\nas by the standard of its symphony orchestras.\nWith music started in the grades, continued thru the high school, \"^\nfurthered in those universities where music will be recognized and taught\nwith reverence, the way will be paved for American performers in our\nsymphony orchestras, for American composers with orchestral experience\nacquired in the schools, and for American music developed, produced, and\nappreciated by Americans.\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEURHYTHMICS\n\nTHE EURHYTHMICS\nGRACE\n\nOF J AQU ES-DALCROZE\n\n869\n\nOF J AQU ES-DALCROZE\n\nSMITH, BERKELEY,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe word \"eurhythmies,\" recently coined in England, is intended to\ncover not only rhythmic gymnastics, but the whole system of musical education invented by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. This system includes also\near-training and improvisation based upon practical harmony. In the\nregular Dalcroze schools the method is always taught in its entirety. But\n'in this country conservatories and schools already have established methods\nof ear-training, and usually teach rhythmic gymnastics alone as preliminary or supplementary to the other music studies. The term eurhythmies\nis still used, however, to distinguish the work from methods whose sole aim\nis physical training.\nIn his work as professor of harmony in the Conservatory of Geneva,\nthe attention of Jaques-Dalcroze was drawn to the fact that a large\nmajority of students technically far advanced were lacking in the ability\nto give musical expression to their simplest thoughts and feelings, and that\na great many were deficient in a sense of rhythm and pitch. He felt such\na state of affairs to be radically wrong and began a series of experiments\ndiscovering the cause of each musical defect and proceeding to remedy it,\nuntil he had evolved the wonderful system which now bears his name. It\nwas at first devised as an aid to music students, but now its quickening\ninfluence makes itself felt in the field of general education because it trains\nthe powers of apperception and of expression and, by co-ordination of the\nfaculties thru the help of rhythm, establishes a rapid communication\nbetween brain and body. It creates an alertness invaluable in any study,\nand gives the power of quick thought and prompt decision and action.\nIn the United States the work is so new that it cannot yet be accurately\njudged by the results obtained especially as we have at present only a few\nqualified teachers in this country, but in Europe, where JaquesDalcroze has been well and favorably known as a musician and composer,\nhis new system soon won for him a reputation as an educator of the first\nrank. He has made many brilliantly successful lecture tours, and has\npresented his pupils to large and enthusiastic audiences in all the great\ncities and music centers, where the value of his work, both musical and\ngenerally educational, has been fully recognized. It is taught as an obligatory subject in many of the most important conservatories and schools of\nGermany, Austria-Hungary, England, Russia, Switzerland, France, Belgium, and Holland, not to sp)eak of classes in Sweden, Italy, and Spain.\nLast year the children of the king and queen of Belgiimi were stud)dng it, as\nwere also the royal princes of Saxony.\nThe method is divided into three parts, rhythmic gymnastics, solfeggio\nor ear-training, and improvisation, all of which are, however, so closely\nassociated that they should be inseparable, tho the first part, the foundation\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nfor the whole, the rhythmic gymnastics, is invaluable as a preparation for\nall music study. It is not a method of physical training — it is a means of\nself-expression thru rhythm.\nIn the rhythmic exercises, the pupil usually beats time with the arms,\nand moves the feet according to the note values taking one step for each\nnote. The quarter note being accepted as the unit, the different values are\nexpressed by either one movement, or, for notes of longer duration, as whole\nnotes, half notes, and dotted halves, etc., by a combination of movements.\nFor instance, in a measure of 4-4 time composed of a half note, a quarter,\nand two eighths, the pupil marks four with the arms, takes one step on the\nfirst beat, on the second slightly bends the knee, on the third takes one step,\nand on the fourth two quicker steps. This can be varied by clapping the\nrhythm and taking a step for each beat. By this comparatively simple\nexercise the child begins to gain the control over his muscles that makes\nthem act in quick response to the dictates of his will. The pupil soon\nlearns to recognize and execute short rhythms, and his memory is cultivated\nby listening to a phrase of a few bars and then executing it without the\naccompaniment of the piano.\nThe teacher also plays a few bars with changes of measure, for example,\none bar 2-4 time, two bars 3-4 time, and the pupil shows his understanding\nby correct beating of time, and accentuation of the first beat of each\nmeasure. He soon learns to recognize the end of a period in simple\nmusical forms and shows this in different ways. For instance, by turning and marching in the opposite direction at the beginning of a new\nperiod. Different ways of phrasing are also taught, and accelerando and\nritenuto, crescendo and diminuendo, legato and staccato are expressed by\nphysical movements and degrees of contraction and relaxation of the\nmuscles.\nThere are exercises for instant arrest or interchange of movement at\ncommand, the object being to enable the pupil to check or alter any movement at will with rapidity and ease. A simple exercise of this kind is to\nmarch forward, and at command take one step backward, then go forward\nagain. The change is instantaneous and the control perfect, for the command isgiven only to the second haK of the beat preceding the one in which\nthe change is made. Another is to march and clap quarter notes, and when\n\"hand\" is called, omit one movement of the hand, when \"foot\" is called\nomit one step.\nOther exercises are for the development of independent muscular control and dissociation of movement. The arms may beat in canon, say 4-4\ntime, one arm beginning one beat later than the other. The head may\nbeat 2-4, the left arm 3-4, the right arm 4-4, and the feet march 5-4 time.\nThese exercises sound very difficult, but they soon grow easy, and are\nexecuted by the children without any feeling of strain. Two against three,\nand three against four are taught by marching one and marking the other\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nE^URHYTHMtCS\n\nOF JAQUES-DALCROZE\n\n871\n\nwith the arms, always changing at command. The sudden changes keep\nthe pupil alert, and prevent the exercises from becoming mechanical.\nThe following is a simple exercise, for teaching the division of time.\nThe teacher plays a whole note which must be divided by the pupil, first\nin two parts by taking two steps, then three, four, five, six, or more. Then\nsix notes will be played and the pupil takes two or three steps.\nAnother exercise is called a chain. The teacher plays a succession of\nmeasures, in any given time, each measure having a different rhythm.\n• The pupil listens to the first measure, which he executes while the teacher\nplays the second, which is realized while the third is being played, and so\non thruout the exercise, the pupil always realizing the measure preceding\nthe one that is being played. Consequently he is doing two things at the\nsame time, listening to a new rhythm while he executes the previous one.\nThis exercise is later made more difficult by realizing the rhythm backward\ninstead of forward. Here rhythmical feeling and concentration are cultivated to a very marked degree.\nIn fact, all the exercises, of almost infinite variety, are of immense\npsychological value. The system is a combination of work and play, which\neducates the muscles and nervous system in such a way that they are capable\nof executing any rhythmic movement. It teaches values, contrasts, and\nrelationships, and develops a high degree of concentration, power to think\nquickly and definitely, mental and physical self-control and self-confidence,\nwhich are of such great value in every walk in life.\nThe following I will quote from a lecture by Jaques-Dalcroze:\nMy pupils themselves began to realize that they were not merely being taught music,\nbut were being generally educated. They were imdergoing psycho-physical transformations which widened their horizon. Students came for various reasons — some to\nobtain the teaching diploma, others to become conductors, others to prepare for the stage.\nEach of these coming to train for his special object soon realized that involuntarily and\nunconsciously he had put his whole being to school. These results are due entirely to the\nfact that the method educates from within, developing the sense for music, innate in all\nmankind, and is based on the educative value of rhythm, of that force which rules in all\nmanifestations of life, beginning with the first heartbeat; and these results justify my\ncontention that rhythmic exercises should not only be the basis of education in music,\nbut should have an important part in the training of all children.\n\nMuch stress is laid on original work, and the different pupils take great\npleasure in improvising during the lessons short rhythms, which are then\nplayed by the teacher and executed by the class. This leads to the singing of improvised melodies in the classes for ear-training, and later, when\nthe pupil has become familiar with the chords and cadences, he is taught\nto apply this knowledge to the piano.\nJaques-Dalcroze claims for his special method in ear-training, that\nthru it, not only relative, but absolute pitch can be cultivated in the child\nsufficiently gifted t»y nature to be able to distinguish infallibly between a\nwhole and a half tone, provided the study of ear-training is begun before\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musk\n\nthat of an instrument. To a child thus trained to distinguish tones and\nrhythms, and to form mental images of time and note values, the study of\nan instrument means simply the surmounting of the technical difficulties]\npeculiar to that instrument, and music lessons become a pleasure to both]\nteacher and pupil. Jaques-Dalcroze always says of his rhythmic gymnastics that it is not a theory but an experience, that no one can pass]\njudgment on it who has not tried it himself.\nI have shown today merely some of the elements of the plastic side of\neurhythmies, the simple converting of time and note values into steps and\narm movements. The system thoroly developed leads to plastic dancing,\nas it gives the power to interpret thru bodily movement any music suited\nto plastic expression. Tho plastic expression is not the goal of the study of\neurhythmies, it is necessarily one of the results.\nTOPIC: THE\nA.\n\nMUSIC\nMUSIC\n\nK. S. imn, THE JAPAN SOCIETY\n\nOF THE ORIENT\nOF JAPAN\n\nOF AMERICA,\n\nSAN FRANCISCO,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe history of music in Japan is an old one. It is as old as the history\nof Japan itseK. It goes as far back as her legendary age. Japan has tradition. She has her Adam (Izanagi) and Eve (Izanami) who are supposed\nto have come down to earth from heaven. They had three children. Goddess of the Sim, God of the Moon, and God of the Seas. It seems that\nthe baby of the family was naughty and spoiled. He offended his sister,\nthe Goddess of the Sun, who retired and hid herself in a stone cave. Whereupon the world became entirely dark. Now the family became excited;\nthey put their heads together, hung a mirror on the tree of wisdom (this\ncorresponds no doubt to the biblical apple tree) and a crystal ball, and\nperformed some sort of ceremony with music and dance. This pleased the\nGoddess of the Sun so much that she reappeared from the cave and thus\nthe world began to have light again.\nIt is also said that some sort of music was played on the occasion of the\nfoimding of the Japanese Empire by the first emperor, Jimmu, 2,575 years\nago. The speculation is that the music of this age consisted of a very\nprimitive dnmi.\nAltho in the latter part of the third century, Japan started intercourse\nwith the three ancient kingdoms of Korea, their contributions to the arts\nof Japan were very limited until the latter part of the sixth century, when\ntheir people brought with them their science and their arts including their\nmusic and musical instruments. It was, however, the latter part of the\nHeian period, which extends four centuries beginning with the last part of\nthe eighth century, when the contributions of the Asiatic continent reached\ntheir highest mark. Japan was then having supposedly a peaceful and\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nOF JAPAN\n\n873\n\nnominal reign of an imperial family, but in reality was under the progressive\nand stern dictatorship of the Fujiwara family, which encouraged the pursuit ofliterature, science, and arts. It was at this time that Japan developed\nthe No dance of impressive dignity and solemnity, which is often, however,\nfantastic and humorous but full of humanitarian interests. It is an operatic\ncrystallization of the essence of Buddhism and Confucianism. This dance\nis accompanied by singing and recitative rendering of drum and flute music.\nThey even developed orchestral music which was used on different state\noccasions such as the reception of foreign guests. Truly those were good\nold days! They welcomed foreigners with music, while today they are\nfirst entertained at the immigration station and custom house. Football\nwas also instituted by the courtiers and suitable music was played during\nthe game altho there is no record of the rooting section. But the use of\nmusic was confined to the higher classes and the people in general had\nno share in the enjojrment or production of the Japanese music in this\nperiod.\nThis period was followed by a series of political struggles between the\nGenji and Heike clans, which gave rise to a feeling of restless dominance,\nof self-seclusion, and of the instabihty of society, and, because of that, to\nan aversion to society as such. A sort of tune, known as the Keike tune, was\ncreated at this time, which characterized this feeling as your ragtime and\ncomic operas do today. This was naturally melancholy and plaintive,\nexpressing the spirit of the age.\nThe music of Japan suffered a serious setback and was compelled to\ngive way to the clash of swords in the period following, characterized as\nthe Dark Ages. This was ended when lyeyasu Tokugawa, the first Tokugawa shogun, came to reign. Meanwhile, however, in the southern part of\nJapan intercourse with China was renewed, and trade with the Dutch and\nPortuguese began. It was at this time the jamisen was introduced from\nLu Chu Island, which owes its origin either to China or to Malay. This was\nimproved upon until it has become the most popular Japanese instrument\nof today and is called the samisen, resembling a banjo. With the introduction ofthis instrument, came a school of recitation which gave unique\nperformances by dummies manipulated by strings in place of real actors,\naccompanied by samisen players and reciters.\nWith the opening of Japan to occidental countries about half a century\nago and the adoption of the Western civiHzation and institutions, especially\nthe army and navy, there came the miUtary band and with it came the\ndecline of the old line of music except for some court and Shinto functions.\nNow instructions in elementary music according to Western ideas are given\nin every school.\nThe Chinese flute and the banjo are quite commonly used by students.\nThe most popular\" instruments, however, are the Japanese harp, bamboo\nflute, and samisen. The Japanese harp originally had seven strings, now\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musicj\n\nit has thirteen. It typifies Japanese taste and refinement. The shakuhachi, whose resemblance is found in China as well as in Egypt, is a bambc\nflute of a foot and eight inches in length from which it derives its name.!\nIt has five holes and gives forty-two sounds. The most widely used instrument of all is the samisen, a three-stringed instrument which gives fortyseven sounds. There are three types according to different kinds of\nrecitation. Of course either an organ or a piano is seen in almost every\nJapanese public school today.\nStudents of music and art wonder at the reason for the present status\nof Japanese music from a Western standpoint. Why is it the country where\nbirds sing and nature smiles, the country where painters are charmed and\nsculptors are hypnotized with the beauty of the land and harmony of the\natmosphere, why is it then that Japan has not developed great musicians,\nfrom the Western standpoint ? There seem to be several reasons.\n1. The language has been one handicap. While it is musical, all\nJapanese sounds are gutteral and are formed mostly in the throat and with\nthe lips. Therefore they have not the carrying power and volume which\ncome from abdominal breathing, so essential in the speaking of the English\nlanguage and especially in singing.\n2. Self -culture has been the keynote of both Buddhism and Confucianism. Meditation and reserve were considered the noblest virtues, consequently the art of expression did not make its natural progress.\n3. Simplicity and close economy were encouraged and that is another of\nthe reasons for the Japanese not developing complicated and elaborate music.\n4. Side by side with this is another reason. Different shoguns discouraged or even prohibited the indulgence of music by the common people\non the ground of extravagance, tho the real reason seems to be in the fact\nthat they were afraid of the power of expression. They feared that the\nrule of reason might replace the rule of swords.\nTo summarize, Japanese music has developed as an art of self-culture\nand refinement rather than as an education to others or as an entertainment\nto society. But as such it has served its purpose. This gave rise to a\nthree-stringed instrument used by professional entertainers, which, however, isshunned by the very high class of Japanese to the injustice of the\ninstrument.\nBut in spite of these handicaps, the imperial family, whose miUtary and\nadministrative powers were virtually taken away by the shoguns, encouraged the pursuit of art and science. So while the shoguns were discouraging the growth of music, the emperors and courtiers were encouraging it;\nthey kept up what they had and developed the new — so much so that, at\nthe beginning of the restoration of their power, even the common people\nhad developed a taste for music.\nToday there is great awakening in the power of expression and education which is beginning to supersede the privileges of birth or rank.\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHAWAIIAN\n\nMUSIC\n\n875\n\nTogether with these, there is a great craze for Western civilization, its arts\nand modes of expression. The Japanese are adaptable and they will no\ndoubt assimilate the Western music as they have some other lines of\ncivilization.\nIn conclusion, Japan is bound in titne to develop music and musicians,\nfor she is blessed with that wonderful natural beauty which has produced\nartists and artisans. However, music is also subject to supply and demand.\nIt is easier to create supply than demand. It is easier to produce the musicians than the audience. Japan heretofore has developed the music of\nself-culture that needs no audience. This development, however, is\nunnatural, and the Japanese are subject to the same law of nature as are\nother nations. Their hearts respond to true love, their senses respond to\ntrue beauty and harmony. If music represents love, beauty, and harmony,\nit is bound to develop in Japan, for it is then a universal language and\n•Japan too speaks and understands that universal language.\nB.\nHELEN\n\nGRACE\n\nHAWAIIAN\n\nCADWELL,\n\nOAHU\n\nMUSIC\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nHONOLULU,\n\nHAWAH\n\nIt is to be regretted that some musician could not have visited the\nHawaiian Islands during the reign of Kamehameha the First and preserved\nthe music in some authentic score. Kamehameha lived from 1736 until\n18 1 9 and during his reign united the Islands into one kingdom. The\nHawaiians are a part of the whole Polynesian family and some of their oldest\nchants record the voyages to and fro from Tahiti, or Samoa, the voyagers\ntraveUng in fleets of canoes and steering by the stars.\nIn an article in the Hawaiian Annual for 1904, B. L. Marx speaks of\nFornander's attempt to prove an Aryan origin of the Polynesian family and\nquotes the Greek word tnelos, a song or strain, the music to which \"a song is\nset,\" as being identical with the Hawaiian word mele, \"a song or chant.\"\nThe mele included all forms of poetical composition intended for chanting. They have been classified in four divisions: the religious chant,\nprayer and prophecy; inoa, or name song composed at the birth of a chief,\nin his honor, or recounting the heroic deeds of his ancestors; kanikau, the\ndirge or lamentation for the dead; and ipo, or love song.\nThe history of Hawaii can be traced only thru these ancient meles,\npoems without rhyme or meter, but strictly accented, often several hundred\nlines in length, and handed down orally for many generations. Rhythm\nof 2-4 and 4-4 seemed most natural to the old Hawaiians and the ancient\nmeles were characterized by remarkable changes of time and syncopated\neffects. They were greatly lacking in melody since, before the arrival of\nthe missionaries in the nineteenth century, the Hawaiians had no acquaintance with the full range of the intervals that make up the diatonic scale.\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThey had a Umited use of intervals that might be compared to the third,\nfifth, and fourth, and, like the Arab and the Hindu, they appreciated intervals smaller than our half tone. This ability to recognize and use intervals\nmore diminutive than our half tone is an interesting fact and has been found\na possession common to all Polynesian races. This fine distinction of\nintervals gave a certain quality of tone color to their chants.\nHawaiian poetry surpassed Hawaiian song in power to move the feelings.\nThe rhythmic chant was only an accompaniment to the poetry. As has\nbeen said:\nThe hallmark of Hawaiian music is rhj^thm, for the Hawaiians belong to that class\nof people who cannot move hand or foot or perform any action except they do it rhythmically Not alone in poetry, music, and the dance do we find this recurring accent\nof pleasure, but in every action of life it seems to enter as a time-keeper and regulator,\nwhether it be the movement of a fingerful of poi to the mouth or the swing of a kahili\nthru the incense-laden air at the burial of a chief.\n\nMusical phrasing was arranged to fit the verse of the mele, not to\nexpress a musical idea. The cadencing of a musical phrase in Hawaiian\nsong was marked by a peculiarity all its own. It consisted of a prolonged\ntrilling or fluctuating movement in which the voice went up and down in an\ninterval somewhat less than a half tone.\nThe phonics of Hawaiian speech lack the sounds represented by our\nalphabetic symbols, h, c or s, d, /, g, j, q, x, and z, a poverty for which no\nrichness in vowel sounds can make amends, tho the predominance of vowel\nand labial sounds does give charm to the language. The uppermost vocal\ncavities are not called into play to modify and refine the tone and therefore\na certain characteristic which has been described as a \"gurgling throatiness\" often appears which is \"suggestive of ventriloquism.\" This is\ncaused, possibly, by an effort to give a distinct and rapid utterance of different vowel sounds or a repetition of the same vowel. The vocal execution\nof Hawaiian music, like the execution of much of their poetry, showed a\nsurprising mastery of a certain kind of technique which required the chanting of many lines to the end of a certain period on one breath. The performer then breathed anew and started on another seemingly endless phrase.\nThis appears to have developed from the old religious style of prayerrecitation in which the priest was required to repeat the entire prayer on\none breath. His ability to do this was supposed to make the prayer\neffectual.\nThe hula was a religious service which combined pantomime, poetry,\nmusic, and the dance. It was enacted in honor of the goddess Laka and\nfurnished entertainment for the chiefs and their retinues. It included the\nmysteries of Polynesian mythology and the history of the nation, and in\nother countries imder certain circumstances would have developed the\ndrama, opera, and literature. The dance in ancient Hawaii was not indulged ininformally. It was given by trained and paid performers as the\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHAWAIIAN\n\nMUSIC\n\n877\n\nhula was a diflScult accomplishment which required long and rigid training\nin both song and dance, and was a religious service which must be guarded\nby priestly rites,\nA hall called halau was especially constructed for the performance of\nthe hula and, in contrast to the bloody offerings of the heiau, or temple,\ngarlands and awa (a bitter root from which drink is made) were brought as\nemblems of light-heartedness and joy. During the erection of the halau,\nthe strictest rules were observed. The members of the company were\nrequired to deny themselves certain articles of food and to refrain from all\nimpropriety of conduct. In every halau there was a bower of green leaves\nwhich was supposed to be the abode of the deity whose presence inspired\nthe performance.\nThe devotees of the hula worshiped many gods, but the Goddess Laka\nwas the patron of this service and was offered their special prayers and\nsacrifices. The leaves and flowers decorating the altar were S3nnbolic of\nher beauty, for she was a sylvan deity who might be compared with Terpsichore and Euterpe, the muses, respectively, of dance and song.\nIn ancient times the hula was maintained largely by royal support.\nAt the king's court were gathered the bards and musicians, whose minds\nwere filled with tradition, genealogies, and poetic thought, from all of which\ncame the songs of the hula. There were also present the sons and daughters\nof the king's henchmen and people seeking pleasure. From these the kumu,\nmaster and teacher of the hula, selected those fitted by grace and beauty\nof form, by quick wit and keen imagination, to take part in the service.\nThe performers were divided into two classes. In the first class were the\nmore graceful members who sometimes posed and gestured in the dance,\nand used the lighter instruments to enhance their song and action. In the\nsecond class were the older men and women of greater experience. They\nused the heavier instruments and played their parts while seated or kneeling.\nThey joined in the chorus of certain songs and often sang alone while the\nothers devoted their attention entirely to the dance. The teacher instructed\nhis pupils in such matters as accent, inflection, vocalization, gesture, and\nbodily action, and the members of his school stored in their remarkable\nmemories the nation's traditional songs and lore. Graduation from the\nhula involved an elaborate ceremony which included the laying of hands\non a porkling which was afterward prepared for the oven and served at\nthe feast. The graduates were admonished that if they were sincere and\nconsecrated to their work memory would abide, and the training received\nwould always serve them well.\nHulas varied in dignity and rank and the character of each was influenced to some extent by the musical instrument that accompanied it and\ngave it its name. From the ancient hulas, accompanied by the primitive\ninstruments, to the modern songs, which many Americans think are t3^ically\n; Hawaiian, is a wide step, yet one reached by a gradual process.\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1\n\n[MusajT\n\nThe American missionaries arrived in 1820 and began the study of the\nHawaiian language that they might give it back to the people in a writteiOL.\nform. The original alphabet adopted by them contained twelve letters— Ml\nthe five vowels a, e, i, 0, u, and the seven consonants h, k, I, m, n, p, and w.\nThe first Hawaiian spelling-book was printed in 1822 and as fast as possible\nthe Bible and hymns were printed in the native language. These missionaries taught the Hawaiians the diatonic scale and named the notes of it\npa, ko, li, ha, no, la, mi. The use of more melodic expression for their\npoetic natures was readily adopted thru the means of the diatonic scale,\nand the new music of the foreigners appealed to the people greatly. Their\nfeeling for harmony was remarkable and in the last century part singing\nhas afforded them much pleasure.\nThe modem Hawaiian songs are nearly all love songs. They are usually\nof simple, flowing melodic construction, and at times one notes a similarity\nto the old German folk songs. This may be due somewhat to the influence\nof Captain Berger, a German musician who for over forty years has conducted the Royal Hawaiian Band, which has been a great factor in the\nmusical life of the Islands. Captain Berger has been enthusiastic in his\ninterest in the musical growth of the Hawaiian people and is known as the\ncomposer of the music of the national hymn \"Hawaii Ponoi,\" which translated means \"Hawaii's Own True Sons.\" The words of this song were\nwritten by Kalakaua, the last king of the Hawaiian Islands, who reigned\nfrom 1874 to 1 89 1. Kalakaua was a lover of music and greatly encouraged\nthe art among his people. It was in the early part of his reign that the\nukulele was introduced. This is an instrument of Portuguese origin,\nshaped like a small guitar and strung with four strings. The name ukulele\ntranslated is \"jumping flea\" and supposedly refers to the rapid movement\nof the fingers plucking the strings. The use of the ukulele has become widespread inthe Islands and the instrument affords an effective accompaniment\nfor the deep rich quality of the Hawaiian voices. On moonlight nights, and\nparticularly on an evening before a holiday, one can hear groups of students\nand Hawaiian youths serenading. The beauty of the night in that tropical\nland lends an indescribable charm to the plaintive notes of their love\nsongs.\nQueen Liliuokalani, who is well known as a modem Hawaiian composer,\nlives quietly at George Washington Place in Honolulu, and, tho frail in\nhealth, at the age of seventy-six still takes much interest in the life of her\npeople. In a visit to her home recently, I found her seated between two\nroyal kahilis with her lap full of roses, which enhanced the beauty of her\nwhite hair and the simplicity of her black holoku — a form of dress introduced by the early missionary mothers. She was most gracious, and told\nwith animation of her love for music, of the inspiration a composer feels,\nand of the meles that were written in honor of her ancestors according to\nthe ancient customs.\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nISLANDS\n\n879\n\nUpon my inquiry about the few English words that appear Lti her bes^\nknown song, \"Aloha Oe,\" she said that at the time it was written it was\nmerely fashionable to introduce a few English words and that they had no\nspecial significance. This fashion is noted in other songs of that period\nwhen sometimes such words as \"mountain breeze,\" \"dew drop,\" and\n\"sweet dahlia\" were inserted.\nMusic in Hawaii has departed greatly from its primitive characteristics\nand now savors largely of the influence of the outside world, yet it issues\nfrom the hearts of a simple kindly people who still love nature in all her\nbeauty and various forms. They still hear her voices in the gentle winds,\nthe waterfalls, and the waves lapping on the shore. They feel her warmth\nin the sunshine of eternal summer and see her touch in the rainbows and\nthe flowers. Nature is glorious in Hawaii's peaceful isles and such lavish\ngifts in any land could inspire only poetic thought and offer a romantic\ninfluence to the musical expression of its people.\n\nC.\n\nMUSIC\n\nOF THE PHILIPPINE\n\nJOSEFA JARA,\n\nCITY OF ILOILO,\n\nISLANDS\nP.I.\n\nI shall try to describe the primitive music of some of the different hill\ntribes of the archipelago, as well as a few of the folk songs of the Filipino\npeople. These will imdoubtedly be more interesting to you than anything\nI could tell you about modern Filipino music, which bears the clear\nstamp of European influence and so far has shown no great amount of\noriginality.\nPerhaps the most primitive type of music in the Philippines today is to\nbe foimd among the hillsmen of Northern Luzon. The gansa, or bronze\ntimbrel, is in common use among them.\nThe Negritos use a primitive flute made of bamboo which they often\nplay with the nose instead of the lips. It has a most weird sound. They\nstrum, too, on a jew's-harp made of the ever-useful bamboo. They indulge\nin a monotonous crooning varied with loud shrieks which passes for singing.\nFor hours they keep up a monotonous circle dance, each dancer hooking his\nforefinger into the waistband of the person in front of him and walking,\nstamping, leaping into the air, or really dancing, according to the pace set\nby the leader.\nThe Igorots sing very pleasantly and sometimes use bamboo flutes to\naccompany the voice. The commonest dance among them is the \"bird\ndance,\" the music for which is furnished by two long-barreled wooden\ndrums with skin heads, two gansas, a stone, and a bit of iron or steel. Each\ndrummer squats on the ground with the barrel of his drum held under his\nleft arm. He beat's its head with his open hands and gives a surprising range\nto its musical notes by fingering its head and pressing on the barrel. The\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "880\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mi\n\nOther musicians dance around in a small circle while they play; the gansa\nmen beat their instruments with sticks; while the man with the steel and ^^\n.usi\nstone clicks them together. Into the circle formed by the musicians steps\na man. His arms are outstretched and from them hang blankets reaching\nto the ground. He is supposed to represent a bird, and hops and swoops\nabout in bird fashion, occasionally letting his arms drop and walking. He\nis followed by a woman draped in a long blanket. Her dancing is usually stiff and ungraceful. Both musicians and dancers go thru their paces very\nsolemnly.\nThe circle dance is also common among the Igorots. It is a more\ncheerful dance and is pecuHar to festive occasions. Any number of persons\nmay take part in it. The men line up with their arms about one another's\nnecks. The women form a similar line immediately back of them. The\nmen sing and the women answer. The voices of the men are harsh and\nguttural; those of the women are soft and musical. The lines sway forward\nand back, then move slowly to the right or the left. The dancers sidestep\nand do a good deal of stamping. The two lines weave in and out, forming\ncircles and straightening again. This continues for hours, the dance sometimes being interrupted by shouts of laughter from the dancers.*\nThe Mohammedans of Mindanao depend almost wholly upon the tamtam for their music. Four or five large tam-tams made of copper are hung\non trees or racks, while nine, or eleven, or thirteen smaller ones called\nculingtans are hung on racks in a row or placed on two strands of rattan.\nThese are graduated in size and vary in tone between tenor and bass. They\nare played upon with two sticks. Women as a rule are the best players,\nbut both men and women play and sometimes accompany the beat with a\nlow droning sound. The tam-tam is used to summon to council, to incite\nto fight, and in social gatherings. Its doleful, disquieting rhythm is kept\nup hour after hour thru the long night, for nights together, when a tribe\nis disturbed and meditating mischief. They sometimes use a drum made of\na hollow log with rawhide stretched over it. They beat it with their hands^\nThis is somewhat like the drimi in use among the Igorots.\nThe Filipino possesses an acute ear and an innate taste for music.\nCenturies ago the early Catholic Fathers were quick to discover this.\nThey taught the Filipino to serve in the church, to sing the plain-song, to\nplay the flute, to dance and to sing, and to play the harp, guitar, and other\ninstruments.\nTo the present day, there is rarely a baptism, a marriage, a funeral, or\nany ceremony of moment that is celebrated without music; and on gal*\noccasions such as birthday anniversaries and the entertainment of honored\nguests from afar, two or three bands are often employed and take turns\nrelieving one another that the guests may enjoy an unbroken flow of\n'Worcester, \"Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippine Islands,\" Nat. Geog. Uag., September igis;\nNovember 19x3.\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nOP\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nISLANDS\n\n88l\n\nmusic. I have seen this kept up for thirty-six hours at a stretch, the\ndancers coming on by relays and sleeping as well as feasting by turns. This\nis the true Filipino idea of real enjoyment and hospitality.\nAmong the Filipino people proper, each little corner of the Islands has\nits own folk songs buried in the hearts and memories of the old, old men and\nwomen. These old people guard their song treasures jealously. One must\nlive among them intimately and be of them before he can hope to get at\nthese treasures, for the old Filipino is sensitive to criticism and is afraid\nthat the old-time songs may be misunderstood and held up to ridicule by\nthe stranger.\nThese songs consist of lullabys, working songs, love songs, and dance\nmelodies, as well as little chants which blind and deformed men and women\nstill sing while begging from door to door, and an occasional humorous song.\nThese native airs are very simple and to a great extent minor. This often\ngives the melody a melancholy character'even when the subject is not a sad\none. Some think that the minor mode reflects a sad frame of mind, but\nthe Filipino people are not a sad people, so it is probable that they used the\nminor key freely simply because it was best suited to their voices.\nThe best examples of the old working songs preserved to us are boating\nsongs sung by the rowers in rhythm with the plash of the oars, the fishing\nsongs, the herdsmen's songs sung when'returning home with the carabao herd\nin the evening. In certain sections during the harvesting season it is no\nuncommon sight to find a brass band in the field playing lively airs to keep\nup the spirits and the action of the rice gatherers. I beHeve this device is\nintended, in a measure, to take the place of some old work song which has\ndisappeared.\nThe love songs consist for the most part of regrets and reproaches\naddressed to a faithless lover. Sometimes they are of the old cavalier\ntype. These are sung by the young bachelors under the windows of their\nsweethearts in the beautiful clear moonhght of our brilliant tropical nights.\nIt is quite common for five, or seven, or nine young bachelors to assemble\nand run about the villages serenading when the moon is full. There are\nstill other love songs which are sung to a dancing accompaniment. One of\nthe most interesting of these is described by Ralph B. Robinson, an American\nschool supervisor, who for a long time lived and worked among the Bicols in\nthe island of Catanduanes in Southern Luzon. This dance is known as the\n\"salampati,\" and has appropriate music specially prepared for it. It is\ndanced in the streets during the months of May and June and only during\nthe period when the Southern Cross is seen in the sky at a height corresponding to the eaves of the house. It is customary to have these dances at the\nintersection of the streets. Just where they are to be held each night is\nregulated by the old women. The people living near to the street intersections are supposed to provide benches, drinks, and foods as well as\nmstrumental music. At about nine o'clock all gather near the selected\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nspot and perhaps half an hour will be spent m conversation when suddenly\nthe orchestra will begin playing the music written for this dance and from\nthe surrounding houses come from one to four couples and take their places\nin the street. All are masked, the girls being dressed as boys and the boys\nas girls. Accompanying the music is a chorus consisting of at least four\npersons. The chorus takes up the love story and the dan ce begins. The\ndancers do not sing. The boy is supposed to take the part of a pigeon living\nfar away in the mountain, and the words of the chorus describe his lonely\nlife and petition the girl to marry him and go with him to his mountain home.\nDuring the first part of the dance the boy will dance in most graceful whirls\nand birdlike swoops to the different points of the compass as tho seeking in\nall parts of the world for a companion; and the girl dances in the direction\nopposite to the boy. Suddenly they meet and the dance grows livelier.\nAlways facing the girl he makes circles and rapid approaches toward her,\nthe girl always gracefully evading him. At last, just when it seems that his\nefforts have been in vain the couples join hands and retire. The spectators\namuse themselves by hmnming in a weird way during the different parts\nand by joining the chorus at times and speculating as to the identity of the\ndancers. This most graceful, weird, and attractive dance was fast disappearing, but an effort is being made by many of the prominent citizens of\nthe Bicol provinces to have it revived as an official regional dance.\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Reginald R. Stuart, head of commercial department. Technical HighOakland,\nSchool, Cal.\nVice-President — J. A. Bexell, dean. School of Commerce, Oregon AgriculturalCorvallis,\nCollege, Ore.\nSecretary — ^Alvah B. Way, head of commercial department. High School\nFIRST\n\nSESSION— FRro AY Forenoon,\n\nAugust\n\nPetaluma, Cal.\n\n20, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president in the Technical High School at\n9:00 A.M.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\"Teaching the Fundamentals of Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or Training\nStudents to Think\" — W. S. Stone, director, department of commerce, Tamalpais High\nSchool, Sausalito, Cal.\n\"Department Store Education\" — ^Lucinda W. Prince, director of salesmanship,\npublic schools, Boston, Mass.\n\"Penmanship\" — A. N. Palmer, editor, American Penman, New York, N.Y.\n\"Factors of Efficiency in Secondary Commercial Teaching\" — ^John E. Treleven,\nassociate professor of business training, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.\n\"The Training and Field of the Amanuensis\" — Robert A. Grant, department of\nbusiness, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nSECOND SESSION— Friday Afternoon, August 20, 19 15\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 P.M., and the following\nprogram given:\nTopic: Linking School Work with Business Enterprises\n\" The San Jose Junior Chamber of Commerce\" — R. R. McMasters, head, commercial\ndepartment, High School, San Jose, Cal.\n\"School Savings Banks\" — Paul L. Evans, head, commercial department, High\nSchool, Alameda, Cal.\n\"Student Finances\" — E. W. Bamhart, head, commercial department. High School,\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\"The Placement Bureau\" — L. Gilbert Dake, department of commerce. Manual\nTraining and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal.\n\"The Student Stenographer\" — Clyde Blanchard, principal. Standard Commercial\nSchool, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Cal.\n\"Trade Possibilities between the United States and Australia\" — P. E. Quinn,\nassistant trade commissioner, New South Wales, Australia.\n\"The Night School as a Factor in Business Education\" — Daisy Fox Desmond,\nprincipal. Evening School, San Jose, Cal.\n\"Personality in Advertising\" — Harry C. Spillman, manager, school department,\nRemington Typewriter Company, New York, N.Y.\n\" Advertising and Salesmanship\" — N. O. Shively, instructor in advertising and salesmanship, Technical High School, Oakland, Cal.\n^>V\nTHIRD SESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 8:00 p.m.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Commercial Museum\" — William L. Fisher, curator, Philadelphia Museum,\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n^\n\n883\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busine\n\n\"Farm Statistics and Standardized Accounts\" — J. A. Bexell, dean, School of Coi\nmerce, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.\n\"Report of Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation\" — ^W. Si\nMcKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, HI., chairman.\n\"The Latin- American Field and Opportunity\" — John Barrett, director, Pi\nAmerican Union, Washington, D.C.\n\n1\n\nThe following officers were elected for the coming year:\n\nFor President — ^J. L. Holtsclaw, director. High School of Commerce, Detroit, Ml\nFor Vice-President — L. Gilbert Dake, department of commerce, Manual Ti\nand Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal.\nFor Secretary-^CXydz Blanchard, instructor in business economy, Extension Divisioi\nUniversity of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nAlvah B. Way, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTEACHING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ACCOUNTANCY IN\nBOOKKEEPING CLASSES, OR TRAINING STUDENTS\nTO THINK\nW.\n\nS.\n\nSTONE,\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF COMMERCE,\nSCHOOL, SAUSALITO, CAL.\n\nTAMALPAIS\n\ni\n\nHIC\n\nThe business world of today demands a more efficient worker than\nbookkeeper who can merely perform the mechanical routine of recor\nfacts and preserving records — one who from his set of accounts can tell ho\nthe business stands, what progress it has made since the last period of\nclosing, and one to whom the facts in the balance sheet stand as symbol^\nforecasting the success or failure of the enterprise. The modem bookkeeper needs to be something of an efficiency engineer and must know the\ntheory imderl)nng his work. It is necessary therefore that we teach the\nfundamentals of accountancy in our bookkeeping classes. This wiU be one\nof the best means of training students to think, for without inteUigent\nthought on the part of the student the subject cannot be taught successfully.\nThe cultural value of such a subject hes chiefly in the fact that it develops\nrapid and clear thinking.\nWhen training beginners to think, memory work should be reduced\nto a minimum and reason should be developed. The first effort should be to\nsimplify the student's approach to the subject so that he may secure a clear\nunderstanding of the principles of debit and credit. Every child knows\nwhat it is to receive money and to pay money, to buy something and to sell\nsomething. Herein lies the foundation principle of all accounting, the\nmeaning of debit and credit. A debtor receives, a creditor gives. This\nwill supply one simple rule which will serve to determine how to enter\nalmost any transaction: debit the receiving account, credit the giving\naccount. Thus it is seen that a transaction is an exchange of values based\nupon mutual advantage, involving the giving of something and the receiving of something; the record of the something given and the something\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\nIN BOOKKEEPING\n\nCLASSES\n\n885\n\nreceived constitutes double-entry bookkeeping. If the student is clearly\nshown that every transaction affects two accounts, one debit and one credit,\nhe will have no difficulty in understanding why in the trial balance the total\nof debits and credits must be equal, and it will be comparatively easy to\nexplain how it is possible to find present worth from the capital account and\nprove it from the balance sheet, since the two sets of entries of the same\ntransactions, if correctly made, must give similar results.\nNo greater mistake can be made than giving a student a journal to\ncopy and proceeding to explain how each transaction should be journalized\nand posted to the ledger. The journal is the least used of all the books and\nis practically never used except for such entries as do not properly belong\nto the other books. At the outset the only book that need be explained is\nthe ledger; other books have nothing to do with the main principle of\nbookkeeping. An order of procedure is desirable in some form, and can be\nmade to serve several purposes. It will give a bird's eye view of the bookkeeper's work; it will also serve as a guide indicating the order in which\nthe successive steps should be taken by the bookkeeper; it will be further\nuseful as a basis of instruction, as the various duties of the bookkeeper can\nbe explained and illustrated in the order in which he works. Here it may be\npointed out that bookkeeping should always begin as well as end with a\nstatement or balance sheet. Such an order of procedure may be thus\nsummarized:\n1. Make out a balance sheet.\n2. Open in the ledger as many accounts as there are items in the balance sheet.\n(Rule:\nDebit assets, credit liabilities, credit capital.)\n3. Enter transactions. (Rule: Debit the receiving account and credit the giving accoimt.)\n4. Take a trial balance.\n5. Close the ledger:\na) Enter present value of merchandise called inventory on credit side of merchandise\naccount, then balance to find gross profit.\nh) Transfer gross profit to profit and loss accoimt.\nc) Balance other accovmts which show losses or gains and transfer balances to profit\nand loss account.\nd) Balance profit and loss accoimt to find net profit and transfer this to capital accoimt.\ne) Balance capital account to find present worth.\n/) Balance all other accounts (except those having only one entry).\n6. Prove present worth by final balance sheet.\n\nThe teacher may then proceed to explain each separate step in this\norder of procedure. Taking No. i, a few simple examples of balance sheets\ncould be given showing that assets minus liabiUties equals capital. Next\ntaking these same completed exercises show how to open a ledger from each\none, debiting assets, crediting liabilities, and crediting capital. This will\nillustrate No. 2. To explain No. 3, take each ledger so opened and enter a\nfew simple transactions (not more than six) showing how to apply the rule\nto debit the receiving accoimt, credit the giving account, using skeleton\nledger, giving amounts only. Under heading No. 4, take a trial balance\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Business\n\nof each ledger. Then the several steps under No. 5 can be illustrated by\nclosmg each one and proving. After the double-entry principle has thus\nbeen demonstrated, it can next be explained that in business it is necessary\nto keep full particulars of each transaction, which space in the ledger will\nnot allow. Then take paper with journal ruhng and point out that by ■\nseparating the merchandise account into two parts, placing the debit entries \"\non a separate page and calling it the purchase book, and the credit entries\non another and calling it the salesbook, there will be room to make original\nentries fully, giving names of purchasers and items of each sale.\nNext transfer the cash account from the ledger to journal paper showing\nthat this arrangement similarly gives room for entering particulars of each\ncash transaction. To show the true relation of the cashbook to the ledger,\nit would be well sometimes merely to total the two sides of the cashbook and\ntransfer the totals to a cash account in the ledger similar to the merchandise\naccount. Then it can be explained that altho every transaction is entered\ntwice, the details need not be repeated, that it will only be necessary at the\ntime to enter it fully once, and that later these original entries will be gone\nover, checked off one by one, and entered in the other accoimts to which they\nrespectively belong according to the principles of double entry. Point out\nthat this is necessary before closing the ledger and is called posting.\nHere the following instructions may be given: In making original\nentries use:\n1. The cashbook for all cash transactions.\n2. The salesbook for all sales on credit.\n3. The purchase book for all purchases on credit.\n4. The journal for all other entries.\n\nNow will be the best time to explain the theoretical fimction of the\njournal, giving illustrations showing that journalizing is really a mental\nprocess and consists in separating and classifying entries. A good way of\ndomg this is to ask the two following questions concerning each transaction:\nEvery transaction must involve two of these things:\n1. Which two accounts are affected?\n2. Which is to be debited and which credited ?\n\nIn reviewing the order of procedure, it may be said that all that follows\nthe taking of the trial balance pertains more to the work of the accountant\nthan to that of the mere bookkeeper, for while the bookkeeper has his eye\nconstantly on the trial balance, the accoimtant regards every entry in the\nlight of its effect upon the final balance sheet; he regards the balance sheet\nas the alpha and the omega of bookkeeping. It should be made perfectly\nclear to the student that a transaction is something which affects the balance\nsheet, and since the balance sheet consists only of assets, liabiUties, and\ncapital, every transaction must affect one or more of these three, and it can\ndo so only by way of increase or decrease. A Uttle memory picture of all\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\nIN BOOKKEEPING\n\nCLASSES\n\n887\n\nthe possible ways in which transactions affect the balance sheet could be\nmade as follows:\n1. Increase of assets.\n2. Decrease of assets.\n3. Increase of liabilities.\n4. Decrease of liabilities.\n5. Increase of capital.\n6. Decrease of capital.\n\nAssets are always equal to liabilities plus capital, A=L-\\-C is an\nequation which holds good whether C be positive or negative, and which\nnothing can disturb. It should be explained to the student, therefore, that\nif he wants to increase capital there are only two ways of doing it: either\nby increasing assets or by decreasing liabilities, and that any attempt to\ncarry out this purpose by skilful arrangement or manipulation of figures\nmust be as fooHsh and futile as the attempt to discover perpetual motion;\nfurthermore the accountant has at all times a scrupulous regard for the\nimportant difference between income and capital. Capital is the sum total\nof assets minus liabilities. No other item in the balance sheet or in any\nof the books is so important as this. The most important thing to know\nabout capital is how it increases and how it decreases. Capital is increased\nby income and decreased by expenditure.\nWhen once the student has been shown that every fact of which bookkeeping takes notice has a twofold significance, and that the only essential\nprinciple of bookkeeping is that the double aspect of each fact should be\nclearly and accurately recorded, he will begin to see that this may be done\nin a great variety of ways and that while there is but one universal principle\nthere is an endless variety of applications of it, and teaching the fundamentals ofaccountancy will enable him to grasp the principle so thoroly that\nhe may be able to understand the working of any system or even to construct\na system for himself.\nNot more than a hasty survey of the field of accounting will be possible, but the course of instruction should cover, at least in an elementary\nway, the study of partnership and corporation accounting, income statements, controlling accounts, cost accounting, auditing, accounting of social\nand fraternal orders, executorship and municipal accounting. At any\nrate the principles and the reasons therefor should be explained and illustrated; to this end short exercises with a few transactions should be given,\nenough to implant in the student a desire for further study in this field.\nNo one textbook is entirely satisfactory for this purpose.\nThe following are subjects which should receive some attention: depreciation of assets; the prudent custom of making interest on capital a first\ncharge on the profits of a business; the natural tendency to overestimate\nassets and the corresponding natural tendency to underestimate liabilities;\nthe subject of provision for future liabilities.\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "I /■\n888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[lusiness\n\nSuch instruction will require extensive study on the part of the teacher,\nand a survey of the whole range of the science of commerce accounting and\nfinance. Many teachers are bravely and successfully grappling with this\nproblem. The one thing needful is some better means of comparing notes\nin the subject-matter of our courses and our methods of instruction, which\nwill enable us to join hands in our endeavor to obtain that greater efEciency\nwhich the ever-increasing demands of modern commerce requires, and which\nwill succeed in convincing the educational world of the cultural value of our\nsubjects.\nPENMANSHIP\nA. N. PALMER,\n\nEDITOR,\n\n\"AMERICAN\n\nPENMAN,\"\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nLet us get the right focus on this matter of penmanship. There are\nexpert penmen in this country who are confusing the issues; they are trying\nto make a complexity out of this simplest of subjects in the pubUc-school\ncurriculum. How should we first approach this subject in dealing with\nany class of pupils, be they first-grade, eighth-grade, or the high-school\npupils who have never been given opportunity to learn how to write when\nin the grades ? We should first teach them how to sit comfortably erect,\nwell back in the seats with arms on the desks, and when in this posture\njust to rest, rest, rest, or, with the older pupils, we may say \"relax.\" Just\nthe word \"rest\" brings about the right physical condition when we are\ntalking to the first- and second-grade babies. Tell them that the right\narm is their writing-machine and they should just push and then roll, and\nthen let it go, let it go. In fifteen minutes from the time when we begin\nto teach our first-grade pupils in this way, we shall find three, four, five, or\nperhaps six pupils who are rolling on the muscle very easily and comfortably.\nWe must not hold them back because other pupils are pushing down onto\ntheir wrists and are not relaxing. We seat these progressive pupils in a\nrow where they can best be seen. They will form our first group and will\nhelp us to teach the others. Their example will help. The example even\nof the six-year-old child, sitting with a well-poised spinal column, with the\nright arm resting on the large muscle near the elbow and making that the\nmain fulcrum while rolling on the muscle, is sufficient in itself to help teach\nthe other pupils.\nThe pupils in the first primary grades should not be required to hold\nwriting instruments in their hands during the first week or possibly the\nfirst two weeks of the course. Well-rounded sticks or meat skewers may\nbe used to good advantage in the early stages to teach pupils how to hold\nand carry the writing instrument. These are recommended instead of\npencils or penholders because they do not suggest to the pupils' minds the\nact of writing. Let me emphasize here that the children of any grade\nwho are just beginning the practice of muscular movement should give\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nPENMANSHIP\n\n889\n\nmuch more attention to motivation than to the formal act of writing,\nuntil muscular movement has become automatic to the extent of enabling\nthe pupils to make the simpler drills in healthful postures with that movement. Pupils of grades from V to VIII, however, should require no more\nthan three or four lessons before they are able to make one or two simple\ndrills in the right way.\nWe teach pupils at this stage how to rest on the muscle and how to\npush a little from behind the elbow, and thus we teach them to use those\nlarge tireless muscles of the arm instead of the fine muscles of the fingers.\nThink of the cruelty we practice on a pupil when we ask him to make big\nletter forms in the first two grades, thus compelling him to hold the entire\narm suspended. Consider the fearful strain on the shoulder muscles\nresulting from such a posture. Assume such a position yourself and see\nif this is not true. When pupils have been taught that big whole-arm\nmovement writing in the first two grades, we cannot, as a rule, begin\nactually to teach practical writing to them before they reach the last\nsemester in the fourth year, or the first semester in the fifth year. The\nintervening time must be spent breaking up the bad habits established in\nthe first two grades. Why not teach them the basic principles of good\nwriting in the first grade ? They need penmanship. Penmanship carries\nthe big burden all thru the school years. Primary teachers say to me: \"I\ncannot take sufficient time to teach my children how to sit, how to relax,\nhow to run that writing-machine, and finally how to hold the pen and how\nto develop and use the muscular movement. I must have writing right\naway. I can take time only to teach visualization and let them draw the\nletters the best way they can.\" Time in the lower grades is not so valuable\nas that in the upper grades, and it is in these lower grades that the time\nshould be used in laying the foundation for good writing.\nIn the third drill, we begin to teach the pupils how to write words with\nmuscular movement, using the simplest words first. We have pupils\nwrite eighteen to twenty of such words as \"mine,\" \"uses,\" \"sell,\" \"smile,\"\n\"fine,\" \"mind,\" \"men,\" \"man,\" etc., a minute. That is slow enough to\npermit the pupils to form the letters well and fast enough to preclude\nthe possibility of making shaky lines. When we have taught the pupils how\nto sit, how to relax, how to develop the right motive power, how to make the\nstraight line, and the two-space compact oval with muscular movement, we\nare ready to begin to teach them how to write. We divide this work into\nthree stages. In the first stage, we teach position, muscular relaxation,\nthe development of the right motive power, and the making of the straight\nline toward the center of the body. We teach this, not because it is an\nexceptionally good movement drill, but because it teaches direction. We\ndo not want to talk about slant; we do not want to confuse the issues.\nWe want to simplify the process just as much as we possibly can, and\nwhen we teach the pupil to make the downward stroke toward the center\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nof the body with the paper in the right relative position before him, we have\ntaught him his natural slant, but instead of referring to it as slant, -vre talk\nabout direction.\nWe cannot begin to teach our pupils muscular-movement writing before\nthey are able to sit in good postures and make, with easy-rhythmic motion,\nthe two simple drills I have mentioned, and yet there are teachers who\nthink they have really taught their pupils something about muscularmovement writing when they have taught them to make beautiful ovals.\nBut they have made only a beginning, for those pupils who have learned\nto make nice ovals with an easy, rhythmic motion are only ready to\nbegin to learn something about practical penmanship. Let us begin to\nteach pupils at once, when they have learned the preliminary steps, how\nto use in writing the movement they have learned in the practice of\nthe oval.\nWhat are you going to tell the pupil who makes his oval on the back\nslant? How simple, how easy it is to teach the pupil right here in the\nbeginning stage that the motion preceding the contact of the pen to the\npaper should always be in the direction of the first stroke to be made,\nand that there is always a motion preceding the contact of the pen to the\npaper. Thus, if the oval is on the back slant, it is a true indication that\nthe motion was in the direction of the back slant, and that the pupil had\nnot learned the principle taught in the straight-line drill, viz. : All downward strokes made toward the center of the body when the paper is held\nin the proper position will produce correct, uniform, and individual slant.\nYou should try to help your pupils overcome the tendency to do very much\nof this \"winding up\" before beginning to make the letter. That is a waste\nof time. All that is necessary is just a little motion preceding the contact\nof the pen to the paper.\nAs I go about visiting classes, frequently I hear teachers say to their\npupils, \"When will you stop making letters on the back slant?\" That is\nnot teaching. That is only calling the attention of pupils to something\nthat they already know. Therefore, we teach our pupils how to hold the\npaper before them in the right position, and to pull the downward strokes\ntoward the center of the body. The slant of each pupil will then be his\nindividual slant. The slant of no two pupils need be exactly the same.\nWhy? Let us study physiology a little bit; let us study the physical\nstructures of our pupils. How many of them are exactly the same width\nacross the chest ? How many of them have arms that are exactly the same\nlength? Those things control slant. There are some things that are\ntechnical: the position of the arms on the desks well out from the side, the\npaper in the right relative position to the body, and the upright position\nof the body which keeps the spinal column erect and eyes far enough from\nthe paper for conservation of vision — these are among the important technical things.\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPENMANSHIP\n\n89I\n\nDrop the arm to the desk in a natural position. Do not turn the hand\nto the right; do not turn it to the left. The arm should not be parallel\nto the edge of the paper. To make the two-space, straight-line exercise,\nwhich is the first drill in the Palmer Method Manual, count at the rate of\ntwo hundred downward strokes to the minute until one hundred have been\ncounted. The finished exercise should extend one-fourth the way across\na page on which the ruled lines are eight inches long. After this first group\nof one hundred has been made, the paper should be moved to the left with\nthe left hand, a distance corresponding with the space occupied by the first\ndrill, and so continue across the page, when the paper should be moved\nback to its original position for the beginning of a new line. Thus, we teach\nthe adjustment of the paper to keep it in the right relative position to the\nbody. In teaching muscular-movement writing, our first step is to teach\ngood position and muscular relaxation. We teach the six-year-olds just\nas we teach older pupils and teachers.\nJust as soon as the students have mastered the first steps, we teach\nthem how to write words. At this stage, we do not criticize severely the\nforms of the letters, knowing how difficult it will be for pupils to control\nthe movement immediately. At this stage in the primary grade work, we\nfrequently send pupils to the blackboard in order to teach them visualization and the direction in which the hands move to make the different letters.\nIt must be understood that it is a waste of time for pupils to practice oval\nexercises at the blackboard, since, at the blackboard, the pupils use the\nwhole-arm movement swing from the shoulder which they develop in their\nplay. Indeed, they have ample practice of this movement outside the classroom.\nWith pupils from the fifth to the eighth grade inclusive, the blackboard\nshould never be used as a means of teaching the forms of letters. All the\npractice of penmanship should be at the desks with muscular movement.\nWhen pupils of any grade have learned the muscular movement so well\nthat it is used automatically in all lessons in which penmanship is employed,\nit will be time to begin to emphasize close visualization of the letters and\nmuscular co-ordination in building up good forms. It is in the second stage\nthat we expect pupils to learn to do all their writing with muscular movement and we do not expect the highest grade of forms; but when we\nchange from the second to the third stage, we must then insist that, since\nthe pupils use automatic movement and have good control of it, they\nshould show rapid improvement in the forms of the letters. All of this\napplies with as equal force to the high-school pupils as to the pupils in\nthe grades.\nSome of you may be in favor of teaching the little babies in the first\ngrade the big forms which must be made with whole-arm movement. When\nthis is done thes6 children acquire a movement which cannot be used in\npractical writing, and it is a habit which is very difficult to break up and\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Businea]\n\novercome. In my judgment, in the majority of schools where the pupils!\nhave been taught the very large forms with whole-arm movement in the]\nfirst two grades, they do not overcome the bad effects of this practice much\nbefore they reach the fifth. This means retardation thru two years of\nschool life, a deplorable waste of time which is absolutely unnecessary.\nLet us teach the children in the primary grades correct habits in penmanship\nas well as in other things. They may then begin to use muscular movement\npractically in the third grade and, in the fourth grade, become able to write\nexcellent muscular-movement hands. This improvement continues from\ngrade to grade until the sixth and seventh grades are reached, when students\nwill execute ideal muscular-movement handwriting. Because of the fact\nthat writing must be used as the vehicle to carry all of the other publicschool branches, it seems to me that it is advisable to have the running\ngear of this vehicle built strongly. This can be done only when the work\nis started in exactly the right way in the primary grades.\nPerhaps some of you are in favor of putting into the hands of these\nlittle children with very small fingers and weak muscles, big, heavy pencils\nwhich require the pupUs to grip by main force in order to keep them in the\nhands. Somebody may have told you that these large pencils help the\npupils to overcome the habit of pinching. They do nothing of the kind,\nbut work in exactly the opposite direction. Suppose you take these big,\nlong, heavy pencils, which some think first-grade pupils should use, and\ntest them. You will find that they are so heavy that even in your large\nhands it will be necessary to hold them by main strength in order to keep\nthem in the hands at all. Just as soon as you stop pinching the pencil, it\nwill drop out of your hand.\nWhy is it that some supervisors of writing who are competent and\nenergetic and who work very hard fail to obtain good results in the public\nschools in which they supervise the penmanship ? Is it not because they\ndesire to be diplomatic and friendly with all the teachers? Perhaps a\nsupervisor does not like to ask the teachers to do anything which they do\nnot wish to do. It must be self-evident to anyone that no supervisor can\nteach the pupils, even in a small system of schools, how to write well. He\nmay teach the teachers the mechanics and pedagogy of good writing, but\nbeyond that he cannot go in this work of reforming penmanship. The\nsupervisor should meet the teachers frequently in conferences and he not\nonly should discuss the pedagogy of good writing in relation to elementaryschool work with his teachers, but also should drill them on the exercises\nthat they are to teach. He should also go to their classrooms as often as\npossible for the purpose of giving model lessons to the pupils for the teachers'\nobservation. Whenever these model lessons are given, the teachers should\nunderstand that they are not so much for the purpose of teaching the\nchildren something about practical writing as they are to teach the teachers\nhow to teach the children.\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHING\n\n893\n\nThe departmental plan of teaching penmanship has been favorably\nconsidered recently in many public-school systems. I have this objection\nto the departmental plan. The teacher in the building who supervises\nthe penmanship cannot teach the pupils how to write well unless the other\nteachers who are in charge of the written work in spelling, composition,\nexaminations, and all written tests co-operate with the departmental\nteacher of penmanship by requiring the pupils to sit in healthful postures\nand to use muscular movement in all of their writing until it has become\nautomatic, I fear that departmental teachers of branches other than\npenmanship frequently do not consider themselves obligated in the least\nto help the departmental teacher of penmanship. These, of course, preclude\nthe development of good writing.\nFACTORS\nJOHN\n\nE.\n\nOF EFFICIENCY IN SECONDARY\nTEACHING\nTRELEVEN,\nASSOCIATE\nUNIVERSITY\nOF\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nTEXAS, AUSTIN,\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nBUSINESS\nTEX.\n\nTRAINING,\n\nThe rapid increase in the number of high schools giving business training is a cause for both congratulation and apprehension — congratulation\nthat commercial education has so rapidly won recognition, and apprehension lest too rapid progress result in poorly formulated courses of study and\na low grade of instruction.\nThe extension of commercial teaching involves the question: Should\nbusiness subjects be taught in all high schools? It is safe to say that\nbusiness training should be given in the high schools of all cities and industrial towns. Commercial departments are now found in the majority of\nsuch schools. In most essentially rural communities, there is no legitimate\ndemand for a business course in the high school. Some subjects such as\nbookkeeping and commercial geography may be taught with profit in all high\nschools, but a complete commercial course is not closely enough related to\nrural Hfe to justify its introduction into the average rural high school.\nOne question that has been debated repeatedly is: What shall be the\nlength of the commercial course? There are one- and two-year courses,\nwhich are what have been termed commercial trade courses, designed to\nprepare students in certain technical business subjects. They parallel\nmore or less directly the work of the private business schools. These\ncourses are usually found in city high schools to provide instruction for\nstudents who cannot complete a full high-school course. The three- and\nfour-year courses combine general training and special preparation for\nbusiness. The four-year course is the one given in most high schools.\nAn examination of a number of typical business courses will show that\nthree classes of subjects are found in all curricula. These are, first, technical business subjects which deal directly with business principles and\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nprocesses, siich as bookkeeping, stenography, and typewriting. Then\nthere is a group of general subjects which are of no greater or less importance to commercial students than to the general students in the high school.\nHistory and geometry are examples of these studies. The third group\nconsists of the subjects which are usually thought of as general but which\nhave important commercial bearings which are brought out in classes of\ncommercial students. Enghsh composition, industrial chemistry, and\nalgebra are illustrations of this group of \"semi- technical\" studies. Endless\ncombinations of the subjects of the three groups are possible.\nIn the special school, every subject taught can be presented from the\nbusiness point of view if desirable, for the aim of the whole school is to teach\ncommerce. Many small schools, on the other hand, have such hmited\nresources that they find it diflScult to offer even a few business units. In\nmany of these schools the mistake is made of attempting to teach too many\nsubjects. It is far better that a few business subjects be taught well than\nthat a large number be indifferently well presented. The schools of medium\nsize and the large schools of cities which have committed themselves to the\ncosmopoUtan rather than the specialized plan of high-school operation\nhave an opportunity for the better development of the commercial work of\nwhich few have taken advantage. By the segregation of commercial\nstudents in such subjects as the third half-year of algebra, chemistry,\nEnghsh, and modem languages, the commercial appUcation of these subjects can be indicated as fully as in the specialized high schools of commerce.\nThe objections to the segregation of the commercial or any other class of students ina general high school are so numerous that the formation of separate\ncommercial classes in general subjects would seem to be best only when\nnecessary to bring out effectively the semi-technical aspect of the subject.\nAltho there is no agreement as to the subjects included in a business\ncourse, bookkeeping is almost always taught, but the time devoted to it\nvaries from one semester with a single period daily to six semesters of two\ndaily periods. This means that the results secured may vary from an\nimderstanding of the simplest routine to a comprehension of difficult problems in accounting. In most schools elementary bookkeeping is required\nof all business students, and the advanced work, if given, is elective. The\nnumber of schools in which but one semester of bookkeeping is offered is\ndecreasing as the disciplinary and vocational advantages of a full year of\nelementary bookkeeping are becoming known.\nAltho stenography is not taught so often as bookkeeping, it is offered\nin practically all high schools with a full business course. The time allotted\nto shorthand varies from two to six semesters, with three and four semesters\nof work standing high in popular favor. The present tendency seems to be\ntoward a two-year course with daily recitations, for, in spite of many noteworthy exceptions, it has been foimd that the average high-school student\nis but indifferently well trained in shorthand in a single year.\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHING\n\n895\n\nFrom two to eight semesters are given to typewriting with either one\nor two periods of practice daily. Usually it is taught in the same semester\nas shorthand, but sometimes it is taught either earlier or later in the course.\nThere is a lively debate as to the credit to be allowed for shorthand and\ntypewriting. In some schools but one unit is allowed each year for both\nthese subjects together. In others one unit a year is given for each subject, and in still others one and one-half units for the two subjects. A\npractice that is gaining ground is to allow one unit for shorthand since this\nsubject requires a daily preparation as well as a daily recitation, and one\nhalf-unit additional for each daily hour of typewriting practice required.\nThere is also a difference of opinion as to the advisability of allowing credit\nfor typewriting alone. In view of the usefulness of a knowledge of tj^ewriting to every business man, it seems right to allow students to take\ntypewriting without shorthand under proper limitations.\nCommercial geography and commercial arithmetic are given for either\none or two semesters, commercial law rarely for more than one. Business English may sometimes be found as a special one- or two-semester\ncourse. Penmanship and spelling are listed for one or two semesters or\nfor an indefinite time until the student becomes proficient. Among the\nother technical subjects sometimes included in business courses are ofl&ce\npractice, business methods, business technique, advertising, and salesmanship. Needless to say, the variety of combinations of the general\nsubjects given in commercial courses is quite bewildering.\nThere is great diversity of opinion as to the time in the high-school\ncourse when the various business subjects should be given. There seem\nto be good reasons why practice should differ. Bookkeeping, for example,\nis given in every year of the course in different schools. Many superintendents prefer to omit bookkeeping from the first year of the course on the\nground that first-year students are not prepared to take bookkeeping\nwith profit. Bookkeeping in the second year has merit in that it gives\ntime for preparation in penmanship and business methods if desired and\nalso permits the completion of elementary bookkeeping before shorthand\nis started. Bookkeeping in the third year is open to the objection that\nshorthand students who start stenography in this year begin two technical\nsubjects at the same time. Bookkeeping in the fourth year has the great\nadvantage of giving opportunity for very thoro work, but it has the disadvantage ofloading the later years of the course with technical subjects\nand of preventing the students from taking any advanced bookkeeping.\nThere is less of a question as to the position of stenography in the\ncourse. Since the student should be most proficient in shorthand and\ntypewriting at the time of leaving school, stenography should be taught\nin the last semesters of the course. The very nature of commercial law\nrequires that it be placed in the latter part of the course. Happily, commercial geography is a subject the content of which is such that it can be\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n1\n\ntaught satisfactorily at any time in the course. There is a real question\nas to the proper position of commercial arithmetic. Some teachers wish\ncommercial arithmetic to come in the first year so that the bookkeeping\nstudents may have had training in commercial calculation and know\nsomething of the use of business forms. Others contend that high-school\nstudents do better work in arithmetic if at least a year has passed since\ntheir study of common-school arithmetic and they are famiHar with the\nprinciples of algebra. These points illustrate clearly the questions that\narise in planning a business course.\nThe pedagogy of business subjects has never been carefully developed.\nMethods of teaching commercial subjects are almost as numerous as the\nteachers of these subjects.\nUndoubtedly the most serious problem of commercial education is that\nof securing efficient teachers. Up to the present time few of the graduates of\nhigher commercial schools have cared to enter secondary teaching. The\nnumber of normal schools giving training courses for commercial teachers\nis pitiably small. The majority of business teachers are graduates of\nprivate business schools. Some of these teachers have taken their business\ncourse after being graduated from normal schools and universities, but\nmany do not have even the general training of a high-school course and\nhave never studied methods of teaching. University graduates, of course,\nare sometimes failures as teachers, and the successful teachers of little direct\npreparation can be coimted by the score. It stands to reason, however,\nthat given similar teaching aptitude, personahty, and initiative, the\nteacher who has received the most careful professional and technical\ntraining and who has the best basis in general education will do the most\neffective teaching. Until the standard of preparation of commercial\nteachers is at least equal to that of the academic teachers in secondary\nschools, either in direct training or in study and business experience combined, the highest standards in commercial teaching cannot be maintained.\nThis pictme of the conditions now found in secondary commercial\nteaching is not given with pessimistic intent. It is the opportimity of the\npresent to sift out of all the ideas and methods and plans that have been\ndeveloped those that are worthy of continuance and to establish ideals\nand standards by which the efficiency of commercial teaching may be\njudged. The agencies by which this sifting can be done and a knowledge\nof methods of commercial teaching spread are various.\nFirst, research and experiment in imiversities and by such bodies as\nthe National Education Association Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation of Commercial Comses. The final report of this\ncommittee wiU doubtless do much to unify the ideas of the body of commercial teachers. There are already evidences that methods of commercial\nteaching are to be given greater attention in the investigations in schools\nof educationaljresearch.\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nFIELD\n\nOF THE\n\nAMANUENSIS\n\n897\n\nSecondly, discussion in organizations of commercial teachers. There\nshould be a commercial section of every state association of teachers. It\nis a reflection on the initiative of business teachers that but a small number\nof these sections have been organized in the past. The teachers in higher\nschools are in need of an association for the discussion of their problems.\nThirdly, a journal without bias or prejudice for the publication of\narticles on commercial teaching. If the establishment of such a journal\nwould prove too great an undertaking, a satisfactory beginning could be\nmade by devoting space in some journal already estabhshed to the problems\nof business education.\nFourthly, the estabhshment of courses for the training of business\nteachers. There should be such a course in every higher school of commerce, combining the work of the department of education so as to give\nstudents technical business training together with professional training for\nteaching. In every state in which the normal schools prepare for highschool teaching, normal courses in commerce should be established. Such\ncourses are now found in several states.\nFifthly, opportunities for the further preparation of teachers now at\nwork. There are at least three lines of preparation which teachers should\nbe encouraged to follow. The first is extension study in commerce such as\nis offered by a number of the state universities. The second is attendance\nat summer schools where methods of teaching commercial subjects are\ntaught and where advanced technical business instruction is given. The\nthird is employment in business houses during the summer for the purpose\nof securing training in practical business methods to supplement the\ntheoretical training of the schools.\nThe sixth agency is the inspection of commercial teaching by state\nvisitors. There is probably no other way in which a knowledge of plans\nand methods of work can be so quickly spread as by a travehng visitor.\nThe inspection of commercial teaching requires a technical knowledge which\nthe academic inspectors rarely have. Perhaps the most pressing reason\nwhy there should be special visitation of the commercial department is\nthat most superintendents and high-school principals do not have an adequate knowledge of the problems of the department to enable them satisfactorily to supervise the work of the business instructors. Most school\nojQScers heartily welcome visitation by representatives of either the state\nuniversity or of the state department of education.\nTHE TRAINING\nROBERT\n\nA.\n\nGRANT,\n\nAND\n\nFIELD OF THE AMANUENSIS\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF BUSINESS,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nYEATMAN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIt is clear that the chief field for the amanuensis is in the business office.\nThe government service offers a good field for capable young men and\nwomen, chiefly young men. Those who have unusual ability along the\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nline of stenography may succeed eventually in court or general reporting\nwork. The young man or woman who has tact, judgment, and ability\nwill often be promoted to a position requiring a private secretary where the\nsalary is commensurate with the work performed. In many of our largest\nhotels and office buildings, we find the pubUc stenographer who has worked\nup a good business in that particular line.\nA few months ago, I was talking with a commercial teacher in one of our\nlarge cities and he said that he was confronted with the unfavorable attitude\nthat the superintendent had toward shorthand. The superintendent felt\nthat the boy who entered stenographic work would likely land in a blind\nalley. It seems to me that such an opinion is not justified by the\nfacts. Take a few illustrations that I am able to give you: One of my\nboys entered the employ of one of the large banks of St. Louis, the State\nNational Bank. He accepted a minor clerical position. He did not\ncome in contact with the officials of the bank. The opportunities for\npromotion did not seem good to him, when suddenly the secretary to the\nvice-president resigned. The vice-president wanted somebody who could\nwrite shorthand to take down some letters quickly, and he sent out an\ninquiry as to whether any of the boys in the bank could do it. This boy\nwas ready. He was called into the office, took the letters, did the work\nsatisfactorily, and was made secretary to the vice-president. Now, at\nthe age of twenty-one, he ranks so high in the esteem and confidence of the\nbank officials that he is sent thruout the states of Missouri and Illinois to\ncall on correspondent banks as their representative.\nLess than three years ago a young man came to my desk in the Yeatman\nHigh School; he had with him a letter of introduction from a friend of mine.\nThe letter of introduction stated that this young man was seeking a position\nand that if I could give him any aid the assistance would be much appreciated. This young man was more than six hundred miles from home and\nwithout an acquaintance in the city. I asked him what salary he would\nrequire. He said about $60 a month. I told him of a position that would\npay him $12 a week, with good chances for promotion if he made good.\nHe said he would take it. In less than a year he was earning over $100 a\nmonth. Now he receives over $2,000 a year as the office manager. Why ?\nBecause he went into that office as a stenographer. He took the dictation\nfrom the business manager; he learned what the business manager had to\ndo. When the business manager stepped out, the position was open for\nhim.\nEighteen years ago this fall a young man entered my first shorthand\nclass. I say a young man; he was about twenty-five years of age. He had\ncompleted an eighth-grade education only; he had not been in school for\nseveral years. He made up his mind he wanted to leave the farm and seek\nsuccess in the city. I found him to be a very earnest student, but not\nexceptionally bright. He was a hard worker and absolutely dependable\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nFIELD\n\nOF THE\n\nAMANUENSIS\n\n899\n\nat all times. At the end of about six months, he secured a position in\nChicago as a stenographer. About two years later, I learned that he had\naccepted a position with another corporation and that he had learned\nbookkeeping and was doing both bookkeeping and stenographic work.\nSeveral years later, he had become secretary and treasurer of that corporation— a corporation dealing in iron and steel, having its own mines in Tennessee and Alabama. His salary was not measured by hundreds of dollars,\nbut by thousands of dollars. Now, friends, it seems to me that there is no\nquestion but what the young man who enters upon the career of a stenographer has opportunities for advancement that may not come to him in\nany other line of work.\nNow I want to speak of the training of the stenographer or the amanuensis. It is impossible to cover this whole field, and I do not want to\nspeak at too great length. I wish to touch upon something which I think\nmay be of definite value to you. I believe strongly in a broad, general\neducation for the young man or the young woman who expects to enter\nupon a business career — who expects to take up stenographic work —\nbecause, without that broad, general training, there is not the opportunity\nfor success that these young people would otherwise have.\nFirst, I want to give a little attention to typewriting, because, after all,\nif the pupil is an excellent t)^ewriter operater and an excellent shorthand\nwriter, and then has this general education, he is well prepared to succeed\nin business. I find in a great many schools that there is a tendency to put\noff the speed work until near the end of the course. Our plan is a Uttle\ndifferent in that respect from what we find in a great many schools, and I\nwant to tell you something about our method, because we think we are\ngetting good results.\nTable I will be of assistance to you in imderstanding a part of our\nsystem.\nThis is the way in which we keep the record. The first exercise contains 88 words, the second exercise 84, and so on. The pupil begins work on\nexercise No. i and is supposed to write at least 88 words in two minutes\nwithout an error. No record is entered if the pupil fails to write the\nrequired 88 words in two minutes. In every case there must be enough\nwords entered to meet the minimum requirement, but we do not stop with\nthat. The pupil may come back at any time and try to improve his record.\nThese records are kept in pencil, and as soon as a pupil makes a better\nrecord we erase the old record and enter the new, and there is the great\nadvantage of this particular plan. This table shows what ten pupils were\nable to do at the end of the first half-year's work.\nOf course, there is always keen competition among the pupils. The\nrecord sheet is accessible to pupils at any time. They can see just where\nthey stand. If on one particular day a pupil has made the highest record\non an exercise, he will be sure to come back the next day to see if anyone\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n900\n\nhas made a better record. With this method we are able to get better\nresults than we have ever been able to get thru84 any other plan.\nTABLE\n\nI\n\n13s\n1413\n33\n\n163\n\nTypewriting Record at the End or First Hau-Year\n124\n\n114\n\nNo. of exercise ,\n88\n\nMinimum words required\n\nMinimum words required.\n\nVandervoort, Florence\nGoldbloom, Solomon. .\nCarnovsky, Gertrude .\nDugdale, Helen\nMcQuilken, Roberta. .\nKoch, Herbert\nSchaefering, Ella\nAufderheide, H\nHolden, Clara\nMcAdams, Viola\n\n124\n109\n178\n146\n\n186\n14\n\nVandervoort, Florence.\nGoldbloom, Solomon. .\nCamovsky, Gertrude .\nDugciale, Helen\n,\nMcQuilken, Roberta. . .\nKoci, Herbert\nSchaefering, Ella\nAufderheide, H\nHolden, Clara\nMcAdams, Viola\nNo. of exercise\n\n134\n\n4\n142\n142\n129\n\n125\n\n74\n134\n\n104\n\n136\n\n13\n104 105 1104\n108\n11164\n\n121\n104\n\n141\n107\n130\n\n116\n118104\n118\n\nlOI\n\n7\n144\n88\n\n8 119\n\n122\n\n\"5\n81\nlOI\n\nno129\n\n7a99\n\n122\n\nII\n\n9\n\n74\n\n124\n8 88\n\n133\n\n152\n106\n126\n104\n132\n\n10\n\n122 \"3\n\n99\n\nin\n\n74\n75\n\n88\n102\n\n72\n\n140\n\n131\n112\n\n76\n12\n\n85\n60\n84\n«5 98\n86\n151\n\n102\n\nin\nno\n\n95\n79\n82\n\n114\n132104\n122\n102\n\n95\n\n97\n77\n\n102\n108\n\n100\n132\n\n116\n122\n\n93\n\n139\n\n8102\n9\n\n89\n9\n137\n133\n88\n\nno\n130\n\n94\n\nISO\n\nno\n\n78\n\nIII\nIII\n\n116\n136\n\n109\n\n«3131\n\n120\n\n130\nno\n136\n\n107\n88\n137\n\nno\n\nAverage\nWords per\nMinute\n\n6515\n\n74\n88\n77\n62\n82\n\n575\n\n53\n\n91\n\n54\n\n86\n\nLet me tell you something about the nature of the exercises used. I .\nbelieve strongly that if we can start our 91pupils on groups of words between\n90 prove to be much 8\nwhich there is some thought-connection, the work will\n9\nmore interesting than the writing of mere groups\nof words\nbetween which\n92\n91\n71\nthere is no thought relation. For this reason, the first lesson, introducing\na, s, d, k, I, and semicolon, is as follows:\nall sad lads all sad lads all sad lads all sad lads all sad lads\nask all lads; ask all lads; ask all lads; ask all lads; ask lads;\nask all sad lads; ask all sad lads; ask all sad lads; ask all lads;\nFor a like reason, the second lesson, giving practice on all of the letters\nin the second row of keys, is in sentence form, as follows:\njag a flask; Jag a flask; jag a flask; jag a flask; jag a flask;\nall lads shall jag glass flasks; all lads shall jag glass flasks;\na lad had a glass flask; all lads had a salad glass; jag a flask:\nIt does the pupil no harm to practice for speed on these exercises, because\nthey are just as simple as we can make them, and the work has to be accurate.\n\n5\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nFIELD\n\nOF THE\n\nAMANUENSIS\n\n901\n\nWe carry the sentence method all the way thru the course. The eighth\nlesson is composed of a business letter, containing all the letters of the two\nmiddle banks of keys, as follows:\nDear Sir:\nWe are prepared to sell you a good grade of paper for your\ntrade. If you ar^e ready to take this up vlth us, we will quote\nyou a low figure.\n\nWe sell to the largest dealers.\n\nWe fill all\n\norders without delay. Good Judges of paper should get our low\n\n^ figures.\n\nIt will pay you to see us at our store the first part\n\nof the week.\nYours truly.\n\nThis letter contains 72 words — all good business words. There is not\na letter introduced from the lower bank of keys. It is elementary work,\nbut in sentence form it closely resembles an actual business letter, and\nthereby furnishes a much greater incentive for practice than meaningless\ngroups of words.\nI must now pass to stenography. We have four different persons\nteaching the stenographic work. It is necessary to have some uniformity\nin that work, so pupils from the various classes may be promoted to the\nclass of a new teacher and all find the work covered and the standard of\neflBiciency to be essentially the same. We have, therefore, a printed outline\nshowing definitely just what each teacher should do. Now, for your information, let me tell you how these directions are prepared. I write the\ndirections. We call a meeting of the shorthand teachers. We go over the\noutline carefully, make changes where changes seem advisable, and all of\nthe teachers agree to follow those directions without variation. Then,\nduring the term, each teacher notes carefully where the work, in his opinion,\ncan be improved. When a teacher thinks the work can be improved, we call\nanother meeting. If all agree to it, we make the change; but we stick\nto uniformity, and no teacher deviates from these directions without first\nsecuring adoption by the shorthand committee.\nIn shorthand work, it often happens that after you have passed over to\nthe back part of your text, or are nearing the completion of the principles,\nmany pupils have not really mastered the beginning principles. It is not a\ncase of their forgetting those principles entirely, but the fact is you have in\nyour classes pupils who never did master those principles. We have tried to\nget away from that, and we have had in effect for the last three years a plan\nrequiring 100 per .cent accuracy, which the teachers vote for term after\nterm. Whenever the teachers find that it is not a good plan, we will\nchange it. Our textbook is divided into 151 parts, known as speed and\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n[Business\n902\naccuracy exercises. The first exercise is composed of 64 outlines. The\nteacher dictates those 64 outHnes to the class, collects the papers, and\nenters check marks opposite the names of pupils who make a grade of\n100 per cent. If the pupil has one error, if one stroke is made in the wrong\ndirection, he is not excused from that exercise. If an exercise is imperfect,\nthe pupil is given every opportunity to make up the work. The exercise\nis dictated from time to time, and the check marks are entered as soon as a\ngrade of 100 per cent has been secured. The second exercise is handled in\nthe same way, and so on thru the 151 exercises. Table 1187 will illustrate\nour method of keeping a record of the work on which63 100 per cent accuracy\nis required.\n83\n6sTABLE n\n64\nShorthand\nSpeed and Accuracy Exercises\n\nNumber of exercise\n\nI\n\n3\n\n3\n\n59\n\nNumber of words required\n\nGrey, George\n\n4\n\nV\nV\nV\n\nV\nV\nV\n\nV\nV\nV\n\nV\nV\n\ns\nss\nV\n\n6\n47\n\n7\n\n114\n\n8\n60\n\n9\n\n6a\n10\n\nII\n\n13\n\n97\n\nOne pupil has finished five exercises by a given time, and another has\nfinished four. The boy, a slow pupil, has finished only three, but he does\nnot sHde thru with a grade of 75 per cent or 80 per cent. We do not hold\nhim back. He goes ahead with the class, getting the instruction and supplementary training that we are able to give him. We simply do not enter a\ncheck mark until he makes a grade of 100 per cent.\nBeginning this fall the record will be kept very similar to our record in\ntypewriting. Instead of entering check marks, we will enter the actual\ntime in which the exercises are written. No entry will be made for imperfect work. The entries will be kept ia pencil and pupils will always have a\nchance to improve their record. By adding the total number of words in\nthe exercises and dividing by the total time in which the exercises were\nwritten, we will get the average number of words per minute. We feel\nconfident that the new plan will work as successfully as the old. It has all\nthe advantages of the old plan, requiring 100 per cent accuracy, with the\nadded advantage of stimulating speed practice, combiaed with accuracy,\nthruout the entire course.\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\nR.\n\nR.\n\nSAN\n\nJOSE\n\nJUNIOR\n\nLINKING\n\nSCHOOL WORK\nENTERPRISES\n\nTHE SAN JOSE JUNIOR\nMCMASTERS,\n\nHEAD\n\nCHAMBER\n\nOF\n\nOF COMMERCE\n\nWITH\n\nCHAMBER\n\n903\n\nBUSINESS\n\nOF COMMERCE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\nDEPARTMENT,\nSAN JOSE, CAL.\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nKnowledge is not achievement; it is only an instrument of achievement, and there are too many products of our schools who never make\nuse of their knowledge. Why? Because they do not know what the\nworld wants. It has been said that it is easier for a young man to go\nthru the eye of a needle with an automobile than go thru life successfully without knowing what the world wants done. The diversity of views\nas to the kind of education needed grows out of a diversity of opinion as\nto what is the purpose and use of life.\nThe first function of knowledge is the expansion of life. It gives us a\nlarger life in a larger world and the worth of it all lies in the possession of\ntwo things — a wider outlook and a means of comparison planted in the\nmind. Now let me ask the question: \"How many of our high-school\nstudents get this broader view ? \" Your answer perhaps is that all of them\nget a broader view. I admit that perhaps they expand and grow, but are\nthey becoming acquainted with the men of affairs ? Are they coming to\nknow what the world really wants, or is there a tendency to grab credits\nand beat the teacher on the examination ? If this is the case, then we are\nteaching them to put the almighty credit before their eyes and rush thru\nschool, which will be followed by a rush for the almighty dollar.\nOn the other hand, a Freshman student comes into our school and\nthru the course of his studies some outside responsibility is placed upon his\nshoulders. He immediately begins to broaden his work. He has a broader\noutlook on life and instead of grabbing credits he finds an interest in the\nactivities of the school and that there is a place for hun in its work. Now\nwe are building the right kind of future citizens.\nThe Junior Chamber of Commerce at the San Jose High School was\norganized in 191 2. The student body of the San Jose High School represents\nthe members of the Junior Chamber of Commerce. The students have power\nto elect directors, twenty-four in number, to serve one year. Twelve are\nelected each semester and with this method there are twelve new members\nworking with twelve old members each semester. This brings new blood\ninto the organization and the officials change each semester.\nSomething Uke two years ago a booster edition of the high-school paper\nwas published by the directors and sent broadcast over the United States.\nThe advertising, which paid for the paper, was secured by the directors from\nthe business men of San Jose. The Junior Chamber of Commerce may also\nbe of great assistance to the principal if handled in the right way. In this\nwork he has a representative body of young men from the school and\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Business\n\nsometimes the principal will be able to bring before this organization a\nproposition which, voted upon by the directors, drawn up and submitted\nto the student body thru the directors, will meet with favor with\nstudents.\nLast year the directors of the Junior Chamber of Commerce assisted th<\nSenior Chamber of Commerce in a membership campaign to secure funds^\nfor 1915. Two teams were organized among the business men and the'\nJunior Chamber of Commerce represented the third team. The boys\nsecured subscriptions and this was another opportunity for the boys to\nmeet the outside world and become acquainted with the business men.\nLast January, and this is perhaps the crowning featiure of last year's\nwork, the directors made a two-day automobile excursion from San Jose\nto points around the Bay, visiting some of the high schools and giving a\nforty-five-minute program. They were guests of the Senior Chamber of\nCommerce of San Francisco at their weekly luncheon and were escorted\nin automobiles from the Chamber of Commerce thru the Exposition grounds\nthe last afternoon. This was a great trip for the boys and did them perhaps\nmore good than they realized in becoming acquainted, meeting business\nmen, and knowing more of what the world wants done.\nFinally, business men are looking for young blood in business. It\nstimulates. And a city that has young blood in its Chamber of Commerce\nwill have an active organization. Train the boys! Organize them! Get\nthem in touch with the men of affairs and their education will be a broader\nand better education. They will know something of what the world wants\ndone and they will have an interest in the affairs of their school, their city,\nand their state. And if they are endowed with a spark of ambition the\nbankruptcy sign will not appear above their door! Can you, can I, do\na greater work than to bring the business man and the student together?\nB.\nPAUL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nL. EVANS, HEAD\n\nSAVINGS\n\nBANKS\n\nOF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT,\nALAMEDA, CAL.\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIn a country and civilization like ours, education for life must include\ninstruction in the simple principles of economics, training in the use of\nmoney, and training in habits of thrift. Have you found in your own life\nany one factor of human experience more potential of great and lasting\nvalue than the practice of thrift and economy ?\nThe use of the school savings banks indicates one simple, easy, and\npractical method of making this a part of our educational system. And\nright here I want to give you the name of one who can tell you more than\nanyone else of the origin, growth, and methods of operating school savings\nbanks — Sarah L. Oberholtzer, Philadelphia, Pa. She will gladly submit\ncomplete data and a copy of her pubHcation, Thrift Tidings, for the asking.\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSAVINGS\n\nBANKS\n\n90$\n\nThe first systematic attempt at a school savings bank plan in the\nUnited States was made thirty-nine years ago in Beloit, Wis. After several\nyears' trial, the report came that \"the system led to economy of time and\nenergy as well as of money,\" that \"it made better and more faithful students.\" The system was introduced in 1879 in the Carhsle Indian Training\nSchool. The boys and girls kept an average of $10,000 to their credit for\nyears and later in their western homes no doubt applied these habits of\nthrift and economy. It was not until 1885 that the school savings system\nwas put on a permanent footing in the United States. This was accomplished largely by one man, John Henry Thiry. A native of Belgium, he\ncame to America in 1859, and from 1873 devoted the remaining years of\nhis life to the time of his death in 19 11 to the cause of school savings.\nComing down to 191 2 in the United States, we have the following from\na statistical report on the operations of school savings by Mrs. Oberholtzer.\nHer own state, Pennsylvania, is first in this work. This report shows that\nthe total number of Pennsylvania towns adopting the system is 51. The\ntotal deposits for the year ending June 30, 1913, were nearly $2,000,000.\nPittsburgh, so far as I can learn, leads all cities. Two years ago in that city\nthe figures stood as follows: 60,000 grammar-school pupils enrolled, 30,000\nof these regular depositors, with a record of nearly $650,000 deposited to\ntheir credit. Other cities prominent in the work are: Toledo, Grand Rapids,\nLong Island City, Lowell, Columbus, Des Moines, Kansas City, Oakland,\nSan Francisco, San Jose, Berkeley, and Alameda. The last report sent out\nby San Francisco shows in that city over 12,500 pupil depositors with a\ntotal deposit of over $165,000. Los Angeles was doing splendid savings\nwork recently and I venture to say is keeping it up. The latest reports\ncovering the entire country (1913) show 30 states represented and over 150\ncities, with approximately 1,500 grammar schools in which the school-bank\nsavings system is in use. The 1915 reports will show total deposits thruout\nthe country of over $5,000,000. With such cities as New York and Chicago\ntaking it up in their schools, as reports show they have done within the last\nyear, in addition to the scores of other towns big or little, the results chronicled in the reports, say for 1920, will be astounding and beyond the power\nof prediction at this writing. What it may mean to the United States may\nbe inferred from a recent statement of Lloyd-George that the savings of the\npeasantry alone will be the financial salvation of Europe at this time of\nits greatest financial crisis.\nUntU very recently school savings were confined to the grammar schools.\nNow they are operating, and very successfully, in some of the high schools.\nRelative to the work in the high school, I believe it should be operated in\nconnection with the commercial department. The head of the department\nwould logically be the manager of the savings system. High-school pupils\nshould serve as assistants, from whom should be selected the cashier, tellers,\nand bookkeepers. In my own department as manager I am under bonds\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busbess\n\nof $500, as is ako my student cashier, a boy in the Senior class. The\naccounts are kept by pupils. The looseleaf or card system is the best,\narranged alphabetically, with numerical index.\nWhen a pupil makes a deposit, he fills out a deposit tag. These tags\nare entered upon a receiving teller's sheet, and from that are posted to the\nrespective accoimts.\nThe savings department should have properly equipped quarters, viz.,\nan inclosure with counter and drawer space having windows above for the\nconvenience of depositors. In this office should be filing cabinets, adding\nmachine, tables, typewriters, a safe (fireproof) for books, etc. Over the\nwindows or on the door should be a sign something as follows: \"The John\nDoe High School Savings System Branch of Local Savings Bank.\"\nBy the banking law of California, the school savings system is a branch\nof some selected savings bank of the town. This savings bank, or banks\nhaving obtained special permission of the state superintendent of banks\nto receive school deposits, must be responsible for every cent handled by\nits branch.\nDeposits may be received at specified times during the day, say from\nnine to twelve. A daily financial statement is made out showing names\nof depositors, amoimt deposited, and withdrawals if any. The balance is\nthen taken to the town savings bank collaborating in the work. Whether\nor not the accounts are to be kept at the high school is a matter of\ninternal arrangement with the savings bank concerned. It must also be\nby permission of the state superintendent of banks. If the accounts are\nkept at the high-school branch, it is apparent that no careless work can be\ndone and that the savings bank served must repeatedly audit the books\nat the school. It is further apparent that if the accounts are kept at the\nschool branch, the main bank need maintain only one account or controlling\naccount and that to the credit of the high-school branch. The total\nbalance of all as shown on the books at the school branch must agree with\nthe controlling account in the town bank. It is not absolutely necessary\nto keep accounts at the school to operate successfully. If it is done, the\ndifficulty of the work is multipUed a hundred fold. On the other hand, what\nis afforded in the teaching of bookkeeping, training to do accurately volumes\nof clerical work in a short time, and responsibility therefor, is worth all erf\nthe theoretical office practice of our bookkeeping systems put together.\nOne day a week may be set aside for withdrawals. Payment may be\nmade either in cash or by draft on the drawee bank. If made in cash the\nwithdrawal may be met from the cash received as deposits. If by draft,\nit is signed by the teacher-manager and countersigned by the student\ncashier. The payment by draft is the better way. This draft is not\nnegotiable and must be presented by the holder to the local savings bank\nto be cashed. The withdrawal is noted in the pupil's passbook at the\nschool branch. The matter is adjusted between the branch and the\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSAVINGS\n\nBANKS\n\n907\n\nsavings bank that evening when the statement goes in. If the books were\nnot kept at the school, withdrawals would be made only at the savings bank\nwhere the accounts are.\nEquipped as before described, there is no good reason why the highschool force may not handle the grammar-school deposits. We do so at\nAlameda. Briefly the Alameda system is this: Seven grammar schools and\nthe high school are in the system. To each school is assigned a banking\nday. High-school students, generally boys, act as collectors, appearing\nat the grammar school at nine o'clock, reporting at the office of the principal.\nThe teachers in each room from the third grade up take the deposits, see\nthat the deposit tags have been properly made out by their scholars, fill\nout a blank for the total received, and send all in a heavy envelope to the\nprincipal, who certifies as to the total deposits of the school. From the\ndeposit tags — and in case of the primary, first, and second grades, from\na deposit sheet filled in by the teacher — the collectors then make the proper\nentries, first, on the folder belonging to the child which is returned to him\nat once, and second, on a deposit card for each individual always on file\nin the principal's office. Should a withdrawal be demanded, it will be made\nonly at this time, the money being deducted from the deposits after the\npupU has filled in a withdrawal slip signed by himself, the parent or trustee,\nand the principal. The grammar-school principal finally certifies the work\nof the collectors when finished and they depart for the high school with\nmoneys, deposit tags, etc. At the high school, these are checked and the\ndeposit tags are entered upon a receiving teller's sheet, which is in turn\nposted to the child's individual account kept at the high school. A complete statement is then made up and sent to the town bank. In this way,\nwe have at the high-school branch a duplicate of every child's account\ndepositing thru our city-schools saving system.\nThis last statement is rather an important one. At present our school\nis handling over 1,500 grammar-school accounts and over 400 high-school\naccounts. When these grammar-school children enter the Freshman year\nat the high school, their savings accounts will have been started long before\nin the grades. At the high school such accounts will be continued with\nthis difference, that instead of depositing once a week only as was done in\nthe grammar school, deposits will be taken daily. High-school pupils need\nto save as much as grammar-school pupils. With us, the average high-school\npupil considers a school savings account quite a part of his school routine.\nAll accounts draw interest compounded semiannually at 4 per cent.\nThese interest dividends are figured at the high-school branch. Interest\nbegins to run practically at the time of deposit. We had scores of accounts\nshowing interest accumulations of two cents, three cents, five cents, etc.,\non last term's business.\nA school savings system is as logical a part of our educational system\nas is a course in arithmetic or grammar.\nOne of the most glaring defects\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nI\n\nof our present educational system is the lack of a general and systematic\ntraining in the practice of thrift. Children who have spent the early audi\nmost impressionable part of their lives in aimless and foolish disregard ofi!\nthrift and economical habits will not at maturity suddenly be transformed\ninto provident and frugal men and women. As teachers, therefore, especially commercial teachers, we should get behind the school-bank movement to the end that it become an integral part of our educational system.\nC.\nE. W. BARNHART,\n\nHEAD\n\nSTUDENT\n\nFINANCES\n\nOF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT,\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nHIGH SCHOOL,\n\nIn linking school work with business enterprises thru student finances,\nthere is but one way by which you can do it, viz., thru a strict observance\nof good business principles. All student activities, be they school athletics,\nclass social activities, school plays, school pubUcations, the school bookstore, or the school cafeteria, should be handled in accordance with the\nbest of commercial usage. The only way in which our student activity\ncomes in contact with the business world is thru the buying and the selling\nof things. I believe that you can put your school activity on an honest\nfinancial basis. You should get out of the charity class.\nIn every school, there come the questions as to how money will be raised\nand as to how it will be spent. As to the former, it will be raised thru students' dues or thru the sales. It is not right to allow boys or girls of the\nage of our high-school children to collect money and to render no account-fll\ning beyond that which they choose to make. I do not say that they are dis- '\nhonest — that depends upon the individual and upon the conmaunity —\nbut it is not right, and you as commercial teachers have no right in a scho(d>\nif you do not raise your voice against unbusinesslike methods of handling\nschool finances, be they in the collection or in the spending of the money.\nThis work naturally calls for one thing: business sagacity. This requires\nthat, before any class dues are levied, either class assessments or studentbody dues, you know in advance what they are to be spent for. That is\ncommon-sense, and so with the work in the high school oiu* plan is based\non the budget. There is no money raised imtil it has been announced for\nwhat it is to be used, that is in reference to the class dues. There is no\nclass assessment levied until the committee has investigated and filed a\nreport stating that we need so much for such and such a thing. Then the\nassessment is O.K.'d by the principal. The collectors then report to the\nschool auditor and receive their official number and recorded receipt books.\nAfter the money has been collected, every cent of it is turned in to the school\nauditor and when those books have been used up the stubs are turned in\nand each and every one is checked up. We have no losses when our school\nmoney is collected in that way.\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDENT\n\nFINANCES\n\nQOQ\n\nBy the sale of student-body cards we manage to finance our athletic\nactivity. Our cards are one dollar, with no admission to the games. The\nsale of these cards is equally well checked up. The cards bought are numbered and are issued in the school by the school auditor to the different\nstudents and to teachers who are to handle them and they too are checked\nup and accounted for. However, the school auditor does not do all the\nchecking up. This next year I expect to have a force of twenty people\ndoing practical bookkeeping work.\nAfter the money has been raised and accounted for, the next thing to\nbe considered is the spending of it. There is a rule of the board of education in our city that there is to be no money collected and no money spent\nby the classes without the approval of the authorities of the school. No\nstudent can go downtown and simply order this or that sent up to the high\nschool by having it charged to the school. We use a requisition blank\nwhich is the authority for the purchase by a student. This order blank\nis signed by the principal because he is the legal trustee for all school\nmoney. It is also signed by the individual teacher in charge, and is then\nturned over to the faculty advisory. After it has been properly indited,\nthe student presents it to the merchant. If he gets the goods, he indicates on the face of the order blank the price the merchant has asked him\nto pay and then requests the merchant to send his bill to the auditor\nof the high school who takes charge of it. The requisition is made out\nin triplicate. One copy goes to the merchant, one is signed by the\nteacher and put in the box of the school auditor, and the third is retained\nby the teacher. As soon as the auditor gets his blank, that item is at once\ncharged against the appropriate fund. It is audited and treated as an\nexpenditure against that fund until the bill comes in. We never have\nshortages. No activity gets in debt or goes broke. Indebtedness is limited\nto the amount of money each activity has in hand.\nWe commercial teachers stand accused and convicted of knowing\nnothing about business. If you wiU go and talk to your business men,\nyou will find that very few commercial teachers in the state of California\nare authorities among business men on business matters. If you want to\nimprove your standing in the town, put your school finances on a business\nbasis, show business men that you run them in a businessUke way, show\nthem that you handle them in a way better than they handle theirs.\nThe corporation of the Berkeley High School is quite a good sized one.\nOur student body annually numbers about one thousand students. Practically every student in the school wants a card. An organization is formed\nin which the students are shareholders and officers are elected. When the\nmanager wants anything, he fills out three requisition forms, the body of\nwhich states only what he wants and nothing more. They are then sent\nto the purchasing agent, a teacher whose business it is to be posted on prices\nand quaUty of materials. If bids have not been received before, he then\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "9IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nfills in the name of the firm from whom the goods shall be purchased and\nthe price that shall be paid. These papers are then sent to the finance\ncommittee of the associated students, where they are passed upon, and a\nstudent who is delegated to make the purchase takes one of the slips ancM\ngoes to the merchant, leaving the other two with the auditor. The lattei^\nkeeps one for his files and sends the other to the manager with the injunction \"Watch out for these goods; their purchase has been authorized.\"\nThe goods are bought, and the bill goes to the auditor. When the goods\nspecified in this requisition have been received and their condition O.K.'d,\nthen the bill is O.K.'d by the manager and sent to the auditor. When all\nthe papers are assembled, the check is prepared for signature and is sent\nthru to the treasurer. The treasurer authorizes the auditor to pay the bilL\nThe latter then mails a check and in a few days the receipted bill comes\nback and the incident is closed. In two years we have had but one claim\nagainst us and that is four years old. I went to the firm making the claim\nand asked what it was for. The manager could simply say that it was\ncharged against the Berkeley High School. Once a month the firm religiously sends us a bill. This firm had no authority to sell to a student\nwithout a requisition, and has no records, and since we know nothing about\nit I presume we shall continue to receive this bill.\nWhat is the teacher's place in all this scheme ? Is he merely to be the\nwatchguard of the treasury ? I think he is something more. I have not\ntold you about the handhng of the accounts connected with our school\npublications nor with other school activities, but the teacher's place is\nthat of an expert financial counsel. He acts in an advisory capacity. That\nis his first function and it is a big function. The only permanent person\nin the school is the teacher and he must be charged with the experience, the\nknowledge, and the guiding power, as well as the function of the initiative\nin the things in the school that refer to school expenditure and school\nfinance.\nD.\nL. GILBERT\n\nTHE PLACEMENT\n\nBUREAU\n\nDAKE, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, MANUAL TRAINING\nCOMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CAL.\n\nAND\n\nFor some time I was connected with a large high school well equipped\nwith good and efficient teachers, and supervised by an energetic and competent principal. The high school had a strong progressive student body,\nand yet I was constantly under the impression that much of the commercial\ntraining offered in that high school gave little result. There seemed to be\na lack of definiteness in the work. The students seemed to have no particular object or aim in view. The business colleges of that city were and\nare today overflowing with former high-school students. The conviction\ntook root and grew in my mind that these pupils needed something more\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPLACEMENT\n\nBUREAU\n\n91 1\n\nthan just the bare school training offered to them in such generous proportioas — they needed guidance of some kind, they needed to be placed.\nBy a placement bureau I do not mean an employment agency. That\nis but one phase of the work of such an office. There are really three\ndivisions to the work of the placement bureau: (i) educational and vocational guidance; (2) placement; (3) follow-up work.\nLast spring a questionnaire was sent around to some fifty of the representative commercial departments of the United States. A part of the\ninformation desired covered these three points of the placement bureau.\nThe response was gratifying from the standpoint of promptness, but I was\nsurprised to find that so many of our best and most progressive commercial\npeople followed the ideas of the placement bureau only part of the way.\nI found that the majority of the schools make some effort to secure positions\nfor their graduates and that a large number attempt to follow up their\ngraduates and see if they are making a success with the amount of training\ngiven them. But only a very few are making any real effort at vocational\nor educational guidance. I am willing to grant that the employment\nbureau is justified in any school that pretends to complete a course in business training, but I am frank to confess that if choice were given me between\norganizing an employment bureau for the department and that of giving\nvocational or educational guidance, I would most assuredly choose the\nlatter.\nWhen you go back to your schoolrooms in a few weeks, you will face a\nmotley group of girls and boys who have been lured to school with various\nideas and various hopes. They are of all classes and nationalities, but they\nseem to consider that you are to put them thru the same mill and turn them\nall out accomplished business men and women. You know to start with\nthat such a thing is impossible — that about half of them are unfit to enter\nthe business world no matter what their training. Yet you, out of pride\nfor the size of your department and thinking that they have chosen you\nbecause they think you can do more for them than many of the others, let\nthem remain. They spend a year or two and finally drift out aimlessly —\nas aimlessly as they entered — and fill up the number of the world's irresponsible and short-time-job men. When these pupils enter the school is\nthe time to start them right. It takes tact, it takes judgment, and, moreover, ittakes a deep understanding of human nature to winnow out from\nthese Freshmen those who should take the commercial course. No student\nshould be allowed to enter the commercial course, or, in fact, any other\ncourse, until he has talked the matter over thoroly with someone competent\nto advise him. I am well aware that in a way this has been done for a\ngreat many years. I recall a small high school where each pupil is very\ncarefully quizzed before he or she is allowed to elect a course. In the large\nhigh school, however, because of the great numbers, this has been neglected,\nor, at the best, done only as a matter of routine. My experience in Oakland\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Busin<\n\n1\n\nhas shown me that, even where a very determined effort is made by the\nprincipals of the graded schools to determine the vocational tendencies of\ntheir students, many of those same students come to high school and elect\ncourses because their chums elect the same course. These pupils have no\nthought of the future, no idea of what they care to do, no idea of what they\ncan do best. These pupils need vocational guidance.\nJust how vocational guidance can best be administered is a much-'\nmooted question. I might tell what we are attempting along that line.\nEach first-term student entering the school is obhged to take a course in\nsurvey of vocations. For the boys this course consists of a series of lectures\ndelivered weekly covering the needs, chances of advancement, etc., in the\nvarious vocations open to boys. A study of each individual boy is made\nby means of a questionnaire filled out under the direction of the teacher.\nThe last few weeks of the course are spent in personal talks with each boy\nin an attempt to open up his mind. In addition to this, a number of lec-^\ntures are given by practical men from various callings. The whole course\nemphasizes the stirring up of the mind of the boy to think of what he can\nbest do for a Uvelihood, and directs him toward getting a practical knowledge\nof the profession or vocation of his choice. A course similar to this has\nbeen given to the girls. One result of the work has shown the need of more\neducational guidance — the parents need training as well as the students.\nIf more parents could be brought to imderstand just what our schools, and\nparticularly the commercial departments, could do for their sons and\ndaughters, there would be a greater number go direct from the grades to\nthe high school, while as it is now a large percentage drop school before the\nhigh school. Vocational guidance and educational guidance must be linked\ntogether — the students should be led to choose the right kinds of vocation\nand the parents must be taught what the school can do so that they will\ninsist on their children going on thru high school.\nWhen your pupils enter, try to find out if they are taking what their\npersonal quaHfications entitle them to take. If they are not as well fitted\nfor commercial work as for some other course, bring pressure to bear and\nplace them in the other course. Drones should never be allowed to take\nthe commercial work. There are too many slipshod stenographers now.\nMany of them would make a greater success running the sewing-machine.\nMany boys elect the commercial course when they should be in the shop\nlearning how to make a boiler. You should see that more of them elect\nthe proper course. Why should the commercial teacher be interested in\nvocational guidance? Because of all teachers the commercial teacher\nshould be the most widely trained and the broadest minded.\nI have talked with some commercial teachers who do not beheve that\nit is the function of the commercial department to place its graduates. I\nam going to go a little farther and insist that it is the duty of the commercial department to place not only its own graduates but also those of\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDENT\n\nSTENOGRAPHER\n\n913\n\nthe school at large. The commercial department is gradually becoming the\nbusiness center of the high school, performing work that formerly either was\nnot done or else cost the school board a considerable amount of money. If\nthe department is to handle other business interests of the school, it should\nalso look after placing pupils at graduation or at any time when necessity\ndemands. There are many reasons why it is necessary to help some pupils\nget a position. I recall the case of a young lady who had to get a position\nas soon as school was over. She was a timid, retiring sort of girl — one who\nwould not impress a prospective employer very favorably. After some\nweeks of heart-rending effort, she took a position as salesgirl in a department store. She retained this position for some time, but finally managed\nto creep into an office afterwards to become a very successful business\nwoman. Had she had just a little help she would have been saved the\nsalesgirl experience. Most students are anxious to get some kind of a job\nat once and many of them drift into positions for which they have had no\ntraining at all. A proper kind of employment or placement bureau would\nplace these students in the proper kinds of positions.\nIt is an old adage that \"the proof of the pudding is in the eating.\"\nThis can be well applied to commercial training. We should keep in touch\nwith our old students to be sure that the kind of stuff we are giving them\nis of some good. A number of commercial men indicated that they were\ndoing just that thing, and I am convinced that the reputation for efficiency of\nthose high schools has been increased a hundred fold by just this one thing.\nE.\nCLYDE\n\nTHE STUDENT\n\nSTENOGRAPHER\n\nBLANCHARD,\nPRINCIPAL,\nSTANDARD\nCOMMERCIAL\nSCHOOL, PANAMAPACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nWe are all trying to bring the business atmosphere into our training of\nbookkeepers and stenographers. We want to give them some practical\nbusiness to do. I should like to go a step farther and say that there are\nsome fundamentals of business that 80 per cent of us must learn, no\nmatter whether we are going to run a sewing-machine or whether we are\ngoing to conduct a lodging-house or be a waiter or a clerk. I believe that\nour function as heads of departments and organizers of business study is\nto get together with the principal and the other teachers and see if we\ncannot get down to rock bottom and say that everybody must know\nbusiness arithmetic, everybody must know something about commercial law,\neverybody must know something about salesmanship, the more the better\nperhaps, and then let our manual-training students take these subjects\nj along with their manual-training work. So much for the negative side of\n' the problem of the 'student stenographer.\nIn identifying ourselves with the vocational movement along the positive side,^the^training of the student stenographer has presented itself to\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[B\n\nme principally on the office-training side — not so much the shorthandlusineai^\nor\ntyping, as the appUcation of shorthand and typing to getting out the day's\nwork and to the use of business information and business appliances.\nWhenever I have felt that I had something worth while and have tried to\nput it into use, I have found something just a little better. That is the\nway I feel about this office training. I have a system at work at the Expo- ,\nsition and I guess its main value is that it is working. It is very simple\nand it applies particularly to the use of appliances and to the checking\nof business letters with the least amount of manual labor on the part of\nthe teacher. I have had to meet a great many visitors and I felt that I\nwould not have the time to correct all the papers that ordinarily the teacher\ncorrects, so we organized a business company of which I am the San\nFrancisco manager. I picked my very best student for the chief clerk, the\nnext best for a record clerk, and then for every four members of the class\nI have a chief correspondent. All of the students take the work. The\nletters are dictated in the shorthand class and the work is collected and\nhanded out at the typing period. In order to save the waste of paper which\nis a nuisance in so many departments, we issue only a sheet of paper for\nevery letter that has been dictated. On that sheet of paper there is a num*\nber which corresponds with the date on which the letter is written. The\nminute the student gets his paper he puts a heading on it. He centers the\nheading, thus getting a valuable exercise every day in centering. Then he\ngoes to a time stamp which is by the machine and which changes every\nminute. He stamps on the top of that paper the time of starting the transcript. He does not take the paper out of the machine until the transcript\nis finished, and then he rims to the time stamp to put below the starting\ntime the time when it was finished.\n»\nJust a minute on the value of the time stamp. A five-dollar bill will\nget you a valuable time stamp. The time stamp not only gives a good .\ncheck on the speed of the operators but it keeps them from talking to each\nother. It also keeps the teacher from giving instructions while the class is\nat work on the machines. He cannot interrupt the class in the middle of\nthe lesson to tell something that has just occurred to him.\nWhen the work is done, it is brought to the desk and put in one\nof four trays built up on the desk, one for each chief correspondent.\nAfter school these chief correspondents come to their trays and take out the\nletters that have been put in there during the day. They work perhaps a\nhalf hour either after school or before school the next morning in correcting\nthe work. The four that I have picked are the four best ones and they\nthink they are getting enough training to give the extra half-hour. It is\nperfectly logical for them to spend this extra time for the training that they\nare getting in responsibility and initiative. I do not see any of that work\nat aU with the exception of the letters of the chief correspondents. The\nchief correspondents, in correcting the work of the other four students,\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDENT\n\nSTENOGRAPHER\n\n915\n\nuse the rough drafts of their letters that I have returned so that I govern\nthe work entirely from my desk. In making the corrections, they use their\nown judgment. We take off two for every error of any kind. One boy\nturned in a transcript with absolutely no errors, but it was ten minutes too\nslow. We took off twenty. He learned once for all that you cannot do\nacceptable work unless at a fair rate of speed. The minute the letters are\ndictated there is a standard placed on the board, stating the number of\nwords in each letter, the rate of speed at which they are to be transcribed,\nand the number of minutes that the transcribing of the letter should take.\nThe rough draft goes back to the student before school the next morning and\nhe and the clerks talk things over. He may think he knows more than the\nclerks. I have found a good bit of complaint in that respect. I always say:\n\"You must settle that outside of school and you are perfectly welcome to come\nto me if necessary.\" They have not been coming to me, because the clerks\nare being trained in harmony and in giving orders to people who think they\nknow as much as they do, which is very valuable training. After one or\ntwo drafts, depending upon the ability of the student, the letters are transcribed on letterheads. I see the work of every student when it is finally\ncompleted and I can look over the rough drafts by turning the sheets over.\nThe carbon copy is made only with this last draft. If it is correct, I O.K.\nthe carbon copy and it goes into a box for my chief clerk to file. If it is\nnot correct, it goes back to the chief correspondent and then to the original\nstudent. Both the chief correspondent and the student suffer. They both\nhave to write the letter over. The work that I have O.K'd, the chief clerk\ntakes to her desk. She places the originals in Shannon files alphabetically\nby the name of the student. You can imagine the laboratory blanks\nbound up, each student having a copy. The carbon copies and the envelopes are placed in our vertical files under the names of the students and\nthose carbon copies and envelopes are used for teachiug incoming and outgoing mail procedure and filing. We all get around a table where we\nlearn how to fold the letters, how to insert them in the envelopes, and how\nto stamp them. Then we tear them open and put them away in the files.\nBut we did not mutilate the original copies because we were saving them\nfor exhibition purposes. The grades are all placed on 4X5 cards by the\nrecord clerk. The chief correspondents do not record the grades, because Iknow that four working on the grades do not do efficient work.\nEach person has a 4X5 card which bears the nxmaber of the letter, the\nnumber of words in the letter, the errors, and the time that he took in\ntranscribing. On my desk is a summary of these card records showing\nthe average of each student by the week or by the set of letters.\nNow one fault with my plan is that I do not train all students in these\npositions of responsibility. I use, as I stated, six out of twenty, or about\n40 per cent. To be practical you cannot break in new people every week\nfor a position that requires responsibility, as some high-school systems try\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "91 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n3\n\n[Busim\n\nto do. You are always teaching them and you have everything in an uproar. Just as the visitors come to inspect your system you have to say,\n\"This is the system, but we are just breaking in someone and it is not\nworking today.\" That is ideal, perhaps, but it is not practical and I do\nnot believe that it is of sufficient value to warrant its use. Fifty per cent\nof any student body is a large percentage to hold positions of responsibility. That is true in actual business and by keeping the records of the \"\nofficers always before the student body you create a good feeling.\n\nF.\n\nTRADE\n\nPOSSIBILITIES BETWEEN THE\nAND AUSTRALIA\n\np. E. QUINN, ASSISTANT\n\nTRADE COMMISSIONER,\nAUSTRALIA\n\nUNITED\n\nNEW\n\nSOUTH\n\nSTATES\nWALES,\n\nI notice that the people of the Western Pacific Coast seem to have\ntheir eyes perpetually cast on the Orient. I know that the department of\ncommerce is very active in trying to promote trade relations there, but that\nmarket is not for you. It is not for any white race. There will be trade\nbetween the Orient and the United States, but trade in which the United\nStates will figure as a buyer and not as seller. After all, what regulates\nthe cost of commodities? Primarily the cost of production. You have\nhere a high standard of living and you pay your wage-earners a good wage.\nIn trading with the Chinese and Japanese you are competing with a people\nwho can live on a mere portion of what the American artisan can Uve upon.\nYou know their skill, you know their imitative faculties, you know the low\ncost of production so far as their own market is concerned. When China\nrealizes herself, it will be impossible for the products of any white race to\ncompete with the industrial products of the Orient. Of course it may be\nsaid that the evolution of machinery and the scientific attitude and the\ningenuity of the American people will equalize the cost by cheap machinemade goods. The machine is open to the Orient as well as to this country,\nand sooner or later the destiny of the Orient will not be only to supply itself.\nNow it is for you to consider with what country you should trade. Australia\nis a coimtry of your own type. It is composed of people who speak the\nEnglish language and who share your Uterary and rehgious traditions. We\nare only a small people numerically, only five million all told, but that\ncommunity has possibly the largest buying power in the world. We import\ngoods to the extent of eighty dollars per head per annum. We have an\nenormous production there compared with the population. We have a\nterritory there as large as the territory of the United States and we have\nonly five million people. We are primarily producers of raw products.\nThis country is gradually evolving from that stage into the industrial stage.\nOur imports consist mainly of manufactured goods. The larger part of the\n#\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nAND\n\nAUSTRALIAN\n\nTRADE\n\n917\n\nimports come from Great Britain and the next volume comes from the\nUnited States. We have been buying from the United States more than\nwe have been buying from Germany and France combined.\nIn Australia the balance of trade is very much against us. We buy\nfrom the United States about five times as much as we sell to the United\nStates. We desire to bring about avenues of communication and transportation which will enable us to tap the great industrial market of the\nUnited States with our products. We produce the primary products. Our\nwool is bought very largely in the eastern states. I suppose you all know\nthat wool produced in Australia is absolutely the finest in the world. The\nwool manufacturers of the East buy that product in very large quantities.\nThere are other products, as metals and hides and various other things,\nwhich we propose to bring into the markets of the United States.\nI could tell you a good deal about the country of Australia. It can\nnever be as great a manufacturing country as the United States. We have\nnot the mountains that you have here. Austraha has a system of mountains which runs around the east coast, dwindling to elevated plateaus on\nthe north coast, running down about the same height in the west, and\ndipping down in the center portion. That fact is that we have not the water\npower. We have a good deal of water power not yet developed, but we\nhave not enormous reservoirs of power that you have here. We have not\nyet found petroleum, tho we have plenty of kerosene. Vast mineral deposits\nhave not been found yet, but we have enormous resources of coal and these\nsupply our industrial operations. We have every mineral known to man.\nA few months ago we started manufacturing pure radium.\nI wish that I might have the time to impress upon you the importance\nof knowing the typography of this country, because, after all, what does it\namount to excepting that you must know the people with whom you propose to deal ? I would not wish to intrude upon local poUtics, but the first\nneed of a country like this is to have a merchant marine of its own. I believe\nthat it is needed. America is very badly represented in Australia with\nregard to shipping. It does not carry over its own goods, but three-fourths\nof the goods are carried in foreign barges. If I were to give you the figures\nwith regard to the actual trade of America which is carried in its own ships,\nyou would be surprised and perhaps a little humiliated. You might think\nthat, as I belong to a part of Great Britain, I would welcome the fact that\nshe carries most of your goods and that the United States has no merchant\nmarine. There is such a thing as altruism, and I beheve that it would be\nbetter for the United States to have a merchant marine of its own sufficiently\nlarge to carry the products which it exports. I am going to New York\nshortly and I propose to take steps there to get a direct line of ships from\nNew York to Australia. The Pacific Coast is very well represented at\npresent. We have two steamship Unes running from San Francisco to New\nZealand. We have another line running from Vancouver to New Zealand,\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "9i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIBusineas\n\n1\n\nbut we have no direct line from New York to Sydney. I do not want you\nto gather the impression that there are no ships going from New York to\nSydney. Those ships that were going down to the outbreak of the war\nwere British freighters. They took your trade and they taxed you. They\ncarried your freight, and, having deposited it in Australia, they loaded up\nwith AustraUan goods and forthwith went to Europe. They did not come\nback to New York and they never do. That trade is not much good to\nAustralia. We want ships to come from New York to Australia and then\nback to New York. A trade to be effective, a trade to be wholesome, must\nbe reciprocal. A nation to be secure must be prepared to carry its own\ntrade by its own means of transportation.\nYou must disengage your attention from the Orient. In my opinion\nthe Chinese and Japanese will ultimately take good care of their own\ntrade. You must seek your trade with people of sufficiently high standard\nof living to pay a price for your goods which will compensate you for the\ncost of production. We wish to trade with America. We like America\nand we wish it well. The cutting and building of the Panama Canal has\ngiven us easier access to New York. The people of the Pacific Coast are\nreally the nearest white race to the people of Australia. San Francisco in\npoint of distance is the halfway house between the city of Sydney and the\ncity of London. We believe that in the trade upon the Pacific Ocean rests\nour own future and we desire to trade there in reciprocity and absolute\nfriendship with the people of the United States.\n\nG.\n\nTHE NIGHT\n\nDAISY FOX DESMOND,\n\nSCHOOL AS A FACTOR\nEDUCATION\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF EVENING\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nSCHOOL, SAN JOSE, CAL.\n\nSuccess, wherever achieved, is always built upon a high ideal. Let us\nconsider the teachers of our ideal evening school. They should be essentially himian and should have that rare ability to meet young people on\ntheir own ground. I would rather have a teacher in the night school who\nhas a sense of humor than one who can put M.A. after his name. If a\nteacher can frolic at a dance or at a picnic with his pupils, he can be a\ncomrade and a help to them in their school work. A twinkling eye and an\ninfectious laugh are the greatest aids to discipline in any school work.\nI believe that teachers should be selected with regard to their specialization rather than for their general culture and scholarship. This is because\nthe need of the individual is so definite. Nobody goes to night school just\nto kill time. Those who attend want something far more definite than\nthat. Therefore the teachers who supply these needs must be highly\nspecialized. They must be definite, and they must not teach over these\nchildren's heads.\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nNIGHT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n919\n\nLastly, the teachers must have love for their work, for humanity, for\nthe youth of the land. Their love must be so great that they do not even\nhave to cultivate patience, charity, justice. These qualities should be\nalready theirs, should be a part and parcel of their makeup.\nNow that the teachers are selected, let us consider the housing, equipment, and courses of study offered. We in San Jose have the same typewriter, domestic science, and manual-training equipment that the pupils of\nthe day school have. During the past year, we have offered courses in\nmechanical and architectural drawing, wood-turning, machine-shop practice, cooking, sewing, millinery, band, grammar-grade work, with a special\nEnglish course for foreigners, and the commercial course, which includes\ncommercial arithmetic, rapid calculation and penmanship, commercial\ngeography, history and law, bookkeeping, shorthand, commercial English\nand typewriting. At the conclusion of the commercial course, we expect\nto hold graduation exercises and give regular diplomas.\nOne of the first aims in all educational movements should be to teach\ngood citizenship. When I first became principal of the San Jose Night\nSchool, I felt a lack of unity in the general machinery of the school life.\nIn many little ways I had noticed on the part of some students a gradual\nleaning toward some sort of an organization. Why not establish an organization for self-government, develop leadership, encourage service, teach\ngood citizenship, and pass on some of the small cares and duties, thus\nleaving me free for bigger things ? I already had a committee of nine who\nwere helping me in various ways, so I called a meeting of the student body,\nexplained the situation, told them of the diflSiculties that were hedging me\nabout on all sides, tried to make them see how much more they could get\nout of a night school than just class recitations, and asked their permission\nto let my committee of nine be their representatives in a meeting at which\nthe situation could be discussed. They gave a cheerful and unanimous\nconsent and the meeting was held. These young people were representative of the night school in that they were deeply interested in its possibilities, had unusually wise heads on their youthful shoulders, and were the\nmost progressive thinkers that I had to rely on. Before this august assemblage, Irepeated my statement of the difficulties to be overcome and\ncalled upon them for their opinions. One of the boys said:\nWhy couldn't we have a commission form of government, have you as general\nmanager, and have the various commissioners to superintend the different lines of activity ?\nSan Jose is now considering the commission form of government and we'll all learn something about it even if it doesn't fill the bill.\n\nThe committee got up a truly marvelous constitution; the student body\nnominated fifteen commissioners, five of which were to be elected. The\ncandidates distributed printed cards and made speeches highly commendatory of their own moral attitudes, and holding out the usual pre-election\npromises of great things to be done in his or her chosen activity. On the\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "iness V^P\n920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nnight of the election great but subdued excitement prevailed. Two voting m\nbooths were rigged up in the gymnasium.\nWe mimeographed the ballots ■\nand numbered them with a numbering machine. We had the clerks and the\njudges and everything was conducted with an interested, solemn formahty.\nOur new commissioners went right to work, each one selecting for himself the members of his subcommission. We divided the lines of activity\ninto: buildings and grounds, publicity, social, scholarship, and attendance.\nThe commissioner on buildings and grounds is a mail carrier, about\ntwenty-three or twenty-four years of age. He looks after the order and\ngood behavior in and thruout the school. He organized a patrol for the\ncorridors and grounds to be made several times each evening. We had\nbeen annoyed with considerable hoodlumism from outside quarters which\nhad culminated in a great deal of bicycle stealing. His work very effectually\nput a stop to all of this. He made speeches regarding neatness and order\nin all of the rooms, and woe be to the boy who was caught dropping so much\nas a scrap of paper. We have no extra janitor work done for the night\nschool. The work is done in the afternoon and the night school is supposed\nto leave no evidence of its presence. Any teacher of the day school who\nwished to make a complaint wrote a note which I placed on the commissioner's file,and he attended to it. I could not begin to tell you the thousand and one details which this young man attended to for me.\nWe believe in publicity in San Jose — this means advertising. If you\nhave anything that is good, let the other fellow know about it. So we\nconduct regular advertising campaigns in which we acquaint the general\npubhc with the advantages and opportunities furnished by our evening\nschool. Our commissioner on pubUcity is a graduate of the San Jose High\nSchool, a quiet, imobtrusive thinker, a boy skilled in debate, and a bom\nleader of men. Assisting him on his commission are one of our San Jose\ngrade teachers stud)dng shorthand and typewriting with us in the evenings,\nand a man perhaps forty-five years of age — by profession a painter. They\ngave articles to the papers, and will estabUsh next year a series of monthly\ngatherings to be known as \"visitors' nights,\" to which the public will be\ngiven a special invitation to witness the regular work done by their own\nnight school and to help either directly or indirectly with the work.\nSocial affairs were handled by a young lady who presides at a sodawater fountain by day, and thru her initiative several parties and dances\nwere given. Many Friday evenings, after closing hour, all who wished\ngathered in the gymnasium and the girls taught the awkward, bashful lads\nto dance, sometimes one lad taught another, and between dances they\ngathered around the piano and sang. Next year we hope to have a glee\nclub, a mandolin club, and a chorus handled by a real teacher, one who\nwill train them to appreciation of the best.\nThe attendance commissioner keeps a complete roll of the school, gets\na report from each teacher each period, has students go to him for excuses\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADVERTISING\n\nAND\n\nSALESMANSHIP\n\n,\n\n921\n\nafter being absent, and follows up individuals who are falling down in\nattendance. As a result of his work our average daily attendance was 22^\nfor the year with a total registration of about 280. This improvement in\nattendance tended to adjust automatically the problem of class instruction.\nWith good attendance less dupUcation of instruction was necessary and less\nindividual instruction was required.\nWhen the night school with its various activities becomes a part of a\ncivic center, when a large proportion of the population find what they need\nand want within its walls, there will be no time or interest for the poolroom,\nthe gambling table, and the saloon, and thus one of our biggest problems\nwill automatically adjust itseK. I beheve the day is coming when, in the\nname of education, the schools will have as adjuncts their own movingpicture houses, their pool and billiard tables, their theaters, their dancinghalls, their swimming-tanks, their gymnasiums, and everything else that\nwill help to make life the joyous thing that it should be to the youth standing on the threshold of manhood. He should have his chance to develop\nalong any line for which he is best fitted and it should be among decent\nsurroundings and under the loving care and friendly interest of the best\nelement of the community.\nH.\n\nADVERTISING\n\nAND\n\nSALESMANSHIP\n\nN. O. SHIVELY, INSTRUCTOR IN ADVERTISING AND SALESMANSHIP,\nHIGH SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CAL.\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nSalesmanship and advertising will soon be taught in every high school,\nnot because you do or do not want it, but because business will and is\ndemanding it. The call in business today is for men, practical men, men\ntechnically trained, men who know how to do things, in the best way, in\nthe least time, and at the least expense, and it is your duty and mine to\nprepare these men and supply this demand.\nIf the course is such an important one, you may ask why it is not given\nin more schools. There are two reasons why it is not. First, the subject\nis new and the teachers are unprepared. Furthermore it is just becoming\nrecognized as necessary. Second, many principals and boards of education\nare inclined to take a narrow view of the proposition. They are prejudiced\nagainst practical education in general; they have preconceived notions that\ncultural training alone is most beneficial. It took years to make many of\nthem realize that bookkeeping and shorthand should be a part of the highschool curriculum.\nWhen we speak of the course in salesmanship, let us not infer that it is\nthe teacher's duty to give a course that will embody plans and schemes for\ndoing the other fellow. Heaven knows the boys will learn that soon\nenough. The course to be most beneficial must be primarily a manbuilding course. We want our boys to grow right as they grow great.\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nIt may do no particular harm to teach something of the cutthroat methods\nof business merely as a matter of self-protection, but the real purpose of the\ncourse must be ethical. A course properly given will be divided into three\ndistinct parts: first, man building; second, ethics in business; third,\nprinciples in selling.\nI have mentioned them in what I consider the order of their importance. !\nLooking at the subjects from a practical point of view, we are still justified\nin maintaining that salesmanship is a necessity in secondary-school education in that it vitally interests every man. A doctor sells his services,\na lawyer sells his services, the farmer must sell his products. We are all\nbuyers as well as salesmen. Our success depends on our abiUty to create\na market for our services by advertising and then knowing how to sell them.\nWhen I see young men with a high-school education and in many\ninstances university students, or even teachers, starting out full of hope and\nambition to sell their services or a line of goods, and when I witness their\ncrude methods and consequent discouragement and disappointment, it\nmakes me earnest about this. On the other hand, the service rendered by\nmany commercial teachers is well-nigh criminal. Their sole aim is to do\njust enough to hold their job and draw a pay check. What about the halfbaked product they turn out whose young breast is full of hope and ambition but who is doomed before the end of the first round ? This is the age\nof specialization. The watchword in business today is efficiency. For\ncenturies science has been developing machinery that will perform almost\nhuman tasks, but what about the man ?\nWhen a man wants to be a lawyer he studies law, when he aspires to be\na physician he studies medicine, when he wants to be a salesman he thinks\nhe needs no training. It is our business to demonstrate to his satisfaction\nthat preliminary training is a requisite.\nWe teach a boy cultural subjects, history, mathematics, and literature,\nwe load him up with facts and figures, then start him into business, and\nyet he knows very Uttle about business. He deals with human nature and\nhuman problems, and yet he knows practically nothing about these problems. He invests his earnings and loses because he has never been taught\nhow to make a proper and safe investment. Ninety per cent of the business\nis done on credit. Yet men fail and a large part of this money is lost because\nthe man borrowing does not know anything about the business. When\nonce we have the boy's future welfare at heart, we will teach him how to\nprotect himself when he leaves the school and enters business. The earning power of the educated man is 400 per cent greater than the imeducated,\nyet how many of the educated men are getting rich ? It is because they\nhave not learned two things: how to save and how to make a safe investment.\nIs not this sufficient reason why this course should be given ? Can you\nput the proposition squarely and fairly to your principal and to your boards\nof education and prove to their satisfaction that such a course is a necessity ?\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADVERTISING\n\nAND\n\nSALESMANSHIP\n\n923\n\nHow should the course be given ? It will be necessary to take each\nphase of the work separately. In salesmanship, there should be two sections\nif the work is to be given most satisfactorily. The first should consist of\nboys preparing for specialty and wholesale work only. The second should\nbe confined to girls and will deal with the problems of retail selling only.\nIt is not an absolute necessity, however, to segregate the boys and girls\nin this manner as the principles of selling are identically the same. The\nman-building features of the course are identically the same. The teacher\nwho understands her business will take each of these problems and make\nit applicable to each of the three classes of selling.\n' Just to illustrate: Your method of approaching your customers, getting\nthem interested in your line, and the closing of a sale are very similar in\nretail, wholesale, and specialty work. In the analysis of your goods, the\narranging of your talking points, and again in planning your talk there is\nonly one method and this must be used by the retail, wholesale, and specialty\nman.\nThe advantage, however, in having the students segregated is that it\nsaves time. The wholesale and specialty student is not particularly\ninterested in the retail work, and vice versa. The girls working in a retail\nstore want pointers in dealing with their problems, and care Uttle about\nhow the specialty man will sell a farmer life insurance when his hobby is\nraising blooded stock. The boys who expect to go on the road, or who are\ntaking the course for general information, do not care a snap about how\nwe would get the irritable old lady in a department store calmed down and\nsell her a large order.\nIt is essential that in the first lesson you impress upon your students\nthat this course is not designed for the purpose of teaching the students\ntricks and schemes for taking advantage of their fellow-men, but that there\nare principles honorable in themselves which if followed closely will in\na measure reward with success.\nThe practical side of the course in general selling must show the student\nhow to get an interview under every conceivable condition^ — how to get\nattention, arouse interest, create desire, produce action, and close the sale;\nhow to analyze goods for talking points; how to build a logical sales talk;\nhow to meet and overcome every conceivable objection; how to classify\nand handle the various types of buyer and handle them successfully; how\nand when to use suggestion and argument, weaving their talk around human\ninstincts; how to plan and conduct a mail-order business, as well as a thousand other business topics, live, interesting, and important.\nOn the other hand, the cultural side of the course will deal with the\nanalysis of the student himself. It will, show every student how to develop\na powerful and pleasing personaUty; how to enlarge and make use of his\nnatural personal magnetism; how to make use of mental telepathy and\nauto-suggestion in selling; how to develop and strengthen his power of will.\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nDuring the latter part of the course, sales demonstrations will be given\nby the students. Buyers will be brought in from the outside and many\ntimes the students will perform the difficult task of selling to them. I have\nseen girls with maps and Uterature talk for an hour trying to persuade and\nconvince a buyer that he should invest in a piece of real estate. Many of\nthe boys in a class will already be selling either in the retail or specialty\nfield. Have them bring their problems to the class and there discuss them.\nEvery boy should be encouraged to sell something after school, on Saturdays,\nand during vacation. It gives them a start in the right direction. It\nteaches them how to deal with human nature. The majority of the girls\nin the retail section will be working in the stores on Satmrdays, and you will\nfind that the stores will be glad to co-operate with you in this work.\nIn advertising, the course is designed primarily to secure greater efficiency for the boys who leave the high schools and go into business. This\nphase of selling has grown to enormous proportions within the last few\nyears. Almost the first problem with which the student must deal after\nleaving the high school is that of writing a \"want ad.\" When a man's\nservices are for sale, he must know how to advertise them for results. In\nalmost every line of hmnan endeavor, advertising is involved to a greater\nor lesser extent. This course is especially important, therefore, to the\nyoimg man who has not yet selected his vocation as well as to the girl who\nexpects to go into business, either as a stenographer or a saleswoman, on\nleaving school. This course does not prepare and cannot prepare for the\nprofession of advertising, but what it should do is to give each student an\ninsight and general view of this particular vocation.\nVery Uttle time should be spent in the study of the history of advertising.\nThe class probably should start with what advertising men call \"from outside to center work.\" The class will make a study of borders of every\nstyle, how to use and when to use them, and from the outside will work\ntoward the center of the advertisement, taking in logical order the headings,\nsubheadings, price and signatiure, display, etc., and finally the body.\nOne of the first things that it is necessary for the student to learn is the\nuse of printer's terms, such as points, picas, matrices, etc. After having\nstudied the general make-up of an advertisement, local advertising is taken\nand carefully studied. A number of firms in the city turn their advertising\nover to the class and it is carefully worked out by the students and submitted\nfor approval. This is continued thruout the entire semester. All the\nadvertisements in the school paper will be written and handled exclusively\nby the class. After having carefully studied the local field they then take\nup national advertising. The student will write to eastern firms asking\nfor advertising Uterature. In many instances they also secure letters showing just why the campaign was planned in that particular way. As this\nadvertising matter is received it is openly discussed in class. Many local\nadvertising campaigns are brought into the classroom and discussed.\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFARM\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDIZED\n\nACCOUNTS\n\n925\n\nVarious kinds of mediums, billboard, and street-car advertising are taken\nup in their regular turn.\nEach student in the advertising class should be taking a course in commercial art. He should know how to letter, paint signs, and write show\ncards, and should understand color values and color harmony.\nIn giving this work, it is practically impossible to use a textbook inasmuch as there are no books on the market so far as I know that are suitable\nfor this work. The International Correspondence School has a book on\nadvertising and another on window display which we use for reference work\nand which are perhaps the best on the market altho their price is prohibitive\nfor use in the classroom.\nBusiness magazines should be taken and used by the class and perused\ncarefully by the members of the class. Practice should be given in writing\nbook reviews.\nI want you to take this message home with you. Our greatest service\nto mankind is in the good we can do these boys and girls. Our greatest\njoy should be found in doing what we can to make their life-problems easier.\n\nFARM\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nJ. A. BEXELL,\n\nDEAN,\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDIZED\n\nSCHOOL OF COMMERCE,\nOREGON\nCOLLEGE, CORVALLIS, ORE.\n\nACCOUNTS\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCommon complaints against commercial education are that it fails\nto keep abreast of the times; that it fails to connect its theoretical instruction with the practical affairs of life; and that its limit of courses is too\nnarrow. I shall not enter into a general discussion as to the truth of these\nserious changes. One of the most significant extensions of commercial\ncourses is their introduction into the agricultural colleges and rural high\nschools. The business side of farming is rapidly receiving its share of\nattention in all classes of business schools. In this discussion I have taken\nthe liberty of confining my illustrations to the business of farming, both\nbecause of the extraordinary interest which is now shown in rural education\nand because of the special work done in this branch of business training\nby the Oregon Agricultural College. This audience will have no difliculty\nin applying my line of reasoning to any field of commerce and industry.\nWhile we are spending a vast amount of time and labor in standardizing our courses of study and in the discussion of methods, we often lose\nsight of the ultimate aim of commercial training. The graduates of our\nschools should accomplish some of the reforms which everyone admits\nare of vital importance in our civic and economic life. But are we training\nfor this larger field of service? Are we giving the pupils the right point\nof view? This can be done only by acquainting the student with the\nproblems to be solved and by pointing out methods of their solution.\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nI shall now confine myself to only a single problem, that of farm statistics and accounts. I wish to emphasize again that, generally speaking,\nwhat is true of this problem is also true of every other problem of industry\nand commerce.\nIt is a truism that any business has profit for its ultimate aim, and also\nthat the largest profit cannot be realized without a knowledge of all the\ndetails which enter into the business. It is not less true that any business\nmay be made more profitable by a study of the experience of others, by\ncomparing the result of our own efforts with that of our neighbors, thus\nprofiting by their successes as well as by their failures.\nOne of the most remarkable agencies in agricultural education had its\norigin in the search for statistical information regarding the marketing of\nwheat. The story runs that David Lubin, when he became convinced that\nhe could not receive a square deal in selling wheat thru the grain brokers\nof Chicago and New York, began to inquire where the prices of wheat were\nfixed. He had observed that a mysterious influence caused the rise and\nfall in wheat prices always to the disadvantage of the grower. He suspected\nthat private interests were the cause of this fluctuation, and he correctly\nconceived that it was thru the secrecy of their methods that they were\nable to cause the fluctuation. He started his search at Chicago without\nresults. He continued in New York, but without success. He pursued\nhis investigation at the world's greatest wheat market, Liverpool, but was\nstill unable to find any trace of the mysterious influence. But of this he\nhad become convinced: the real cause of the fluctuation in wheat was a\ncombination of wheat buyers with their ramification of wheat-buying\nagencies thruout the world. His remedy he proposed to the King of Italy\nand the simpUcity and effectiveness of his scheme was at once apparent\nto that monarch. The result was the establishment of an International\nInstitute of Agriculture at Rome. Its object was to gather statistics\nregarding crop production in every part of the world; to compile and disseminate the knowledge so gathered among wheat growers and consumers;\nthus preventing the artificial rise and fall of prices in the world's greatest\nstaple commodity.\nThe effect was at once noticed to the advantage of both the consumer\nand producer of wheat, but to the discomfort of wheat speculators. At\npresent, this is only a small part of the work of what has since been called\nthe first realization of the \"ParUament of Man.\" International information regarding other phases of agricultiure is now gathered and published by\nthis organization in five languages. It includes representatives from every\ncivilized country, and it constitutes as it were a clearing-house of agricultural information thruout the world.\nI have mentioned the establishment of the International Institute for\nthe purpose of showing the importance attached to statistical information.\nIt is evident, however, that tiiis information is unsatisfactory unless its\n\ni\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFARM\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDIZED\n\nACCOUNTS\n\n927\n\nsource is reliable. Statistical information is dangerous unless secured from\nreliable data. The most notable illustration of this is found in gathering\nthe United States census. Attempts are made just before census-taking\nto educate the people into preparing accurate data for the collectors, but\nit is usually found impossible to secure anything like accurate information\non many schedules, particularly in regard to farm finance. It is not so\nmuch the absolute lack of records that is found in taking a farm census or\nsurvey as the lack of uniformity of classification. Unless the classification\nis uniform, it is, of course, impracticable to use the data for statistical\npurposes. Often more labor is involved in classifying and analyzing such\ndata than they are worth.\nOne of the difficulties of a young farmer just starting into business is\nto know how much capital to devote to each branch of his business: to\nland, to buildings, to live stock, and to machinery. If he knew the average\nexperience of all the farmers in similar circumstances, he would be just that\nmuch farther ahead, and would be able to organize this work to the greatest\nadvantage and efficiency. It is the accumulated experience of others which\nshould be reduced to comparable records and thus be made available to\nothers. Statistical training of a business man is useful, not only for the\ninformation itseK, but it is a powerful influence in putting him into the right\nattitude toward his business, and in establishing a correct relation between\nhimself and his neighbors.\nIn his interesting monograph on The Survey Idea in Country Life Work,\nDean Bailey has suggested an idea which should revolutionize the business\nside of farming. He suggests that every community should take stock once\na year and that the results should be incorporated into what might be called\na community inventory. Essentially this would be a summary of the\nresources of a given community. Such a survey would consider each farm\na business unit, and would involve a careful study of the general business\nsituation in the region in respect to markets, railroads, taxation, credit,\nland tenure, markets, and the like. It would consider the farm, not so\nmuch in reference to the production of crops on that particular farm, but\nin its relation to the community and surroundings.\nIt must be perfectly clear to every thoughtful student that such information regarding the community experience would be very valuable, and\nequally clear that this information would be of little or no value imless\nsystematized and secured from what might be called a standardized system\nof accoimting. \"The substance of it all,\" says Dean Bailey, \"is that we\nmust see clearly in advance what information we want, and then proceed\nin an orderly and systematic way in securing this information.\" This is\nalready practiced in many European countries, notably Austria, Prussia,\nand Switzerland. A system of records should therefore be adopted which\nmight be called a \"standard system,\" and this should have three objects\nin view: (i) To furnish adequate and reliable information to the farmer\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busiix\n\nI\n\nhimself as to his financial operations and the cost of production for the\npurpose of being able to forecast results, and upon which he can base future\noperations.\n(2) To furnish complete and reliable data to the general organizations interested in the uphft of rural Ufe. (3) To furnish rehable reports\nupon which to base agricultural credit.\nLet us dwell just a moment on this subject of agricultural credit. No\nsingle question is receiving more attention today, but few of the enthusiasts\nfor agricultural credit realize that a transformation in our farmers' methods\nof doing business must be made before rural credit can be built upon a solid\nfoundation. When a commercial house desires to estabUsh a line of credit\nwith its bankers, the first thing required is a comprehensive and accurate\nreport on the financial standing of the institution, and this must usually\nbe certified by some outside, disinterested authority. Such a report, in\norder to meet the requirements of the bank, must be based upon reUable\nrecords, which must demonstrate to the loan committee of the bank that\nthe institution is operated on a safe basis. It may never be required of a\nfarmer to furnish reports in such detail as is required by commercial institutions, but the advantage of a satisfactory system of records, a system that\nwill convince the authorities that the farm is being run at a profit, will be\nof the greatest value in facilitating loans.\nA uniform system of agricultural credit and a uniform system of rural\neconomic surveys, both having for their object the promotion of agricul^\nture would, therefore, require a uniform system of farm records. This\nsubject of uniform accounting has been greatly agitated by insurance\ncommissions, railroad cormnissions, municipal and county authorities;\nin fact, this question of standard accounts and reports, which wiU give the\npubUc reliable information on vital business questions, has received extraordinary attention in almost every line of business except that of the farm.\nAn organization would do the farming business a lasting service by appointing a conunittee for the purpose of formulating a uniform system of accounts\nand statistical reports. It would be a very large task for the committee\nand one that would probably require the co-operation of the United States\nDepartment of Agriculture, the agricultural colleges, and the banking interests of the country as well as of the farmers themselves. There is already\nin the United States Department of Agriculture an agency known as the\nOffice of Farm Management which would be the natural clearing-house for\nstandardized information on this important subject.\nIn the preparation of records upon which statistical information is to\nbe based, it should be borne in mind that each locality must be studied as\nan independent business imit. This is true, not only of the great agricultural regions of the United States, but often of the different locaUties of\neach state, which differ very materially in climate, soil, conditions of\nlabor, and methods of farming. Studies of the actual business of farming\ngathered in Minnesota, for example, are not necessarily appUcable to the\n\n■\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFARM\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nagricultural regions elsewhere.\nhas this to say:\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDIZED\n\nACCOUNTS\n\n929\n\nThe statistical investigation in Minnesota\n\nThe relation of one part of the farm to another and the relation of the farm to the\nmarkets and to other industries have not been brought under scientific investigation.\nThe facts derived from detailed investigations concerning the soils, plants, and animals\nare of great importance, but they are useful only as the farmer's training enables him to\nmake proper use of these facts.\n\nIt will be objected by many that since it is extremely difficult to induce\nthe farmer to keep sufficient records for his own use, it will be still more\ndifficult to secure information for others. This would be true if it were\nnot for the growing tendency toward co-operation among the farmers\nthemselves, with the agricultural colleges and societies and with the United\nStates Office of Farm Management. Co-operative cow-testing associations,\ncreamery associations, marketing associations of all kinds, are beginning\nto solve this problem in a natural manner. It is impossible for a number\nof men to do business co-operatively without establishing between themselves a system of records indicating their relations. In some localities,\nthey have been employing a community accountant, whose duty it is to go\nfrom place to place, not only to test the cows, report upon crop conditions,\nand so on, but actually to assist the farmer in systematizing his records,\nand to work up comparative statistical material. This is a common practice\nin many European countries.\nMuch is said nowadays on the conservation of our natural resources.\nThere is another hne of conservation even more important than this,\nnamely, the conservation of physical energies and their utilization to the\nbest advantage of both man and beast. There is, perhaps, no subject that\ncould be taken up more profitably on the farm than the study of lost motions\nand of getting the greatest value out of labor. It is more than probable\nthat in the near future the organization and management of the farm will\nbe placed upon the same basis as that of any other business enterprise,\nand the large farm will call to its assistance the efficiency expert for the\npurpose of reducing waste in every branch of the enterprise. Whether this\nwill be effected by the consolidation of small farms into a larger unit, or\nthe organization of a number of farmers into one business organization on the\nco-operative plan, or by the assistance of an expert adviser for the community, are questions which are not yet settled. Efficiency engineers agree\nthat one of the most important requisites to motion study is an adequate\nsystem of records by which it can be determined whether methods are\neffective or unprofitable from the point of view of the farm manager. It\nis imperative that he secure reports on every phase of the farm operations\nso that he can direct them profitably in the future. If these reports were\nstandardized, aud every farmer reported to a certain authority on the same\nforms, the reports could be reduced to statistical analysis. The information\nwould then be available to the members of the organization and their\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Busmess\n\nrecords would show, not only their own operations, but the experience of\nothers.\nThe educational value of statistical work lies in placing the farmer in a\ncritical attitude toward his business, and also in arousing interest in agriculture in the pubUc schools. It has already had the effect in Oregon,\nMinnesota, and elsewhere of developing simple and practical schemes of\nfarm bookkeeping and of introducing farm accounting in the courses of\nagricultural schools of many states. In general, it has aroused an interest\nin farm finance and business methods which nothing else would likely have\naccomplished.\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH, STANDARDIZATION,\nAND CORRELATION\n\nW. S. MCKINNEY,\n\nENGLEWOOD\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL., CHAIRMAN\n\nDuring the past year, some further research has been made as to the\ncharacter, scope, and extent of the commercial work being done in various\nparts of the United States.\nJ. A. Bexell, dean of the School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural\nCollege, and Merritt Davis, head of the commercial department. High\nSchool, Salem, Ore., assisted by Don Sowers, University of Oregon, and\nC. I. Blanchard, Oregon Agricultural College, have arranged, from the\ndata at hand and obtained in response to questionnaires sent out, a proposed four-year high-school course, with two schedules. One emphasizes\naccounting, and the other emphasizes stenography and typewriting, followed by a grouping of required subjects for several different vocational\n14\ncourses. Each course consists of carrying four subjects per semester\nduring\n14\neight semesters of eighteen to twenty weeks, as shown in Table I. The\nTABLE I\nCourse in\nAccounting\nUniU\n\nRequired of all students\nRequired in vocational courses. .\nElectives\n\n7\n\nII\n\nStenography\nCourse in\nUnits\n\n8\n10\n\nTotal\n_ A unit is a week's work of five daily forty-five-minute periods with an equal amount of home work\ncarried during one semester of not less than eighteen weeks, or five daily ninety-minute periods of laboratory\nwork without home assignment.\n\nsubjects are grouped first around two main vocational subjects: (i) accounting, (2) stenography. But within each of these groups there will be one\nclass of students who expect to make their major a life-work (Groups i\n32\nand 4), and another class which selects it as a stepping-stone\nto some\nother\n32\noccupation (Groups 2, 3, 5, and 6). Hence a system of grouping of the\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESEARCH,\n\nSTANDARDIZATION,\n\nAND\n\nCORRELATION\n\n931\n\nelectives is recommended. It is recommended also that apprenticeship in\nstenography, salesmanship, or bookkeeping be encouraged and given one\n14\nsemester credit in Groups i and 4, providing the subject is taken under\nstrict supervision of the instructor.\nStrajECTS REQUIBJED IN BOTH COUESES\nUnits\n\nEnglish\nBookkeeping\nPenmanship\nCommercial arithmetic\nCommercial geography\n\nADDITIONAL\n\n8\n2\n2\ni\ni\n\nSUBJECTS REOOTEED\n\nIN THE ACCOUNTING\n\nCOURSE\nUniU\n\nBookkeeping\nEconomics\nSalesmanship\nCommercial law\nHistory and civics\n\n2\ni\ni\ni\n2\n\n7\nADDITIONAL\n\nSUBJECTS REQUIRED\n\nIN THE STENOGRAPHY\n\nCOURSE\nUnits\n\nStenography\nTypewriting\n\n4\n4\n\n8\nSUGGESTED\n\nGroup I.\n\nELECTIVE\n\nGROUPS\n\nOffice training for accountants\n\nAccounting\nAdvanced salesmanship\nAdvanced economics\nApprenticeship in bookkeeping or salesmanship\nSelect\nGroup 2.\n\nMechanic arts\n\nAlgebra II\nManual training\nMechanical drawing\nGeometry\nGroup 3.\n\n'\n\n2\ni\ni\ni\n5\n10\nUnits\n\n2\n4\n2\n2\n10\n\nAgriculture\n\nChemistry\nAgriculture\nBotany and zoOlogy\nGroup 4.\n\nUniU\n\nUnite\n\n4\n4\n102\n\nOffice training for stenographers\n\nAdvanced stenography and typewriting; manifolding\nOffice training\nApprenticeship in stenography\nSelect\n\nUnite\n\n2\n2\ni\nI\n6\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n932\nGroup 5. Domestic science and art\nDomestic science and art\nDrawing\nSelect\n\nUnits\n\n4\nI\nI\n\nGroup 6. General dectives\nModem languages\nHistory\nScience\nTypewriting\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUnite\n\n4\n4\n2\n4\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\n14\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCOURSE\n\nCOURSE — ^EMPHASIZING ACCOUNTING\n\nFirst Year\nFIKST\n\nSEUESTES\n\nEnglish\nPenmanship\nElective:'\n*Manual training\n*Domestic science and art\nAgriculture\nModem language\nAlgebra\n\nSECOND\n\n5\n5\n10 20\n5\n5\nS\n5\n5\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish\nPenmanship\nElective:'\n*Manual training\n•Domestic science and art\nAgriculture\nModem language\nAlgebra\n\nS\n5\n10\n\n20\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\ns\n\nSecond Year\nFIRST SEMESTER\n\nSECOND\n\nEnglish\n•Bookkeeping\nCommercial arithmetic. ...\nElective:'\n•Manual training\n5\n•Domestic science and art 5\nAgriculture\nS\nModem language\n5\nPlane geometry\n5\n\n5\nS\n5\n$\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish\n•Bookkeeping\nCommercial geography. . . .\nElective:'\n•Manual training\n•Domestic science and art\nAgriculture\nModem language\nPlane geometry\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nThird Year\nFIRST\n\nSEHESTEK\n\nEnglish\n•Bookkeeping\nElective:'\nStenography\n•Typewriting\nChemistry\nPhysics\nHistory\n\nSECOND\n\nS\n5\nlo\n5\n5\n5\n5\nS\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish\n•Bookkeeping\nCommercial law\nElective:'\nStenography\n•Typewriting\nChemistry\nPhysics\nHistory\n\n' See suggested elective groups.\n* Double periods.\nAll general subjects are treated in relation to commerce so far as practicable,\nspeaking.\n\n$\n5\n5\ns\n5\n\nEnglish includes public\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESEARCH,\n\nSTANDARDIZATION,\n\nAND\n\n933\n\nCORRELATION\n\nFourth Year\nFIRST\n\nSECOND\n\nSEMESTER\n\nBusiness English\nAmerican history\nEconomics\nElective:'\nStenography\n\nS\n\n•Typewriting\n•Bookkeeping\nOflSce training\n\n5\n5\n5\n\nBusiness English\nCivics\nSalesmanship\n\n5\n\nElective:*\nStenography\n•Typewriting\n•Bookkeeping\nOffice training\n\n20\n\n5\n5\n5\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nSEIIESTER\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nCOUKSE — ^EMPHASIZING STENOGRAPHY\n\nFirst Year\nFIRST\n\nSECOND\n\nSEIIESTER\n\nEnglish\nPenmanship\nElective:'\n•Manual training\n•Domestic science and art\nModern language\nDrawing\n\nS\n5\n10\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish\nPenmanship\nElective:'\n•Manual training\n•Domestic science and art\nModern language\nDrawing\n\n5\n5\nS\nS\n\nS\nS\n10\n\n20\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nSecond Year\nFIRST SEMESTER\n\nSECOND\n\nEnglish\n\nS\n\n•Bookkeeping\nCommercial arithmetic. ...\n\n5\n5\n\nElective:'\n•Manual training\nS\n•Domestic science and art 5\nModem language\n5\nDrawing\n5\n\n5\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish\n•Bookkeeping\nCommercial geography. . . .\nElective:'\n•Manual training\n•Domestic science and art\nModern language\nDrawing\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nThird Year\nFIRST SEMESTER\n\nSECOND\n\nEnglish\nStenography\n\nS\n5\n\n•Typewriting\nElective :'\n•Bookkeeping\n•Domestic science and art\nHistory\nGeneral elective\n\nS\nS\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish\nStenography\n•Typewriting\n20\n\nElective:'\nBookkeeping\n•Domestic science and art\nHistory\nCommercial\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nFourth Year\nFIRST\n\nSEMESTER\n\nSECOND\n\nBusiness English\nStenography\n\n5\n5\n\n•Typewriting\nElective:'\nEconomics\nS\nOffice training\n5\nAmerican history\n5\n\n5\n5\n\nGeneral elective.*.\n\n5\n\nSEMESTER\n\nBusiness English\nStenography\n•Typewriting\nElective:'\nSalesmanship\nOffice training\nCivics\nApprenticeship\n\n' See suggested elective groups.\n♦ Double periods.\nAll general subjects are treated in relation to commerce so fai as practicable.\nspeaking.\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\nEnglish includes public\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n^\n\nForty-two different subjects were included in replies to questionnaires\nreporting courses of study from various schools. These schedules, based\nessentially upon an average of these reports, will be foimd to be greatly at\nvariance with the working schedules in many different localities thruout\nthe country. This proposed course with variable schedules and suggested\ngroupings is submitted not as a finahty but as a basis of discussion. It\nserves to emphasize the urgent need of a clearly defined statement of the\nessential content of each subject with a logical plan for its development.\nConsideration also needs to be given to the var)dng conditions of the\ndifferent classes of schools, and, while offering practical suggestions for\nbrief as well as elaborate study, superficial and desultory treatment should\nbe avoided.\nIn order to utilize this material, also the available results attained by\nother organizations working along similar h'nes, an effort has been made\nto secure specialists to make surveys and critical analyses of particular\nsubjects with a view to formulating outlines of the essential content and\norderly method of procedure in the presentation of each subject.\n\nTHE LATIN-AMERICAN\nJOHN\n\nBARRETT,\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nFIELD AND\n\nPAN-AMERICAN\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nUNION,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.C.\n\nThe greatest problem before the United States today lies not in its\nrelation to the countries across the Pacific but in its relation to the countries\nsouth of us. After my appointment as United States minister to an Asiatic\ncountry, I spent seven years in Asia in charge of embassies and negotiations\nin Japan, Korea, China, and Siam. From there I graduated to South\nAmerica and there I was in charge of four of the legations of the United\nStates. For the last eight years I have been trying to make the American\npeople realize that the very life of this nation, the very life and influence\nof every school-teacher from San Francisco to Boston, Minneapolis to\nNew Orleans, depend upon the fact that if we do not have the western\nhemisphere with the United States and the United States with the nations\nof the western hemisphere, the life of this nation is ended.\nI want to say to you thoughtful men and women that, when this great\nwar is over, whichever nation conquers or whatever combination of\nnations conquers is going to be the mightiest force that God has ever known\nin the history of this world. It is going to have an army, it is going to have\na navy of which you and I have no conception, and in comparison with which\nour army and navy is but a mere bagatelle. Whether the AUies or the\nCentral European powers are victors makes no difference. Whichever side\nwins in that great European war is going to say that it won in spite of the\nUnited States. Whichever combination loses, it is going to say it lost\nbecause of the United States. There will be no love on either side for our\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEE\n\nLATIN-AMERICAN\n\nFIELD\n\nAND\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\n935\n\ncountry. I know that from my own personal correspondence with the\nmen today who are directing the affairs of Germany and Great Britain.\nYesterday I received a telegram from Lord Nordcliflf e, who owns the London\nTimes, protesting to me against the attitude of certain American newspapers. Four days before I received a telegram from one of the most\npowerful papers in Germany protesting against the American papers.\nIt is up to the educators of America to make our men and women reaHze\nthat the whole western hemisphere from the Canadian line on the north to\nthe Straits of Magellan on the south, has got to stand together to perpetuate\nour civilization — for the perpetuity of our American institutions. I want\nto ask you, as practical school-teachers. How many of you realize that every\none of these twenty countries south of us has written its constitution upon\nthe Constitution of the United States ? No other nation of the world has\na heritage and a responsibility of that character. How many of you realize\nthat nothing in the life of Washington compares to what Bolivar and San\nMartin, the George Washingtons of South America, went thru to achieve\nthe independence of their countries ? In a few years there is not going to\nbe a school-teacher in America who is not going to be talking to her boys\nand girls about Bolivar and San Martin as greater characters than Napoleon\nor Caesar or Hannibal. We have been living in a seclusion of magnificent\nisolation. In this country we have gloried in our pride, not realizing that\nan area three times ours south of us has been developing while we thought\nwe were the only part of the world that was developing.\nAs a result of the efforts of the Pan-American Union, of which I have\nthe honor of being the executive officer of the international organization\nin America, two thousand colleges, universities, high schools, and technical\nschools have taken up the study of the Spanish language during the last\nseven years. As a result of our efforts, seventeen hundred universities,\ncolleges, public schools, and other institutions have taken up the study\nof the history of Latin America. Upon my desk in Washington are\nthree thousand letters from educators in America saying that they have\nnever known of an inspiration for their students like the inspiration from\nstudies of the heroes and statesmen of Latin America. There is nothing\nin the history of Europe, nothing in the history of Greece or Rome, that can\ntouch the history of the patriots of the western hemisphere. We are entering at this very moment on the greatest era of American development that\nwe have ever known, and when the other day Secretary Lansing and the\nambassador from Argentina and the minister of BoHvia and Chile signed\nthat joint note to Mexico the greatest era in the history of the United States\nor in the Pan-American Union or in world-affairs was initiated.\nProbably the majority of you do not know much more about the PanAmerican Union, of which I have the honor of being the executive officer,\nthan I did about Siam when I was first appointed United States minister\nto that country. When I was ushered into the presidential presence in\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nWashington on that occasion, the President said: \"Mr. Barrett, I am looking for some yomig man who is not afraid of hard work, who wants to make\na reputation for himseK, and who does not mind the cholera or the plague\nin the tropics, to send to Siam to settle a case involving several millions of\ndollars and the interpretation of our treaty rights in that part of the world.\"\nI thought he wanted me to recommend somebody and I began to think of\nsomebody in my state that I would like to get rid of and who would go so\nfar away that he would never get back and who would die of the cholera\nor something of that kind. While I was trying to think of a man I might\nsuggest for that place, the President said to me: \"Barrett, I am thinking\nof appointing you United States minister to Siam. What do you know\nabout that country?\" Of course if I had been properly educated, I might\nhave answered, but to save my life I could not quite make up my mind\nwhether Siam was in Asia or Africa or in the North or South Pacific. Bracing\nup and looking the presidential presence straight in the eye and remembering that he did not want a man who knew too much about the country\nbecause he might have prejudices, I said: \"Mr. President, I know all\nabout Siam.\" He said, \"What do you know about Siam?\" I said:\n\"Mr. President, Siam is the country that produced the irmnortal Siamese\ntwins.\" Whereupon he shook my hand and said, \"I am delighted to get\nhold of a man with such abimdant information.\" As a result of that\nexchange of diplomatic notes, as it were, we finally decided that I should\ngo. I went out and saw Japan evolving from her four or five thousand\nyears of status quo into a modem nation; I saw China with her three hundred\nmillions getting ready for this evolutionary republic that has come; I\narrived in Siam and saw there the most progressive country in all Asia,\nwithout exception. Down in Southeastern Asia, in the heart of the tropics,\nwas the nation whose king could speak as good English as almost any\ncollege president in America and yet who was descended thru three thousand\nyears of tropical ancestors. When I saw there the first woman's college in\nall Asia with buildings that would be a credit to Wellesley, or Vassar, or\nSmith, or the University of California, built at an expense of two and three\nmiUions of dollars, and when I saw there the first electric street-car Unes\nand the first automobiles in aU Asia, way down there in the tropics, I said:\n\" How little we vaunted glorious creatures who teach school and we college\nprofessors back in America realize what the rest of the world is doing.\"\nAs I journeyed up into China and Korea and Japan and back into the hills\nof the Himalayas, I said,\nI have been to public school, I have been to the high school, I have been to the\npreparatory school, and I have graduated from college, but I never knew anything of\nthis. Why wasn't I taught it? Why wasn't I made a citizen of the world instead of\nmerely a citizen of the United States or merely a citizen in the state in which I lived?\nWhy wasn't my vision made to realize my responsibility to these men and women ? There\nis some defect in our school system back at home.\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE LATIN -AMERICAN\n\nFIELD\n\nAND\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\n937\n\nHere I found seven hundred millions of human beings — eight times the\npopulation of the United States — of whom I knew nothing. I decided\nthen that if I ever had the chance I should impress upon the universities,\ncolleges, and public schools in this country that we must realize that the\nsun does not rise and set upon the United States alone and that there are\nother nations in the world and other people. They are just as good people\nas we are, and yet we have been living in a glorious unconsciousness until\nGermany and Austria and Russia and England and France and Italy have\nforged so far ahead of us that now, if it had not been for the handicap of\nthe most terrible and cruel war of aU times, God only knows where we would\nhave been in the next ten years.\nI sometimes think that this war was sent as a godsend to make the\nAmerican people wake up. We think, because we have one hundred\nmilUons of people, wonderful railroads, marvelous cities, and methods of\ncommunication which are the wonders of the world that we are the only\npotatoes in the patch, but there are great big weeds growing up all the time\nand they choke us up. The great thing necessary today is for every teacher\nin this country from the greatest college professor down to the kindergartner to remember that we are not merely citizens of the United States.\nWe are not merely citizens of our state and country but of the whole world,\nand our own existence and our own future depend upon how we stand with\nthe rest of the world. In many respects, notwithstanding its magnificent,\nwonderful, marvelous energy, our United States is the greatest weakling in the\nworld. Japan has more knowledge of the rest of the world and the power of\nother nations than we have in this country. There is not a country school —\nand I visited them in the heart of Japan — where they do not tell you more\nabout international responsibihty than our public schools teach in this\ncountry. Down in Argentina, that wonderland of South America, they\nknow a thousand times more about Washington and Lincoln and our politics\nand our conditions than we know about them. In Brazil they know far\nmore about you and your history and your development than you ever\nthought of knowing about them. When this terrible war is over, there is\ngoing to be a great big line going up and down the Atlantic Ocean with\nEurope and Africa on one side and the United States and South America\non the other. There is also another great big line going up and down the\nPacific Ocean with Japan and China and Australia on the other side, and,\njust as sure as I stand here and you sit there, whether you will become\nanother Belgium or not depends upon whether you reaUze the fact that we\nhave got to have South America with us or die. Supposing that all Europe\nshould combine against us; supposing all Asia should combine against us;\nsupposing Canada with the sympathies of Europe should combine against\nus; and then supposing South America should join against us, where would\nwe be? We would be nothing, absolutely nothing. If we have South\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Businea\n\nAmerica with us, with her unhmited natural resources and with her splendid\nmagnificent potentialities which God has given her and her people, then th\nperpetuity of the western hemisphere is assured.\nNow I want to get right frank with you. For twenty-two years I hav<\nbeen on the firing Une of our foreign a£Fairs — seven years in Asia and fours\nteen hard years in Latin America.\nThere is not a country in Asia that '.\ndo not know almost as well as I know my native hills, and there is not\ncountry in South America that I do not know almost as well as Cahfomiaj^\nI want to say to you in all sincerity that the greatest problem and\ngreatest opportunity before the United States today are Pan-Americanis:\nthe sohdarity and the combined action and the attitude of the twenty-o:\nnations of the western hemisphere from Mexico, United States, and Canada'\non the north, to Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay on the south. It has got\nto come; it will come. There will not be a primary school, an American\nhigh school, college, or university that will not in the next five or ten years\nbe teaching this doctrine. In the last year in order to promulgate this\nidea I have twice visited every state in the Union by invitation of the governors of the states, mayors of the cities, and presidents of the universities.\nI wish I were speaking to ten thousand instead of a hundred now.\nDid you ever stop to think what Pan- America means ? Pan- America\nmeans twenty-one independent repubUcs. The United States has twenty\nsister-republics covering nine miUions of square miles, three times the area\nof the United States, three times the area of Europe, and almost the area\nof Africa. Pan-America means one hundred and eighty miUions of human\nbeings and the population of Latin America is increasing faster by reproduction than is our population. There is no race suicide down in Latin America.\nAfter this war is over and the influence of the Panama Canal and new conditions isat work, Latin-American immigration from Europe is going\nincrease faster than ours. When Latin America has the same proportii\nof population to the area as we, it will have three hundred milhons of hvun;\nbeings. And we think we are the only people on earth!\nGo over to the Argentine building and see the commissioners there.\nYou never saw a finer looking lot of men from any coimtry, all of them b^\nfellows, six feet four, and men who compare favorably with Bryce any tim(\nMany of the men from these countries can talk nine different languages\nand know the history of the world. I wish you could know the men and\nwomen of Argentina and Brazil as I know them. I have met all over Asia\nmen whom God forbid that I should ever call Americans. You have met\n\nI\n\nsimilar kinds of South Americans up here and you say \"oh, those dago\nrepubUcs!\"\nThe Pan-American Union, of which I have the honor of being the\nexecutive oflScer, is the organization of twenty-one American repubUcs for\nthe purpose of developing friendship, commerce, good understanding, and\npeace and acquaintance among them. Just two weeks ago I received a\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLATIN -AM ERIC AN\n\nFIELD\n\nAND\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\n939\n\nletter from Winston Churchill, the former first lord of the Admiralty, with\nwhom I have shot tigers and lions in Africa and with whom I am intimately\nacquainted. I know he would never misrepresent things to me. He said\nthat at a meeting of the cabinet, Asquith said that, if they had had a\nPan-European Union in London or Paris or Berlin or Vienna or Petrograd\nfeshioned upon the Pan-American Union in Washington, there never would\nhave been a European war.\nWe think we have reached the very climax of things here in America.\nDo you want me to tell you where I honestly believe that in the eyes of\nGod Almighty, is the greatest evidence of the real spirit of humanity among\nmen? It is not in this country; it is in South America. Remember that\nI have told you this and that every one of these countries south of us has\nwritten its constitution upon the Constitution of the United States. Think\nof the heritage! No other nation in the world has it. Every one of these\ntwenty-one countries gained its independence thru the leadership of generals\nand patriots who, in their own biographies, say that they were inspired\nto make the fight for Uberty by our own George Washington. Is not that\na marvelous thing and a wonderful inspiration ? It teaches one to be sympathetic toward these men.\nTonight when you go to bed and when you dream, I want you to have\nthis picture in your mind. It has encouraged me a thousand times as\nshowing the civilization of the western hemisphere and of Latin America.\nBut in order that you may understand I must build up a little contrast.\nIf you and I today were to journey in Europe we would see millions of men\nfighting each other; we would see the destruction everywhere of magnificent\ncathedrals, beautiful monuments, exquisite cities, the heritage of other ages.\nThat picture of brutahty, the killing of women's fathers and husbands and\nbrothers and sons, sacrificed for the god of war, with the destruction of\neverything that men for a thousand years have made beautiful and magnificent— that is European civilization. Now the parting thought as to\nAmerican civiUzation. Remember first, however, that two-thirds of Latin\nAmerica has known no revolution during the past twenty-two years.\nRemember that there have been ten times as many revolutions in Europe,\nand that there have been ten times as many international wars in Europe\nin the last one hundred years as there have been in North and South\nAmerica together. In that marvelous country of Argentina on the one\nside stretching away to the Atlantic Ocean and Chile reaching to the\nPacific, there sixteen thousand feet above the sea is the most glorious, the\nmost inspiring monument that has ever been erected upon this earth in\nthe history of time. It is a statue of Christ, the Savior of Men, standing\nthere a hundred feet high, with arms outstretched, blessing on the one hand\nthe people of Chile and upon the other the people of Argentina. This\nmonument was built there by those two nations when some twenty years\nago there was greater cause for war than has had Germany, or England, or\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Businesa\n\n940\n\nFrance, or Russia, or Italy. They agreed to settle their diflferences by\ncivilized arbitration, and then out of their molten cannon that would have\nkilled each other and destroyed their national integrity they erected this\nmarvelous monimient of the Christ, the Christ of Bethlehem, the Savior\nof Men. There it stands. The significance of it brings tears to the eyea\nof any man who looks upon it. Written upon its base are these worda\n\"Sooner shall these Andes Mountains crumble to dust than shall Argentina\nand Chile go to war.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nHYGIENE\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools\nCrawfordsvflle, Ind.\nVice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford\nJunior University\nStanford University, Cal.\nSecretary — Ernest B. Hoag, M.D., lecturer and writer on child hygiene. . . Los Angeles, Cal.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 17, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order in Chabot Hall at 9:00 a.m., with President\nHines in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Schoolroom Window\" — William E. Watt, ventilating engineer, Chicago, HI.\n\"The Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children\" — ^Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\n\"The Teacher's Relation to the School-Health Problem\"— Ernest B. Hoag, M.D.,\nlecturer and writer on child hygiene, Los Angeles, Cal.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Aeternoon, August 17, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order in Chabot Hall at 2:30 p.m., with President\nHines in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Some Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for School Buildings\" —\nF. B. Dresslar, professor of school hygiene, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.; Milo H. Stuart, principal. Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"Standard School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands\" — Riifino Martinez, member. Bureau of Education, Manila, P.I.\nThe following officers were elected:\nFor President — Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind,\nFor Vice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland\nStandford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal,\nFor Secretary — Ernest B. Hoag, M.D., lecturer and writer on child hygiene, Los\nAngeles, Cal.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Evening, August 17, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order in Chabot Hall at 8:00 p.m., by President Hines.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Problem of Handedness in Education\" — ^W. Franklin Jones, head of Department of Education, University of South Dakota, Vermilion, S.D.\n\"Health Supervision of Schools in a Small City\" — Peter Olesen, superintendent of\nschools, Cloquet, Minn.\n\"Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary School Buildings in Indiana\" — W. F. King,\nM.D., assistant secretary, Indiana State Board of Health, Indianapolis, Ind. (illustrated\nlecture).\nErnest B. Hoag, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE SCHOOLROOM\nWILLIAM\n\nE. WATT,\n\nVENTILATING\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nWINDOW\nENGINEER,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nTwo generations ago the school wmdow was a source of light and a\nventilator. When blast ventilation came in, the use of the window was\nfor light only. Since this change the Ufe insurance companies have revised\ntheir risk tables and have put the teacher into the column marked hazardous.\nWe might have become tubercular, stupid, incorrigible, and insane if\nthe school window had been used for ventilation; but when the doctor puts\nus outdoors for these disorders and directly we begin to mend we suspect\nthe tight window.\nThe standard practice in blast systems is to blow into each room enough\nfresh air to dilute the air sewage to six or eight parts of carbon dioxide to\nten thousand of air. This is as if the city fathers should circulate drinking\nwater thru sewers, putting in enough water to dilute the sewage to eight\nparts in ten thousand. What we breathe is of more importance than what\nwe drink. We may arrange to skim off the effluvia coming from skin and\nlungs before it has time to diffuse very much. Fortunately this may be\ndone in such a way that windows may be open all the time without interference with the system. Gases from skin and lungs are warm. They\nrise. We may have pure air at the breathing-plane all day if we skim off\nthe effluvia while warm. Then we produce health instead of disease,\nefficiency rather than dulness, good cheer in place of bad thoughts.\nGood results from open windows have led to experiments with various\nmethods of taking in fresh air in spite of the statements of ventilating men\nwho claim that there is no way to do it. One is known as flushing out.\nWindows in all rooms are opened on signal, letting in cold air while the\npupils exercise. This freshens things up, but cold air is so much heavier\nthan dead hot air that they do not mix, but lie in layers, the dead above the\nliving, and the pupils must sit for some minutes submerged in cold air till\nit is drawn off at the floor and hot air comes down from above. Having\nchildren exercise and then sit in cold air till hot air comes down upon them\nis questionable to say the least. Those who survive are benefited; deUcate\nones suffer.\nA second method of securing live air in a blast building is to violate\nrules and open windows at will. This is more common than is generally\nadmitted. It destroys the even distribution of hot air and gives some rooms\nlarge quantities and others small. If upper windows are used, the hot air\nflies out before coming down to the pupils and they sit in cold air with hot\ndry air escaping overhead making the lower stratum more dead and dry.\nThe thermostats throw dampers for the warmest possible air at such times.\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLROOM\n\nWINDOW\n\n943\n\nA third method of opening windows in a blast building is to place across\nthe opening cheesecloth or some material which partially closes it. The\ncloth window is better than the tight glass window because some live air\ngets in. But its effect is like that in a room where the window is open and\nthe shade down to prevent the draft. It ruins the shade and a little good\nair gets past the obstruction.\nThe cold open-air school helps tubercular or anemic children. An\nabundant supply of clothing is provided — sitting-out bags, foot-warmers,\nand mittens. Frequent feedings are given and the children pick up amazingly in body and mind. This form of window use is well known.\nHad it not been for the cost of this expensive use of windows and the\ndifficulty in getting teachers who can endure the cold floor more than a\nseason or two, we should have had a great wave of open-air schools thruout\nthe country. The difficulties are so nearly insuperable that we can hardly\nexpect such schools for all. Wealthy individuals sometimes provide for\nsuch cold schools, and occasionally a city undertakes the work in a tentative manner, but the child has to prove himself almost fatally assailed by\ntuberculosis or anemia to gain admittance and there is usually a hopeless\nwaiting list. After several years of agitation, New York City has 250 cold\nopen-air rooms, bringing a great blessing to some 6,000 children among\n5,000,000 people.\nThere is another use of school windows which is without objections and\nactually saves money. By it live air is sent to the breathing-plane and the\nfoul gases escape at the top of the room thru window, transom, or specially\nconstructed skim-off openings which do not require attention. The air\nmust be given the right humidity and a small amount of moisture so injected\nas to be carried largely as true steam and not as a chilling fog. This permits stopping the fans, if fans there are, and windows are let down slightly\nfrom the top so that some natural air may enter and fall gently to the\nbreathing-plane.\nAn objection to any scheme which requires personal attention is valid.\nYet the building may be so equipped that if the teacher completely forgets\nall about the air and does nothing at all she will have better air than can\npossibly be secured in the best plenum-pressure room. Thus indoors in\ncold weather may be had the benefits belonging to outdoors in summer.\nThe balance of air supply and temperature in the building is adjusted so\nthat in the room entirely neglected the temperature rises slightly and a\nslight odor is present until the proper attention is given. The odor is very\nmuch like that found in a plenum-pressure building where the air change\nis about 60 cubic feet per minute per seat.\nAny building may become a warm open-air school with the benefits\nfound in the expensive cold ones. Several elementary and high schools\nare so operated. As a by-product they save annually fuel and current\nenough to repay cost of installation.\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nLive air is a new factor in ventilation. It carries humidity rightly\nand invigorates. Dead dry air depresses and weakens. The tight school\nproduces anemia, adenoids, swollen tonsils, colds, headaches, weakness,\ntuberculosis, stupidity, and disorder. The warm open-air school with\nwindows open every day in the year has opposite results.\nLive air will come into a building and go where it is needed with little\nor no compulsion. Dead air refuses to act. It takes a great fan to drive\ndead hot air in and out of a large schoolhouse at the rate the engineers have\nfixed as a minimum.\nThere is no way of telling how much dead air needs to be driven thru\na school to obtain adequate ventilation. If 30 cubic feet per minute per\nseat are sent thru, there is an improvement over no ventilation. But a\nroom supplied with 30 cubic feet per minute per seat does not smell good.\nSo 30 is adopted as a minimum and 40, 50, or 60 is the rule if the people\nwill pay the bills and the teachers can dodge the hot drafts. But the\nphysiological effects seem no better when 90 is reached.\nWith live air properly humified no such air change is needed. In most\nbuildings the need of a fan is very slight. There are several large schools\nwith open windows every school day where the ponderous fans are run a\nfew minutes in the morning to start the air-flow up the ducts. They\nare then stopped and nm but two or three times for five minutes or not at\nall during the remainder of the day. Fans are needed for a few minutes\ndaily in most large buildings, but in many small ones not at all.\nEven the rural school must be rescued from vicious ventilation which\nkeeps windows shut. The adjustment of a large building for warm open\nair requires special skill. Expert help is necessary. But in the one-room\nschool the matter is not diJficult, and the poorer the school and the less the\nheating conforms to the standards which have been most loudly praised\nthe more readily may the room be made into a warm open-air schoolroom.\nFresh air should not be admitted thru a duct which carries it to the firebox\nto be killed. Use the dead air from the stove only to warm the school, but\nlet in the live cold air from high so it will fall to the breathing-plane with\nits natural outdoor vigor in it. This should be a small delivery so no draft\nwill be experienced. The jacket about the stove should be movable. A\njacket stops radiant energy from passing to the distant parts of the room to\nbe transformed into heat where it strikes. In warming the room use both\nconvection and radiation. But after the room is warmed, damper the fire\nand shut off the radiant energy with the screen or jacket.\nMistaken men with the vocabulary of science have gone about the\ncountry installing heating systems which seem to cause a current of warm\nair to rise from the stove, cross the room to the farther walls, come down to\nthe floor, and travel back to the stove. They have a trick of placing a thermometer near the imjacketed stove, noting the temperature of the air there,\nand then placing it near the wall farther from the stove. The thermometer\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n945\n\nreads higher at the distant point and the explanation given is that the heat\ncomes down the wall at a distance from the stove. This is not true. The\nheat at the distant wall is produced there by radiant energy shot from the\nstove. This energy is often spoken of as radiant heat. There is in reality\nno radiant heat, but radiant energy which transforms into heat at the spot\nwhere it strikes. Place a large object where the scientific gentlemen place\ntheir small thermometer, give the radiant energy something to strike so as\nto make a large area of warmth, and you will note that the thermometer\nstands higher there than at the distant wall, and your large absorbing or\ntransforming object does not need to reach to the ceiling to bring any\nmythical heat down.\nHumidity may be provided at no cost by placing on top of the stove\nan iron kettle and keeping some water in it whenever the stove is in use.\nThis will frost the windows beautifully. Any house which does not have\nvapor or frost on the windows in cold weather is not fit for habitation.\nIn general, the problems of adapting all forms of schoolroom ventilation\nto daily use of the open window have been solved. There is no longer any\nreason for keeping windows shut.\nTHE MENTAL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nLEWIS M. TERMAN, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nSTANFORD\n\nThe purpose of this discussion is to present some data on the relation of\nschool success to intelligence, and more particularly to raise the question\nwhether the treatment of exceptionally intelligent and exceptionally dull\nchildren in the grades has proper regard for the actual mental capacity\nof such children.\nThe data to be presented are some by-products of a study of the school\nsuccess of 1,000 non-selected school children who were tested in 19 14-15\nby the Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon measuring scale of intelligence.\nThose tested comprised all the children of all ages within two months of\na birthday who were enrolled in the schools where the tests were made,\nand they were therefore as nearly representative of the different ages as\nit was possible to secure. They included approximately one-third of the\nchildren enrolled, and we have no reason to suppose that if the other 2,000\nnot within two months of a birthday had been tested the facts for them\nwould have differed materially from those we have found.\nThe mental age of each child was computed according to the Stanford\nrevision of the Binet scale and comparisons were made between intelligence\nquotient and school success as indicated by three criteria: (i) the quality\nof the school work as judged by the teacher on a scale of five (\"very inferior,\" \"inferior,\" \"average,\" \"superior,\" and \"very superior\"); (2) grade\nprogress; and (3) the teachers' estimates of the children's intelligence.\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Child Hygiene\n\n946\nIntelligence, like school success, was also estimated on a scale of five. The\npresent discussion will deal chiefly with the correlation between intelligence\nquotient and grade progress.\nWe have made this comparison for the entire number of children, but,\nsince there is little opportunity for children below eight years to become\nretarded, we have included in the following table only those with a mental\nage of eight years or more. Grade II is regarded normal for mental age=\neight. Grade III for mental age nine, etc. The eighth-year mental age\ngroup includes all mental ages from seven years seven months to eight\nyears six months, and so on.\nTable I shows that nine-year intelligence is found all the way from\nGrade I to Grade VII, inclusive; ten-year intelUgence from Grade II to\nGrade VII, etc. Twelve-year intelligence, which here ranges from Grade\nIII to Grade VIII, would doubtless have been found in high school also if\ntests had been made there in any considerable number.\nTABLE\n\nI\n\n8s\n\nShowing Grade Distribxjtion of 676 Children by Mental Age\n19\nGrade\nMental\n\nAge\nI\n\nII\n\n8\n0\n10\n\nId.\n\nss\n\n(25.5%\n\nS6.6%\n\n{A\n\n24-S%\n\nm\n\n1%\n\nv\n\n17\n\n1%\n\n1.5%\n\n49\n23%\n46.6%\n\nI4-2%\n\n30\n8.3%\n8\n2.6%\n\nTotal\nVII\n\n20%\n6\nS.7%\n3.5%\n16.6%\n\nt%\n\n44.6%\n19.8%\n\n41.1%\n\n16\n\nle\n\n12.5%\nI\n37%\n12\n\n34.3%\n\nk\n\n37-5%\n31\n\n38\n\n14%\n31%\n\nI\n\n1.2%\n\n28%\n23 5%\n16\n10\n8.3%\n\n16\n\n105\n\nVIII\n\n.9%\nI\n\n19-4%\n49%\n\n1%\n\n1%\n\nVI\n\n19\n\n6\n7%\n48\nI\n30\n. .\n\nIV\n\n18\n18.4%\n\na8.s%\n3.8%\n\nII\n\ni^\n\n24\n\nIS\n\nI\n\n16.7%\n40\n\n31\n36\n\n68\n\n38.2%\n58.5%\n31\n\n7s\\\n\n13\n\n676\n\nTable II shows the number and percentage who, according to mental\nage, are retarded or accelerated one, two, three, or four years. The table\nincludes only the mental ages eight to sixteen inclusive.\nIt may be pointed out that, after the age of seven or eight years, mis36\nplacement byone grade is not especially significant, as that could easily\nhappen from any one of a number of causes such as early or late entrance,\nillness, a little more or a little less than average industry, etc. But in 112\n78\n\n96\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n947\n\ncases, or nearly i6 per cent of all, there is a misplacement of two grades or\nmore. Of these, eighty-five or over 12^ per cent of all, are cases of grade\nretardation below mental age; and 26, or nearly 4 per cent of all, represent\ngrade acceleration beyond mental age. It is interesting to note that school\nretardation of two years or more (reckoned on the mental age basis) is\nabout three times as common as acceleration of two years or more. On\nthe basis of chronological age, the proportion of grade acceleration to grade\nretardation is even less than this.\nTABLE\n\nII\n\nShowing Amount of Acceleration and Retardation in the Grades, Using Mental Age as the Basis\nGrade\n\nbelow\n13\n\n69\nMental\n\nAge\n184\n\nNumber\nPercentage\n\nor\nMore\n4 Yrs.\n0.5\n4\n\n1-9\n3 Yrs.\n\n2 Yrs.\n\nI Yr.\n\nNormal\nGrade27s for\nMental\nAge\n\nGrade\n\nabove Mental\n0.4\n\nI Yr.\n\n2 Yrs.\n\n106\n10.3\n\n27.8\n\n22\n\n3 Yrs.\n3\n\nAge\nTotal\n676\n4 Yrs.\nI\n0.1\n\nIS. 6\n40.6\n\nOur present task, however, is to find an explanation of the rather\n3-2\nsurprising disagreement between grade progress and mental age. Taking\nup first the 26 children whose grade status is two or more years ahead of\ntheir mental age we find that 19 of these are by chronological age over-age\nfor their grade; 10 of the 19 are from two to four years over-age. In other\nwords, those who are accelerated in school on the basis of mental age are\nusually retarded on the basis of chronological age, certainly an interesting\nand instructive paradox. The explanation is obvious. The school tends\nto promote children by age rather than by ability, and altho the very dull\nare allowed to become somewhat retarded, this retardation is ordinarily\nless than would be warranted by their actual mental development. For\nexample, there are 6 children of mental age ten in the sixth grade. Two\nof these are fourteen years of age chronologically, 2 are fifteen, and i is\nsixteen. Of the 1 1 children of mental age eleven in the eighth grade, i is\nseventeen years old, 3 are sixteen, and 5 are fifteen. Only 2 are normal age\nfor the grade.\nTurning now to the 85 children who are retarded two or more grades\nbelow the norm for mental age, we find that 23 per cent are, on the chronological age basis, actually accelerated, and that over half of the remainder\nare in the grade where they belong by chronological age. Only 8 per cent\nof those who are retarded two years or more according to mental age are\nretarded as much as two years by chronological age. This again confirms\nthe suspicion that promotion is largely governed by chronological age and\nhelps to explain why children of any given mental age are distributed over\nsuch a wide range of grades. There are of course other factors which sometimes cause children to be enrolled in grades too low for their mental age.\nAmong these are irregularity of attendance, illness, and lack of industry.\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nComparison of grade status by mental age and chronological age reveals\nthe striking fact that, on the whole, the grade location of school children\ndoes not fit their mental age much better than it fits their chronological\nage. Except in the upper years, children of a given mental age are scattered\nover nearly as wide a range of grades as children of that chronological age.\nPlainly the efforts made at school grading fail to give groups of children\nof homogeneous mental ability.\nThat this is largely due to the incorrect grading of children of inferior\nand superior intelligence is easily shown by taking those whose intelligence\nquotient is practically normal, say between 96 and 105, and finding how\nthese distribute themselves in the grades. This method gives the correlation relatively freed from the constant tendency of teachers to overpromote\nthe dull and underpromote the superior children. Of the 227 children with\nan intelligence quotient between 96 and 105, only 4 who are below the age\nof fourteen are more than one grade removed from the place where they\nbelong by chronological age. All the two-grade displacements are in the\ndirection of retardation.\nAnother interesting comparison may be made by taking the extreme\nI Q's^ and finding the location in the grades for the exceptionally dull and\nexceptionally bright children of each chronological age. We have done this\nfor the I Q's above 120 and below 80. We will consider first those with an\nI Q of 120 or above, and by way of information it may be stated that the\nchild who tests at 1 20 or above belongs with the 5 best children out of 100\nselected at random. Of 54 such children, seven years old or above, 15\nare in the grade where they belong by chronological age and 3 are even\nretarded one year by chronological age. That is, 18, or one-third of all\nthose having an I Q of 120 or above, fail to reap any advantage (as far as\npromotion is concerned) from their very superior intelligence. They are\nall doing \"very superior\" to \"average\" school work and would doubtless\ncontinue the same record if accorded the extra promotions warranted by\ntheir I Q. The reluctance of teachers to give such promotions is probably\ndue both to inertia and to an unwillingness to part with exceptionally\nsatisfactory pupils.\nTurning now to those who have an I Q of 80 or below, we find 42 children with two-thirds to three-fourths intelligence. Of these, only 2 are\nin the grade where they belong by chronological age. Both of these were\ndoing \"very inferior\" school work and neither was promoted the following\nyear; 6 of the 42 are only one year retarded. Supplementary data are\navailable for only 4 of the 6. Two of these 4 are doing \"very inferior\"\nwork, 2 \"inferior\" work. Of the 18 retarded two years, supplementary\ndata are available for 11, 4 of whom are said to be doing \"average\" work,\n4 \"inferior\" work, and 3 \"very inferior\" work. Of the 16 retarded three\nyears or more, we have supplementary data for 10, 3 of whom are doing\n' I Q => intelligence quotient.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n949\n\n\"average\" work, 4 \"inferior,\" and 3 \"very inferior.\" It is interesting\nto note that 2 of the 3 who are doing \"average \" work are four years retarded,\none being thirteen years old and in the third grade, the other fourteen years\nold and in the fourth grade. This is what we should expect of high-grade\nfeeble-minded children of thirteen and fourteen years.\nThe foregoing is suggestive as indicating what three-quarter intelligence\ncan do. A child of this degree of deficiency is usually two to four years\nbelow grade for his age, and his work is usually \"inferior\" or \"very inferior.\"\nRarely is he found in the grade where he belongs by chronological age and\nhe never does better than \"inferior\" work there.\nTo summarize our results bearing on the relationship between grade\nprogress and I Q, we have found:\n1. That the range of distribution over the grade by mental age, the\nsomewhat less than that by chronological age, is unjustifiably great.\n2. The wider disagreements between the I Q and the grade status of the\nchildren are confined chiefly to those who are superior to or below the average in ability. The explanation for this has been found in the fact that the\ntendency of the school is to promote children by age rather than by ability.\nThose who have an I Q between 96 and 105 are hardly ever more than one\ngrade removed from the location which is normal to their mental age.\n3. The child with two-thirds to three-fourths intelligence (I Q 65 to 75)\nnever does satisfactory work in the grade where he belongs by chronological\nage. After the age of eight or nine years he is usually found doing \"very\ninferior\" to \"average\" work in a grade two to four years below his age.\nRetarded by chronological age, by mental age he is actually accelerated.\n4. The child with an I Q of 120 or above is rarely found below the grade\nfor his chronological age, and occasionally he is one or two grades above.\nCompared to his possibilities, however, the child of exceptionally superior\nintelligence is almost always retarded. Wherever located his work is\nnearly always superior, and the evidence suggests strongly that this\nsuperiority of school work would continue even if extra promotions were\ngranted.\nIt is commonly believed that bright children are especially likely to be\none-sided, nervous, delicate, morally abnormal, socially unadaptable, or\notherwise peculiar. We have secured from teachers rather extensive\ninformation on these and other points regarding 31 children having an\nI Q of 125 or above. This degree of intelligence is possessed by only about\n2 children out of 100, and is about as far above average intelligence as feeblemindednes ibelow.\ns\nThe facts regarding these children, if we may believe\nthe testimony of their teachers, are as follows:\nI. Ability special or general. — In the case of 20 out of 31 the ability is\ndecidedly general, and with 2 it is mainly general. The talents of 5 are\ndescribed as more or less special, but in only one case remarkably so.\nDoubtful, 4.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene^\n\n2. Health. — Fifteen are said to be perfectly healthy; 13 have one or\nmore physical defects; 4 of the 13 are described as delicate, 4 have adenoids,\n4 have eye defects, i lisps, and i stutters. Of the 4 delicate children, i\nhas kidney disease, i a digestive trouble, and i has been threatened with\ntuberculosis. On the whole, the health conditions appear to be fully up\nto the average for non-selected children in the schools.\nIt should be pointed out, too, that most of these children are from\nsuperior homes and that for this reason their physical defects would\nnaturally be better known than would be the case with children from inferior\nhomes.\n3. Studiousness. — Extremely studious, 15; usually studious or fairly\nstudious, 11; not particularly studious, 5; lazy, o.\n4. Moral traits. — Favorable moral traits only, 19; one or more unfavorable moral traits, 8 ; no answer, 4.\nChildren with unfavorable moral traits are as follows:\nVery self-willed\nNeeds close watching\nCruel to animals\nUntruthful\nUnreliable\nA bluffer\nSexually abnormal and vicious\n\n2\n\nThe last-named child is the only one with more than one unfavorable trait,\nand he is described as being sexually abnormal, obstinate, perverted, and\nvicious. It will be noted that the bad traits of most of the others can hardly\nbe regarded, from the psychological point of view, as really serious.\n5. Social adaptability. — Socially adaptable, 25; not adaptable, 2;\ndoubtful, 4.\n6. Attitude of other children. — \"Favorable,\" \"friendly,\" \"liked by\neverybody,\" \"much admired,\" \"popular,\" etc., 26; \"not liked,\" i;\n\"inspires repugnance,\" i; no answer, 3.\n7. Is child a leader? — \"Yes,\" 14; \"no,\" \"not particularly,\" etc., 12;\ndoubtful, 5.\n8. Is play life normal?— ''Yes,\" 26; \"no,\" i; \"hardly,\" i; doubtful, 3.\n9. Is child spoiled or vain? — \"No,\" 22; \"yes,\" 5; \"a little,\" 2; no\nanswer, 2.\nWhile the above data are not extensive and are subject to more or less\nerror owing to the method by which they were collected, they suggest\nstrongly that there is little if any ground for the widespread beUef that\nchildren of genius are more likely than ordinary children to be one-sided,\nunadaptable, morbid, queer, or physically delicate. According to the\ntestimony of the teachers, such children are fully as likely to be healthy\nas average children, their ability is far more often general than special,\nthey are studious above the average, really serious moral faults are not\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN SELECTING\n\nSCHOOL-BUILDING\n\nSITES\n\n95 1\n\ncommon among them, they are nearly always socially adaptable, are\nsought after as playmates and companions, play life is usually normal,\nthey are leaders far oftener than other children, and notwithstanding their\nmany really superior qualities they are seldom vain or spoiled.\nAre we not justified in concluding that it would be greatly to the\nadvantage of such children if their superior ability were more promptly\nand fully recognized and if, under proper medical supervision of course,\nthey were promoted as rapidly as their mental development would warrant ?\nUnder the present regime, when such children attain their highest possibilities itis more often in spite of the school than because of any special\nhelp or encouragement they receive from it. Even genius finds it dif&cult\nto survive when held overlong to tasks that are too easy.\nMental hygiene demands such an observance of the laws and conditions\nof mental activity as will promote the highest functioning which is possible\nwithout injury to the mechanism involved. The data presented suggest\nthat these laws are frequently transgressed in the educational treatment of\nexceptional children. On the one hand, children of low-grade intelligence\nare promoted beyond their power to do. It is altogether probable that the\nwidespread agitation against the evils of retardation has carried us too far,\nor rather that it has carried us in the wrong direction. Instead of developing adifferentiated course of study which would allow dull children to make\nsteady progress without becoming retarded, we have too often promoted\nthem to tasks which for them are impossible of accomplishment. The\ninevitable result is apathy and discouragement or else overpressure.\nBright children, on the other hand, are almost always underpromoted.\nThey are rarely given tasks which call forth their best ability and as a\nresult they run the risk of falling into life-long habits of submaximum eflSiciency. These, too, should be given the advantages of a differentiated course\nof study. There is probably little ground for the common fear of overpressure inthe training of such children. The subnormals are in danger\nof overpressure; the supernormals of underpressure. In the interest of\nboth groups, mental hygiene demands that researches be undertaken for\nthe purpose of ascertaining more definitely what performances may rightly\nbe expected of 75 per cent or 125 per cent intelligence at the various age\nlevels.\nSOME\n\nPROBLEMS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE\nOF SITES FOR SCHOOL BUILDINGS\n\nF. B. DRESSLAR,\n\nPROFESSOR OF SCHOOL HYGIENE,\nFOR TEACHERS,\nNASHVILLE,\n\nGEORGE\nTENN.\n\nSELECTION\n\nPEABODY\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nLet US try to set forth as clearly as possible some of the problems relating\nto the selection of sites for school buildings. School grounds should be\nsufficiently large to include acceptable space for the proper location of the\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\n!\n\nschoolhouse and ample playgrounds for the children. This is a reasonable,\nand it may seem a trite, demand, but it is met in but a small fraction of the\ncities and towns of this country. Some of the reasons for this apparent\nnegligence on the part of school boards are as follows:\nI. The people, thru the laws enacted and the ordinances in force, have\nlimited school boards in their power to acquire sites for school buildings\nuntil urgent needs make it almost impossible for them to secure at reasonable .\nrates sufficient groimd, in convenient localities, upon which they may erect\nsuch school buildings as are immediately necessary to accommodate the\nchildren. School boards should be given the power to acquire sites in\nadvance of inmiediate needs, so that they may have the same advantages\nwith respect to the markets as any private individual or corporation. As it\nnow is they most frequently are compelled to drive hard bargains and pay\nexorbitantly for land they' might otherwise have secured at a fair market\nprice. High rates for sites almost invariably operate to reduce the size of\nthe groimds upon which school buildings are to be located. In our cities\nschool lots have been whittled down until in a large majority of the cases\nthey are but little larger than the ground plan of the building, and\nrarely large enough to give the proper setting of the building with regard to\nfundamental hygienic demands, to say nothing of the serious handicap to\nthe children of the total loss of playgroimds.\nPossibly sites chosen for high-school buildings represent our failure\nin this regard as clearly as those of any type of schools, and I wish at this\npoint to suggest a reasonable remedy. In those cities supporting one or\ntwo high schools, there is a sort of unwritten demand on the part of the\npeople, and, in general, a ready acceptance of this demand on the part\nof the school board, that the high-school building should be situated near\nthe center of population, and this almost invariably brings it dangerously\nnear the business section of the city. Here land is expensive and rarely is\nit possible for the board to acquire more than a block of land, generally less\nthan a block. Hence to our shame and to the great disadvantage of the\nyoimg people and the usefulness of the school, no playgrounds are possible.\nBut this is not all. Why should we make it necessary for our young people\nto go during the most susceptible years of their lives into the noise, dust,\nand danger zones of our cities to do their educational work ? They go on\nthe street cars with the crowd in the morning and return with the crowd.\nThis affords opportunities for moral contamination which as yet few of our\npeople realize.\nDuring vacant periods or intermissions while at school, further opportimities are afforded for them to be on the streets and to mingle with those\nwho for ulterior motives entice and disturb. High-school teachers cannot\nkeep their students in the school building at all times without stringent\nrules and regulations, and these frequently serve to generate a spirit of\nantagonism rather than a spirit of loyalty. The rapid growth of our high-\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN SELECTING\n\nSCHOOL-BUILDING\n\nSITES\n\n953\n\nschool attendance and particularly that for our girls has emphasized in the\npast few years as never before the significance of the moral question involved\nin the location of high-school buildings. I could cite case after case where\nstudents have gone astray, primarily because they were forced to go into\nthe crowd and with the crowd in order that they might have the advantages\nof secondary schooling.\nThe only remedy I can discover is thru the selection of sites on the\noutskirts of the city and in this way lead the young people away from\ntemptation. I know of himdreds of high-school buildings situated on\nrestricted sites which represent an expenditure of public money sufficient in\namount to buy ten acres of ground in a good locality away from the dangers\nsuggested. But when such a proposal as this is made those who do not\nunderstand the needs of young people and are not cognizant of the dangers\nI have mentioned are likely to interpose serious objections. Some of the\npupils will have to travel farther and some not so far. This method suggests inequality or discrimination and hence to them is undemocratic.\nOthers, who are often more influential, have some personal gain at stake. I\nknow a high-school building most unfortunately situated, and this site\nwas selected, I have been told, because by locating it where it is plans to\nerect an office building on the lot were frustrated. In this way the owners of\nan office building already constructed prevented the possibility of competition. Recently, despite all I could do in the way of facts, arguments, and\npersuasion, a board of education which had called me some distance to\nadvise them selected a narrow lot with a steam laundry on one side, a noisy\nstreet car line in front, a swamp and a steam railway in the rear, even tho\na larger and in every way a better site could have been had for less money.\nSome political debt or promise may have been the deciding influence, tho\nof this particular case I am not sure. I only know the evidence from the\nschool point of view was all against them. If this board or any other in a\nsimilar situation had back of them a well-informed public opinion as to the\nneeds of the children, such a site would not have been chosen. In some way\nthese fundamental needs of schools must be taught to the people as a whole\nbefore we have a right to expect much change from the present custom.\nAnd I wish here to say that it is very important to do this now for there is in\nprogress a great schoolhouse building movement and millions of dollars\nare being wasted by the erection of buildings on sites which are destined\nin a few years to be impossible places for schools. From our point of view\nsuch mistakes may seem criminal, but we must not forget that many times\nmere lack of knowledge is the real reason for these blunders.\nThe remedy suggested needs further explanation. The first question\nwhich will occur to school patrons when they are entreated to use their\ninfluence in going into the country or the suburbs for a high-school site is\nthat of rendering it inaccessible to the students from all parts of a city.\nFrankly there will be some difficulties to overcome, but not nearly so\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\n^^ TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nmany as one might easily imagine. As it is now a large number of highschool students use street cars daily, and it seems doubtful whether this\nnmnber would be increased imder the plan suggested. But if it were more\nexpense to the few, this would be more than offset by the gains for the whole.\nDemocracy in its essence is concerted action willingly exerted for the common good. The common good in this case is the health, morals, and loyalty\nof every member of the school. These can be attained better in an environment of quietness, cleanliness, and purity, than under imtoward conditions.\nWe maintain therefore that it would be better and safer in every way for\nboards of education to transport at public expense those pupils who would be\nhandicapped by locating the building on one side of a city than to attempt\nto equalize distances. It has been of interest to me to study those maps\nwhich progressive high-school principals make, showing the distribution of\npupils within the city. The apartment house and business sections make\npoor showings on this map. Usually other sections such as the railroad and\nmanufacturing districts show very few students, and, when the pins are all\nlocated in such a map, they show that the center of high-school population is\nfar from the center of the population as a whole. Such evidence at once\nmakes it apparent that much of the trouble anticipated is imaginary.\n2. The difficulties due to noise, dust, and smoke are largely eliminated\nwhen a site of sufficient size away from the throng is selected. But it is\nabsolutely astoimding how little thought has been given to such disturbances bymany of the school boards of this country. It would not be\ndifficult to name scores of school buildings in which one-fourth of the time\nduring recitations is practically lost by reason of noise from without. This\nloss of time is very serious, but the wear and tear on the nervous systems\nof teachers and pupils is more serious.\nIt seems pure folly or even worse to be so negligent as to erect a school\nbuilding either in the center of a city or on its borders where children will\nbe disturbed with distracting noises daily while at their school tasks.\nIndiana recently passed a law setting a minimum limit of five hundred feet\nas the distance from a school buDding to a steam railway track. It was a\nworthy attempt, but I remember an experience with a school board in that\nstate after the law was passed. One of the members, a college professor,\nwas strenuously objecting to the law and really urging the board to neglect\nit. He knew nothing about schools and was not conscious of his ignorance.\nIt is not general education that is needed on this point, but specific definite\ninformation. I have an investigation under way thru which I hope to be\nable to measure the mere loss of time in some badly situated schools, but I\ndo not yet see how to get exact data on nervous waste and divided attention.\nThese are more serious difficulties than we have dared to believe. If we can\nget school buildings out of the congested centers, we will gain much; but\neven then we must not forget the noise and smoke made by passing trains.\nWe must find quiet places and then keep the railways from encroaching.\n\nI\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nGROUNDS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\n955\n\n3. Other things equal, that is the best lot for school buildings which\nwill permit the location of the building in such a way as to receive the east\nand west light in the classrooms. North light will do for art rooms; and\nsouth light will be acceptable for laboratories, offices, libraries, and all rooms\naccommodating sanitary fixtures, but south light in the latitude of the\nstates is most trying and troublesome. I have yet to see a classroom wholly\nlighted from the south which has proved satisfactory. If this simple\ndirection could be understood and appreciated by all school boards in this\ncountry, it would do more to save the children from eye-strain than you\ncould dare believe. But suppose, as it happens many times, a lot is selected\nmaking it practically impossible for the building to be erected on it with\nthe proper orientation, what can an architect do even if he knows what is\nright ? I only know what he does do. He does the wrong thing rather\nthan lose the job, and a century of headaches and eye-aches follows.\n4. If people knew what an intimate relation there exists between the\npurity of the air about a school building and the condition of the soil on\nwhich the building is placed, there would be fewer calls for help in matters\nof drainage and ventilation, for there would be fewer poorly drained and wet\ngrounds selected for building sites. A damp or wet soil full of refuse will\ngenerate noxious gases and foul odors and throw these together with much\nmoisture into the basements and lower rooms of buildings situated thereon.\nWhile it is often impossible to measure these difficulties with any degree of\naccuracy, we know that they are unwholesome and annoying. Last week\na call for help came from a prominent southern city and the burden of it was,\nHow can we prevent the dampness from rising in the rooms of the ground\nfloor of our school buildijig so that we may safely use them for classrooms ?\nThat question should have been asked before the lot was selected, and also\nbefore the building was erected. The advice given was of course conditional.\nIn conclusion, something needs to be done now to prevent the people\nfrom selecting improper sites for school buildings and to teach them what is\nnecessary for them to know for the sake of guidance.\n\nSTANDARD\nRUFINO\n\nSCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS\nPHILIPPINE ISLANDS\n\nMARTINEZ,\n\nMEMBER,\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nIN THE\n\nMANILA,\n\nP.I.\n\nThe Bureau of Education inherited from the Spanish government a\nnumber of school buildings most of which were old and of mediaeval t3^e.\nThey were generally one-story structures of stone, wood, or brick, having\nlow ceilings, thick walls, and a very few small windows which afforded\ninsufficient light and ventilation. In many cases they were damp and\notherwise unfit for school purposes.\nIn a few centers very good buildings\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "9S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chad Hygiene\n\nhad been provided. The schoolhouses, however, were in many places\ntemporary structures, poorly built, and of perishable materials. The best\nof these were large buildings of stone, with earth floors, roofs of thatch or\ntile, low eaves, and deep-set, heavily barred windows. Most of these\nbuildings were used as barracks for troops during the long period of hostihties, and many of them had been damaged and some almost completely\ndestroyed. Frequently buildings were rented or given rent-free by publicspirited citizens. In other cases, schools occupied rooms in municipal\nbuildings where arrangements were at best far from satisfactory or in\nnewly constructed buildings of a temporary or semi-permanent character.\nNot only were these buildings unsuitable for the uses of a modem school\nsystem, but they were wholly inadequate to accommodate the large number\nof pupils who sought enrolment.\nThe many difficulties encountered in properly housing the schools were\nmultiplied and intensified when the organization was extended to outlying\nbarrios or rural districts. Conditions called for improvement. Most of\nthe buildings were not adapted to school purposes. Schools in many towns\nwere scattered, several houses in various sections of the town being pressed\ninto service. The need for adequate accommodations for the pubUc schools\nimpressed itself deeply on both teachers and superintendents. The support\nof the people thruout the Islands was enthusiastic. Private residences were\nfreely and generously placed temporarily at the disposal of the teachers and\nother means resorted to in order to provide immediate shelter for the schools.\nDuring this period, experiments were made with several types of\nbuildings with a view to evolving a type which, while employing much Ught\nmaterial in its construction, might later be transformed into a permanent\nstructure. These buildings usually had a permanent frame of good timber,\nbamboo floors, and thatch walls and roofs, the intention being to replace\nthe temporary materials later by permanent materials. Other and more\nurgent questions, however, together with a scarcity of funds made it impossible to give consistent attention to a permanent building program during\nthe first years of the school system.\nThe need of buildings was so pressing, and the funds available locally,\nwhether provincial or mimicipal, were so limited that it was impossible\nfor the local authorities to effect the construction of permanent school\nbuildings unaided. It was not until the inauguration of the Philippine\nAssembly in 1907 that any insular appropriations were provided for the\nconstruction of municipal school buildings. It was expected that the\nconstruction program would be begun at an early date after these appropriations were made, but several difficulties presented themselves.\nWith the advice and assistance of the consulting architect for the\nPhilippine Islands, the buildings division of the Bureau of Education,\nwhich was organized for this purpose, prepared plans for standard onestory school buildings of reinforced concrete with iron roofs and timber of\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nGROUNDS\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\n957\n\nsatisfactory grade. A series of plans for buildings of from one to twenty\nrooms was completed. The unit plan of construction was adopted, the\nplans making the construction of additional rooms possible without destroying the symmetry of the building. During 1910 these plans were perfected\nand arrangements were made for the construction of a large number of\nbuildings.\nIn the Philippines, a building to be permanent must be prepared to\nwithstand earthquakes and severe storms and also to resist the ravages of\ninsect pests. White ants alone have destroyed buildings worth thousands\nof pesos. Only the best timber, stone, or concrete will resist them.\nConcrete reinforced with steel is the construction material which meets\nconditions best. In these school buildings, reinforced concrete footings,\npiers, girders, porch floors, walls, and steps are used in combination with\ntimbers of superior quality for frames, roof trusses, floors, and partitions,\nand corrugated galvanized iron for roofing. In the standard schoolhouse\nplans, a unit system of construction has been adopted. Each unit is a classroom of standard size, 7X9 meters (23'X29' 6\")> the distance from floor\nto ceiling being approximately 13 feet. Each end room is provided with\n28 windows, and each intervening room with 12 windows, except in plans\n3 and 4 where each intervening room has 18 windows. The windows are of\ntwo parts, made of shell — a small fixed upper section and a larger lower\nsection which is pivoted. The upper parts of partitions separating rooms\nfrom corridors are perforated for ventilating purposes. The classrooms are\nso arranged in the plans that additions may be made at a minimum cost\nwithout prejudice to the original structure. In the six-room and larger\nbuildings, provision is made for an assembly room. These buildings are\nenlarged by adding units to the rear of the classrooms at each end of the\nassembly room, forming two rows of connected classrooms. These additions may be extended almost indefinitely without in any way affecting the\noriginal structure or interfering with the lighting or ventilation. The\nlargest buildings of this kind that have been completed comprise two wings\nof six classrooms each, the large assembly room connecting these in front,\nand four additional classrooms in the rear which complete the quadrangle\nand form an open court within the structure. This court is faced by open\ncorridors from which doors lead into the various classrooms.\nBuildings constructed under the standard plans of the Bureau of Education cost only a little more than 2,000 pesos per room, and considering the\nlife of the buildings they are in the end the most economical. There are\nnow 748 permanent school buildings containing 3,950 rooms, over 400 of\nwhich are of the standard type. Altogether, 326 towns have received\ninsular allotments for school buildings.\nBuildings constructed in accordance with these plans meet the needs\nof the public schools admirably. Altho they lack architectural embellishment, they are neat and substantial. The floor plan is very convenient.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nThese one-story buildings have decided advantages. They are practically\nopen-air schools. Ventilation could be no better, and the lighting is in\nevery respect satisfactory. The adoption of these standard plans has\ngreatly simplified schoolhouse construction in the Philippines. Instead of\npreparing separate plans and specifications for each building to be constructed, itis now necessary only to indicate the amount of classroom\nspace needed, and a standard building of the size required can be selected\nand its construction authorized without delay, if sufficient funds are provided.\nNo attempt was made by the Spanish officials to secure adequate\ngrounds, and the schoolhouses generally stood flush with the street with\nlittle or no space in the rear or on the sides of the building. At first the\nAmerican school authorities gave very little attention to the acquisition of\nsuitable sites. Neither athletics nor school gardening had been greatly\ndeveloped, and there seemed to be no great need for large sites. Furthermore, the public schools were so wretchedly housed that teachers were\ngenerally satisfied if they could secure decent buildings.\nFinally, in 191 1, the director of education decided to make no further\ninsular allotments for school buildings unless the sites met certain conditions.\nThe minimum requirement for barrio sites was fixed at 5,000 square meters\n(ij acres), and for central school sites at 10,000 square meters (2^ acres).\nBesides, the lay of the land and the nature of the soil must be suitable for\nschool gardens and athletic purposes. There was considerable opposition to\nthis policy, many feeling that it would so increase the difficulties of securing\nsuitable school buildings that the building program would necessarily be\nheld up. Furthermore, the people had to be educated to the point where\nthey could see that school gardening and athletics required a departure from\nthe Spanish conception of an adequate school site. A great many people,\ntoo, felt that it would not be possible to keep larger school sites in condition\nand that the smaller sites well kept would be far better than larger sites\novergrown with weeds and grass. This opposition, however, has entirely\ndisappeared.\nSchool grounds are considered as improved when they meet three or\nmore of the following requirements: (a) a woven- wire fence supported by\nconcrete or first-group timber posts; (6) premises graded for lawns and\nplaygrounds; (c) adequate playground facilities; {d) a good lawn; (c) trees\nand shrubs properly planted; and (/) permanently surfaced walks.\nAs it is not possible to complete all of the necessary improvements on a\nschool ground in a single year, the Bureau of Education has adopted the\npolicy of making permanent plans for the improvement of school grounds in\norder to avoid the undoing of work already accomplished. Thus the work\ndone each year brings the school nearer to the perfection of these permanent\nplans. This policy has been carried on with much success. The most\nattractive and best kept premises in a town are usually those of the public\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF HANDEDNESS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n959\n\nschools, and in many towns it is very evident that these improvements are\ninfluencing the people generally to give more attention to the improvement\nof their own premises.\nTHE PROBLEM\nW.\n\nFRANKLIN\n\nOF HANDEDNESS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nJONES,\nHEAD\nOF DEPARTMENT\nOF EDUCATION,\nOF SOUTH DAKOTA, VERMILION, S.D.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThere is one child in the schools who has been an apparent stumblingblock in education. That child is the left-hander. He will continue to\npuzzle us until we have studied him enough to know him. Our first problem\nis to establish our standards for determining (i) born handedness, and\n(2) adopted handedness; our second problem is to employ these standards\nin finding and classifying individuals into three groups: (i) pure righthanders— individuals right-handed both by birth and by adoption; (2)\npure left-handers — individuals left-handed both by birth and by adoption;\nand (3) transfers — individuals born right or left and who have shifted to the\nother arm; so that we can make with these groups such tests for hand and\narm skill as will enable us to say whether or not the left-hander should be\ntransferred or made over into a right-hander.\nIt is this double problem that I have been working on for a number of\nyears; and I have come to show you both my methods of procedure and\nmy results. In attacking the first problem — that of devising standards of\nmeasure — I proceeded on the assumption that if an individual either is\nborn with or has acquired unequal potentialities on the two sides of the\nbody, there must be some evidences that will be revealed by the tape line,\nas well as by the weighing and sensibility tests. I therefore set out to\nmeasure the paired bones and paired muscles, not only of the arms but of\nany convenient parts of the body, using cadavers as well as living beings.\nTo assist in making accurate measures of the arms, I constructed a simple\ninstrument which I have called the \"brachiometer,\" the working of which\nI will show you as I proceed. I soon found differences in the measures of\nboth bones and muscles of the two sides of the body which seemed to indicate born handedness in one case and adopted handedness in another.\nSince my subsequent measures of over ten thousand pairs of arms have\njustified this hypothesis, I shall now offer these standards to you as a part\nof my results.\nMEASURES SHOWING BORN HANDEDNESS\n1. Length of *\"ulna plus\" hand to the middle knuckle of little finger\n2. Circumference of palm\n3. Circumference of wrist\n4. Length of humerus\n♦The \"ulna plus\" is the length of the ulna, plus the hand to the middle knuckle. The measure is\nused because it is more easily determined than the length of the ulna alone.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n960\n\nMEASURES\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSHOWING\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nADOPTED\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\n1. Relaxed forearm circumference\n2. Contracted forearm circumference\n3. Relaxed arm (biceps) circumference\n4. Contracted arm (biceps) circimiference\nTABLE\n\nf\n\nHANDEDNESS\n\nis\n\nI\n\nSahfle Arm Measukes, Showing Dextrality(4\n\n•<\n\n(The records are in inches)\n\n•\nSex\n\nAge\n\n17\nI . . .\n\nF.\n\n2 . . .\n\nM.\n\n18\n\n3 -.-\n\nM.\n\n16\n\n1\n\ns\n\n2S\n\ng\nn\n\n(4 S\n\n00\n\n1.4\n\nti4^\n\nRIGHT-HANDED\n\n6*^\n6*^\n\n8\n\n14*\n13^\n14*\nI3»*\n6\"\nl\n13^^\nal\nI\nIS\n\"\nlept-handed Sby\n\" 6birth\n1\n2\n17-3^»7^\n61*\n9 12-L\n\ns\"-\n\nfi\n\n4 ...\n\ns ...\n\nP.\n\nn\n\n14\"\n\n6 ...\n\nP.\n\n33\n\n13^\nI3«^\n\nBY ADOPTION\n\n6*6\n\n6>\n\nJ\n6i»\n\nt2.8\n45\n\nis u\n\n8l«\n\n9\n\n4.6\n\n8\"\n\n*\n8«)PTION\n3. a\n8J-AND6.3ED BY ADC\nLEPT-H\n10\n3.0\n8«- \"\n8«8^JL\n8\nS.4\n1-3\n1^ 0.7\n8-\"-\n\nM.\n\n9 ...\n10 ...\n\nM.\nP.\n\n20\n\n8\n7\"\n\n13*^\n\n^\n84-1\n\n13\"\n12 •-\n\nIS\n\n»\n6-»- S»\nTRANSFERRED\n6\"\n14 IS\"\nS\"\n8JIS»\n6^\n6\n\n7\"\n7\"\n\n14\"\n\n'^1\n\n14141^\n\n30\nIS\n\n40\n\n6^\nIS\"\n\n6i»\n\n6\"\n\n13J\n\n7 8-»-\n\n7^\nl4-»7^\n\nI\n\n8i*\n\n|i8J\n\n6\"\nsJ-\"\nS\n\nI4-»- 8-»14^^\n\n^9\"\n\n4.6\n\nt:\\\n2.7\n54\n\nI0-»-\n\n^\n810\n9» 8A\nIS\n9\"\n9*:\n10 5,19\n3.0\n9-»9I*\n9\"\n9\"\nta IS\ng\n88A^\n4.0\n9\n8A\n\nI\n\n13s\n\ngio\n\n4.8\n\nSO\n\n14-*- 7\n\nt4.8\n4-3\n12.7\n\nSi\n\nr*\n\n16^\n16-^-\n\n8 ...\n\n?1\n\n<2\n\n9\n\n34\n\nP.\n\n2.9\n\n8.3\n\nr-HAND ED BY! 3IRTH\n14\nRIGH1\n\nM.\n\n7 ...\n\nRemarks\n\np) 0\n\n9^\n\n7\"\n\n6.S\n8J«6.9\n4-1\n3-9\n\nI\"\n\nNo.\n\nM\n\n< C4\n\nS\n\n81\"\nS.3\n9^\n\n59\n\nS-9\n\nLeft-handed in everything «•\ncept writing.\nTrained to write\n9\"\nwith right hand.\nRight arm injured (elbow strain)\nin childhood, and left ann\nadopted permanently^\nPreferred left arm in childhood,\nbut trained to use right aim.\nLeft ulna fractured at ten yean\n\" 9*(five years ago). Aon\nof 9age\nin sling three weeks.\n\n13^\n8-«9«8^9\"\n* The \"ulna plus\" is the length of the ulna, plus\nhand to 3.0\nthe middle knuckle. This measure\nis used because it is\n8-«-the 8^\n9--1ulna\n3^\ngXft\nmore easily determined than the length\nof\nthe\nalone.\n7-«^\n«\n^\n\"\nS\n9\n8\nt The denominators of the fractions are invariably8A16, hence\nall denominators\nare omitted. Thus the first measoie\n8\n8JL\n3.0\n\n\"\n\nrecorded (14* ) means 14A inches, and so on. s\nX The percentage of swell is found by dividing the gain in circumference 8Aduring the\nswell\n0 by the circumference of the\n8^ 91\narm (or forearm) relaxed.\n\ng\"\n\nI have applied the measures shown in Table I to the arms of ten thousand individuals ranging in ages from stillborn to centenarians. The\nsummary of these measurements follows.\nStTMMASY OF TEN THOUSAND BSACHIOMETES TESTS\nOut of 10,000 persons:\n9,583 are bom right-handed; 96 per cent of the race are right-handed.\n417 are bom left-handed; 4 per cent of the race are left-handed.\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF HANDEDNESS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nOut of 417 bom left-handers:\n323 shift to the right hand (that is, 77 per cent of born left-handers adopt the minor\narm); 4 are shifted by accident; 319 by purposive interference; and only 94 are allowed\nto use the major arm and hand.\nOut of 9,583 bom right-handers:\n96 are shifted to the left hand by accident; none by purposive interference. Tra- 961\ndition favors the right hand and arm.\n419 persons (323 plus 96) out of ten thousand adopt the wrong arm (the potentially\nminor arm) ; that is, one out of 25 persons is using the minor arm.\n\nThe significant conclusion drawn from the foregoing data is that the\nfour bone measures as given reveal born handedness; the four muscle\nmeasures as given reveal the adopted arm. Proceeding on the basis of\nthis conclusion, it is an easy matter to measure and classify individuals into\nthe three groups: (i) pure right-handers; (2) pure left-handers; and\n(3) transfers.\nTABLE II\nDextrality in Tapping Rate\n255\n\nTime, 30 seconds\nBoys\nAge\n\n8\n\n263\n\nRight Hand Left Hand\n\n116\n\nfi48*\n1130\nfiS9\n\n129\n146\n136\n15135*\n1\n\n26285\n2626\n\nI138\n\n5\nJU1549 168\n[\nii73\n\n[190\n\nI178\n18\n\n8\n\n• 186\n\nfi95\n[188\n\n142\n148\n168\n151\n170\n182\n171\n193\n182\n180\n\n1\n132 44\n\n118\n\n280\n\nfl40*\n•{126\nfi56\n[120\n\n165\n\n12\n317\n\n[136\n\n4\n\n316\n\n355\n306\n349\n\n15\n\n360\n377\n379\n\n18\n\nU53•16\nri8oi67\nf\n\nJ142\n9\nU7\nU7I\n\n243\n\n123\n\nRight Hand Left Hand\n153\n\n288\n10\n\n1132\n\nIS\n\nAge\n\nSum\n\n10\n\n12\n\nOntLS\n\n163\n126155\n\n279\nSum 279\n\n250\n\n282\n\n115*\n169\n\n140\n167\n\n119745\n161\n178\n\n307\n305\n\n343\n\n308\n\n354\n\n341\n* The records here given are the averages per groups of 25 children. In each of the groupings, the\n0\naverage for the right-handers is given first, the368average for the left-handers is given second, and that 34for\nthe transfers is given third.\n1\n9\n1\n\n[\n\n358\n358\n\nI have taken 150 eight-year-old children, 75 of each sex and 25 of each\nof the three classes, right-handed, left-handed, and transferred, and submitted them to the tests for skill named below. The tests were repeated\non a similar number of ten-, twelve-, fifteen-, and eighteen-year-olds.\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIChild Hygiene\n\nrespectively, similarly divided (half of each sex, and 25 of each class of\nhandedness).\nThe skill tests applied were the following:\n1. Rate of tapping.\n2. Placing wooden pegs in order in a pegboard.\n3. Threading the needle, with bristle substituted for thread.\n4. Thrusting at a target with a three-foot wooden pointer.\n5. Loading a glass upright tube with buckshot.\n\nWithout significant variations, these tests on the 375 individuals agree in\nshowing results revealed by Table II. Hence but the one table is given to\nmeet the required brevity of this article.\nCONCLUSIONS DRAWN\n\nFROM TABLE H\n\nIt is to be noted that the skill of the left-handers is essentially equal to\nthat of the right-handers; this, too, in spite of the fact that it is very difficult\nto find a pure left-hander (one who has never been the victim of the shiftover ambition of some parent or teacher). Undoubtedly the left hand and\narm of the bom left-hander are quite the equal of the right hand and arm\nof the born right-hander, provided the left-hander is allowed to use his left\nhand and arm freely.\nThe most striking fact revealed by the data is the low grade of skill\nshown by the transfers. While the average skill of the two hands of the\ntransfers is not far different from the average skill of either right- or lefthanders, inot a single case does the transfer group show the extreme skill\nwith either hand that the other two groups show. The transfer may hardly\nbe said to have a dextral hand and arm, but rather two minor arms. He\ncould hardly hope to compete with the pure right- or left-hander in this\nday of skilled labor, for skilled labor more and more calls for one arm of\nextreme skill. The so-called \"ambidexter\" is undoubtedly the transfer;\nthat is, the \"ambidexter\" is the individual with two minor arms. He is\nartificial rather than natural, since he has failed to develop the potentially\nmajor arm. While he may have two reasonably good arms, he does not\nhave the extreme skill in one arm which he might have had; and he has\nbeen crippled in the field of skilled labor.\nThe parent or the teacher who assimies to make the left-handed child\nwrite with, or otherwise adopt, the right hand, must assume the responsibility of making that child a transfer in so far as the endeavor succeeds.\nIt may \"look awkward\" for the child to use his left hand and arm; but\nthat is only evidence of a bad tradition. The left-hander may have to pay\na little more for certain left-handed tools, such as scythes, hair clippers,\nscissors, etc., but that is only more evidence of a bad tradition. Penmanship teachers may still be unwilling to surrender their traditional practices\nin dealing with left-handers (the author was once a penmanship teacher,\nand held to those practices), but that will be only a continuance of a bad\ntradition. There is clearly but one thing to do with the bom left-hander,\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nIN A SMALL\n\nCITY\n\n963\n\nand that is to see that he uses his left hand. In this hand and arm are\nfound his greater potentiality.\nThe question of whether or not the transfer may not best be shifted\nback to his birthright inevitably arises at this point. Since I have made\nsome study of the question, I shall devote my brief remaining space to it.\nOf the four transfers whose measures are shown in Table I, it would\nevidently be more than folly to attempt to shift back Nos. 7, 9, and 10.\nSuch an attempt is negated by the extreme differences in the established\narm swells. No. 8 might make the shift, but his age is against it. So long\nas the transfer is close to what we may call the \"ambidextral line\" (the\nline of equality of muscle swell of the two arms), it is easy to return\nthe individual to his birthright in so far as the arms are concerned. The\nmoment we contemplate the effect in the reorganization of speech-center\nconnections, we must hesitate until we know more about the speech center\nor centers. The fact that I have found a larger number of feeble-minded\nindividuals and stutterers among the 419 transfers of my study easily causes\nme to fear any transfer from one arm to another, but we need further studies\nhere. I have made a number of re-transfers with children of the preadolescent stage, and I did so on the assumption that the neural paths are\nnot so established as to make it dangerous to unsettle them further. It is\nprobable that we may safely retransfer any individual who has not passed\npuberty, provided the arm swell measures are not far from equal. I am\nunwilling to be dogmatic, and I candidly state that this problem needs\nfurther investigations. Our educational procedure, however, is not at\nall doubtful, for we can and should make brachiometric measures of every\nchild soon after birth, and then make sure that neither accident nor purposive interference makes a transfer of him. Our problem of re-transfer\nthus arises from the fact that we have permitted a transfer. Our standards\nof measure can easily discover the child's birthright, and the hygienic procedure demands that we permit no transfer; that is, our whole problem\nwith the transfer is to see that we have no transfer. If my study has put\nthis end within reach, I am happy in my expenditure of time and effort.\n\nHEALTH\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nPETER OLESEN, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN A SMALL\n\nCITY\n\nOF SCHOOLS, CLOQUET, MINN.\n\nThree years ago the Department of Education of Minnesota, working\njointly with the Board of Health, looked about for a specialist in medical\nsupervision to come and promote health supervision in the Minnesota\nschools. Their choice was Ernest Bryant Hoag, of California. He came,\nand gave us a year of his time, visiting the larger towns and smaller cities\nof our state. As this specialist went from room to room in the various\nschools, he surprised most people when he proved, by actual examination\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Child Hygiene\n\nin the different classrooms visited, that 15 to 20 per cent of all school children suffered from eye-strain; that i out of 12 children had adenoids; that\n2 or 3 per cent were partly deaf; that 8 per cent had diseased tonsils; that\n40 to 90 per cent had defective teeth; that some suffered from malnutrition\nand skin diseases.\nNow it is one thing to have a person tell us this or to read it in a book;\nit is another thing to have the facts actually demonstrated before our eyes.\nWhile I had read similar figures before this, the need of special health\nsupervision had not impressed itself upon my mind as when I walked from\nroom to room with the California expert. Being exceedingly anxious to\ngive the children of our schools the benefits of his advice, I asked the doctor\nto tell our Board of Education about his investigation in our schools and\nthe real value of health supervision. We also arranged for a public meeting\nin the high school, where our visitor addressed a number of representative\ncitizens. We wanted him to give his recommendations first hand to as\nmany patrons of our schools as possible, for the reason that if we were to\nhave medical supervision it would be a new policy for our schools and we\nwere anxious that the general public should be back of the movement when\nit was established. Our Board of Education at once realized the value of\nhealth supervision. The only question now was, How could it best be\ndone for our city of eight thousand at the lowest cost ? We asked ourselves\nthe question. Should we perhaps have medical inspection only, which would\nmean an examination of all the children once a year, with an occasional\nspecial emergency call, or should we engage a school nurse to give all her\ntime to the visiting of homes, or should we have both? We talked this\nover very carefully with the visiting specialist, who recommended — what\nI believe was the best recommendation that could have been made for us —\nthat we secure a full-time woman doctor who had also had some experience\nas a nurse. In this way we would have a medical inspector and a visiting\nnurse in one and the same person at but very Uttle higher salary than that\nof a visiting nurse.\nWe accepted his advice. Now the problem was to get the proper\nperson. We realized that we needed a woman with considerable enthusiasm\nand still more tact, a woman with sufiicient experience in life to realize her\nown worth as well as the needs of the very poorest, a woman who would\nhave a good deal of patience and sympathy for those who most needed her.\nAfter corresponding with some ten or twelve leading medical schools, we\nhappily secured a young physician who was a graduate of our own state\nuniversity. Her final report of the year's work shows that all the children\nin the grades, about eleven hundred, were examined once, and some several\ntimes during the year. Each child in the grades has now on file for reference in the ofl&ce of the supervisor a physical-record card, which is a record\nof the physical and mental condition of the pupil. Another card — a diseaseso\ncensus card for all the children, including those in the high school — was also\n\nJ\n\nal\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nIN A SMALL\n\nCITY\n\n965\n\nprepared. Both kinds of cards are filed in alphabetical order and so\narranged that they can be kept up to date. A summary of the contagious\ndiseases was made for each school, and the percentage of probable immunity\nfrom chicken-pox, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, smallpox, and whooping\ncough determined for the school year.\nTwenty-four girls of the high-school basket-ball team were given physical examination and recommendations were sent to the director. Talks on\nhygiene were given to the high-school girls and to the mothers' club.\nForty-four children were vaccinated at school at the request of their parents, many cases of skin diseases were discovered and treated, and about\ntwo hundred cases of defects of the throat were seen. These included\nenlarged and diseased tonsils, adenoids, and cases of acute pharyngitis. Of\nthese a number had operative treatment by practicing physicians. One\nhundred and eighty-six children were found to have serious eye defects,\nincluding astigmatism and other defects, blindness of one eye, conjunctivitis, and other acute diseases such as ulcer of cornea. Twenty of these\nwere treated during the year by physicians skilled in such work, and many\nwere fitted with glasses later. It is very often a difficult matter to convince the parents about the seriousness of adenoids and eye defects. A\ngreat many people cannot understand that they cause much general disturbance, such as headache, dizziness, nausea, and a general feeling of\nlassitude.\nThirty-eight children were found with defects of hearing, due to chronic\nor acute diseases of the middle ear caused by the presence of hardened wax\noccluding the auditory canal. One child's auditory canal was filled to the\nbrim, and upon grasping the hardened wax with a pair of forceps, a piece\nof cotton thoroly impregnated with wax was withdrawn. As a result of\nquestioning, it was found that it had been in the child's ear for three months.\nThe presence of this hard foreign body against the delicate drum membrane\nmight have caused very serious damage.\nNineteen children whom the teacher had found listless, tired, and disinclined to work, when examined by the health supervisor were found to\nbe suffering from chronic heart disease. Many homes were visited and\ntruants sent back to school. Over three hundred letters were sent to\nparents and during the first year, including the emergency work, such as\nremoving foreign bodies from eyes, injuries, sudden illness, etc., 2,300 cases\nwere cared for.\nI have asked our health supervisor to give a brief summary of her daily\nroutine.\nShe says:\nIn the morning between 7:30 and 8:00 o'clock I go to my main office in the Garfield\nBuilding and work till 8:30 on posting the previous day's work. From 8:30 to 9:30 I\nam in readiness to receive phone calls from other buildings or parents who may wish to\nspeak with me. From 9:30 to 10:00 I am ready for what may come up in the Garfield\nBuilding. A case of pediculosis, headache, toothache, or sore throat may be sent in to\nme. Of these, the sore throat needs closest attention. It may be tonsilitis or incipient\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygier\n\nscarlet fever, which must be excluded to prevent contagion in the schoolroom.\n\nFron\n\ntwo to five absences are reported in the eight rooms.\nThese absentees are called upon'\nin their homes to ascertain if they are too ill to be in school. By 10:30 I arrive at the\nsecond building, repeating the work there. In the afternoon I have the same routine\nwork in the other two buildings. This, besides a sanitary inspection of each of the four\nbuildings, is my daily routine.\n\nA fairly clear idea of her work may be gained from a monthly report\nwhich is typical of the others for this year. It gives daily inspection of the\nfour school buildings, 23 exclusions, 2 cases of scarlet fever, 5 of tonsilitis,\nI of mvunps, 5 of chicken pox, i of whooping cough, 8 of pediculosis,\nimpetigo, 2 scabies, i acute conjunctivitis, 62 non-communicable disea\nI defective, 19 treated, 44 untreated, 44 homes visited, 4 written repor\nsent to parents, 29 children re-examined. The health supervisor\nworked with the children who were slow and needed extra help and had\nthem transferred to the special-help room.\nOur school-health supervisor was of great help in stopping the spread\nof scarlet fever. When smallpox became epidemic, the Board of Education\nordered all unvaccinated children to be vaccinated. Our school doctor\ngave 1,328 vaccinations, including the cases that were second and third\nattempts before they became successful. All new children were given a\nthoro physical examination and when they were found to have physical\nailments which needed medical attention the parents were notified in writing. All told, during the year which hcis just closed over 2,600 cases were\ngiven consideration.\nIs health supervision worth while ? Looking at it from every conceivable standpoint, there is but one answer: \"Yes, it is worth while.\" The\nchildren form the habit of having their ills properly cared for. Their\nreluctance and fear of interviewing a physician are largely overcome and\na friendly feeling is created between the child and the health supervisor.\nIn making the calls at the homes, the school physician discovers the causes\nthat often prevent a pupil from making proper progress. She often finds\nthat poverty, ignorance, uncleanliness, and lack of proper food keep the\nchildren physically subnormal, so that they cannot do their proper work.\nThis calling often detects contagious diseases and prevents children and\neven adults from spreading the germs of contagious disease thruout the\ncommunity.\nFor a small city, of say four thousand to twelve thousand people, I\nbelieve that the full-time woman physician, who will also act as a visiting\nnurse by calling at the homes and thus also care for the truancy, offers a\ngood solution of the problem of how to secure efficient health supervision\nat a small cost.\nBut be its cost large or small, professional health supervision of schools is\nessential to public welfare, and it is the imperative duty of all school executives to advocate its introduction and of boards of education to establish it.\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEN\n\nTEN\n\nMILLIONS\n\nFOR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN INDIANA\n\nMILLION DOLLARS FOR SANITARY\nBUILDINGS IN INDIANA\n\n967\n\nSCHOOL\n\nW. F. KING, M.D., ASSISTANT SECRETARY, INDIANA STATE BOARD\nINDIANAPOLIS IND.\n\nOF HEALTH,\n\nIn Indiana, the answer to the question of what should take the place\nof \" the little red schoolhouse\" has taken form in four laws, in the expression\nof which the people of Indiana have answered the question wisely and well.\nThe first of these laws, known as the Compulsory Education Law, was\npassed by the legislature in 1899. One provision of this law authorized\ntownship trustees to pay for the transportation of every pupil who lived\ntwo or more miles from the nearest public school. The legislature of 1901\nenacted a law requiring township trustees to abandon schools whenever the\naverage daily attendance fell to twelve pupils or below and to pay for their\ntransportation to another school. This law also gave the trustee the right\nto abandon a school when the attendance fell to fifteen or below if in his\nopinion better results could be obtained by transferring these pupils to\nanother school. The legislature of 1907 enacted a law requiring trustees\nto provide transportation for all children attending consolidated grade\nschools. The legislature of 1911 enacted what is known as the Sanitary\nSchoolhouse Law whereby Indiana became the first state in the Union to\nestablish a standard of sanitation for school buildings below which no\ncommunity might go in providing for the health and efficiency of its school\nchildren. As a result of these four salutary laws, the doom of the one-room\ndistrict school has been sealed and the day of the centralized or consolidated\nschool with its superior advantages and blessings to the school community\nhas been established.\nThe first official statement in regard to a sanitary standard for school\nbuildings is to be found in the rules of the State Board of Health adopted\nJuly 13, 1900, and represents the first feeble effort on the part of health\nofficials to exercise supervision over sanitary conditions in public schools\nthruout the state. These rules were four in number and referred briefly to\nthe site, the building itself, the water supply, and the outhouses. Much\nopposition was immediately encountered, not because the rules were unfair\nbut because the people of the state were not accustomed to official supervision in the matter of their school buildings. The Supreme Court then\ndecided that the rules and health orders of the State Board of Health,\nwhen reasonable and within the purview of the statutes, had all the force\nof law and the opposition began to disappear. In 1907 the State Board\nof Health extended its rules to other sanitary features such as lighting,\nseating, the care of the school building, the use of the common drinkingcup and common towel, the indiscriminate use of pencils, heating, and\nventilation. Opposition persisted, however, and progress, while continuous,\nwas slow.\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nA sanitary schoolhouse bill was presented to the legislature in 1907\nand was promptly rejected. A similar bill was presented to the legislature\nof 1909 and was again rejected. Again in 191 1 a sanitary schoolhouse bill\nwas proposed to the legislature and this time an overwhelming public\nsentiment compelled its adoption. The enactment of this law marked the\nbeginning of a distinct epoch in the history of sanitary schoolhouse construction inIndiana, the story of which told briefly in statistics for five\nyears as follows seems but little short of marvelous.\nIn the four years, 1911 to 1914 inclusive, 570 new school buildings were\nerected in the state at a total cost of $7,195,008. In the same period 199\nschool buildings were remodeled at a total cost of $1,276,440. It may be\nstated that every new building erected and every building remodeled since\nthe enactment of the Sanitary Schoolhouse Law of 191 1 has complied essentially with the sanitary requirements of this law and with the sanitary\nbuilding code of the State Board of Health. In the present year, 1915,\nthere are under construction in the state 132 new buildings at an estimated\ntotal cost of $1,992, 358. Since the enactment of the Sanitary Schoolhouse\nLaw in 191 1, a total of 901 school buildings have been newly erected or\nremodeled at a total cost of $10,463,806, an average expenditure of $2,092,761 per year, and at an average cost per building of $11,642. In the same\nperiod the State Board of Health has condemned 203 school buildings\nthruout the state as being a menace to the health and lives of school children\nand totally unfit for school purposes. At the close of the school year 1914,\nthere were 665 consolidated rural schools in Indiana with a total enrolment of 73,404 pupils, of which 26,403 were transported from districts in\nwhich the schools had been abandoned. There were at this time 1,963\nabandoned school buildings in the state, and the records show that district\nschools are being abandoned at an average rate of 200 per year.\nThe modern fireproof building to be found in many school districts\ntoday represents the last word in scientific schoolhouse construction. These\nbuildings have fireproof roof, sanitary flush toilets, warmed air or steam\nheat with eflicient ventilation from outside the building, sanitary drinking\nfountains, in many cases vacuum-cleaner outfits and every known provision for safeguarding the physical, moral, and mental efficiency of the\npupils. The classrooms are lighted from the left side only, adjustable seats\nand desks are provided, the buildings have comfortable basements, ample\nplaygrounds are secured, and in many cases the school grounds resemble\nminiature parks with shade trees, shrubbery, artistic walks, and real grass\ngrowing instead of the mudholes so commonly associated with buildings\nof the old type. Practically all these consolidated rural buildings are provided with an auditorium wherein are held the social and literary functions\nof the school and wherein also are held the community meetings such as\nfarmers' institutes, good roads meetings, lectures, and in many instances\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEN\n\nMILLIONS\n\nFOR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN INDIANA\n\n969\n\nthe meetings of the women's clubs and parent-teachers' organizations of\nthe rural community.\nThe question of the \"kid wagon,\" so called, which at first threatened\neffectually to bar further development of the consolidated school idea, has\nbeen definitely and permanently settled. Instead of the cast-off farm\nwagon with its homemade top, its sorry-looking team, and sorrier-looking\ndriver in many cases, has come the sanitary school hack with plate-glass\nwindows, leather-upholstered seats, sanitary heater, and ample ventilation.\nThe driver is now selected with as great care as is shown in the selection of\nthe teacher or principal of the school. The rules of the State Board of\nHealth require that \"no person shall be employed as driver of a school hack\nwho is not able-bodied, nor of normal mind, or who is addicted to the use\nof intoxicants, or habit-forming drugs, or who has tuberculosis or other communicable disease, or who is uncleanly in person or clothing or immoral in\nhabit. The use of tobacco or alcohol in any form in or on a school hack by\npupils or driver is prohibited.\" The rules further require that trustees and\nthe drivers of school hacks shall be held responsible for the sanitary maintenance ofsuch hacks and for the moral behavior of pupils while occupants of\nsuch hacks.\nThe modern sanitary school building in Indiana has impressed itself upon\nevery community of the state. The modern rural school has become in\nfact as well as in name the \" bulwark of the state.\" Not only has the school\nbecome the civic and social center, but the school building has become the\nsanitary leader and guide of the community. Wherever a modern sanitary\nschool building has been erected, it has been followed by better roads,\nbetter home conditions, and an awakened sanitary conscience. Such\nschool buildings have cost money but they have proved themselves to be,\nnot an expenditure, but an investment, and to the communities making\nthe investment they have returned a thousand fold in all that tends to the\nbetterment of rural community life.\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gymnastics\nBoston, Mass.\nVice-President — Clara Gregory Baer, professor of physical education, Newcomb\nCollege, Tulane University\nNew Orleans, La.\nSecretary — Mary G. Long, supervisor of physical training, public schools\nEverett, Wash.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, August i8, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 9:00 a.m. with Baroness\nPosse in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Organization and Management of Playgrounds and Recreation Centers\" — George\nE. Dickie, superintendent of recreation, Oakland, Cal.\n\"The Next Steps in the Development of Public Playgrounds\" — Edward B. DeGroot,\ndirector, physical training, public schools, San Francisco, Cal.\n\"A tjniversity Playgroimd for Women\" — Harriet W. Thomson, department of\nphysical education. University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore.\n\"Playgrounds in Connection with Riiral Schools\" — P. P. Claxton, United States\ncommissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nDiscussion.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nAfternoon, August 18, 1915\n\nThe session was called to order by President Posse in Scottish Rite Hall at 2 : 30 p.m.,\nand the following program given:\n\"Athletics in Playgrounds\" — Charles E. Teach, supervising principal, public schools,\nOrange, Cal.\n\"The Distinctive Functions of Games and Gymnastics\" — Charlotte Stewart, director\nof physical education, high schools. Salt Lake City, Utah; S. E. Hagelthom, physical\ntraining department, public schools, Oakland, Cal.\n\"Growth and Future of the Playground Movement\" — D. R. Hatch, editor, Colorado\nSchool Journal, Denver, Colo.\n\"Physical Training in the Philippine Public Schools\" — Frank L. Crone, director.\nBureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I.\nThe following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President — ^E. B. DeGroot, director of physical training, public schools, San\nFrancisco, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gjonnastics, Boston, Mass.\nFor Secretary — Mary G. Long, supervisor of physical training, public schools, Everett,\nWash.\nTHIRD SESSION— Wednesday Evening, August 18, 1915\nThe department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall by Baroness Posse at\n8:00 P.M., and the following program given:\n\"The Educational Value of Playgrounds\" — Richard G. Boone, School of Education,\nUniversity of California, Berkeley, Cal.; John H. Francis, superintendent of schools,\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\"Physical Education Essential\" — ^Albert E. Winship, editor, Journal of Education,\nBoston, Mass.\nMary G. Long, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\nGEORGE\n\nE. DICKIE,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nAND MANAGEMENT OF PLAYGROUNDS\nRECREATION CENTERS\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF RECREATION,\n\nOAKLAND,\n\nAND\nCAL.\n\nThe recreation or playground department of a city is a business, as well\nas an educational, institution. Property must be accoimted for and land\npurchased and improved. The plant must be maintained and operated in\nthe interests of the people so as to secure the greatest good for the greatest\nnumbers.\nThe average person goes to the playground and enjoys one of the\nactivities, perhaps meets one of the supervisors; or he sends his children\nand they come in contact with only a part of the system. He does not\nrealize that beneath the surface of these things is an organization which\nplans the playground, sees it built and maintained, and directs or leads in\nthe policy of operation. He does not see the janitors, caretakers, laborers,\nmechanics. He perhaps does not realize that the supervisor must study\nand prepare for each day's activities — that he attends special department\nmeetings and classes in order to remain efficient. All this reqiiires effective\norganization. The recreation department must accoimt for its handling of\npublic fimds. This new phase of municipal activity has come to stay, but\nit will grow and prosper only in so far as it is placed on the solid foundation\nof efficiency.\nFrequently the playgroimd movement has been started in a community\nby zealous and enthusiastic people filled with the spirit of service. Often,\nhowever, in an excess of enthusiasm they have failed to control the loose\nends. Individual supervisors have gone off at a tangent on some hobby\nor other and good effective work for all ages and classes has not been done.\nReorganization in many places has become a necessity.\nWe desire and must seek the highest type of supervisor, teacher, or\ndirector, and he should not be unduly restricted or hampered in his work,\nbut in order to secure the best results in a large system of playgroimds a\ndefinite general policy of activity must be adopted and suitable regulations\nenforced to carry this out. In looking about for successful and efficient\ntypes of management, we naturally turn to the example of large corporations or that great example of organization — an army. Here we find the\nidea of leadership and co-operation and fixed responsibility thruout. The\nlatest trend in municipal government is to secure fi:xed responsibility thru\na city manager with single departmental heads responsible to him.\nAs an example, may I direct your attention to a diagram of the\norganization of the recreation department of the city of Oakland. As will\nbe seen, several agencies for play and recreation are included imder this\none department, such as school playgrounds, park playgrounds, municipal\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nAND\n\nMANAGEMENT\n\nOF PLAYGROUNDS\n\n973\n\nboathouse, refectories, and recreational use of school buildings. A brief\nstudy of this diagram will show that the recreation department is controlled by the Board of Playground Directors. The superintendent of\nrecreation is the executive officer in charge of and responsible for the work\nof the entire department. The department is divided into three divisions:\n(i) clerical; (2) maintenance and construction; (3) operative. The chief\nclerk and the department mechanic are in charge of the first and second\nof these divisions. The operative department is in three divisions : (i) boys'\nactivities; (2) girls' activities; (3) school playgrounds. Each is under the\ncharge of a general supervisor. Below these are classified the various playgrounds and recreation centers. Under the name of each center is given\nthe staff of supervisors and other employees assigned to each.\nThe operative department is, of course, the important thing, and should\nbe made just as strong and large as possible, and all other departments as\nsmall as is consistent with efficient management. The recreation department may in a sense be compared to an army. The supervisors or teachers are on the firing line. They are in daily contact with the children and\nadults who attend the play and recreation centers. They are bringing the\nplay service directly to the citizens. The other departments, such as construction, maintenance, and clerical, may be compared to the quartermaster\nand commissary departments of an army. They serve to supply the supervisors with equipment, materials, information, and instructions. The\nBoard of Playground Directors, the superintendent, and the general supervisors may be compared to the general staff of an army, which furnishes\nthe inspiration, determines the policy, issues orders, secures co-ordination\nof the different parts and branches, and generally directs the operation\nof the whole work.\nThe recreation department of a municipality should keep the following\nrecords: minutes of governing board, including copies of all resolutions\nadopted; careful and detailed account of all funds received and expended;\ncopies of all communications, reports, requests, requisitions, and applications received; copies of all letters, reports, news items, permits, orders,\ninstructions, requisitions sent out; records of all activities, festivals,\npageants, athletic meets, leagues, and schedules; inventories of all property\nand supplies belonging to the department.\nIn order to illustrate the workings of a recreation department from an\nadministrative point of view, let us give the following examples:\nI. Relation to playground. — Before the land is purchased for a playground, surveys are made showing the need of a playground in the district.\nPrices are secured and several available sites considered, together with\npetitions that may come in from improvement clubs and neighborhood\nassociations. The superintendent has interviewed members of the city\ncouncil, members of improvement clubs, and other officials, and has no\ndoubt been called upon to speak to neighborhood meetings on the subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe playground purchase entails work on the part of many city departments.\nAs soon as the land is purchased, or before, plans are thought out and\ndrawn on paper, showing the possible arrangement and equipment of that\nplaygroimd. These plans are discussed and revised and finally adopted.\nThe funds for equipment must be forthcoming or secured. Con tracts for\ngrading, surfacing, fencing, constructing buildings, and apparatus and\nother equipment must be let, executed, and supervised; all of which mean\nthought and labor for superintending, clerical, and con structing forces.\n2. Relation to supervisor. — Before the playground is completed, many\napplications are received for the position of supervisor. Candidates are\ninterviewed or examiaed according to civil service rules or otherwise and\none is finally employed! The supervisor is ready to begin work in the\ndepartment. He receives a copy of instructions to playgroimd supervisors.\nThese instructions outline certain general policies of the department and\ngive some specific rules for conduct in certain cases. The supervisor learns\nthat he shall keep a daily record showing the nimiber of persons attending\nhis playground, number of baths taken, nimiber of games of various kinds\nplayed, reports of accidents, remarks, etc. He learns that a detailed record\nof supplies received must be kept; that he shall report all breakages or\ndamage to apparatus. To secure new supplies, improvements, or repairs\nto the ground, he must fill out requisitions and send them to the office of\nthe superintendent; he must attend a weekly meeting of supervisors for\ninstruction and discussion. He also receives schedules of games and sample\nprograms of play activities which may be conducted on the ground, and a\ncopy of the schedules for athletic games and leagues for the year. All this\nis a part of the relation of the organization to the teacher.\nThe problem of athletic suppHes, such as baseballs, bats, basket-balls,\nfootballs, and other inflated balls, is ever present on the playground. These\nsupplies, on account of continuous use, wear out quickly and are a source\nof considerable expense in most large playground departments. It is\nnecessary that all possible precautions be taken against loss and extravagance in the use and distribution of athletic supplies. The store of athletic\nsupplies at any playground may be compared to a circulating library,\nexcept that instead of having books for children to use we loan them balls\nand bats, which may be used but not taken away from the playground and\nmust be returned before the close of the day.\nIn Oakland we keep a large stock of athletic supplies in the department\nstoreroom. An allowance of supplies is made to each groimd, depending\nupon size, attendance, and kind of activity. Before being sent to the playground all balls and bats are marked by burning with the name of the\nplayground. In the case of baseballs, both hard and soft, certain definite\nallowances are made for wear and tear. In the case of inflated balls and\nbats, the supervisor is required to return a worn article before receiving a\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA UNIVERSITY\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\n975\n\nnew one. The worn articles are carefully assorted and repaired. Basketballs, for instance, that are unfit to use can be patched at a slight cost and\ncan be used for practice and rough work on the playground for a considerable time. The repaired articles are kept on hand in the supply room and\nreturned to the ground from which they originally came.\nThe necessity for strict economy in handling athletic supplies is apparent when it is known that in large playground systems expenditures for this\nitem amount to several thousand dollars annually, but, when properly\nadministered, it is an expenditure which is fully justified by reason of the\nservice it gives to the public. The average family may not feel able to\nfurnish the son and heir with a six-dollar basket-ball and a five-dollar\nfootball, but the city can buy these articles at wholesale rates and one ball\ncan be used in common by a great number of children.\nIn closing we suggest the following steps to be kept in mind by those\norganizing for play and recreation in a city:\n1. Make a survey of conditions in your community and adopt the organization that\nbest meets those conditions.\n2. Promote the widest use of all existing play facilities and exploit all undeveloped\npossibilities.\n3. The object sought should be the development of character, health, good citizenship, and increased personal efficiency of the child, the youth, and the adult of our city.\n4. A form of organization representative of several recreation agencies is desirable,\nbut no form is truly best unless it brings the blessing of play and recreation to all the\npeople of the community.\n\nA UNIVERSITY\nHARRIET\n\nW. THOMSON,\nOF\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nFOR WOMEN\n\nDEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL\nOREGON, EUGENE, ORE.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOregon having recently enfranchised its women, the state university\nhas sought to provide for the young women who apply for its degrees the\ntraining most helpful to them in becoming useful citizens the while they\npursue their chosen lines of work. The part of the training with which this\npaper deals is the reviving and developing of the group sense and the inculcating of the principles of co-operation by means of playground activities.\nAt the University of Oregon the girls are rather more immature in their\nviews and aims than one is accustomed to expect in university students.\nThe majority accept and expect constant direction in their work and when\nasked what they are going to do the general answer is, \"Teach, I suppose,\"\nor \"I don't know.\" They see no relation between cause and effect, ascribing their inability to do satisfactory work in a subject to the instructor, not\nto lack of preparation or lack of application. While they do excellent work,\nthe majority are not aggressive students. Their central organization, the\nWoman's League, is two years old and has accomplished nothing of importance except when under the direct guidance of the women's dean. This\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nis because their interest is centered in their different fraternity activities,\nwhich are rushing parties, dances, receptions, and picnics. Thus we find\nthem placing emphasis upon social activity rather than upon culture and\nscholarship, and expending all their energies upon more or less ineffective\nsmall groups while their central organization is inefficient.\nPhysically they are inactive except in social affairs and their muscles\nare soft and flabby. The chest, abdominal, back, and leg muscles are\nespecially weak, few being able to chin themselves once, or lie on thdr\nbacks and with toe support come to a sitting posture. Ninety per cent\nenter each fall suffering pain at the menstrual period. This is relieved or\ndisappears entirely after a few weeks of regular exercise which is required\nof all Freshmen and Sophomores three times a week and daily of those\nmajoring in the department. They need more bodily activity, therefore,\nto maintain health and normal physical development; active interests\nother than social; activities that will include all on the basis of physical\nability in which success is achieved only thru the co-operation of individual\nskUl.\nWith this in mind, the department is working toward a playground\nwhich will furnish every physical activity in any way needed in the development of womanhood. Beginning five years ago with tennis, basket-ball,\nand little or no interest in either sport, the curriculum today includes\narchery, baseball, canoeing, field hockey, folk dancing, golf, swimming,\nwalking, and interest to the extent of a Woman's Athletic Association and\nlively contests in tennis and field hockey each year with the girls at the\nOregon Agricultural College.\nThe work is divided according to the season into indoor and outdoor\nactivities, according to the physical needs of the girls into general and special\nwork which continues thru each semester. The indoor work emphasizes\nmuscular and mental control and the development of individual skill, while\nthe outdoor work, the playground work, emphasizes play for all, democracy,\nand sportsmanship above all else. Each fall, depending upon the beginning\nof the rains, the first four or five weeks are devoted to this work. Every\ngirl is required to participate in at least one sport, a physical examination\ngoverning her choice. Those requiring special work are restricted to\narchery, canoeing, golf, tennis, and walking since the intensity of these\nmay be regulated to individual needs. Those taking general work may also\nplay baseball, basket-ball, or field hockey. To increase the interest in\ngames, each girl is urged to perfect herself in one sport, that is, play it\nfall and spring during her four semesters of required work, and to learn a\nnew one each semester.\nThe play hour comes at four o'clock Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays. All who are to take part assemble on the dance green dressed in\ngymnasium suits, or in middies and short skirts, and gymnasium shoes.\nFolk dancing to victrola music is used for ten minutes to limber up cramped\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA UNIVERSITY\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nFOR\n\nWOMEN\n\n977\n\nmuscles and stir up the circulation. Two or three dances are given with\nshort breathing spaces intervening; then all proceed to their different sport\ncenters and play their games for forty-five minutes. Each sport is under\nthe supervision of an assistant or of a Senior major in physical training.\nThey play with the girls, as also do a few faculty women who join some\nof the sports each year. The latter usually have a basket-ball or hockey\nteam of their own by spring and challenge the girls to a game or two and\nat present they owe the girls a defeat in basket-ball.\n\"^ When the rains begin exercise is taken in the gymnasium and the winter\nmonths are devoted to folk and aesthetic dancing, Swedish work, light and\nheavy apparatus, basket-ball, and elementary group games which necessitate much running.\nAbout the last of April the playground work begins again, proceeding\nas in the fall with the exception of folk dancing which is omitted that more\ntime may be had for practice. The hockey and tennis games with the\nOregon Agricultural College and the Woman's Athletic Association contests,\nwhich are interclass, demand the best skill and teamwork that can be\ndeveloped. The teams for the two intercollegiate games are made up of\ngirls from all four classes who hold teamwork and sportsmanship dearer\nthan victory. Those who cannot do this do not make the team. The\nhockey game excites the keenest interest among the girls in both institutions\nand the real rivalry seems to be an endeavor to outdo the other in sportsmanship. They appear quite to enjoy losing that they may show how\nstoically they can take defeat. The very finest feeling exists between the\ngirls of the two colleges and there has yet to be the first sign of temper or\npettiness on either side.\nFormerly, near the end of May, a demonstration of work was held.\nThis was in the nature of a contest between the Freshmen and Sophomores\nand was held indoors. This is being replaced by interclass contests in the\noutdoor sports and the Woman's Athletic Association is gradually assuming\ncontrol of them, under the guidance, of course, of the physical training\ndirector for women. Class games in each of the sports except hockey are\nplayed and each girl making her team is awarded a letter by the association,\n\"A\" for archery, \"C\" for canoeing, and so forth. Individual trophies are\nalso offered by the association for the highest skill, as a yew-wood bow for\nthe highest score in the archery match, a pair of paddles to the two girls\nwinning the canoe race, a driver to the winner of the golf match, a racket\nto the winner of the tennis singles, and a sweater to the girl who walks\ncross-country the greatest number of miles during the last semester. No\nletters or trophies may be received by any of the girls, however, unless\n! their scholarship grades are 85 per cent or better.\nSwimming cannot yet be made an elective sport as the natatorium is\nopen to the girls Mondays only. The majors and all who wish to take\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Physical\n\ncanoeing must learn to swim, however, and as many others are taught as\nthe instructors have time for.\nWalking is used in the special work when needed and in the general work\nas a class contest spring and fall between the Freshmen and Sophomores\nas a change from the regular games. This contest varies from time to\ntime in its details but is essentially a simple race. The two classes,\nunder the leadership of one of its own members, leave the gymnasium oi\nsignal and go in opposite directions. Their trails finally meet and ea(\nreturns over the other's course. At the meeting-place delaying each other'i\nprogress is allowed but there must be no holding so there is always mui\ngood-natured pushing and laughing as they pass. The class having the\ngreater number \"home\" first wins, consequently it requires some generalship on the part of the leaders to get their best girls together and away\nagain.\nThe physical results of this work are seen in the strength tests and menstrual period records taken each month. Studied in connection with the\nindoor work, we find improvement beginning almost immediately in the\nfall and continuing slowly upward until about the middle of May. Then it\nceases or falls off a little, owing to the fact that the girls are indulging in\nmuch extra social and dramatic activity besides working for final examinations. That the regular playground work keeps up their vitaUty during this\ncongested spring season was nicely illustrated this year. Owing to excessive rain and construction of new buildings on the campus the regular playground work was interrupted for the last three weeks of the term. The\nrecords show an almost abrupt drop in vitality whereas always before, if\nthere was a decrease, it was slight and gradual.\nA study of their standings to discover, if possible, the mental results,\nhas not been completed, but two questionnaires two years apart indicate\nthat the majority of the girls think they do better work because of the\nexercise.\nSocially only small things show as yet. The girls have a wider acquaintance among the other girls in college as attested by those who graduated\nthree or four years ago. And this year for the first time second-year girb\nwho knew they could not make their teams offered of their own accord to\nplay at the extra practice periods before a game that their mates might\nhave opportunity for teamwork drill. Appreciative letters from parents\nare received each year telling of noticeable improvement in health, selfcontrol, and carriage. And letters from graduates who have gone out to\nteach either deplore the fact that they did not take more of the playground\nwork or express great satisfaction in having had it. As one girl expressed\nit this spring, \"Oh, if you can only play while you work you can teadi\nanything or learn anything!\"\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nATHLETICS\nCHARLES\n\nE.\n\nTEACH,\n\nIN PLAYGROUNDS\n\n979\n\nIN PLAYGROUNDS\n\nSUPERVISING\nPRINCIPAL,\nORANGE, GAL.\n\nORANGE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSensible, clean athletics with the enthusiastic joy that accompanies\ncompetition and the natural, moral, and physical training that is sure\nto follow should be made a part of every organized playground. We have\nfelt for years that the present system of athletics has been valuable for the\nchosen few of the school. Special coaches have spent much time and\nenergy in producing the speciahzed athlete and have ignored the physical\nwelfare of the great majority of the students. So keen has been the desire\nto turn out a winning team in our institutions of learning that only rarely\nin the public schools do we find physical training ofifered for the students in\ngeneral.\nThe physical-training creed in which I beheve sincerely is found in a\nfew paragraphs of a splendid little book just from the press, by Frederick\nJ. Reilly, entitled Rational Athletics for Boys, from which I am pleased to\nquote:\nThe movement today that deserves all possible encouragement is to bring athletics\nand class work in physical training together; to inject into the carefully prescribed course\nin physical training the vim, the lively interest to be found only in some form of game\nor athletic contest, and at the same time to make athletics the business of the many, not\nthe few; to bring the benefits of athletics within the reach of all; to cleanse it of its present\nundemocratic methods and of its \"win-at-any-price\" tendencies.\n\nThe definite aims to be sought are (i) health, (2) strength and endurance, (3)beauty of form and grace of carriage, (4) a living interest in some\nform of active clean sport, (5) the team spirit, (6) to gain an intelligence of\nsport and the rules by which the various games are conducted, (7) to develop\ncharacter and to give boys and girls an opportunity to find their places\nas social factors in a democracy.\nIn most cases the following team sports should be selected for the playgrounds: baseball, basket-ball, volley ball, football, tennis, handball.\nIn the track and field events, perhaps the most desirable are the broad jump,\nhigh jump, shot put, short sprints, relay races, and exercises intended to\ndevelop proper breathing.\nThe director should subordinate himseK as much as possible and use\nfor leaders and officials recognized boy leaders who have shown themselves\nworthy of the confidence of their respective groups. In the field and track\nevents, contestants should be grouped according to the average abilities\nof the various grades, while in the team sports weight will tmdoubtedly\nserve as a guide in the classification. In this way, the individual contestant will not be discouraged by the contest before him, but will have a\nchance to gain points in relation to a known standard. Further encouragement comes to a child if he feels that athletics is a part of the regular school\nwork and that attainment is to be rewarded with official school credit.\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "'F.\n\n980\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physii\n\nConsiderable difficulty has been experienced in trying out systems of\ncredits for athletics. A plan has been devised by A. S. Hotchkiss, director\nof athletics, Hanover College, Hanover, 111., and in the May number of\nthe School Review he suggests a table for scoring the points.\nIn commenting on the system he states:\nThis arrangement tries to take into account that after a certain amount of ability\nis acquired it should be harder to make points, and also to take into consideration the\nrelationship of the ordinary athlete and the star performer as regards points, and to\nencourage participation in a new event. The requirement for points is made so low that\nany normal boy can win points. Team spirit asserts itself and influences every possible\nmember of each team to compete in the various events regardless of his proficiency. The\ntotal number of points made by each team determines its standing, and in a series of meets\nthe grand total decides the winner. The points will easily total as high as six hundred\nfor the ordinary individual during three meets, and team scores run into the thousands.\n\nThis system would work well in playground athletics.\nWhat results can be confidently expected ? First of all, if the athletics\nis properly appreciated the teams develop a fine quahty of loyalty to the\nmembers of the team and to the cause which the team represents. Thru\nthe individual subordination accompanying team play, the socialization of\nthe young citizens is accomplished. It is a good thing for a young fellow\nto learn how to take his place in a group and perform his part in the cause\nfor which the group acts. Jealousies, narrow-mindedness, selfishness, and\nlack of confidence give way happily to group consciousness.\nIf the conduct of the team game produces loyalty, then it is easy to see\nthat a proper obedience to the rules of the game will follow with a corresponding increase in respect for all properly constituted authority. In the\nnon-supervised game, the survival of the fittest prevails and the bully interprets the rules of the game usually in a narrow way quite destructive to\njustice. The disputes which have frequently arisen from such conditions\nare not unlike the scenes witnessed sometimes in commerciaUzed win-atany-price baseball. There is a silent benefit that comes from observing a\nlaw printed, and to observe rules harmonizes all school life.\nIt has been estimated that only 16.4 per cent of all college students\ntake any active part in athletics. The percentage is no doubt larger in\nhigh schools. In the past it has usually been smaller in the elementary\nschools. Destroy the idea of conducting athletics for the few and standardize the work and there is ample proof to demonstrate splendid results for the\nmajority of students. I would not discontinue the selection and training\nof the most capable in athletics, but these should not be entitled to the\nimportant place which they have heretofore held. We should aim to\nmake all physically strong and sanely interested in the best games in\nAmerica.\nSupervised athletics should overcome the dishonest practices which\nso frequently prevail in the commercialized specialized games. In many\nfootball games the effort of each team has been directed against the strongest\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISTINCTIVE\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF GAMES\n\nAND\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\n981\n\nplayer in order to put him out of the game. Pushing in basket-ball when the\nplayer knew that he was violating a rule has been frequent. Cutting bases\nin baseball and intentional blocking or spiking have been only a few of the\nattempts to \"get by.\" With the assistance of the special coach in our\nschools these abuses have been minimized but slightly. In fact so long as\nour coaches have learned the art of \"getting by \" in the college games, little\ncan be expected from them. For this reason, school officers are beginning to\nfeel that the teacher-coach combination has better possibilities.\nIn every state where an attempt has been made to organize competitive\nschool athletics, one of the first things done has been the creation of a more\nor less compUcated law of eUgibility, and immediately there have been\ntactful violations in which not only have contestants had a part but their\nefforts have been approved and encouraged by parents, teachers, and\nnumerous business men of the community interested in the contestant.\nSurely such continued abuse puts a premium upon falsehood and paves\nthe way for wholesale disrespect for all authority. The kind of athletics\nsuggested by the subject of my paper will not require a set of unworkable\neligibihty rules, but being a part of the regular school work will be subject to\nthe same regulations. The general effect upon the school will be good and\nthe entire community will reap benefits. The intellectuaUty of the pupils\nwill be quickened because healthy bodies with enlivened circulation of the\nblood encourage study, industry, and morality.\n\nTHE DISTINCTIVE\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nCHARLOTTE\n\nDIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,\nSALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\n\nSTEWART,\n\nOF GAMES\n\nAND\n\nGYMNASTICS\nHIGH SCHOOLS,\n\nThe longer we look upon and work within the vast field of human\ndevelopment, the more convinced we become that there can be no final\nword, even for a short time, that authority in its every detail is merely\nrelative, that every opinion is absolutely predetermined by individual\nexperience, and that safety alone Ues in a concensus of opinion. In the\nUght of this viewpoint, let the facts and fancies here considered be discussed and let them be confined in their application to the elementary\npublic school of these United States.\nOur problem, then, is the public school, and our consideration is to be\nfrom an educational standpoint. We can afford in public systems to do\nsome things far in advance of the \"mean of pubUc sentiment and pubUc\napproval\" with the assurance that public opinion will be raised to our\nstandards. Those engaged in pubUc, physical education should be educators first and physical trainers second. It behooves those who would\nkeep apace to be as flexible and susceptible to new educational and scientific\nfindings as to keep alive physically.\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1\n\n[Physical\n\nPhysical education departments today in the schools of this country\nhave organized in their curriculums, as divisions of the big muscle activities,\nas progranuned subjects, gynmastics, games, dances, athletics, and sports,\nthe acknowledged materials of physical training. Nor have these materials been included without need and justified verification.\nThese are the summarized functions usually apportioned to the physical\ntraining department:\n\n1. To maintain the health of all school children during school age.\n2. To fiirnish enough physical action and reaction for adequate physical growth\nand development.\n3. To overcome unmoral or abnormal physical conditions and general tendencies\nboth communal and individual.\n4. To give general somatic vigor, a power of resistance which the organism shows to\nthe invasion of disease, not only infectious but also chronic diseases, a vigor to meet the\nconditions of tomorrow. Woidd that we could look ahead and build physically as William\nWirt was permitted to do educationally.\n5. To create a love for physical activity that may be carried not over into but on\nthruout life.\n6. To give enjoyment in and appreciation for wholesome democratic social activities\n— an education for leisure.\n7. To train in physical economy and conservation and to develop a consciousness\nfor civic co-operation.\n\nThe problem of physical activities as worked out with a normal child\nin a normal environment under controlled conditions is the source of our\ninformation and our inspiration, but the other children, unmoral, abnormal\nimder uncontrollable conditions, are likewise to be studied and their needs\nlisted. These various findings must be cast into a melting-pot and welded\nto arrive at a mean, at an average. If all children were natural and we\ncould place them under natural conditions and prepare them to live a natural\nlife, there would need be no teaching of games or gymnastics or of play.\nBut civilization is living an artificial existence and the only thing to do is to\ntake it as we find it, naturalize its artificialities, and by science and art\nhelp to make the physical organism in its neuro-muscular tenacity fit to\nmeet this artificiality and win out. We beUeve in play, we believe that\nplay will be the greatest factor in accomplishing just this. We are also\nconscious of a wealth of material and we are face to face with the problem\nof placing this material wisely. All material that is good cannot be apportioned out and dished up. Just because I enjoy a thing may determine my\ndoing it, but not necessarily its value. The same is true with other children.\nIt is one function of education to help the child to like to do the thing he\nshould. Neither can we afiford to crowd everything we know, have read\nabout, or seen into an elementary-school curriculum. We must scientifically place material. We must therefore keep our ear close to nature and\nto the physiology and psychology of play.\nThe totality theory of development is not to be slighted. We are,\nhowever, convinced that bodily symmetry is not as essential as bodily\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISTINCTIVE\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF GAMES\n\nAND\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\n983\n\nharmony and that a resultant totality is dependent upon a periodical\nspecialization. Nature gives the example in physical growth. Let use\nbe made of this periodicity in the placing of material in the curriculum.\nGames should be included in the curriculum. No one would venture\nthe statements that they will accomplish all the aims in physical training.\nAt some periods they may contain adequate material, may furnish the\nnecessary bulk, may be the proper food for all physical hungers. There\nare periods when the right games may be the sum and total of physical\neducation activities. A game as an organized or semiorganized form of\nplay with its definite regulations meets general functional need for activity\nand is a self-generator of joy.\nWithout the spirit of play, games are a ghastly sight, and without the\nenjoyable spirit of work, gymnastics is a farce. The safety in the former\nlies in the fact that the natural enjoyable attack that children have toward\ngames carries them often in spite of the teacher. Games are the safest\nmaterial in physical education if they can be made inclusive without being\nrequired, if the duration is limited to the capacity of the under-average\nchild, and if the true spirit of play is there. These presuppose the placing\nof material properly under as natural conditions as possible of organization\nand leadership. Games and play often at their best acquire the intensity\nof work without losing the exhilaration of play.\nShall gymnastics be retained with games in the elementary schools?\nWhat is gymnastics ? The layman's conception of gymnastics is a series\nof meaningless repeated movements and his ideal of its value even more\nabsurd than his idea of the value of play. A summary of the gymnastic\nidea may perhaps best be stated thus:\nG3minastics is the application of postures and movements in harmony with the\nconditions and needs of the org£inism and predestined with regard to space and time for\nthe purpose of placing the body under the control of the will.\n\nThe students of social science should welcome gynmastics for their\ncry is: \"We must strengthen the child's will and his control over his own\nbody; we must give him physical ideals.\" It is a very general observation\nthat the controlled individual, the one most nearly balanced physically and\nmentally, enjoys gymnastics. Is it not possible that cause and result\ninteract and that gymnastics will help develop the balance and control ?\nIf the claims made for gymnastics are not true, they should be disproved;\nif true, they should be given a fair chance in the right place to make good.\nGjonnastics is work. It is not mental recreation. It is definite work,\ndefinite technique for a definite purpose. If it is not the best technique\nfor the purpose, let us do away with it and find a better. Systems of\ngymnastics have given us much even if we cast them out. They have\ngiven us the idea of physiological sequence and progression and the value\nof extensive finished movements. Whether gymnastics is retained or not,\nthese conditions in practice are self-evident. We must hold to the best we\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n984\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical J\n\nhave and use it to its full capacity until we get something better. When\nconditions are most nearly those of the old schoolroom with its periods of\nstudy and physical training, the Swedish order should be more rigidlyJ\nadhered to. If the same play is required of a miscellaneous group of]\nchildren the idea of sequence will be a safeguard. If the play is free with '\ngood natural stimulation, natiure will care for herself physiologically.\nNor must we omit in this comment the chnical and the remedial value\nof gymnastics. We have dental clinics; we have medical dispensaries;\nwe have trained nurses. We should have cliniticians to take care of\nfunctional disorders. The coming field in preventive medicine is not going\nto be a battle with germs, but a contest with chronic organic degeneration,\none of the new problems of civilization.\nThere are many good curves placing games according to age and\ndevelopment.\nThe play hungers are good indexers of development.\nWould that in practice as well as in theory we might put more purpose\ninto our play, and more imagination and more subjective content into our\ngymnastics and games. I am not so sure but that the time is near at hand\nwhen the play attack will be the approach to most material in the curriculum, when genuine education by play will become a living, palpitating,\nstrenuous reaUty, and young America will play into a knowledge of life.\nMay this bring a knowledge of how to play fairly and squarely the game\nof life be it win or lose, honestly and bravely.\nPHYSICAL\nFRANK\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE PHILIPPINE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nL. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION,\nOF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.I.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nPhysical training is one of the three phases of the balanced curriculum\nof the Phihppines which embraces also academic instruction and industrial ,\neducation. This correlation of the three branches of the work into a single *\nschool system is something upon which we lay the greatest emphasis.\nBetween 95 and 100 per cent of all the pupils enrolled in the PhiHppine\nIslands are brought under the influence of the athletic program of the pubUc\nschools and receive physical education in one form or another. This does '\nnot mean that all the instruction is satisfactory or that the amount of\nphysical training is in every case sufficient, but it does mean that the athletic\nprogram of the pubUc schools has vitally touched the vast majority of the\npupils enrolled in them.\nWhen the present system of pubUc schools was first initiated, it was^\nfound that Fihpino children had certain pastimes but practically no sports.\nIt was not until 1909 that public-school athletics received the unqualified\nsupport of the government.\nIn developing athletics the teachers very wisely studied the customs of\nthe country and employed those methods which would conform most,\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n985\n\nclosely to the habits of thought of the people. The FiHpinos possess in a\ngreat degree what may be termed for lack of a better word the \"fiesta\" or\nholiday spirit, which almost amounts to a passion for pubUc celebrations and\nfestivities. For this they have often been condemned as being lacking in\nseriousness of character and purpose. The teachers found that an appeal\nto this spirit facihtated the introduction of athletics, even among those\nwho would have been slow to accept more abstract reasons for their introduction. Besides there was in every locaUty a very narrow town patriotism\nwhich in many sections tended to exclude everyone who was not native\nborn. Much use was made of this. By working up town rivalry, teams\nwere organized and equipped and received the support of their towns. As\nsoon as this town rivalry was thoroly worked up for the benefit of athletics\nit began to be modified until now in most places in the PhiUppines it has\nbecome a healthy and sportsmanlike rivalry.\nIt was not until athletics were firmly estabHshed that the question of\ntheir definite organization was taken up by the director of education. It\nwas a question whether there should be a separate organization similar to\nthe pubHc-schools athletic league of New York and others of similar character, or whether athletics should be handled thru the regular organization\nof the Bureau of Education. In view of the existence of a centralized\nadministration in this Bureau, it seemed neither necessary nor desirable that\na separate organization be established.\nThe director of education is in charge of athletics, as he is of all other\nsubjects in the school curriculum. He in turn delegates control to division\nsuperintendents of schools who are responsible for the conduct of athletics\nin their several divisions. The interprovincial organizations are made up\nof the several division superintendents of the divisions belonging. Each\ndivision is divided into supervising districts, in charge of which are supervising teachers who manage the athletics within their districts. The principal of an intermediate or a primary school is responsible for athletics\nwithin his school and so on down until the last teacher is reached. Since\npupils and teachers alike are subject to disciphne on the athletic field as\nwell as in the schoolroom, instances of misconduct on the field are very\nrare indeed.\nThe rules and regulations governing athletics have been carefully prescribed inthe Athletic Handbook which was originally issued in 191 1. Later\nit appeared that a great number of points were obscure and many were not\ntouched upon at all. Two years later a revised edition was issued which\nexplained every obscure point found in the first edition and answered every\nquestion that had been asked since the first edition came out. Very frequently itis necessary to make minor changes and these are communicated\nto the field thru general and division office circulars.\nIn each school there is a series of competitive games each year. Schools\nsend teams to district meets. Each district is represented at the provincial\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nmeet and each province sends its best athletes to compete for honors in an\nannual meet in which a number of provinces take part. The winning teams\nin interprovincial meets come to Manila every February where a general\nmeet is held. Here teams meet from every part of the Islands representing\nall its people. Such a mingling of athletes not only serves as a wonderful\nstimulus to athletics but promotes in a marked degree the spirit of\nnationaUsm.\nTo handle the finances, athletic clubs have been organized in the various\nschools with power to raise and disburse money for athletic purposes.\nMoney is collected thru dues, contributions, school entertainments, admissions to games, popularity contests, and in many instances the pupils themselves earn money thru their own labor. In many schools a share of the\nprofits from industrial operations is sufficient to finance the athletics. The\naccounts are carefully audited and statements regularly posted so that each\nand every pupil may know how his school stands financially. Many of the\nschools deposit their money in postal savings banks in the name of the school.\nThe first athletics introduced into the pubhc schools were necessarily\nthose most famihar to the average American and included baseball, basketball, and track and field sports. These had the advantage of being spectacular and of attracting large crowds to view them. They were best\ncalculated also to work up rivalry between the various towns and provinces.\nIt was largely thru these sports that the interest of the Filipino people was\nenUsted. The school authorities came to see, however, that these specialized\nforms of athletics were entirely inadequate. Only a small percentage of\nthe pupils could hope to make creditable records in them and it was necessary to devise some method by which every normal boy and girl could be\ngiven physical education in some way or other. This question was solved\nthru the introduction of group games, the athletic color competition, schoolyard games, and calisthenics. The group games selected were as far as\npossible those in which any normal pupil could make a fairly creditable\nrecord and which have some social value. Besides points are allowed for\nattendance and a minimum is fixed below which no team may compete.\nThe whole idea is to discourage the tendency of captains to bring out only\na selected few to compete for honors.\nThe athletic badge contest is very similar to that of the pubUc-schools\nathletic league of New York City but certain changes have been made to\nadapt it to the Philippine Islands. Any boy under thirteen years of age\nwho is able to make aU of the following records may wear a red button:\n6o-yard dash in 9 seconds; pull-up (chinning on bar) 4 times; standing\nbroad jimip of 5 feet 9 inches. Any boy under eighteen years of age may\nwear a white emblem who can do the following: 100-yard dash in 14 seconds; pull-up 8 times; standing broad jump of 7 feet. A blue emblem\nis awarded to any boy who can accomphsh all of the following: 220-yard\ndash in 28 seconds; pull-up 10 times; running high jump of 4 feet 4 inches.\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n987\n\nFour or five years ago, it was apparent to those interested in athletic\nsports that it would be necessary to take certain action to define amateurism\nand make suitable rules and regulations relative to it. The Philippine\nAmateur Athletic Federation was formed, which now includes the Philippine\npublic schools, the United States army, the Young Men's Christian Association, the Columbia Club, and various other similar organizations.\nCounting the pupils of the public schools, this federation can claim a membership ofnearly 625,000. The central idea of this federation is that each\norganization shall be held responsible for the eligibiHty of its athletes. The\noflicials of the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation interested themselves in the formation of a Far Eastern Athletic Association to include all\nof the oriental nations. The first meet was held at Manila, February, 1913,\nand China, Japan, and the Philippines took part. The second meet was\nheld in May, 1915, at Shanghai, the same nations competing. Efforts\nhave been made to interest Siam, the Malay states, and French CochinChina, and, had it not been for the outbreak of the European war, it is\ncertain that some or all of these nations would have participated. Within\nthe jurisdiction of this athletic organization are now found nearly one-third\nof the human race.\nAt the close of the Second Far Eastern Athletic Meet at Shanghai in\nMay, 191 5, President Yuan Shi Kai invited four of the teams to come to\nPekin, The Chinese baseball team from Honolulu, two girls' indoor baseball teams from the Philippines, and a boys' baseball team from the Philippines visited the Forbidden City, where they were shown every courtesy by\nthe president. It is difficult at this time to foresee how far reaching will be\nthe efifects of this official recognition of athletics by the Chinese authorities.\nThe following table shows the present interscholastic records in the\nPhilippines. These records are much better than the collegiate records of\n1875, with which they should be compared rather than with the present\nrecords, which represent the results of forty years' progress.\nSo-yard dash\nloo-yard dash\n220-yard dash\n440-yard dash\n880-yard dash\n220-yard low hurdles\nRunning broad jump\nRunning high jump\nShot put\nPole vault\nDiscus throw\n880-yard relay\nMile relay\n\n5I sec.\nio| sec.\n23 sec.\nS3 sec.\n2 min. 12^ sec.\n27^ sec.\n20 ft. 8 in.\n5 ft. 5 in.\n45 ft. ii| in.\n10 ft. 6 J in.\n93 ft. 9 in.\ni min. 37! sec.\n3 min. 43! sec.\n\nThe introduction of group games has not detracted in the least from\nthe attention given to specialized forms of athletics and in fact will tend\nto increase it. This is due to the fact that many are encouraged to begin\nthe specialized forms of athletics thru success in the easier games.\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "988\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlysicSnH\n[Ph:\n\nThe greatest difficulty in making the plan of physical education general\nfor both boys and girls was in introducing it among the girls. The old\nstandard of propriety and decorum for girls and young women would not\npermit of their engaging in any form of strenuous exercises. In fact proper\nconduct for those who did not have to be out of doors working in the fields\nor in other emplo)m3ient would keep them within doors during the greater\npart of the day, and would allow them only evening walks in company with\nparents or other guardians. Even after these young people had become\nacquainted with the need for physical training and had become interested\nin school games, the school authorities met opposition from the parents,\nwho could not readily be persuaded to accept such radical changes from the\nold to the new.\nThe earliest efforts made among the girls were in the stereotyped form\nof calisthenics. Then came the game of tennis. Several years ago the\nfirst girl basket-ball teams were organized and were making considerable\nprogress when indoor baseball for girls was introduced, and this game, it\nseems, is the one which school-teachers and school girls alike have adopted\nas the one which is most fitting and which meets the situation best. It\nprovides healthy exercise in a game which is highly competitive and spectacular, and which at the same time allows a large number of participants.\nBasket-ball continues to have its adherents and is a permanent girls' game,\nwhile volley ball and tennis also take care of a large number.\nThe effect of this sort of training has just begim to be felt. It gives\ngirls and young women a new idea of what is healthful and proper in the way\nof exercise. It gives them a new confidence in their own strength, whether\nmoral or physical, and has brought about a very noticeable improvement\nin man's attitude toward woman. No mention need be made of the physical improvement which is if anything more marked than that of the boys\nand young men.\nAmong the primitive peoples athletics have a peculiar place. Thru\ngames between the various districts there will be brought about a spirit\nof friendliness among peoples disposed to be hostile. Feuds will come to\nbe settled more and more thru the influence of athletic sports. These\ntendencies are very evident among the mountain peoples in Northern\nLuzon, the primitive and Mohammedan peoples of Mindanao.\nAn incident which occurred in the mountain province four years ago\nwill serve to show the place athletics has come to assume in the life of\nthe primitive peoples of the Philippines. The mountain province is\ninhabited by various tribes which until a few years ago were mutually\nhostile. The school system has been extended to every part of the mountain country and in 191 1 three himdred school athletes were brought into\nBaguio for an athletic meet. The meet was held and the best of feeling\nprevailed. One old chief declared that it was a wonderful thing that such\na meeting could be held without serious trouble.\n\n\"And just look at that,\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF PLAYGROUNDS\n\n989\n\nhe said, \"the umpire has just called our batter out. A few years ago no\numpire could have called our batter out.\"\nThe general introduction of athletics in the public schools of the Philippine Islands and their extension to practically every class in society has\naccomplished many things. There is increased regularity in attendance\nand a practical elimination of tardiness. There has grown up, besides, a\nschool spirit which did not exist before and to which athletics has contributed much. Athletic sports have at the same time enlisted the enthusiasm and support of thousands of people who would have otherwise taken\nlittle or no interest in schools. There has been a noticeable change of ideals\nand a growing appreciation of the youth who are well equipped physically\nfor life's battle. There has been noticeable physical improvement directly\ntraceable to athletics and there is gradually evolving in the Philippines a\nnew type which will be very much superior to the old. Athletics has done\nmuch to displace vicious amusements. The cockpit finds in athletics its\nmost dangerous competitor.\nAthletics is also displacing a number of games formerly played by\nchildren which have a gambling element in them and which are objectionable from the physical point of view. There has come into the youth of\nthe Philippines a new spirit of sportsmanship which is turning out as a\nproduct a generation of fine upstanding young men who play the game for\nall it is worth and act like men, whether in victory or in defeat. Athletics\nhas touched the home and town life in nearly all of its phases and the\ninfluence has been all for the good. There has come largely as a result of\nathletics a new conception of the worth of the Filipino. Those who have\ndenied to him the power to develop energy and enthusiasm must revise\ntheir judgments. And the Filipino himself, who has for years been accustomed to hear his value depreciated, is coming to realize, as he never has\nbefore, the true possibilities of his people. Athletics has been used as a\nmeans to interest people in other civic movements and when the history of\nthis first half of the twentieth century comes to be written athletics in the\nPhilippines will be given much of the credit for the physical and civic\nbetterment of the Filipino people, and will take its place along with the\nacademic instruction which has brought about intellectual awakening, and\nthe industrial instruction which has practically revolutionized the ideas of\nthe people in regard to education and industry.\nTHE EDUCATIONAL\nRICHARD\n\nG. BOONE,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF PLAYGROUNDS\n\nOF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nA recent writer characterizes play, in the child, as \"the letting loose of\nwhat is in him, the active projection of the force he is, the becoming of what\nhe is to be.\"\n\nIt would be entirely within keeping of modern doctrine to\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ndefine education in the same phrase. The modern conception is to regard\neducation as a process of maturing thru self-expression, in the use of the\nrichest possible experience; i.e., the letting loose of what is in one, the\nprojection of one's spiritual force into objective form, the eflFort to become\nwhat one is destined, by faculty and healthy impulse, to be.\nThe present paper is meant to be an outline presentation of the education meanings of play, as typified in the American playground movement;\nthe enrichment of life thru the instrumentaUty of the play impulse and play\nexercises, and using the play motive, not in childhood only, but thruout life.\nThe main thesis of the paper is that \"play is the distinctively educative\nactivity\"; that all superior work in any field and at any age of the individual's life is superior as a factor of self-development to the degree that it is\na more perfect complete utterance of one's self, an adequate reahzation of\ncomprehensive experience in the product of one's effort; that as the play\nspirit creates Ufe in the child, work in the adult is never of supreme quaUty,\nunless it looks to a Uke result.\nElizabeth Barrett Browning makes Aurora Leigh say:\nMark, there, we get us good\nBy being ungenerous even to a book\nAnd calculating profits — so much help\nBy so much reading. It is rather when\nWe gloriously forget ourselves, and plimge\nSoul forward, headlong, into a book's profound,\nImpassioned for its beauty and salt of truth —\n'Tis there we get the right good from a book.\n\nWithout other change than substituting the idea of the more comprehensive school exercises or one's vocation for mere book reading, the quoted\nphrase will be accepted by any farseeing teacher. It is this losing one's\nself, so characteristic of play, that makes an exercise an effective means of\none's improving. If the inner push be lacking, all is lacking.\nPlay, therefore, and work, if both are free and motivated from within,\nproceed from the same impulse, have the same method of operation, and\nyield a like satisfaction. The one need be no less educative and stimulating\nthan the other. It is because what we call work has been debased to crude\nbread-and-butter uses that its inspirations are imdiscovered; that the soul,\nno longer in the saddle as in youth, is now driven; and one regards the wage\nand not the joy of the sweat-of-the-brow privilege.\nAll play rests upon and realizes itseK in interested effort, the doing of\nwhatever is done from an -inner want, not from external compulsion. Training usually follows a requirement outside one's self; education is stimulated\nby one's own wish, some interest that works itself out. In formal education this is apparent not in the elementary classes only, but thru the high\nschool and even into college years, where the ideal result of teaching is that\nlearners are made students. The stupidest among us would think it absurd\nto compel a child to play; but there are many who yet suppose that mental\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF PLAYGROUNDS\n\n991\n\nand moral activities may be taken on and off at another's behest, imder\nwhatever mental protest, and yet produce wholesome effects. Now play\nhas this character of spontaneity that makes it educative beyond any merely\nrequired activity. This is evident in the very little fellow's plaj^ul movements, the real plays of childhood, the first attempts at games, and the\nelaborate and rule-controlled contests of mature adolescence. A boy may\nplay lest he become the butt of his companions and be called a sissy if he\ndoes not, just as a boy may learn his lessons for fear of the criticisms of\nhis teacher or professor; but imless he comes to find joy in his games, and\nstimulus to self-initiated interest in his lessons, neither the play nor the\nstudy is more than a counterfeit of the real thing. Here, again, play is the\ndistinctively educative activity.\nSecond, play stands for the resourcefulness of willed activity. Anyone\nwho has watched the ease with which children modify their games, change\nthe characters, reverse the order of plays, drop parts and make additions,\nor drop one set of games and substitute others, and assume very unlike\nresponsibilities, will comprehend how stimulating to resourcefulness is a\nwell-played game. Resourcefulness of mental action and response naturally\nresults from the interested activity constituting play. It hints of creative\npower. To be able to recognize two ways out, or in, where before was seen\nbut one, or none, is to possess the power of a leader.\nOnce more, play as the primary educative activity involves a consciousness of ends to be attained and the discovery and harnessing and use of\nadequate means to their accomplishment — this is of the nature of real\neducative effort.\nArticulate, sequential processes of thinking or doing, where every step is\ndetermined by its predecessor and finds meaning in an end to be attained;\nexperiences that hang together and reinforce each other; the habit of\nthinking relatively and in wholes are coveted for the pupil by every real\nteacher. In play, especially the game, the end is seen to shape the ntervening moves; not what the player may like to do, but what the final play\nrequires. Otherwise it is a foul, and so is outclassed. This directive stimulus that comes from the attempt to do what seems to need doing, from\nfinding the answer to a question which one wants to use, explaining a natural\nphenomenon about which one has become curious — the directive stimulus\nthat comes from such self -originated efforts has almost no parallel apart from\nthe plays and games of children and youth. Yet the faculty developed is\njust the faculty we seek to arouse in our best teaching of whatever\nsubject.\nBut in a larger sense, play, full-lunged, muscle-testing, whole-body play,\nhas a distinct educational significance, in that it lays the foundation for a\nvigorous and usable energy in adult years. The play of the playground and\nthe track, the excursion and the arena, uses the large muscles rather than\nthe small ones, or the small ones as accessory to the gross movements of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "992\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI\n\n[Physical\n\nbody. Whereas the small muscles of the fingers and the face, the mouth and\nthroat and the eyes are the organs of the thinking faculty, specialized as\nthe action system of the cerebrum and under cerebral control, the large\nmuscles of the limbs, the shovdders, the back, the chest, etc., are in immediate connection with the medulla brain, and are the specialized and peculiar\norgans of the will. These mature earUest, and their education is a prerequisite to the effective discipline of the cerebral system. Indeed the\nhealthy, domesticated, full-blooded, habitually well-managed, and easily\nresponsive large muscle system is a prime condition of the accuracy and\ndeUcacy and tempered use of the small muscles, and the higher mental\nfunctioning of more conventionalized behavior. The importance of play\nis an obvious conclusion. The relative dependence of the two forms of\ntraining must be equally obvious.\nSo having to do with this particular conception, the plays to be considered include the running games in which the whole body is brought into\naction, throwing, jumping, climbing, wrestling, dancing, field excursions,\nand hunting, in which, with the single exception of wrestling perhaps, girls\nas well as boys may profitably be exercised. By such exercises, the entire\norganism is schooled to act as a unit; easy and direct co-ordinations are\nestabhshed and made habitual; certain basic reactions, fundamental in\nlater finer responses, become the rule; and the will finds a field that is\neasily cultivated, in the rich soil of large, responsive organs. Will and\nchoice, purpose and execution find here their earUest and surest schooling.\nPlan, intention, discrimination, selection, preference, and their expression\nfind a natural first development. Play is the race's primer of lessons in\nall character evolution and the higher spiritual choices.\nNatiu-e and instinct chiefly control the basal activities involved in play\nand all free large movements; while traditional schooling emphasizes the\naccessory activities and the precision of their employment. A too early\ndevelopment of the small muscles, as in the finger movements of writing,\ndrawing, deUcate needlework, etc., in discriminating intonations, and in\nfacial expression, is hable to leave the larger muscles and more fundamental parts undeveloped. School work generally, and modem life to an\nexcessive degree, lay premature and disproportioned strain upon movements\nrequiring exactness and brain-controlled activities. The danger from these\nsources, a danger intensified as population becomes more dense and life\nnecessarily artificialized, emphasizes the importance to the growing generations of playgrounds and free parks in cities, of the pubHc encouragement\nof body games, and of opportunities for the development of an efficient,\nbroadly sensitive, animal organism. Motor exercises, not subject to too\nmuch prescriptive direction, will accomphsh some results that no amount\nof the most intellectual discipline can achieve.\nSpeaking broadly, then, the chief resource of society for the training of\nthe wiU, and for developing a habit of inteUigently willed activities, and for\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nESSENTIAL\n\n993\n\nan enduring foundation of self-determined choice, and for the inhibitions\nincident to the experience of regulated behavior, is the playground.\nWherever the playground may be, and however it may be managed, it\nshould be under the direction of one who is skilfully conversant with the\nwider significance of its activities and its educational bearings. Wise\ndirectors are needed, and true teachers, who are sensible, stimulating companions of youth, who look to find the results of their labors, not in the\nintellectual possessions solely or chiefly, but in wholesome physical and\nmental habits, safe and impelling attitudes of mind, a controlled co-ordination of mental and bodily functions. Compared with the responsibility of\nthe director of the plays of youth, the teacher of the traditional lessons has\nan easy task. Almost anyone can teach a boy to read, or to follow an\nexperiment in the laboratory, or to keep step in a marching line; but only a\nbig-hearted comrade who has at thirty the muscle hunger of youth, whose\nmemory of its joys is clear and healthy, who sees that the disposition and\ntemper with which work is done or attempted are more important than\nknowledge or even skill — only such a one may hope for even measurable\nsuccess in guiding the plays of childhood and youth.\n\nPHYSICAL\nALBERT\n\nE.\n\nWINSHIP,\n\nEDITOR,\n\nEDUCATION\n\"JOURNAL\n\nESSENTIAL\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\"\n\nBOSTON, MASS\n\nIt appears so trite as to be absurd to say that physical education is\nessential, and yet there is so little physical education in the public schools\nthat it would seem as tho the statement had never been made.\nThere is no education that is not incorporated into the unconscious life.\nPhysical education means satisfactory care of one's health, uniform activities that increase one's vigor continually and promote grace and physical\nattractiveness.\nTeaching about health is of slight importance unless one does the things\none learns that one should do, unless one does them until it is second\nnature. Abundance of fresh air waking and sleeping, almost daily baths\nof the right kind, perfect care of the teeth, attention to the quantity and\nquality of food and drink, and exercises that promote health, grace, and\nattractiveness are highly educational. In how many public schools is there\nany approach to this standard ?\nYou will never get any appreciable attention to physical education until\npromotion and graduation depend as much upon what one learns and\ndemonstrates in life physically as upon one's knowledge of the battles in\nthe Civil War, the height of Asiatic mountains, and various kinds of participles. Where is there an absurdity greater than placing a child's memorizing ofdates above his remembering to clean his teeth or to take a bath ?\nWe have accepted this ridiculous state of affairs because the dates were\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI\n\n[Physical\n\nrecited in school and the teeth were cleaned at home. But we teach the\nchild in school to take care of his teeth just as we teach him geography and\nwe should hold him responsible for remembering his teeth as definitely as\nfor remembering the population of cities.\nExercises for health and grace can be taught and practiced in school\nand these exercises are as essential as intellectual athletics and they should\nbe insisted upon absolutely as they rarely if ever are. Look over any school\ncurriculum and see how much time is allowed for physical exercises as\neducation.\nWhat is the remedy? There is but one remedy and that is to have\nphysical directors for elementary schools and for high schools and to hold\nthem responsible for results in health and grace of movements. If two\nchildren above the fourth grade walk across the school yard out of step,\n\nhold the physical director's department responsible for their walking out\nof step.\nEditors write, clergymen preach, lecturers proclaim that the body is\nthe temple of the soul, that it is sacred. \"A sound mind in a sound body\"\nis a time-honored slogan, but we are hypocrites, all of us, if we give no\nslightest credit for any achievement in physical education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^John A. Randall, Department of Physics, Pratt Institute\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\nVice-President — Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior\nUniversity\nStanford University, Cal.\nSecretary — £iaiA Comley, state inspector, domestic science\nMadison, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Friday Forenoon, August 20, 1915\nThe department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 9:00 a.m., with President\nRandall in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Correlation of Physics and Manual Training\" — ^M. Thomas Fnllan, professor of\nmachine design and drawing, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala.; George R.\nTwiss, state high-school inspector, Ohio State University, Colimibus, Ohio.\n\"Correlation of Chemistry and Agriculture\" — George H. Black, president, State\nNormal School, Lewiston, Idaho, and Earl S. Wooster, dean, Rural Department, State\nNormal School, Lewiston, Idaho.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Friday ArTERNOoN, August 20, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 2 130 p.m., with President\nRandall in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Project Teaching\" — ^J. A. Randall, department of physics, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"What Can the Teacher of Geography Contribute to the Survey of Vocational\nOpportunities for Girls?\" — George W. Hoke, professor of economic geography, Miami\nUniversity, Oxford, Ohio.\nTopic:\n\nDeviations for Standardized College-Entrance Courses for Girls\n\na) \"Special Science for Girls in the Rural Schools\" — Blanche Olin Twiss, Coliunbus,\nOhio, formerly state demonstrator of home economics. Extension Division, University\nof Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.\nb) \"A Chemistry Course for Girls\" — Mary Ethel Jones, head of chemistry department, high school, Los Angeles, Cal,\nc) \"Applied Science as the Basis of the Girls' Education\" — ^Hazel W. Seveiy, State\nNormal School, Santa Barbara, Cal.\nd) \"General Science for the First Year of High School\" — Ida Welch, high school,\nEverett, Wash.\nThe following officers were elected for the coming year:\nFor President — ^James A. Peabody, head of department of biology, Morris High\nSchool, New York, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President — ^William Hedrick, McKinley High School, Washington, D.C.\nFor Secretary — ^John C. Packard, Brooklyn, Mass.\n995\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nSESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 1915\n\nThe department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 8:00 p.m., with President\nRandall in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Place of Pure Science in Our Public-School System\" — E. P. Lewis, professor\nof physics, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\n\"Cultural Value of Science Instruction\" — P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner\nof education, Washington, D.C.\nEmma Conley, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nCORRELATION\nI.\n\nM.\n\nAND\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nTHOMAS\nrULLAN,\nPROFESSOR\nALABAMA\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF MACHINE\nDESIGN\nAND\nINSTITUTE, AUBURN, ALA.\n\nDRAWING,\n\nIn the high school the science of physics can be successfully correlated\nwith manual training, the arrangement working to the benefit and improvement of both subjects.\nManual training, in order to fulfil its function properly, should possess\nthree general features: (i) It should be educational itself, that is, should\ntrain the brain thru the eye and hand — develop skill in the use of tools.\n(2) The objects or projects used for instruction should be, when possible,\nof value intrinsically — as tools, instruments, furniture, etc. (3) The\nmaking use of the article thus made should be considered as the\nmost important of the elements going to make up this educational\ncombination.\nProperly speaking, high-school physics cannot be taught successfully\nwithout apparatus, and it is to be regretted that in many of our schools\nit is attempted without adequate equipment. In every state it is well\nknown that some schools are without any apparatus to speak of. By a\nstatistical inquiry into the condition mentioned in high schools in the\nsouthern states and also in some other parts of the country, the situation\nwas foimd to be appalling and many schools with high standing were found\nto be grossly neglecting this particular part of their teaching work. In\nmost cases, however, the school was working under handicap of insufl&cient\nfunds and some needs which appear more pressing than apparatus were\ngiven attention and the science equipment must wait another time.\nWhile the greater part of this discussion is prepared for teachers of\nhigh schools of the small towns less likely to be favored in point of finances,\nit may be also applied to those which have a fair equipment. Altho\nbelieving firmly in the importance of student-made apparatus, I do not wish\nto create the impression that I recommend it as being superior to the manufactured product in every respect. It may be said, however, that it can be\nused as a supplement to the equipment of schools which already have a\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n997\n\nsufficient outfit and entirely by those whose finances will not admit of\npurchase of apparatus.\nThe general points in favor of student-made apparatus, which I offer\nfor your consideration, are as follows: (i) This form of apparatus possesses\na definite pedagogical value. (2) Being simple, it directs more attention\nto the principle involved than to the apparatus. (3) It is economical and\nrequires a small amount of money in proportion to the quantity of apparatus\nobtained. (4) It affords correlation between the science department and\nthe manual-training department of a school, strengthening and adding\ninterest to the work of both. (5) The plan is entirely practical and the\ndesigns may be executed by the high-school pupils under the direction of\nthe teacher.\nUnder the first consideration, we find the value of repetition for fixing\nfacts in the mind duly recognized, and while we condemn repetition in the\npublic lecturer, we know it to be one of the greatest assets of the teacher.\nThose things which we have the least difficulty in recalling to mind are the\nthings in which we have been drilled by much repetition. Hanna Thompson, in his Brain and Personality, compares the cortex of the brain to shelves\nof books, the leaves of which are likened to facts, and the books themselves\nto certain divisions of our educational training and experience. He shows\nthat we develop and enlarge our library of the memory, leaf by leaf, and book\nby book, by indelibly fixing these facts thru repeating them to ourselves and\nhearing others repeat them. The longer our brain has contact with the fact,\nthe more indelible it becomes in the memory and the more easily recalled.\nA student who has made his own apparatus or who has assisted in its\nmaking, no matter how simple the design or crude the construction has,\nI feel sure, a great advantage over one who has not, for his mind has received\na greater impression. He cannot begin the construction without knowing\nthe principle involved, and, altho the making may consume only a few\nhours, he will necessarily repeat many times the principle. From a pedagogical standpoint, therefore, the value of student-made apparatus is\nworthy of serious consideration.\nIn the second case, simplicity in the matter of apparatus always tends\nto clearness in demonstration. An elaborate and elegantly finished piece\nmay sometimes defeat its purpose, as the student's mind may be more\nengrossed in the contemplation of the instrument than in the principle\ninvolved. It may sometimes be the case of not seeing the woods for the\ntrees. There are many students and some teachers who have scant respect\nfor apparatus which is not elaborately constructed, highly polished, and\nhas not the imprint of some well-known maker on it. This is a false attitude, unworthy of a thoughtful mind, for some of the most effective work\nin teaching can be done with simple, if not crude, apparatus.\nFaraday, whose scientific lectures were most brilliant and instructive,\nused very simple devices. Robert Ball, in his lectures on the principles of\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "998\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nmechanics, made use of nothing of an elaborate nature. Severe simplicity\ncharacterized his devices. Cavendish was noted for the crudeness of his\napparatus. A story is told of a scientist who visited England and who,\n\nwishing to meet the \"man who weighed the earth,\" and see his apparatus,\ncalled at Cavendish's home. Cavendish, being somewhat of a recluse,\nheard of the intended visit, and \"was not at home.\" The visitor was met\nat the door by the butler, and as he could not see the man, he desired to see\nhis laboratory. He was ushered into a small room, having but one window,\nand the only furniture was in the shape of a couple of chairs and a rough \\\ntable. \"But,\" said he, \"I wish to see his apparatus.\" \"There they are,\"\nreplied the caretaker, pointing to the table. On it were a pair of common\nbalances, a meter rule, a couple of pewter spoons, and several dishes. He\nmade his apparatus as he needed it, and likely used the same material\nsubsequently for other pieces.\nI was impressed by some lectures on high-school physics which I heard\nsome three years or so ago delivered by a most delightful lecturer, a master\nof the art, at one of our large universities. The collection of apparatus at\nhis command is probably the largest and most complete in the country, if\nnot the world, yet he used to show the most important principles with\ndemonstration apparatus of his own make, or at least constructed under\nhis direction, of simple design.\nThe third consideration, economy, will probably interest many whose\nfunds for such purpose are limited or those who desire to augment their\nexisting outfit and are hampered by a consideration of cost. From the\nnature of the course in physics as usually given in the high school, apparatus\nof a high degree of accuracy, while desirable, is often not necessary, and we\nfind that the slight discrepancies in results, due to lack of precision in workmanship inmost cases, are negligible.\nThe designs should be worked out with the idea of utilizing material\nthat can be obtained easily. The hardware, when possible, should be of a\nstandard pattern. The collection used as exhibit of this type of apparatus\nhas been made up under the direction of the writer by students under his\ncharge and also partly by the high schools of Alabama. It is in the educational exhibit in the museum of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at\nAuburn. The cost was less than one tenth of the market value of such\na collection. No attempt has been made to have the apparatus as good as\ncould be with the same materials either in design or in construction; rather\nhas the idea of simplicity been carried out even in the matter of finish.\nUnder the fourth consideration, co-ordination of the work of the departments of manual training and science, will be found a means of increasing the student's interest in both branches. Most of the construction of\nthis apparatus properly belongs to manual training and it can be used as\nproject work for the advanced classes.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n999\n\nI feel firmly convinced that more than ordinary interest would be taken\nin the construction of apparatus, when used as projects in manual training.\nThese exercises could be used to advantage even in the event that the\nscience department was well equipped and had no special need for them.\nThere is no immediate danger of the field for project work in manual training becoming overcrowded. Teachers of this branch are constantly\nbroadening the scope of their work, especially in the nature of projects\ncombining beauty and utility.\nIn discussing the fifth consideration, I hope to show the entire practicability ofthe designs and that they are within the range of ability of\nhigh-school teachers of physics. An ordinary set of carpenter's tools and\na few of supplementary nature are all that is needed for most of the work.\nThe designs which I have here require nothing further, but there are a few\ndesigns more advanced which require some woodturning which may be\ndone elsewhere at a nominal cost.\nTeachers in schools which have no manual training are likely to offer\nthe following arguments: (i) The work necessary to produce the apparatus\nis out of their line and they have no facility with tools. (2) Their schedule\nis crowded, and they have no time to devote to such work. (3) A plan of\nthis sort presents insurmountable difl&culties, and they prefer to wait until\nthey can get a manual-training department or imtil the school can afford\nto purchase what is needed. If you have no manual training in your\nschool, hasten the establishment of a department. Start at once and purchase a set of tools. It may be these tools will form a nucleus for a future\nmanual-training outfit. The experience of many a school has been that\nthe manual-training department has begim in a humble way.\nWoldemar Goetze, a prominent German educator, in recommending\ncourses in the normal school has said:\nIt is recommended that instruction be given in the construction of simple apparatus.\nIt is further recommended that practice be given the student (prospective teacher) in\nmaking observations with apparatus of this nature, and special attention should be given\nto this work during the entire course of instruction. In the highest classes in the school,\nin connection with the lectures, apparatus of advanced nature should be made outside\nthe class hours. Each member of the class should be required to do this work.\n\nThe plan which has been carried out in the Alabama schools during the\npast four years and which has worked successfully is briefly as follows:\n(i) The designs of apparatus together with instructions were sent out\nby the writer to all the schools in the state, offering co-operation. They\nwere in the form of blueprints and mimeographed sheets, and the teachers\nwere asked to select the pieces of apparatus which they wished to construct\nand try them out and to report their results.\n(2) Each piece was to be made in dupUcate or photographs of finished\npieces were to be sent in as records and placed in the exhibit collection\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "looo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nshowing the extent of work done by the particular school, each exhibit to\ncontain the names of the school, the teacher, and the pupil making it.\n(3) Each teacher co-operating was to have access to the records, either\nby visit to the collection or by obtaining photographs of the pieces of\napparatus made by the other schools. The plan has worked very well\nindeed. A large number of schools have little other sort of apparatus,\nwhile many have supplemented their collection with pieces they needed.\nDuring the last three smnmers, at the session of the summer school at\n\nI\n\nAlabama Polytechnic Institute, the writer has conducted a course in teachers'\nphysics, especially prepared for those whose outfit of apparatus was meager.\nWe followed the text adopted in the state schools, and, beginning with\nonly a bare table, carried out the entire set of experiments in the text with\napparatus, much of which was made by the teachers themselves during\nthe summer-school session.\n\nn.\n\nGEORGE\n\nR. TWISS, STATE HIGH-SCHOOL\nUNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS,\n\nINSPECTOR,\nOHIO\n\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nThe psychological basis for correlation of studies is to be found in the\nprinciple of association and in the manner in which this principle is related\nto habit formation and to memory. The most elementary dynamic fact\nin education is that when an individual is subjected to some sort of stimulus,\nor finds himself in some sort of situation, he does something as a consequence. The act, whatever it may be, is his reaction to the situation or his\nresponse to the stimulus.\nTo teach one anything you must provide a situation or a stimulus and\nget a reaction or a response. That response is the first and fundamentally\nessential step in the learning process. Therefore getting it is the first and\nfundamentally essential step in the teaching process. Not any particular\nresponse but some response or other is the essential thing. If it is the\nright response it must be rewarded with satisfaction, so that it will be\nrepeated when the stimulus is next given. If it is not the right response,\nnot one which ought to be connected with that particular situation, or not\nthe one which the teacher is endeavoring to establish, the teacher's task\nis to substitute the right one for it. He must get the learner to keep trying\nfor the right one until he gives it, and then the right one must be rewarded\nwith satisfaction. When once given as a consequence of a certain stimulus,\na response is likely to be repeated, if associated with satisfaction, and\nthe more it is repeated with satisfaction, the stronger is its tendency to\nbecome habitual so that it recurs automatically. This is a general law of\npsychology and is true whether the reaction be a movement or a thought.\nThe development of skill in various manual processes and arts comes\nthru connecting motor responses to stimuli in the manner described, only\ninstead of a simple stimulus with a simple response, such as seeing a piece\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nlOOl\n\nof redhot iron and striking it with a hammer, we almost invariably have a\nwhole series of stimuli and their corresponding responses woven into a\ncomplex reaction to a complex situation — a series in which the response to\none stimulus becomes the stimulus for the next response, and so on.\nThus, when the first recognition of the situation occurs, the series of\nresponses is set off and the whole process goes on like the falUng of a row\nof bricks. For example, if the process to be learned is the making of a\nlink for a forged iron chain, the process consists of many complex movements, made in succession and resulting in raking up the fire, working the\nblast, heating and turning the iron in the fire, hammering the iron on the\nanvil in various ways so as to draw it out, to round it, to \"upset\" the ends\nand wedge them out in preparation for welding, and finally to reheat and\nweld the ends and give the finishing touches to the link. If in doing these\nthings the worker has acquired a high degree of skill, all these processes\nfollow one another very nearly automatically. The whole complex of\nmovements has become an organized habit in which the completion of each\npart sets off the next, and the mind of the operator may be occupied largely\nwith other matters while the work is going on. The necessary movements\nare taken care of by the lower brain centers, and the higher brain centers,\nthose in the cortex, are left in comparative freedom so that they may be\nconcerned in some intellectual processes that are going on at the same time.\nWhen the association connection is between a situation and a thought\nor a memory, the case is similar. The habit of mentally recalling a certain\nfact or thinking in a certain definite way may be formed by getting the\nthought in response to the stimulus or situation or thought with which it is\ndesired to have it associated in the mind of the learner, and rewarding it\nwith satisfaction, plus getting enough repetitions so that the thought or\nmemory recurs automatically whenever the stimulus occurs.\nNow it is easily possible to teach a process like forging a chain so that\nthe learner becomes very skilful at it, and also to teach him the verbal\nstatement of certain physical principles that imderlie the shaping and welding of iron; but if the process and the principles are taught separately, and\nif the methods of teaching are not such that the mental apprehension of\nthe principle is associated with the series of motor activities constituting\nthe process, it may not be at all certain that the ability to state the principle\nwill help in any wise in the perfecting of the motor skill involved in the best\nperformance of the process, or that conversely the activities of the process\nwill help at all in recalling the principle or any other knowledge that may\nhave been previously or subsequently associated with it.\nOn the other hand, when each step in the process is being taught, the\nteacher not only may show the learner the best procedure and the necessary\nmovements for acquiring the best technique step by step, but he also may\ncause the learner to associate with them not only the purely mechanical\nprinciples that underHe each of the steps, but also such principles and laws\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfrom the domains of physics and chemistry as are closely connected with\nthem. For example, the physical and chemical principles of heat and combustion involved in heating the iron in the forge may be carefully explained,\nillustrated, and associated with the process of properly heating the iron.\nThe physical and chemical principles may be taught in classes devoted\nespecially to those subjects, while the forging and welding processes are\ntaught by the teacher of blacksmithing. But if no attention is paid to\nforming association connections in the brain between the processes and the\nphysical and chemical principles that underlie them, the principles may\nexist as it were in one set of water-tight compartments and the processes\nin another, and neither one will help in the recall of the other because neither\nhas been previously connected or associated with the other so as to act as\na stimulus for its recall. The ideal way to get a principle associated with\nthe process that it underlies is to teach the two together, showing how the\nprocess is one of a nimaber of particular cases coming imder the general\nprinciple, or how the general principle sums up a certain property or properties that are conunon to a number of particular cases of which the process\nthat is being learned is one. The essential thing is in some way or by some\nmeans to get this direct connection between the two facts or the two motor\nor intellectual processes that are to be correlated. If the two are taught\nat dijfferent times, in different surroundings, or by different teachers, and\nno attempt is made to put them together in a definite, clean-cut, and purposeful manner, and if the advantage of knowing the connection between\nthem, of recalling it, and of making use of it is not made clear; and if the\nstudent is not incited to strive actively to make the connection one of his\npermanent mental acquisitions, there is little likelihood that the connection\nwill be made. A few pupils having exceptionally keen and active minds\nmay make it for themselves but such cases will be rare and accidental.\nHow then must these correlating cross-connections be made when the case\nis one of those foimd in almost every school where the manual training is\ntaught by one teacher and the physics and chemistry by another ? It can\nbe done only when there is intelligent mutual understanding, appreciation,\nand co-operation between the teachers who are giving the work which must\nbe correlated. The teacher of manual training must himself know the\nprinciples of physics, of mechanics, and of chemistry that imderlie the\nvarious processes that he is to teach, and must thoroly acquaint himself\nwith the methods and the lessons which the teachers of physics and of\nchemistry are using in teaching those principles to the pupils. Then\nwhen he is teaching the processes he must, by means of suggestions, explanations, illustrations, descriptions, and questions, assist the pupils in recalling\nthe principles and applying them directly and concretely to the processes\nthat are being learned wherein these principles should be apphed. The\npupils will thus be enabled to learn the processes more quickly and to\nacquire a more workmanlike technique; and they will be able to accomplish\n\n1\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n1003\n\nthis more easily and more rapidly and with far greater pleasure and satisfaction because of the broad and intelligent appreciation that they will\nhave thus gained of the significance of all the fine points in the technique.\nThey will apply themselves with more zeal to the learning process because\ntheir practice has been thus rationalized and placed on an intellectual\nplane far above that of learning by imitation, trial, and error. They will\npartake more of the spirit of the artist and the engineer than of that of the\nmere artisan, because with such correlation from their interests in construction and manipulation they are led up into broad intellectual interests and\nappreciations ; for good correlation on such a basis as I have indicated would\ncarry them also into the artistic relations of their work, and would also\ngive them some knowledge of the origin of the raw materials with which\nthey are working, and of the commercial and economic relations of the\nclasses of articles that they are producing by their skill. They would thus\ngain not only an outlook over considerable portions of the domain of physics\nand chemistry, but also some insight into commercial and economic geography, industrial history, and art. Thus by correlating manual skill with\nintellectual interests and effort, strong motivation may be gained for each\nfrom the interests existing or awakened in the other, and a many-sided\ninterest may be developed which is the basis for the broadest and richest\nculture.\nThe best results, however, cannot be obtained if the manual-training\nteacher alone is held responsible for the correlation. The teacher of physics,\nboth for the success of his own teaching and for that of the teacher of manual\ntraining, must be always alert and ready to find in the manual-training\nlessons particular cases and illustrations of the principles of physics that\nhe is teaching, and he should be particularly careful to show the pupils how\na practical knowledge of the principle will help in mastering the processes\nof construction and perfecting skill in their use. He should make a definite\nand purposeful effort to establish memory connections between the principle\nof physics and the process in manual training in which it is appUed, in every\ncase where such connections are useful and educative. He should make\nhimseK acquainted with the work and methods of the manual-training\nteacher so as to recall and have at hand all the applications of his science\nto be found in the manual-training course and in the shop, and so as to\nhave a sympathetic appreciation of the work produced by the boys. In\nthis way he can awaken their loyal sympathy and co-operation in what he\nis trying to do for them.\nSo also the teacher of chemistry should co-operate in the same way.\nSo should the teachers of commercial geography, of industrial history, and\nof art. Time is gained, not lost, by establishing such cross-connections\namong the facts, principles, and processes that are taught; for it is a wellknown law in psychology that one fact or principle is learned in less time\nand recalled with greater ease and certainty and with fewer relearnings if\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "I004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n!nce\n[Science\n\nit is associated interestingly with other facts and principles that have\nsignificance in relation to it.\nA diagrammatic illustration may help to make this law dear. If an\nassociation connection is established between a fact A and another fact B\nso that when A is seen or thought of it acts as a stimulus for the recall of\nB, it is not necessarily true that B will act as a stimulus for the certain\nrecall of A. Anyone who will try to count or say the alphabet or spell a\nword backward will readily agree to this. If we want either to recall the\nother, we must establish the association bonds equally as well from B to A\nas from A to B. If it be supposed that we have done this, we may represent\nthe psychological condition by an arrow drawn from A to B and another\nfrom B to A, indicating that either fact or experience serves as a stimulus\nfor the recall of the other. Now if certain other facts or experiences are\nrelated naturally and logically to A or B, we may psychologically connect\none C with another D, one E with another F, and so on, and represent the\nconnections or association bonds by arrows just as we did with A and B.\nIf this is all that we have done, we will have made it possible for B and A\nto recall each other, for C and D to recall each other, for E and F to recall\neach other, and so on; but altho C, D, E, and F are supposed to be logically\nrelated to A or to B, none of them will help to recall A or B because there\nare only what we may call short-circuit association bonds between the\nmembers of each pair, and there are no cross-connections between A or B\nand C, D, E, or F. On the other hand, if we take care to associate A not\nonly with B, but also with C, D, E, and F, and also, perhaps, each one of\nthe group with every other, we have joined all of them together by a number\nof cross-associations, which wiU appear in the diagram like a fishnet or a\nspider web, and the diagram will mean that each fact may serve to recall\nany other of the group directly. Thus because of the correlating crossconnections that we have established, one fact that may not be able to\nrecall another directly may assist the mind in fishing it up as it were by\nmeans of its connections with a chain of other facts, as one might fish up\na bit of junk from the bottom of a pond by pulling on the links of a fishnet\nin the meshes of which it was entangled.\nThere are very many opportunities for such correlation as I have\ndescribed. I have tried to show that such correlations unless deliberately\nprovided for by the teachers have little chance of being made. In a few\nschools with which I am acquainted, notably the technical high schools of\nCleveland, stated meetings are held from time to time, some of which are\nattended by all the teachers and others by those of closely related subjects,\nand the purpose of these meetings is the interchange of information among\nteachers and departments as to aims, subject-matter, and methods. The\npurpose is to let each teacher know what the others are trying to do and to\nlet each know what facts and principles of his own subject are needed to\nilluminate the^teaching of other subjects. These meetings are productive\n\nfl\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1005\n\nof much good, for they not only stimulate correlation, but help also to\npromote loyalty, enthusiasm, and intelligent imderstanding of the larger\nand broader aims and purposes of the school work.\nIt is a great pity that this type of teachers' meeting does not prevail\nin more schools, instead of the wasteful type of meeting that is used for\nannouncements and administrative details that might easily be handled\nin other and more efficient ways.\nCORRELATION\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nGEORGE H. BLACK, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LEWISTON, IDAHO\nEARL S. WOOSTER, DEAN, RURAL DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nLEWISTON, IDAHO\n\nAgriculture so far as production is concerned is an art that is founded\non a group of exact sciences and upon the accumulated experience of the\nages expressed as ''rule of thumb\" procedures. In all its branches it consists mainly of such a control of conditions that the maximum quantities\nof desirable products will accrue to the benefit of mankind. This industry\nin common with others follows one course; chance experimentation shows\nthat a certain way of handling conditions produces better results than other\nways with no clear understanding of reasons therefor. Succeeding individuals and generations then follow this way until some daring or fortunate\nindividual demonstrates that another way is better, when, in course of time,\nthe better way may prevail, tho frequently the old is too deeply rooted to\nbe thrown out. Finally, inquiring individuals search for causes and build a\nfabric of scientific facts and theories. These in turn form the foundation of a\nprocedure that comes to be that commonly followed. The primary questions\nare of result and procedure and only secondarily of cause and relationship.\nBy virtue of its universality and early origin, agriculture has accumulated an enormous mass of inherited procedures often accepted without\nquestion by each rising generation. Indeed in many cases the situation\nis such that not only are these practices accepted by nearly all, but any\nsuggestion of any other procedure is at once rejected simply because it is\nnew and therefore perforce wrong. For countless generations agriculture\nhas been largely an inherited occupation and boys have learned to farm as\nthey learned to eat. It has also been to too great a degree a last-resort occupation, and the feeling is still very current that those unfit for any other\nwork can farm. In spite of all these facts, because it consists of the control\nof conditions of growth and maturity of plants and animals, agriculture\nrests upon the foundation of casual relationships as expressed in scientific\nlaws. It utilizes practically all of the natural sciences in some degree, but\nupon none does it depend more than upon chemistry and its near relatives\nbiochemistry and chemical-physics.\nThose familiar with the history of chemistry know of the wonderful\nadditions that the work of the last two centuries has made to the fimd of\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nknowledge concerning both physiological and agricultural chemistry, and\nthose familiar with the work and thinking of the ordinary farmer also\nrealize to what a very slight degree this knowledge has penetrated the\nthinking or altered the practice of this class. Within the memory of those\nnow living, many farmers rejected the iron plow \"because it will poison the\nsoil\" and declined to use the reaper because it would crack the grain. The\nrelation of soil acidity to plant growth and the correction of acidity by lime\nare two pretty simple and plain chemical facts known for more than half a\ncentury, but in spite of this it took two years to induce one orchard owner\nto save a fine orchard by liming. The ratio of food consumed to butter-fat\nproduced spells profit or loss for the dairy farmer but more farmers buy\ncows by the color of the skin or curl of the tail than by the report of the\nBabcock tester, A farmer near Spokane was astonished that a slip of a\ngirl rural-school teacher could tell him what was wrong with a poor forty\nsimply by using a bit of blue paper, yet the litmus test for soil acidity has\"\nbeen published in countless bulletins. Ten years ago farmers of the Palouse\ncountry said that corn could not be grown. This year one shipment carried\nthree silos and a California firm is putting an agent at Lewiston, Idaho, to\nsell Redwood silos.\nThe producer is crying for lower prices and a greater variety of products,\nwhile the social demands for better living conditions and other economic\nconditions make greater returns to the producer imperative. The mass\nof scientific information that is of value to the farmer is great and examples\nof its application numerous enough to demonstrate that production per\nacre could be greatly increased if this knowledge were only in general use.\nI submit, therefore, that the real problem for the chemical forces is to get the\nfarmer to act on a basis of scientific laws and facts.\nIn order to accomplish this, three things must be done. First, the\nlanguage of the chemist must be translated so that the individual of only\nordinary grade-school training can get the unmistakable meaning. By\nreason of the seeming intangibility of its unit materials and the extent of its\nsubject-matter, it may be that chemistry deserves the remark of a college\nFreshman who said that \"a fellow has to study the stuff five years to know\nthe alphabet,\" but the chapters on chemistry in Hopkins' Soil Fertility and\nPermanent Agriculture seem to indicate that these facts can be stated in\nplain understandable language. A tired, indolent man is not inclined to\nwade thru pages filled with imfamiliar words to get an idea unless he very\nmuch wants the idea. Such a thing as using a dictionary is not in his habit\nof reading, hence the article must be its own explanation and imderstandable\nfrom the viewpoint of the man who reads. The problem is to state technical facts in imderstandable language rather than to eliminate necessary\ntechnicalities.\nSecondly, the farmer must be convinced of the economic value of acting\non the facts. This can be brought about only by a most careful examina-\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1007\n\ntion of the material presented to insure that the lines of demarkation\nbetween facts, theories, and h3^otheses are clearly and correctly drawn.\nThe statement of conclusions as final when they are based on insufficient\ndata gives rise to much lack of confidence in published material circulated\namong thinking farmers and is particularly productive of suspicion among\nthe ignorant. One experiment station has, during the last ten years, twice\nreversed its recommended procedure for treating wheat for smut. Now\nwheat growers are very cautious in accepting any material from that\nsource. The almost hopeless confusion of fact and theory or hypothesis\nin much of the material renders it valueless for general circulation. Apparently our desire to make the statement get action has led us into the error\nof feeling that we must always speak with authority and give only positive\nstatements or find ourselves discredited. Some lack of truth appears\nwhen the procedure is tried and all that has resulted is a deepening of the\nconviction that all experts are bluffers and liars. It is not easy for the\nuntrained man, busy with his farm work, to separate the wheat from\nthe chaff in the flood of printed material presented to him, and experience\nhas demonstrated that it is not either safe or profitable to accept all\nthat appears, so he takes the easiest course and brands it all as trash or\n\"highbrow\" stuff and goes on his own old way.\nEven when the material is true, it must be carefully gone over to\neliminate all that is not pertinent to the point in hand. Many chemical\nfacts are of great interest to the trained investigator but of little value and\nless interest to the farmer. The fact that procedures rather than causes\nare the first interest of the grower should determine the character of the\nprinted matter. As the reader grows in familiarity with the material his\ninterest in causes will increase. The facts presented not only should be\ntrue in a chemical or scientific sense but must be of true economic value to\nthe reader. A farmer growing stock almost exclusively will be first interlested in the composition of grains and forage crops with but little concern\nas to the chemical composition of his pasture soils. The fruit grower, on\nJthe other hand, will be early interested in the chemical characteristics of\nlis soil. Neither of these men will, at first, read the material of major\ninterest to the other and in many cases will fail to read either if both appear\nin the same publication.\nThe end to be attained is the improvement of procedure as a result of\nthis information, a result widely different from the simple spread of the\ninformation. Many people know the right way of tillage and culture and\nyet do not practice it. Some appeal must be made to the individual farmer\nthat will reach this end. Universities and experiment stations have\nestablished demonstration farms for this purpose, but these have, in many\ncases, failed to secure their desired result. The constant attitude of the\n^ general run of farmers has been that these things can be done where ample\nfunds are available and immediate profit not a serious consideration.\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "iOo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nDemonstrations to be of greatest result-producing value must at least be\ncarried out on the same basis that the ordinary farmer must use in his work,\nbut best of all undertaken by an ordinary farmer on an ordinary farm.\nOne such successful demonstration is worth more than volumes of printed\nmaterial.\nThe children's com, potato, tomato, and other clubs of the country are\npowerful factors in changing the procedure, because the work is done imder\nordinary conditions by the children of ordinary farmers who are, in many\ncases, unsuccessful in their own practice. Such a demonstration cannot\nbe successfully questioned by the surrounding people. In one case a fairly\nsuccessful farmer persistently ridiculed the expert advice as to feeding his\ncalves. His fourteen-year-old boy finally secured very grudging permission\nto feed two calves the new way. His results so far excelled those of the\nold system of his father that there was no argument left to the old man.\nThe result was a reformation of the calf-feeding procedure on that farm\nthat has put a good increase on the profit side of the books every year and\nmost of all has forced the farmer to admit that perhaps those college men\ndo know something that he has not yet learned.\nThe citation of numerous cases similar to this constitutes about the only\nground for self-congratulation in this work. If we are to secure maximum\nreturns for ovu* effort, these instances of successful demonstration must be\nmultipUed almost indefinitely imtil good practice becomes the accepted\npopular standard of work.\nThe facility with which people grasp, retain, and utilize new facts is\nconditioned largely by their desires. These in Xmto. are controlled by\nnumerous factors, prominent among which are pubUc opinion and the individual will and ambition. These are stimulated and controlled by personal\nleadership. Because of this I beUeve that the third thing we should do\nis to look carefully to the personnel of the scientific corps that has the\nmaking of contracts with the farmers and the pubUcation of material.\nThe men on the farms are often honestly suspicious, and justly so, of\nthe farm expert. It is charged that he either has had no farm experience\nor has scored only failures imder the conditions which the average farmer\nfaces. One can scarcely blame the farmer for discrediting the advice of a\nstation manager known to have made a failure of two attempts to run his\nown farm or for looking with grave suspicion on the recommendations of\nthe chemist who has never worked under the conditions of actual farming.\nThe man who makes the contact must be one who has the right scientific\ninformation plus such a thoro working knowledge of local conditions,\nagricultural, economic, and social, that he can meet men and gain their\nconfidence and stimulate their ambition. No matter how well informed a\nman may be on general facts, unless he knows the local conditions he must\neither bluff or admit his ignorance. In either case his work lacks vitaUty to\nmake any lasting good impression. One well-informed speaker in such a\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROJECT\n\nTEACHING\n\nlOOQ\n\nsituation was honest enough to explain frequently: \"I am unfamiliar with\nyour local conditions but this is what we are doing in\n\". Five\nminutes' conversation with the farmers after the meeting convinced me\nthat so far as benefit to them or to the cause was concerned he had done\nmore harm than good. If he could have spent a month going thru the\ncountry and seeing conditions, his talk would have carried the ring of\nconviction and his hearers would have felt that he knew their situation.\nAs it was he made it almost impossible for any outside man to come\nto that district and get a sympathetic hearing. The chairman of the\nmeeting remarked to me: \"Never again will we go outside for a man for\nthis work.\"\nIn conclusion I would sum up by saying that I believe that our published material should consist of small, compact groups of the facts most\npertinent to a given point, expressed in the simplest and least technical\nlanguage possible. Those facts should in the main be based on demonstrations carried out under actual common farm conditions. The personnel\nof the corps should be chosen first for their abihty to grasp local conditions\nand make the right kind of contacts with the people of their rural communities and secondarily for their proficiency in chemistry.\n\nPROJECT\nJ. A. RANDALL,\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF PHYSICS, PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe corn clubs which have been so successful in the South and Middle\nWest are but one well-known illustration of the general application of a\nnew educational principle. Hundreds of teachers have independently\ndevised activities similar to corn-growing in the corn club. In general such\nnew activities have educated the children more efficiently than do the\ntraditional school exercises. To make the results of such educational\nexperiments more generally available, we need to record them with scientific accuracy and completeness. In this connection the word \"project\"\nis often heard, but so far as the speaker knows there is no generally accepted\ntechnical definition for it. It will be the chief object of this paper to propose a technical definition for the word \"project,\" and to expand the idea\nfor which the word seems to stand. The speaker will take it upon himself\nto invent a second term, \"problem-exercise.\"\nBoth the project and the problem-exercise are special varieties of quesI tion and problem. A question calls for a statement of knowledge on the\npart of the person questioned and of necessity only for a repetition of facts.\nA problem is a question demanding the organization of knowledge and the\nexercise of judgment before the answer is given. \"School project\" is now\nbeing confused with the generic word \"problem\" and the term \"problemexercise.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOlO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science,\n\nA school project is a problem the solution of which results in the pro-l\nduction of some object or knowledge of such value to the worker as to make]\nthe labor involved seem to him worth while.\nSchool projects may be subdivided into individual school projects andj\ncommimity projects.\nThe corn club idea furnishes an illustration of an individual school pro-j\nject. The student is given a piece of land and told to do whatever he wantswith it. He is at liberty to plant or use his land to his own best advantage.\nThe project unmediately becomes a personal one to the child and resolves\nitself into a question of dollars and cents. How much can he make that\nland earn for him ? He hears the prospective rattle of the coins in his\npocket.\nAn instance of the experiment in the town of Rock Island may be given\nas a second illustration of an individual project. In this twenty-six girls\nof the school went to the local orphan asylum; each picked out a child\nand went to work to fit her out with clothing. The school furnished the\nmoney for the material and each girl gave ten cents for the trimming.\nWhen the garments were finished it was hard to say who were the happier —\nthe garment-makers or the wearers.\nThe grinding machines made by Pratt Institute may serve as an illustration ofthe commimity project. In this all students worked on a single\nset of machines, co-operating so that the machines were the product of combined rather than individual effort.\nAnother illustration of the community problem was the building of a\nmachine shop for a vocational school. In this the students worked individually and yet together for a very definite object. This was a community project, but one of less interest for the worker because it was not\npersonal.\nFrom these illustrations we may give the following delimiting characteristics ofa project: The project is a motivated problem and as such its\nsolution requires thought; its completion results in the production of\nsomething of value to the student.\nThe following descriptive characteristics of a project may be helpful:\nit is always concrete; since children's sense of values come largely from\ncommercial sources, it follows that a school project is judged by business\nstandards; the appropriate method of solution is that of commerce; the\ntools and materials used in the solution should be those adapted to commercial production; the project is a small sample of real life brought to school;\nit is adapted to the development of traits required for a successful vocational\ncareer.\nWhat can be said of the applicability of the experience gained from\nproject teaching in vocational schools to the instruction in non-specialized\nschools ? The theory seems applicable and promises immeasurably better\nresults than we have at present. To change overnight would be revolu-\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROJECT\n\nTEACHING\n\nlOII\n\ntionary and we cannot consider it. Cautious steps toward a gradual change\nare therefore to be taken.\nAt once we face real difficulties which cannot be ignored. Efficient\nschool-keeping demands that one teacher keep from twenty-five to fifty\nstudents busy either in recitation rooms or in laboratories. We do not\nknow how to do this and leave the initiation of projects to each individual student. A series of projects must be devised which, thru the\nleadership of the teacher, the student can be induced to undertake at a\nfavorable time in reference both to his mental development and to his\ninterests, and to the mechanical operation of the class as well. Suitable\nprojects are now scarce.\nIt is your work and mine to seek them.\nIn the field of physics the speaker is trying to find projects suitable for\nlaboratory instruction. Schools are so organized that two hours constitute\nthe longest consecutive period which a student may devote to such a project. Even when work is extended over several such school sessions, it is\nexceptional for students to produce a pin, medal, or other object of permanent value to himself. Some of the difficulties are squarely met when we\nconsider some common projects. The electroplating problem-exercise has\nbeen long operated with the determination of the electro-chemical equivalent as an object. Two bright boys whom the writer knows started this\nproblem two years ago as a home project and they are still working on it.\nIn the interval they have successfully plated a large number of objects and\nthey find new branches of the art to conquer more rapidly than they can\nmaster them.\nWireless telegraphy has been a much favored home project and has\ncommanded the untiring energies of many boys. There would be no difficulty about keeping half the boys in the typical high school busy with wireless projects. A well-known teacher in the Middle West taught his boys\nto adjust the gas burners and otherwise to introduce gas economies with\nan average lowering of the gas bills 33 per cent.\nIn relation to the use of school projects in professional and technical\nschools there are mechanical difficulties in the way of its exclusive use which\nmust be considered: instruction must be given in many fields from which\nwe are not now able to bring projects to the school; problems are too big\nto be used as individual school projects; problems are too expensive;\nproblems require too much time; the project proceeds too slowly for vocational and technical courses in which must be given an irreducible minimum\nknowledge which the vocation demands; the project is not suited for giving\na clear over-all idea of subjects.\nThe individual school project is an ideal method whose chief present\nvalue to science teachers is as a standard for comparison. We are now\ndoing many problem-exercises in our vocational laboratories and shops.\nThe nearer they approach the character of the individual school project, the\nmore valuable they become as educational devices.\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe project is a device to improve school spirit, and the individual\nstudent's attitude. The success of an individual school project depends\nless upon the teacher's art than does any other good school activity about\nwhich the speaker knows.\nThe school community project is open to the special objections that it\nlacks personal appeal and that it does not give complete training to each\nstudent.\nThere is conclusive evidence that such projects as have been described\nare educational activities of great value. Is it practicable to give all of our\nscience instruction the compelling interest that these sample projects have ?\nCan we gradually readjust our school routine to attain more rapidly the aims\nof our public schools ? We believe that it can be done and it is our collective\nduty to try to prove by rational educational experiments that this is so.\nWHAT\n\nCAN THE TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY CONTRIBUTE\nTHE SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES\nFOR GIRLS?\n\nGEORGE\n\nW. HOKE, PROFESSOR\n\nOF ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY,\nOXFORD, OHIO\n\nTO\n\nMIAMI UNIVERSITY,\n\nIt is not the province of this paper to report progress along the lines\nsuggested, because, so far as I know, very little is being done. The purpose\nis rather to point out certain possibilities in the field of geography which\nhave been neglected. The topic for discussion will be treated under three\nheads: (i) the need for conservation; (2) a field for geographic survey;\nand (3) the teacher of geography as vocational adviser.\nWe hear much these days about conservation, the watchwords of which\nare economy and efficiency. The first places emphasis upon the cutting\nout of waste in the production, distribution, and consumption of goods.\nThe second seeks for better methods in the apphcation of the materials,\npowers, appHances^ processes, and products of the industrial life. It would\nmore than occupy the time allotted to this paper merely to catalog the\nvarious problems involved in the conservation of the material resources\nof the earth. Another century like the last, with its population increasing\nmore than it did in forty centuries before, and with its reckless inroads upon\nthe stored up wealth of the world, may see humanity reduced to dire extremity. The resources are fixed, but the wants and work of the people may be\nmolded to meet new occasions and new duties. And so, however essential\nthe material resources may be, the need of the hour is for economy and\nefficiency in the conservation of human life and energy. The recognition\nof this need is largely responsible for the recent awakening of interest in\nvocational education.\nUnder simpler conditions men could afford, perhaps, to be self-sufficing,\nnot only in industry, but in judgments.\nToday, however, we are living in a\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS' VOCATIONAL\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\n1013\n\nnew and untried world. The problems of life are complex beyond all\nprevious experience. The only hope of salvation from the deluge of a\nstarving people on a bankrupt earth seems to lie in the development, thru\neducation, of a humanity that is \"not only good, but good for something,\nthat is fit for responsibility, and that has just estimates of relative values.\"\nNor is it enough to Uf t the men of the world into a plane of higher service.\nWe have assumed too long that we are living in a man's world. It is the\nacme of monumental stupidity to hope for a high-grade humanity when\nthe mothers of the race are looked upon as a sort of attendant circumstance,\nto be tolerated as the property of the male hero in the drama. Girls have\na right to a career, and the world is not so rich in energy and abiUty that it\ncan afiford to do without them in government and industry any more than\nit can dispense with their services in school and church. Vocational fitness\nmust be extended to women as sincerely as it is extended to men, and the\nschools can help most effectively to cut out the waste in human life by\ngiving vocational guidance to boys and girls at a time when they are so\nhelpless to see and choose. In the days to come, careful scrutiny is sure\nto be made of the opportunities afforded by the various subjects of study\nin the curriculum for orientation in the work of the world. Among these\nsubjects, geography offers many fine prospects that have never been\nworked out. Local survey work, and vocational guidance represent two of\nthese prospects.\nGeography is essentially a survey subject. From the days when\nPytheas sailed the northern seas, down to the last brave dash for the pole,\nthe keynote of geography has been discovery and exploration. However, the vocational opportimities that may be revealed by a home survey of the industrial and social situation have been largely overlooked.\nSchool geography should be primarily home geography, but it is absurd\nto suppose that the subject has been exhausted when the discovery of tomato\ncans in the grocery store has been consummated. The facts are that the\nfood we eat, the clothes we wear, the houses we build, the roads, shops, and\nstores that seem so obvious, all represent the product of an age-long series\nof achievements. To see them in the light of other days and ways is to\nglimpse the great process of evolution by which man has moved from long\nago to now. To cultivate such vision is eminently worth while, and has\nbeen quite sufficient to justify the study of geography in the schools. In\naddition, however, the study of home conditions may be employed as a\nmeans for training boys and girls to make a practical survey of local opportunities anywhere and any time. The farmer who locates his barn, the\nofficials who locate a bridge, or the merchant who locates his store makes\ncertain more or less conscious appUcation of geographic principles. It\nlooks reasonable to suppose that children might be so trained in the survey\nand interpretation of their surroundings that they will be able to make\nconscious application of the principles involved and need not be eternally\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nwaiting, Micawber-like, for something to turn up, but will be able, in a\ndegree at least, to sense a situation, and have a little insight into the preparation necessary to meet it. Such an appUcation of geography to a local\nsurvey seems to be in accord with those movements in education which\nemphasize the practical in addition to the academic aspects of study. It\nwill help to provide the rich with a basis for voluntary social service, and\nthe poor with some standard for the choice of a vocation.\nThe home survey should take stock of the structure, function, and\nsupply of local equipments and activities. The home itself presents a rich\nfield for improved economy and efficiency. Housekeeping and homemaking are belated industries into which modem industrial methods are\njust beginning to enter. The preparation and service of food, the buying\nand designing of materials for clothing, house sanitation, decoration, and\nfurnishing provide many avenues of social and commercial activities for\ngirls of enterprise and taste. Domestic help, for instance, might command\nthe wages and respect of skilled service if the possibilities of such work were\nrealized and adequate preparation made for it. In nearly every community\nsome of the girls could open commercial kitchens, and furnish many items\nthat would be better and cheaper than most families could prepare them\nat home, because of the saving afforded by large-scale production. Of\ncourse it would not be the province of geography to give the necessary\ntechnical training, but it would certainly help some if girls in the schools\ncould gain an insight into the needs for home services and the attendant\nprospects. To cite another instance. The field of salesmanship for girls\nis well worth a local survey in towns and cities. Many large concerns\nrecognize this fact and have opened schools for the training of clerks in the\nbuying and selling of goods. A survey in nearly any store of the function\nof salesmanship as it actually exists in the community, and of the elements\nfor success in the work of a clerk should be a valuable experience for either\nbuying or selling. These two instances of domestic service and of salesmanship must suffice. Anyone who cares to do so can extend the list almost\nindefinitely. The Women's Educational and Industrial Union of Boston\nhas pubUshed a book on Vocations for the Trained Woman which is a rich\nmine of facts and suggestions along these lines.\nMoreover the teacher can get in touch with the industrial situation,\nlearn the needs of the going concerns in the community, find what kinds\nof service are in demand, and bring the information back to the school.\nI have suggested the idea to many men of affairs and have not found one\nwho would not welcome such interest. Here and there it is being done\nwith conspicuous success. Someone must do it. The number of incompetents isalready appalling. When one remembers the increasing inteUigence\nnecessary to make headway tmder our rapidly developing conditions, the\ncall to the schools to get in line, survey the opportunities, and train for the\nservices that are in demand becomes imperative.\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSPECIAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nGIRLS\n\n1015\n\nBut the teacher of geography can do even more than direct the conduct\nof the home survey and mediate between the school and the industrial\nworld. By virtue of the fact that he is a teacher he ought to be able to\nmake accurate estimates of character and capacities and give efifective\nadvice as to vocational fitness. But the problem of the vocational adviser\ninvolves more than the ability to interpret human nature. He must also\nknow the field of vocational opportunity, and be able to recognize the elements\nof individual fitness to the characteristic demands of specific vocations.\nThe capable teacher of geography ought to be able to meet these\ndemands better than most others. His professional training and experience\nis on the whole equal to that of other teachers in the matter of recognizing\nphysical and mental traits. But, in addition, the very nature of the subjectmatter with which he deals ought to give him an insight into local conditions\nquite superior to any other. Moreover, if the home geography is made a\nsurvey of local conditions, he is placed at once in a position of strategic\nadvantage. The pupils look upon him as one who knows about such\nthings, and they naturally turn to him for advice. These remarks apply\nwith equal force to the teacher of geography in the grades, in the high\nschool, or in the college. They imply also that home geography does not\nend with the fourth grade. Thruout the course, home conditions furnish\nthe basis for understanding foreign ones and more remote conditions in\nturn are brought to throw light upon the local situation. These crossreferences between the home and the world are absolutely indispensable\nto geography teaching at all stages, and the geography teacher must be in\ntouch with both. Here lies an opportunity for vocational guidance, that is\nalmost unique in its application.\n\nA.\n\nTOPIC:\n\nDEVIATIONS FOR STANDARDIZED COLLEGEENTRANCE COURSES FOR GIRLS\n\nSPECIAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nFOR GIRLS IN THE\n\nRURAL\n\nBLANCHE\nOLIN TWISS, COLUMBUS,\nOHIO, FORMERLY\nSTATE\nOF HOME ECONOMICS, EXTENSION DIVISION, UNIVERSITY\nLARAMIE, WYO.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDEMONSTRATOR\nOF WYOMING,\n\nIn discussing this subject, I wish to emphasize the need of the teaching\nof sciences for both our boys and our girls. Altho rural life offers an\nabundance of material for the teaching of all the sciences, it is here that\nfrequently such training is most neglected. In the state of Wyoming,\nwhere I have had the best opportunities for studying conditions, the\ncounty superintendents report that desultory study of agriculture, physiology, and sewing constitute the only scientific instruction given in the\nthe Wyoming rural schools, the average time allowed to such teaching\nbeing 90 minutes a week.\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioi6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Scienc\n\nWith Wyoming as with many other states, I feel that the difficulty\nlies largely with the teachers. Instead of sending well-grounded, finelytrained women of broad experience and ready sympathies to the rural communities where the problems are most difficult to handle, it is there that\nplace our young and inexperienced girls, generally without normal training.\nIf by chance they make good under these adverse conditions, they are welcomed into our towns and cities, where they may have the opportunitie\nand advantages of careful supervision by principal and superintendent.\nOn the contrary, we should send our strongest teachers to the rural districts\nwhere the tact and brains of a mature woman are required.\nThe value of any teaching naturally depends upon the personality and\ntraining of the teacher and the method here suggested demands not only\nthoro training but also the interest, sympathy, and constant supervision of\na teacher who is well versed in her subject and has become skilled by\nexperience.\nThe science work for girls in the rural schools should be chosen from\nthe fields of chemistry, botany, physiology, and biology, including bacteriology, tobe taught in close correlation with sewing or cooking. In my\nopinion, it is quite practicable to teach the rudiments of chemistry, botany,\nphysiology, sewing, and cooking to separate classes. Boys may join in the\ncooking classes in which they are often interested but never yet have I\nfound any who really cared to do sewing, altho an excellent argument might\nbe made in favor of teaching boys enough sewing to enable them to make\nthe ordinary simple repairs on their own clothing. Physiology and hygiene\ncan never be adequately taught in mixed classes. Intense correlation is\nnecessary and the knowledge obtained becomes far more available if it is\nobtained in connection with the working out of each topic in connection\nwith a problem-exercise or a project. In a seventh-grade class suppose\nthe project were to obtain information in regard to microscopic plants.\nThe methods may be crude and inaccurate and yet it is surely better to do\nthe work making due allowances for its inaccuracies than to let the matter\ngo by default. For example: The teacher and pupils boil meat broth for a\nlong time until it is practically sterile, add enough gelatine to make it jelly,\nkeep it hot in a water bath for an hour, and then turn the solution iato\nscalded dishes to cool. Expose the gelatine for five minutes in the schoolroom, let the pupils expose other of the dishes in the dififerent homes for a\ngiven length of time. Then keep them carefully covered on a table near\nthe stove until the colonies of bacteria, yeasts, and molds develop. After\nstudying these colonies under a simple hand magnifier, the children realize,\nas never before, the necessity for sweeping, dusting, and scrubbing in the\ngreat and unending task of keeping the home clean. Countless experiments may be made. In all these experiments it is imperative that a\nduphcate set of dishes receive the same treatment in order to prove that\nthe colonies developed from the germs admitted during exposure rather\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSPECIAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nGIRLS\n\n1017\n\nthan from the gelatine itself. Perhaps the greatest advantage of such\nteaching is the fact that the pupils are taught the experimental method,\nto formulate their own problems, to try and try again, to vary different\nfactors, and to draw their own conclusions regardless of the authority of\nteacher or textbook. While working with these microscopic forms, the\ngirls should acquire the technique of making bread and rolls as well as\nthe knowledge of the action and growth of yeasts. They should apply\nthe knowledge obtained from the study of yeasts, molds, and bacteria in\nsterilizing jars and fruits while they learn the art of canning and preserving.\nThey should acquire the knowledge of methods for preventing the growth\nof molds on concentrated fruit juices as well as the necessary skill for making acceptable jellies. Let me suggest that every rural teacher familiarize\nherself with the work of the extension division of her state. The standards\nused by the extension division for judging bread, jellies, and all canned\ngoods should be those used for judging the pupils' products. Much good\nmay be done thru the raising of community standards by urging that the\nwork of the school girls and boys be exhibited in county and state fairs.\nIn teaching botany, correlation with agriculture is dictated by commonsense as well as by pedagogical theory. Suppose the project be the raising\nand marketing of corn or any other vegetable. Selection and testing of\nseeds, preparation of soil, planting and care for both irrigation or dry\nfarming methods can be not only studied theoretically but also actually\ncarried out practically in window boxes or school garden plots. The\nbotanical features of the plant may be studied while the selection of good\nvegetables and the care of them in storage and the preparation for the\ntable correlates naturally with such knowledge. Here the opportunity\noffers itself for teaching variety in the preparation of vegetables. Nearly\none hundred simple and palatable dishes may be prepared from potatoes\nalone and yet many households restrict themselves to a possible seven.\nTomatoes may be prepared in over three hundred ways and yet in few\nhomes do they appear in more than ten different forms. The teacher\nin a rural school has an excellent opportunity for improving the diet of her\npupils' families and assisting in economical management by teaching the\ncountry girls the most palatable and nutritive ways of using the farm\nproducts.\nIn the work in chemistry, the study of acids and alkalies is the most\nimportant for the needs of this work. Neutralization can be shown by the\nuse of litmus, always obtainable, and a medicine dropper with which to\nadd the acid to the alkali. After several such experiments, it is of great\ninterest to show what part of a teaspoonful of soda is required to neutralize\none cup of recently soured milk as compared with the same quantity of\nold milk. Baking powders can be made to illustrate the action of soda and\nacids, and the fact that much of cooking is pure chemistry is one of great\ninterest and utility. The careful use of chemical reagents in cleaning\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOl8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[SciencT\n\nmetals and in laundry work serves as an excellent means of illustrating and\nfixing principles learned with test-tube experiments. The study of the\neffects of dyes on different fabrics, the manufacture of textiles and of foods,\nthe sanitary precautions required in sickness and in health, all offer opportunities for correlation with daily school routine and life-problems. Our\nyoung people in towns and cities with special equipment and extra time\nallowed are receiving such training. It is only fair that our rural girls be\ngiven some of its benefits. With careful correlation there is no reason why\nthis work may not be begun in the fifth grade or when the pupils are about\nthe age of ten. An elaborate equipment is not needed and school boards\nusually gladly furnish all that is required. Here is the report of one teacher\nwho was teaching in a desperately poor district just outside the Shoshone\nIndian reservation in Wyoming. In illustration of what may be done under\ndifficult circimastances, I quote from her experiences in carrying out such\na plan as suggested. This may be considered fairly typical of our rural\nconditions, but the teacher is one of those whom I have mentioned, one\nwho has brains.\nAN\n\nEXPERIMENT\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nSCIENCE\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\nIN A RURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n(From an answer to a questionnaire by Myrl Skaggs, Riverton, Wyo.)\nThe schools which I have taught have been in no way different from a great ma\nother one-teacher niral schools in this state.\nThe first schoolhouse in which I taught was a little claim shack with a small lean-to\ncoal house. In this coal house, I saw my opportimity for a domestic science kitchen.\nWe shoveled three thousand pounds of coal out imder the blue sky, scrubbed, sawed out\na stove-pipe hole and a window. We borrowed a small camp range from a friend. My\nsup)erintendent at Riverton had his boys make us two long shelves on which to store oiu'\nsupplies. I made a table out of a goods box and some scrap lumber. Our supplies\nwere kept in Mason jars donated by our patrons. My girls hemmed the dish towels\nthat we used. Our equipment was very meager. We begged and borrowed what we\ncould, and the rest were devised from coffee cans. This certainly was a test of our\ningenuity. I estimated that the cost for equipment did not exceed one dollar.\nMost of our work in our kitchen was the actual preparation of food. I did not teach\nthis in the way I woidd in a graded school, because I thought that I had better teach\nthe theoretical part of the work by means of correlation. Of course I gave the reason\nfor the different steps.\nBriefly I followed the following outline:\nBreakfast dishes: friiits, cereals, eggs, worked out menus.\nSupper dishes: fruits, vegetables, eggs, preparation of white sauce, a few meats,\nsimple desserts.\nDinner dishes: vegetables, soups, desserts, meats, salads.\nPrinciples of laimdering and cleaning: simple principles, i.e., neutralization of an\nacid stain, etc.\nI found that allowing the children to serve refreshments at our little programs put\nmore zest into our work. I found that keeping our accounts added greatly to the interest\nof my seventh grade in arithmetic. Physiology was the best field for correlation. In\nthis subject we prepared menus and studied the simple principles of nutrition. In home\ngeography, we selected sites for houses and discussed sanitation and other problems of the\nhomemaker.\nOur compositions were generally on different phases of homemaking.\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA CHEMISTRY\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\n1019\n\nThis last year I have not had a kitchen; but have had my children prepare their\nwork at home. I believe, however, that the actual work followed by a home lesson is\nthe best method. We generally spent about an hour and a half a week on this work.\nOur sewing was largely pickup work. Sometimes the boys have worked with the girls.\nI have not required this, however. Other times they did simple work in manual training.\nAs for the results, I foimd that in these simple homey subjects I brought my girls\ncloser to me. They ceased to feel that I and my world of school were apart from everyday\nlife. I do not believe that there has been a single girl who has not been in a degree more\ninterested in homemaking. I remember one so-called lazy and selfish girl, who at the\nend of the term was twice as thoughtful and capable. I do not credit the change to any\nskilful teaching. It was simply a case of latent possibility. Another very marked\nresult I have seen and that is the kindled interest of my girls' mothers. They begin to\nwant to know more of this subject which has for its purpose the lightening of their burdens\nand the increasing of their efficiency.\n\nB.\n\nA CHEMISTRY\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR GIRLS\n\nMARY ETHEL JONES, HEAD OF CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL,\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nThe systematic school training of most of the girls attending high school\nends when they graduate. Within a few years after graduation, many of\nthese girls are married and have the entire responsibility of caring for\na home. Homemaking is the life-work of practically every woman.\nWhether she marries or not, it is the business of every woman to know how\nto manage a home efficiently, A knowledge of chemistry is fundamental\nin the study of nearly all the other sciences. An exact knowledge of the\nchemistry of the processes concerned leads to efficiency in practically every\nart and industry; the science of household management, which is also an\nart in the highest sense of the word, is no exception to these rules.\nSeven years ago, a course was built for service — a course in chemistry for girls. The girls were told about it. Each year the nvunber of\nclasses grew; new laboratories had to be built and new teachers found.\nAt present the enrolment each term in domestic chemistry is usually more\nthan twice that of the regular chemistry. This remarkable increase in the\nnumber of girls taking chemistry has proved that the girls needed just such\na course.\nWere this apparent success at the expense of thoroness in subjectmatter, the course would be unworthy of discussion. That it is a thoro\ncourse in real chemistry is indicated by the fact that it is given the same\nentrance credit by the universities as is given the regular chemistry.\nDomestic chemistry is a college-entrance course, altho it deviates from the\nstandardized course in chemistry. This deviation is not apparent until\nthe beginning of the second term. The work the first term is so similar to\nthe work in the first term of regular chemistry that in some schools the\nclasses are not separated until the beginning of the second term. Mindful\nof the time, I can mention only a few of the topics studied: (i) what we\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI020\n\n(Science\n\nbreathe; (2) what we drink; (3) acids, bases, and salts, and particularly\nthose used commonly in the home; (4) carbon, fuels, and illuminants;\n(5) some compounds of carbon and simple organic chemistry; (6) the appUcation of this organic chemistry to the study of food principles; (7) food\nadulterants; (8) leavening agents; (9) soaps and cleansing agents; (10)\ntextiles and methods of cleaning and dyeing them.\n\nC.\n\nAPPLIED\n\nHAZEL\n\nSCIENCE AS THE BASIS OF THE GIRL'S\nEDUCATION\n\nW. SEVERY,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSANTA\n\nBARBARA,\n\nCAL.\n\nScience courses to meet the general needs of all girls may be classified\nunder two heads: first, courses for girls who are planning a scientific or\ntechnical education; second, courses which make better homes because the\nsciences are taught in a simple but practical way. We wish to discuss in\nthis paper our second division, that of making better homes, because the\nsciences are taught in a simple but practical way.\nLet us consider of what a science course for girls should consist and\npoint out a few of its possibiUties. Botany allows the study of the development, structure, and function of cell, leaf, stem, root, and flower; their\nnutrition, assimilation, respiration, and food storage. Processes of breadmaking are brought out by yeast. From the study of simple bacteria can\neasily be made clear and practical its relations to household processes such\nas care of milk, decay of food, sterilization of dishes, combating disease,\nand cultivating useful flavoring and soil bacteria. Botany helps to create\nthe love for the beautiful which can be reproduced in the household decoration by better selection of woods, wallpaper, color combinations. It gives\na clearer insight to the care of flowers which beautify the grounds and to\nthe raising of vegetables that will lower the cost of living.\nK zoology rather than botany is selected as a study, the divisions to be\ndiscussed are the structure and the life-processes of the cell, the earthworm,\nfish, frog, and rabbit.\nThe best medical men are paying more attention to the prevention of\ndisease by correcting the wrong ways of living than by treating the effect.\nThe public-school system of education can help by laying more stress upon\nappHed physiology. Personal hygiene is taught thru the scientific and\npractical presentation of the structure of the body, digestion, circulation,\nassimilation, nervous system, ventilation, rest, exercise, sleep, and avoidance of unnecessary drugs. Bring the facts so forcefully to the girl that\nshe can apply them to such subjects as sanitation, water and milk suppHes,\nprevention of infectious diseases, better children, and better homes. Make\nthe subject vital, for nothing is more important than the production and\npreservation of a healthy race. Apply the work directly to home duties,\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLIED\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAS BASIS OF GIRLS' EDUCATION\n\n102 1\n\nas for instance, showing what parts of the body are exercised when we sweep,\nwash, or iron. Applied problems always make the home work less of a\ndrudgery. Chemistry trains the girl to observe, to reason, and to apply\nto the home difficulties the principles learned.\nThe first half-year of the work in chemistry would be given to a thoro\ngrounding in the fundamental principles given in a clear, simple manner,\nwith special applications to the home problems. Complex theories would\nbe left out. Household chemistry would occupy the second half of the\nyear's study. Its division would be food and textile chemistry. What is\nmore important from the homemaker's viewpoint than the preparation\nand preservation of food ? Food chemistry gives the girl the simple test,\nacquaintance with the different brands of foods, knowledge of the purefood law, but above all the power to choose the best and most economical\nfood. Discussion of extracts leads to the study of alcohol as a solvent,\nantiseptic, antidote for carbolic poisoning, etc. From vinegar we go to the\nfruit acids, glycerine, and fats. Thru butter and olive oil are studied\nsaporification, soaps, digestion, manufacture, and purity of fat products.\nCarbohydrates and proteins are then taken up thru the common food stuffs,\nso as to show hydrolysis, the relation of these products to each other, and\nto account for the changes they undergo during digestion. Such food\nproducts as baking powders, chocolate, tea, and coffee have their value in\nsuch a course. By textile chemistry the high cost of living in the home can\nbe reduced. The girl, in order to make the right selection of material,\nmust understand fibers and whether a material is filled or bleached to the\nrotting-point. A simple knowledge of household tests is necessary to know\nthe purity of wool, cotton, linen, and silk. The laundry shows the effect\nof hard and soft waters, soap, soap manufacture, bleaching powders, stain\nremovers, dying, and ironing in such a way that it will not take the girl\nlong to choose between superior and inferior work done by the laundries.\nHousehold physics teaches the laws of levers by the can-opener, icecream freezer, and other simple household devices. Radiation, convection,\nconduction, are illustrated by the stove, cooking utensils, thermos bottle,\nand fireless cooker. Then follow such subjects as ventilation of the home\nand school; light and its effect on household decoration; illimiination;\nelectricity in its simplest forms, electric bell, electric iron, telephone, telegraph; color and its physical and psychological effect. Thru house\nstructure and musical instruments sound is taught.\nThese science courses should consist of lectures, recitations, and individual laboratory work. In closing allow me to make this plea. Let us\nmake our science courses stronger, more practicable, and more easily\napplied to the girl's needs. Let us give the facts in such a simple, clear,\nforceful way that they will be understood and applied to home problems.\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nI022\n\nD.\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\nIDA WELCH,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nFOR THE FIRST YEAR OF HIGH SCHOOL\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nEVERETT,\n\nWASH.\n\nA general course in science as proposed for the first year of high school\nis intended primarily for those who drop out of school after the first year\nor so and therefore receive no training in science. It may also serve as an\nintroductory and a preparatory course for those who will take more advanced\nwork in science.\nWhen the high school began as a preparatory school for college, only the\nmore capable students entered. Now we have students from all classes of\nsociety, and a very small percentage of those who enter the high school\ncomplete the four-year course. Many of those who remain in school fall\nbelow the standards set for them. To fail to give some kind of scientific\ntraining to those who are not capable of more technical work is to lose a\ngreat opportunity for raising the standard of living of those who need it\nmost. As a nation we are not living up to our scientific knowledge, partly\nbecause those who do not fit into our scheme get no training of this kind,\nand those studying sciences are not generally taught in a practical way.\nThe world is still full of people who follow superstition. I recall a case\nwhere a boy had been bitten by a dog and his mother treated the wound by\ntying on it some hair from the dog's back.\nThe subject-matter would enter more closely into the life of the student\nif the credit given bore directly upon his abiUty to apply the instructions.\nI fail to see the value in the study of personal hygiene and sanitation unless\nit is put into use, just as in the case of cooking and mechanics. The students\nmay be led thru suggestion to make practical applications at home and\nreport on their results. The subject-matter need not be confined to textbooks. Magazines are an important source of information and deal with\npractical questions not found in the textbooks. Students also like occasional y to write up their own work for the daily papers. This gives them\nexcellent training in English, and makes them more exact in their observations and more accurate in their conclusions.\nScience for the first year should not be technical and should not go into\ndetail. I have known students to take things from the laboratory just\nto experiment at home in their own free way.\nEach teacher should outline a course to suit his particular environment.\nThis can be done adequately only when boys and girls are taught in separate classes. Furthermore I believe that the girls should be taught by a\nwoman,\nG. Stanley Hall says:\nNature decrees that with advancing civilization the sexes shall not approximate but\ndifferentiate, and we shall probably be obliged to carry sex distinctions, at least of\nmethods, into many if not most of the topics of the higher education. Now that woman\nhas by general consent attained the right to the best that man has, she must seek a training\nthat fits her own nature as well or better. So long as she strives to be a man, she will be\ninferior and a pinchbeck imitation, but she must develop a new sphere that shall be like\nthe rich field of the cloth of gold for the best instincts of her nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nFOR FIRST\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nYEAR\n\n1023\n\nA course in general science might well begin with a study of the\nphysical environment, but this should not be treated in the cut-and-dried\nmethod. This part of the subject might be made to apply to the\nindustrial side of life for the boys and to the home life of the girls. The\noutline at the end of the paper may be suggestive for this part of the\ncourse for the girls. A course following this outline, with little variance,\nhas been given to the domestic science girls in our school for the past\nthree years.\nThe study of the physical environment might well be followed by the\nsubject of the reproduction and development of animals and plants. In\nthis way the sex question may be met naturally and quietly without any\nreference to sex hygiene. This seems to be the most logical and sane way\nof treating the subject. A wholesome and lasting impression is made upon\nthe minds of the students when the developmental changes are watched\nfrom the growth of the egg cells thru the embryonic stages into young living\ncreatures. If this part of the subject is given thru textbook descriptions,\nit loses it greatest value. The study of a single case of development is not\nsufficient, but live fish eggs should be obtained, and the hen's egg incubated as well as the eggs of amphibians.\nIn connection with this study of reproduction and development are\ngiven the theories of evolution, continuity of germ plasm, and the laws of\nheredity. Great interest is shown by the students in gathering data from\ntheir own observation and from the experiments of those who are raising\nfancy chickens, pigeons, rabbits, plants, and fruits. The Next Generation,\nby Francis Gulick Jewitt, is an excellent book for this part of the\nwork.\nRight here, in developing the principles of evolution, is the place to\ndevelop the morals and ideals of the student. He discovers man's relation\nto the natural laws, also he finds that he is a part of the great and divine\nplan of the imiverse, and this awakens in him a higher sense of life. In\ndirecting his moral and religious instincts, ideals cannot be found which\nare too high. Ethics need not necessarily be taught in the classroom, but\nit may be done indirectly by the instructor. Let the student take the\ninitiative and when he begins to ask questions, place into his hands books\nwhich you have already selected for this purpose. This will prevent argumentation. He will continue to ask you for reading and advice long after\nhe has left your class. Is it the place of the school to do this work ? It is\nthe place of the school to make good citizens.\nA course in general science given from the student's viewpoint of life\nwill be the most successful course ever given. The teacher's relation to the\nstudent is different and in turn the student's attitude toward the teacher\nis to regard him as one who becomes interested in him and as a helper in\nhis daily life. This at once makes the subject and school appeal to the\nyouth as something in which he has a vital part.\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nOuTrnifE IN General Science foe Girls\nTo be followed by the study of animals and plants.\nThree hours a week to be given to laboratory exercises.\n1. Air: Composition of the air; air in the home, in public buildings; effects of uncleanly\npremises on the air; moisture in the air; testing the air for Coa and live dust.\n2. Ventilation.\n3. Water: Composition of water; study of its elements; water as a solvent; hard and\nsoft water; purification of water; organic matter in water; water pollution; water\nsupply and sewage disposal.\n4. Light and heat: Gas light; lighting and heating of public buildings and the home;\nfireless cooker; steam-pressiu-e cooking; electric iron.\n5. Sanitation and bacteria: Characteristics and action of bacteria; immunity and disinfection; methods of sweeping and dusting; sanitary habits; care of street, lots, and\nalleys.\n6. Yeast and molds.\n7. FUes, mosquitoes, and rats; their relation to disease.\n8. Foods: Their composition and care.\n9. Personal hygiene.\n\nTHE PLACE\n\nOF PURE\n\nE, P. LEWIS, PROFESSOR\n\nSCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL\nSYSTEM\nOF PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nOF CALIFORNIA,\n\nIn discussing this question, we must first agree upon what we mean\nby pure science. No science, at least in the early stage of its teaching,\ncan be pure in the sense of complete detachment from more or less familiar\nphenomena. It is founded on realities and cannot get far away from them.\nI think that what we mean when we speak of pure science is science considered altogether without regard to its utilitarian possibilities and with\nreference to its more general aspects and principles rather than to its\nnarrower details. The sciences have often been taught in this way. The\nobjects and processes studied and the apparatus employed often have no\nother function than to serve as illustrations of the principles which they are\nintended to illustrate. It has been the boast of many teachers that they\nrefuse to teach anything that can be of any practical use. Opposed to this\nnotion is the vocational idea which has lately permeated the educational\nworld. In its extreme form, it demands that no time be spent on elementary science except in the study of methods, processes, or apparatus\nwhich are actually used in the industrial world. We must remember,\nhowever, in considering this question, that it is not necessary to go to\nextremes in either direction, but that between these extremes we may find\nsome happy mean.\nTwenty-four years of teaching have gradually modified my originally\northodox views, have made me see vividly the weaknesses as well as the\nstrong points of both the extreme cultural and the extreme vocational idea,\nand have given me fairly definite views regarding the kind of science teaching\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n1025\n\nwhich may be expected to do the most good for the largest proportion\nof students. To make my ideas clear it may be well to use some concrete illustrations. These illustrations I shall draw from the field of\nphysics, partly because that is the science most familiar to me and partly\nbecause it is the one which is most subject to abuse by extremes of\ntreatment.\nPhysics as usually taught in California, and probably elsewhere, twenty\nyears ago may serve as an example of what we may, for the purposes of the\npresent discussion, consider as pure science, altho there may be some reservations as to whether the methods followed and the results obtained would\njustify such a title. Usually five periods a week were devoted to this subject. Three of these were taken up with recitations from the textbook, often\nmere question and answer. Memorization of the printed page was all that\nwas required for a high mark. It is needless to point out that this was in no\nsense science study. It is the method used in language study or in any other\nsubject where usage and authority are supreme. There was little or no\ndirect observation and discussion of scientific phenomena, which alone can\nbe the basis of scientific inquiry. It is like learning art from the pages of\na catalog. The remaining two periods were devoted to the laboratory.\nHere emphasis was laid upon measurement, not upon physical principles.\nThe apparatus was designed for the purpose of obtaining the numerical\ndata which were the main object in view, and the discussion of their meaning played a small part in the work of the pupils. The nature of the work\nmade it impossible to perform many experiments. As a result the pupils\nhad no opportunity to observe and study many phenomena which should\nbe familiar to them. A neatly written notebook was considered the crowning triumph of their labor. So ingrained was the idea that this kind of\nlaboratory work is vital that when a number of teachers investigated the\nsubject of physics teaching a few years ago, with a view to making it more\npalatable and nutritious, they could not escape the clutch of tradition.\nThey recommended no essential change of method, but by a majority vote\nthey selected the seventy quantitative experiments which they regarded\nas most indispensable and suggested that choice be made only from this\nlist, but that on no account should more than one experiment illustrating a\ngiven principle he assigned. Undoubtedly this was to enable the pupil to\ncover the ground in one year. But what a blow to the inductive principle\nwhich is supposed to underlie scientific instruction! How intimate would\nyou ever become with a person whom you were allowed to meet but once ?\nWhat would we think of a teacher of geography who confined his laboratory\nwork for beginners to drawing accurate topographical maps, or the teacher\nof astronomy who began by having his pupils calculate latitude and longitude and computing eclipses? Elementary students must first be introduced to scientific phenomena and become familiar with them by frequent\nobservation in varied aspects before they can profitably undertake that\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "I026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niSdence\n\nphase of study. We do not initiate a friendship by measuring the nose and\ncounting the hairs of the object.\nNo wonder that pupils showed little interest in physics and refused to\nassimilate it or any other science thus taught. No wonder that teachers\ngrew discouraged, and that, as shown by the reports of the commissioner of\neducation, there has been a steady decline in the number of pupils of secondary schools studying the physical sciences.\nThis growing dissatisfaction, together with the general democratization\nof our schools which has attended their rapid growth, caused a demand for\nstudies leading more directly to some practical end. Naturally this reaction\nwent perhaps a little too far sometimes, or rather it did not take sufficient\naccoimt of all the things which go to make up the fulness of life, which should\nmean more than bread to eat, or clothes to wear, or a bed to sleep in — perhaps even more than the movies, and baseball games, and joy rides, which\nseem to be accounted practical by many apparently hard-headed persons.\nAs a consequence of this movement, physics has been dropped entirely in\nsome schools, and type-setting or plumbing substituted — as tho every boy\nintended to be a type-setter or plumber. In other schools it is taught in\nwhat is supposed to be an extremely practical fashion. That is to say, only\nthose phases of physics are considered which seem to apply directly to\nmachinery, or to the use of gas and electrical appliances, or to the cidtivation of the soil. It is as tho we taught English for lawyers, EngUsh for\ndoctors, English for cooks, forgetting that nothing that we can give all our\nchildren is so practical as a facility in the use of their own language in\nexpressing every phase of their life-activity. In physics likewise there are\na multitude of facts, phenomena, and principles which are not confined to\nany one field of industry and which can be but imperfectly grasped if considered only with reference to that field.\nIt is easy to see that this method falls far short of attaining even the\nlimited object in view. It is not a practical method in the sense used by its\nadvocates, for, when it is taught in such a narrow spirit, it is impossible\nfor the pupils to obtain any real command of the subject. At best they\nlearn the mechanical construction and the mechanical use of what they\nstudy, without the power to correct what may go wrong or to meet new\nconditions. Their knowledge is mere rule of thiunb like that acquired by\nstudents in those schools which guarantee to teach mechanical or electrical\nengineering in one year, without physics or mathematics. It would be\nunpractical, even if the knowledge imparted were not superficial, because\nin a given class there would be pupils with widely different purposes in life,\nto most of whom a limited number of special practical applications would be\nvalueless; whereas physics taught in a broader spirit might be made interesting and instructive to every member of the class. Again, such a method\ndoes not inspire interest except where it makes a special utilitarian appeal.\nWe are likely to forget that children are not materialistic or utilitarian.\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n1027\n\nThey have imaginations which we should develop, not stifle. There is in\nevery healthy child an innate curiosity about his surroundings which\ndemands satisfaction, and which if developed and encouraged is the surest\npassport to knowledge and power. Often the colors in a soap bubble may\narouse more interest than a pulley or steam engine. The gratification of\ncuriosity in such cases is not wholly useless; one who understands the\norigin of these colors can all the easier understand wireless telegraphy.\nThe \"practical\" teacher sees no connection between the two.\nIf neither of the extreme methods seems to fulfil the hopes of those who\nhave tried them, how can success be attained ? It seems to me to lie in\nsubstituting for the textbook direct contact with phenomena, with the additional human interest to be gained from reading the biographies of great\nphysicists, and by substituting for a limited number of quantitative experiments an unlimited number of qualitative experiments. Instead of confining attention to either useful or useless things, make use of every fact,\nevery process, every phenomenon which is available to illustrate every\nprinciple. Only in such a way can an intimate acquaintance of the subject\nbe secured, which is no less thoro because not expressed in mathematical\nterms. Much of what we may call pure physics will be included in such a\ncourse. I conclude that pure science in our schools is justified, because it\ncreates an interest among all classes of pupils, and because science otherwise taught is necessarily incomplete and superficial. I believe that this\nconclusion applies to all other sciences.\nSo far we have considered the methods which may be expected to give\nthe most thoro and generally useful grasp of a science, but it seems to me\nthat there is another end which for most of our children is far more significant and important. In a mixed elementary class there can be only a\nsmall number who can learn much which will be of direct practical value in\ntheir life-work. Most of the actual knowledge obtained will be forgotten\nby all in a few years. What remains to justify the time, effort, and expense\nof teaching it ? The result which proves most permanent is likewise that\nwhich is the great and unique value of scientific training. Language,\nhistory, and most other subjects depend entirely on usage, tradition, and\nauthority, and tend to inculcate the habit of bhnd obedience and unquestioning acceptance of established views. Science properly taught appeals\nto the pupil's own perception and judgment. The object of scientific study\nis the truth, undistorted by prejudice, tradition, or speculation. The habit\nof mind acquired in studying nature will, perhaps unconsciously, influence\nour attitude toward social, political, and economic questions. There are\ngreat problems before us upon which the future welfare of society depends.\nWhy is 60 per cent of the country's wealth concentrated in the hands of 2\nper cent of its population ? What proportion was earned, what proportion\ndue to special privileges, what proportion stolen ? Are our systems of land\nownership and of taxation what they should be ? Are our laws efl&ciently\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand justly administered to rich and poor alike ? Why does every improvement in the methods and machinery of production seem to increase the cost\nof Mving? These and many similar questions are not to be solved by\nappeals to past usage, by political chicanery, or by demagogic upheavals.\nThey are to be solved only by sober and disinterested scientific study.\nThe mastery and appUcation of the scientific method of ascertaining\nthe truth can assist us in the solution of these great economic problems;\nbut the truth alone cannot save us. We may know the right and yet\nwiUfully do the wrong if self-interest alone guides us. A regenerated religion of humanity, based upon the Sermon on the Mount, can alone tell us\nwhat to do with the truth when we know it. To cultivate this habit of\nmind and to inspire these ethical standards is the greatest task intrusted\nto our schools. No circmnscribed utihtarian view of science teaching will\ncarry us far toward the completion of this task, and therefore I make an\nearnest plea for the retention of a considerable amount of pure science teaching in our pubhc schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — O. M. Plummer, director, Board of Education\nPortland, Ore.\nVice-President — Edward C. Elliott, professor of education, University of Wisconsin,\nMadison, Wis.\nSecretary — ^Feane M. Bruce, business manager, American School Board Journal,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Friday Forenoon, August 20, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order in the Auditorium Theater at 9:00 a.m., with President Plummer in the chair.\nWilh'am C. Bruce was appointed secretary pro tempore.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Addresses of Welcome\" — F. B. Cook, president, Board of Education, Oakland,\nCal.; A. A. D'Ancona, member. Board of Education, San Francisco, Cal.\nOre. \"President's Address\" — O. M. Plummer, director. Board of Education, Portland,\n\"School Surveys\" — EUwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford\nJunior University, Stanford University, Cal.\n\"School-Board Members\" — ^William E. Chancellor, Hoge Professor of Political\nScience, University of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio.\n\"Is the Board of Education an Incubus on Modem Education?\" — Reynold E.\nBlight, former member, Board of Education, Los Angeles, Cal.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, August 20, 19 15\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2:45 pm.\nThe following papers were read:\nCal. \"School Grounds and School Architecture\" — ^John J. Donovan, architect, Oakland,\n\"School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippines\" — Frank L. Crone, director,\nBureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I,\nDiscussion: J. R. Rawlins, member, Board of Education, Jordan School District,\nMidvale, Utah; George W. Gerwig, school board accountant, Pittsburgh, Pa.; George W,\nAuch, member, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich.; D. Peine, secretary. Board of Education, Houston, Tex.; C. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.; O. M.\nPlummer, director. Board of Education, Portland, Ore.; O. S. Spencer, member, Board\nof Education, Seattle, Wash.\nThe following officers were elected for the coming year:\nFor President — O. M. Plummer, director. Board of Education, Portland, Ore.\nFor Vice-President — George W. Auch, member, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich.\nX039 manager, American School Board Journal,\nFor Secretary — Frank M. Bruce, business\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "I030\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nSESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 8: 15 p.m.\nThe following papers were read:\n\"Teachers' Problems and the Teaching of Peace\" — ^David Starr Jordan, President,\nNational Education Association.\n\"Tenure of Office\" — Grace DeGraff, president. League of Teachers' Associations,\nPortland, Ore.; H. D. Sheldon, professor of education. University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore.\n\"The City School Board— Its Constitution and Fimction\"— P. P. Claxton, United\nStates commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nWilliam C. Bruce, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\n\nADDRESS\nF. B. COOK, PRESroENT,\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nBOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nOAKLAND,\n\nCAL.\n\nI esteem it an honor to extend, in the name of the Oakland Board of\nEducation, a cordial welcome to you as visiting members of boards of education and to invite you to avail yourselves of the opportunities which will\nbe presented of visiting Oakland and of inspecting as far as possible the\nschools of the city and the plan of operation of the school department.\nChanging social and educational conditions have increased tremendously the responsibilities of school directors. The annual difficulty of\nmaking the budget and the effort necessary to secure the proper financial\nsupport for the schools, which must take their chance before supervisors\nand city councils with a dozen other civic necessities, the responsibiUty of\nproviding instruction of a type which not only will meet the needs of all\nthe young people, but which, with an almost prophetic wisdom, will anticipate possible changes in the economic and commercial life of the city, are\nin themselves worthy of the best effort of any man or woman. These,\nhowever, are but items, important tho they may be. The purchase of land\nenough to provide adequate playgrounds for the schools of a growing city,\nwhich requires keen insight into the direction of possible expansion; the\nchoice of textbooks; the wise administration of the teaching body;\nthe proper ratio of expenditures for the development of the kindergarten,\nthe elementary schools, and the high schools; control of the methods of\nadministration and the system of accoimting; the selection of a superintendent ofschools, an administrative officer with duties second in importance and in difficulty to none in the city: these make up a sum total of\nduties which would tax the time, patience, and energy of any man or\nwoman.\nThe Oakland Board of Education has done its best to meet its responsibiUties as faithfully as possible. Visitors will doubtless criticize some\ndetails of the Oakland schools. We trust that in our new buildings, 01\nplaygrounds, our teaching force, our high-school libraries, our bands anc\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nIO3I\n\norchestras, our care for public health, and our general plan of organization,\nthere may be something to commend. We make no apologies for what we\nare not able to show you. Such features, however, as we can show are\nopen to your inspection. We trust that you will enjoy visiting the new\nschools, the offices of the Board, the playgrounds, and any other features\nthe department can offer.\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nO. M. PLUMMER,\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nBOARD\n\nADDRESS\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nPORTLAND,\n\nORE.\n\nMembers of boards of education should be very important factors in\nthe National Education Association. Once each year educators from all\nover the United States come together and discuss all phases of educational\nactivities.\nThe heads of the large industries are always on the lookout for new\nideas and for new machinery. Let a better way of doing a certain thing\nbe reported in any part of the world and immediately the old method of\nperformance is discarded and the new adopted. The handling of school\naffairs should be along the same lines. If the people of the New York\nschools have discovered some new truth along educational lines, we of the\nwest coast should be put in touch with it at once.\nParticipation by our members in this national meeting better fits us\nfor our mark. It also makes us firm supporters of the ideas advanced by\nour superintendent as a result of his observations made at this same gathering. As the board of education is the foundation of all things educational\nfrom a public-school standpoint, the Department of School Administration\nshould become one of the strongest in the entire organization. There is\nno office within the gift of the people which carries with it more honor than\nthat of a member of a board of education, and no man or woman in any\ncommunity has it within his power to be of more usefulness than a school\ndirector. Only a person who thoroly loves children and who places their\nwelfare above everything should be eligible for the position. A member\nwho confines his attention to the tax levy entirely to the utter disregard\nof the child is a menace to any school board. There is hardly a community\nin the country which will not back the board of education to the limit\nif the people feel that the appropriations are expended wisely. There is\nno better constructive publicity for a city than to be known over the entire\ncountry as a city of good schools.\nLet us bring our business interests and our chamber of commerce to\nrealize the far-reaching importance of education to the end that they will\nback every sane request for financial aid.\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "I032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administrat\n\nSURVEYS\n\nellwoodYp. cubberley, professor of education, leiand stanfoi\nJUNIOR university,\n\nSTANFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCAL.\n\nWe may distinguish four types of surveys which have so far be\nmade: state school surveys, county school surveys, city school surveys, and\ncollege or university surveys. With the latter this section is not at all concerned. The state survey is an attempt to measure up the needs and work\nof a state school system, along such lines as the organization and administration, the scope of the school system provided, the state's educational\nneeds, school finances, methods of taxation and apportionment, teachers\nand certification, school plant and equipment, hygiene and health work,\nand other similar large topics. The purpose is to find what are the state's\nproblems, the resources with which these problems may be met, what real\norganizations in administration are desirable, what steps would advance\nthe state, and what to attempt now. It may also well undertake to\nevaluate the steps which have been taken, in terms of their usefulness in\npromoting the purpose of future education. The purpose of such a survey,\nas of all surveys, should be constructive, and to oflfer a program along which\nthe state school authorities and the legislature may make satisfactory\nprogress for some years to come. The Ohio school survey conducted in\n1913-14, the Vermont school survey of 1913, and the Maryland school\nsurvey of 191 5 are types of the best which we have had in this line.\nThe county survey is essentially a study of the educational resources\nand needs of a county, studying these needs from a social, economic, and\neducational point of view. The present organization, the cost and eflfectiveness of the system, and the supervision are all-important topics, and the\nsurvey should point out to the people of a county what reorganizations are\ndesirable in order to enable the county school system better to meet the\nrural life and rural educational needs of the county. The survey of a Virginia\ncounty, and the one of San Mateo County, California, both of which have\nbeen pubHshed as bulletins by the United States Bureau of Education, are\ntypes of such surveys. It is very probable that the need for a reorganization\nof our county school systems along better educational Unes, which the\nnext decade is almost certain to bring forth, will cause the county survey\nto become a very important one within the next ten years.\nThe city school survey has so far been the most prominent and the most\nhelpful. Its purpose is essentially to seek hght and to offer a constructive\nprogram for the guidance of the school board and its executive oflScers.\nThe organization and administration of the system, the direction in which\nthe system is headed, the value of the work which it is doing, the expenditures which it is making, and the new undertakings which it has begun or\nought to begin are all important features. Mere criticism is undesirable.\nWherever criticism is indulged in, it ought to be with a constructive pur-\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL-BOARD\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1033\n\npose, and a better way of doing things ought to be pointed out. The\nsurvey must consider the location, the setting of the school system, and its\npeculiar local problems and possibilities. What is good in the system should\nbe evaluated, and what is fundamentally bad should be pointed out.\nEach city school survey, and to a certain extent each survey of other\ntypes, will need to bring to the surface what are the fundamental problems\nin the particular community or political subdivision. One city's fundamental need may be better organization and administration; in another\nit may be a new school plant and a new educational purpose; in another\nthe fundamental problem may be that of finance; in another it may be that\nthe school needs defense against unjust attacks; in another the instruction\noffered may be fundamentally weak, and in the wrong direction; in another\nthe schools may need speeding up; and in still another what may be needed is\na fundamentally new educational conception on the part of the people. It\nis part of the work of the survey to locate these problems, to evaluate the\nsystem which exists in terms of good work, to commend what is good and to\nrecommend substitutes for what is not good, and to point out to the community clearly, and sometimes forcibly, the fundamental needs of their\nschool system.\nSCHOOL-BOARD\nWILLIAM\n\nE.\n\nCHANCELLOR,\n\nMEMBERS\n\nHOGE PROFESSOR\nOF POLITICAL\nVERSITY OF WOOSTER, WOOSTER,\nOHIO\n\nSCIENCE,\n\nUNI-\n\nThe governmental school board is an American invention. Originally\nthe American community appointed its school board with the single power\nof seeing that the public teacher was properly paid. The board could not\neven select the teacher who was called by community vote and was expected\nto remain for life. Often the call invited the man by name to ''live among\nus and be the teacher of the school.\" In this early period occasionally\nthe school wardens or board members were named for life. Such is the\ntrue historical origin and such is the present essential intention of the\nAmerican school board. It pays, but it does not name, the teacher. When\na school superintendent names a teacher, he does not derive this power\nfrom the board but acts in lieu of community action. He stands for town\nmeeting or for parish meeting.\nOne who knows the United States educationally knows that it contains\nmany different worlds. In these worlds, the same terms do not have the\nsame meanings. State lines are forceful facts. We are conducting a\nscore of different kinds and classes of public-school expei:iments. Notwithstanding a general comity, we do not altogether understand one\nanother. From the school board's original single duty of providing a\nlivelihood for the school-teacher, this governmental device has grown into\nexceedingly diverse forms. The Boston city school committee is a very\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ndifferent affair from an Ohio county school board. It does not consider\nthe same business. We are in great need of a developed school terminology.\nThe city school superintendent of Buffalo has somewhat the same powers\nas the Boston city school committee and superintendent combined. One\ntype of school board can bond, assess, and tax its district freely, another\nhas but one power, to elect the city superintendent, whose salary it cannot\neven fix. Such are the extremes of great powers and of almost no power.\nObviously, when one talks of school-board members, it makes a deal of\ndifference what legal kind of school board he has experienced, and whether\nor not he has had to deal also with city councils, town meetings, and referendum votes.\nFor forty years I have known school-board members as well as city\nschool superintendents. It is my notion that he makes the best schoolboard member who most clearly understands and fully obeys his appointed\nsocial function. He fills his office according to law but does not attempt\nor even desire to overfill or crowd it. I never yet saw any sudden reform\nof permanent value accomplished by any school-board member or even\nmajority of members unless specifically directed by mandate of higher law\nthat they were simply operating.\nThe first business, therefore, of any school-board member is to find\nfrom the laws his own legal duties. This will take time, for one must\nnot only read the laws but must discover their judicial and customary\ninterpretations and appreciate as well as understand their total as well as\ntheir specific meanings. In consequence, the first year of any board member's service is a year of novitiate, a year when one should hear with his\nears, observe with his eyes, try to understand in his heart, and unless under\nextreme provocation of dishonesty, of corruption, or of incompetence on\nthe part of his colleagues both say and do nothing.\nIn my observation and experience, generally the best boards and the\nbest board members have been those with the largest legal powers. Re«\nsponsibility enlightens and steadies mind and heart. Great responsibility\nsilences the tongue, compels consideration, strengthens the will. As a\nmatter of pure psychology, I believe that a potent cause of good schools\nin several states is that the people have conveyed ample powers to their\nschool boards. In specific terms, a school board should own the lands and\nbuildings, bond and assess its district, and, subject only to minimum\nrequirements, fix the qualifications, salaries, and tenures of every kind of\nemployee. The public knows whom to praise and whom to censure for the\nkind of schools maintained. In too many states, responsibility rests\neverywhere and nowhere.\nAs an observer of American social conditions and as a teacher of political science, I am equally assured that we need the differentiated and integrated school system, separate at once from church and from state, from\nreligion and government, from ecclesiasticism and from ordinary politics.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL-BOARD\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1035\n\nAll that I have to say further of school-board members proceeds solely\nfrom personal experience. In thinking over this subject, I find that of all\nthe board members whom I have officially known, thirty-six stand out in\nmy memory vividly. I have reconsidered them, and, in the light of this\nreconsideration, I desire to develop several facts and opinions. T|ie\nfacts are beyond argument and final; the opinions will depend for their\nvalue to others partly upon such knowledge of myself as those others\nmay have and partly upon such experience as they have had in public\neducation.\nThese three dozen board members represented English, German,\nScotch, Irish, and Afro- American stocks; both sexes; Protestant, Catholic,\nHebrew, and no religious faiths; every degree of wealth from many millions\nto pitiable insolvency; every degree of education to none whatever; every\nsocial status from city leadership to back tenement rooms; and every\nage from twenty-three to above seventy. Several had themselves been\nteachers.\nOne of the really good board members had served fourteen years when\nI came to know him. He was a bachelor physician, head of the city hospital. He died in the performance of medical duty and twenty thousand\npersons attended his funeral. The peculiarity of his service was that he\nlooked upon the schools as his patient and almost daily called to see how\n\\ things were going. He might visit a school or the main office. He never\nstayed long. He was too vigorous to be called a saint and too democratic\nto be called a patron; and yet I think of him as the \"patron saint\" of the\nschools of the city of Paterson.\nAnd yet I cannot say that physicians make the best board members\neven tho I rate two of my five doctors who were board members as easily in\nthe first half-dozen in quality of these thirty-six. I do wish, however,\nthat every board of education had just one practicing family physician\nand no more among its members. There are clubs of a kind now increasing\n',thru the land whose rule is to admit but one man from a profession or other\n[ occupation. It would be an excellent rule for school-board membership.\nTwo physicians are one too many. A young physician is usually an undesirable. think\nI\nthat it is the alien knowledge of the expert physician that\nmakes him valuable. He knows a deal about human life of which others,\nj;including board members, teachers, and parents, know but little. This\nexpert knowledge deeply concerns humanity and therefore education, but\nit does not directly involve the teachers' function of pedagogy. It is a\nsafe rule that the more extended the business of a manufacturer, of a\nmerchant, of a banker, or of a lawyer, the better board member he\nmakes.\nAs I have no intention to soil this record with the deeds and qualities\nof the infamous, I refrain from discussing the fourteen men and women in\nthree different cities who to my certain knowledge were wholly unfit for\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nschool-board service. I submit, however,\nwithout exception of these fourteen:\n\n[Administration\n\nseveral generalizations true\n\n1. Not one of them was serving a second term either by re-election or by reappointment.\n2. No educator who knew them would invite any one of them a second time to his\nfamily dining-table unless of ofl&cial policy.\n3. Not one of them had any large general knowledge of the life of the world. This\nis true even of such of these infamous persons as were college graduates, for coUege graduation isno guaranty of public worth in educational service either as teacher or as schoolboard member.\n\nI understand that there is such a person as a good and competent woman\nschool-board member; but officially I never experienced even one. Of the\nfour whom I have known, the only good woman flinched at the first fire\nof the comiptionists and resigned at the order of her husband. Her health\nwas good for domestic use but wholly inadequate for pubhc warfare.\nSvurrendering under fire is not confined, however, to women. Among the\nmen who have failed in crises were a rich young physician and a rich retired\ngovernment officer. Their health also broke down.\nIt was in 191 2 that my pubhc service ceased. Today, but two board\nmembers are in office whom I knew in these four cities. This to me seems\nan appaUing fact. Every bad member and all but two of the good ones\nhave disappeared from the scene of action.\nWhat are the remedies ?— for remedies there should be. They will nc\ncome from an unenUghtened pubhc or from candidates for board member-|\nships or for teaching positions. Amazing as the truth sounds, there\nmore school-board members by far in almost every state of the Union\nthere are teachers. The remedies will come only from a few statesmen^\nand, let us hope, from many board members and educators. It seems tc\nme that the requirements are these:\n1. Legislation that will strengthen the hands of board members by cent\neducational affairs in the board and by lengthening their terms to at least three years2. Enlightenment of board members in oflBce to their first duty, which is to le\ntheir duties before trying to practice their supposed or even real powers.\n3. A reform of teachers so that they will appreciate the good and evil conduct\nboard members and dare to act accordingly.\nWholly erroneous notions circulate among]\nteachers respecting their relation to boards of education.\nNew and correct ideas need to\nbe diffused. A teacher is not a wage-hireling of school-board members and owes no]\ngratitude to them unless improperly in service.\n4. A realization aUke by board members and by teachers of the truth that boardaj\nexist primarily to provide real teachers with reasonable livelihoods in the immediate]\ninterests of the youth as such and of the nation that is to be; and that boards with anj\nother primary concern commit treason of a disgraceful kind against the public.\n5. A determination by good men that every good man is willing to serve the public]\nwherever and whenever the public wills without pay or other reward than a sense wit\nof deserving the approval of the good, of the wise, and of the many.\n\nIf many board members had not in truth Hved as honorable pubUcj\nservants, American education would not have, as it does have today, so]\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n1037\n\nmany examples of what schools should be, the gateways of the new generation into a better future.\nI am not enough of a dreamer to imagine that in a few j'ears every\nschool-board member will be at heart loyal to free pubhc common education\nas practically every college trustee is loyal at heart to the interest of his\ncollege; but democracy like a spring in the hills has the fine quaUty of\ncleansing itself of impurities and of foreign matter. And, like every other\nman who knows the field of American education and the inspiring history\nof its progress, I am unable to doubt that in the course of time we shall\ndevelop the free, independent, universal pubUc school — a system of complete\neducation without either political or ecclesiastical interference.\nThere is plenty of room in American education for intelligent, brave,\nand loyal men as board members. Not every such man will come into his\nkingdom as did the patron saint whose case I have cited; but he has at\nleast the assurance of a good conscience in a field both of work and of warfare. We may never pay our school-board members hvelihoods or even\nhonorariums for their services, but pubhc honor is incommensurate with\nsalary and a good school system is a monument of honor to its board of\neducation.\nFinally, men and women of the American school board, keep forever\nin mind that you are judged by the kind of teachers whom you provide\nwith hvelihoods. Most of all you are judged by the kind of city or county\nor other school superintendent whom you employ. He in turn is judged\nby the course of study that he operates. You inherit these teachers and\noften this school superintendent. Before you reject your heritage, it is\nexpedient for you to consider it well. I know of no other field of American\nlife where false opinion is so prevalent as in the schools. Here interest\nweds with creduhty and vain imaginings are their offspring. Beware of\nrumor. In patience ye shall possess your souls, and in patience as board\nmembers you can build broad, deep, and soUd the free school of our\ndemocracy.\n_^\nIS THE\n\nBOARD\n\nREYNOLD\n\nOF EDUCATION AN INCUBUS\nEDUCATION?\n\nON MODERN\n\nE. BLIGHT, FORMER MEMBER, BOARD OF EDUCATION,\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nWhile every department of education has shown an amazing growth\nwithin the last half-century, there is one part of our educational system\nthat has not developed coincident and in harmony with this general evolution— the board of education. In spite of some few exceptions the average board of education remains as it was fifty years ago. This condition\ntakes on a serious significance in view of the fact that the board of education exercises aknost unlimited control over the affairs of a school system.\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nThe fact that the board of education is the dominating factor in any!\nschool system may not be altogether deplorable if this almost milimite\ncontrol is exercised by a board that appreciates the responsibility of it\nposition and the splendor of its opportmiity. And may I briefly and\naffirmatively del&ne such an ideal board ? It will possess a fourfold qualification.\n1. The ideal board will realize that the purpose of a school system la\nto educate the children. Everything else — tax rates, buildings, purchase\nof supplies; teachers, organization — must be subordinate to this one object.]\nUntil a school director is so thoroly convinced of this fundamental principle\nthat he wiU test every question that comes before him by this infaUible\nand invariable standard and is therefore absolutely proof against anj\nsophistry or cajolery, he is utterly unfit to sit on a board of education^\nI do not believe I am exaggerating when I say that the cause of education\nhas suffered more from the failure of boards of education to apprehend\nand hve up to this primary ideal than from the grafters and incompetentsi\nwho have from time to time occupied positions on the boards. In these'!\ndays when the increasing cost of education fills the big taxpayer with\nalarm, and when editorial critics, speaking for the big taxpayer, cry out\nfor economy and retrenchment, denouncing what they are pleased to call\nthe costly fads and frills of modem education, the temptation to make a\nreputation for economy is great. The expenditures, of course, must be\ncarefully guarded, but let the school director beware lest his economies\ncut too deep and strike the very vitals of the school department under his\ncontrol. The wildest extravagance of our municipal expenditures is that\nimwise policy that would sacrifice the educational efficiency of the children\nto save a mill on the tax rate. Money spent for the detection and punishment of crime, for maintenance of courts and jails, is a civic loss; but\nmoney properly spent for the education of the children is a civic investment\nupon which the community will receive dividends for years to come. I wish\nI could post in a conspicuous place in every board of education room in the\ncountry this motto, \"The purpose of a school system is to educate the\nchildren.\"\n2. The ideal board of education will represent the whole community\nand not any particular part thereof. A board that would truly serve its\ncommunity must keep itself free from every kind of sectarian or partisan\ninfluence. The moment any board jdelds ever so little to the pressure of\nany certain group of people in discrimination against the rights of the rest\nof the community, that instant the integrity of that board is vitiated. The\nreal foes of modem education are not the crooks who seek to advance their\npersonal fortimes by membership on the board, or ignorant directors who\nvote according to their stupidity or prejudice; but the smooth, dignified\nrepresentatives of non-educational interests who in subtle ways seek to\ndefeat the nobler purposes of modem education, and the large taxpayers\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n1039\n\nwhose lack of vision prevents them from seeing and understanding the\nvital importance and significance of free schools in a democracy. Only that\nboard of education can be successful in this day and generation that is\nsurcharged with the liberalizing spirit of democracy, that knows no class,\ncreed, or color, but seeks to give, even to the lowest, poorest, and meanest\nchild, a complete and efficient education, which is his right.\n3. The ideal board of education will realize that the administration of\nthe schools is a matter for experts, and will wisely confine itself to legislative and general supervisory functions. When a board exceeds its proper\njurisdiction and invades the prerogatives of the superintendents and\nteachers, it becomes a disturbing, frequently a demorahzing, factor in the\neducational work. There is a legitimate field for the board's activities,\nsuch as the determining of poHcies, the representing of the parents and\ncitizens, the maintenance of a general supervision over school affairs, which\nis done in our larger communities largely by budget appropriations, and the\nreceiving of reports from its executive officers, but when it tries to make\nup courses of study, engage, place, and discharge teachers, and perform\nother distinctively administrative acts, it goes beyond its real authority.\nThe school system must more and more approach the organization of\na corporation with the board of education as the board of directors and\nthe superintendent as the general manager. No board of directors would\ndream of continually interfering with, overruHng, and hmniliating its\ngeneral manager, and yet this is just what the average board of education\nis usually doing either consciously or unconsciously. After a board of\ndirectors formulates its plans and outlines in a general way its campaign,\nwhich is done in consultation with its experts and managers, the carrying out\nof its pohcies is left to its general manager. He is not only held responsible\nfor the success of the enterprise, but he is given full authority to work out the\ndetails and direct his assistants. From time to time, he reports his progress\nto his directors, but so long as he is conscientiously and successfully conducting the business of the concern he is given a free hand and loyal support.\nDuring recent decades education has become a highly speciaHzed profession and there have been developed a large group of men and women\nwho by academic and practical training, long experience, and proven\nefficiency rank as peers of the foremost in the professions of law, divinity,\nstatesmanship, or business management. The modern school system, as\nalready stated, is a wondrously complex thing and requires expert handling.\nNo matter how earnest or public spirited a board of education may be, and\nno matter how successful the individual members of the board may have\nbeen as lawyers, merchants, or grave-diggers, it stands to reason they cannot\nbring to their work the degree of expert skill that can be brought by men\nand women who have received special trainmg for, and had long experience\nin, educational work. Success in money-making does not of itself qualify\nany one to sit on a board of education and manage the schools of a\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Administration\n\ncommunity.\nIt were as reasonable to put a board of lawyers or ministers to\nsuperintend the surgical operations in a hospital. It is a wise board, there- \\\nfore, that knows when to defer to the wise counsel of its superintendent !\nand when to take its hands off the administration of the schools and leave j\nit to him and his corps of capable assistants.\n4. And now I come to the fourth qualification, which I consider the]\nmost essential of all. Every member of the ideal board of education will]\npossess an enthusiasm for education. An efficiency engineer, equipped]\nwith a stop watch and a coldly analytical brain, may reduce a factory to a\nbasis of real efficiency, but no man can be a successful member of a board\nof education until his emotions are quickened and his inner enthusiasms\naroused. A group of children playing should set his pulses stirring and a\nschoolroom of happy students should be an inspiration. In which case\nhe would be keenly alive to his responsibihties; would be eager to know\nthe best and most effective teaching methods; would follow with growing\nappreciation the present evolution of education; would keep in touch with\nthe newest experiments; would read the latest and most authoritative\nliterature; would frequent the educational conferences and listen with\nopen mind to the leaders in educational thought and life; would strive to\nknow and understand the deeper currents of school activities; would\nintelligently co-operate with principals and teachers in their efforts to solve\nthe many problems of the schoolroom and the playground; would develop\na beautiful sympathy with child life in all its phases; and would know the\nprofound significance of the public school in relation to this throbbing\ndemocracy in which we Hve. I know this is a big contract, but only bigsouled men and women, capable of solving big problems and dreaming big\ndreams, should sit on our boards of education.\nThe ordinary board of education does not measure up to this high\nstandard, and in so far as it falls short it becomes a clog upon the wheels\nof educational progress.\nWhat is the remedy ?\nI can offer no short cut. The problem is but another phase of the]\nevolution of democracy. Fundamentally, it does not matter whether your\nboard is elective or appointive, whether it be composed of men or women,\nwhether it consist of five or fifty members, whether it be paid or unpaid.\nThe board of education, in the present state of our democracy, will reflect\nthe popular opinion, the average inteUigence. If the people fully imderstand and beUeve in the principles herein «et forth, they will elect boards\nof education which will act in conformity therewith. It is therefore the\nduty of every educator and every citizen who understands the situation\nto be a teacher of the people that they too may know. This is why I so\nheartily favor surveys of school systems by competent and disinterested\nauthorities. They serve to enUghten the people. It is a slow process, I\nadmit, but the only method that promises permanent results.\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGROUNDS\n\nGROUNDS\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1041\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nJOHN J. DONOVAN, ARCHITECT, OAKLAND, GAL.\n\nNext to locality size is the most important item to consider in selecting\na school site. School grounds are natural recreation centers, and since\nthe school is generally placed near the center of a populous district, it\nfollows that the grounds as a recreation center will furnish the greater use\nand do the most good for the community and the city, if they are of sufficient size to accommodate the needs of play. Assuming further that the\ncity must provide a number of large playground centers, it is extremely\nadvisable in mapping out the future school sites that a careful survey of\nthe city be made, arbitrarily allotting to a number of school grounds sufficient land to provide for the various wants of these large play centers, and\nin the remaining number of schools securing enough land so that they may\ncare for the needs of the younger children of the immediate neighborhood.\nI beg to present herewith a schedule of what a well-equipped large\nschool playground should contain, and will mention sizes, keeping in mind\nthat these first dimensions are for the large playground: (i) One athletic\nfield to include a quarter-mile track, the space within the oval to be used\nfor two baseball diamonds, as well as for the football and field sports. The\nspace under a section of the bleachers will furnish rooms for showers,\nlockers, and dressing-rooms. (2) One large swimming-pool, size of pool\n75X100 feet, and a space about 50X100 feet, connected with the pool, for\ndressing-rooms for both sexes. (3) Four tennis courts each 36X78 feet,\ntwo croquet courts each 30X60 feet. In addition to these there should\nbe three smaller divisions of the grounds, one for boys, one for girls, and\none for the smaller children, which should contain areas for basket- and\nvolley-ball courts, gymnasium apparatus, and a space for a platform for\ndancing. These areas require from ten to twelve acres of ground as a\nminimum, but it should be kept in mind, however, that these large grounds\nare sparsely located thruout the city or town.\nFor the smaller school grounds, at least four acres of land are advisable.\nThis will permit at least one baseball field and subdivisions for tennis,\ncroquet, and basket-ball courts for both boys and girls.\nInasmuch as small children play close to the walls of a school, the east\nside of the building in temperate climates should generally face the playground. This will minimize the shadows falling on this much-used play\nspace. Also one-half the building and the play-yard will receive warmth\nfrom the morning sun.\nBefore leaving the subject of grounds, I should like to call your attention to what has become a necessity in school architecture, namely, a\nproper treatment of the grounds by the planting of shrubs, formation of\ngardens, design and placing of flagpoles, and the use of garden architecture,\nthus giving to the building a natural setting.\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "I042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[AdministraUo\n\nThe remainder of this paper will be confined to the discussion of school]\nbuildings.\nThe classroom. — Let us keep in mind that the points of the compass are\nthe most determining factors in the placing of the building on the site. InJ\nlocalities having a climate similar to that of Oakland, San Francisco, and]\nother Pacific Coast cities, where it is not intensely hot during the summer\nand fall months, the most desirable points for the natural lighting of thej\nclassroom are the east and west, respectively, thus leaving the north side\nfor such rooms as manual training, principal's office, domestic science,]\ndomestic arts, club room, library, etc. The reason for this is that sunshine\nat some time of the day should enter the room, warming it naturally andi\nhelping to produce hygienic conditions. In the interiors and in locaUtiesj\nhaving high temperatures at these periods of the year the north and east\npoints for windows are preferred, owing to the heat during the middle of\nthe day, but it is my belief that for these sections every effort should be\nmade to place as many classrooms on the east as economical and good\nplanning will permit, and I firmly believe that as few classrooms as possible\nshould have north lighting.\nThe window arrangement of a classroom is extremely important and a\nfew good rules to follow are: First, there should be left-hand lighting only.\nSecondly, the total glass area should equal approximately 25 per cent of\nthe floor area. Thirdly, the group of windows should be placed as near the\nrear wall of the classroom as possible and the heads of the windows close\nto the ceiling, and further, the sills of the windows should not be less than\n2 feet 6 inches from the floor and in conjunction with the above the mullions\nbetween windows should be as narrow as safe construction will permit.\nIn speaking fiirther of the location of the windows, it is a good rule not to\nplace the windows nearer than five or six feet toward the front wall of the\nclassroom for the reason that this blank space serves well as a resting area\nfor the eyes of the pupils and eliminates strong rays of light entering from\nthat angle of the room.\nI wish to dwell for a moment upon the use of transoms in classrooms,\na scheme which has been adopted in all the new schools of Oakland and is\nnow followed in many sections of the country. The purpose is to create\nnatural ventilation when the heating and ventilating system is not in use.\nSize of classroom. — Assiuning that the number of pupils for a grammargrade classroom shall not be more than forty, and for the primary grades\nnot more thaji forty-two, we have found that the best results are realized\nwith the size of the room of the following dimensions: width 22 feet,\nlength 31 feet six inches, height 12 feet 6 inches or 13 feet. This allows\n2 feet for width of desk and i foot 6 inches for width of aisle between desks\nand 3 feet between side walls and desks.\nSince it is generally accepted that a teacher should have not more than\nforty or forty-two pupils to teach, it behooves the directors of the schools\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGROUNDS\n\nAND\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1043\n\nand the architects so to limit the size of the classroom that overcrowding\nof desks is thus prohibited. The width 22 feet has many advantages over\nthe width of a classroom 24 feet wide, which leads me to remark: first,\nthe cost of the building is less, owing to the difference in width; secondly,\nthe light is better on the blackboards and on the last row of desks.\nIn deciding upon the size of a room the following units of measurements have been used: Dimensions of seat and desk 2 feet in width by\n2 feet 6\\ inches in length. This makes a bank of seats consisting of five\nrows in width by eight seats in length — a block equal to 16 feet by 20 feet\n4 inches. This in a room 31 feet 6 inches in length. will allow 3 feet between\nthe rear wall and the last row of seats, and 8 feet 2 inches between the front\nrow and the teacher's blackboard, which is ample room for the teacher's\ntable and circulation in front of same. This sized room will permit of\napproximately 59 lineal feet of blackboard space.\nWhile it does not enter very largely into the planning, I should like to\ntouch for a moment on the use of slate blackboards. While slate is twice\nas expensive as imitations and compositions, it is preferable in that it is\nmore sanitary and easier to write upon, and is a lasting investment.\nContinuing further regarding the design of a classroom, it is my belief\nthat the wardrobe should be at the teacher's end of the room, its doors opening only from the classroom and never from the corridor, for the reason\nthat the teacher may easily lose control of a pupil when the wardrobe exits\ninto the corridor. Besides, wardrobes off corridors have a tendency to\nbecome foul pockets to the building. We have made all wardrobes 4 feet\n6 inches in width by the width of the room, lighting the same by exterior\nwindows.\nAnother point in the classroom design which is worthy of mention at\nthis time is the use of one door as an entrance to the room. This door\nshould be at least 3 feet 6 inches in width and the advantage in favor of\nthe one door is again the better control of students in the classroom. This\nis well demonstrated by the conditions which are likely to prevail at times\nof panic.\nOne of the problems which confronted us in our new work was what\nshould be done with the wall space between the baseboard and chalk rail,\nand we have adopted veneer sheathing for this space for all future work.\nIn previous work canvas and burlap have been tried, with no satisfaction,\nand it is my belief that the wood sheathing is a permanent fixture in that\nspace. I mention this at this time because I am endeavoring to emphasize the importance of the details of the classroom.\nWith regard to painting, best reflected light is obtained when ceilings\nare treated with a light tone just off the white, and pleasing wall effects\nby the use of washable wall paints in light buff colors and the trim stained\nto harmonize with the wall coloring. Speaking further about the color\nscheme of the interior of a classroom, I can easily close this part of the paper\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "I044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nby appealing to the interested parties to endeavor to carry a complete\ncolor scheme into the desks, chairs, tables, and window shades. A good\npoint in connection with the last-named item is that it is not desirable,\nnor was it ever intended, to exclude simlight from a classroom by dark,\nopaque shades, but rather it is better that the sunUght be diffused thru\nsemi-transparent shades.\nThe requirements for the classroom for the high school are so different\nfrom those of the elementary school that there the problem is much simpler.\nThe essential principles are the same, however, regarding area of lighting\nand orientation.\nBefore discussing the type of building, I should like to point out some\nof the essential improvements which have been added to the domesticscience, domestic-arts, manual-training, and kindergarten rooms and the\nassembly haU.\nThe domestic-science department of our elementary schools has developed into a series of adjacent and connected rooms which include the main\nroom of size 26 feet X38 feet, the dining-room approximately 16 feet X 16\nfeet, and a large storage closet for foodstuff, in which a refrigerator may be\nplaced. The large working-room should always be able to care for twentyfour pupils, which number makes up a full class. The small dining-room\nis indispensable and should be so located with relation to the large room that\nserving is easily accomplished.\nAs the teaching of the domestic arts is generally a part of the work of\nthe domestic-science teacher, consequently this room should be within\neasy walking distance of the domestic-science room, or, better yet, adjacent\nto it. For the best working conditions, we find that the domestic-arts room\nshould be approximately 28 feet X 40 feet and should have besides the main\nroom a large storage closet and a dressing-room where fitting of dresses\nmay be done conveniently. The home economics departments of our\ngrammar, intermediate, and high schools are fast progressing to a point\nwhere the universities must establish advanced courses in dress and costume\ndesign, which has become a modern art. Whenever possible, the lockers,\nwhich contain the aprons and cover dresses for the domestic-science and\nfor the domestic-arts pupils, should be placed in separate rooms apart\nfrom the large working-rooms and supplied with lavatories. This will\ntend to keep both of the large rooms free from obstructions and projections\nwhich are dust collectors.\nIn referring to the assembly hall, we find it is no longer a large room just\nfor occasional convocations. Besides serving as a place of assemblage,\none of its best uses is that for a gymnasium and I would suggest that the\ndressing-rooms be equipped with showers and lockers or that the space imder\nthe dressing-rooms be used for this purpose. The space imder the stage\nwhen properly arranged serves well as storage room for the movable seats\nof the assembly-hall floor. With the structural work of the ceiling exposed\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGROUNDS\n\nAND\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1045\n\nthe various gymnasium apparatus may be suspended therefrom. The\nother details of converting the assembly hall into a gymnasium are easily\nattained by careful study of the requirements for both uses. Every assembly hall should contain a moving-picture booth for moving-picture views.\nThe preceding part of this paper has been devoted to the component\nparts of the building, and assuming that in the work of designing a school\nbuilding these parts are fixed, let us turn our attention to the composition.\nInasmuch as the heights of school buildings are receiving considerable\nthought, and since the number of stories affects the plan and design, a good\nquestion to discuss is: Shall the building be a one-, two-, or three-story\nbuilding? This is a matter most vitally important for there are many\nangles to this question. Having been the architect for a number of each\ntype recently constructed, I feel free to talk to you about the merits and\ndemerits of each.\nNotwithstanding the temporary mania which has seized a large section\nof the country for one-story buildings without regard to conditions, the onestory school has its proper place and its use. To my mind, its place and\nuse are for the primary school and possibly for a complete elementary\nschool where there is suJQ&cient land to warrant its adoption, but even on\nthis point I am skeptical for many reasons which will be brought out in\ndiscussing the various types. Reverting to the one-story school, as I\nstated before, I believe that it is adapted to the primary grades where the\nkindergarten and the first four grades are taught. Here is the opportunity\nfor pleasing arrangement and charming architecture to create good and\nlasting impressions on the minds of the very young. In fact, the one-story\nschool for these grades can be made to represent the summer house with\nits arcades, cloisters, pergolas, and what not. It is also safe from panic\neffects. It is simple in form for access and egress and there is a feeling of\nsecurity when there are no stairs for the small children to descend. However, for inclement weather sheltered playrooms must be provided.\nBriefly, this is all that can be said in favor of the one-story school, for\nwhen it comes to building a complete unit to include eighteen to twenty\nclassrooms with all the accessory departments such as the domestic science,\ndomestic arts, etc., the workable school is the two- or three-story building.\nFurthermore, the two-story is cheaper than the one, and the three-story is\nslightly cheaper than the two, providing of course, that the same or similar\ntype of permanent construction is used in both. Then again for administrative purposes the concentrated plan will give better results. No two\nschools are built exactly alike and it is well this is so. From the data I\nhave collected, the cost per cubic foot and per square foot is less for the\nthree-story than for the two-story, and the three-story school has some\nadvantages over the two-story school.\nWith the three-story school, and assuming that the first floor or basement isat ground-floor level, the inclosed playrooms, the toilets, the boiler\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "I046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nand fan rooms, the manual-training, kindergarten, and domestic-science\nrooms, the cafeteria, and the shower and locker rooms can generally be\ncared for on the first or ground floor. Therefore the higher building\nmeans economy of land. I know whereof I speak regarding these points\nof economy, for we have just completed twenty-three new school buildings and have tabulated almost every item of cost for comparison.\n. Some of the advantages of the two-story building are that there is\nonly one flight of stairs to;climb, it is a safer building in times of earthquake\nand fire, and perhaps there exists a greater opportunity for more pleasing\narchitectural effects, altho this is almost entirely dependent upon the\narchitect as well as upon the problem. With the two-story, as with the\none, the problem has not been completely solved unless sheltered play\nspaces are provided for play during inclement weather and this means\nseparate pavilions connected with the school.\nYou will note that so far this paper has referred mostly to elementaryschool architecture, and I have purposely so prepared it for the reason that\nelementary-school work is more general and the space is too limited to\ndiscuss both elementary and high schools in detail, but what follows does\napply to all schools.\nIn the first place, our schools should be built of the best fire-resisting\nmaterial as a matter of safety and permanency of construction.\nIn the last twenty years the public taste in this country has been developed in architecture to an amazing extent by the opportunity of traveling,\nby the increased wealth of the country, by current magazines, and particularly bythe courses in architecture in the universities which have developed\na large body of well-trained young men whose influence has been felt\nthruout the country. Consequently, there is a demand for more than the\ncommonplace in school architecture, and there is no reason why our school\nbuildings should not be pleasing, inviting, and interesting in themselves.\nIn closing, I should like to say one word for the use of sculpture, mural\ndecoration, and landscape architecture for our school buildings. Referring\nto sculpture and painting, I hope the day is not far distant when every new\nschool will have provided in its estimate a fixed sum for one piece of good\nsculpture, and one panel of mural painting. In the next few years, America\nis bound to be the field of opportunity for the strong young men in the work\nof art, and while America has been slowly but gradually waking up to the\npossibility of reproducing in color and stone its historical and natural traditions, itseems to me that the logical place for our best work in art is in the\nschool building, where the most good from its exposition may be more\ngenerally dispensed.\n\nU\n^\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\nAND\n\nGROUNDS\n\nIN THE PHILIPPINES\n\nFRANK\n\nCRONE,\n\nL.\n\nGROUNDS\n\nDIRECTOR,\nBUREAU\nOF EDUCATION,\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA P.I.\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nIO47\n\nOF\n\nThe experience gained during the formative years of the Philippine\nBureau of Education, together with the liberal appropriations voted from\ninsular, provincial, and municipal sources for schoolhouse construction,\nmade it imperative that a definite policy be adopted having for its purpose the expenditure of the funds available in a manner which would serve\nthe best interests of the schools and avoid the mistakes which past experiences had brought to Ught. This program may be summarized as follows :\n1. The preparation of a set of standard plans for permanent buildings providing\nfor a unit system of construction whereby additions may be made from time to time\nwithout injury to the original structure.\n2. The selection of suitable school sites.\n3. A creditable and decent standard for temporary buildings.\n4. The proper care and maintenance of schoolhouses and grounds.\n5. The equipment of every school with the necessary furniture and appliances of\nsimple but substantieil character.\n6. The provision of adequate and sanitary toilet facilities in connection with all\npublic schools.\nTHE STANDARD SCHOOLHOUSE\n\nA building to be permanent in the Philippines must be able to withstand earthquakes and severe storms and to resist the ravages of insect\npests. White ants alone have destroyed buildings worth thousands of\npesos. Only the best timber, stone, or concrete will resist them.\nThe materials which have proved most satisfactory for schoolhouse\nconstruction are reinforced concrete for walls and girders and native timber\nof a superior quality for roof trusses, floors, and partitions. A good grade\nof galvanized iron roofing should be used for roofing. These features have\nbeen incorporated in the standard building plans of the Bureau of Education.\nAnother feature which adds utility to these standard schoolhouses is\nthat they are built on the unit system, each unit being a classroom of\nstandard size 7 by 9 meters. These classrooms are so arranged that additions may be made to the original structure whenever the needs of the\nschool demand it without any serious injury to the building. The enlargement isbrought about by adding units at the rear of the original building\non both sides of the assembly room forming a continuous row of classrooms\non either side. It will readily be seen that such an arrangement permits of\nadditions almost indefinitely without interfering with the lighting and\nventilation of any of the classrooms. The largest of these buildings is\nbuilt around an open court or patio. This court is faced by porches or\ncorridors from which doors lead into the various classrooms. The crossventilation afforded is just the thing for the tropics.\nIn fact, this style of construction has proved so popular that these\nbuilding plans have been used for municipal buildings as well as other\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "I048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Admimstrati\n\n1\n\npublic buildings. Requests have been received from various countries in\nSouth America and from colonies in tropical Asia and Africa for the plans\nof these buildings, which goes to prove that they have a strong appeal to\nschool authorities who are concerned with the problem of schoolhouse\nconstruction in the tropics.\nIn view of the financial situation, the schoolhouses in the Phihppines\nmust, of necessity, be plain. But while they lack architectural embeUishment, they are nevertheless substantial and present a neat appearance.\nThe floor plan is very convenient. The one-story building in use has many\nadvantages. The whole school being on one floor, it can be supervised\nwith a minimum degree of effort; pupils and teachers do not tire themselves in going from one classroom to another. Ventilation could be no\nbetter and the hghting is in every respect satisfactory.\nThe adoption of these standard plans has greatly simplified schoolhouse\nconstruction. Instead of working out separate plans and specifications\nfor each building to be constructed, all that is necessary is to decide upon\nthe amount of classroom space needed and the standard building of the\nsize can be erected, thus avoiding delay and additional expense.\nAt the present writing more than 400 standard-plan schoolhouses have\nbeen completed containing approximately 1,800 classrooms and providing\naccommodations for 75,000 pupils. The governmental agencies responsible\nfor construction work are better equipped than ever before to do this\nwork. More and more Fihpinos are being trained as foremen in this class\nof construction and the available supply of building materials has increased\nto such a degree that construction work is no longer delayed for months at\na time for lack of materials. These conditions have materially reduced\nthe cost of construction. With the best of materials the average cost per\nunit of construction does not at present exceed $1,250.\nTEMPORARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBUILDmOS\n\nA large majority of the schools of these islands will necessarily have\nto be accommodated in temporary quarters for years to come. To take\nthe attitude that it is not worth while to improve temporary school accommodations will mean that a majority of the schools in these islands will be\nimproperly housed.\nResults which already have been obtained in many provinces prove\nconclusively that both neat and serviceable buildings of a temporary\ncharacter may be provided at reasonable cost. To accomplish this purpose, ithas been found necessary to close a large number of barrio schools\nin many provinces and to insist that definite requirements regarding\ntemporary school buildings be complied with before such schools can be\nreopened.\nA large number of satisfactory temporary school buildings have already\nbeen constructed at no cost to municipal school funds and the results which\n\nU\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\nAND\n\nGROUNDS\n\n1049\n\nhave been accomplished thru the active co-operation of the local representatives ofthe Bureau of Education and the patrons of the schools are\nvery considerable. While it is not advisable to expend public funds for\ntemporary buildings in any considerable amounts, it will only be a matter\nof economy to remedy adverse conditions before too much money is wasted\nin the support of schools under unfavorable circumstances.\nBuildings acceptable for school purposes should at least have four good\nwalls, a tight roof, and a floor raised off the ground, which is sufficiently\nsubstantial to support the desks and other school furnishings. They\nshould provide rooms of standard size with sufficient classroom space to\nhouse properly the pupils in attendance.\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSITE\n\nThe minimum area prescribed by the Bureau of Education for school\nsites is not at all unreasonable but, if anything, too low. An area of 10,000\nsquare meters for central schools is hardly sufficient to insure adequate\nplaygroimds if the building be properly located and if sufficient space be\nreserved for gardening. In the case of outlying barrios where 5,000 square\nmeters are required, space for baseball is out of the question.\nThe chief factors which enter into the proper selection of school sites\nare as follows:\n1. The gro\\md selected must be adequate in size.\n2. It must have good drainage.\n3. It must be regular in shape.\n4. It must have soil adapted to gardening.\n5. It must have an unbroken surface,\n6. It must have wholesome environments.\nTHE\n\nPERMANENT\n\nPLAN\n\nOF IMPROVEMENT\n\nAs soon as an adequate site has been acquired, immediate steps are\ntaken toward the preparation and adoption of a permanent plan of the place,\ntaking into consideration all the structural features. These include the\nlocation of the various buildings, the areas to be set aside for playgrounds,\ngarden, lawn, etc., and the location of trees and shrubs which help to\nproduce satisfactory foliage effects.\nMinor details are determined as the place develops but the structural\nfeatures and the relative importance and purpose of the main parts must be\ndetermined beforehand. The development of a plan, therefore, in every\ncase precedes any attempt to develop the premises. Unless this is done,\nmistakes are sure to happen as regards both duplication of effort and the\ngeneral effect and convenience of arrangement. The worst feature about\nsuch mistakes is that they cannot be remedied without a great sacrifice\nof time and money. It is better to forestall them by solving the problem\nin a satisfactory manner beforehand.\nThe plan is prepared by the local representative of the Bureau and\nreceives the approval of the division superintendent of schools, after which\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOSO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Administration\n\nit is submitted to the general oflSce for final approval before any construction\nof a permanent nature is authorized. In the preparation of this permanent\nplan, the blueprint of the original survey prepared by the Bureau of Lands\nis used. Every precaution taken beforehand has proved to be of lasting\nadvantage to school interests.\nConsiderable headway has been made during the past three years in\nthe acquisition of adequate school grounds and the development of satisfactory school plants. At the present writing over 1,300 school sites of the\nrequired area have been acquired.\nTHE PLAYGROUND\n\nGeneral school athletics, school games, and gardening have been given\ndefinite places in the course of study adopted for the public schools in the\nPhiHppines. Provisions for these school activities are, therefore, made\nin laying out every school ground. The aim is to make the playground\nlarge enough to acconmiodate all the pupils. One section of the groimds\nis reserved for the boys, another for the girls, and the games of both are\nunder proper supervision.\nThe playground, since it is the largest open space on the school premises,\ndeserves much attention. Cleanliness especially is insisted upon. Weeds\nare not permitted to grow and the surface is graded and leveled in a manner\nwhich provides for proper drainage. Unused corners which serve no useful purpose and are liable to grow up to weeds or become filled with rubbish\nare planted to shrubbery and trees. All of these features are indicated\nin the plan of improvement.\nSPECIAL-PLAN\n\nBUILDESTGS\n\nSpecial plans have been prepared by the consulting architect for a\nnumber of provincial high schools and dormitories and for a number of\nprovincial trade and manual-training schools. These are usually more\nelaborate in design and considerably more expensive than the standard\nschools. This is possible because of the fact that provincial resources are\nlarger than municipal revenues for construction. Recent provincial school\nbuildings, however, have in all cases been constructed in accordance with\nstandard plans as these have proved to be better adapted to school purposes\nin addition to being less costly.\nSpecial plans prepared by the consulting architect were used in the\nconstruction of the academic building and the girls' dormitory of the insular\nnormal school. These are large three-story buildings of reinforced concrete.\nBeing insular school buildings, they are of a more impressive style. Both\nas regards utility and beauty of appearance, nothing has been spared to\nmake them render the highest possible service to the cause of education.\nPlans have also been prepared for the shop buildings of the insular\nschool of arts and trades. These will be under construction at an early\ndate. A large mmiber of insular school buildings are yet housed in tem-\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTENURE\n\nOF OFFICE\n\nI05I\n\nporary quarters for lack of adequate funds with which to build. It is\nhoped that the present program of doing something each year toward providing permanent structures for these institutions will relieve the situation.\nThe policy of using the meager resources in the construction of permanent\nbuildings is believed to offer the only practical solution to this problem.\nCARE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nPREMISES\n\nSchool grounds must be cared for by continuous effort, and not by\nspasmodic attempts. The planting of a few trees and a literary program\non Arbor Day are useful only in arousing enthusiasm. This event is not\ndepended upon either for planting or for caring for the school premises.\nThe secret of success lies in planting at the right time and in doing at all\ntimes what is necessary for the best development of the things planted.\nActive participation on the part of each pupil in caring for the plants\nand grounds is encouraged. Every child is made to feel that the school\nyard, the playground, the garden, etc., are partly his, for the reason that\nhe helped to make them. An injury to any one of these features becomes\na personal matter. This feeling tends to bring out a regard for public\nproperty, consideration for others, and responsibility toward the public good.\nThe pupils are usually organized into an improvement society under\na teacher who is held directly responsible for the improvements and upkeep\nof school grounds. The object of such a society is actual work on the school\ngrounds rather than an academic discussion of something with which the\npupils have no business to meddle. It is the duty of the teacher in charge\nto see that the provisions of the permanent plan of improvement are carried\nout in detail, for which purpose he has the entire student body back of him.\nSuch matters as care of the grounds, watering of plants, construction of fences,\nand providing proper drainage facilities come under his direct supervision.\nTo summarize briefly what has been done in the campaign for adequate\nschool buildings and sites let me say: Of the 4,200 public schools of the\npresent day in the Philippines, about 700 have been provided with buildings which are permanent and adequate in every respect. The other fivesixths of the building program is the task of the future. As for school\nsites, practically one-third of the work is done. That is to say, over 30\nper cent of the school sites of the Philippine Islands are adequate upon the\nstandards which I have described.\nTENURE\n\nOF OFFICE\n\nGRACE DEGRAEF, PRESIDENT, LEAGUE OF TEACHERS* ASSOCIATIONS,\nPORTLAND, ORE.\n\nElementary teachers are beginning to realize that the status in which\nthey are held by the community is largely due to their own united efforts,\nand that, while, an individual teacher sometimes stands high, as a group\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOS2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nor class they do not occupy the place they would like. This hampers\ntheir power of training the children to take their places as fearless selfrespecting citizens.\nTeachers are supposed to measure up to all the standards of people\nwho have leisure. Yet the average salary for a teacher in igii was less\nthan $42 a month. In the criticisms against the public schools, the public\nforgets that poor pay means poor help; yet the teacher is held largely\nresponsible for the failure of the schools. For years the grade teacher has\nheard from the press, the public, and school boards that if she were a \"lover\nof children\" and a \"born teacher\" she would be ideally happy with her\npaltry salary and her barren schoolroom. Teachers have been falsely\ntrained. False pride has kept them from revolting against the conditions.\nSo they have struggled along, doing their own washing, ironing, dressmaking,\nand millinery, nights after school, Sundays, and vacations. While by\ndoing this teachers have managed to exist, they have been conscious of\nrobbing the children of a cheerfulness of spirit and an energy that should\nhave been given them.\nThe grade teacher has been told that she should better prepare herself\nfor her work. That was the entire trouble. So she has taken advantage\nof everything offered. She has been told that she must know every subject well enough to teach it; that she must dress better; must take lecture\ncourses and reading-circle work; that she must read and must travel;\nmust have a library; must mingle with the parents; must conduct literary\nsocieties and debating clubs; must teach in Sunday school; do church\nwork; be a social worker; take part in the parents' circle; give up her lunch\nperiod to take care of lunch pupils; buy supplies not furnished by the district and incidentally must be an expert instructor in twelve or fifteen subjects. In fact, there is nothing under the sun not mentioned that she\nshould not be able to do. The teacher has been so busy meeting all these\nrequirements that she has forgotten her duty to herself. She has carried\nout orders. She has furthered school policies without having a part in\nshaping them. In doing her duty to the children, the parents, and the\nstate, she has had no time to break away from the traditional bonds that\nheld her and no one has done it for her.\nFrom long training the teacher has learned to carry out orders and this\nhas led to a servility that must be abolished if you wish the most competent\nteachers. I say it with shame for the teaching profession, but either the\nmajority of supervisors are not brave enough or else they are so incompetent\nthey cannot help teachers with constructive criticisms. It may be very\nhard to tell a teacher of her faults, but that is the chief business of supervisors. The majority use a remedy easier for themselves but tremendously\nunfair to teachers, children, and parents. They condemn and dismiss\nteachers in secret, often giving them recommendations but following their\napplications with damaging letters. Often everyone in the corps, except\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTENURE\n\nOF OFFICE\n\nIO53\n\nthe teacher herself, knows that she is failing in her work. Dismissal\nwithout stating the cause is most unfair. How can the teacher correct her\ngrievous fault if no one has told her? While teachers love children and\nlove their work, the majority are teaching for the wage check at the end of\nthe month, which is necessary for their existence and for those dependent\nupon them. One unfair dismissal creates an unrest thruout the whole\ncorps, which renders them unable to put hope and confidence and good cheer\ninto their work. No teacher can do her best work when harassed by the\nthought that she may lose her position if she does not conform to every\nwish of those in authority, or if she be dominated by every parent in the\ndistrict, regardless of how capable or incapable those authorities or patrons\nmay be.\nA tenure law is not a plan to protect an incompetent teacher. She\nobtains her position thru politics and the same influence that placed her\nwill keep her in her position. A tenure law is to relieve the efficient,\nconscientious teacher from a period of worry each year that means a great\nloss to the children. Tenure dignifies the profession. It establishes a\nrecognized tribunal to which she can go for justice. This tribunal eliminates\npublic attacks upon school authorities.\nAn incompetent teacher has no place in any system; neither has an\nincompetent supervisor. A teacher's service should grow steadily in value.\nA teacher must keep her own agreements either implied or expressed in\norder to be in a position to exact her rights. So thru appreciation of tenure\na teacher becomes jealous of keeping it, and if they are organized you will\nfind the competent teachers bringing influence to bear upon the incompetent\nto raise their work to standard.\nTenure to me means what I have already said and more. It means\na written notice of dismissal, stating the charges, criticisms, or complaints\nby the person making the same, at least two and a half months before the\nclose of the school term. It is said sometimes that such a notice would\ncause the teacher to do poor work. If she is doing such poor work that she\nshould be dismissed it cannot become much worse, and justice demands\nshe be given a reasonably fair opportunity to earn her livelihood elsewhere.\nAs a safeguard to the board, the charges and full proceedings should be a\npublic record. . No teacher could afford to take a chance on leaving such a\nrecord that she would be forced to leave the profession, and so if she were\nincompetent she would not ask for a trial but would quietly accept dismissal. A tenure law should give a teacher an opportunity of working\nwith two principals before dismissal. Most cities have a large number of\nsupervisors. If after a two-year probationary period under their direction,\na teacher has proved her ability to teach satisfactorily, then the state and\nschool board owe her the protection of tenure, especially if they wish to keep\nthe most competent teachers for their children.\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Harriet A. Wood, school librarian, Library Association.\nVice-President — ^W. Dawson Johnston, librarian, public library\nSecretary — ^Marion L. Horton, librarian, John C. Fremont High School\n\nPortland, Ore.\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nOakland, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 24, 19 15\nThe first session of the department was called to order by the president in Chabot\nHall at 9:00 A.M.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\"Report of Committee on Normal-School Libraries\" — ^Mary C. Richardson, State\nNormal School, Castine, Me., chairman.\n\" Report of Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruction\nin Normal Schools\" — James F. Hosic, head, department of English, Chicago Normal\nCollege, Chicago, HI., chairman.\nDiscussion: \"The Importance of the Course in Children's Literature in a Normal\nSchool\" — Charlotte G. Robinson, librarian, State Normal School, San Diego, Cal.;\nEmma J. Breck, head, English department, University High School, Oakland, Cal.;\nMarjorie Van Deusen, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.; Herbert Lee, principal,\nUniversity High School, Oakland, Cal.\n\"Report of Committee on Iligh-School Libraries\" — Mary E. Hall, librarian. Girls'\nHigh School, Brooklyn, N.Y., chairman.\n\"Planning and Equipping a High-School Library\" — Janet H. Nunn, Ubrarian, Lewis\nand Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. (This paper was read by Marion L. Horton,\nlibrarian, John C. Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal.)\n\"High-School Libraries of California\" — Ella S. Morgan, librarian, Lincoln High\nSchool, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"Some High-School Problems — Question Box\" — Elizabeth Madison, librarian,\nHigh School, Oakland, Cal.\nSECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, August 24, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 P.M., by President Wood in Chabot Hall.\nThe following papers were read:\n\"The Voice in Its Relation to the Literary Appreciation of Children\" — Katherine\nJewell Everts, specialist in voice expression, Pomfret, Conn.\n\"Report of Committee on Rural-School Libraries\" — Martha Wilson, supervisor of\nschool libraries, State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn., chairman.\n\"Report of Subcommittee on a Standard Foundation Library for a Rural School\" —\nHarriet A. Wood, school librarian, Library Association, Portland, Ore.\nDiscussion: Alice G. Whitbeck, librarian, Contra Costa Coimty, Cal.; Stella Huntington, librarian, Santa Clara County, Cal.; Charlotte Casey, school librarian,\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\"Report of Committee on Elementary-School Libraries\" — EflSe L. Power, supervisor of work with schools, Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh, Pa., chairman.\n\"The Basis of Selection of an Elementary-School Library\" — Flora M. Case, school\nlibrarian, Salem, Ore.\nXOS5\n\"American History in Elementary Schools\" — Ida H. Holmes, departmental teacher\nof history, Clinton Kelly School, Pordand, Ore.\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "ios6\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Evening, August 24, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Chabot Hall at 9:00 p.m., by President Wood.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President — ^Irene Warren, librarian, University of Chicago, Chicago, HI.\nFor Vice-President — C. C. Certain, Polytechnic Institute, Aubvum, Ala.\nFor Secretary — Grace D. Rose, librarian, Davenport, la.\nThe following program was given:\n\"School Libraries — Stereopticon Lecture\" — ^John D. Wolcott, librarian, United\nStates Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n\"The Library as a Continuation School\" — Bernard C. Steiner, librarian, Enoch\nPratt Free Library, Baltimore, Md.\n\"Books and Education\" — E. O. Sisson, commissioner of education, Boise, Idaho.\nConn.\"A Reading\" — Katherine Jewell Everts, specialist in voice expression, Pomfret,\nMamon L. Horton, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nON NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nWe have co-operated with the Department of Normal Schools of the\nNational Education Association to the extent that we have on the program\nof that department at the Oakland meeting a speaker who will present the\nimportance of library work in the normal school. Our speaker is President\nCarroll G. Pearse, of the Milwaukee State Normal School, a man who\nrecognizes the value of the library in the school and the need of specific\ntraining in the use of books and the library as shown by the library requirements in his own school. A normal-school president was chosen for this\npurpose with the idea that one of their own number could speak with more\ninfluence and persuasion to school men. A librarian might possibly be\nconsidered prejudiced in favor of her own profession.\nThe committee has made it a point to keep in touch with other organizations and with other committees of this organization doing allied work,\nthus saving, when possible, unnecessary duplication of effort. We call\nattention to the following committees:\nCommittee on Special Training of School Librarians appointed by the American\nLibrary Association January i, 1915; Frank K. Walter, assistant director, New York\nState Library School, Albany, N.Y., chairman.\nCommittee on School Library Organization appointed by the American Library\nAssociation, January i, 1915; Willis H. Kerr, librarian, State Normal School, Emporia,\nKans., chairman.\nCommittee on Standardization of Library Coiurses in Normal Schools appointed by\nthe normal-school group of school librarians which met at the Washington meeting of\nthe American Library Association, in May, 1914; Lucy E. Fay, librarian. University of\nTennessee, KnoxviQe, Tenn., chairman.\nCommittee on Standardization of Library Courses in Normal Schools appointed by\nthe Library Department of the National Education Association, at St. Paul, Jidy, 1914;\nJames F. Hosic, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, HI., chairman.\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1 05 7\n\nWe would call attention also to the Bulletin on Library Instruction in\nUniversities, Colleges, and Normal Schools, compiled by Henry R. Evans,\nand published by the United States Bureau of Education. It seems advisable to try to have this valuable pamphlet revised rather than to compile\nanything as a comniittee, since this is more accurate and more accessible\nthan anything we might do. Yet there are many changes since this\npamphlet was compiled, so rapidly is the idea of library instruction in a\nnormal school advancing.\nWe note that when this bulletin was compiled ninety-three normal\nschools reported some work in library science. This is encouraging, but\nthere is still much to be done, as this number represents only about one-third\nof the normal schools in the country, and only one-half of the states have\na normal school doing this kind of work, as far as our records show. Only\ntwo states, Wisconsin and Idaho, require library instruction in their normal\nschools.\nYour committee has sent copies of an excerpt from an address by J. C.\nEngleman, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111., to each normal-school\npresident in the country. We quote only the closing sentence.\nCommercial courses, library science, and public speaking are all finding definite\nplaces in progressive normal schools, the percentage and distribution of each one being\nsuch as to prophesy their being universally taught within a few years.\n\nYour committee has done some work along the line of what to teach\nour students about the work in library instruction in the grades. We report\nthe following places where such work is done: Binghamton, N.Y.; Brookline, Mass.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Dover, Me.; Grand Rapids, Mich. ; Kansas\nCity, Mo. ; Lewisburg, Pa. ; Los Angeles, Cal. ; Portland, Ore. ; Providence,\nR.I.; Utica, N.Y,; East Orange, N.J. Normal schools giving such work:\nGeneseo, N.Y.; Castine, Me.; Phoenix, Ariz.; Milwaukee, Wis.; Whitewater, Wis.; Los Angeles, Cal.; Emporia, Kans.\nFrom the courses of study of library work in the grades which we have\non file, we make the following observations:\nIt seems advisable to give simple lessons on the care and treatment of\nbooks, how to open a book, etc., to the first four grades, and thus the love\nof books and the reading and the library habits may be begun early. We\nfind that some courses begin with the fifth grade and that still others give\nthe work in the last two grades or the last grade only. The various courses\nagree pretty well as to what to put into the sixth, seventh, and eighth\ngrades.\nGrade VI. — Use of card catalog, use of general cyclopedia, arrangement\nof books by subject, and under each subject by author.\nGrade VII. — Use of atlas and readers' guide, classification — teach\ncountry numbers, and their relation to literature, language, history, and\ngeography — further use of card catalog.\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "I058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nGrade VIII. — Further study of reference books, and of books thruout\nthe library useful in looking up a subject, special points of difference and\nvalue in the various cyclopedias and dictionaries, how to look up a subject\nfor debate, how to take notes, etc.\nNumber of lessons; This varies from two a month to two a year.\nWho gives the lessons ? Some cities employ a school librarian, others\ndepend upon the children's librarian or the regular librarian, and only\noccasionally do we find the work being done by a teacher. Probably the\nnumber of teachers doing the work will not increase materially until we have\nsomething in definite, printed form to put into their hands. Even if it\ndid not fit every case — and we all admit it would be very difficult to outUne\na course which would meet the conditions in different schools — a teacher\nor superintendent should have something concrete and definite to start\nwith and something that is easily available. Valuable as are the various\noutlines which have come out from time to time in library journals, they\nare of little if any value to teachers, because of their not being easily accessible.\nThe School Library Exhibit, prepared last year by the United States\nBureau of Education, with the assistance of Ida M. Mendenhall, then\nchairman of this committee, has proved itself valuable and has traveled\nfar since May, 1914. It has visited the following places, as reported by the\nUnited States Bureau of Education:\nWashington, D.C., American Library Association, May, 1914.\nSt. Paul, Minn., National Education Association, July, 1914.\nKnoxville, Tenn., University of Tennessee, July, 1914.\nColumbia University, Simimer Library School, August, 19 14.\nIthaca, N.Y., New York State Library Association, September, 1914.\nDayton, Ohio, Ohio Library Association, October, 1914.\nCharleston, HI,, Eastern lUiaois Normal School, October, 1914.\nMilwaiikee, Wis., Wisconsin Teachers' Association, November, 1914.\nLidianapolis, Ind., Indiana Library Association, November, 1914.\nChicago, HI., National Coimcil of Teachers of English, November, 1914.\nCincinnati, Ohio, Department of Superintendence, National Education AssociationJI\nFebruary, 1915.\nChattanooga, Tenn., Southern Conference for Education and Industry, April, zgij\n\nAs to the work for the coming year, we recommend that the plan\nadopted by the Committee on High-School Libraries of assigning to each\nmember of the committee some one phase of the work be adopted by this\ncommittee. In addition to this the committee as a whole might carry out\nthe following lines of investigation:\nIt might gather information to bring up to date the normal-school\nmaterial in the Bulletin on Library Insiruction in Universities, Colleges, and\nNormal Schools. It might find just what cities and towns are doing library\nwork in the grades, as well as who is teaching it, and thus have something\ndefinite to give to our students who are going out to teach and to superin-\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZING\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n1059\n\ntendents who ask us for information. The committee might get a complete\nfile of courses of study used in these cities, and possibly outline a course\nwhich would be suitable to have printed.\nRespectfully submitted,\nMary C. Richardson, Castine, Me., Chairman\nIda M. Mendenhall, Utica, N.Y.\nWillis H. Kerr, Emporia, Kans.\nCommittee ■{ Marjorie Van Deusen, Los Angeles, Cal.\nEsther Braley, Kalamazoo, Mich.\nDella. G. Ovitz, Milwaukee, Wis.\n^ Margaret Dold, Chico, Cal.\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STANDARDIZING THE\nCOURSE OF STUDY IN LIBRARY INSTRUCTION\nIN NORMAL SCHOOLS\nAt the annual meeting of the American Library Association in Washington, D.C., in May, 1914, a conference of normal-school librarians was\nheld which resulted in the appointment of a special committee on library\ntraining in normal schools. This was constituted as follows: Lucy E. Fay,\nlibrarian of the University of Tennessee, chairman; Delia G. Ovitz, librarian\nof the Milwaukee State Normal School; and Mary J. Booth, librarian of\nthe Eastern Illinois State Normal School. The purpose of the committee\nwas to outline a standard course of library training for normal schools.\nThis committee sought the co-operation of the Library Department of the\nNational Education Association, and accordingly a like committee, the\nnames of whose members are subscribed, was appointed by that organization at its annual meeting in St. Paul in July of the same year.\nThe two committees agreed to divide the work. The American Library\nAssociation committee undertook to gather information as to what courses\nare being given in the normal schools and on that basis of experience to\npropose a series of standard courses. The National Education Association committee, for its part, agreed to approach elementary and highschool authorities in an effort to learn what sort of library training\nthose persons who are in charge of elementary and high schools regard\nas most desirable. The American Library Association committee made\nits report at the annual meeting of that society at Berkeley in June of the\npresent year.\nThe National Education Association committee sent out to a hundred\nschool supervisors representing all parts of the country a letter explaining the purposes of the committee accompanied by the following\nquestionnaire: .\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWhat Should a Teacher Know\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nILibrary\n\nabout the Use of Books and Libraries ?\n\nPlease check the items which you consider of first importance.\nI. Elementary-school teachers should know\n1. The best books for the grade they teach\no) For home reading\nb) Connecting with the subject taught\nc) To read aloud\nS) For stories to tell\n2. The best encyclopedias for graded schools\n3. Books about children's reading and story-telling\n4. How to judge books for usefiilness and real worth\n5. The best printed lists of children's books\n6. The best editions of standard children's books\n7. How to buy books economically\n8. The book resources of the town, coimty, state\n9. How to use books effectively\n10. How to teach the use of indexes in books; the dictionary, encyclopedias\n11. Library technique as follows:\no) How to mend books\nb) When a book should be rebound\nc) How to keep a record of the books belonging to the library; i.e., an inventory\nor accession record\nd) The best way to keep a record of the books loaned\ne) How to arrange the books in the library so that the books on the same subject\nmay be easily found; i.e., to classify\nn. High-school teachers should know\n1. The best books on their special subjects\n2. Interesting books for home reading for high-school girls and boys\n3. The best general encyclopedias\n4. Encyclopedias of special subjects\n5. The best magazines for high schools\n6. The best lists of high-school books\n7. How to use books to advantage\na) Dictionaries, encyclopedias, general reference books\nb) Magazine indexes\nc) Indexes in books\n<i) Classroom libraries\ne) Special editions\n/) In special subjects; e.g., vocational guidance\ng) In reading for pleasure\n8. How to co-operate with the public library\n9. Library technique as follows:\na) How to mend books\nb) When a book should be rebound\nc) How to keep a record of the books belonging to the library; i.e., an inventor\nor accession record\nd) The simplest way to record books in the library so that the books on the same\nsubject may be easily found; i.e., to classify\n/) What catalog helps are available\ng) How to make a card catalog (?)\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZING\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nlo6l\n\nIII. Normal-training department teachers in high schools should know\n1. The best children's books for rural schools\n2. Books of methods suited to the cadets in training departments\n3. How to interest the^cadets in the school library as a part of their school equipment\nso as\na) To care properly for the books\nb) To keep the necessary records\n4. How to give the students standards for judging children's books\n5. How to buy books to best advantage\n6. How to use the state school library lists\n7. Useful pamphlets for country schools\n8. How to care for pamphlets\n9. How to use the school hbrary\na) In connection with the teaching\nb) For the pupils' home reading\nc) In community service\n\nSixty answers were received. Several of the correspondents checked\nall of the items, declaring that all are important. The majority selected\nsuch points as \"Books for home reading,\" and were inclined to pass over as\nof less importance such items as \"Best encyclopedias for graded schools,\"\n\"How to buy books economically,\" \"When a book should be rebound,\"\n\"Special editions,\" \"How to make a card .catalog,\" and \"How to keep the\nnecessary records.\" It was clear from the checking that school men prize\nleast the more technical aspects of the teacher-librarian's training; that\nthey most desire their teachers to know what books children can and should\nuse and how to train in the use of them.\nThe spirit of the replies was most reassuring. There was plainly a\nconsciousness of the need for more and better library training than teachers\nare now generally given and a disposition to welcome the movement to\nstandardize and extend such training in the normal schools. The following\nexcerpts are typical:\n\"You have asked me to check items of first importance, which I have done, but they\nare all of importance. I am very much in favor of your plan of securing instruction of\nthis kind in the normal schools. It is a move in the right direction.\"\n\"Teachers do not need to know library science, but need to know books and how and\nwhen to use them, especially books pertaining to subjects they are teaching. Trainingdepartment teachers need to know a great deal about library work. I cannot omit any\npoints under that head.\"\n\"It seems to me that if a course in library instruction were offered for teachers in\ntraining schools, all the subjects indicated on the outhne which you have sent me might\nwell be considered. I have checked, however, those that seem of most importance for the\nteachers, having in mind the fact that someone specially trained would take care of the\nothers. I believe that a definite library course should be offered to all prospective\nteachers, and that there should be a larger appreciation of the field of literature, with a\nkeener discrimination in regard to authors and subject-matter.\"\n\"Your letter with questionnaire was submitted to our librarian. She reports as\nfollows: *I have answered the checked items from the side of what a teacher should know\nabout a library drawn from my experience here. I suppose there is a regular librarian in\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "io62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ncharge. If so, it is not necessary for a teacher to know how to mark, accession, or keep a\nrecord of the books, but if it is a rural teacher who has charge of a school library as well\nas of teaching, the problem is quite diflferent. From the way the questions are worded, I\njudge they apply to elementary and high-school teachers rather than to rural teachers.'\"\n\"We have a children's library in addition to our general school library and co-operate\nwith our state library in this respect. We have a librarian and an assistant who devote\ntheir entire time to this work. Thru our English and history teachers in the high school,\nevery pupil is required to spend at least one to three periods of forty-five minutes each\nweek in supervised reading and acquaintance with books.\"\n\"Your questionnaire very strikingly illustrates the truth of the suggestion that it\nwould be quite well for any teacher in any work to know quite well everything that\ntouches his work. This truth, however, should not make us forget the other truth that\nwe are human and have our limitations. To let teachers feel that those in charge of\nadministration or supervision are imconsdous of these natural and necessary limitations\nand unsympathetic with people who have to suffer and work under them would destroy\ntheir confidence in the value of our administration and supervision.\"\n\"I think the questionnaire is very suggestive, and, instead of stating dogmatically\nthat the teachers in any of the departments must necessarily know all of the things suggested inconnection with library work in their department, you can do the most good by\nplacing such a list before them as indicating the ways in which they may render themselves more efficient thru the aid of books.\"\n\"I was very much interested in the outline of your committee's report on library\ninstruction in normal schools. I do not see how it is possible to comply with your request,\nnamely, to check the topics of first importance. It seems to me that all of these topics are\nof first importance. I do not see how any satisfactory course could omit a single one of\nthem. This may mean more time than is ordinarily accorded in normal schools, but it\nseems to me that library instruction is one of those practical phases which have been sadly\nneglected and to which we must give more time.\"\n\nAfter examining the answers to the question sheets and reviewing the\nreports and articles on the subject which have appeared in the Proceedings\nof the National Education Association and in the Library Journal and other\nsimilar periodicals, the committee formulated the following:\nSTANDABD\n\nCOUUSEiS IN LI3RARY TliAINING FOR STUDENTS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1. A course in the use of the library for the personal assistance of all normal-school\nstudents, both while they are in school and afterward. Minimimi time — ten class periods.\n2. A course in directing the reading of children, including the use of libraries so far\nas this is possible for them. Minimum time — fifty class periods.\n3. A course in library organization and administration for teacher-librarians. This\nshould prepare a few students in each normal school each year to take charge of the\nlibraries in elementary and rural schools and to be of general assistance to supervising\nofficers in building up and administering libraries. Elective. Minimum time — one\nhundred class periods.\n\nA few words of comment upon each of these courses are in order here.\nThe first should include at least the following topics: (i) importance of\ntraining in the use of books — the possibilities of the library; (2) classification; (3) arrangement in the library; (4) the catalog; (5) reference books;\n(6) periodicals; (7) indexes; (8) pubUc documents; (9) the investigation\nof subjects; (10) how to read for various purposes; (11) book selection.\nAll these topics should be presented in concrete fashion by means of actual\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZING\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n1063\n\nproblems and demonstration. This course should be given in the library\nitself by the librarian.\nThe second course should include at least the following topics: (i) the\nimportance and possibilities of children's reading; (2) the problem of\ndirecting it; (3) kinds of children's books and value of each; (4) standards\nof choice; (5) grading; (6) adaptation from the sources; (7) story-telling;\n(8) dramatization; (9) graphic illustration; (10) the use of pictures, maps,\netc.; (11) how to get books at the library of the school and at the public\nlibrary; (12) library rules and regulations; the care of books; (13) what\nbooks to buy for one's self. This course should usually be given by a\nmember of the English department with the co-operation of the librarian,\nand it should involve practice in conducting lessons in general reading and\nin the \"library hour\" as well as in the handling and care of books and lists.\nThe third course, which should be elective, should be open to highschool graduates who take all the regular work in English and history and\nwho wish to elect the library course in order to add this to the usual equipment. Itis assumed that normal schools which undertake to train librarians\nas such will look elsewhere for assistance in making out their courses.\nThe topics taken up should be of a strictly practical nature and should keep\nsteadily in view the actual opportunities which will lie before the graded\nand rural-school teacher. In addition to the topics included in the first\ntwo courses, the following should be covered: (i) selection and ordering of\nbooks; (2) accessioning; (3) labeling; (4) cataloging; (5) arranging on the\nshelves; (6) issuing; (7) mending; (8) binding; (9) attracting and directing\nreaders; (10) co-operation with public libraries; (11) helpful library\nagencies; (12) community service. All these topics should be taught in\nthe library and should be enforced by apprentice work.\nThe foregoing outline is submitted as representing the minimum\nstandard. It omits, for example, the interesting topics concerning the\nhistory of book-making and the book trade,' but it covers, it is believed, the\nreally essential features.\nThe material for conducting such courses as are outlined above has\nnow been fairly well sifted and organized. As an aid to supervisors,\nlibrarians, teachers, and students who may be interested in one or more\nof the courses the committee submits the following brief list of references.\nREFERENCES\n\nBaldwin, Elizabeth G. : Report of a Joint Committee Representing the American Library\nAssociation and the National Education Association on Instruction in Library\nAdministration in Normal Schools, 1906. D. W. Springer, Secretary, National\nEducation Association, Ann Arbor, Mich. $0.25. (References fairly complete\nto date.)\nBostwick, Arthur E., editor: Reprints of Papers and Addresses on the Relationship\nbetween the Library and the Public Schools. The H. W. Wilson Co., White Plains,\nN.Y., 1914,\n\n$1.30.\n\n' Proceedings of th; National Education Association, 1914, p. 8x6.\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "1064\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBrown, M.W.: Mending and Repair of Books. American Library Association Publishing Board, Chicago, HI., 1910. $0. 15.\nDana, J. C: The Picture Collection. Public Library, Newark, N.J., 1910. $0.35.\nEvans, Henry R.: Library Instruction in Universities, Colleges, and Normal Schools.\nUnited States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 34, 1914. (Gives the results of an\ninquiry.)\nFay, Lucy E., and Eaton, Anne T.: Instruction in the Use of Books and Libraries.\nBoston Book Co., 1915. $2 . 25. (A complete textbook with bibUographies.)\nGilson, Marjory: Course of Study for Normal-School Students on the Use of a Library.\nPublic Library, Newark, N.J.\n(A new edition is in process.)\nHall, Mary E.: A Suggestive List of References on High-School Libraries. New York\nLibraries, Albany, N.Y., May, 1913. (An excellent bibliography on all phases of\nlibrary work.)\nJordan, Alice M.: One Thousand Good Books for Children. United States Bureau of\nEducation, Home Education Circtdar No. i, 1914. (A classified and graded list prepared for the National Congress of Mothers.)\nMendenhall, Ida M.: A Syllabus of Library Instruction in Normal Schools. Proceedings\nof the National Education Association, 1912, p. 1258. (Report of a committee of the\nLibrary Department of the National Education Association.)\nOvitz, Delia G. : A Course in Reference Work. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.,\n1910. $0.10.\nStearns, Lutie E.: Essentials in Library Administration. Second edition. American\nLibrary Association Publishing Board, Chicago, 111., 1912. $0.25.\nWard, Gilbert O.: The Practical Use of Books and Libraries. Second edition. Boston\nBook Co., 1914. $1.00.\n(Less comprehensive than the work by Fay and Eaton.)\nTeaching outline to accompany the foregoing, 50 cents.\nWilson, Martha: Report of the Committee on Rural-School Libraries. Proceedings of the\nNational Education Association, 1914, p. 798. (Includes three reports by subcommittees on(i) A Standard Foundation for a Library for a Rural School; (2) Training of Rural Teachers in the Use of Books; and (3) Community Service from the\nRural-School Library.)\nWilson, Martha: School-Library Management. State Department of Education, St.\nPaul, Minn., 1914. (Reprinted from the Manual for Consolidated Schools in Minnesota.)\n\n(JamesFleming Hosic, Chicago, IlL, Chairman\nMartha Wilson, St. Paul, Minn.\nWillis H. Kerr, Emporia, Kans.\n\nREPORT\nMARY\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nE. hall, LIBRARIAN, GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y., CHAIRMAN\n\nThe past year has been a year of epoch-making events in the history\nof the movement for greater efficiency in the high-school libraries of the\ncountry. After four years of preparation and investigation, the Committee\non High-School Libraries has been able this year to set in motion a definitely organized campaign for the establishment and maintenance of live\nhigh-school libraries which shall vitalize the work of all departments of the\nmodern high school and which shall be in charge of trained and experienced\nlibrarians.\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nPROGRAM\n\nFOR COMMITTEE\n\nWORK\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nFROM\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nSEPTEMBER,\n\nI914, TO JXmE,\n\n1065\n\nI9IS\n\nAim. — ^The establishment of live high-school libraries in every city in the country.\nThe appointment of trained librarians in high-school libraries.\nThe appointment of a trained and experienced librarian in every state in the\nUnion to serve as state supervisor of school libraries, in rural, normal, elementary, and high schools.\nMETHODS\n\nOF ACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nI. Secure the co-operation of the United States Bureau of Education, the American\nLibrary Association, the National Council of Teachers of English, the American\nHistorical Association, and other national societies.\nII. Secure the appointment of an active state committee on high-school libraries in every\nstate teachers' association and state library association. Where possible, have\na joint committee of teachers and librarians, as in Rhode Island.\nThese committees to work for the following definite things:\na) Larger, better planned and equipped, more attractive reading-rooms in high\nschools.\nb) Regular and sufficient appropriations for maintenance.\nc) Appointment of trained librarians who can devote their entire time to the needs\nof teachers and pupils. Proper standards of qualifications for high-school librarians.\nd) Systematic instruction of pupils in the use of a library.\ne) Close co-operation with public library.\nIII. Have the high-school library discussed at educational meetings and in educational\nperiodicals.\nIV. Members of the national committee to aid leaders in all parts of the country to secure\ndata and material on high-school libraries, to help in preparing programs and\nsecuring speakers on phases of high-school work, and to prepare exhibits of\nlibrary aids and methods which have proved useful in high-school work.\nEVENTS\n\nOF NATIONAL\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nPROGRESS\n\n1. At the meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English in\nChicago, November, 19 14, the importance of the library in the high school\nwas recognized by the appointment of a standing committee on highschool libraries. This committee has prepared a Report on Library\nEquipment for the Teaching of English in the High School. For information concerning this report, write to James F. Hosic, Chicago Normal\nCollege, Chicago, 111. The report will be published by the United States\nBureau of Education as a chapter of the Report of the Joint Committee\nof the National Education Association and the National Council of Teachers\nof English on the Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools.\n2. In December, 19 14, the American Library Association recognized\nthe growing importance of the school library by the formation of a schoollibrary section. The purpose of this section is to further in every way\npossible the development of effective school libraries. Two important\ncommittees have been appointed by this section. One of these committees,\nof which Willis H. Kerr, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans., is chairman,\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "io66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nis to report on \"School Library Administration.\" The other, of which;\nFrank K. Walter, State Library School, Albany, N.Y., is chairman, is toj\nreport on \"Professional Training of School Librarians.\"\n3. In April, 19 15, at the annual conference of Accredited Schools of the!\nUniversity of Chicago, the high-school library was made a main topic for\ndiscussion at the general session and at each of the fourteen section meetings.\nThe importance of the modem organized high-school library in relation to^\neach department of the high school was fully discussed and illustrated by a '\nsuggestive exhibit. It is suggested that other universities hold similari|\nmeetings next year.\n4. The most important event of the year's progress was the unusually 1\nwell-organized campaign for better high-school libraries in the South. At\nthe meeting of the Southern Educational and Industrial Conference, at|\nChattanooga, Tenn., in April, 1915, a general committee on high-school j\nlibraries was appointed with C. C. Certain, Polytechnic Institute, Auburn,\nAla., as chairman. The plan of work includes a survey of high-school\nlibrary conditions, the establishment of a model high-school library in\ncharge of a trained librarian in at least one city of each southern state,\nfixed annual appropriations for books, recommendations for standard 1\nequipment for rural, town, and city high schools.\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN THE DIFFERENT\n\nSTATES\n\nNew England. — State committees have been formed in Rhode Island,\nConnecticut, and Massachusetts.\nIn Rhode Island thru the influence of Bertha Lyman of the Providence\npublic library, the high-school library was made a topic for discussion at\nboth the State Teachers' Institute and the State Library Association meeting. From these two meetings, there results a joint committee on l^ghschool libraries made up of three members from each association, the'\npresident of each being a member of the committee. For information\nconcerning this committee, write Miss Lyman.\nIn Massachusetts, a committee of three has been appointed by the\nMassachusetts Library Club to work for better high-school libraries in the\nstate. For information concerning this committee write Ahce Jordan,\nchairman, public library, Boston, Mass.\nIn Connecticut, the State Library Association gave the high-school\nlibrary a place on its program and a committee was appointed to stir up\ninterest in school libraries. For information, write Anna Hadley, Gilbert\nSchool, Winsted, Conn.\nNew York State. — In New York the state supervisor of school libraries\nsent out a questionnaire to each high school concerning the high-school\nlibrarian, education, training, experience, salary, whether full time is given\nto the library, if not what portion, etc. A circular letter was also sent to\nschool superintendents, high-school principals, and presidents of boards\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1067\n\nof education urging the necessity of a trained librarian in every large high\nschool on the ground that no other teacher in the school could render such\nvaluable service as a competent librarian. For all smaller high schools\nwhere it is out of the question to have a librarian who can devote her whole\ntime to the library, a summer course in library methods is urged for all\nteachers in charge of these libraries.\nIn New York City the Committee on School Libraries of the New York\nLibrary Club made a special study of the qualifications, salary, and status\nof the high-school librarian in leading cities of the country wherever they\ncould discover a modern high-school library. The committee drew up\nrecommendations to the Board of Education as to qualifications needed in\nhigh-school librarians and their assistants. This committee also followed\nup the legislation of the last two years and secured certain definite recommendations bythe Board of Superintendents. These are given in the\nBulletin of the Club, June, 19 15. Apply: F. W. Jenkins, president, 130\nEast 2 2d Street, New York, N.Y.\nNew Jersey. — ^The most important event in school-library development\nin New Jersey was the appointment of Edna Pratt, of the State Library\nCommission, Trenton, N.J., to the state supervision of school libraries.\nTrained librarians have been appointed in the high schools of Newark,\nPassaic, and East Orange. Montclair has just appointed a librarian and\nrequired that the candidate should have at least the technical training of a\nsummer course and should be a college graduate. A state association of\nschool librarians in New Jersey was organized last spring, made up largely\nof high-school librarians.\nThe Middle West. — In Ohio a member of this national committee has\nbeen elected to a Committee on Schools in the Ohio Library Association.\nA questionnaire concerning high-school library conditions has been sent\nout to many high schools and an effort will be made thru the co-operation\nof the school superintendents and state education department to encourage\nthe development of more effective school libraries.\nIn Illinois, in addition to the meeting at the University of Chicago,\nan important event was the work of a Committee on English Equipment\nin the State Association of Teachers of English. A questionnaire was sent\nout one-third of which dealt with high-school library conditions. For\ninformation as to the findings of this committee write to Willard M. Smith,\nJ. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, 111.\nIn Chicago in February, 1915, a Committee on High-School Libraries\npresented a memorial to the superintendent of schools asking that librarians\nbe appointed in all Chicago high schools.\nIn Minnesota, a Committee of High-School Teachers has been appointed\nin St. Paul to study the problem of close co-ordination of high schools and\npublic libraries and the need of a good working library in each high school\nincluding a branch or substation of the public library.\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "io68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nIn the new pension bill for teachers passed by the legislature, certified\nschool librarians are included. In order to certify school librarians, thei\nstate education department has drawn up definite standards of qualifications j\nfor school librarians.\nThe southern states. — In addition to the committee work planned at\nthe Chattanooga meeting progress has been made in the various states,\nthru local organizations.\nIn Louisiana, the teachers of English and history in New Orleans have]\ncreated a local committee for securing better high-school libraries in that city.\nIn Kansas City, Mo., the public library has recently established branch\nlibraries in the high schools.\nThe Far West. — California reports the establishment of a high-school\nUbrary section in the State Library Association and the formation of a\nState Association of High-School Librarians. Los Angeles reports a new\nsalary schedule for high-school librarians, placing them on a teacher's\nsalary basis.\nWashington reports progress in Tacoma where the public library and\nBoard of Education have this year agreed upon joint control of the highschool libraries. In the Stadium High School, the librarian must be a\ncollege graduate and also a graduate of an approved library school. Great\ncare was taken to secure someone who had also had successful experience\nin high-school library work. These standards are suggestive for other\ncities.\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nIt is too early yet in this high-school library movement to make any\ndefinite rules for the administration of high-school libraries. Local conditions vary so greatly that what would be a great success in one city might\nprove an absolute failure in another. The committee is making a careful\nstudy of the forms of high-school library administration which are now^\nbeing tried out in different cities.\nI. School-hoard administration. — This is the usual form of high-school\nlibrary administration. Here the library is an integral part of the school\norganization, and the librarian is a recognized member of the faculty with\nmany of the powers of a head of a department. The success of this type\nof high-school library depends upon the school board's intelligent appreciation of the function of the library' in the modern high school, adequate\nappropriations for maintenance, care in choosing the right librarian, and\nclose co-operation with the public library. Many feel that as the problems\nof the school library are more those of the college library than the public\nlibrary, this form of administration affords each high-school library the\ngreatest freedom to adapt the best methods in libraries in colleges and other\neducational institutions to meet the needs of a given high school. One\nhigh-school principal believes that this type of library will become the most\nimportant department of the modern high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1069\n\nJoint administration by public library and school board. — In many cities\nthe board of education will bear half the expense of a modern high-school\nlibrary if the public library will bear the rest. In several cities where the\nfunds of the school board would have proved wholly inadequate, the public\nlibrary has made possible a well-organized high-school library. As a rule\nin this joint control the school board supplies room, light, heat, equipment,\nand janitor service, and often employs the librarian. The public library\nsupplies the books, attends to the cataloging, binding, etc., and contributes\ntoward the librarian's salary, or assigns a member of its staff to serve the\nschool library during the school day. If a general public library branch\nis maintained in the high-school building, a separate reading-room should\nbe provided for the high-school students, or they are going to miss some\nof the great benefits of a high-school library. Like the children's room, it\nought to be selective, having only the best books which appeal to boys and\ngirls of high-school age. There should be the personal element and the\nclose relation between librarian and students, which is not possible if adults\nuse the same reading-room and make their own demands upon the librarian's\ntime. Many mediocre books and \"best sellers\" which must be admitted\nto the general reading-room should have no place in the high-school library.\nEach plan has its distinct advantages. In many cities the public\nlibrary can buy books and supplies more economically than the school\nboard and can give better service in this way all thru the year. On the\nother hand, the school board can as a rule set up higher standards of qualifications for the librarian, and, by offering an independent faculty position\nwith a regular teacher's salary, can attract the trained and experienced\ncollege men and women needed.\nQualifications for high-school librarians. — In the choice of the librarian\nlies the crux of the whole matter. The success of the high-school library\nwill depend upon the general culture, maturity, training, and experience\nof the librarian, her power to command the respect and confidence of other\nmembers of the faculty, and her initiative and vision, which will help her\ndevelop the library so as to make it an important factor in all department\nwork. Most of all she must have the personal qualifications which will\nmake her not only a good team worker with the teachers, but a sympathetic\nand inspiring friend to the pupils.\nStandards of qualifications have been adopted this year in the state of\nMinnesota, which are suggestive for even the small high schools. The\ncities of Newark, N.J., and New York, N.Y., have set up standards which\nother cities might well adopt.\nIn Minnesota, under a ruling of the state high-school board of 19 15,\nevery state-aided high school must provide trained service in the highschool library. A choice may be made of one of the following : (i) employment of a school librarian; (2) employing a teacher for part-time library\nservice; and (3). combination with the pubUc library.\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "loyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe school adopting the second method is required to make a definite\nreduction in the amount of teaching service required of the librarian.\nIn order to meet the requirement that every state-aided high school\nshall have trained library service, the University of Minnesota will offer\ncourses in library economy to teachers that they may be prepared to devote\npart of their time to the care of the school library.\nIn Newark, N.J., the candidates for positions as high-school librarians\nmust offer graduation from an approved high school or equivalent academic\ntraining together with completion of a satisfactory course for librarians of\nat least one year in an approved library school. In addition, they must\nhave had one year's successful experience as librarian.\nIn New York state, the board of regents at the capitol in Albany has\nprepared a list of \"approved library schools for the training of high-school\nlibrarians.\" In New York City, the board of superintendents has recommended that hereafter no one shall be eligible for appointment as highschool librarian imless the candidate is a graduate of at least a one-year\ncourse in a library school approved by the regents of the state of New\nYork. This insures the best possible professional training and a high\neducational standard for high-school librarians in the future.\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nRecent important publications and committee reports of value in this\nhigh-school library movement are as follows:\nWard, Gilbert O.: The High-School Library. American Library Association, 78 E.\nWashington St., Chicago, HI., |o. 10.\nNote. — ^The most valuable contribution of the year. Contains an excellent bibliography.\nBardwell, Darwin L.: Phases of the Work of a Modem High SchooL Educational\nReview, April, 1915.\nNote. — Contains a tribute to the modem high-school library and emphasizes the\nimportance of its work.\n.: Report on the High-School Libraries of Greater New York.\n(In the Special\nReport on High Schools in the sixteenth annual report of William H. Maxwell, city\nsuperintendent of schools. New York, N.Y.)\nNote. — Outlines the duties of the high-school librarian; contains a tentative budget\nfor high-school libraries of different sizes; outlines lessons on the use of reference books\nand library tools, etc.\nDana, J. C. : Why Libraries in High Schools ? The Newarker, March, 1915.\nGilruth, H. A.: Public Library in the School. Department of Public Listruction, St.\nPaul, Minn., 1915.\nHopkins, Florence M.: Socializing Function of the High-School Library. (In Johnston,\nC. H., The Modern High School, pp. 801-5.)\nJohnston, W. D.: The School Librarian, Status and Training. Department of Public\nInstmction, St. Paul, Minn., 1915.\n.: The Library and History Study. History Teachers' Magazine, Philadelphia,\nFebruary, 1915.\nMinnesota Educational Association: Report on Library Equipment for Teaching History in the Schools.\nWinona Normal School Bulletin, November, 19 14.\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nOF CALIFORNIA\n\n107 1\n\nNational Council of Teachers of English: Report of the Committee on Library Equipment for the Teaching of English. Apply to J. F. Hosic, Chicago Normal College,\nChicago, 111.\nWarren, Irene: Some High-School Library Problems. Wilson BuUetin, White Plains,\nN.Y., March, 1915.\nWilliams, Sherman: High-School Library Problem. New York Libraries, Albany, N.Y.,\nFebruary, 1915.\nNote. — For current news of high-school library progress in different cities or states\nsee the Wilson Bulletin, White Plains, N.Y.\nSent free to those interested.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES OF CALIFORNIA\n\nELLA S. MORGAN, LIBRARLAN, LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nThe high schools of CaUfornia reporting statistics to the state librarian\nnumber 241. These own a total of more than 340,000 volumes. With\nvery few exceptions, magazines are received and in many cases newspapers as well. The average number of volumes in the rural high schools\nis 1,080, while in the cities or centers the average is 4,289. There are 25\nhigh-school libraries in charge of librarians and all but 3 of these librarians\nhave had formal library training. In several cases the librarian also holds\na teacher's certificate and gives part time to teaching. This method of\n\"doubling parts\" is of course followed in places where it is felt that the\nenrolment does not warrant the school board in paying for a librarian's full\ntime. In Los Angeles the librarians of the high schools have the status and\nsalary of regular high-school teachers with the same minimum and maximum\nsalary. The larger high schools in Los Angeles have assistant librarians\nas well as librarians. In one, an evening-school assistant is also employed,\nwhile in yet another a teacher with library training gives part time to\nassisting the librarian. In each of 18 high-school libraries there are more\nthan 3,000 volumes, as follows:\nBerkeley\n4,000 Pasadena\n6,000\nGlendale\n3>986 Sacramento\n3>ii2\nLos Angeles (7 schools)\n33,000 San Bernardino\n3>225\nLong Beach\n6,850 San Diego\n7,ooo\nOakland (3 schools)\n16,000 San Jos6\n4,464\nOrange\n3,711\nMany of the high-school librarians conduct classes in library work for\nwhich school credits are given. Lectures on the use of books are offered in\nmost of the larger schools, while student assistants who have more or less\ntraining given them with their work are helping in many of the libraries.\nLos Angeles has two evening high schools which use the libraries. Tho\nthe use made of these libraries is more for reference work in the room by\nnight-school students, and for reading-room use by people of the neighborhood, than for drawing books, yet the circulation during one term from\nSeptember 15, 1914, to February i, 1915, was 1,600 volumes.\nSeveral of\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "I072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthe country high-school libraries report that the townspeople are using\ntheir books. The two high schools holding night schools in Los Angeles\nare also holding summer sessions. In these schools the libraries are open\nand are in charge of the city staff of high-school librarians, who receive\nextra compensation for their work just as the teachers do.\nAt the present time, about 75 of the 241 high-school libraries in the\nstate are using the coimty libraries. All of the active county libraries\nare, as far as can be ascertained, giving service to the high schools of their\nrespective counties. Glenn County even goes so far as to loan books to a\nschool in an adjoining county having as yet no county library. The\nservice seems to be largely such as most public libraries in towns give to\nthe schools. When requested, books on special subjects, oftenest for\ndebates, are sent from the main library, its nearest branch, or thru that,\nfrom the state library, and this usually without charge for carriage. In\na number of coimties, collections are deposited in the schools. As\nthe high schools have by law no fixed apportionment, it is difficult for\nthem to enter into any sort of business agreement with the county to pay\nfor service or loans of collections of books. However, it is being done in\ntwo or three instances at least. The Girls' High School of Riverside seems\nto be the only one that turns over all its book money to the county. Here\nthe librarian's salary is paid by the school. In Solano Coimty the library\nof the county is located in the high school, rent free, with shelves, tables,\nand chairs supplied by the school. The library books belonging to the\nschool are retained by it and are to be put thru the regular library process\nof classification, cataloging, etc., by the county librarian. Other services\nperformed by the county libraries for the high schools other than loans of\nbooks are: the purchasing of library books for the high-school librarian;\ntalks on the use of books and on librarianship as a profession; care of a\nbalopticon and slides purchased by three high schools and deposited with\nthe Tulare County library, which is made trustee. Lantern and slides\nare sent to the school desiring them, free of express charge. The fact that\nthe county library system is new, some of the libraries being less than a\nyear old, accounts probably for the lack of uniformity in service to the\nschools. Also the lack of apportionment for high-school library books\nbefore mentioned is a hindering factor.\nA city Association of High-School Librarians has recently been organized in Los Angeles. This has a membership of fourteen including the\nlibrarian of the city-school library for elementary grades and her assistants.\nThe interest of other high-school librarians in the state in this local organization ofhigh-school librarians led to the request that this Los Angeles\nAssociation of High-School Librarians be reorganized into a state organization. As the number of high-school librarians in the state has more\nthan doubled since 191 2 and new appointments are being made constantly,\nsuch an organization has a great opportimity for increasing the efficiency\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1073\n\nof the high-school libraries thruout the state and for encouraging the establishment ofnew high-school libraries which shall be planned, equipped,\nand administered according to modern library methods and ideals.\n\nREPORT\nEFFIE L. POWER,\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\nLIBRARIES\nSUPERVISOR OF WORK WITH SCHOOLS, CARNEGIE\nPITTSBURGH, PA., CHAIRMAN\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nThis report is not final. It aims chiefly to cover the field of library\nwork in elementary schools in connection with public-library systems in\nlarge towns and cities and has been arranged in the form of an outline which\nmay be completed later by the committee.\nElementary-school libraries may be organized independently or may be\nadministered in connection with a school-library or public-library system.\nExamples of the independent library are to be found in a few private schools\nin large cities and in the state normal schools and departments of education\nin universities, but they are incompletely equipped with books and service.\nThe so-called model libraries in the normal schools contain so many books for\nstudent use that they are not good examples of children's libraries. These\ninstitutions need well-rounded collections of juvenile books, separate\nchildren's rooms, and trained children's librarians. Such a children's\nlibrary may be a unit or a part of a system, conditions within the school\nand its location in relation to other libraries determining the better form.\nThe books for library work with schools may be owned as a whole or in part\nby either the school or the public library, but it is the opinion of the committee that ordinarily the administrative problem belongs to the library,\nand this report has been made on that basis.\nFor examples of systems otherwise administered, see the public-school\nlibraries in New York City and Los Angeles, Cal.\nORGANIZATION\nI. Work with schools by public libraries in towns and cities with from\n25,000 to 100,000 population and with an approximate school population of\nfrom 5,000 to 20,000 is usually carried on by the chief librarian or the\nchildren's librarian, who also administers the children's room in the library\nbuilding. A trained assistant with clerical help is desirable. In case the\nlibrary system embraces one or two branches, extension work in schools may\nbe administered from branches also, but centralization is recommended.\nThis t5T)e of school work is exemplified in library systems in the following\ncities: Utica, N.Y., Wilkes-Barre, Pa., Superior, Wis., Davenport, la.\nWork of this volume may be carried on by means of a separate collection of\nduplicates of standard and classic children's books supplemented by the\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "I074\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nchildren's room collection. The size of the special collection should range\nfrom one-half to the total number of the school population. As many\ntitles will be needed as for a greater school population and the number\nshould range from 800 to 1,500.\n2. Work with schools in libraries in cities with from 100,000 to 250,000\npopulation and with an approximate school population of from 20,000 to\n50,000 should be administered from the central library as a department in\ncharge of a trained assistant with clerical assistance. This type of school\nwork is illustrated in library systems in the following cities: Grand Rapids,\nMich., Seattle, Wash., Louisville, Ky. The book collection should include\nfrom 1,000 to 2,000 titles and should number from 10,000 to 20,000 volumes.\n3. Libraries in cities having a population of 250,000 or more inhabitants\nshould have a supervisor of this department, at least one trained assistant,\nand a clerical staff. Work of this volume may be administered as a separate\ndepartment under the chief librarian; a division of the children's department; or a division of the extension department. A few libraries separate\nthe high-school libraries from the normal- and elementary-school libraries.\nThe book collection should be expanded to include adult books, picture\nbooks, special collections, and books for occasional use, and should include\nfrom 1,500 to 2,500 titles duplicated to meet the demand. The schools\ncollection of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh nimibers 31,069 volumes.\nThis is supplemented by loans from the adult lending department, making\na total of about 35,000 volumes. The collection owned by the New York\nCity Board of Education numbers about 500,000 volumes.\nBOOK COLLECTIONS\nBook collections for school use usually consist of reference books owned\nby the schools and loans from a floating collection owned by the library.\nThese loans take the form of general collections for the children's home\nreading, classroom libraries, special collections of one class or kind of book\nfor either home or reference use, sets of duplicates for supplementary reading. The following lists will aid in the selection of books for school use:\nBuffalo, N.Y., Library: Classroom Libraries for Public Schools, 1909.\nCarnegie Library of Pittsburgh: Catalog of Books .... for First Eight Grades in the\nPittsburgh Schools. 1907.\nIowa State Library Commission: Catalog of Books for School Districts of Iowa. Sekcted\nby Edna Lyman Scott, 1911.\nMinnesota State Board of Education: List of Books for Elementary and Rural Schools,\ncompiled by Martha Wilson, 1914.\nOregon Library Commission: List of Books for School Libraries for the State of Oregon,\n\n1906.\n\nSTAPF\n\nElementary-school library work is usually administered by members of\nthe local library staff. The standard of preparation should equal that of\nthe school supervising staff and include teaching experience, library-school\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSELECTING\n\nAN ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1075\n\ntraining, and at least two years' experience in general library work including\nwork in a children's room.\nCOST OF ADMINISTRATION\nThe rule in most systems is that all equipment is furnished by the\nschool, while the books, supplies, and service are furnished by the library.\nSalaries of trained workers vary from $1 ,000 to $2,000. Cost per book varies\nfrom $0.65 to $1.00.\nFUNCTIONS OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE\nSelection of books, pictures, and other material; care and distribution\nof deposits of library material in schools; reference work with teachers and\nclasses of pupils; instructions to teachers and classes of pupils in the use of\nthe library; instruction in library use and children's literature in normal\nschools; publication of school lists; exhibition of model collections of books\nfor children; selection and collection of pedagogical books and magazines;\ncollection of textbooks for comparative study; collection of museum\nmaterial for teachers and pupils; collection of newspaper clippings showing\nlocal and current history of school work; talks and lectures on schoollibrary topics; story-telling; attendance at school-library meetings;\nco-operation with other child- welfare agencies; the administration of a\nspecial room for teachers within the library; presentation of library work\nas a vocation; the training of school librarians; reports.\nDEPOSITORIES\nBooks; pictures; maps; museum\ncons; victrola records.\n\nmaterial; lantern slides; stereopti-\n\nTHE BASIS OF SELECTION OF AN ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\nLIBRARY\nFLORA M. CASE,\n\nSCHOOL LIBRARIAN,\n\nSALEM,\n\nORE.\n\nWith the thousands of children's books in the publishing houses and\nthe hundreds of titles coming out every year, the teacher and the librarian\nhave a task of nice discrimination if they accomplish their common aim —\nto make books a vital force in the lives of boys and girls. From the mass\nthey must choose, not alone the good, but the best.\nTolstoi may not have spoken of juvenile literature when he said, \"The\ngood book appeals to the universal mind,\" nevertheless the statement is\ntrue both for the child's book and for the child's mind. Probably no other\ncriticism is applicable to so many children's books as is this: They seem\nto stoop to an inferior intelligence. They say plainly, if not in words,\n\"Come, boys and girls, I will try to adjust my superior knowledge that\nI may dispense a few crumbs in childish words which you can comprehend.\"\nThe result is a childish work to be condemned by any self-respecting child.\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nA fair test, then, for the worth of a child's book is its appeal to the adult\nmind. Not all adults, it is true, find real pleasure in the best of them.\nThere are mothers who insist that no good can come of reading a fairy tale\nthat is altogether untrue. The average person does, however, find the\nsimple and childlike to be attractive. Who of you has opened The Sunbonnet Babies or The Overall Boys without a thrill of pleasure ? They are\ntruly childlike. The childlike is often not far removed from greatness.\nWe require of all books a correct moral attitude. It is of special\nimportance that those to whose influence the undeveloped mind is to be\nexposed maintain true values of life. The adult will discriminate between\nthe author's ideals and his own. The younger mind has not so formidated\nhis ideals that he can discriminate; he unconsciously accepts those of the\nauthor whom he finds entertaining. The author does not need to set his\nvalues by moralizing. He must not if he wants them accepted. If,\nhowever, in his attitude toward right and wrong he tolerates a low plane or\nswerves from truth he is to be avoided as the truly vicious.\nOf the books that fail to set a high standard, the most popular with the\nboys who visit the Salem public library are The Motor Boys Series. These\nbooks are made up of a succession of improbable events. The boy reader\nwill find that the world does not treat him much better than his efforts\ndemand. In the volume read, I found nothing to inspire to higher ideals\nor nobler action. A book with this lack of character is not alone a waste\nof time, but it also dulls the appreciation for better. The Elsie Dinsmore\nand Sophie May stories might be discussed as t3^es of the undesirable\nbooks for girls.\nThese, then, are characteristics that we would demand of any book to\nbe put into the hands of boys and girls: direct appeal to their intelligence,\nmaintenance of a high moral tone, and strict adherence to truth whether\nin the presentation of facts or in the portrayal of life. That its English\nbe pure may be assumed as well as that its physical form be made attractive\nby clear type, good paper not too highly glazed, broad margins, and pleasing,\neven artistic, illustrations. They are legitimate considerations, but incidental to the main purpose. The book that is worth while has a definite\naim and leads directly to the accomplishment of that aim. Our Puritan\nfathers distinguished by a sharp line the books read for pleasure from those\nread for knowledge, with scant toleration for the former. We err on the\nother side when we try to make science and travel inviting by means of\na sugar-coating of romance, forgetful that the attainment of facts for which\nsufficient desire has been aroused is the source of keen pleasure. In order\nthat the big things of life be not belittled by small minds, let us trust the\nspecialist who has, from his deeper vision, gained a message that demands\nhearers. If he has seen his vision, he will seldom fail to interest. Then the\nscientist will write our book of science, the historian our history, and the\nthoughtful traveler our book of travel. I do not say that one who has\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSELECTING\n\nAN\n\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1077\n\nwritten a good story for a child may not write a good scientific book. I do\nsay that the story is not a proof that he will.\nThe characteristics thus far discussed are applicable to any selection of\nbooks for children; they are considered even in a public library. The\nschool collection can include little beside the essentials and must, therefore, depend upon the libraries — city, county, or state — to round out the\nreading worlds of the boys and girls with books of more varied interest.\nHowever limited the library, it must preserve a certain balance in its subjectmatter. If broad, fair minds are to be developed, a large range of subjects\nmust be represented. But few of the necessary classes can be even mentioned ina discussion so brief as this.\nOne of the earliest demands is for the fairy tale. Its right will not be\nquestioned by a body of teachers who know too well the need to develop\nthe imagination in practical Americans. Only men of developed imaginative power have seen the visions that have given progress its great\nstrides. It is trite to say that the age most strongly marked by growth of\nthe imagination corresponds to the period when fairy tales are most craved.\nIn the choice of both fairy and folk stories care must be exercised to avoid\nthe inferior, even vulgar, stories found in some collections. Unless others\ncan be examined thoroly, it is safer to rely largely upon Lang's versions.\nThey are generally good, and the collections known by the names of the\ncolors afford variety if supplemented by separate volumes like Grimm's\nand Andersen's. The opportunity to satisfy this taste should be provided\nuntil the sixth grade, when the stories of fairies give place to Arabian\nNights and the legends of King Arthur and Robin Hood.\nIt may seem that there is enough of poetry in the English courses to\ncontribute its share to the development of the imagination without much\nadded attention in the library. With due regard to the teaching of English,\nwe must confess that it sometimes fails to give poetry the place it should\nhold in the affections of the student, and the poem that is read voluntarily\nis better loved than the one that is closely studied. Therefore, I ask for\nattractive volumes of poems for all the grades. Let us have for the little\nones a good edition of Mother Goose, Stevenson's Child's Garden of Verses,\nand others like Rosetti; Eugene Field, and good graded collections for the\nintermediates; with more complete selections from the standard authors\nto satisfy the author interest as it is aroused in the higher grades.\nAs previously suggested, it is desirable that the informational books be\nwritten by specialists. Zoology will be represented by a book on birds and\nstories of animals founded on appreciative observation, such as we have from\nSeton, Burroughs, Kipling, and Long, with, for the little ones, the attractive\nPotter books and Burgess* stories, wherein the animals are personified.\nBotany will have attention nearly equal to that accorded to zoology.\nIn our most carefully chosen library, some books will stand so far\nsuperior to others that we shall be sorry to have any child pass the grades\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "1078\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nwithout knowing them. In order to concentrate our efforts on certain of\nthe best books, the teachers of our city selected ten of what we call the\nclassics for each from the third to the eighth grades. We hope to secure\nthe reading of at least six of each ten by every child in the grade. The\nlists do not include all of the best books, but they are what the teachers\nbelieve they can use to the best advantage. Each room will have enough\ncopies of each classic for six weeks, so that every child may have opportunity\nto enjoy it. When the pupils in the room have read one of the books, the\nteacher will encourage a discussion that shall emphasize what is best in it.\nThis purposeful work with the best books is what gives them their vital\nplace in lives. The teacher who advises her pupils to go and read library\nbooks will not accomplish her aim, but she who knows and appreciates her\nbooks will make her pupils love them. Then tho the collection be\nsmall, if it be choice, and if its use be directed by one who sets true values\nupon it, it will be a power.\n\nAMERICAN\nIDA H. HOLMES,\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nDEPARTMENTAL TEACHER\nOF HISTORY,\nSCHOOL, PORTLAND,\nORE.\n\nSCHOOLS\nCLINTON\n\nKELLY\n\nDavid Snedden, state commissioner of education for Massachusetts,\nsays:\nThe time has arrived when all persons interested on the one hand in the better\nteaching of history, and on the other hand in better preparation for citizenship and the\npromotion of a common culture, shall face, in the light of modem knowledge, the question\nof valid aims and methods in the teaching of this important subject. This means that\nit shall have to go to the world of practical affairs, and obtain therefrom guidance as to\nthe actual ends which can be made the objectives of educational effort and which are worth\nwhile in modem society. Only when we shall base our purposes on direct understanding\nof social needs shall we be able finally to do the kind of constructive work which I believe\nthe future requires.\n\nThe character of the work done by both teacher and student depends\nupon the standard which is adopted, and this again depends upon the interest; hence high ideals and the constructive rather than the destructive\nthought are essential for successful presentation and accomplishment.\nCourses in history should tend to establish habits of correct thinking and\nintensive methods of study.\nThere are historical problems to be worked out, the same as in mathematics, which require clear thinking, and unless the method of instruction\nestablishes and makes clear the solution of the problem, the true value of\nthe study of history is not evidenced. Grant in his military career solved\nmany serious war problems. His capture of Vicksburg was a problem which\nhe worked out with irresistible determination. The Missouri Compromise\nand Kansas-Nebraska Bill were attempts at a solution of a great problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1079\n\nSecuring and holding the attention of a pupil is the history teacher's\nproblem, but the story is one of the easiest solutions. History story-telling\nshould begin in the first grades, gradually increasing in extent and difficulty. These stories, told by the teacher, or read and reproduced by the\npupil, according to grade, furnish a foundation for successful work, not\nonly in history, but in English and composition. The average story for\nlittle children should be a hero story. It should be simple and not too\nlong, but full of human interest and alive with action. The story-teller\nmust picture accurately the details of action, form, feeling, color, and word.\nThese are dear to the heart of the little child. For the first grade, it would\nbe well to tell stories of Indian life.\nTell Thanksgiving and Christmas stories at the appropriate times,\nstories of Washington and Lincoln, of Daniel Boone, telling of the primitive\nlife in America. Make the application of these stories thru handwork and\ndramatization. Make a wigwam, weave a mat, make miniature snowshoes, moccasins, bows and arrows, or whatever is suggestive of the story\ntold. Dramatize these stories, letting the imagination of the child have\nfull sway. I have seen these suggestions made applicable, and the results\nwere a live interest and a basis for future history work. We are living\nin an industrial age, an age that is emphasizing hand-training and the\ndignity of labor. What better place to begin its application! For first\ngrades I would suggest Two Little Algonkin Lads, by Bayliss; Colonial\nChildren, by Hart; Wigwam Stories, by Judd; Customs and Fashions of\nOld New England, and Pilgrim and Puritans, by Tiffany.\nThese are suggestions, and, while I am not now dealing with the young\nchildren, I have had the experience and found the history story-telling\nof inestimable value.\nWith older children, in beginning history from a textbook I have aroused\ntheir interest by getting them to ask questions at home as to ancestor —\nfather, grandfather, uncle, etc. — who has had experience in frontier life\nor in the Revolution or Civil Wars. Perhaps there are historical landmarks\nin the community or relics in possession of families; seek these out, thus\nbringing the pupil into actual contact with the historical past. Show him\nthat he himself is living in a history-making period — that he is a part of\na great whole.\nDependence and reliance upon one textbook are severely criticized by\nthe modern and progressive teacher. Textbooks are written for one age\nwhile the pupils live in another. By the textbook method, we withhold\nvaluable information and dwarf a more intelligent development for effective\ncitizenship.\nIf I may be pardoned personal illustrations: During the past year, in\ntaking up the study of the Civil War, I divided it into three periods: the\neastern campaign, the opening of the Mississippi River, and the final\nmaneuvers of Grant and Sherman resulting in the capture and surrender\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nof the southern forces. A special topic was a class assignment, but the\ntext of the history in use was not accepted as authoritative or final. Interest was keen, and competitive recitations were in order. We found Bison's\nHistory of the United States, the high-school text, especially helpful, in its\ninteresting and easy narration; also Sidelights on American History by the\nsame author. Montgomery's History of the United States is reliable and\nauthentic, its footnotes sometimes of more importance than the text\nitself.\nThe first proclamation of neutrality of the United States issued by\nWashington was compared to Wilson's proclamation, and the conditions\nleading to each were studied. In studying the War of 1812, the correlation\nof conditions on the sea existing then and our present relations with foreign\npowers made not only the recitation but the preparation for classwork\nkeenly alive.\nIn the elementary school, much of the past can profitably be omitted\nfrom the history course, substituting civics and a knowledge of present\nproblems or current events. It is wrong to send pupils forth into the\nworkaday world without knowledge of American government, of presentday conditions, of the forces that have destroyed monarchies and set up\nrepublics, of the powers that make for intelligent and true leadership.\nThe enthusiasm of the live teacher, the telling of an illustrative story,\nand the guiding to the right sources for information cannot fail to arouse\nthe interest of the pupil.\nI have given one class period a week to current events and after a few\nweeks was able simply to announce: \"Tomorrow we will have our currentevent work and the class responsibility is entirely in your hands. Your\ncurrent events may concern the world.\" At another time, it was to be\ninformation concerning the United States. I myself have been astonished\nat the results. Articles from the Literary Digest, Popular Mechanics,\nTechnical World Magazine, Collier^ s, Harper^ s Weekly, and the school paper.\nCurrent Events, were intelligently selected.\nThe inspiration of the moment or the response of the pupils to one's\nenthusiasm furnishes the basis for the method employed. I have on my\ndesk copies of The Story of the Iliad, Stories of Troy, Undine, Robinson\nCrusoe, Uncle Tom's Cabin, Betty Alden, Black Beauty, all interest-getting\nand absorbing stories, and they are read between class periods or when\nwork has been prepared.\nThe biography of those men closely identified with early American\nhistory cannot be overlooked in classwork. George Washington, Samuel\nAdams, Patrick Henry, Alexander Hamilton, Andrew Jackson, General\nGrant, Abraham Lincoln, are names of those concerning whom every\npupil should have specific knowledge. It was their high ideals of justice\nand their intelligent determination and perseverance which won for America\nits position today as a world-power.\nFour American Patriots, by A. N.\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE LIBRARY\n\nAS A CONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nio8l\n\nBurton, I found valuable in the hands of pupils. Life of Abraham Lincoln,\nby Nicholay, is reliable and interesting.\nSchool departments of public libraries can be, and are, of inestimable\nvalue in assisting both teachers and pupils in the selection and use of the\nbest and most helpful books.\nIn Portland, classroom libraries, selected by teacher and librarian, are\nsent to each building. Branch libraries are located near the outlying\ndistricts, and pupils are encouraged to use these branches. As a result of\ntheir interest being aroused pupils have used the library sources for reference work, and intelligently selected books and magazines have been\nbrought into classes. It has been most gratifying to me to note the\ngrowing willingness on the part of the librarian, teacher, and pupil to\nwork together in bringing the knowledge of good books into the classroom and school. Historical pictures of the periods of history studied are\nvaluable aids and the school department of Portland's library has taken\ninterest in selecting and mounting such pictures, which are loaned to\nindividual teachers.\nIn closing it seems fitting to speak of the necessity of teaching the youth\nof today the essential friendship of nations. The younger members of the\npresent generation are the future lawmakers of this country, and they\nshould and can be taught, not merely patriotism, which in its abstract sense\nmeans simply love of country or the achievement of military success or\npower, but they should be taught humanity, brotherly interest and honor,\njustice, instead of love of self. The horrors of war may well be an illustrative lesson on the benefits of peace and forbearance.\n\nTHE LIBRARY\nBERNARD\n\nAS A CONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nC. STEINER, LIBRARIAN,\nBALTIMORE,ENOCH\nMD. PRATT FREE LIBRARY, '\n\nNo Other country has developed the public library so thoroly as\nhas the United States and nowhere else is the function of the public\nlibrary as a part of public education so clearly recognized. Let us turn\nour attention, for a few minutes, to some of the ways in which a library\nserves the community as a continuation school, taking up the topics in no\nlogical order, but so as to show, by the enumeration of one subject after\nanother, how valuable a service is given in this way to the people by the\npublic library:\nI. The public library is an educational institution, in the nature of a\nschool, thru the expert guidance which it gives those who come to it for the\ninformation which is contained in the books on its shelves. A volume\ncould be written upon this subject alone. When one considers the endless\nvariety of questions asked at the delivery desk and the more complex and\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nerudite problems placed before the employees of the reference department,\none feels like the old hymn- writer and is \"lost in wonder, love, and praise\"\nof the beneficence of the library. The cumulative effect of many applications ismost clearly seen and there is frequently, in the reference desk,\nor in the head of the reference librarian, a list on the subject of which the\ninquirer is in search.\n2. The library acts as a continuation school, by permitting borrowers\nto have access to books themselves, whether this access be to a carefully\nchosen collection of reference books, such as that which one sees in Bates\nHall of the Boston Public Library; or to an equally well-selected standard\nopen-shelf room, as that in the Providence Public Library; or to a less\nrigidly approved Ust of books which one will find on the shelves of any\nbranch of a large city public Hbrary. One of the most valuable parts of\nmy college course was the education which I obtained from browsing among\nbooks in the Yale library. Merely to know what has been written upon\na subject is an education. When that great teacher, Edward S. Dana,\nclosed his course of lectures upon physics before our college class, he said:\n\"Young gentlemen, twenty years from this time, I shall not be surprised,\nnor greatly disappointed, if I find that the majority of you have forgotten\nmost of the facts which I have taught you; but I shall have failed in my\nteaching, if you will not remember how to find out for yourselves again the\nfacts which you have learned here.\" This is true, not only as to information gained from class instruction, but also as to that gained from glancing\nover books, reading their tables of contents, or even merely perusing the\ntitles upon their backs.\n3. In some of the larger libraries, the call of vocational guidance for the\nmechanical tradesman has been heard and answered, not merely by buying\ngood books on applied arts and kindred subjects, which all librarians do,\nbut also by the establishment of special technological departments, in which\nall books dealing with such topics are segregated, placed in a separate portion of the building, and given into the care of clerks who devote their\nwhole time to the ascertainment of the proper answer of every request for\ntechnical information. It stands to reason that a particular type of mind,\nbrought into constant contact with these books, can extract from them\ninformation far more quickly, more exactly, more exhaustively, than can\nbe done by any staff of a general reference department no matter how\nskilled they may be.\n4. The aid of the reference department is multiplied, both in extent\nof the area covered and in the permanence of its work, thru the issue of\nreading lists and bulletins on special subjects. The man in the street fails\nto realize how much time is consumed in the preparation of such\nbulletins and how valuable are their results. When one enters the library\nhalls, he is almost sure to see in a conspicuous place a bulletin board, bearing one or more lists of books and magazines upon subjects of popular\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAS A CONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1083\n\ninterest, or upon those to which the library wishes to turn the interest of\nthe borrower. The activity of the library in preparing such lists does not\nstop there. Sometimes lists are sent to the daily newspapers for publication; again, mimeographed lists may be mailed to persons known to be\ninterested in a given line of books. For example, the Enoch Pratt Free\nLibrary recently sent a list of titles of books upon plumbing to every one\nof the four hundred master plumbers of Baltimore. Again, a postcard\nor a letter may convey a typewritten list to some one borrower known to be\ninterested in a subject; and when the library can save a few cents from its\nmeager funds, or secure the opportunity to print thru the shrewdness of\na business man who is willing to advertise in such a bulletin, you will see\na printed bulletin, which is sometimes annotated, as is the sociology bulletin of the Brooklyn Public Library, or sometimes merely a classified list\nof titles, as those the Enoch Pratt Free Library issued in the summer of\n1914 upon the great European war. These bulletins may be sold, or distributed free at the library coimters, or may be used by book merchants\nas advertisements to be placed in every volume sold by them, but, in whatever form they reach the reader, they serve as guideposts to lead him to\nscenes of higher improvement. Full many a man, reading such a list, has\nbecome interested in some subject and beginning to read therein has concluded bybecoming a considerable scholar in that department of knowledge.\nThe same service is rendered thru a wealth of bibliographical apparatus\nprovided by the lists of other libraries sent in exchange and thru books\nwhich have been prepared by co-operative effort, or which have been sent\nforth by publishers who have felt that the demand for such works would\nbe such as to compensate them for the necessary outlay in placing these\nbooks upon the market. The open sesame to the cave in which lies the\nwealth of articles printed in our magazines was first discovered by the\nvenerable Nestor of librarians, John Edmands, of Philadelphia, when he\nwas librarian of the Brothers in Unity Society at Yale in 1847, and his\nwork was expanded by his successor, William F. Poole, into that invaluable\nindex which bears his name and which was first issued in 1853. Its work\nis now very efficiently carried on by The Readers* Guide, which was begim\nin 1 90 1. To guide the student thru the vast forest of books, we have the\ncompass to be found in such works as the Catalog of the American Library\nAssociation Standard Library issued in 1893, revised in 1904, and brought\nto date by a supplement in 191 2, or such other works as Sonnenschein's\nBest Books and Nelson's Standard Books, to say nothing of the useful\nAmerican Library Association Index to General Literature. The forest has\npaths also leading thru some of its darkest groves, where the trees stand in\nclose multitudes: e. g., C: K. Adams' Manual of Historical Literature,\nLarned's Literature of American History, and the annual volume of Writings\non American History point out to the traveler how to win his way in one\ndirection; several evaluated guides of fiction aid those working their way\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nelsewhere; while the Engineering Index and the Industrial Arts Index do\nfor a restricted field what Poole did for the general reader. The federal\ngovernment publishes an index to its public documents, and all these\nguides are to be found, with many another, on the shelves of libraries,\naccessible to all borrowers, so the wayfaring man need not err therein.\nThen, too, the education must not be forgotten which is to be gained from\na search over the cards of such a dictionary catalog as stands in the delivery\nrooms of our libraries, giving the inquirer information as to what books\na given author has written, what books have appeared under a remembered\ntitle, or what books the library contains upon almost any subject under\nheaven.\n6. To seize the attention of the passer-by and induce him to become\ninterested in books, so widening his intellectual horizon and informing his\nmind, the windows of the library may be used, when they are sufficiently\nnear the street to render conspicuous the books displayed therein. Thus, in\nthe annex of the main building of the Enoch Pratt Free Library there are\ntwo windows close to the sidewalk and at such a level that objects placed\nin them meet the eyes of those who walk by the building. Upon glass\ncases in those windows we place collections of books upon topics to which\nwe desire to call the attention of the people and we change these collections\nevery week or so. In this manner, not only are men led to think of the\ndesirabiUty of reading these books or similar works on the same subjects,\nbut also there comes into one's mind the subtle suggestion that if the library\ncontains useful books on the subjects so displayed it must also contain\nequally useful books dealing with other subjects upon which one wishes to\nbe informed, and thus men are led to look to the library for help and education.\n7. The public library acts as a continuation school in a most important\nway when it is fortunate enough to possess a lecture-room within its walls\nwherein the people may be brought to hsten to the spoken word of the man\nwho is an authority upon any subject. There should always be the endeavor\nto induce the listener further to inform himself upon the theme treated\nby the lecturer thru reading books contained in the Ubrary. It cannot be\nemphasized too strongly that the Ubrary is the home of the book and that\nanything which is not definitely connected with the intention of aiding\npeople thru the use of books is not a part of the Ubrary's sphere. Consequently, with each lecture, we may well look for the posting upon the\nbulletin board of a list of books upon the subject covered by the speaker\nand for a definite attempt to secure the circulation of those particular\nbooks at that time.\n8. We have long known of the attempt of libraries to supplement the\nschools by providing reading clubs, story hours, and debating clubs for\nschool children, and the effort is now being made to carry like institutions\nto the persons of maturer years who use the libraries. At one of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI085\n\nbranches of the Enoch Pratt Free Library, for example, a reading club of\nwomen, numbering now some thirty members, has met weekly for two\nyears to read and discuss standard English novels, those of the women who\nso desire bringing work with them. A similar club, at another branch, has\ndevoted itself to the reading and discussion of Huckel's translation of\nWagner's operas. There are almost boundless possibilities of good in the\nway of improvement of literary taste and impartation of useful knowledge\nthru such clubs.\n9. All the forms of educational work outlined above may be carried\non in the great majority of libraries and as part of the essential work of the\ninstitution. When the library has associated with it a museum, as at\nSpringfield, Mass., or an art gallery, as at New York City, or a gallery in\nwhich exhibitions may be held, as at Worcester, Mass., or Newark, N.J.,\nthe scope of the work is further widened and it is possible for the institution to serve as a continuation school in many other ways.\nLast of all, it must be said that the most important feature of all, in\nthe work of the library as a continuation school, is the culture which it\ngives men, thru introducing them to the great men of all ages of whom the\nbooks tell and by whom the books were written. Thru reading the books\nfrom public libraries, many a man has been transported from the narrow\nlimits of time and space which hedge him in. One day I went into a store\nto have an umbrella repaired. The proprietor took my name and address\nand then said: \"I have always been a patron of the library.\" \"Indeed,\"\nI replied, \"what kind of books do you chiefly draw?\" \"Those on ancient\nEgypt. I think I have read everything on that subject which you have\nin EngUsh. I have one of the volumes in my back workroom now.\"\nWhen I questioned him further, I found that what he said was literally\ntrue and that from his back room on a busy Baltimore street the soul of\nthat man walked forth and held converse with the Pharaohs.\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nE. O. SISSON, COMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nBOISE, IDAHO\n\nIn examining the Ubrary book one is immediately struck with the\nsomewhat cabalistic marks on the back. My reflection upon these marks,\nupon the subject of books in general, and upon the relation of books to\neducation leads me to offer some advice to the librarians as to the marks\nwhich they should put on the backs of books. I have sketched out very\nroughly a few specimens of such marks, utterly incomplete as a system, but\nsufficient to serve, perhaps, as a mere finger pointing in the desired direction.\nFirst, there are books on the backs of which should be a death's head and\ncrossbones. Nor am I thinking of George Bernard Shaw, nor even Zola,\nfor in books, as elsewhere, the devil is dangerous only when he appears\nmore or less as an angel of light.\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "io86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThen I should have some sort of zigzag figure to mark books that are\nfalse, erroneous, unreUable. Some books should have a zero on their\nbacks as the best possible representation of their true content. Some\nbooks again should have dancing figures to denote that they are calculated\nto increase the joy of nations.\nThen there must be a symbol of truth, correctness, reliability — ^possibly\na square would serve this purpose. Still higher would be a crown of olives,\nto indicate not merely correctness, but splendor and beauty and magic\ncharacter. On some books perhaps the square and the crown could be\ncombined.\nFinally, on some books should be a symbol of the sublime — ^perhaps\na mountain peak — to indicate to the uninitiated beholder that these are\nbooks belonging to the whole world, such as the Book of Job, the Iliad, the\nDivine Comedy, King Lear, Les Miserables, and others superlatively great.\nGeorge Fitch has a charming vest-pocket essay on Abraham Lincoln\nin which is found this wise and witty remark: \"Lincoln in his boyhood\nhad access to only five books; consequently, he grew up with an unlittered\nmind.\" It seems almost impossible that anyone anywhere ever had access\nto only five books. Our troubles are the opposite of all this. The mass\nof print poured out, scattered thruout the country, and stored up is terrifying. It is impossible for anyone who has anything else to do to know even\nthe names of those books which, to be barely intelHgent, one must have\nactually read. The effects of this enormous mass of printed matter are\nserious.\nIf I might step for a moment from the library into the lecture-room,\nI should call attention to one of the arts which is taught in colleges, altho\nit is usually not mentioned in the catalogs. I refer to the art of ' 'retinizing\" books. Let me illustrate: The professor of history assigns to his\nclass for the following day's lesson sixty pages of \"required reading.\" The\npages are crowded with matter interesting, abstruse, profound, perplexing,\nerudite. To read these books would be a task probably of days. Hence,\nreading is out of the question, for reading involves thought and thought\nrequires time. Retinizing is the way out, and is the perfectly natural and\nabsolutely inevitable result of this method of instruction, which, so far as\nI know, is universal in our high schools, colleges, and universities.\nIt would not be correct to say that in the process of retinizing the\nimpression never penetrates beyond the retina. Indeed the perfect development of this art consists in having some of the words marked upon the\nmemory with such clearness that they may be reported to the professor\nthe following day. He who is most successful in this process is likely to\npass thru college with a high degree of success and minimum of pains to\nhimself. Let us draw a little nearer to the heart of our theme. Years\nago I read the story of a Frenchman in the Middle Ages who wrote in his\ndiary: \"I have been reading a book by a man named Homer; since which\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI087\n\nmen are seven feet tall and I cannot sleep.\" Who has not felt in some\ndegree this stupendous power of the book? Who knows how deep, how\nfateful, how character-determining are the traces left by books on the\nsouls of children and youth? Who knows the changes that are wrought\nin the natures and the characters of boys and girls by what they read?\nAnd who knows the loss they sustain in what they do not read ? Who can\nestimate the dismal waste of time — and life, for time is life — among our\nchildren, by reading the weak, the futile, the gaudy, the too-good, the\nfalse, and the inane, which our presses vomit forth ?\nThis throws us into the whole problem of censorship. I have read that\nwhen the Mohammedans burned the vast treasures of the Alexandrian\nLibrary, their leader justified the act by declaring that if what the books\ncontained was in the Koran the books were unnecessary. If what they\ncontained was not in the Koran they were injurious. From this to Milton's\nAreopagitica, his plea for the freedom of the press, is a vast distance, and\nwe modems lean powerfully toward the view of Milton. And yet for the\nsake of youth and childhood we must hsten to the words of the world's\nfirst great educational thinker, Plato. He did not hesitate to demand\ncensorship, and a censorship which should ruthlessly exclude even the most\nsacred writings when they were not fit for the minds of youth.\nThen the first thing will be to have a censorship. We will desire mothers and nurses\nto tell their children the authorized ones only. At the same time, most of those which\nare now in use will have to be discarded; the fault is telling a lie and a bad lie, whenever\nan erroneous representation is made of the nature of gods and heroes.\n\nOne who has often visited libraries must be impressed with the marvelous help which is received from the hands of librarians. There is a vast\neducational potentiality in the profession of the librarian. The mechanics\nof librarianship threaten this potentiaHty somewhat, as has been gently\nhinted in the earlier part of this desultory talk; yet no one can fail to have\na vision of the Hbrarian in schools and colleges, in towns and villages, as a\nquiet, constant helper of the youth ; patient, kindly, intelligent, with high\nideals, guiding the feet of the young thru the wonderful fields of the literature\nboth of knowledge and of power.\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — M. P. E. Groszuann, educational director, National Association for the Study\nand Education of Exceptional Children\nPlainfield, N.J.\nVice-President — L. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools\nPortland, Ore.\nSecretary — Samuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Thuesday Forenoon, August 26, 1915\nThe Department of Special Education was called to order in Chabot Hall at 9 : 00 a.m.\nwith Vice-President Alderman in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"What Portland Is Doing for Her Exceptional Children\" — L. R. Alderman, superintendent ofschools, Portland, Ore.\n\"Report of Committee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional Child\"\n— Samuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., chairman.\n\"School Surveys of Backward and Retarded Children\" — J. Harold Williams,\nresearch fellow under Buckel Foundation, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford\nUniversity, Cal.\nThe Report of Committee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional\nChild was adopted and the committee discharged.\nThe Committee on Public School Surveys, of which Mary R. Campbell was chairman, was continued.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, August 26, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m., in Chabot Hall.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet Scale\" — ^Lewis M. Terman,\nassociate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University,\nCal. In the absence of the author, this paper was read by J. Harold Williams.\n\"The Combined System of Educating the Deaf\" — William A. Caldwell, assistant\nprincipal, California School for the Deaf, Berkeley, Cal.\n\"The Importance of the Open-Air Regime for Backward and Retarded Children\" —\nSherman C. Kingsley, director, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, 111.\nIn the absence of the author, this paper was read by Mary E. Murphy, who had charge\nof the Elizabeth McCormick Open-Air School Ediibit at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Evening, August 26, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 8:00 P. M., and the following program given:\n\"Retardation and Feeble-Mindedness in Relation to Crime\" — David Starr Jordan,\nPresident, National Education Association.\n\"Shall There Be Public Day Schools for Feeble-Minded Children ? \"—Vinnie C.\nHicks, clinical psychologist, Oakland Public Schools, Oakland, Cal. In the absence of the\nauthor, this paper was read by an assistant.\n1089\n\"An Important Function of the Home-School\nfor Children with Permanent Mental\nDefects\" — E. A. Farrington, M.D., president, Bancroft Training School, Haddonfield,\n\nN.J.\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "1090\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n\"The Public School's Responsibility for the Subnormal Delinquent\" — Frank G.\nBruner, assistant director, Department of Child Study and Educational Research, public\nschools, Chicago, 111. In the absence of the author, this paper was not read.\nThe following officers were elected for the coming year:\nFor President — Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of \\mgraded classes, Department of\nEducation, New York, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President — ^Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland\nStanford Jxmior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Frances E. Cheney, Springfield, Mass.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was unanimously\nadopted:\nWhereas, The best interests of society require that the feeble-minded be segregated;\nand\nWhereas, The dictates of humanity demand that the feeble-minded child be given\nthe best possible opportunity to become in part, at least, self-supporting, and not be\nwholly deprived of intercourse with his relatives; therefore be it\nResolved, That institutions for the care and training of the feeble-minded be established\ncontiguous to centers of large population, and that photos and motion pictures of the location, buildings, daily routine, and care for the feeble-minded in such institutions be shown\nto mothers' clubs, parent-teacher associations, etc., in order to remove the prejudice\nagainst sending children to such institutions; and be it further\nResolved, That pending the building of such institutions a clinical expert with teaching\nexperience be employed in each reform and parental school to initiate and carry out\nmethods for training subnormal inmates to adjust themselves to the social order, and\nthat legislations be had to secure compulsory segregation of the feeble-minded.\nWe recommend that the work for retarded and backward children be extended vmtil\neach school of one thousand membership or over be provided with a special room and the\nsmaller schools have a convenient center where these groups can be accommodated, that\nthe official title of these centers be changed from \"subnormal room\" to \"special centers\"\nor \"opportunity rooms\"; that \"opportunity rooms\" be open to exceptional \"accelerates\" as well as to \"retardates.\"\nWe further recommend that normal schools, city training schools, and xmiversity\ndepartments of education delineate and emphasize as a requisite for graduation increased\npower to discover and estimate the delinquents, to the end that the teacher may be more\nefficiently aided by the school nurse or by the psychological clinical expert.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSamuel B. Allison, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION AND\nTERMINOLOGY OF THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD\nSAMUEL\n\nB. ALLISON, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT\nCHICAGO, ILL., CHAIRMAN\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nThere is an urgent need of a consensus of usage and opinion on the\nterminology and classification of exceptional children. Such a classification and terminology should be in harmony broadly with the following\nprinciples:\n1. It should be made from a sociological point of view. Children\nshould not be grouped as defective because not strong in academic work.\nThe standards of judgment should have reference to life rather than to the\nschool.\n2. It should be made from a pedagogical and administrative point of\nview rather than from one purely technical or scientific. So far as possible\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\nlOQl\n\nwords already embedded in common speech should be adhered to. The\nterms should not be ultra scientific. The terminology of the psychopathist\nor cKnical psychologist, bristling as it does with strange and polysyllabic\nwords, is terrifying to the parent, confusing to the teacher, and sometimes\ncasts suspicion unwarrantably upon the child. What is wanting is a practical, working terminology understood by non-experts. There is serious\nobjection to the attempt to fix by a rigid classification the status of a child\nexcept in unambiguous cases. It is a growing mind that is being dealt with.\nThe school should not stigmatize or attempt to fix without hope the status\nof any child by any classification in advance of a practical, prolonged tryout\nin the classroom.\nAny classification of exceptional children for school purposes must of\ncourse proceed with reference to certain tests or standards. The traditional criterion has been the ability to accomplish a certain grade or mark\nin academic subject-matters. It is easy for us now to understand that this\nis one-sided and artificial, but it is diflicult to bring any modifications into\nuse. It would be easy to show that the standard or criterion of classification\nof the school should be the same that nature employs in the struggle for\nexistence. Now the great fundamental criterion which nature uses is the\nability to maintain an independent existence in the struggle for existence.\nIt is not whether the individual can read or write or spell or even figure.\nThe basal fact of classification as a natural process is this practical fitness for\nself-support in the environment in which the individual finds himself.\nThose that fail in this fundamental regard are nature's failures.\nIt may be granted that such fitness may be measured in mental terms\nand is perhaps so measured in the natural field. There is no organism that\ndoes not show some modicum of intelligence, using this word in a large sense,\nand if intelligence is worth anything in the struggle for life it can and does\nmeasure ability to cope with environment. But it is the primitive forms of\nintelligence as shown in ability to solve concrete problems and achieve\npractical results that are the criterion of nature. It is the general field of\nlife and the practical problems found there that test out abilities. The\nability to read, spell, write, and cipher in its relation to these fundamental\ncriteria is thus seen to be derivative and subordinate. It is at most and at\nbest a necessity to a very highly developed and specialized group. As a\nguide to the classification of school children these academic skills lack in\ngeneraUty and deep relation to the fundamental necessities of living. And\nhere is where the Binet-Simon test for mental maturity is at its weakest.\nIt attempts to grade mentality by means of certain tests, mainly linguistic,\narranged in order of difficulty from three years of age to twelve. They are\nsupposed to be such as a majority of children could successfully cope with\nand are all directed to the capacity for language or mere sense discrimination.\nThere is not a single one that tests ability in any practical sort of problem,\nsuch a one as would test ability to perform the simple duties of an ordinary\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "I092\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nhousehold. The result of classification from such tests is artificial and\nacademic. A measuring-rod peculiar to the school is used. Injustice to\nindividuals and falsification of nature are the result.\nStarting then with nature's first great division, two groups or lines of\nclassification are evident: Those who in adult form will be capable of\nmaintaining self-independence and those who will not. For these latter\nthe general term \"defective\" or \"feeble-minded\" should be used. Any\nterm that aims to soften the harshness of this word is not advisable, for\nthe reason that such a euphemism allows of children who are not feebleminded being included within this group, as witness the word \"subnormal.\"\nThis word was used originally to designate feeble-minded children. Its\ncirciunference spread upward until it includes all falling away from normal\nto the extent of needing special help. It has carried the taint of feeblemindedness with it over the whole field. Great numbers of children are\nclassed as \"subnormal\" with average mentalities.\nThis group, the feeble-minded, should be determined, as suggested\nabove, by a common-sense, practical economic test. Will the individual\nbe self-helpful in the mature stage ? If he will be, the school should rise to\nmeet his individual needs without reference to linguistic inabilities. Such\neconomic independence may be of the simplest kind. It may be the abiKty\nto accomplish only directed and unskilled work, yet the abihty should keep\nthe individual from submergence in the lower groups. It is probable that\nthe majority of the world's workers are in this undeveloped condition mentally, and yet they form the great reservoir from which will come recruits\nto the world's most specialized groups. Of course objections can easily be\nmade. It may be said that a child in a civilized community who cannot\nlearn to read except with the utmost difficulty is feeble-minded in the sense\nthat he shows a mentality deviating too far from the average. This is of\ncourse setting up a relative instead of an absolute standard for determination. Compared with a child who can accomplish reading easily he might\nbe so designated, but this same child when out of school can perhaps do\nsome practical work with success sufficient to win a livelihood.\nIt may be said too that the criterion is impracticable because it bases\neconomic independence on the adult form. How can economic independence be anticipated? There can be no doubt about determination\nat the lower levels. A child markedly defective, usually shown by physical\nappearance, is self-evidently feeble-minded. All doubtful or border-line\ncases should be tried out in the school until actual status is determined\neven where expert opinion is available. In all cases of doubt, expert\nexamination is of course valuable, but no one would claim that near the\nupper limits of feeble-mindedness expert judgment unaided by actual\ntrying out a case should be relied upon. A child who makes no progress\nor shows no interest in handwork, plays, or academic subjects up to twelve\nyears of age is, if not physically handicapped, non-educable or feeble-\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\n1093\n\nminded. Such children will never be self-supporting. They are unstable\nand erratic, morally as well as mentally, and constitute a real menace to\nsociety, not only by actual overt attack, but more especially as transmitting\ntheir tainted strain of blood to the future generation.\nThis group, from the stricter pedagogical viewpoint, is the non-educable\ngroup, not meaning thereby that there is a total lack of response to training\nbut that its members are not capable of anything above a mere mechanical\nreaction to educative efforts. It is a wrong pubUc policy to care for these\nchildren in day schools. They are custodial cases and should be segregated\nin institutions. The school is not generally interested in subgrouping\ndefectives. This refinement is a matter of institutional regime.\nHowever, a group very naturally differentiates itself in this region of the\nfield composed of those cases whose status is doubtful and undetermined.\nThese constitute the border-line cases. This classification is provisional\nfor purposes of observation.\nAbove the group of defectives and linked to it thru the border-lines,\nthere is a second great group which should be designated by the term\n\"backward.\" They are retarded, but not because of sickness or physical\ntroubles. They are the \"born-shorts.\" They cannot keep pace with the\nchildren nearer the mean in mental endowment. This class has far more\nboys than girls, showing that there is a large functional element at work\nas a cause of the backwardness. There are about as many girls as boys\nin the defective group. An absolute incapability should be distributed\nequally among boys and girls according to the laws of chance.\nThe largest class within this group will be the great subgroup of children\nof low mental endowment, linked to the defectives thru the border-lines.\nThey will learn perhaps to read; in any case they will be self -helpful,\neconomically independent. They will do directed work. In fact, they\nwill carry on the world's unskilled work for the most part. Their inability\nis pronounced in linguistic skills. In other more concrete fields they sometimes are above the mean. They can never, as a whole, do the work of the\nregular grades. They should form the great permanent body of those in\nspecial rooms.\nAnother subgroup of the backward children is the slowly developing\nchild, frequently found among boys. This group matures mentally very\nslowly, yet many times its members have sturdy endowments.\nThe highest type of the backward group is the variant child. This\nchild is incapable in certain fields only. Extreme cases of variant inability\nshould have special help. They are many times unstable and show marked\nability in some limited field. This inability in particular fields is many\ntimes shown as an aversion for academic work or sometimes as a leaning\ntoward concrete practical occupations.\nThe last and highest group of exceptional children below a mean\neducable limit is the great retarded group. These children enter into and\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "I094\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nmingle with those more or less successfully accomplishing the regular work.\nThey are lagging behind normal gradation from one to six years. This\nretardation is not due mainly or emphatically to lack of mean mental endowment but to some accidental cause for the most part. These causes are usually designated as physical and usually pathological. Any hard-and-fast\nseparation here is of course very difficult to make. It is difficult to tell\nwhether retardation is due to physical or to mental causes where the former\nare present. But when the physical trouble is removed, where it can be,\nthe classification takes care of itself. This group of retardates falls naturally\ninto subgroups as the causes are noted. These causes are physical j(pathological) or environmental. Environmental causes of retardation readily\nsuggest themselves as bad home conditions, moving, etc. This latter\ngroup is usually morally as well as academically retarded and thus forms\na separate group for administration purposes.\nThe pathological retardates would include a long list of exceptional\nchildren: the deaf, blind, crippled, anemic, tubercular, stammering, weak,\n\"nervous,\" ill-fed, mistreated, and neglected children, connecting thru these\nwith the mentally deficient.\nContinuing our journey along the mental incline, passing the great\nplateau of the average ability or mediocrity, we come to the more pleasant\nregions of ability and exceptional power. Not enough attention is being\npaid to this group. The school must not smother our geniuses. They are\nour most valuable social assets. In terms of social advance and control an\nEdison or a Burbank is worth many average or mediocre minds. Yet\nThomas Edison was sent home by his principal as uneducable. It is the\ngeniuses that leaven the social lump. It should be the urgent business of\neducation to find the genius and give full opportimity for the highest\ndevelopment of which he is capable.\nWe have then three great groups of exceptional children that the school\nis bound to take note of and for which it must provide special procedure:\nThe bright or plus exceptional group, the retarded group, and the backward\ngroup. It is true that both of these latter groups may be considered\nretarded. Retardation is prima facie evidence of the need of special procedure. A child one or more years behind the normal gradation of his\nchronological age is prima facie a case for special agencies. Those retarded\nby removable causes will regain with special help, if not too old, mean or\naverage gradation. The defective group will or should be excluded from\npublic day schools, leaving the great backward group as the permanent\ncare of the special classes.\nA try-out of the classification outlined above has been made for two\nyears in the Chicago special classes where children are assigned as \"subnormal.\" The teachers were asked to make a classification of their classes\non their own judgment according to the grouping here suggested. The\nfirst year, 1,265 children were distributed by 47 teachers; the second year\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSURVEYS\n\nOF BACKWARD\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIO95\n\n1,589 children were grouped by 55 teachers. The percentages of children\nin the various groups are approximately the same for the two years as shown\nby the following table:\n1914\n\nGroup a\nGroup b\nGroup c\nGroup d\nGroup e\nGroup/\n\n28 per cent\n13 per cent\n19 per cent\n21 per cent\n11 per cent\n8 per cent\n\n191S\n\n29 . 8 per cent\n13 . 2 per cent\n24.4 per cent\n18.8 per cent\n9.0 per cent\n4.0 per cent\n\nRECAPITULATION\nA classification of exceptional children for special ungraded classes,\ndivision rooms, centers, or schools is here given. Only those groups\nimportant from an administrative point of view are given a letter. This\nis done in order that the letter may be used as a group name where advisable.\nFirst group: Above the average in mental ability. Bright either\nacademically, practically, or both.\nSecond group: Retarded — with average mental ability.\n1. Retarded because of permanent physical defect — crippled, blind,\ndeaf, deformed, paralytic, dwarf.\n2. Retarded by remedial causes or predisposed to retardation from\nthose causes. Speech defects, anemic, tubercular-infected, contact cases.\na) Retardate proper. Retarded by malnutrition, throat or nose\nobstruction, nervous disorder, illness, accident, parental neglect,\ndefective vision, partial deafness.\n3. Retarded morally as well. Habitual truant, incorrigible, delinquent.\nThird group: Backward — with below average mental ability.\nb) Variant — toward the academic, toward the practical, toward\narithmetic.\nc) Slow in mental development.\nd) Low mental ability. Dull permanently. More or less immature\nyet economically independent.\ne) Borderline cases.\nFourth group: Defective. Non-educable.\nInstitutional or custodial.\nEconomically dependent.\n/) Feeble-minded.\nSCHOOL\n\nSURVEYS\n\nOF BACKWARD\n\nJ. HAROLD\nWILLIAMS, RESEARCH\nFELLOW\nLELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\n\nAND RETARDED\n\nCHILDREN\n\nUNDER BUCKEL\nFOUNDATION,\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nThe comparatively recent discovery of the misfit child in the public\nschools has caused educators to feel keenly the need for intensive study and\ninvestigation of this important problem. So great is the extent of retarda-\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ntion and mental deficiency among school children, and so closely connected\nis this with the old problems of truancy, incorrigibility, dropping out of\nschool, and slow progress thru the grades, that a knowledge of the situation\nin every city is necessary to an efficient administration of the schools. In\neach of our reformatories, prisons, jails, charitable institutions, and detention homes will be found a large percentage of persons who were misfits in\nthe pubUc schools. While probably all could not have been entirely saved\nfrom their later anti-social careers, it is certain that in many cases the\nrecognition of subnormal or exceptional conditions early in life might have\naided materially in their guidance toward some useful and honorable pursuit, while others could have been placed in an environment where their\nfeeble capacity for competing with normal persons would not have been\na handicap in securing an honest living.\nIt is the function of school surveys to point out as many ways as possible\nin which the school system can be of service to every member of the commimity. In the case of defective children, at least, this service should\nextend far beyond the limits of the local community. In every city, there\nare feeble-minded school children who, if permitted to go upon their own\nresponsibility after leaving the pubUc schools, will bring to another locality\na burden many times as great as they themselves are now; or, what is still\nmore unfortunate, may be the founders of a community of persons like\nthemselves.\nSurveys of retarded and backward children may be undertaken either\nin connection with general school surveys, as have been made in several\ncities during the past few years, or as separate investigations. It is probably more desirable in most cases to have the study made as a part of a\nlarger survey, since many other problems of administration and supervision\nare closely related to the subject under consideration. The fundamental\naim of a system of education is the adaptation of the schools to fit the needs\nof individual pupils. It is of advantage to aU phases of school work to\nhave the system studied as a whole rather than by separate parts.\nA survey of backward, retarded school children should include: (i) the\nuse of intelligence tests for determining the mental levels of children selected\nby their teachers as backward, or who are over-age; (2) a study of the agegrade distribution; (3) a study of supplementary data, such as school\nability, attendance, conduct, home environment, heredity, and physical\ncondition. Every effort should be made to throw light upon the causes of\nretardation and backwardness, in order that other cities may profit from the\nfindings of the survey. Especially important is the detection of feebleminded children in the public schools, who of all our misfits should be the\nfirst to be eliminated.\nIn an investigation of delinquent boys which is now being carried on at\nWhittier State School, Whittier, Cal., it has been found that the great majority ofthese delinquents have been misfit children in the public schools.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMBINED\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATING\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\n1097\n\nIn 33 per cent of the cases this has been due to mental deficiency; 25 per\ncent of additional cases are on the border-line of feeble-mindedness, and\nbut a small proportion have been instructed in special classes. Probably\n50 per cent of these cases could have been conserved to useful lives thru\na proper understanding of their exceptional nature. Altho practically all\nof 200 delinquents have come from cities where good educational advantages in regular class instruction are offered, 9, or less than 5 per cent, have\nreached the grade which is reached by ordinary children of the same age.\nOf 195 delinquent boys between the ages of fourteen and twenty- two, less\nthan one- third have succeeded in completing the sixth grade; and 37 per\ncent have not gone beyond the fourth grade. Other related facts of a\nsimilar nature indicate equally well that the relation between retardation\nand pre-delinquency is of immediate importance to the public school.\nThere is an urgent need for the setting forth of these conditions in every\ncity.\nIn cities where departments of research have been established, the study\nof retardation and backwardness can be carried on continuously, and\nadjustments can be made upon the basis of these continued investigations.\nThis constitutes the ideal method of studying the problem. The school\nsurvey is suggested as a valuable means for determining the extent to which\nthese factors hinder the efficiency of supervision and instruction and when\ncarefully made should furnish information of great importance in reorganizing the schools to fit the needs of individual pupils.\n\nTHE COMBINED\nWILLIAM\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOP EDUCATING\n\nTHE DEAF\n\nA. CALDWELL, ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL, CALIFORNIA\nFOR THE DEAF, BERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThis term is used to designate that scheme of educating the deaf which\nemploys a variety of methods. It is used more especially to differentiate\nthat plan from the oral method, which directs its attention chiefly to the\ndevelopment of ability to communicate by means of spoken language.\nThe combined system uses speech, writing, manual spelling, the sign\nlanguage, and any other means which appears as of value in developing in\nthe learner the ability to think and reason, and to communicate with the\nhearing world.\nThe oflScial organ of our profession is the American Annals of the Deaf.\nFrom the issue of January, 191 5, the following figures are taken, giving the\nnumber of deaf pupils in school November 10, 1914:\n64 Public schools (not day schools)\nii)834\n68 Day schools\ni.9S9\n14,334\n22 Denominational and private schools\n541\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioqS\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n[Special\n\nOf this number, ten thousand and more were being taught under the combined system.\nIn the mind of the public, so far as the public mind concerns itself at all\nabout the matter, there are just two classes of teachers of the deaf, one class\nteaching speech and the other signs. Now naturally, with this erroneous\nview of our work, it is not strange that there should be some wonder as to\nwhy 70 per cent of all the children in schools for the deaf should be taught\nsigns instead of speech. It is not necessary to tell teachers of the deaf\nthemselves that this classification is based on a wrong hypothesis. All\nteachers, of whatever school, have in mind the preparation of their pupils\nto communicate with the hearing world about them in the most effective\nway possible. Those whom for purposes of identification we may term\n\"pure oralists,\" believe and promulgate the doctrine that deaf pupils will\nbe best prepared by means of spoken language, no signs being used except\nsuch as the hearing use — the motions of the lips, the natural gestures of the\nhands. But those who favor and follow the combined system take the\ngroimd that all persons have not equal ability in acquiring speech or in\nlearning to read speech on the lips of others. They recognize the importance of even imperfect speech, and teach speech and lip-reading but do\nnot teach it nor by it exclusively. In the majority of these combined schools,\nthe pupils on entering are placed in charge of oral teachers who follow the\nsame methods as are used in the oral schools. By the end of a year or so, it\ndevelops that certain of the youngsters cannot learn to speak intelligibly\nnor read the lips of others to any considerable degree. It is the policy and\nthe practice of such schools then to discontinue this oral work either entirely\nor to a large extent, and to confine the work to developing the child's ability\nto write and to understand writing.\nHere is where the pure oralist and the advocate of the combined system\npart company: The former takes the ground that all deaf children of\nnormal intelligence can be taught orally; the advocate of the combined\nsystem denies the truth of this and takes the ground that deaf children,\nof whatever grade mentally, will ultimately have to depend chiefly on pen\nand pencil in communicating with the hearing world, and that certainly, in\ncases where there is extreme backwardness in acquiring fluency of oral\ncommunication, it is better to teach by writing, manual spelling, and\nwithin certain bounds to make use of signs. Moreover, the practice in\nmost schools of the combined order is to use signs in conducting chapel\nexercises, in translating lectures and talks, and in many other ways, and this\nis something which is not looked on with favor by those who regard speech\nas the chief end in educating the deaf. With regard to this, it must be\nadmitted that there is danger of the sign language doing much mischief\nin the way of interfering with the acquisition of English. It does thus\ninterfere by reason of the fact that signs are so easily learned, so readily\nunderstood by the child, thus tempting him to use them when he should be\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMBINED\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF EDUCATING\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\n1099\n\nusing English. The idiom of the sign language also is entirely unlike that\nof English, and this, when he attempts English composition, tends to cause\nconfusion. But admitting all this, the advocate of the use of signs takes\nthe ground that any means of communication, easily mastered and eagerly\nadopted by the learner, even in those schools where it is frowned upon by\nthe ones in charge, possesses advantages which cannot be ignored. It is\nregretfully conceded by the pure oralists themselves that deaf children will\nmake signs unless under constant supervision by those who disapprove.\nImagine, for instance, a game of baseball in which the only communication between the players should be by means of the motions of the lips.\nNow the position of the advocate of the combined system is this: Our\ndeaf pupils have a means of communication, ready at hand, as you may\nsay. They will use it, clandestinely if necessary, but they will certainly\nuse it. Now the question arises, Shall we not make use of this language\nso far as seems advisable in the classroom, in the chapel, wherever the\nchild's unfamiliarity with English blocks free interchange of thought\nbetween pupil and teacher?\nA reason for making use of more than one method of instruction is\nalso found in the variety of the material we have to work on. There are\nthose who were born deaf, those who have become deaf after having learned\nto speak, the semi-deaf, and the deaf of defective mentality, to name no\nothers. Each of these requires special methods, peculiarly adapted to the\ncondition of the individual. And in this connection permit me to remark\nthat mere ability to speak and to read the lips is not necessarily evidence of\na high order of intellect. Philosophers would not make good lip-readers —\nthey are prone to reason out things; the expert lip-reader apparently acts\npurely or largely upon instinct. He is a good guesser. Again, in the outside\nworld, the chatterbox is not regarded as a being of profound intelligence;\nwhy should it be different in the world of the deaf ? So far as I know, no\nattempt has ever been made to secure statistics on the point, but I feel\nperfectly sure that a canvass of the schools of the land would not result in\nshowing the best speakers and lip-readers listed at the head in general\nscholarship.\nThe boy who has finished his course at school and has gone out to make a\nliving may be fortunate enough to secure employment under an employer who\nwill take pains to make himself understood orally, but the boy will certainly\nsoon meet with terms and expressions that he will not recognize on unfamiliar\nlips and he will be compelled either to resort to pencil and paper or to proceed entirely in the dark as to what is wanted of him. Even under the\nmost favorable conditions his own voice will be more or less \"artificial\"\nand his speech hard to understand, and the noise of business around him will\nact still further to his disadvantage in making himself understood orally.\nNow in view of these facts, and they are facts, it appears to the advocate of\nthe combined system that it is best to make the teaching of speech distinctly\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "lioo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Special\n\na matter of secondary importance, and to direct the main effort toward\nimparting a fluent command of written English.\nAnother reason in favor of the combined system, besides those abeady\ngiven, is the one of economy. An oral class necessarily requires more\nindividual attention than a manual one. It is generally conceded that there\nshould not be more than ten pupils in a class that is to be taught by speech,\nwhile it is not unusual to find as many as sixteen or more in a manual class.\nThis matter of the expense of an education is not the highest plane from\nwhich to look out, but it cannot be ignored. Those who supply the sinews\nof war are often more interested in the per capita cost than they are in the\nstandard of scholarship or results in general, and in our study of \"reasons\nwhy,\" this one must be among those considered.\nThe combined system is the one favored by the deaf themselves — by\nthose who \"have been thru the mill.\" This fact must necessarily have\nweight with those in charge of state schools for the deaf. We have, on\nthe one side, the parents of deaf children urging that their children be made\nto talk and to understand. On the other hand, we have the graduates of\nthe schools enthusiastically upholding the sign-language as their most\nprecious possession and demanding its retention in the schools. Neither of\nthese appeals can be wholly disregarded, but we must be guided chiefly by a\nstudy of the progress of our pupils after they have left school. Unfortunately statistics are not available to the extent that could be desired. It\nis the theory of the oralists that their graduates are absorbed in the hearing\nworld and become a part of it, and that consequently it is not easy to secure\nstatistics concerning them. Those who favor the combined system, however, are inclined to believe that the so-called \"restoration of the deaf to\nsociety\" is not accomplished by the oral method to the degree that the\nadvocates of that method hope and beUeve,\nIn conclusion, notwithstanding the fact that the combined system is the\none in use in the great majority of the schools for the deaf of America, there\ncan be no question that the oral method is growing in favor all the time.\nIt naturally appeals most powerfully to the parents of deaf children, and\nwhenever the authorities in charge of a school become convinced that the\npupils in their care will make just as satisfactory progress imder a method\nwhich forbids the use of signs and substitutes speech, that method is adopted.\nAN IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF THE HOME-SCHOOL FOR CHILDREN WITH PERMANENT MENTAL DEFECTS\nE. A. FARRINGTON,\n\nM.D., PRESIDENT, BANCROFT\nHADDONFIELD,\nN.J.\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWe are accustomed to regard the permanently defective child as noneducable. He rarely learns more than the rudiments of reading or writing,\nand arithmetic is a sealed book to him. True, he may be taught certain\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIIOI\n\nmanual occupations, but beyond this his powers seem to faU him. He is to\na large degree anti-social, or perhaps we should say asocial; he seems able to\nacquire little that will serve him adequately in meeting the complex conditions of life among his normal fellows. If left to himself, he soon gets into\ntrouble, and we have thus come to believe that the only way to deal with\nhim is to place him in permanent custody. He is what we call an institution\ncase.\nThis may be well enough in theory, but unfortunately it does not work\nout in practice. Under present conditions our public and private institutions can accommodate only a small fraction of the number of children\nwho should properly be placed in their care. The left-over cases are thrown\nback into the special classes to become a highly disturbing element, or else\nthey are returned untaught to their own homes, perhaps to drift later into\nthe streets and thence to the reformatories and the prisons. The logical\nsolution of the difficulty would seem to lie in the establishment of more and\nlarger state institutions, but, when one comes to study the actual figures,\nthe cost of permanent housing for every incurable defective is seen to be so\ngreat that few states could be persuaded to undertake the task.\nAnother possible solution suggests itself. If some of these defectives\ncould be socialized so that they might live outside the walls of the institutions without serious menace to themselves or to others, and if those\nfrom the better class of homes could be safely returned to the home environment, at least a part of the dif&culty would be removed. Is such a task\npossible ? The work done by some of our home-schools seems to warrant\nan affirmative answer to this question. It has been shown that a certain\npercentage of children with permanent mental defects, if placed under\ntraining in the proper environment at an early age, can be more fully socialized than we have heretofore believed; but, in order to accomplish this,\nspecial methods of education, carried out in a carefully regulated environment, are necessary.\nThe question of environment is of the greatest importance. The normal\nchild begins his training as a social being in his own home. His social\ninstincts, quite unknown to himself, come to the surface and are molded\nby his environment. This process continues during school life, gradually\nbroadening as new influences are brought to bear, until he is at length fitted\nto take this place in the social body of the community. But in the mentally\ndefective child this unconscious and orderly development of social traits\ndoes not take place. His reaction to his environment is abnormal, and the\nusual surroundings of home and school cannot be depended upon to mold\nhim in the normal way. His defects incapacitate him, he becomes bewildered, and his efforts to adjust himself serve only to repress whatever\nbudding social impulses he may have.\nIf, therefore, we are to get any results in socializing the defective, we\nmust remove him from his native environment to more suitable surround-\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "II02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nings, where his imperfect social capacities may be fostered and strengthened\nand perhaps developed into something permanent and useful. But if we\nexpect to fit him in time to return to his native environment, the new surroundings must differ from the old as little as possible. Furthermore, this\ndifference must be a wholesome one and one that is adjustable, so that\nas he develops, his surroundings may change, gradually tending to press\nhim away from the new and back toward the old. By this means he may\nat length reach a point at which he can be transferred to his own home or\nto some other place outside the training school, where he can get along\ncomfortably with a minimum of supervision.\nWe have in the home-school an agent peculiarly fitted to carry on this\nform of environmental training. In such a school almost all the desirable\nelements of the child's home and school life may be reproduced in modified\nform with the imdesirable or harmful factors left out. Indeed the ideal\nhome-school may be formed into a complex little world, a veritable microcosm, patterned according to the needs of its weak and immature inhabitants. In it the pupil finds first of all the affection that he craves;\nsomeone is there to \"mother\" him; to look after his little wants, to praise or\nadmonish him, to give him an \"anchor to windward,\" as it were, to make\nhim feel \"at home.\" He soon finds his place in the household. He has\nhis room — not a dormitory but a real bedroom — and his room-mate, with\nwhom he presently develops a bond of brotherly affection. At table he is\nsurrounded by a small group of friendly faces, among them one or two\ngrownups, much as he would be in his own home. On the playground he\nhas his chum and his girl and boy playmates, and in the classroom he works\nside by side with those best known to him and nearest like himself. Thus\nhe forms a small circle of intimates among teachers and children corresponding tohis family circle; he has also his friends among those of the\nhousehold who come in frequent touch with him; beyond this are acquaintances, more remote in type and development; and finally, as a background,\nthere is the constant coming and going of those among pupils and employees\nwho are so far removed from him in their interests and activities as to be\npractically strangers. These are the human relationships of his small\nworld.\nIn such surroundings his training begins. He is carefully studied; his\nhistory is reviewed; his strong and his weak points are ascertained. He\nbecomes a member of the group or class to which he is best suited, but his\npersonality is not submerged; he remains an individual. One of the first\nthings he learns is that he is good for something. No matter how limited\nhis capacity may be, he finds himself respected by those in authority, and —\nwhat is especially significant — also by his companions. He is no longer\nlooked down upon and laughed at by others younger and more capable\nthan himself. He ceases to be \"it\" in all the games, the butt of all the\njokes of his fellows.\nSooner or later he finds that he is not wholly a failure;\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1103\n\nthere are some tasks that he can perform successfully, some in fact m which\nhe can excel others. His self-confidence and self-respect are stimulated; he\nlearns the meaning of success. In the defense of his rights he finds that he\nis not thrown wholly upon his own resources. There are rules to which\nhe can appeal, and which he can help to uphold. These are the laws of\nhis little world. In adhering to his duties toward others and toward his\nschool, he learns in a small way the meaning of service, unselfishness, generosity, gratitude, self-denial. All these are stimulated, and impulses are\naroused that help toward an understanding of the Golden Rule. With\nthis come the tiny beginnings of altruism. These things are the fundamentals ofthe pupil's training. As time goes on, he acquires also some of\ntheir external accompaniments. He learns the value of neatness and care\nin personal appearance, of good manners, of politeness and of consideration\nfor the feelings of others. He may even acquire a little of that rather\nuncommon social virtue, tact.\nThus by degrees the child grows from an asocial and troublesome\ndefective to a being, still defective, it is true, but gifted nevertheless with\nsomething that resembles a rudimentary social conscience, something that\nwill enable him to respect himself and others, to obey the law, and to\nobserve the major proprieties. He has reached a plane of life one step\nbeyond custodialism. Such a procedure as outlined above would not\nwholly solve the question of what to do with the permanent defective.\nIt would, however, accomplish something, and every aid toward the\nsolution of so important and far-reaching a problem should command our\n\\ serious attention.\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nVice-President — Mrs. Philip N. Moore, trustee, College for Women, University of\nthe South, St. Louis, Mo.\nSecretary — Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, state chairman, Department of School Patrons\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, August 23, 1915\n\nThe Department of School Patrons was called to order in the Ballroom of the Oakland Hotel at 9:30 A.M., with President Hertz in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Reports of Organizations Affiliated with the Department of School Patrons\":\n1. \"General Federation of Women's Clubs\" — Mary G. Bamum, Alhambra, Cal.,\nchairman, Education Department, General Federation of Women's Clubs.\n2. \"The Southern Association of College Women\" — Mrs. Don Carlos Ellis, Washington, D.C.\n3. The Council of Jewish Women\" — Fannie S. Long, Wilkesbarre, Pa., chairman,\nCommittee on Education, The Council of Jewish Women.\n4. \"Association of Collegiate Aliunnae\" — Marion Reilly, dean, Brsm Mawr College,\nBryn Mawr, Pa.\n\"Report of Committee on School Revenue\" — Mrs. W. S. Jennings, Department\nof Education, Florida Federation of Women's Clubs, Jacksonville, Fla., chairman.\n\"Report of Committee on School Health\" — Florence E. Ward, assistant. Boys'\nand\nGirls' Club Work, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C,\nchairman.\nDiscussion — Frances S. Bradley, M.D., Children's Bureau, United States Department of Labor, Washington, D.C; Adelaide Brown, M.D., California State Board of\nHealth, San Francisco, Cal.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — ^Monday Afternoon, August 23, 19 15\n\nThe Department of School Patrons was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m., by the presid«it\nand the following program given:\nTopic: Lands beyond the Pacific\nThe Development of Educational Systems and Their Relation to the Home and\nIndustrial Conditions\n\"The Development of the Philippine Public-School System in Co-operation with the\nHome and in Relation to Industrial Conditions\" — ^Hugo H. Miller, chief. Industrial\nDivision, Bureau of Education, Manila, P.I.\n\"China\" — ^Yamei Kin, M.D., superintendent, Pei Yang Women's Hospital,\nTientsin, China.\n\"Japan\" — ^Jiro Harada, commissioner for Japan, Panama-Pacific International\nExposition, San Francisco, Cal.\nThe following ofl&cers were re-elected for the coming year:\nFor President — Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women, San Francisco, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — Mrs. Philip N. Moore, trustee, College for Women, University\nof the South, St. Louis, Mo.\n1105 chairman, Department of School Patrons,\nFor Secretary — Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, state\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "II06\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTfflRD SESSION— Monday\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nEvening, August 23, 1915\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the President at 8:00 p.m., and the following\nprogram given:\n\"The Child in the Home in China\" — Yamei Ean, M.D., superintendent, Pei Yang\nWomen's Hospital, Tientsin, China.\n\"The Mother and the Child\" — Maria Montessori, M.D., Rome, Italy. (Mariana\nBertola, M.D., San Francisco, Cal., Interpreter.)\nMrs. E, L. Baldwin, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nREPORTS\n/.\nMARY\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF ORGANIZATIONS\nAFFILIATED\nWITH\nDEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS\nGENERAL\n\nFEDERATION\n\nOF WOMEN'S\n\nTHE\n\nCLUBS\n\nG. BARNUM, ALHAMBRA, CAL., CHAIRMAN OF EDUCATION\nGENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN'S CLUBS\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nThe General Federation of Women's Clubs, with its 9,000 clubs, 49\nfederations, and 2,000,000 members, is working thru twelve departments,\nnearly all of which reach out helpfully toward children and the schools,\nby means direct and indirect. The Departments of Art, Music, Literature, and Library Extension in many communities provide pictures,\ninstnmients, books, fimds, or other valuable support for these uplifting\nphases of school life. The Department of Civics very frequently aids in\nsecuring and equipping playgrounds. The Department of Conservation\nactively assists in Bird and Arbor Day programs and celebrations. The\nDepartment of Social and Industrial Conditions is fighting child labor,\nand its menace to the school and the futiure home. The Department of\nHome Economics has for a long time done valiant service in stimulating\nand often contributing to the introduction and enrichment of coiurses in\ncooking, sewing, and other homemaking arts in the public schools. The\nDepartment of Public Health, in all its committees — Anti-Tuberculosis,\nSocial Hygiene, and Child Hygiene — works in many places and in a variety\nof ways for the benefit of children of school age. The Department of\nLegislation has materially assisted in many states in securing legislation\nthat was being earnestly sought by school authorities necessary for statewide school improvement.\nAmong these departments, the Department of Education is one of the\nlargest and most thoroly organized, with committee chairmen in the state\nfederations and most of the clubs. It has four general committees: Peace,\nPolitical Science, Vocational Training and Guidance, and Rural Schools.\nIn the brief time alloted this morning, it will be impossible to report the\ngeneral educational work or that of all the committees. Since the interest\nof the Federation as well as the department has been somewhat concen-\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nFEDERATION\n\nOF WOMEN'S\n\nCLUBS\n\n1 107\n\ntrated during the last year on the improvement of rural schools and the\nsecuring of teacherages for rural communities, it will be appropriate to\nsubmit principally the report of the chairman of the Committee on Rural\nSchools — Maggie W. Barry, of Texas.\nMrs. Barry reports: In the southern states the most notable work is\nthe School Improvement Associations. These have been directly the\nresult of the efforts of club women. One of the activities of these associations isincreasing the school revenue by interesting the people of the\nschool districts in improving their schools. In Alabama, Mississippi,\nGeorgia, the Carolinas, for instance, club women have gotten in touch\nwith rural schools and have helped them raise money by giving fairs,\npie socials, concerts, and so on. Then they help by improving the buildings,\nadding to the equipment, buying a stereopticon or phonograph — something\nthat will add to the social life of the community. This increased activity\nand interest of the people nearly always results in increased local taxation\nor donations to the school. In one Texas county, a wealthy farmer who\nhad always voted against raising the taxes gave without solicitation $2,000\nwhen he found what it meant to his family to have an up-to-date active\nschool and social center.\nClub women are co-operating with the workers of the extension division under the Smith-Lever bill. They have in a number of instances\nraised money to supplement the fund so as to place a county agent in the\nfield. The money is nearly always raised in the town without calling on\nthe rural population of the county. In Texas the club women have been\nraising prizes of $25 for the winners, either boys or girls, in the debating,\ndeclamation, and athletic contests held under the interscholastic league\nof the extension division of the university. I commend this work very\nhighly. The school to which the winner belongs nearly always takes a\nnew lease of life and the community pride is stimulated. The Texas legislature appropriated this winter $1,000,000 as a special fund to be expended\nin the improvement of rural schools.\nClub women have aided in securing teacherages, also. There are now\n400 in the United States, with the states of Texas and Washington taking\nthe lead, with 108 in Washington. These houses vary from a cook- wagon\ntaken off its wheels and set down beside a schoolhouse, as in some districts\nin Montana, to houses costing nearly $4,000, as in Spokane County, Washington. The women nearly always furnish these by donations of either\nmoney or furniture. The Bureau of Education writes me that this work\nis progressing rapidly with most beneficial results to the rural communities\nwhere the teacherages are established.\nI have conferred with Cora Wilson Stewart concerning the moonlight\nschools and the illiteracy problems, in which the Education Department is\ninterested. Mrs. Stewart said that sixteen states have taken up the work.\nIn Oklahoma last year nineteen rural teachers pledged themselves to teach\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "iio8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nilliterates outside of their regular school work. Now the Central State\nNormal School, Edmond, Okla., reports about two thousand students and\nteachers enlisted in the cause.\nAmong many helpful activities, I would mention the rural-welfare\nclubs or circles which bring town women and country women together.\nThese are usually started thru the efforts of town club women. At first\nladies are invited from each rural-school district to come to a \"get\nacquainted\" meeting with ladies from each federated club; informal\ndiscussion of school and other problems is subordinated to visiting and\ngeneral social enjoyment; then other meetings are held to which each lady\nfrom each nural-school district brings as many more from her district as\nshe can; presently active leagues result in the various districts, with a\nmembership of men, women, and children. Several women have told\nme since that women of the isolated rural districts are hungry for such\nsimple social pleasures. The quickest and easiest way to stimulate the\nco-operative, community consciousness of such women is by meeting this\ngreat need of their lives.\nUnder the direction of the Rural-School Committee, each club is asked\nto make a study of the laws of the state and to have one program devoted\nto discussion of needed legislation for rural schools; to make a survey of\nthe rural schools of the county; to adopt one or more schools in the county\nand contribute something to their improvement; to co-operate with local\nschool authorities; to hold as the ultimate purpose the establishment of\nlocal organizations of the citizens in each school district for the betterment\nof their schools.\nThe general educational activities of individual clubs are too numerous\nto mention. One may cite a single instance, where a club of seven members\nfurnished flower seeds to school children, held a flower festival, gave prizes\nfor best exhibits, held a three days' community festival, and, as the result\nof the community spirit thus awakened, secured a traveling library. A\nmusic teacher was provided for high school and grades. In the observance\nof \" Officers' Day,\" a nural club of twelve women was entertained at luncheon\nand a musical program was given.\nOn the other hand, one may consider the aggregate resiflts of many\nclubs and federations combining for some special educational cause and\nnote that in the single matter of scholarships and loan fimds there was\nreported for 191 2 more than $34,000 and for 1915 more than $90,000.\nIn generous practical helpfulness to children and schools one may surely\nsay that, taken individually or collectively, \"Clubs are trumps.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n//.\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nTHE SOUTHERN\nMRS. DON\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nASSOCIATION\nCARLOS\n\nWOMEN\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nELLIS, WASHINGTON,\n\n1109\n\nWOMEN\n\nD.C.\n\nBy outlining briefly the work and aims of the Southern Association of\nCollege Women, I hope to suggest ways in which all intelligent women,\nwhether members of our Association or not, can help us inculcate proper\neducational ideals; for that has been our leading aim since our organization\ntwelve years ago.\nWe realize fully that many women who have not been to college have\nacquired by inheritance, association, private study, and experience an\neducation more valuable than that which a college course alone could give.\nTherefore tho only college women are included among our members, in\norder to do our most effective work, we need all southern women to cooperate with us.\nAs there are only thirty-one colleges in the South recognized by the\nAssociation of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, and\nas only twenty of these admit women, our membership is small. The six\nstandard colleges for women — Agnes Scott, Converse, Goucher, RandolphMacon, Sophie Newcomb, and Westhampton — furnished us, according\nto our last report, a total of 130 members; our nine standard state universities admitting women — Alabama, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi,\nMissouri, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia — furnished\nonly 67 ; and of our six standard non-tax-supported coeducational institutions only Trinity and Vanderbilt have as yet supplied us with any members, the others — Baylor, Chattanooga, Rice, and Southern University —\nhaving only recently been recognized by the Southern College Association.\nFully half of our members, therefore, are graduates of northern and western\ncolleges; but each year we are expecting larger and larger recruits from our\nsouthern colleges.\nWe have twenty-two branches distributed as follows: one each in\nMaryland, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Kentucky; two in\nLouisiana and in Texas; three in Alabama and in Tennessee; and seven\nin North Carolina. Each branch tries to make a study of local conditions\nand to aid in whatever reforms are most needed in its community. For\nexample, the Georgia Branch was instrumental last year in securing the\npassage of a bill for an industrial reform school for girls; and the Mobile\nBranch conducted a campaign which secured a favorable vote on a schoolbond issue called for by their city commissioners. And all of our branches\nhave taken a more or less active interest in securing better child-labor and\ncompulsory-education laws. This year we tried especially to make our\ninfluence felt by urging our respective senators and representatives to vote\nfor the Palmer-Owen Child Labor Bill. For the sake of co-operation in all\nkinds of social service work, a number of our branches have joined the\nFederation of Women's Clubs of their respective states.\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "mo\n\nA^^ TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThe main work of our Association, however, is carried on by means of\nstanding committees made up largely of representatives from our various\nbranches. The Extension, Finance, and Press Committees carry on the\nwork suggested by their respective names. The Committee on School\nPatrons has as its object especially the keeping in touch with the work of\nother women's organizations; and during the past year this committee\nhas been investigating the actual iUiteracy conditions of each southern state\nas a first step in improving these conditions. But the distinctive work of\nour Association is in the hands of the Committees on Scholarships, College\nDays, and Standards of Colleges. These committees are working: (i) to\ninterest girls in going to college; (2) to differentiate between different types\nof institutions calling themselves colleges; and (3) to persuade institutions\nnot to make false claims.\nThe Association holds twenty-three scholarships at standard northern\nand western colleges, and each year the Scholarship Committee tries to\nfind capable girls who need scholarship aid, and as many deserving girls\nneed more than the amount covered by a scholarship, a Loan Fimd Committee has recently been appointed to secure money to supplement the\nscholarships.\nThe Committee on College Days and the Committee on Standards\nof Colleges co-operate in pointing out to high-school girls what they should\ntake into consideration in choosing a college. There are in the South over\n140 institutions calling themselves colleges for women; but as only six\nhave been recognized as standard colleges, we try to inform prospective\ncollege girls of the exact character and standing of all the others. We\nexplain that normal schools and finishing schools have as worthy a function as\nthat of real colleges, but that they are not colleges. If a girl wishes training\nin methods of teaching and cannot take the time for a standard college\neducation, she is advised to go to a normal school. If she wishes a general\nfinishing course, or if she wishes to \"specialize\" in elocution, music, or art,\nshe is advised to go to a finishing school. We always reconmiend, however,\nthose not bearing the name college and not conferring degrees. If a girl\nwishes a liberal college education she should, of course, go to a standard\ncollege; but if, for denominational or pecimiary reasons, she is forced to\nto choose a college not recognized as standard, she is informed as to which\nare the approximate colleges and which are the purely nominal colleges in\nher state. She is then spared the humiliation of learning after she graduates\nthat her degree is valueless.\nOur reports show, for instance, that Georgia has only one standard\ncollege for women — Agnes Scott; but that nine others call themselves\ncolleges. These reports show further that Bessie Tift, Brenau, Lagrange,\nShorter, and Wesleyan are not recognized by any non-sectarian standardizing\nagency; that degrees from such institutions as Andrew, Cox, and Southern\nFemale are purely nominal; and that a diploma from Lucy Cobb Institute,\n\n)\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nWOMEN\n\nnil\n\nwhich does not pretend to be a college, is preferable to a degree from any\nof the nominal colleges.\nFor the sake of more ready reference for high-school girls and their\nparents, we are preparing tables grouping all institutions for women in\neach state under the following heads:\n1. Standard Colleges — that is, those recognized by the Association of Colleges of the\nSouthern States.\n2. Approximate Colleges — ^institutions not fully coming up to the standard set by\nthe Southern College Association.\n3. Finishing Schools — institutions offering one or two years of work in advance of a\nhigh school but not giving any real college cotirses.\n4. Nominal Colleges — finishing schools claiming to be colleges.\n5. .Normal Schools — ^institutions whose main object is the training of students\nin methods of teaching.\n\nIf our treasury permits we will publish these lists next fall, and distribute\nthem in every high school in the South.\nBy continuing to make public in every southern state the actual standard\nof each educational institution, we hope to induce all conservatory \"colleges\"\nto drop the title college; some of our other nominal colleges to become junior\ncolleges by substituting standard Freshman and Sophomore work for the\npresent Junior and Senior superficial course; others to become good preparatory schools, and only a very few to attempt to become standard colleges. For one standard college for women is all that any southern state\nshould at present attempt to support.\nBut denominationalism complicates scientific management at this point.\n(We are trying, however, to persuade the different church boards of education to limit their colleges in a state to one for men and women, either\nseparate or combined, and one or two junior colleges.) And we are also\nendeavoring to create such a public sentiment as will lead state legislatures\nto pass laws refusing to grant college charters to corporations that cannot\nguarantee resources amounting to at least $300,000; for no institution with\nless than that should attempt to do college work.\nOur various bulletins issued during the past five years have already,\nto a certain extent, counteracted the deceptive advertisements of nominal\ncolleges. And our statistical tables showing the approximate value of\nrecent degrees of southern colleges are being used at all leading northern\nand western colleges and universities in rating students from southern\ncolleges. But we realize that our influence on nominal colleges, on denominational boards of education, and on state legislatures will be very slow\nunless we are able to gain the sympathy and co-operation of all intelligent\npeople. Therefore, we beg all who love honesty and right ideals to help us\nin our efforts to induce each southern educational institution to limit its\nannouncements to its capacity whether that be that of a preparatory school,\na finishing school, a two-year college, or a real college. Then, and then\nonly, shall we have high educational standards in the South.\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nIII2\n\n///.\nFANNIE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE COUNCIL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF JEWISH\n\n[School Patrons\n\nWOMEN\n\nS. LONG, WILKESBARRE,\nPA., CHAIRMAN,\nCOMMITTEE\nEDUCATION,\nTHE COUNCTL\nOF JEWISH WOMEN\n\nON\n\nThe recently appointed Committee on Education of the Council of\nJewish Women can credit to itself few activities; nevertheless it is most\nhappy to announce its position and aim. The interests which crowd more\nthan ever around education, those that bear upon relation of economic\ncondition and intellectual growth, have always been a fairly conscious\nissue in the minds of the groups of women who make up the Council.\nCharity toward their poor has been their obsession and education for their\nchildren is even a keener pursuit. It is thus a delightful task to turn their\nattention to desirable ends and to point out such methods as our limited\nabilities may.\nPerhaps the greatest problem that presents itself to social doctors is\nthe means of diffusing the information which they assemble to other agents\nof betterment and in particular to those who are not conscious of their own\nneed of improvement. In each of the more than sixty sections of the\nCovmcil of Jewish Women the Committees on Education have to deal with\nthis alert interest if the ears can be reached with intelUgible, reasonable,\nand possible projects. The history of past and continuing activities under\nthe section Education Committees demonstrates this translation of a live\nthought into service.\nIt is hardly fair to the others to single out particular sections for your\napproval. The sum of the work that is done in the sixty runs the gamut\nof socio-educational effort, but the work of Cincinnati in estabhshing penny\nluncheons; of Brooklyn, in the model practice flat, and street playground;\nof Wilkesbarre's vacation school of useful household arts; of Mobile's\nclubs and classes; of Birmingham's rural library; of Pittsburgh's free\ndental clinic; of Nashville's efforts in behalf of the blind; of Little Rock's\nlibrary of free textbooks; of Hartford's drawing classes; and so on, adds\nto the very definite history of the new school complements.\nThe National Committee's new triennial program for section consideration hopes to acquaint the sections with the large and new educational\nmovements, but will lay special emphasis upon three points of particrdar\nand practical value. They are asked to spend their energies on (i) group\nculture, by simple surveys and exhibits to acquire intelligent opinions;\n(2) self-culture, thru classes and lectures to keep a page ahead of the\nchildren and taste the joys promised in the \"pursuit of wisdom,\" and\n(3) service, in a sort of big-sister concern in every Jewish child in the\nschools, nor favoring, with this offer of friendUness, the delinquent more than\nthe hyper-able or just normal. In this work we hope to be a sort of gulfstream of kindly interest running thru the school life and becoming to the\ngroup of Jewish children what a parent-teacher association can be to all.\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHEALTH\n\n1 1 13\n\nFor the Council body I ask your high regard — you may place its attentive interest and cordial support as one of your assets and the National\nCommittee on Education, together with the section committees, wait to\nknow whatever you wish to tell them, and to attempt what your deliberations may find for their hands to do.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON SCHOOL\n\nHEALTH\n\nFLORENCE\nE. WARD,\nASSISTANT,\nBOYS'\nAND\nGIRLS' CLUB\nWORK,\nUNITED\nSTATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,\nWASHINGTON,\nD.C., CHAIRMAN\n\nHealth is a prerequisite for vigorous personal development and social\nservice. It is therefore the business of every individual to know and to\nkeep the laws of health. The chief causes for lack of health are ignorance\nand inability to control surroundings. Hence it is the business of the state\nto place, within the reach of all, health ideals, health knowledge, health\nhabits, and wholesome living conditions. The most logical agency that the\nstate can employ for the accomplishment of this boon of national health is\nour public schools. That such a campaign is already well under way is\nevidenced by the marked improvement in school-health standards and\npractices.\nSome will easily recall the days when the physiology recitation was conducted in a classroom tightly closed, where children sat in spine-curving\nseats, imbibed from a common drinking-cup with germ-laden rim, and\nwiped their hands on the roller towel. Suitable furnishings, drinking\nfountains, and paper towels are crowding these menaces into the background\nwhile fatiguing gymnastics and stilted miHtary drills are supplemented by\nspontaneous playground activities with their elbow room and larger gymnastic\nequipment. Many evidences show the growth of this movement toward\nnatural physical development and heightened vital efficiency. It is, however, largely in the crowded cities where school-health matters have compelled attention and where money and organization have been employed\nto stamp out preventable disease. Rapeer, in his book on School Health\nAdministration, gives a comprehensive survey of the work of this character in twenty-five of our larger cities. To make school health national\nand telling in its scope, the village and the rural schools must be considered.\nThe country is theoretically the most healthful place in the world for\nchildren to go to school, but actually it is a place where ignorance and\ncarelessness abound with accompanying contagion, infection, and low\nvitality.\nThe service that the school-health committee of this department has\nendeavored to perform has been to urge in every state thoro co-operation\nwith its joint committees, and a vigorous campaign for the spreading of\nthe school-health gospel. The first step is to awaken parent and teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 14\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nto the importance of the school-health problem and to give definite information along those lines which will cause people to observe their own local\nneeds and to consider their own local possibiUties for improvement.\nThe following methods have been suggested by the committee:\n1. The distribution of bulletins setting forth facts and suggestions. The recommendation ofhelpful books and lines of reading.\n2. Newspaper propaganda.\n3. Popular lectures on health topics illustrated where possible with slides or moving\npictures.\n4. Clinics.\n5. Exhibitions giving graphic illustrations, photographs, models, and charts, which\nnot only make truthful statements of facts, but suggest policies and plans for promoting\nthis work.\n\n\"There is nothing so dangerous as ignorance at work.\" When teachers\nhave greater knowledge of the sciences that have to do with health and\ntheir application in hygiene and sanitation, they will educate not only the\nchild but the community, co-operating with and unifying all forces now\nat work for the promotion of this acute social problem.\nThe skilful teacher's contact with the child not only will bring information, but will inspire ideals and promote sensitiveness and refinement.\nThe teacher will recognize that health in itself is not an adequate motive\nfor effort from the child's standpoint, hence such motives as activity, pride,\napprobation, competition will be provoked. \"Do's\" will be substituted\nfor \"don'ts.\" The appeal will be, not health for future service, but experience which functions in the child's life today. Health habits will be the\nresult, and health habits established in childhood spell health in maturity.\nSensitiveness on the part of the child to physical conditions, a resentment\nof unnecessary disease, a love of cleanliness, an aversion for filth, all point\ntoward a citizenship which will legislate for pure air, clean water, plenty\nof sunshine, nourishing food, the elimination of dust from home and factory,\nsanitation in outbuildings, the banishment of the fly, the mosquito, and\nother germ-carrying insects.\nWe are coming more and more to recognize that it is within the power\nof man to rid himself of every parasitic disease. Experts estimate that of\nthe 1,600,000 deaths occurring annually in the United States, 42 per cent\nare preventable. Of this number 50,000 are school children who die of\nunnecessary disease. The child's school life is short, at best, but shortened\nstill more by the 4 per cent of the entire school time lost by preventable\ndisease. A large amount of retardation or repeating in the grades is also\ndue to this cause. Rapeer estimates that avoidable disease is responsible\nfor 25 per cent of the absences; 15 per cent of elimination; 10 per cent of\nnon-promotion; 10 per cent of retardation. In view of the tremendous\ncost of disease from the financial standpoint alone, to say nothing of the\ngreater loss of social service and efliciency, it seems a wise investment to\nput a generous amount of money into funds for school-health projects.\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHEALTH\n\nI II 5\n\nBy encouraging the best methods of instruction and inspiration on the\npart of workers in the various organizations, the Department of School\nPatrons is helping to eliminate social and economic waste. Our peculiarly\nclose affiliation with social organizations outside the school, yet keen with\ninterest regarding, it, gives opportunity for service in the matter of school\nhealth which can be measured only by the intelligence and vigor of our\neffort.\nDISCUSSION\nFrances S. Bradley, M.D., Children's Bureau, United States Department of\nLabor, Washington, D.C. — ^There is little room for discussion of a paper which so thoroly\ncovers the ground as the one just read. But never in the history of the world has there\nbeen such need of sound, sane, well-balanced men and women, and our ever-changing\nsystem of education, with its new standards and ideals, and new methods each decade is\nsubject to exhaustive discussion even at the expense of repetition.\nA well-rounded education touches the child at every angle. For years education\nmeant simply mental training, imtil Froebel, thru the kindergarten, taught the child\nsomething of the beauty and joy of life, of service, of the rights of others, and, above all,\nof the co-ordination of mind and body. He became a producer, and this doubtless led\nto the establishment of our manual training, our home economics, vocational guidance, etc.\nFormerly education was limited to the few, this class increasing gradually to include\nthose who had the price. Later came our system of free education; and now we say that\nevery man's child not only may but must be educated. But compulsory education with\nits consequent crowding of thirty, forty, or fifty in a room, involves continual exposure to\nphysical ills which we have no right to inflict upon a community. The child compelled\nto go to school has a right to protection from all preventable dangers involved thereby.\nThis can be secured only by an up-to-date school equipment, giving the child sanitary\nsurroundings, and by periodical physical examinations, that we may know we are helping\nand not harming him by this compidsory education.\nWe realize more and more every day the interdependence of mental and physical\ndevelopment, each useless without the other. To this end we are establishing open-air\nschools, schools for the retarded and deficient, and are canying into the homes educational\npropaganda by the follow-up work of the visiting nurse. And this work is no longer\nlimited to children of school age. In several of our larger cities, there are being held\nexaminations of prospective pupils with the belief that: (i) the earlier a defect is discovered and treated, the better the chance of cure; (2) from an economic standpoint, preschool examinations are an advantage, saving thereby later interruption both to teacher\nand to pupil; and (3) pre-school examinations necessitate the presence of parents, thereby\ngiving an opportunity of educating the latter, with benefit to their families.\nA thoro physical examination should be required of every child before admission to\nschool and a record kept of his physical as well as mental progress during his entire school\nlife. In this city of Oakland where there is an excellent system of physical inspection of\nschools, such records are available to the parent or the community, when necessary, and\noften furnish valuable data to juvenile courts, in associating moral delinquency with early\nneglected physical defects.\nAs our obligations to the child become more varied and complex, there is increased\nneed of co-operation between local, state, and federal activities. To unify this co-operation and to help where help is needed, the United States government has established\ndepartments of education, of agriculture, and of labor, with bureaus devoted to the interests of the child. By this means, surveys, investigations, and reports are made, bulletins\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "1116\n\nNA TJONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nare issued for the use of the public, and information is furnished on comparative conditions\nin different parts of the coimtry. The newest of these is the Children's Bureau, installed\nas a part of the Department of Labor, and it is now at the disposal of the public in an\neffort to further the advancement of the American child.\nIn addition to the foregoing information, the Bureau is now prepared to send out\ntraveling exhibits similar to the one now being shown in the Palace of Education at the\nPanama-Pacific Exposition. This consists of panels, charts, models, electrical devices,\nstereopticon slides, and moving pictures on all subjects pertaining to the welfare of the\nchild, from pre-natal to adolescent days. Special stress is laid upon infant feeding, and\nthe nutrition of the growing child, with daily demonstrations in the care and preparation\nof food. The importance of birth registration, of mothers' pensions, of the child at work\nand at play is shown. In connection with the exhibit is a children's health conference,\nwhere parents may consult with a children's specialist in regard to the growth and development and general hygiene of the child. A thoro examination is made, and tendencies\nwhich, if neglected, may become defects are pointed out to the parents. Literature is\nalso supplied upon pre-natal care, care of the baby, etc. It is hoped in this way to stimulate mothers to a more intelligent observation and to a keener sense of responsibility in the\nhygiene of their lives.\nBy thus combining all forces which make for the better mental, physical, social, or\neconomic development, the child will surely come into his own and give us in the coming\ngeneration a higher type of citizenship.\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE PUBLIC-SCHOOL\nSYSTEM IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE HOME AND\nIN RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS\nHUGO\n\nH. MILLER, CHIEF, INDUSTRIAL DIVISION,\nEDUCATION, MANILA, P.I.\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF\n\nGrowth of system. — Ten to fifteen years ago pupils of the Philippine\npublic schools were brought to the classrooms at the point of the bayonet.\nWhen these schools opened some two months ago, about six hundred\nthousand pupils were enrolled, some fifty thousand were turned away, and\nfrom two hundred thousand to three hundred thousand were directly or\nindirectly prevented from voluntarily enrolling themselves. The means\nby which this great change in public opinion was brought about may be\nsummed up in the one word \"co-operation,\" for the public schools of the\nPhilippines are not apart from but are of the people themselves.\nThey were organized at the close of the long war and naturally the\nfirst American teachers found conditions most pitiable. Thousands\nof families were living in a state of abject poverty and whole districts in\nconstant hunger. What put the American teachers on their metal was the\nhelplessness of the people. They saw about them all the means for obtaining the necessities and many of the comforts of life and these means were\nunrecognized and unused. At first there was no concerted action, but the\nteachers instinctively worked along the same lines. The pioneer teacher\ntaught hygiene and sanitation in self-defense — often he was the selfappointed entire Board of Health. He helped to fight cholera, smallpox.\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nHOME,\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRY\n\n1 117\n\nand fever, and the lessons he taught by bettering existing conditions were\nheeded in the homes. It is safe to say that there were no school districts\nwhere some sort of lunch was not provided to the ill-nourished youngster.\nOften the expense had to be met by the teacher, but later, when the conditions improved, meals were served at a slight gain and the money invested\nin materials to carry on handicrafts, such as basketry and embroidery.\nSchool sewing came about as naturally as the lessons in cooking. The\nnaked youngsters and shocking infant mortality during the cool season\nappealed to the American women's sense of decency and humanity, and\nit is worthy of mention that the first industrial exhibit included a creditable\nshowing of garments for little children. The athletic movement grew\nout of the genuine desire to develop energy in the pupils and give them\nhealthful interest in something. In the early days during the recess hour,\nthe girls would drape themselves picturesquely over window sills, too\nindolent even to get themselves a drink of water if it were required, and\nno self-respecting girl ever thought of carrying her own books to or from\nschool. These pioneer teachers were very busy people, and the teaching\nof the \"three R's\" was the least of their duties. They were directly in\ntouch with the people and with the homes. They saw what was needed, and\neach in his own particular district, they laid the foundation for the industrial\ncourses as they are taught today.\nCourses of study and their aim, — Each unit and each course of the\nPhilippine public-school system has therefore been organized to meet some\npractical need. The primary course consists of four grades and is complete\nin itself. It is planned to educate Filipino children for good citizenship,\nto take care of themselves in ordinary business transactions, and to earn a\nliving. The intermediate pupils are enrolled in special courses such as\nhousekeeping and household arts, trade, farming, and business. The\nobject of the high-school course is to give broader views of the problems of\nlife as they affect the people.\nQuite naturally in such practical curricula as these, the industrial and\napplied-science courses are given greater stress than the purely academic.\nOur first schools were simply American schools transferred to the Islands and\nthey did not fit. The Filipino looked upon education as a means to raise\nhim out of the producing class. All forms of manual labor were to him a\ndegradation. The schools were a means of separating himself from manual\nlabor and placing himself in the class of clerks and officeholders. The idea\nthat the school was a place to prepare for the everyday tasks of daily life\nwas entirely foreign to him. Hence it was quickly seen that if our schools\nwere to accomplish the work of bringing about the necessary changes, there\nmust be a decided and radical departure from the ordinary course of study\nfound at that time in the United States. The course of study has therefore\nbeen revised and specialized until every pupil entering the primary school\nnow begins his industrial and mental training at the same time, namely\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIl8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(School Patrons\n\nin the first grade, and continues them thru the four years' primary course.\nThe intermediate curriculum specializes this training. Thus graduates\nof our schools are trained to make a living in a chosen occupation and to\nmake a home cheerful, comfortable, and sanitary.\nThe subjects taught are divided into those directly affecting the home\nand those by means of which home conditions can be bettered. School\ngardening is taught in order to raise the standard of living above rice and\nfish. Nursery work is required in connection with all intermediate school\ngardens in order that the premises of Philippine homes may be improved\nand greater value placed on fruit trees. Farm schools are operated in connection with parcels of from twenty-eight to thirty acres developed as\nmodel Filipino farms: here practical farm management is taught and\nthe girls are given a three years' course in housekeeping and household\nart, in the same practical manner in which the boys do the farming work.\nConvenience and comfort in the home and proper consideration of health\nconditions require better fiurniture than Filipinos have been used to installing in their houses. To this end, primary shops have been organized,\nwhere bamboo and wooden furniture is made. Athletics and group games\nare taught to all, not only with a view to increasing the physique, but to\nteach fair play and high regard for the rights of others.\nNo change had been made in the manner of preparing meals, and the\ngeneral style of dress worn by the women is that fashion adopted from\nEurope three centuries ago. For this reason instruction is given in the\npreparation of familiar home dishes with what improvements modem\nculinary art has to offer. The pupil gets something from the first lesson,\nwhich she can put into immediate practice in her home. A graded course\nin plain sewing and garment-making is carried on from the first thru the\nseventh grade and all girls are required to take the work.\nHaving instilled the desire for better things, disaster would have overtaken us had we not provided means for the Filipinos to earn them. Thru\ngeneral surveys and special investigations, the existing household industries\nand available local materials were located and studied and these data\nbecame the basis for instruction in handicraft work. From the first grade,\nall articles made by pupils must have some value. These articles have\nbeen commercialized and a system of sales and reimbursements has been\ndeveloped, so that all articles are disposed of and the pupils are paid the\nlabor value of their products. For instance, there are now at the Panama\nPacific Exposition articles valued at over $100,000 which are entirely the\nproduct of Philippine school children. These articles have already been\npaid for and most of the money has gone into the pockets of the pupils.\nHow the homes are reached. — Before I can take up with you the means\nby which these new ideas and industries and these new methods were\nintroduced into the homes, it becomes necessary to explain some of the\neconomic and social conditions obtaining in the PhiHppines. The Philip-\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nHOME,\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRY\n\n1119\n\npines are in an agricultural stage of development. Most of the people are\nsmall farmers, tilling a few acres of soil from which a bare living is obtained.\nBut between seasons of agriculture and duties of the household, they have\nmuch spare time, and it is these extra hours, weeks, and months that the\nBureau of Education is trying to have utilized for productive efifort. The\nchief aim of industrial instruction is not the making of a few hats and\nbaskets, but it is to create home industries in each hamlet and town with the\nidea of supplementing the income from agriculture. Such additional\nincome is often used to provide for schooling of children and for better\nclothing, shelter, and food. The introduction of these industries and the\nbetterment of farming and housekeeping methods are the problems of the\npublic schools of the Philippines.\nOf course, the general interest in education is bound to have some\neffect upon the Filipinos. For instance, one often meets with illiterate\nmen who can sign their name in the immature way taught them by their\nchildren. But it has also been necessary for us to arouse the special interest\nof parents. For instance, in gardening, 80 per cent of the work must be\ncultivated thru the home. Today there are over 75,000 home gardens\ncultivated by pupils. Without question, these are largely responsible for\nthe marked improvement in the quantity and quahty of fresh vegetables\nnow available in the market all over the Islands, for it has brought the\nlesson forcibly to the very doors of the people. In the great majority of\ncases, all the necessary repairs in the school are performed by pupils, and to\nthem are left the improvement and upkeep of the school grounds. The\ntraining resulting from such activity is extremely practical and the appreciation of good surroundings is already being seen in the homes of the people.\nFor the most part Filipino methods are used in the teaching of cooking.\nThe utensils are those to be found in the average Philippine home, and\nAmerican recipes are given only in the advanced classes, Filipino girls\nin taking the improved methods into the homes find exactly the same\nequipment as in their own domestic-science building. This domesticscience building is an important part of the course in housekeeping and\nhousehold arts, for its serves as a model for the community.\nMany of the articles we wish to introduce in the homes of the people are\nsold to them. For instance, thousands of bamboo chairs are disposed of\nannually, and Filipino mothers are quite in the habit of buying children's\ngarments from industrial exhibits. The course in plain sewing leads up as\nquickly as possible to making children's garments and then garments for the\nfamily of the girl. In one school alone in Manila, thousands of paper\npatterns have been distributed to families.\nTime and again the Bureau of Education has co-operated with the\nPhilippine Bureau of Health in stamping out epidemics in various parts\nof the archipeligo, and special subjects are always being taught in connection withjthe general course in hygiene and sanitation. I was in one\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "II 20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nprovince recently where the boiling of water introduced into the homes, by\nthe schools, had saved the people from a very dangerous cholera epidemic.\nWhile the school-teacher stands in very close relation to the people as a\nguide and adviser and example of what is right, the schoolhouse, which is\nusually the most commodious and best building in the town, is also used as\nthe civic center, where the people meet and where topics of the day are\noften discussed.\nQuite naturally pupils in the Philippine public schools bring to their\nhomes the articles they make in their industrial classes. The parents take\ngreat pride in these and seek to imitate them or to begin again work which\nhas lain dormant. For instance, in one town the teaching of weaving caused\nthe older women to bring out their looms. And of course, when pupils\ntake home several pesos which they have actually earned with their own\nhands, the elders are interested in what is evidently a potential source of\nadditional income to the family.\nThat the industries we are teaching in the schools are commercially\npractical is further proved to the people, however, by means of industrial\nexhibits. Filipinos are very fond of fiestas, where the countryside comes\ntogether to listen to speech-making, to see rather crude theatricals, or\nto wander thru booths where food and gewgaws are sold. Today thousands\nattend industrial and athletic meets, where the results of school work are\ndisplayed for them. So popular are these events that the \"Corn Day\"\n(instituted during the corn campaign for better food) and the \"Garden\nDay\" (instituted to carry on the propaganda of gardens) have become a\npermanent feature of many towns and have been developed into what in the\nUnited States would be called county fairs. These exhibits are organized\nso that they reach from the smallest hamlets up thru the larger towns and\nprovincial capitals, finally to Manila. While their main purpose is to show\nthe people what has been done in their locality and to gather and compare\nthe diversified products from all parts of the Islands, they also serve to\ninstil the industrial idea into the minds of the Filipinos. They have brought\nhome to the people as nothing else would the effectiveness and possibilities\nof the work being carried on in the schools.\nThe Bureau of Education does not feel that it should leave the people it\nhas thus trained entirely to their own devices in making and selling products.\nAn organization is therefore provided for disposing of them wherever commercial concerns do not extend their activities, or wherever it is necessary\nto protect the people. It may be of interest to this particular body to\nknow that forms of co-operation from the most primitive to very complex\nexist in the Philippines. In building a house, for instance, the owner wiU\nprovide a fiesta and the coimtryside will turn out to erect the structure for\nhim. The Bureau of Education takes advantage of this institution in the\nerection of voluntarily constructed buildings. In the same way handicraft workers often form \"turnuhans\" for the manufacture and disposal\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMOTHER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n1 1 21\n\nof articles. These organizations are being developed and used by the\nBureau of Education in the extension of handicraft work.\nFarming includes the scientific production of vegetables, field crops, and\ninstruction in elementary agriculture. In addition, nursery work is taught.\nThe shop furnishes equipment to the school in the form of embroidery\nframes, desks, and other furniture. In the cooking classes, the vegetables\nraised by the boys are made palatable. The girls wear the garments they\nthemselves have made and much of the boys' clothing has been made by\ntheir sisters. From the school, each day, the children go home to continue their work. The boys attend to the home gardens. The girls repeat\nthe lessons learned in the sewing, cooking, or needlework class.\nInstruction which leads to results such as these directly appeal to the\nFilipinos, With their sons acquiring an increasing knowledge of new food\ncrops and methods of cultivating them, and their daughters learning how to\ncook and serve these foods cheaply, and how to provide good clothing for\nthe family and take care of the house, and with both their sons and\ndaughters bringing to the home money they have earned from handicrafts\nwhich may be the means of providing for the new desires, the parents\nhave come to realize the real practical value of the Philippine public\nschools.\nTHE MOTHER\nMARIA\n\nMONTESSOEI,\n\nAND\nM.D,,\n\nTHE CHILD\nROME,\n\nITALY\n\nThe mothers of today take far more intelligent care of their children than\ndid the mothers of the past, and this is not because they love their children\nmore but because the science of medicine, by establishing rules for child\nhygiene, has materially aided the mission of motherhood. Thus the treatment accorded the child has brought great change to the mission of motherhood. Above all, it has vitally transformed some of the principles, that is\nto say, some of the ideas as to the real influence that we may have on a child\nas he develops. Let us rapidly survey these transformations.\nWhat used to take place ? Perhaps there are some who still remember\nhaving seen certain practices, considered a universal dogma at one time.\nThe child was wrapped in swaddling clothes to avoid having crooked legs;\nhis tongue had to be clipped so that he might some day talk; he always\nwore a cap to keep his ears from standing out; care was always taken to\nlay the baby down in such positions as not to run the risk of doing permanent injury to his delicate head; the good mothers also rubbed the little\nnewborn baby's nose so that it would grow long and slender and not remain\ntoo short and stumpy; they even put gold ear-rings on him at birth because\nthis supposedly made his sight keener.\nIn some countries these practices are doubtless forgotten, but in some\nthey are still in use. Who does not remember the means used to help the\nchild in learning to walk ? In the first months — at a time of life when the\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "1122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nnerve paths are not yet developed and it is impossible for the chUd to\nco-ordinate his movements — mothers would waste several half hours a day\ntrying to teach the child to walk. They held the babe by his body and used\nthe disordered movements of the Uttle feet to delude themselves into thinking\nthat these were the beginnings of walking, and because the child began,\nUttle by little, to put one foot in front of the other and to gain confidence\nin the use of his feet, the mothers attributed all this progress to their\nprevious efforts.\nWhen the control of movement was somewhat established — but not\nequilibrium, or the power of standing upon his feet — the mothers used straps\nto support the baby body and thus had him walk with them, or when they\ncould not spare the time, they would put the child into an ambulator —\n— which having a broad base could not tip over — and there he stayed, his\narms hanging over the side, his Httle body supported by the rim, and tho\nhe did not know how to stand still, he went forward by moving his feet —\nthat is, he walked.\nWhat did science reveal when it entered the field of child welfare?\nCertainly it offered no sure means of strengthening the nose and ears, and\nit did not enlighten the mothers as to the ways of teaching a child, even\nfrom birth, how to walk. No, first of all, it uttered the firm conviction\nthat nature herself sees to determining the shape of the head, nose, and ears;\nthat man will talk well without the need of clipping his tongue; that the\nlegs grow straight naturally; not only this, but the fact that the function\nof deambulation is established of itself in nature and has no need of assistance. Hence we must let nature act of its own accord as freely as possible\nand the more a child is left free to develop, the sooner and the more perfectly will he attain his higher forms and functions. Abolish then the\nswathing-bands and recommend great peace and comfort when he rests.\nThe child, with his limbs free, should be left lying quietly, not tossed up and\ndown or rocked as many used to do, thinking they were amusing him;\nneither should he be forced to walk before his time. When the hour comes\nhe will arise and walk.\nToday almost everyone is convinced of these facts, and swaddHng\nclothes, girths, and ambulators have almost disappeared from sale. Children, therefore, have, straighter legs and walk better and at an earlier age\nthan formerly.\nThis fact is well estabUshed, and it is a great relief, for in truth what a\nburden it was to think that the straightness of the legs, the form of the nose,\nof the ears, of the head, were all the direct results of our care! What\na responsibility, for which all felt unfit! What a joy to say, \"It is nature's\ntask. I will leave the child free, I will watch him grow in beauty, I will\nassist quietly at the miracle.\"\nThese new concepts have up to now been confined to the body. As\nregards the inner life of the child there has not been a like progress, for in\n\n"}
{"page": 1141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMOTHER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n1123\n\nthis we are still in a stage similar to that other which, by the help of science,\nwe have left behind.\nSomething of the kind is coming for the child's inner life. Indeed, we\nare assailed with questions. The character must be molded, the intellect\ndeveloped, the feelings guided, and we ask ourselves. What shall we do?\nHere and there we touch the child's soul, or we confine it more or less as the\nmothers did by rubbing the child's nose or bandaging his ears. We hide\nour anxiety behind a sort of medium success, since men do grow up with\ncharacter, intellect, and feelings. When, however, all these qualities are\nlacking, we are overcome. What shall we do ? Who can endow a degenerate with character, an idiot with intellect, a moral degenerate with feelings ? If, indeed, it were by merely touching the soul here and there that\nman gained all these qualities, then it would suf&ce to touch a little more\nenergetically him who was lacking. But such is not the case. Hence we\nare no more creators of the inner form than of the outer.\nIt is nature, it is creation, which directs all these things. When once\nwe are convinced of this, there is born within us the principle of the necessity of not putting obstacles in the way of natural development, and instead\nof so many different problems, such as what to do to develop character,\nintellect, and feelings, one problem only would present itself as the basis\nof all education — how to give the child freedom.\nIn this freedom there must be included principles analogous to those\nwhich science dictated for the forms and functions of the body during the\nperiod of growth, a freedom in which the head, nose, and ears became more\nbeautiful and deambulation the most perfect possible, according to the\ncongenital forces of the individual. So here freedom as the only means\nshould carry the character, the intellect, and the feelings to the highest\npoint of development possible to the individual, and it should give to us,\nwho are directing this work, peace and the opportunity of contemplating\nthe miracle of growth.\nThis freedom liberates us, too, from the anxious burden of an imaginary\nresponsibility and a dangerous illusion. Woe to us if we believe ourselves\nresponsible for things which do not concern us and delude ourselves into\nthinking that we bring things to pass which, on the contrary, take place\nwithout any reference to us. What, then, has become of our real mission,\nof our real responsibility ? What wrongs, what real sins are we committing ?\nThe history of the child's physical redemption has for us a most\ninteresting sequence. It does seem strange to us today to consider that\nat a time when infant diseases were a scourge, it was not the deathrate which held the attention, but the form of the nose or the legs,\nwhereas the vital question passed unnoticed. The mortality statistics\nrevealed such high figures that the phenomenon was named the\n\"slaughter of the innocents.\" The famous statistics of Lexis, which\ndo not refer to any one country but to the average death-rate\n\n"}
{"page": 1142, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nof humanity in general, shows that this terrifying truth was universal.!\nIt has two factors: One undoubtedly is the characteristic weakness of the\nchild; the other, the want of protection for his weakness, a lack which was\ngeneral among all peoples.\nCertainly there was no want of good-will or feeling of love toward the\nchildren, but a something unknown was wanting: the means of combating\na dreadful peril which took place all unnoticed. We know today that\ninfectious diseases, especially those of intestinal origin, were the cause of\nsuch great mortality. Intestinal diseases diminish nutrition or produce\npoisons at an age in which the delicate tissues are most sensitive and they\nwere responsible for almost the entire slaughter.\nThen the wrongs which were being habitually committed against infants\nstood forth, wrongs comprised in a lack of cleanliness which today would\nastound us and in an absolute want of any rules as to the feeding of babies.\nThe soUed linens which enveloped the child were often merely himg out\nto dry several times and used over again and again before being washed.\nNo care was taken to wash either the nipple or the baby's mouth, in spite\nof the fact of fermentation so serious to cause local sickness. The infant\nnursed without any regularity; night and day the baby's cries governed\nthe time of nursing and the more indigestion and sujBfering increased the\nmore his feedings were increased, thus aggravating his condition.\nScience gave the simplest rules; it advised the most perfect cleanliness\npossible and it pointed out a principle so evident in itself that it was amazing\nthat everyone had not understood it from the beginning, namely: A baby,\nlike an adult, must fast at times and can take new food only after the preceding has been digested, and so the nursing periods should come at regular\nintervals, varying according to age, following the modifications of the physiological functions in their development. Nor should crusts of bread be\ngiven the child — as so many mothers do, especially the very poor — to calm\nhis crying, for he might swallow the hard particles before he is able to digest\nthem.\nIt was science which, redeeming the children, brought about trained\nnurse girls, cradles for all, rooms and proper clothing, and especially prepared foods made by great concerns for the hygienic feeding of children\nafter weaning. Indeed, it created an entirely new world for them —\nintelligent, clean, and pissing. The child became the new man, who has\nwrested his rights from life and who has, therefore, had to create an environment for himself. Thus we see that infant mortality diminishes in direct\nproportion to the diffusion of the rules of child hygiene.\nIf, therefore, we say that spiritually also the child should be left free\nbecause nature — and not we — is the creator who molds him, we do not\nmean by that to abandon him and leave him to his own devices.\nPerhaps, however, if we study the situation, we will realize that, tho\nwe may not be able to act directly on the child's individual forms of char-\n\n"}
{"page": 1143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMOTHER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n1 1 25\n\nacter, intellect, and feeling, which we have overlooked and on which depend\nthe life and death of the spirit; yet there are a certain series of obligations\nand a round of cares which it is our duty to perform.\nThe criterion of liberty is not then one of abandoning the child, but\nby leading us from illusion to truth, it points the way to the positive and\nmost efl&cacious manner of caring for children.\nFREEDOM OF THE CHILD OF TODAY MERELY A PHYSICAL FREEDOM\nCIVIL RIGHTS OF CHILDREN IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY\n\nHygiene has freed the child's physical life. The external proofs, which\nconsist in the doing away with the swaddling clothes, in the open-air life,\nin giving sufficient rest, and the like, are, in general, the most visible and\ntangible part, but they constitute only a means of attaining freedom. A\nfar more important step toward freedom has been that of removing from\nthe path of life the dangers of disease and death.\nAs soon as the obstacle caused by some of these fundamental errors was\nremoved, not only did the children survive in greater nimabers, but it was\nproved that they grew better and healthier. Was it really hygiene which\nhelped them to increase in weight, in stature, in beauty, and also in general\ngrowth? Hygiene did not do all of this. The gospels say: \"Who is\nable to add one cubit to man's stature?\" Hygiene only freed the child's\nbody from the obstacles which were preventing his growth. There were\nexternal bands that hindered the growth and the entire natural evolution\nof life. Hygiene broke these bands asunder and everybody realized that\na liberation had taken place. When this was an accomplished fact everyone\nsaid : \" Children must be free.\" Now the direct relation between \"attained\nconditions of physical life\" and \"acquired freedom\" is universally felt.\nIn that way the child is treated like a Httle plant. For years plants in\nan orchard or a garden were well kept; they had gained rights and privileges\nwhich the child has only just now attained — good food, oxygen, a suitable\ntemperature, and minute protection from the parasites which cause plant\ndisease. Today the son of a prince can have as good care as the most\nbeautiful rosebud in a lovely villa.\nThe old saying, \"A child is like a flower,\" is what we hope today to\nmake a reality, but it is as yet a privilege accorded only to the more fortunate\nchildren. But let us arouse ourselves from so great a mistake. The child\nis a man. What is enough for a plant is not enough for a human being.\nWe must always hold before us the picture of the child as the future man.\nWe must see him in the bustling humanity which seeks with such heroic\nefforts to attain the goal of life.\nWhat are the rights of children ? Let us consider them for a moment\nas a class in society, a laboring class, for they do indeed labor to produce\nmen. They are the future generation. They labor and endure the hardships of the physical and spiritual growth. They are continuing the work\n\n"}
{"page": 1144, "printed_page": null, "text": "II26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nperformed for a few months by their mothers, and to them is left the performing ofthe more arduous, more complex, and more difficult task. When\nthey are born they have naught but potentiality, yet they must do everything in a world which, even on the word of an adult, is full of difficulties.\nWhat is done to aid these weak pilgrims in an unknown world ? They are\nborn weaker and more helpless than an animal, and they must in a few\nyears become men; must be a part of an organized and complicated society,\nbuilt on the secular effort of innumerable generations. At an age in which\ncivilization — that is to say the possibility of hving well — is based on rights\nacquired by force and incorporated into laws, what are the rights of him\nwho comes among us without strength and without thought ?\nLet us see how the laws of society receive a child into the world. We are\nin the twentieth century, yet in many civilized nations foundling homes and\nthe practice of using wet nurses are still institutions.\nWhat is this foundling home ? It is a prison in a dark dungeon, where\nall too often the prisoner finds death, as was the case in those mediaeval\ndungeons where the victim, judged in secret, disappeared unknown to\nanyone. He will never see his own people, his family name is blotted out\nof existence, his goods are confiscated. Any malefactor whosoever has\ngreater rights than he, and yet no one could better prove his innocence.\nThe maternal duty of nursing one's children proclaimed by hygiene\nis founded on the physiological fact that the mother's milk is more nourishing than is any other milk. It is true there is the law of property rights\nwhich is final. One need only steal a roll, starving tho he be, to become\na thief, to be punished by law and put outside the pale of society. But as\nregards babies, what more sacred right is there than that the baby shall\nhave its mother's milk? There is no doubt as to the legality of his right;\nhis only capital, the milk, came into the world with him and for him.\nAll his wealth is there; his power of life, of growth, of gaining strength\ndepends on that nourishment. If ever the defrauded child were to be\nweak and have rickets, what will become of him, condemned as he is by\npoverty to a hard occupation ? If some day the child, having attained to\nmanhood, should present his case before society's court of justice, what a\njust cause he would have for damages because of his inability to work and\nhis permanent injuries!\nWhat distinguishes us from cannibals and pirates is the fact that the\nrights of the adults are recognized. Not so the child's rights. What\ncowardliness to recognize the adult's rights and not those of the child ! Shall\nwe give justice only to those who can defend and protect themselves and in\nall else remain barbarians? The peoples of today may have attained a\ngreater or less degree of evolution from the standpoint of hygiene, but they\nall belong to the same civilization, i.e., the rights of the strong.\nWhen we intend to consider seriously the problem of the child's moral\neducation, we should glance around and at least be cognizant of the world\n\n"}
{"page": 1145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMOTHER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n1 1 27\n\nwe have prepared for him. Do we desire that, like ourselves, he may\nunheedingly trample on the weak? That he may hold ideas of justice\nwhich halt before one who cannot protect? Do we wish to make of him\na half-civilized man, when he meets his equals, and a half-beast when he\ncomes in contact with the hosts of oppressed and innocent? If we keep\nin our conscience facts of such serious injustice, not to call them crimes,\nwithout ever being aware of them, what may not be the lesser evils which\nwill descend on the child ?\nHOW\n\nWE\n\nRECEIVE\n\nTHE CHILDREN\n\nWHO\n\nCOME\n\nINTO THE WORLD\n\nUntil recently nothing was ready to receive this wonderful guest. It\nis only recently that little beds for children have been manufactured. There\nused to be no washstands, no armchairs, no little tables, no brushes. From\namong so many houses, not one house for them; only very rich and privileged children have their own room, and it is almost a place of exile.\nLet us imagine enduring for a single day the torment to which they are\ncondemned.\nSupposing that we should find ourselves among a giant people, whose\nlegs were exceedingly long in comparison with ours, whose bodies were\nenormous, but who were very quick as compared with us — an exceedingly\nagile, intelligent people. If we wish to climb their stairs, the steps are high,\non a level with our knee, and yet we have to try to climb up with them.\nIf we wish to sit down, the chair reaches almost to our shoulders. Climbing\nup with difficulty, we finally succeed in perching ourselves on it. We would\nlike to brush our dress, but the big brushes are so heavy that our hand\ncannot even grasp, much less hold, them. For brushing our nails we are\ngiven a clothes brush. We could easily take a bath in the wash basin, but\nour arms would not be strong enough to lift it. If we knew that these\ngiants were expecting us to do so, we would say: \"They have made no\npreparation to receive us, to make our visit comfortable.\" The child finds\nall that he could wish for in the form of toys or dolls. The rich, multiform,\nattractive environment was not made for him, whereas dolls have houses,\nwith sitting-rooms, kitchens, and closets — everything which the adult\npossesses is reproduced in miniature for the doll. The child, however,\ncannot actually live with all these things — he can only play with them.\nThe world has been given to him as a joke, because as yet no one has\nadmitted that he is a living man. He finds that society has prepared an\nironical reception for him.\nThe child really tries to Hve with all the things that surround him. He\nwould really like to use a washstand by himself, to dress himself, actually to\ncomb the hair on a living head, really to sweep the floors; he, too, would\nlike to possess chairs, tables, armchairs, clothes hooks, and closets. What\nhe wants is really to work, to attain an intelligent end, to have the enjoyment of his own life. Besides, he must not only act like a man, but he\n\n"}
{"page": 1146, "printed_page": null, "text": "II28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nmust actually form the man; this is the predominating tendency of his\nnature, his mission. The smallest thing suffices to make him happy — to\nhang his clothes on a hook placed low on the wall within his reach, to open\na light door whose knob is in proportion to his hand, silently and lightly to\nmove a chair whose weight is adapted to the strength of his arms. It is a\nvery simple matter to offer him an environment where everything is built\nin proportion to his size, and to let him live there. Then there develops in\nhim that active life which has caused so much wonder, because we see in\nhim the revelation of a spiritual life. In that harmonious environment we\nhave seen the child concentrated on intellectual work, as a seed which\nhas taken root in the right ground, and from that develop and grow by\none means only — ^prolonged constancy in each exercise.\nWhen the little ones are seen acting in this way, intent upon their work,\nslow in carrying it out because of the immaturity of their constitutions, as\nthey are slow in walking, because their legs are still short, one has the intuitive feeling that they are perfecting their hves, as a chrysalis slowly perfects\nthe butterfly within its cocoon. To hinder their occupations would be\nto commit violence against their life. On the contrary, what is generally\ndone to children? We all interrupt them without the sUghtest regard,\nwithout the slightest respect, with the manners which were used by masters\ntoward slaves who had no human rights. To have the same regard for a\nchild as for an adult would seem ridiculous to many people, and yet with\nwhat severity we say to children, \"Do not interrupt us.\" If the little one\nis doing something, for example eating by himself, an adult comes along\nand feeds him; if he is trjdng to put on his apron, the adult runs to dress\nhim; all brutally take his place, without the slightest respect. And yet\nwe are keenly aware of the proprietorship of our work and whoever tries\nto take our place offends us.\nWhat would happen to us were we to become slaves to a people incapable\nof comprehending the sensitiveness of our feelings — a giant people, stronger\nthan ourselves? While we are quietly eating our soup, relishing it, at\nour pleasure (and we know what an enjo)nnent is found in this freedom),\na giant comes along and grabs the spoon from our hand and makes us swallow so fast that we almost choke. Our protest, \" For goodness sake, wait,\"\nwould be accompanied by a contraction of the heart and our digestion would\nbe endangered. If another time, while thinking of something pleasant, we\nwere slowly putting on our coat with that satisfaction and that liberty\nwhich we have in our own home, and a giant should light upon us, and in the\ntwinkling of an eye, having dressed us, should carry us bodily out of\nthe door, we would feel our dignity so belittled that the whole pleasure of\nthe walk would be lost. Our nourishment does not come simply and purely\nfrom the soup swallowed, and the well-being does not come simply and\npurely from the walk, but also from the freedom which accompanies all\nthese things. We would feel rebellious and offended, not certainly because\n\n"}
{"page": 1147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMOTHER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n1 1 29\n\nof hatred of these giants, but only because of the love for an inner tendency\nto let our life function freely. There is something within us that man does\nnot know, which, one might say, with an expression easily understood,\nGod alone knows, and He is imperceptibly manifesting it to us that we\nfulfil it. It is this love which more deeply nourishes and gives the feeling\nof well-being to our life, even in its most minute acts. Because of this it\nis said that \"Man does not live by bread alone.\" How much more true\nis this in the case of the child, where creation is at work ?\nChildren must defend their little acquisitions in the environment by\nstruggles and rebellion. When they want to exercise the senses, for instance\nthat of touch, everyone reprimands them, saying, \"Don't touch!\" If they\ntry to take some object from the kitchen, some leftovers to make a pie with\nin a little plate, they are chased away, they are mercilessly led back to their\ntoys. How many times one of those wonderful moments, in which their\nattention is fixed, and that process of organization which must develop\nthem is starting within them, has been brusquely interrupted, as the\nspontaneous efforts of the children are seeking blindly in the environment for those things with which to nourish their intellect. Have we not\nall perhaps had the feeling that something in our life has been crushed\nforever ?\nLet us picture adults who were not settled in life, as are most men, but\nwere in a state of inner autocreation like men of genius. Suppose a writer\nto be under poetical inspiration, and about to give to humanity a helpful\nand inspiring message. Or let us take the mathematician who sights the\nsolution of a great problem whence would spring new principles useful to\nhumanity. Or take an artist whose mind is conceiving the ideal image,\nwhich must be put on the canvas immediately so that a masterpiece may\nnot be lost. Imagine such men at such psychological moments. Suppose there came into their presence a cruel person calling aloud to them to\nfollow, and this person should take them by the hand and then push them\nout. To what purpose? To play a game of chess. \"Oh,\" they would\nsay, \"you could not have done anything worse to us. Our inspiration is\nlost, humanity will be deprived of a poem, a masterpiece, a useful discovery,\nbecause of this foolishness.\"\nBut the child loses not only a product, but himself as well, for the masterpiece which he is creating in his immortal self is the new man. And it is\nnot only the soul which suffers, but the body suffers too. For this is what\ncharacterizes man — the influence that the spirit has on his entire physical\nexistence.\nWe deceive ourselves in thinking that we give all to the child when we\ngive him air and food. Indeed, we do not give even this; food and air are\nnot enough for man's body; all the physiological functions depend on the\nwell-being, and that is the only key to the whole of life. So, also, the child's\nbody lives by the freedom of the soul.\n\n"}
{"page": 1148, "printed_page": null, "text": "II30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nA new hour is about to strike for the relations between mother and child.\nThe modern mother who is prepared to care perfectly for the physical life,\nand who for such a mission has only yesterday opened her mind to new\nstudies and new ideas and has accepted new responsibihties, is about to\ntake a step forward. Like care, dictated by science, will be demanded of\nher tomorrow for the intellectual hygiene of the child and for the health of\nhis inner life.\nNo longer will medicine alone furnish her the necessary teachings, but\nalso a renewed pedagogy based on the positive facts of science. The\ngirls who yesterday, in order to be better mothers, took hospital training,\nwill tomorrow go to children's schools to learn the art of protecting the new\nlives which are about to be entrusted to them by nature. Then the maternal\nmission will become complete and woman will turn her steps toward motherhood with open eyes and with the dignity of one who is no longer only a\ncreator but also a protector of posterity, one who guards and saves the body\nand mind of the new hiunanity.\n\n"}
{"page": 1149, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — E. C. Bishop, schools section, Iowa State College\nAmes, la.\nVice-President — M. J. Abbey, professor of agricultural education, University of West Virginia\nMorgantown, W.Va.\nSecretary — F. L. Gmmn, extension service, Oregon Agricultural College\nCorvallis, Ore.\n\nFIRST SESSION— TxTESDAY Forenoon, August 17, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 9:00 a.m., with President\nBishop in the chair.\nThe topic for the morning, \"Extension Work in Agriculture,\" was discussed by a\nnmnber of speakers.\nC. H. Lane, chief specialist in agricultxiral education. United States Department of\nAgriculture, Washington, D.C., read a paper entitled \"High-School Extension in Agriculture.\"\nDiscussion.\nA tentative Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education\nas Concerned with the Work in Agriculture was read by the chairman, Ashley V. Storm\nprofessor of agricultural education, University of Minnesota, St. Pa\\il, Minn.\nSeveral persons participated in a discussion on \"What Should Be Raised on the\nSchool Farm.\"\nSECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, August 17, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 p.m., and the following\nprogram given:\n\"Educational Values of Work\" — ^J. M. Mills, superintendent of schools, Ogden, Utah.\n\"How Boys and Girls Respond to Home Work in a Large City\" — Clayton F. Palmer,\nsupervisor of agriculture, city schools, Los Angeles, Cal.; George L. Farley, suj)erintendent of schools, Brockton, Mass.\n\"School Credit for Boys* and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in Agriculture and Home Economics\" — O. H. Benson, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.\n\"Agricultural Education in the State of Victoria, Australia\" — C. K. Harrison,\nDepartment of Agriculture, Victoria, Australia.\n\"Gardening and Farming in the Philippine Schools\" — North H. Foreman, inspector\nof school gardens and sites. Bureau of Education, Manila, P.I.\nThe following oflScers were elected for the coming year:\nFor President — George A. Works, professor of rural education, Cornell University,\nIthaca, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President — Henry N. Goddard, high-school inspector. State Department\nof Education, Madison, Wis.\nFor Secretary — ^W. S. Taylor, associate professor of agricultural education, University ofTexas, Austin, Tex.\nF. L. Griffin, Secretary\n1131\n\n"}
{"page": 1150, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nEXTENSION\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nC. H. LANE, CHIEF SPECIALIST IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, UNITED\nDEPARTMENT\nOF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON,\nD.C.\n\nSTATES\n\nHigh-school extension work in agriculture comprises all educational\nefforts at the homes and on the farms of the people, and also such work at\nthe school itself as is more or less temporary and that centers directly in\ninterests away from the school. Community work in agriculture is welfare\nwork and is properly a necessary part of the curriculum of a school that is\nmaintained by the people for the service of the people.\nCommunity work should aid the people in solving the principal problems\nof farming and also the social, economic, and educational problems of\nfarming communities. To this end it is necessary that trained men be\navailable, but I shall have more to say about this matter later.\nIn too many cases the extension work has been used merely as a means\nof publicity for the school or the personal aggrandizement of some teacher.\nThis will fail in the end and it will react unfavorably on the school itself and\nthe work in general. The whole motive must be sincerely to help the\npeople, not to push or advertise the school nor to promote publicity for any\nperson.\nThere are instances of high schools which have failed of their pmpose\nand been repudiated by the people because they were dominated by the\ndesire to aggrandize themselves or to exploit the people for the sake of state\naid or other remuneration. Only so long as they have the spirit of service\nand of substantial demonstrated work will they have reason permanently\nto do community work.\nIt is proper that a public high school that is doing good work should\nextend itself to the people, but it is well to hold in mind that it should not\nbegin the process until it has something to extend. Not every high-school\ninstructor in agricxilture is qualified to do extension work. The instructor\nshould first show in the classroom that he is competent to extend his instruction to the patrons of the schools. Extension efforts should be the result\nof work rather than the beginning of work.\nOne is likely to make the mistake of beginning the extension work first,\nwhereas the extension work should grow gradually as the school work in\nagriculture grows and be the natural expression to the people of the work\nthat arises in the school itself.\nWe have arrived at more or Igss standardized methods of high-school\nteaching in the academic subjects and sciences. We are beginning to\nstandardize our regular high-school instruction in agriculture as experience\naccumulates. We shall also arrive at standard methods of extension work.\nWe appear to be now in an epoch of exploitation and the putting over of\n\n"}
{"page": 1151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1 133\n\nenterprises. I am afraid of many of the variegated schemes. The safety\nin the situation lies in the fact that the farmer is more concerned with his\nplowing than with anybody's pet scheme.\nBefore attempting extension work, the teacher should study the agriculture ofthe community to learn what is being done and what is worth\nwhile agriculturally in each part of it. He should know the character of the\nsoil, the character of improvements, the systems of farming followed, the\nclass of farmers, and the conditions of the rural one-teacher schools and of\nthe churches. This information is fundamental to an intelligent development and adaptation of both interior and exterior instruction. The student who comes to the high school must adapt himself to the instruction of\nthe school and apply its teachings in agriculture to his own local conditions,\nbut the school teacher that goes to the farmer must adapt his teaching to\nthe community in which he is instructing, and to do this he must know local\nconditions. The success of his extension work will depend largely upon\nhow much he teaches that the farmer can put into practice on his own\nfarm. It is therefore wise to make haste slowly, to secure the co-operation\nof the more progressive farmers, and to do more demonstrating than talking.\nThe past ten years have seen the wonderful growth of agricultural\neducation movements. It would seem that everybody has undertaken the\neducation of farmers. The United States government expanded the work\nof the Department of Agriculture. State agricultural colleges and experiment stations have taken on a new life. Normal schools, high schools,\nand even elementary schools have added agriculture to the curriculum.\nRailroads, manufacturers of farm machinery, and various commercial\norganizations have undertaken the work of helping the better-farming\nmovement by putting out demonstrations and running agricultural trains\nand publishing literature. State departments of agriculture have become\nactive in holding institutes and publishing literature for the farmers'\nenlightenment. The popular thing is to boost the farmer and to undertake\nto help him to farm more scientifically.\nThe forces are out trying to help put farming on a better basis, and the\nservice is indeed all right, but too often the work is being done at crosspurposes. The results are not in proportion to the efforts spent. These\nvarious agencies need to do what they are trying to teach the farmers to do\n—\"get together.\"\nAll sorts of schemes are broached nowadays in the interest of better\nagriculture and country life. These need co-ordinating, but they cannot\nbe co-ordinated except on some basic principle. We have in agricultural\nextension work no more important problem than to try to decide in the\nnext few years the groundwork on which may be based a correlation of\nlabor that shall be both scientific and practically efficient with reference to:\n(i) the relationship of high-school extension in agriculture to other publicsupported agencies within the state; (2) the relationship of state-supported\n\n"}
{"page": 1152, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\nagencies to federal agencies; and (3) the relationship of all to privately\nsupported agencies. An equally important problem is, finally, the way\nin which in the community, the county, the state, and the nation, the\nwhole problem of agriculture and country life can be integrated, solidified,\nand made effective as a great national piece of development.\nAfter considerable investigation in regard to suitable extension work in\nagriculture for secondary schools, it is generally agreed that the teacher of\nagriculture may extend his influence outside of his regular high-school work\nin the following ways: (i) by supervising the home-project work of his\npupils; (2) by directing agricultural instruction in the grades; (3) by organizing and following up boys' and girls' clubs; (4) by acting as organizer for\nthe one week's short course for farmers; (5) by offering personal counsel\nand advice on certain days to farmers of the community; (6) by assisting\nin organizing farmers* reading-courses; (7) by directing school agricultural\nexhibits locally and at the county fair; and (8) thru Saturday meetings with\nfarmers and by farm visitation. In a broad way the high-school teacher\nwho attempts extension work should represent the commimity agriculturally;\nhe should stimulate it; he should point the way; he should project the\nmeetings, policies, and methods of work as applicable to the place: he\nshould have an office in the high school in which facts pertaining to the\nagriculture of the community are assembled and where they will be available for the use of any person who desires them. The agricultural teacher\nshould be an organizer of information and of movements; he should\nbecome a director of agricultural enterprises within his school community.\nHe should act as the connecting link between the scientists of the\nresearch institutions of the state and nation and the farmer, presenting the\nresults of investigations in such a way that tiie farmer can use them, and\ncalling the attention of scientists to the local agricultural problems of the\ncommunity and soliciting their assistance. In carrying on his work, he\nshould first attempt to meet the evident needs of the local farming population; in a particular locality it may be the question of liming the land and\nthe ways of securing the lime; in another it may be the means of spraying\norchards and the securing of the machinery and materials; in another it\nmay be the health of the live stock and the means of improving it; in another\nit may be combined action in the buying of certain supplies or in the selling\nof certain products; in still another community it may be the question of\ninformation and careful publicity as to the value of available lands for sale;\nit may be seed selection or the making of demonstrations; it may be a means\nof exchange, and so on to the end.\nYou sometimes hear it said that none but the man of great experience,\nin some cases it is even urged that none but the investigator, should attempt\nto teach the farmer the results of research. Without doubt care should be\ntaken in selecting agricultural instructors by any state, as they should be\nthoroly acquainted with the results of the state experiment station, and all\n\n"}
{"page": 1153, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\n'\n\nDepartmentj\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nII35\n\ninstructors within the state should, as far as possible, teach the same thing.\nBut after all, as a broad proposition, we must choose the agricultural\nteacher carefully, and then we must trust him to do his work — that is, we\nshould not treat him any differently from what we do other teachers. If\nwe waited in placing agriculture in high schools and carrying on extension\nwork until all the teachers were just as good as the best, we should not have\nany system of agricultural instruction. The fact that some men will sometimes teach what is not true is lamentable, tho it is perhaps as inevitable as\nhuman nature is, but we should not, I think, set up standards for agricultural teachers which we do not set up for other teachers.\nThe one big problem then in secondary agricultural extension work is to\ndevise courses of training for high-school teachers comparable in effectiveness to those given men entering other professions. Such courses should\ncontain two essential elements: (i) sound training in the science of agriculture, and (2) sound experience in the practice of the art. The scientific\ntraining of the high-school instructor who engages in agricultural extension\nwork should be just the same as that of other agricultural experts up to a\ncertain point. That is, he should have good training in the fundamental\nsciences and in agricultural science at least to the extent given in wellorganized agricultural courses leading to a Bachelor's degree.\nIt is extremely doubtful whether he should be permitted to specialize\nin the latter part of a course as is now common in larger institutions. On\nthe contrary, since he is to be a teacher, it is necessary for him to have\ntraining in psychology and in the principles and methods of education.\nSince he will be expected to contribute to the local paper, he should give\ncareful attention to language work and have much practice in the clear\nand simple statement of his thoughts. Something like what is attempted\nin the courses in journalism given at a few of our land-grant colleges should\nbe included in his program. He should have practice in public speaking,\nfor we are coming to see that the voice of the teacher whether in the schoolroom or on the lecture platform is a vital factor in the education of the\nmasses and always will be. The student agricultural and horticultural\nsocieties, or literary societies, should be encouraged to devote programs or\nparts of programs to mock organizing of farmers' clubs and co-operative\nsocieties, boys' and girls' clubs, and even to the discussion of vital countrylife problems. In this the various college departments can render valuable\nassistance by suggesting programs, topics for discussion, and outlines for\nextemporaneous talks. Provision should also be made for actual practice\nin extension work. In the Junior and Senior years, the students preparing\nto teach in high schools should be attached to the extension division of the\ncollege and allowed to participate in its work. They may thus be given\npractice teaching in the short courses for farmers given at the college, and\nsent out with experienced extension workers to speak at conventions and\nfarmers' institutes and to teach in movable schools of agriculture.\n\nThey\n\n"}
{"page": 1154, "printed_page": null, "text": "II36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nmay also be loaned out as assistants to successful teachers to do short course\nwork in agriculture in high schools. This method is already being used\nat the New York State College of Agriculture.\nSince the attitude of the high-school teacher's mind is a large and\nfundamental factor in his success, his college course should be planned\nto keep ever before his mind that his professional aim should be to \"connect\nschool life with the home life of the community, to bring school instruction\nin touch with local farm practice, to bring to the attention of adults interested in agriculture any discoveries or practices of scientific agriculture\nthe appUcation of which would be beneficial locally, to unite the agricultural\ninterests of the community, to add zest to coimtry life, and, in short, to\npromote in any way possible better methods of work, greater profits,\nand contentment and happiness for farm people.\"\nThe high-school teacher is to promote successful farm practice. He\nshould be able to see and, if necessary, to explain the scientific foundation\nfor this practice. But his success in extension work will be fairly judged by\nwhat he does in bringing adult farmers and young people with limited education to change their practices which are wrong for new practices which\nare right. Hence, in the high-school teacher's training, much stress should\nbe laid on instruction in farm management, rural economics, and rural\nsociology, provided these courses are given by teachers having a thoroly\npractical sense and outlook.\nEDUCATIONAL\nJ. M. MILLS,\n\nVALUES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF WORK\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOGDEN,\n\nUTAH\n\nHe who sp>ends his time in the ceaseless grind of hard work without\nany recreation or study intermingled unfits himself for getting the real\npleasures of life and becomes an ineflicient member of society. Likewise\none who spends his entire time in pleasure-seeking because perhaps he is\nrelieved from drudgery by the wealth of a dead ancestor and does not\nparticipate in either work or study is an inefficient if not a maUcious member of society. It may be said that one who studies all the time and never\nturns his wisdom to some useful end thru work or play is an inefficient\nmember of society. Unfortunately the program of daily effort is not properly distributed and men in the affairs of life are overdoing one or the other\nof these different activities. Everyone seems to be striving toward a\nbetter adjustment of social conditions, and there is no good reason why the\nschool should not be the place to train for useful citizenship and for maximum efficiency. By so doing, the most complete happiness, which is the\nultimate aim in life, can be secured. The school, therefore, should be\norganized on a basis where work, play, and study may be properly adjusted.\nThere was a time when every boy and girl had duties to perform around\nthe home, and no matter how necessary education seemed in that day, they\n\n"}
{"page": 1155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUES\n\nOF WORK\n\nII37\n\ncould not be relieved from their daily tasks. Today there are few homes\nthat can provide the work which most school men recognize as being an\nessential part of the development of youth. If we have money, we must\nwork for it. If we have pleasure, we must work for it. In order to enjoy\nany good thing in the world that is worth having, we must work for it.\nThe weakest point in our American school system is that there is little\nprovision for training boys and girls to work.\nWe could easily persuade ourselves that swimming is a part of education\nif we should write a textbook on swimming and take a class of students\nthru the book. If they do the book work and pass well in their subject,\nwe should regard them as good students, but some kind adviser from the\nreal world should be near by to caution those students, when they leave the\nschoolroom, not to go into deep water. The student would be a better\nswimmer if he got into real water and learned the difficulties and how to\novercome them. He would do still better if, when finding difficulties, he\nwould consult his textbook. Many a parent sends the child thru the book\nwork in school relieving him from all care and responsibility. He tells him\nthat he is going to leave him unhandicapped that he may get an education,\nand then he will be well prepared to start his life-work. What a mistaken\nparent. He gives the boy the book work and then pushes him out into the\nocean of life and he may either sink or swim. He will surely sink unless he\nhas learned something some time when his father and the teacher were not\nlooking. Fortunately for boys and girls, most of what they learn is learned\noutside of school.\nThe reason a boy runs away from school is not always to his discredit.\nMost truants have just as much sense as those who stay in school and are\njust as good boys. They revolt against the system. Our forefathers did\nthis when they wanted to correct the form of government, and were called\npatriots. Most of these runaway boys are of the motor type, sometimes\ncalled hand-minded. They are not book-minded boys, and become nervous\nand irritable in our bookish schools. Their very beings revolt against what\nare to them meaningless abstractions. This type of boy is extremely energetic and must express himself in some manner that gives himself satisfaction. Sometimes the actions of these boys are such that they are expelled\nfrom school, and then they surprise the community and shame those who\nconduct the schools by going out and making a success of life. Their education begins after they leave school. They are for the first time unfettered\nand allowed to grow.\nIt is a well-known fact that many boys go thru high school and college\nwith only one lesson thoroly learned and that is to try to get along without\nwork. The dignity of work should be upheld. All work is education. The\nentire city should be considered the school, with all the shops, stores,\ngardens, etc., as a part of the plant. Any good thing that is learned in one\nplace should be as valuable as any good thing that is learned in another.\n\n"}
{"page": 1156, "printed_page": null, "text": "1138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThe school machine should be broken and a class of students graduated\nthat will know how to earn a living or keep a good home. It is the big\ndemocratic idea at the bottom of the American school system which gives\nits power. A readjustment in some of the details of the organization, made\nupon the broad democratic foundation, will teach the world a lesson in\neducation.\nThe school of tomorrow will be vitalized by a reorganization on an\nindustrial plan having a half-day of academic work and a half-day of\nindustrial, social, and physical work, or on some similar plan. In certain\ncases, boys and girls may be excused from the industrial half-day of the\nschool to take their industrial work in some of the approved industries of\nthe city on the co-operative plan, on the theory that the real, practical work\nof life should be an essential part of our educational system; provided that\nit shall be thoroly supervised, and that the intellectual, physical, and social\nprogress of the student shall not in any way be hampered. Some kinds\nof work have little or no educational value. Other kinds are injurious to\nbody, mind, and morals. The child should be protected by the school from\nentering such employment. The educational value of earning and saving\nmoney is an important thing in the training of young people. Making a\nliving is the first requisite of society. Many fail from thinking this the\nonly thing worth striving for. No man lives right who stops growth at\nthis first accomplishment. The school of tomorrow will make full use of\nthe school plant all the time — day and evening — the year aroimd. The\nproper mingling of work, play, and study can lengthen the school day\nwithout injury to any child, while, under the present system, the present\nday is too long. Cramming the child with a mass of unrelated, disconnected, disassociated, meaningless, abstract formaUties is making a generation of mental dyspeptics unfitted for usefulness. The benefits of longer\nsupervision in related activities are numerous. The rights of every individual child should be safeguarded, and, in some cases, it is known that the\nhome can provide better training than the school for a part of the time each\nday. Great care should be taken by the school oiEcers, however, that\ncareless and grasping parents should not exploit their children for mere\nfinancial gain. Jimior and Senior high-school boys and girls may be directed\nby the home, with great profit, in housekeeping, dairying, cabinet-making,\ngardening, and many other occupations, as well as in private lessons in art,\nmusic, languages, elocution, etc. The daily program should be such that\nthe book-minded or the hand-minded child can be cared for and his choice\nunder guidance should be encouraged.\nEvery high school and college has every year shining examples of\nproducts of self-effort. Boys and girls who are forced, thru financial\nreverses or other handicaps, to work their way thru school are generally\nsuccessful. Such students may be sometimes slower in their scholastic\nadvancement, but they are surer in acquiring strength, ability, and solidity.\n\n"}
{"page": 1157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOYS' AND\n\nGIRLS' HOME\n\nWORK\n\nIN A LARGE\n\nCITY\n\n1 139\n\nEvery grade school too has had its experience in promoting those who\nstruggle for an education. It is known that one who is doing things may\nbe put a grade ahead without anyone even knowing that he lacks the\ntraining. Work gives young people a motive, a point of view, which when\nacquired is worth more than a college education without it. With it a\ncollege education is easy to get and will be worth while afterward. Work\nis, therefore, not a curse to anyone, and any man or woman who has begun\nto work while young is better off for having done so. The evil is in overdoing the work side, but even that evil is not so great perhaps as the evil of\nidleness. At first glance, it would appear that taking away time from one's\nscholastic studies would lessen one's efficiency in those branches. It would\nif it were not for the fact that one's physical being is rested and reanimated\nand one's mind clarified and made tenacious by' the task, if it is well\nperformed. Added to this is another great factor. These daily tasks, in\nconnection with the year's scholastic work, will do more to give a purpose\nthan books alone. One who has a purpose in life will find his way and the\nworld will help him. \"Physical work promotes the circulation of the\nblood, opens the pores of the skin, gives tone to the respiratory organs,\nhelps the functions of digestion, strengthens the muscles, adds suppleness\nto the joints, enlivens the senses, quickens the nerves, regulates the passions\nand tends to build up the constitution. Mental and moral work clears the\nunderstanding, empowers the will, keens the perception, awakens the\nconscience, informs the judgment, enlarges the memory, rectifies the affections.\"\nHOW\nI.\n\nBOYS AND\n\nCLAYTON\n\nGIRLS RESPOND TO HOME\nLARGE CITY\n\nF. PALMER, SUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURE,\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nWORK\n\nIN A\n\nCITY SCHOOLS,\n\nTo those of us who have been trying to carry on home gardening thru\nencouragement from the school, the project seems to offer exceptional\nopportunities. While we might feel inclined to express regret that it was\nnot begun years ago, we have to remember that, in the natural order of\nevents, gardening would be taught first by teachers at school. The home\ngarden as a taught subject is an outgrowth of the school garden and as\nsuch is here considered.\nTo encourage the boys and girls in home gardening in our city the\npast year, substantial prizes were offered by the 191 5 committee, in each\nschool district where enough interest was manifested to justify it. Careful\nscores have been kept by teachers and others authorized to do this and the\nawards are to be made at a closing celebration to be held this fall. The\npoints taken into consideration in scoring the gardens, together with the\nnumber of units of credit attached to each, are supplied the contestants,\n\n"}
{"page": 1158, "printed_page": null, "text": "II40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultura\n\nand a definite effort has been made to impress upon them the significance\nof scoring and of conducting their operations in such a manner as to avail\nthemselves of as much total credit as possible. Thus each visit has resulted\nin the imparting of a certain amount of actual instruction. From the\nteacher's standpoint, the whole project is part of a comprehensive scheme\nalong educational lines.\nFrom the beginning of our campaign for better and more home gardening, two somewhat contrasting conceptions have been in the minds of\ndifferent people. Those who have viewed the matter from the standpoint\nof business have hopefully looked forward to seeing the vacant lots turned\ninto bowers of beauty, the parkways improved, new lawns established\ngenerally, etc. Now much of that sort of improvement has taken place,\nas a matter of course, but those of us who are teachers have been less hopeful of startling results; we realize that such things must be achieved by a\nslower process. While trying to secure results that would contribute toward\nbeautif)dng the city for the year, we have had in mind also the idea of establishing agood foundation for better work in the future. We therefore hope\nto obtain the proper support for continuing the work.\nOccasionally we meet a principal who favors home gardening strongly\nbut not school gardening. We are coming to look upon these as supplementary, their functions being somewhat different. The school garden is\na demonstration plot wherein are taught the fundamentals of gardening.\nIn the home garden, the pupil is free to carry out his ideas on a larger scale\nand to follow his own inclinations to a greater extent. Nor is this all. We\nmake it a point to raise many plants in our school gardens, lath-houses,\nand cold-frames, giving the surplus to pupils to plant at home. This\nresults in planting in the home gardens more desirable plants, and pupils\nare encouraged to build their own cold-frames, etc. A class puts in a lawn\nat school, or plants shrubbery, and soon the results are seen here and there\nin improved grounds, not only at the homes of pupils, but elsewhere.\nOur cities still have their unsightly dumping-grounds, inartistic buildings, weedy vacant lots, congested tenement houses, filthy streets, and\nworst of all their slums. Many of these nuisances really have their counterpart in conditions existing in altogether too many homes, and it would seem\nthat improvement should begin there. Education is needed quite as much\nas legislation and probably they should go hand in hand. To just the\nextent we are able to improve our homes today will these pubUc nuisances\ndisappear naturally tomorrow. For, after aU, any city can be just as clean\nand wholesome as the rank and file of its inhabitants want it to be and no\nmore. The home-garden project will contribute greatly to this end.\nBeing interested to learn of the phases of gardening that appealed to\nthe children in different districts, I asked the opinion of our teachers.\nTheir replies indicated that a much larger percentage of the boys and girls\npreferred vegetable gardening. In some cases, the interest was divided,\n\n"}
{"page": 1159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOYS'\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS'\n\nHOME\n\nWORK\n\nIN A LARGE\n\nCITY\n\n1141\n\nmany planting a border of flowers about the vegetable garden. In a few\ndistricts the girls showed a preference for flowers, and, where fruit trees\nor vines were of producing size, they came in for a share of attention. It\nshould be noted here that because of the nature of the contest being held\nin this case naturally no particular attention was paid to such home interests\nas poultry, rabbits, etc.\nThat home gardening is materially reducing the cost of living there can\nbe no doubt. We read from a teacher's report that one family practically\nlived on the products of its garden; another spent no money for vegetables\nfor several months; many children sell vegetables to parents and earn\nspending money. A widow and five children procured their support largely\nfrom the garden. Fifty little gardeners are reported by one teacher as\nfurnishing the family tables with vegetables.\nThe good effect upon the moral tone of the community is vouched for\nby teachers in most cases. Some merely say that it is too soon to judge,\nbut they reason that since home gardening keeps children profitably busy\nand in contact with nature, it naturally tends to raise the moral tone of the\ncommunity. The fact that it keeps children off the streets and doing something worth while is an important consideration with several. The improvement in the character of the individual is believed of necessity to react in\nfavor of the whole community. One says that the backyard is cleaned, then\nthe house, and finally the neighborhood. Several mention the fact that\ngardening teaches children to respect the rights of others and makes better\ncitizens. One wisely notes that gardening develops a greater love of home,\nleading more people to desire to own their homes. The transformation\ninto useful endeavor of energy that would otherwise be wasted cannot help\nraising the moral tone of any neighborhood.\nIt is doubtful whether there is anything that would bring the school\nand the home into closer and more friendly relationship than the active\ninterest of the school in the gardens of the homes. Certainly as an entering\nwedge for such results it offers excellent opportunities. One teacher says\nthat it seems the first opportunity for a close relationship between home and\nschool. All agree that many desirable results are bound to come from such\nco-operation. In the poorer neighborhoods, home visits often reveal cases\nof real distress that otherwise might not be known to any who could bring\nrelief. We read in the replies that knowledge of the home environment of\nthe children greatly aids the school in its efforts to help them, the children\nfeeling a closer bond of sympathy; the teacher learns the child's hobbies,\nand gets the parent's idea of the child's personality; home gardening improves the work done by the child in his school plot; parents become more\ninterested in the school in its various activities; the school garden takes on\na new importance when it becomes tangible with the home garden; a\nsense of social unity is developed; the home-garden teacher becomes more\nhelpful to the principal and to the other teachers of the school; children\n\n"}
{"page": 1160, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nrespond to a feeling of personal interest; the project establishes a certain\nintimacy not attained in other ways; a knowledge of home conditions is\ngained which thru any other kind of visit would be looked upon as an intrusion; any antagonism existing toward the school is removed, and a friendly\nrelation is established. One assistant director reports that the interest\nin home gardening has greatly lessened the tendency to petty bickering\nbetween neighbors in some communities.\nWith the possible exception of a few districts, where the work is slow\nin starting, teachers report that the demand for more instruction in home\ngardening is decidedly increasing. In some communities, the fact that\nprizes are offered in gardening seems to be regarded as a detriment instead\nof a help; but where the commercial spirit is stronger prizes seem to offer\na special stimulus. It is the consensus of opinion, however, with a few\nexceptions, that, whatever stimulus the prizes may have been the past year\nas a means of arousing general interest in gardening, the cause will in the\nfuture be hindered rather than helped by them. It has been our conviction\nas teachers that more money should have been used in the work of instruction in the homes and less in actual prizes.\nOne of the most important problems arising in connection with the\nraising of produce beyond what is needed by the family is to find a suitable\nmarket for the surplus. This is especially true where there are many\nchildren in the same community who are trying to sell vegetables to their\nneighbors. The solution of the problem where such is the case would\nappear to be met thru some sort of co-operative effort in marketing. This\nwould no doubt require considerable engineering on the part of some person of experience. One of our enthusiastic teachers proposes to take up\nactively this problem in her district, which is on the outskirts of the city.\nWe shall watch the experiment with much interest.\nWhat then can be said in favor of the attempt on the part of the school to\nencourage and assist in the matter of home gardening ? We have seen that\nprincipals, teachers, parents, and pupils are as a rule heartily in favor of it.\nIn general, the home gardening idea has been a decided success. It\nhas resulted in the profitable use of otherwise non-productive land and idle\ntime. It has kept thousands of children in wholesome employment,\nreducing the cost of living and teaching lessons of economy and thrift.\nThousands of home yards have been made neater and more sanitary, the\nmembers of many families have become more closely united in a common\ninterest, and the moral tone of many a community has imdoubtedly been\nelevated. In all this work, the school and home have been brought much\nnearer together for the mutual benefit of all concerned, and the foundation\nhas been laid for what may result in greater achievements in the future.\nWe beUeve enough has already been done to justify recommendation of the\nproject to others who may care to undertake it, altho only a beginning has\nas yet been made in our city.\n\n"}
{"page": 1161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nn.\n\nGEORGE\n\nBOYS'\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS'\n\nHOME\n\nWORK\n\nL. FARLEY, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN A LARGE\n\nOF\n\nCITY\n\n1 143\n\nSCHOOLS, BROCKTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nI wish to show how one city has responded to this work.\nFour years ago a citizen offered twenty-five dollars to start this work,\nand in the fall some 30 children had carried this work to successful\ncompletion. The next year this same gentleman raised four hundred\ndollars and the city gave two hundred dollars, and 1,100 boys and girls\nentered upon the work. The third year five hundred dollars was raised\nby subscription and the city gave six hundred dollars with 2,500 children\nenrolled. Then the fourth year, three hundred dollars has been given by\ncitizens and over 2,700 pupils are carrying on gardens. Of this number,\n135 to 140 plots are of one-tenth of an acre or more in size, which allows\nthe owner to enter the Massachusetts Agricultural College competitions.\nThe work covers two fields: home and school gardens and the growing\nof both vegetables and flowers. It is under the direction of a supervisor,\na teacher of the high-school faculty, who has as assistant a young man who\nis a student at the Massachusetts Agricultural College.\nThe city is divided into ten districts, the gardens in each district being\nvisited by inspectors who are pupils of the high school.\nTwo exhibits are held each year, one at the high school, where many\nsmall money prizes and ribbons are awarded, the second at the Brockton\nFair, the directors giving each year two hundred dollars. Many prizes\nare offered by citizens. This year, one of the city banks has employed an\nagent, under salary, one of whose duties is to loan to deserving boys and\ngirls sums ranging from five dollars to twenty-five dollars to carry on projects\nthey could not otherwise finance. This agent also sold on notes bearing\ninterest 179 pigs to boys and girls who are entered in the Massachusetts\nAgricultural College pig contest.\nMany splendid records have been made by boys and girls. The work\nkeeps many children off the streets during the summer months and thus out\nof mischief. It makes it possible for the older boys and girls to earn\nsufficient money to continue their school course. It teaches many lessons\nin citizenship, rights of property, and the value of money. The economic\nvalue cannot be estimated, but if each garden earns five dollars, and this is\na very low estimate as many show returns as high as forty-five dollars,\nthe total value of the 2,700 gardens is considerable. Besides all this work\nin the gardens, the work has extended to the forming of poultry clubs,\nand the keeping of bees, and this summer twenty-five pupils are doing\ncanning and already report having put up forty-five varieties of vegetables\nand fruit.\n\n"}
{"page": 1162, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nSCHOOL CREDIT FOR BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK\nEXTENSION ACTIVITIES IN AGRICULTURE AND\nHOME ECONOMICS\nO. H. BENSON,\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES DEPARTMENT\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nAND\n\nOF AGRICULTURE,\n\nAs a part of extension education, we have what is commonly known as the\nboys' and girls' clubs or extension work in agriculture and home economics\nfor the boys and girls. For a little while this afternoon we shall concern\nourselves with this type of work as it is related to the public school, and\nshall discuss briefly, if you please, its claim upon the school from the standpoint of school credit. Personally, I have not worried a great deal about\ngetting school credit for this home work. As a matter of fact, the best\npossible credit that a boy or girl may receive from club work is the education,\nexperience, health, and conservation value, together with the blessings of\nthe out of doors, and a net profit on investment. It is my opinion that\nthese credits are sufficient, as far as the boys and girls are concerned,\nbut I believe that it will be worth while for the school to express itself in a\ntangible way in connection with this work. If the school can offer substantial credit or recognition in this type of extension work, it will do the\nschool and the school curriculum more good than it will the home work and\nboys and girls engaged in it.\nEvery member who enrols in one of these club projects signs an enrolment card, thereby agreeing not only to enter but to stay in the work and\nfinish the job, covering a period of from six to ten months in all of the club\nor home projects. After they have thus entered, they are organized into\na local club or group; arrangements are made for regular meetings, in\nwhich they participate as officers, entertainers, speakers, and so forth.\nDuring the entire cropping season systematic, carefully prepared follow-up\ninstructions are mailed to them, a few lessons at a time, from the state\ncollege of agriculture, by the state leader in charge of club work. These\ninstructions cover not only the selection of seed, planting, preparation, and\nmanagement of the plat, but also the care and management of the surplus\nor otherwise waste products of their club plat. Coupled with this, we have\nexhibits and club festivals, in which play contests and recreational opportunities are properly given and directed. Then, again, for the winter\nmonths, some very excellent lessons are furnished, showing how to correlate\nthe club-project work with the activities of the classroom and schools.\nDuring the summer months, in addition to receiving the printed instructions, club members are visited by local, leaders, county superintendents,\ncounty agents, etc., upon their individual plats, not in the parlor, but out\nin the field, barnyard, garden, and kitchen, where he may stand in council\nwith the future business-man farmer, or coming home-builder.\n\n"}
{"page": 1163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCREDIT\n\nFOR AGRICULTURAL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\n1145\n\nAll of this work contemplates very definite organization and follow-up\nwork during the vacation and summer months. After the school has been\nclosed and the teacher has left for vacation fields, someone should be\nselected to visit the club plats and club members, to conduct demonstration\nmeetings and field meetings, and to give direction in other ways in the work\nof marketing, gathering and making of exhibits, making out of costaccounting records, etc.\nThis, in brief, outlines the scope of the work, as suggested under the\nhead of a club project.\nHow can we best give school credit for these home projects in the\norganization of club activities?\nFirst of all, let me say that if this work is carried on as outlined and\ndesignated, every member who enters and stays in the game, follows\nprinted instructions, goes to other sources for information as directed,\nattends meetings, does the correlation work in the school with the home\nproject, is certainly entitled to some recognition on the part of the school.\nThis will help the boy to appreciate the school more if he finds that this\npractical work and his achievements at home have been properly recognized\nby educational authorities.\nI have but few suggestions to make along this line. You, of course,\nknow that in every club project we have certain definite requirements and a\nstandard of measurement or basis of award. Many people have misunderstood the real purpose of such a basis of award, and have thought that it\nmeant a score card or standard for the purpose of awarding large individual cash prizes, free trips, and other premiums to state fairs, county\nfairs, and other public events.\nTrue, the basis of award has served a very definite purpose along this\nline, but the real argument for this basis of award is to furnish a standard\nof measurement for the home project and to make it possible for the teacher\nto reward real standards of achievement. Every child in the public school\ntoday should be taught, as soon as possible, what an achievement is, and\nwhat it costs — not at the expense of others, but at the expense of the\nchild's own time, money, and energy.\nI would recommend to this section of the National Education Association, and to your favorable consideration, that all of the bases of awards used\nin our club home projects be also used as the bases of awards for the giving\nof school credits. I am submitting below a complete set of these standards,\non all the projects. All of them are based on a loo per cent score, and they\nhave either four or five points. They contemplate yields, net profits,\nquality, quantity, bookkeeping records, and written stories of the work. If\na boy makes go per cent on any one of these projects, it simply means\nthat he has covered a very definite period of time and has completed a\ndefinite piece of work, during which time he has had direction, instruction,\n\n"}
{"page": 1164, "printed_page": null, "text": "H46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ncorrelated reading in agriculture (or home economics), and has had as\ndefinite training as he could have had for the same period of time in the\nschoolroom.\nIn the state of Washington, the state superintendent of public instruction and the other educational authorities of the state have adopted a very\nexcellent plan: They allow 50 per cent credit toward the final examinations\nin the subjects of agriculture and home economics to all members who have\ntaken up and followed to completion one of these home projects. They\nhave set a certain percentage as minimum, as required by the committee\nsupervising this particular t5T)e of work. I would recommend this as one\nof the best plans I know of for giving school credit for carefully supervised\nclub activities or properly organized home work.\nIn order that you may understand fully what we mean by \"club work,\"\n\"home projects,\" and \"bases of awards,\" I will first outline the projects and\nstate the specific requirements, then recommend a workable basis of award\nfor each project upon, or from which, the work of the boy and girl may be\nmeasured, and for which school credit may be given. These all contemplate\na definite, approved, supervised project, definite hours of work, business\nmethods put into practice, net profits to the child, and a completed job —\nhence its claim to school credit.\nPlease note the following list of club projects, work units, and bases of\nawards on the various projects, some of which are now being definitely\npromoted by the state co-operative leaders in charge of boys' and girls'\nextension work in agriculture and home economics:\nList of Peojecxs\nfield, fa£m, frxht, and garden projects\ni-acre com project\ni-acre potato project\ni-acre sugar-beet or mangel project\n^(pacre garden project\nSquare-rod market-garden project\nI-acre alfalfa project\ni2-tree apple-club project\n4-year rotation project\n^-acre tomato project\nHOME\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nPROJECTS\n\n3- to 6-month canning and marketing project\n3-month mother-daughter canning project\nlo-piece garment-making project\nBackyard-garden project\nBoys' and girls' home-canning project\nPlat of wheat and 10 loaves of bread project\nANIMAI. HUSBANDRY\n\nPROJECTS\n\nPork and crop production project\nPoultry project: (o) hatching and rearing project; (6) egg-laying and marketing\nproject\nBeef and crop production project\nDairy-club project\n\n"}
{"page": 1165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCREDIT\n\nFOR\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\n1 147\n\nSPECXAL CLUB PROJECTS\n\nHome-management project\nFann-management project\nFarm and home handicraft project\nBasis of Awaso\n\nor Standass fob Awarding School Credit, Medals, Ribbons,\nAND Otecbk Prizes\n\nRequirements. — The requirements for all clubs are practically the same. Every\nmember is required to attend meetings, follow instructions, and faithfully manage at\nleast his acreage or project units, outlined in No. i, under \"Basis of Award,\" as a minimum.\nThere is no limit to the size of the plat or the amoimt of work tmdertaken. The member\nmust keep a record of observations, cost, and receipts, and make an exhibit of his products\nat the time and place designated by state and local leaders.\ncorn clxtb\nBasis of award:\n1. Yield per acre (i acre)\n2. Profit on investment\n3. Exhibit of ten ears\n4. Written story and crop report\n\nPer Cent\n30\n30\n20\n20\n\nTotal score\n\n100\npotato club\n\nBasis of award:\n1. Yield per J acre\n2. Profit on investment\n3. Exhibit of 25 lbs. of seed potatoes\n4. Written story and report records\n\n30\n30\n20\n20\n\nTotal score\n\nicxs\nSUGAR-BEET\n\nOR MANGEL\n\nCLUB\n\nBasis of award:\n1. Yield per acre (i acre)\n2. Profit on investment\n3. Exhibit of ten individual beets\n4. Story and record of dub work\nTotal score\nI^ ACRE GARDEN CLXTB\nBasis of award:\n1. Quality of vegetables {^ acre)\n2. Quantity of products\n3. Appearance, and plan of garden\n4. Profit on investment\n5. Story and crop records\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n\nPer Cent\n30\n30\nao\nao\n100\n\nPer Cent\nao\nao\nao\n20\n20\n100\n\n"}
{"page": 1166, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSQUARE-ROD\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMARKET-GARDEN\n\n[Agricultural\n\nPROJECT\n\nBasis of award:\n\nPer Cent\n\n1. Quantity of products (i sq. rd. minimum)\n2. Quality of products grown\n3. Appearance, and plan of garden\n4. Profit on investment\n5. Story and crop record\n\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n\nTotal score\n\n100\nALFALFA CLX^\n\nBasis of award:\n\nPer Cent\n\n1. Yield per acre (i) (average, if over i)\n2. Net profit per acre (or average)\n3. Exhibit of cured alfalfa\n4. Story and record of crop production\n\n30\n30\n20\n20\n\nTotal score\n\n100\nAPPLE CLUB\n\nRequirements. — Care and management of not less than 10 apple trees for the season.\nBasis of award:\n1. Percentage of extra fancy fniit\n2. Gross returns from trees\n3. Total yield, in bushels\n4. Use of by-products\n5. Story and crop records\n\nPer Cent\n^\n\nTotal score\n\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nFOUR-YEAR\n\nROTATION\n\nCLUB\n\nRequirements. — Outlining and carrying out a definite four-year rotation of farm\ncrops suited to the soil, climate, and conditions, on a minimum of 4 acres.\nBasis of award:\n1. Total yield of acreage for foiir years\n2. Average net profit per acre for four-year period\n3. Condition of 4-acre plat at end of foxir years\n4. Records for four years and story of work\nTotal score\n\n^0 ACRE TOMATO-CLUB PROJECT\nBasis of award:\n1. Yield on ^ acre of land\n2. Net profit\n3. Exhibit of fresh and canned products\n4. Crop records and story of work\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n30\n30\n20\n20\n100\n\nPer Cent\n3°\n30\n20\n20\nlOO\n\n"}
{"page": 1167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCREDIT\n\nFOR AGRICULTURAL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\n1 149\n\n3- TO 6-MONTH CANNING AND MARKETING CLUB\nRequirements. — Members of this project must agree to study methods and practices\nof marketing as well as methods of home canning, and must agree to put up at least 10\nvarieties of which half must be vegetables.\nBasis of award:\n1. Quality of canned products\n2. Quantity of canned products\n3. Variety of canned products\n4. Profit on investment\n5. Marketing, canning records, and story of work\nTotal score\nMOTHER-DAUGHTER\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nCANNING CLUB\n\nRequirements. — Mother and daughter to follow the same instructions, make records\ntogether, co-operate in doing the work, and put up during the season not less than 25\nquarts of food products, in either glass or tin, the same to represent at least 1 2 varieties,\n6 of which must be vegetables.\nBasis of award:\n1. Quality and variety of canned products\n2. Quantity of canned products\n3. Appearance of canned products\n4. Profit on investment\n5. Records or story of home-canning work\nTotal score\n\nTEN-PIECE GARMENT-MAKING\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nCLUB\n\nRequirements. — This project to cover a period of not less than nine months, and\nmembers to agree to follow the instructions in the making of not less than 10 practical\npieces of sewing. The 10 pieces must represent at least three different designs or garments.\nBasis of award:\n1. Stitches\n2. Neatness of work and design\n3. Appearance and practical use of garment\n4. Cost of production\n5. Story of work and records\nTotal score\n\nboys' and girls' home-canning CLUB\nBasis of award:\n1. Quality of canned products\n2. Quantity of canned products\n3. Appearance of canned products\n4. Profit on investment\n5. Story and canning record\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\n"}
{"page": 1168, "printed_page": null, "text": "II50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWHEAT AND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nBREAD CLUB\n\nBasis of award for wheat plat:\n\nTet Cent\n\n1. Stand and general appearance of wheat plat\n2. Quantity of wheat produced on plat\n3. Exhibit of not less than 50 wheat stalks\n4. Story and crop records\n\n25\n25\n25\n25\n\nTotal score\n\n100\n\nBasis of award for bread:\n1. Quality of bread (see score cards)\n2. Story, bread recipe, and baking records\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n50\n50\n100\n\nPORK AND CROP PRODUCTION CLUB\nRequirements. — ^Members of this club are required to grow at least a part of the feed\nrequired for the raising of the pigs or hogs, preferably one acre of either com, alfalfa,\ncowpeas, rape, or other suitable feed, and to raise during the season at least one pure-bred\nhog.\nBasis of award:\n\nPer Cent\n\n1. Yield of crop and rate of gain of pork\n2. Net profit of crop and pork\n3. Exhibit of crop products and pig\n4. Percentage of feed for hogs produced at home\n5. Crop records and story of work\n\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n\nTotal score\n\n100\nPOULTRY\n\nCLUB\n\nThe po\\iltry-club work should consist of two club projects:\n(i) Egg-laying and marketing. This dub project should be the first imdertaken in\nthe poultry work, followed by the hatching and rearing project. Unit: From four to\nsix birds, all of one strain. Minimum time of contest: Four months.\nBasis of award:\n\nPer Cent\n\n1. Eggs produced\n2. Profit on investment\n3. Records and reports kept\n4. Written story of the work\n\n30\n30\n20\n20\n\nTotal score\n\nloo\n\n(2) Work in hatching and rearing of not less than 30 chickens. Contest period:\nNot less than four fnonths.\nBasis of award:\n1. Highest percentage of chickens alive after four months\n2. Quality of pen of fowls exhibited\n3. Profit on investment\n4. Highest percentage of eggs hatched\n5. Story of production and records\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\n"}
{"page": 1169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCREDIT\n\nFOR AGRICULTURAL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\n1 15 1\n\nBEEF AND CROP PRODUCTION CLUB\n\nRequirements. — Club members will be required to feed and care for at least one\nanimal for a period of not less than nine months. The animal must not be under three\nmonths of age nor over three years.\nBasis of award:\n1. Rate of gain of animal\n2. Cost of gain of animal\n3. Score record of animal\n4. Cost and gain records\n5. Story of work\n,\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nDAIRY CLUB\nRequirements. — Club members are required to care for one dairy cow for a period of\nnot less than four months; to make butter-fat tests and keep feed records for a period\nof not less than four months. The record should cover feeding, weight of milk, and\nbutter-fat produced, as well as test of the milk.\nBasis of award:\n1. Feeding records\n2. Care of cow\n3. Testing records\n4. Rate of gain of butter-fat\n5. Story and written records\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nHOICB-lfANAGEMENT\n\nCLUB\n\nRequirements. — ^Members of this project must agree to follow the requirements of\nthe outlined work, covering interests in the four divisions of the home-interest work, such\nas cooking, housekeeping, home management, aiid homemaking. At least three duties\nwill be assigned in each of these divisions.\nBasis of award:\nPer Cent\n1. Score on cooking (3 units) (food and recipes)\n25\n2. Housekeeping (3 imits) (arrangement)\n25\n3. Home management (3 imits) (business)\n25\n4. Homemaking interests (3 imits) (domestic, social, educational). . 25\nTotal score\n\njoo\n\nNote. — The three imits under each of these heads are to be first judged on the basis\nof a definite score card providing for the particular tjT)e of work which the unit represents.\nIf one of the units be breadbaking, the score card used for that particular unit should be\n-the bread-score card.\nFARM-MANAGEMENT\n\nCLUB\n\nRequirements. — ^This project should be made up of four activities, representing each of\nthe four following divisions of farm-management work; (i) field work, as represented by\nthe growing of a crop; (2) the organization of the farm, or part of the farm, on a business\n\n"}
{"page": 1170, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 15 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nbasis; (3) feeding and management of live stock; (4) special work with reference to\nmarkets, keeping of records, and management of farmstead.\nBasis of award:\n1. Results shown by growing of one field crop\n2. Organization of farm enterprises (show plan)\n3. Feeding and management of farm animals\n4. Marketing method and cost accounting\nTotal score\n\nPer Coit\n25\n25\n25\n25\n100\n\nNote. — Each of the four subdivisions named above is to be scored by a basis of award\nfor each unit.\nFARM AJJD HOME HANDICRAFT CLUB\nRequirements. — Members of the farm and home handicraft project must agree to\nwork out not less than 10 different units, or 20 pieces of any one imit of the list submitted\nby the state leader, and according to plans and specifications fiunished for direction in\nthis work.\nBasis of award:\n1. Quantity of work completed\n2. Quality of work\n3. Skill, speed, and accuracy shown in demonstration\n4. Set of drawings of 10 units exhibited\n5. Records and written story\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nFARH WOOD LOT CLUB\nRequirements. — ^The object of this club is to encourage the planting, care, and management of trees, with a view to their utility, beauty, comfort, and economic value to the\nfarm, with special regard to the farming commimities of the North Central states and\nthe dry-land areas of the West. Members must plant and care for not less than 10 trees\nduring a period of twelve months.\nBasis of award:\n1. Condition of wood lot as to soil, freedom from weeds, etc\n2. Condition of the trees at the end of the year\n3. Location, planting, arrangements, etc\n4. Kind and quality of individual trees (adaptation)\n5. Records and story of work\nTotal score\n\nPer Cent\n20\n20\n20\n20\n20\n100\n\nNote. — ^It is imderstood that the projects and bases of awards given at this time\nare intended only as guides and for our convenience in the consideration of the subject\nunder discussion. The state leaders in charge of the boys' and girls' extension work\nshould be consulted and the set of standards in general use for the state should be followed\nby all teachers who are to consider the matter of giving school credit for such work. The\nstate leader will be in a position to know whether the work is properly organized and supervised, and entitled to consideration by the schools.\n\nToo much school credit for home work. — I am not in sympathy with the\nidea practiced by some of our people in the giving of school credit for every\nimportant little thing that a child does at home.\nI would not appreciate\n\n"}
{"page": 1171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCREDIT\n\nFOR AGRICULTURAL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\n1 153\n\nit if a teacher of our Washington, D.C., schools should offer definite credit\nto my child for brushing the teeth, washing the ears and neck, taking daily\nor weekly bath, speaking kindly to parents, doing little necessary chores,\nand many other common domestic and individual activities of the home and\nof the home environments. It is my opinion that the giving of awards for\nsuch things is likely to set an improper standard and to do more harm to the\nchild than good. We expect the home to train properly the children to\ndo these common, necessary, civil things without any thought of being paid\nfor them, or given outside credit and recognition for them, excepting as\nthey receive it in the \"I thank you,\" or the possible smile of approval.\nWe must give to the young people of America proper ideals and proper\nstandards. They must be able in all of their activities, whether in school or\nupon the farm, to recognize in their efforts and the relation that they hold,\nnot only for the todays, but for the tomorrows, that a day properly spent in\nstudy and in the exercise of the brain and the development of physical powers\nwill give them a claim on the future to ten days of comfort, efficiency, and\ncontentment; and, in like manner, the waste of a day will mean a ten-day\nresultant in defeat, disappointment, and failure for future life. With this\nin mind, and looking forward to these things, it will make it an easier matter\nto handle the credit phase of our home work.\nIf our boys' and girls' home work is to be properly recogaized by the\nschool and school authorities, we appreciate fully the importance of a\ndefinite standard of measurement. It is not necessary to have a complicated standard nor a new standard. Some degree of measurement is\nnecessary and possible in connection with this work. In my judgment,\neverything that is being done by the teacher and the taught that is worthy of\nbeing undertaken at all is capable of being measured by some standard.\nThere is no other way for us to determine when we have achieved.\nIn all of this work, we seek, thru the leadership of state, district, county,\nand local schools, to have a definite record of the hours of work, the degree\nof application and concentration, amount of interest shown and investigational work undertaken, and the a^djustment of the enterprise into the local\nneeds and conditions.\nWe must remember that the function, not only of the boys' and girls'\nclub work, but of the school, is to reinforce and render more efficient the\nmost important institution in American life, the home. The home, after\nall, is the foundation of all the superstructure in American educational life.\nWith the automobile, the moving-picture shows, and other new and\nrapid-transit interests of the todays, we shall need to speed up considerably\nin our work of sending the boys and girls back to the home; otherwise,\nthe impressions they get of the home, its activities, interests, and enterprises,\nwill not be the sacred impressions that now linger in the minds and hearts of\nmen and women, to comfort, sustain, and pilot them thru the wiles and\ntrials of modern life.\n\n"}
{"page": 1172, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAGRICULTURAL\nC. K. HARRISON,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION IN THE\nAUSTRALIA\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSTATE\n\nOF AGRICULTURE,\n\n[Agricultural\n\nOF VICTORIA,\n\nVICTORIA, AUSTRALIA\n\nI. Agricultural teaching given in\n1. Primary state schools\nElementary agriculture is taught in 700 rural schools. The\nwork is largely experimental and deals with properties of soils, the\ngrowing of common crops, and the principles of manuring.\nSmall experimental plots are established at a great many of\nthese rural schools.\nThis work is conducted by the education department.\n2. Agricultural high schools\nEstablished in ten rural towns under the following conditions:\na) Half of cost of buildings and equipment shall be contributed by\nlocal subscriptions.\nh) Not less than 20 acres of land shall be provided and must be\nconvenient to the high school.\nc) At least 50 students, paying prescribed fees, shall be guaranteed\nbefore a proposal to establish an agricultural high school is\nentertained.\nStudents must be at least fourteen years of age aW must pass\na qualif)dng entrance examination. Ten students are admitted\nfor free instruction on the recommendation of the board of control.\n3. Technical schools\nWorking Men's College, Melbourne, and at Gordon College,\nGeelong, where agricultural chemistry, wool-classing, and poultrybreeding are taught.\n4. Agricultural colleges\na) Longerenong\nSituated in the northwestern part of the state, for boys not\nover sixteen years of age, where the principles and practice of\nagriculture are taught. Students divide their time between\ncollege and farm work.\nThis is a preparatory agricultural school for the\nh) Dookie Agricultural College\nSituated in the northeastern part of the state. Students\nmust be over sixteen years of age before entering this college.\nHere they are taught among other things analyses of soils,\neffects of manuring, rotation of crops, drainage, principles of\nbreeding plants and animals, how to cope with diseases affecting\nthem, and farm bookkeeping.\nOn the farm the student learns to handle sheep, cattle,\nhorses, pigs, and poultry.\n\n"}
{"page": 1173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN VICTORIA,\n\nAUSTRAUA\n\n1155\n\nThe area under cultivation is 1,000 acres each year.\nA graduate from this college may enter Melbourne University for the veterinary science course.\nThe University of Melbourne makes use of this college as\ntraining-ground in the theory and practice of agriculture for\ncandidates for the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture.\nc) Burnley Horticultural School\nThis school is situated in one of the suburbs of Melbourne\nand has an area of 33 acres. The science of horticulture, poultrybreeding, and bee-keeping is taught. Lectures are also given\nin other subjects.\nThe course for a certificate covers two years.\nThis school has 2,000 different varieties of fruit trees.\n5. Experimental farms\nExperimental farms established:\na) The central research farm at Werribee.\nSituated 18 miles from Melbourne, where experiments in\nmethods of cultivation, irrigation, manuring, stock-breeding,\nimproving cereals by selection and cross-fertilization, testing of\nfodder plants are made; oats and barley are grown and distributed among the farmers.\nb) Rutherglen viticultural station\nSituated in the northern part of the state. The chief work\nat this station is the propagation and grafting of the American\nresistant vines for reconstitution of phylloxerated vineyards.\nThis work is done by boys from the Neglected Children's Home.\nc) Wyuna irrigation farm\nSituated in the Goulburn Valley, where experiments and\ndemonstrations in irrigation and cultivation are carried out.\nd) Bamawm experimental farm\nSituated in the Rochester irrigation area, where experiments\nin the growing of tobacco and citrus fruits are carried on.\n6. Experimental and demonstration plots\nEstablished on farms in different districts thruout the state,\nthe practical work being done by the farmer under the advice and\nsupervision of experts.\nThese plots, 10 acres in area, are rented by the Department\nof Agriculture.\nII. Agricultural teaching and lectures\n1. Agricultural classes, where free lectures and practical demonstrations are given by experts thruout the state under the auspices of\nlocal agricultural and other associations.\n2. Demonstrations, Practical demonstrations in cheese-making, fruitpreserving and drying, etc., flax manufacturing, poultry-dressing, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 1174, "printed_page": null, "text": "iiS6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\nm. Agricultural teaching. Agricultural publications, annual reports,\nmonthly journals, and bulletins on special subjects are issued and distributed regularly by the Department of Agriculture.\nIV. Agricultural teaching — ^Agricultural exhibits\nThe departmental exhibit of agricultural products is forwarded\nto agricultural shows for inspection.\nSpecial acts of educational value which are for prevention of disease\nin stock and plants and for the eradication of noxious insects and weeds,\nhave been passed and are as follows: Vegetable Disease act; Stock Diseases act; Vermin Destruction act; Bees act; Thistle act; Compulsory\nSheep-Dipping act; Milk and Dairy Supervision act.\nGARDENING\nNORTH\n\nAND\n\nH. FOREMAN,\n\nFARMING\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nINSPECTOR OF SCHOOL GARDENS\nEDUCATION, MANILA, P.I.\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSITES, BUREAU\n\nOF\n\nThe Philippine public schools reach the people by means of numerous\nagencies the most prominent of which are gardening, food campaigns,\nsettlement farm schools, farm schools, and agricultural schools. Each\nof these is a part of an educational policy which makes the industrial work\na required school activity under the personal supervision of teachers.\nGardening as taught in the Philippine public schools means the cultivation bypupils of a tract of ground planted in vegetables. One-fifth\nof the cultivated area is in the school garden where under modem methods\nit serves as an object-lesson and model. The other four-fifths is either\nat the home of the pupil or in some vacant lot, but always under the supervision of a teacher, and cultivation of it is a part of the pupil's industrial\nrequirement. The parents readily see the good which comes out of this\nform of school activity and their appreciation is great. Without doubt\ngardening is responsible for the inproved variety of fresh vegetables found\nin the markets thruout the Islands. The result is an improved diet which\nis of much economic significance to every Filipino home. At the same time\nit stimulates the people to improve the native plants and to raise in their\nown gardens the food for which they were formerly dependent upon the\ninadequately supplied markets of the locality. In many instances enough\nvegetables are grown to make the marketing of the surplus a remunerative\noccupation. While the Filipino boy is learning to grow vegetables, his\nsister is learning to prepare them in appetizing dishes. More than 100,000\npupils were engaged in gardening during the school year 1914-15 and more\nthan 43,000 pupils' home gardens were kept producing thruout the year as\nrequired school work.\nSpecial food campaigns, started in 191 2, were largely responsible for\nthe increased production of food and the corresponding decrease in rice\n\n"}
{"page": 1175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGARDENING\n\nAND\n\nFARMING\n\nIN PHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1157\n\nimportations. The planting of yams, legumes, and other quickly maturing\nfood plants have been pushed by the teachers who each year went among\nthe people and urged them to grow more foodstuffs. The results are evidenced bythe present condition of the people, who are now freer from food\nshortage than ever before, notwithstanding the recent locust scourge and\nthe untoward business conditions incident to the European war. The\ngreatest of these campaigns is the corn campaign which is now in its fourth\nyear. This campaign is conducted to increase the production of corn and\nto make it popular as a human food. Not only was it necessary to encourage\ncorn production, but the girls went out before the people and prepared in\nplain view of the public palatable corn dishes. This offset the old idea that\ncorn was not a good food due entirely to the poorly prepared product\nusually eaten.\nThe 8,000,000 people who inhabit the Islands depend upon the rice\ncrop for their staple food supply. The rice crop in the Philippines is not\nsufficient to feed the people even when a normal crop is harvested. At all\ntimes rice is imported, and when the local production falls below normal,\nprices rise and thousands of people find it difficult to secure sufficient food.\nThe corn campaign aims to give the people a food which will supplement\ntheir rice diet at all times and become a staple when the rice crop fails.\nThe campaign divides itself into a number of somewhat distinct activities\nall of which are a part of the great object to make corn a well-received table\nfood in all parts of the Islands.\nCorn-growing contests were organized last year enrolling 43,000 boys,\nall of whom actually grew corn and were taught seed-testing, seed selection,\ncultivation, and judging. Some 11,000 girls were taught how to prepare\npalatable corn dishes with such simple utensils and common ingredients\nas are available in the ordinary Filipino home. The people were reached\nby a series of corn posters displayed in all schoolhouses, markets, and\ntown halls, and by corn lectures given in the native dialects to more than\n500,000 people. More than a half-million people were served samples of\nwell-prepared corn foods together with recipes telling how to prepare the\nfood. The result has been that corn is now appreciated as a human food.\nLarger quantities are being produced with a corresponding decrease in\nrice importations. Figures for the year 1914 show that since 191 2 the\nacreage has increased 38 per cent, the total yield 61 per cent, and the average yield 81 per cent. This additional corn represents a money value to\nFilipino farmers of about $4,700,000. During this same three-year period\nthe rice importations dropped from 260,249,653 kilos to 98,921,497 kilos,\nor about 62 per cent. Altho we may not wish to claim the entire credit\nfor this great saving for the people, still the coincidence is significant, and\nthe corn campaign, gardening program, and other food campaigns conducted bythe Bureau of Education as a part of the industrial work of the\npublic schools have been great factors in reaching the people.\n\n"}
{"page": 1176, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThe work of taking the people as they are and helping them to develop\nin terms of their surroundings has brought out a t)^e of school which is\nknown as a settlement farm school. These schools are opened in sections\nwhere the first need is to feed the people. A few pupils are gathered\ntogether and imder the direction of a teacher they begin the growing of\nfood crops on a tract of land reserved for the school farm. The pupils\nspend one-half of their time in the field and the other half in the classroom.\nThe farm is provided with a work animal and such tools as represent an\nadvancement upon local methods, but stiU within the comprehension and\nfinancial means of the people. The farm is worked entirely by the pupils\non a communal basis and the harvested products are given to the pupils\nto take home. It is not infrequent that entire families subsist for considerable periods upon this school-grown food. Permanent villages whose\ninhabitants now cultivate the surrounding fields after much the same\nmanner as that followed on the school farm have grown up around the\nschool farms. Large areas of open land have been put under cultivation\nand thousands of roving families settled in permanent homes. There are\nabout one hundred of these settlement farm schools some of which have been\nopen for several years. They clearly demonstrate the tremendous influence\nsuch schools have upon the people. These little farms contain many vital\nlessons. Without doubt they form the first well-fenced land, the first land\nto be kept producing every month of the year, and the places where seed\nselection is first practiced in their localities. They introduce the first\nimproved hogs and chickens into the neighborhood, later becoming the\ndistributing-points for better fruits and farm crops.\nOther types of agricultural schools are planned to meet local conditions.\nOne of these which we term farm schools enrols pupils of both sexes for\nwork in the intermediate grades, A model farm of from twenty to forty\nacres is developed. Both boys and girls enrol in special vocational courses.\nThese schools, of which there are now eleven, have been responsible for\ndetermining many agricultural facts of importance, and of demonstrating\ntheir practical use thru the pupils' co-ordinated home projects. Pupils\nattending these schools reside at their homes, returning each school day\nto the farm school for the day's work.\nThere remains another t)rpe known as agricultural schools where a\nfarm of considerable area (one hundred or more acres) becomes the center\nof a colony formed in an vmsettled region. The farm is worked on an extensive basis in contrast to the intensive methods of the other types. Dairy\nherds and herds of range cattle are developed. It has been proven by the\noldest of these schools that homesteaders settle upon the surroimding land\nand that the locaUty becomes a settled community. Six such schools are\nnow open and three more projects are being considered. The results have\nbeen secured only after much study and careful preparation. Special\n\n"}
{"page": 1177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGARDENING\n\nAND\n\nFARMING\n\nIN PHILIPPINE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1 159\n\ntexts in agriculture have been prepared and many modern farm implements\nadapted to local needs.\nMost rural schools in the Philippines are largely agricultural in scope\nof activities. These together with the special schools of purely agricultural aims make the public schools a great factor in educating the people.\nIn many sections the first modern plows and improved corn mills were used\nby the schools. The first attempts to practice crop rotation, to conserve\nsoil fertility, to introduce better plants, to produce better hogs and chickens\nby improved breeds, and to visit the farm homes and help the farmers to\nunderstand new plans and new ideas, were made in most localities by\nteachers in fostering and carrying out the agricultural educational plans\nof the school system.\nThe Filipino farmer gives credit to the public schools for the insight\ngiven him into better conditions. In every phase of the work, the schools\naim to be practical in the fullest degree and to help educate the boys and\ngirls to become more eJ0&cient along the common lines of work they must\nfollow in life. We believe that a school is most democratic when it fills\nthe common needs of the daily life of the people it serves.\n\n"}
{"page": 1178, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\n"}
{"page": 1179, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CLASSROOM\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nTEACHERS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Nellie Minehan, vice-principal, Jefferson Street School\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nVice-President — ^Jane McCarthy, teacher, Public Elementary School No. 164. .Brooklyn, N.Y.\nSecretary — Maky V. Donoghue, teacher, Stewart School\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, August 18, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order by President Minehan at 9:00 a.m., in Ebell Hall.\nThe following addresses were given:\n\"Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions\" — ^James Ferguson, San Francisco, Cal.\nWis. \"Rating of Teachers\" — J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School, River Falls,\n\"Abolishing the Rating of Teachers\" — Ava L. Parrott, Public School 115, Manhattan, N.Y.\nDiscussion.\nIt was moved, seconded, and carried that a committee be appointed by the president\nto draw up a resolution on \"Rating of Teachers,\" such resolutions to be presented to the\nCommittee on Resolutions of the National Education Association. The following\ncommittee was appointed:\nIsabel Williams, Jackson School, St. Paul, Minn., Chairman.\nElla Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nJ. W. Crabtree, president, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis.\nAva L. Parrott, Public School 115, Manhattan, N.Y.\nMiss Fahey, New York, N.Y.\nSECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, August 18, 1915\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2: 30 p.m., and the following\nprogram given:\n\"Teachers as Councilors of the Superintendent and Board of Education\" — Ella Flagg\nYoung, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\n\"Vocational Education — Its Dependence upon Elementary Cultural Training\" —\nFrederick W. Roman, professor of economics, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.\nThe following officers were elected for the coming year:\nFor President — ^Mary E. Adkisson, teacher, public schools, Denver, Colo.\nFor Vice-President — Isabel A. Ennis, president. Class Teachers' Organization of\nBrooklyn, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — ^Mary V. Donoghue, sixth-grade teacher, Stewart School, Chicago, 111.\nThe committee appointed to draw a resolution on \"Rating of Teachers\" presented\nthe following resolution, which was approved and presented to the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association for its consideration:\nResolved, That the National Education Association, while recognizing the necessity\nof a record of all individuals connected with any system of schools, desires to call attention to the fact that the excellence of our public schools depends upon the teachers,\n1161\n\n"}
{"page": 1180, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Classroom Teachers\n\nand that anything which unsettles them lessens their efl&dency. Therefore, be it\nfurther\nResolved, That no arbitrary or perfiinctory estimate should be permitted to enter\ninto this record.\nMaky V. DoNOGHUE, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTEACHERS'\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\n\nSALARIES,\n\nJAMES FERGUSON,\n\nTENURE,\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\nSAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nOne of the great weeklies, Life, recently published a cartoon consisting\nof two pictures in which the first shows a Hebrew merchant observing one\nof his employees coming out of a savings bank. In the second picture he\nis shown telling his partner what he has just seen, and he ends with the\nstatement: \"We are paying too high wages.\" To him the savings bank\nwas for the employer, not for the employee. This is a cartoon, but it\nexpresses so much truth that it may well be considered a treatise on the\nprincipal factor in determining wages.\nIt is no uncommon thing to find in the commercial world salesmen\nworking on a commission, who, when they get to the point where they\nmake unusually large salaries, are changed from a commission basis to a\nflat salary of much less than they were making when working on commission. In a conversation with an official connected with a business representing one of the largest institutions in this country, he remarked to me:\n\"We have to use our men like lemons. We squeeze out of them all we can\nget, and then throw them away.\"\nWe also know that girls and women are being employed in many places\nat wages far below the actual cost of living, and, to make such a condition\nimpossible, legislatures have been compelled to pass minimum-wage laws\nfor women workers. This has been done, as you know, in California.\nA higher intelligence on the part of the employer, especially of skilled\nlabor, shows him that it pays better to raise wages to conform to a higher\nstandard of living, making it possible for the workman and his family to\nform home ties and have the comforts that should go with modern home\nlife. In this way, permanency in the working force is secured and an\nincrease in efficiency is the result. Changing employees means a lower\nstandard of efficiency. The same is true in the commercial world also.\nOne of the most noted examples of the desire to secure permanency of\nemployees is shown in the case of the Ford Motor Company. And because\nMr. Ford has seen fit to pay his permanent employees a wage which makes\nit possible for them to secure a home, surrounded by attractions that are\nappealing, and to enjoy other social advantages, some have looked upon\nhim as the philanthropist of this country. But Mr. Ford, I understand,\nmakes no claim to such distinction. With him it is good business.\n\n"}
{"page": 1181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nSALARIES,\n\nTENURE,\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\n1 163\n\nHe believes it yields bigger dividends to get the best and keep them.\nTo this attraction of better wages and a higher standard of living is added\nby many public and private corporations the pension plan. Pensions\ntypical of the industrial pension idea, and established by railway, industrial,\nand commercial concerns, have been put in operation by many business\ncompanies. These are discussed briefly in the Ninth Annual Report of the\nCarnegie Foundation. By insuring protection against dependency in old\nage thru a pension, employees in such institutions are found to be willing\nto remain permanently in a position and to give themselves more unreservedly to their work.\nThe maximum wage is fixed by the estimated required cost to create\nin the employee the amount of physical and mental energy necessary to\nperform the task in the manner most profitable to the employer. Where\nwages have gone beyond this point it has been on account of the organized\nand united demand of the employees. Secretary Wilson, of the Bureau of\nLabor, speaking in Southern California the other day, was quoted by the\ndaily papers as saying that a rise in wages never comes voluntarily but as\nthe result of an organized demand on the part of the wage-earners. The\nhistory of labor for the past fifty years is conclusive proof of this statement.\nDoes someone ask, \" What has this to do with the salaries of teachers ? \"\nInvestigate the methods by which such salaries are fixed and you will find\npractically the same principles governing. How much more than a bare\ntemporary living — without any prospect for the future — does a community\ngive a teacher when it fixes her salary at $300 per year ? While in some\nlarge cities, salaries run as high as $1,200, the average salary of grade\nteachers will be found to conform to about the standard of the actual cost\nof bare living.\nI am not here referring to the higher position. But even in such cases\nit may be remarked that the same preparation and the same expenditure\nof energy in other directions would give far better returns than teaching.\nIn this connection let me refer you to two interesting tables on p. 14 of the\nbulletin entitled \"A Comparative Study of the Salaries of Teachers and\nSchool Officers\" soon to be issued by the United States Bureau of Education. These show the average yearly salaries of elementary-school\nteachers in comparison with the salaries of workmen in building trades\nand of policemen and firemen in groups of cities thruout the United States.\nIn every case but one the teachers are paid less than the firemen and policemen; as compared with plumbers' salaries, teachers' salaries are always\nlower.\nSalaries in commercial and industrial life are higher than in teaching,\nwith vastly greater opportunity for advancement, and it is not strange that\nmany men and women leave the profession each year because of the higher\nremuneration offered them. The average length of service for teachers in\nmany localities is as low as two years.\n\n"}
{"page": 1182, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nWith the teacher, the community is the employer who fixes the salary\nthru the boards of education or other school officials. Here an influence\nenters which in many respects is worse than the selfishness of business —\nit is politics. Boards of education, whether elected or appointed, are\nalmost wholly dependent on some part of the poUtical system for the funds\nwith which to carry on school work. The political party in power is interested primarily in remaining in power, and it is considered one of the best\nways of remaining in power to keep down taxes, even at the expense of the\nschools. In some of the more progressive communities, it is found creditable and profitable for the administration to boast of large sums well spent\non education. But such are the exception.\nThe fact is, the purse strings are held by the politicians, and lest their\nchances for re-election be endangered by a higher rate of taxation, school\nappropriations are kept at their lowest, salaries of teachers are kept down,\nschools are given poor equipment, many buildings are insanitary and\ninconvenient, even to the point of endangering the health of the occupants,\nand the children are made to suffer. This condition is modified in a city\nor community only so far as the higher intelligence of the people makes it\nnecessary.\nWhat is the remedy ? The first step toward it is to divorce our schools,\nnot from politics, for we cannot do that, but from the politicians, and put\nthem in the hands of men and women committed to the cause of education.\nThis is a task worthy of bold hearts.\nHaving secured the necessary funds, the next step will be to get the\nhighest efficiency based upon educational qualffications on the part of the\nteachers and the superintendent of schools. This can be accomplished by\nmaking the teaching profession worth effort to prepare for and worth\nremaining in. Good salaries and permanency of tenure are the greatest\nattractions devised by the commercial and industrial and professional\nworld, and thru these permanent efficiency has been secured. The same\nresults would follow in teaching. What inducement can there be for a\nyoung man or woman to prepare for work in teaching when it is a known\nfact that many of the janitors are paid more than the teachers and that\ntheir tenure of employment is more secure. And the janitors are by no\nmeans overpaid.\nMuch has been said about evils attending permanent tenure. I have\nnever known one of its critics to refuse a position under the system. On\nthe contrary, I have known some of them to come pretty near breaking the\nspeed limit in a race to secure one. It is sometimes said that the system\npreserves the unfit. Where this is so, it is an abuse which can be corrected\nby the proper enforcement of the retirement clause which should always be\nmade a part of any plan of permanent tenure.\n\n"}
{"page": 1183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRATING\n\nRATING\nJ. W.\n\nCRABTREE,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n116$\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nRIVER\n\nFALLS,\n\nWIS.\n\nIt is a very great honor to have this privilege of reading a paper before\nthe classroom teachers of this Association. I see before me some of you\nwho are not classroom teachers, but who are in administrative and supervisory positions, and I think well of you. I am greatly interested in the\nphase of work you are doing. My heart, however, is not with those of\nyou who direct the work in a general way and who receive the larger pay\nhalf as much as it is with these classroom teachers who do the drudgery,\nthese women who do the actual teaching but who do not receive the pay.\nJust as farseeing statesmen have abiding faith in the great common\npeople and render a greater service to our country by striving to promote\ntheir weKare, so our truly constructive leaders in education must have\ngenuine faith in the classroom teachers, the so-called rank and file of our\nprofession, in order to render the best service to education and to youth.\nThe city superintendent, the supervisor, or the normal-school president is\ndeserving of credit for work well done in administration or supervision, but\nthe classroom teacher, that little woman perhaps who does the actual\nteaching and who lays the first foundations for knowledge and for character,\nis not only entitled to greater credit than has ever been accorded to her,\nbut to a more certain tenure and to a much higher salary than she receives\nat the present time.\nAny system of rating teachers, in order to have my support, must\nnot only give classroom teachers a squarer deal than any I have studied,\nbut it must actually promote their educational and financial welfare in a\nmore pronounced manner than any I have yet seen in operation. Let it be\ndefinitely understood at the outset that I have neither prepared nor adopted\na scheme of rating to submit for your consideration and approval. I\nfrankly admit that while I hope we may some time have a satisfactory\nsystem of rating teachers, I am not competent to prepare at this time\nanything like a scientific scheme to use as a basis for promotions and for\nsalary increases in my own faculty. Not until I am able to work out a\nscheme which is satisfactory to my own faculty shall I attempt to thrust\none upon you, to control your promotions and your salary increases.\nThere are few if any of our superintendents and teachers who would not\nbe in favor of a good merit basis for salaries, and who would not welcome\nthe general use of a good method of rating placed in impartial and expert\nhands' and one safeguarding the interests of the teacher as well as those of\nthe superintendent and the board of education.\nOne class of people considers it absolutely impossible to find a safe,\nusable scheme of rating, but does not know exactly why it is impossible.\nAnother class thinks it entirely feasible to work out a satisfactory plan\nwithout knowing exactly how to do it. I belong to the second class. That\n\n"}
{"page": 1184, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nis about where we are today. It must be remembered, however, that in\nany movement toward efficiency the battle is haK won when the need of\nthe step to be taken is fully appreciated. From that standpoint, success is\nalready half-way attained. Possibly we have gone a little beyond the\nhalf-way point, because some work has actually been done and some try outs\nhave actually been made. Milwaukee has tried out more than one scheme\nof rating and is yet experimenting somewhat along that line. The next\nspeaker, who knows the New York system thru and thru will, according\nto the program, recommend \"abolishing the rating of teachers.\" The\nMinnesota plan does not seem to be as popular as it was a year or two ago.\nLike the old army musket, it seems to have a kick-back defect. The kickback shot I am told has even loosened now and then a superintendent from\nhis position. That may have been a good thing or it may have been a bad\nthing. At Asheville, North Carolina, teachers are rated as Class A, Class\nB, and Class C. The rank is based on: (i) success involving personality\nand schoolroom efficiency; (2) educational preparation as shown in professional, cultural, and academic training; (3) experience, considering\ngrade and length of teaching service. The rating is done by the superintendent and the conmiittee of the board. The bulletin of the Bureau of\nEducation does not say whether the scheme is satisfactory to the teachers\nor not. But similar schemes are used elsewhere with varying degrees of\nsuccess. Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, determines the teachers' fitness for\nsalary increases by giving percentages on the following points : (i) evidences\nof growth in schoolroom efficiency; (2) evidence of growth in scholarship;\n(3) evidence of growth in the theory of teaching. The superintendent\nkeeps an efficiency record of all teachers. The teachers' committee also\nmakes an efficiency record. Salary increases are based upon these records.\nThese schemes are simple enough, incomplete enough, and mild enough\nto avoid great harm even tho they add Httle if any to the pocketmemorandum method not so often seen as really used by superintendents.\nThe completer systems in the larger cities are still more imsatisfactory\nthan these simpler, rougher makeshifts.\nThe foundational surveys established and operated by predatory wealth\nhave worked out compUcated card systems of rating teachers which have\nnot yet been tried out by superintendents, but which have been used by\nthose making surveys in determining the percentage, not of efficiency, but\nof inefficiency on the part of teachers in the public schools. These surveyors look upon it as a weakness in teachers who fear to be measured by\ntheir system, and yet it is a matter of common knowledge that when one\nof these foundational surveyors was himself being surveyed he was actually\nsick and in bed for several days. Of course the sickness in this case may\nhave been a coincidence, yet it is certain that this surveyor maintained that\nhe was not getting a square deal. Overworked teachers have often grown\n\n"}
{"page": 1185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRATING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n1 167\n\nmore nervous also when forced to submit to tests given with apparent\ncritical intent.\nMuch better progress has been made in the matter of finding reasonable\nand satisfactory methods of testing the efficiency of pupils in the schools.\nThe following are successful plans which seem to have come into more or\nless general use: the minimum essentials by Thompson; the Hillegas scale\non composition; the Ballou scale on composition; the Courtis tests in\nreading and arithmetic; the Starch tests in reading.\nIt does not seem unreasonable to assume that enterprising and constructive educators may also eventually work out more satisfactory methods\nof testing teaching efficiency and better methods also of safeguarding the\ninterests of the teachers who are thus rated and ranked. The chances are\nthat there will be less difficulty in working out a usable scheme than we\nare aware of, when other conditions are right. The trouble at present may\nbe due to bad laws fully as much as to incomplete and faulty schemes of\nrating.\nTeachers have a right to demand that the system of rating in some way\napply to those doing the rating as well as to themselves. They have a\nright to demand that this work be placed in absolutely impartial hands.\nThey have a right to object to narrow, incompetent, or cold-blooded judges.\nThe high type of service rendered by these teachers should guarantee that\nthe rating be done by those who actually know the work and appreciate\nfully the difficulty to be overcome in doing it, and who are in sympathy\nwith the work and anxious to promote the welfare of teachers.\nWhy not begin nearer the top and rate the college and normal-school\nprofessors first ? Why not apply the scheme to superintendents and supervisors before applying it to the teachers under their supervision? Then\nafter the necessary sifting and refining have been done above, protect by\nlaw, rules, and regulations from censure and from ousting, those who are\nto give honest estimates of teaching efficiency. Not until some of these\nsteps are taken can we ever safely recognize genuine merit in making\npromotions and in giving salary increases.\nThe chief advantage to be gained from a good safe plan of measuring\nteaching efficiency is not so much in the promotion and increased salaries\nas in the constant growth and increase in efficiency on the part of teachers.\nTeachers discovering their weak points will strive the harder to overcome\nthem. Teachers will learn that even personaUty may be cultivated and\nthat it pays to give time and attention, just as one would to arithmetic\nand grammar, to the cultivation of cheerfulness and happiness. After all,\nthe big thing in life is not to receive much money but to render actual\nservice, to go about, as did the great Teacher, doing good in the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 1186, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii68\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nABOLISHING\nAVA L. PARROTT,\n\nEDUCA TION\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\nTHE RATING\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n1 1 5, MANHATTAN,\n\nN.Y,\n\nThe abolition of the rating of teachers where this practice already\n^sts, and the prevention of its further introduction, is second only in\nimportance to the question of salaries. In fact, rating, both directly and\nindirectly, affects the salaries. Also I wish unhesitatingly to take the\nposition that teachers are entitled to the privilege of obtaining the highest\nsalaries which they can, equally with all other classes.\nThis subject will directly interest those teachers who are rated at\npresent. It will indirectly interest those who may, in the future, be rated,\nowing to the movement among superintendents to \"standardize\" the\nmethods of rating and thereby more specifically and in detail to apply and\naccentuate the faults and injuries of this already pernicious system. It\nalso indirectly concerns and should interest all teachers, for, just as long as\nteachers are rated by a superior officer, and that mark kept on file, just so\nlong will the public and the other professions refuse to call teaching a profession and just so long will the average salaries thruout the United States\nbe utterly absurd, as compared with those of other vocations, when the\nrequirements and work are considered. When the time comes, as it surely\nmust come, when teachers are regarded as having been licensed to practice\nthe profession of teaching, as are members of the clergy, lawyers, and physicians licensed to practice their professions; when they receive their hcense\nto teach unhampered by any demeaning, artificial, arbitrary, perfunctory,\nand superficial rating, then will teaching truly be a profession and be\nacknowledged as such by the public, and then and not until then will the\nemolument of those in the ranks be materially increased.\nBut I am not speaking primarily upon rating in its relation to salaries;\nI mention that issue only to show that the abolition of rating where\nteachers are rated, and the prevention of its lurther extension, concerns\nthe teachers who are not rated as much as those who are. I am speaking of\nrating as fundamentally wrong, impossible of just and correct appUcation,\nlowering to the self-respect and dignity of teachers, both to themselves and\nin the eyes of parents and children, entirely imnecessary, a detriment to\ngood pedagogy, and a bar to the placing of teaching among the professions.\nIt would be well perhaps to give a very brief history of the origin and\nprogress of this movement. A committee of high-school teachers decided\nthat the system of rating teachers in New York City needed revision. They\nplaced the matter before the Teachers' Council, which in turn placed it in\nthe hands of its Committee on Professional Interests. This committee\ncaUed a public hearing upon the matter thru the papers. I saw the\nannouncement, and, having come from Philadelphia schools eight years\nbefore where teachers were not rated until the fall after I left, I had always\nresented and disapproved of this rating of teachers. I had also learned\n\n"}
{"page": 1187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nABOLISHING\n\nTHE\n\nRATING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nI169\n\nfrom teachers in Philadelphia that during the eight years since its adoption\nin that city some of the evil effects which were troubling New York teachers\nwere noted in Philadelphia. For the first five years of my service in New\nYork, I had not looked at one of my ratings. But I was particularly interested in the subject. I therefore attended this hearing on March 27, 1914.\nThere were about twelve or fifteen speakers. Each advocated an entirely\ndifferent and separate way of patching up, revising, or continuing some\nmethod of rating. After all had finished, I spoke strongly for total abolition, giving my reasons. This viewpoint was accepted with acclaim by\nthose present, four men offering to place anything in the papers which\nI might write regarding the subject, a number offering their support to such\na movement. All seemed to abandon their original diversified views, and\none asked me to join a particular teachers' association. Later we formed a\nnew association and thru it we endeavored to accomplish the abolition of\nrating. This association we called the Professional Teachers' Association.\nWe advocated the idea thru the press, and by the sending of many briefs\nand letters and by the holding of personal interviews with various members\nof the Board of Superintendents and Board of Education finally obtained a\nhearing upon the subject. In October of last year, 1914, a committee of\nthis Board of Superintendents appointed to investigate the subject brought\nin a report giving eleven reasons for the entire abolition of rating. Despite\nthese recommendations, and the agitation of the Professional Teachers'\nAssociation, the most that has been accomplished, in a definite way, with\nthe Board of Superintendents is that this board has voted to have the\ndistrict superintendents rate but once in three years instead of every year,\nas formerly.\nThere will be time to answer but a few of the popular objections. I\nhave referred to the hearing granted the Professional Teachers' Association by the Board of Superintendents. At that hearing one of the\nsuperintendents made the statement, which I have found to be rather\na popular one: \"Policemen, firemen, those in civil-service employ, physicians, lawyers, doctors, all are rated.\" This superintendent was confusing\nrating, as it is applied to teachers, with the reputation which is won by\na professional man, the estimation in which he may be held by the public,\nthe judgment which may be formed of his ability. The members of the other\nprofessions are not rated as are teachers. In the case of policemen, firemen,\nand those in civil-service employ, these are all performing definite, specific\nacts which can be measured.\nA teacher's work cannot be measured.\nThe second popular objection, voiced by another member of the Board\nof Superintendents and also repeated to me the other day by one of the\nofficers of this Association, was: \"But we have to have some way to rate\nteachers in order to regulate salary schedules.\"\nSalaries should never be regulated by ratings. The first and most\npractical reason is that there can be no comparative or ratio value in these\n\n"}
{"page": 1188, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 170\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nratings, as between one teacher and another, because they are rated by different minds. It is therefore an obvious injustice to regulate salaries thereby.\nTo illustrate: In New York City there are about five hundred principals\nand forty-two district superintendents who are obliged to rate teachers.\nIt is readily apparent that there must be as many standards as there are\nprincipals and district superintendents. To illustrate further: Superior\nMerit, or an A, under one principal or district superintendent might be\na B, under another. B under one might be C under another. I could\ngive many proofs of instances where this is so where teachers have changed\nfrom one school to another. In one school they may receive B-}-'s, in the\nnext B, and C, and so on. This is too self-evident to dwell upon longer.\nStandardization to a teacher is impossible. Would anyone for a\nmoment suggest that \"standardization\" would be possible with physicians,\nlawyers, ministers ? The absurdity is made apparent there at once. You\ncan see that it is equally absurd with teachers, for they are doing the same\nkind of work — work which cannot be measured and gauged by a scale, but\nfor which the community must trust to their education and integrity.\nThe second reason for abolishing rating and for not having the salaries\nregulated thereby is that it gives those who rate too great power and places\nthem in a position in which they are open to temptation. In some cases\nthis power is abused. An aflSrmation that it is not, by those who rate,\nwould be equivalent to an assertion that they are not human. No system\nshould be allowed which permits of injustices when it comes to the status\nof a person's work. I am not basing my claim upon these exceptional\ncases, but upon the fundamental principles.\nTo say that there are but few C's given is also not an argument for\ncontinuing rating, but one of the best arguments for discontinuing it. Why\nthen all this unnecessary time, expense, and energy put upon it for a very\nfew? This argument was advanced to me by a member of the Board of\nEducation of New York.\nThe third reason for abolishing rating and for not having salaries regulated thereby is the fact that because rating does regulate salaries this\npractice has the following injurious pedagogical effects. These effects are\nso self-evident that I shall not explain or illustrate them, but shall simply\nstate some of the ill effects. First, the teacher is hampered, and is prevented\nfrom expressing her own individuality. Payson Smith, state superintendent\nof public schools, Augusta, Me., in his wonderfully fine paper, read before\nthis Association, spoke against making the school system simply a machine,\nand gave this one special idea: \"It is not more standards that we need, but\ngreater freedom to the individual teacher.\" The rating of a teacher, and\nthe regulation of her salary thereby, absolutely destroy all her freedom.\nThe second pedagogical evil is that rating makes the teacher a machine.\nAgain she teaches what the principal and district superintendent want\nrather than what the children need. Did that rating not stand in the way,\n\n"}
{"page": 1189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nABOLISHING\n\nTHE\n\nRATING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nII71\n\nshe would confer with the principal and be able to prove to him, sometimes,\nthat his methods did not fit her class. Fourthly, it causes rote teaching —\ngetting the facts into the children's heads as soon as possible, before the\nprincipal or district superintendent comes around. Fifthly, it makes\nwhat we might term, in modern sociological phraseology, rate slaves of\nthe teachers. This is proved by the statement in the Hanus report that\nthe teachers were afraid to voice any of their opinions. I have heard many\nwho have interviewed teachers in New York make the same assertion, and\nI myself have experienced the disadvantages of their fear many times.\nIt is unnecessary to do more than simply state that teachers controlled by\nfear, or under a system which inculcates fear tending toward cowardice,\nare not the most desirable teachers for the children of our future generations.\nHow then would you regulate salaries ? Pay the salary for the position, not for the incumbent. While teachers will and should differ in\nattainments, as is true everywhere else in the industrial world, their salaries\ncannot be regulated by any system of merit within the same position, for\ntheir work cannot be measured. There should be automatic increases, due\nto years of experience, within the schedules for each position. Some\nteachers would have improved more than others in the year, or years. But\nso, perhaps, do presidents, senators, etc. Since that improvement cannot\nbe measured and compared one with another, the increases should be purely\nautomatic. If teachers can come to be regarded by the public as educators/\nof the children, rather than as employees of a board of education, the\npublic will come to approve of good salaries.\nSome say that rating is necessary to maintain efficiency. Rating\nis not deemed necessary to keep up to the mark those at the heads of\nour school systems where salary is paid for position. By what right\nis it assumed that it is necessary to keep teachers up to the mark?\nIt is only on that assumption that rating could be justified. But everyone\nwill admit that it is generally conceded that teachers are the most conscientious class of public employees.\nBut then what would you do ? Merely provide for the expulsion of the\nabsolutely inefficient teacher, and for the urging to better work of any few\nwho might seem inclined to lag. That is all that is necessary.\nThe president of the Board of Education in New York, at a meeting\nbefore the Federation of Parents' Associations, said:\nYou ask us why we don't discharge more teachers for incompetency. Why should\nwe? We haven't any to discharge. You don't hear of missionaries being discharged\nfrom their positions and very few ministers. And I do not place the members of these\nprofessions above the teachers. They are missionaries. They have to meet rigid reqiiirements to become teachers and there would be no more reason for discharghig them than\nthere woiild be for discharging missionaries.\n\nNo inefficient teacher should be allowed to enter the profession. Each\napplicant for a new position should be required to prove his fitness for the\n\n"}
{"page": 1190, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nposition before a board of judges by submitting all his credentials, letters,\ndegrees, history of experience, etc. He should be urged to talk upon\nhis hobby, or discuss school systems before the members of this board.\nThey would soon learn whether he was a live wire or a dead follower. If\nthe time were not imduly curtailed, the majority of this board could not\nfail to form a correct estimation of the applicant's manner, personality,\nand force of character by his method of presentation. They could determine his logic, system and executive ability, and could note details as to\nhis voice, poise, manner of dress, and general culture. With a physical\nexamination as at present, a fair written examination to determine the\napplicant's technical knowledge of the subject, and a test which would\ndemonstrate his use of written English, his proper place upon the eligible list\ncould be determined.\nHaving entered the profession, he should be given a chance to win a\nreputation. He invariably wins it in the school and with the principal. He\nshould be given an opportunity to win it with the pubUc and the community\nthru the passing of a compulsory observation law for parents; or by winning\nin some way the presence of one parent of a chUd to observe one whole\nday in a school in alternate years, and every other citizen one day in every\ntwo years; the observers being obhged to remain from the time the teacher\nenters the classroom to the time of her leaving, whether it be one, two, or\nthree hours after the regular dismissal time, and only one observer being\nallowed in a room at a time. Thus would the teacher acquire a reputation,\nbe held in certain estimation by the community, and be judged as are\nmembers of other professions. That would be the simplest way of bringing the home and school together and would result in school budgets of any\nsize desired by the school authorities. K there can be a compulsory education law for the children, why not a compulsory observation law for the\nparents? It is almost equally important.\nThe foregoing methods would be more a spur to efficient teaching than\nrating, and would hold some inspiration and enable the teacher to feel that\nshe held a position of dignity. If an inefficient teacher be found, or one\nwho is deliberately neglectful of her work and who needs urging, let the\nteachers take care of that themselves thru a general teachers' coimcil, with\na branch in every school, the board of education acting as the final court of\nappeals. A description of the details for carrying out this plan is unnecessary.\nTeachers know that as long as the responsibility for a teacher's work\nrests with the principal, the teachers will keep their hands oflf, but if the\nresponsibility were placed directly upon the teachers, it would immediately\ncreate an esprit de corps among them. Any weak members would be urged\nand helped, and those inefficient sympathetically and justly dealt with\nfor the benefit of what would then be a profession. A behef that teachers\nshould be rated by any supervisory official can only imply that the majority\n\n"}
{"page": 1191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nCULTURAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n1 1 73\n\nof the rank and file of the teaching staff of the United States cannot be\ntrusted as can the members of other professions, educators in higher positions, or those holding places of trust in the government. I have thus far\nfound no one who has dared to make that assertion.\nWhile superintendents are puzzling over ways to \"standardize\" methods\nof rating teachers, let the classroom teachers prove that teaching cannot\nbe standardized, work for the abolition of all rating, and hold to the position\nthat when the license is granted we enter a profession.\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION— ITS DEPENDENCE\nELEMENTARY CULTURAL TRAINING\nFREDERICK\n\nW.\n\nROMAN,\n\nPROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS,\nSYRACUSE, N.Y.\n\nSYRACUSE\n\nUPON\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nOur country is the richest in the world. Never before have our workmen been able to produce as much goods as is being created in the present\ncapitalistic stage of economy. More food and clothing are produced each\nday per capita than has ever been the case in any previous epoch of history,\nyet there is great discontent among the workers. Wealth is being concentrated more and more into the hands of the few. The effect of this\ntendency is expressing itseK daily in the threatening social revolution just\nahead of us. Strikes of enormous proportion are the subjects of the headlines of great cosmopolitan dailies. Civil strife has been so great and so\nfrequent in recent years that one may say that the state militia or federal\ntroops are busy restoring order in one or more sections of the country all\nthe time.\nSuch is the brief but true analysis of our industrial situation in this\ncountry. It is clear then that the paramount economic question is not\nways and means of producing more goods and better goods, but rather a\nreorganization or at least a readjustment of our means of distributing the\nenormous quantities of wealth which are being produced right now. The\nagencies for educating the children of this country are asked to help coming\ngenerations to solve the question of .distribution rather than that of production. Despite this economic and social situation, we find numerous\nvocational-school men who seem to think that mechanical eflSciency is the\nchief, and about the only, element needed in the future vocational-school\ncurriculum.\nLet it be distinctly understood at this point that we in no wise wish to\ndisparage the importance of training in skilled workmanship in vocational\nschools. One of the goals of the vocational schools must always be highgrade mechanical efficiency, but we must not overlook the fact that material\ndeficiency is not the chief defect of our present industrial organization.\nWe have at the present time a host of commercial clubs, chambers of commerce, manufacturers' associations, and a small group of school men who\n\n"}
{"page": 1192, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Classroom Teachcra\n\nare taking just this narrow view of vocational education, which all goes to\nprove what amateurs they really are when it comes to deahng with the\nindustrial ills of our country.\nWe see this narrow conception of the vocational-school problem expressing itself in systems of dual control — such as we find in the state of Wisconsin. Strenuous efiEorts have been made in the state of Illinois for the last\nseveral years to establish vocational education under an independent school\nboard. The Wisconsin law and the Illinois proposed scheme place the\ncontrol of the vocational schools in the hand of a so-called practical board\ncomposed of employers and laboring men.\nThis whole dual-control idea rests upon the notion that it is the chief\nbusiness of vocational schools to train the pupils in mechanical efficiency.\nSome manufacturers feel that that is the only thing worth while. The\nboy is to be trained to be a high-class machine. It is argued that this\nMrill enable him to command the highest wages possible and, therefore,\nlead to his best comfort. To this fundamental misconception of the real\nproblem connected with vocational training, these same commercial clubs\nand manufacturers' associations have called to their aid three argimients;\nFirst, they have said that the teachers in the elementary schools and\nhigh schools are not in sympathy with vocational training. The public\nschool has been held responsible for the large number of boys and girls\nwho leave school after the age of twelve years, and for the small proportion\nof our high-school graduates as compared with the number who enter.\nPupils dropping out of the elementary school and the high school have\nfrequently been called the waste produce of our public-school system.\nThis has been supposed to be due, in a large measure, to the incompetence\nof the teachers and to an elementary- and high-school curriculum that\nfails to meet the needs of the children.\nA second argiunent for the separation of vocational schools from the\nelementary schools has been championed in this country because it was\nclaimed that such separation was based upon the best experience found in\nGermany. It is safe to say that the dual-control idea of Wisconsin and\nthe agitation for a similar dual board in the state of Illinois are primarily\ndue to the supposition that such a scheme represents what is being done in\nGermany. A careful analysis of the German school system shows that the\ndual-control propaganda carried on here in the United States is not at all\nwarranted by what Germany is doing. In some parts of Germany, there\nis a dual state control which has Uttle or no relation to the dual control\nas provided for by the Wisconsin law.\nSometimes we hear a third argument presented. The vocational school\nmust have the atmosphere of the shop, the store, the mill, the factory, and\nthis is said to be impossible as long as these schools are under the domination of the present school government. With the idea that the chief goal\nof the vocational school is to fit boys and girls for the highest material-\n\n"}
{"page": 1193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nCULTURAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n1175\n\nproducing efficiency, and supported by the above-mentioned arguments,\nthe dual-control advocates are anxious to establish an independent school\nsystem so that the large number of boys and girls, or the so-called waste\nproduct of our public-school system, may find their true function in society.\nIt is the purpose of this address to show that vocational education, in\norder to be successful, must include much more than the mere making of\nskilled tools out of our children. Our capitalists have already robbed\nour forests and our mines and the natural resources of our country generally,\nand now we are asked to accept a system of education which looks to the\nexploiting of our children. To train boys and girls to become mechanically\nefficient will not solve the problem arising out of the ever-increasing number\nof strikes and labor wars going on in the United States. The greatest\nproblem before the American people is not how to train boys and girls to\nproduce more goods and better goods in shorter time and at less expense,\nbut the real problem is the question involving the distribution of the goods\nwhich we already produce.\nSome of our manufacturers, business men, and school men seem to\nthink that the public schools are helping the children to adjust their lives\nto meet the struggle for existence, and the realization of the best that life\ncan give, by fitting the children to produce material goods. They seem\nto forget that this government is trying to be a democracy; hence, it\nbecomes the task of our schools to equip our children to meet the responsibilities of citizenship, which is something more than knowing how to\nwork in a factory. To train children to earn wages is one thing; to give\nthem some adequate ideas of the amount of the wage to which they, as\nfuture workmen, are entitled, is quite another question, and for the industrial peace of our RepubUc, much more the important of the two, A\nsystem of vocational schools cannot solve the latter question by giving\nindividual attention to materiaUstic training.\nThere are, then, two distinct bases, the material and cultural, on which\nthe vocational school is dependent upon the elementary school. It would\nseem that the advocates of vocational education who favor divorcing the\ncontrol of the vocational school from the regular elementary school have\nlost sight of both. The vocational school cannot succeed unless the work\nin the elementary school be done thoroly, both from its mechanical and\nfrom its spiritual side. An independent vocational-school system could\nnot even succeed in producing efficiently trained workers if the work in\nthe elementary schools were not properly done. If the experience of the\nGerman schools teaches us anything at all, it shows that vocational schools\ncan never be made anything worth while until the elementary schools are\nbrought up to a high degree of efficiency.\nThe reports of the Prussian continuation schools show that for a long\ntime much money and efifort was wasted because the work done in the\nelementary schools was so inefficient. It was shown to be inefficient in\n\n"}
{"page": 1194, "printed_page": null, "text": "II76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nthe amount of subject-matter, quality, and method of presentation. The\npupils coming from the elementary schools presented such a variety of\npreparation that it was well-nigh impossible to classify them with reference to any vocational-school program, that had even the smaller conception ofvocational education as the goal; namely, training for mechanical\nefficiency alone. It was soon discovered that a part of the vocationalschool program had to be taken in reviewing the fundamental processes\nof the elementary school. It was necessary to teach the pupils to read,\nto write, and to give them thoro reviews in the simple mathematical exercises. The celebrated Kerschensteiner of Mimich shows over and over\nagain that further advance in the progress of vocational education is dependent upon greater efficiency in the work done in the elementary schools.\nHence, we see that even from the standpoint of the mechanical efficiency\nof the vocational school there is the greatest connection between the elementary school and the vocational school. This indep)endent school board\nthat is to have charge of the vocational schools would not be able to give\nus vocational graduates prepared to do the work, because in so many\ncases the mechanical work in the elementary schools is so poorly done.\nThis would naturally lead to difficulties between the two school boards.\nThe one would blame the other. Conferences and compromises would\nconstantly be necessary, in order to work out the difficulties which would\nbe sure to arise. Not until complete unity had been established between\nthe elementary schools and the vocational schools, and the complete dependence of the latter upon the former had been recognized, could the vocational\nschool be in position to do the best work from a mechanical point of view.\nI have taken some time to analyze this point of view, because I have\nhoped to show that this second school-board idea is not practical even\nunder the easiest possible responsibility which we may place upon the\nvocational school; namely, the training of boys and girls in trade and business subjects only. In other words, an independent vocational school is\nnot a practical institution, even when its field of operations is limited to\nthe province of producing mechanical efficiency. These independent\nvocational school boards would soon find that, in order to do the work\nwhich the community expected of them, they must have control of the\nchildren, not only from the age of fourteen to seventeen, but from the age\nof six to seventeen. The vocational school has not fulfilled its complete\nfunction imtil it helps the boys and girls as completely as may be to adjust\ntheir lives to their environment. To prepare our boys and girls merely\nto earn wages will not enable them to meet the responsibihties of a democracy. The great need of this country and the world generally is a much\nmore rapid development in a true understanding of questions relating to the\nwelfare of the state. Our present materialistic civilization is threatened\nwith destruction because the social forces which bind mankind have not\nkept pace with the materialistic advances of the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 1195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nCULTURAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n1 1 77\n\nIt is the purpose of nature to create organic matter out of inorganic\nmatter, and this process takes place at an accelerated rate. However,\nthe volume of matter never increases. The more complex our material\nlife becomes, the more must the psychic agencies be developed in order to\nkeep the equiUbrium established. If any community or nation develops\nthe material side of life faster than it does its mental side, then retrogression\nis sure to set in. Just this phenomenon is taking place in Europe now.\nThe last generation has been spent in producing material equipment,\nwhereas the civilization of mankind has been neglected. For that reason,\nthis war must go on until the amount of material possession in the world\nis reduced to correspond with the amount of brains that the nations possess.\nIf the material development of any community or state is to remain a\npermanent achievement, it must be accompanied by a corresponding mental\nadvance.\nWe cannot hope to hold the material blessings which we now enjoy in\nthe United States unless our schools are able more fully to socialize our\npeople. This quarrel between labor and capital cannot always go on. It\nwill not be solved by vocational schools that have material production as\ntheir goal. The need of the present hour is a vocational school that is able\nto take due cognizance of the industrial strife that is being waged so bitterly\nbetween \"those that have and those that have not.\"\nThe vocational-school curriculum must give due prominence to problems connected with wages, citizenship, and democracy. It is easy to\nunderstand that no vocational school can help its pupils crystallize notions\non these topics that will insure the safety of the Republic unless the elementary school is thoroly saturated with the cultural viewpoint thruout\nits entire course.\n\n"}
{"page": 1196, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1197, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL INDEX\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.]\nAbolishing the Rating of Teachers (AvA\nL. Parrott), ii68\nAccountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or\nTraining Students to Thmk, Teaching\nthe Fundamentals of, 884\nAccoimts, Farm Statistics and Standardized, 925\nAct of Incorporation, i\nAddresses of Welcome (A. C. Barker), 35;\n(James A. Barr), 36; (F. B. Cook),\n1030; (John L. Davie), 34; (Edward\nHyatt), 33; (Frederick S. Spiegel),\n261;\n\n(JOECN M. WiTHROW),\n\n264\n\nAdministration of Compulsory Attendance Laws (S. O, Hartwell), 485\nAdministration of the American University (David Starr Jordan), 522\nAdvertising and Salesmanship (N. 0.\nShtvely), 921\n\nAfrica, The Educational Situation in\nSouth, 135\nAfrica, The Progress of Education in\nNorth, — Particularly in Tunis, 171\nAgricultural Education (Henry J.\nWaters), 193\nAgricultural Education in Normal Schools\n(David B. Johnson), 227\nAgricultural Education in Nova Scotia,\nProgress in Elementary, 520\nAgricultural Education in the State of\nVictoria,\nAustralia (C. K. Harrison),\n\"54\nAgri\ncultur\nIOCS\n\nCorrelat\n\nAgriculture,\n\nHigh-School\n\ne,\n\n1132\n\nion of Chemistry and,\n\nExtension\n\nin,\n\nAgricultmre and Home Economics, School\nCredit for Boys' and Girls' Club Work\nand Extension Activities in, 1144\nAims of Education (Ben Blewett), 560\nAldrich,\nGeorge\nI. — The Delinquent\nPupil, 449\nAll-Day Trades School (E. C. Warriner),\n313\n\nAnemic Pupil (James E. Bryan), 452\nAppelmann, Anton H. — Germany's Recent Progress in Secondary Education,\nApplied\nScience\nas theW.Basis\nof the 1020\nGirl's\nEducation\n(Hazel\nSevery),\nAppointment, Salary, and Tenure of\nTeachers (A. G. Yawberg), 419\n1041\nArchitectiu'e,\nSchool Grounds and School,\nArt in Its Relation to National Growth\n(Frank A. Parsons), 8x6\nAsia, The Teachers of America and the\nProblems of, 186\nAthletics as Education and Athletics as\nBusiness (William T. Foster), 233\nTeach), in\n979 Playgrounds (Charles E.\nAthletics\nAustralia, Agricultural Education in the\nState of Victoria, 11 54\nAustralia, Trade Possibilities between the\nUnited States and, 916\nAvery,\nB. — The Future High\nSchool, Lewis\n748\nAyres, Leonard P. — ^The Investigation\nof the Efl&ciency of Schools and School\nSystems, 384\nlor), 445\nBackward Pupil (Adelaide Steele BayBagley, William C. — ^The Question of\nFederal\nAid for Normal Schools, 766\n1 105\nBaldwin, Mrs. E. L. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Patrons,\nBalliet, Thomas M. — Sex Hygiene and\nSex MoraUty as the Aim of Sex Education, 148; Vocational Education, Its\nWider ImpUcations, 832; Discussion, 410\nBanks, School Savings, 904\nBarbour, Marion B. — The Influences of\nModern Education upon Handwork for\nYoung Children, 647\nBarker, A. C. — Address of Welcome, 35\nBarnhart, E. W. — Student Finances, 908\nBarnum, Mary G. — General Federation\nof Women's Clubs, 1106\nBarr, James A. — Address of Welcome, 36\nBarrett,\n— ^The 934\nLatin-American\nField and John\nOppwrtunity,\nBasis of Selection of an ElementarySchool Library (Flora M. Case), 1075\nPupil, 445\nBaylor,wardAdelaide\nSteele — The Back-\n\nAllison, Elizabeth Wilson — The Teacher's Field in PubUc-Health Work, 676\nAllison, Samuel B. — Report of Committee on Classification and Terminology\nof the Exceptional Child, 1090; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Special\nEducation, 1089\nAmanuensis, The Training and Field of\nthe, 897\nAmerican History in Elementary Schools\nBegg, James T. — Discussion, 481\n(Ida H. Holmes), 1078\n\"79Benson, O. H. — School Credit for Boys'\nAndrews, Fannie Fer,n — The Education\nand Girls' Club Work and Extension\nof the World for a Permanent Peace,\nActivities in Agriculture and Home\nEconomics, 1144\n246; The New Citizenship, 702\n\n"}
{"page": 1198, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBy-Laws, 5\nBenton,\n\nGuy Potter — Higher Education, 621\nBexell,\nJ. A, — Farm\nStatistics and\nStandardized Accounts, 925\nBlack, George H. — Correlation of Chemistry and Agriculture, 1005\nBlair, Francis G. — The Determination\nof the School District, 427\nBlanchard,\nClyde — The Student\nStenographer, 913\nBlewett, Ben — In Memoriam — ^James\nM. Greenwood, 533; The Aims of Education, 560; The Education of Adult\nImmigrants, 439\nBlight, Reynold E. — Is the Board of\nEducation an Incubus on Modem Education? 1037\nBoehringer, C. Louise — Some Factors\nMaking for Growth of Elementary\nTeachers in the Field, 672\nBoggess, Carey — Discussion, 462\nBooks and Education (E. O, Sisson), 1085\nBoone, Richard G. — The Educational\nValue of Playgrounds, 989; The Social\nPhases of Vocational Education, 837\nBradford, Mary C. C. — Some Adjusfcments That Might Secure Closer Integration, 641\nBradley, Frances S. — Discussion, 1115\nBright Pupil (J. G. Collicott), 457\nBrittain, M. L. — Supervision in the South,\n506 Elmer E. — Educational Progress\nBrown,\nin the Past Fifteen Years, 48; Higher\nEducation, 599\n\nBrown,\n\nJ. Stanley — Secondary Education, 616; The Place and Fimction of\nthe High School in the American System\nof Education, 724\nBruce, William C. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment\nof School Administration,\n1029\nBryan, James E. — The Anemic Pupil, 452\nBryan, William Lowe — The Trap, 268\nBuildings, Some Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for\nSchool, 951\nBuildings and Grounds in the Philippine\nIslands, Standard School, 955\nBuildings in Indiana, Ten Million Dollars\nfor Sanitary School, 967\nBmssoN, Benjamin — ^The Progress of Education in North Africa — Particularly in\nTimis, 171\nBtnssoN, Ferdinand — ^Moral Education in\nFrench Schools, 73\nBulgaria, Education in, 190\nBumbaugh, Alice C. — The Teaching of\nHarmony in High Schools, 855\nBurnham, Ernest — A Decade of Progress\nin the Training of Rural Teachers, 801\nBurris, W. P. — Discussion, 554\nBusiness Education, The Night School as\na Factor in, 918\nBusiness Enterprises, Linking School Work\nwith, 903\n\nCadwell, Helen G. — Hawaiian Music, 875\nCaldwell, William A. — The Combined\nSystem of Educating the Deaf, 1097\nCalendar of Meetings, 13\nCarleton,\nE. F.679\n— Standardization of the\nRural Sdiools,\nCarrington, W. T. — Discussion, 556\nCase, Flora M. — The Basis of Selection\nof an Elementary-School Library, 1075\nCensus, The Taking of the School, 496\ncation, 593\nChadsey, Charles E, — Secondary EduChancellor, William E. — School-Board\nMembers, 1033; The Selection of\nCounty Superintendents, 423\nChandler, W. L.— The Field for the Corporation School and Its Relation to the\nPublic Schools, 319\nChanges in EngUsh Education since 1900\n(Michael E. Sadler), 144\nChase,\nAmanda Mathews — Working\nIOCS\nPlans for the Home Teacher, 698\nChemistry and Agriculture, Correlation of,\nChemistry Course for Girls (Mary Ethel\nJones), 1019\nChild, Education in Relation to the Imagination of the Little, 661\nChild, Report of Committee on Classification\nand Terminology of the Exceptional, 1090\nChild Education as a Basis for the New\nInternationalism, A (May Wright\nSewall),\n667; B (Harriet P. Thomas),\n668\nChild Study, A (Gail Harrison), 658;\nB (Maria Montessori), 661\nChild Welfare and Rural Schools (Thomas\nD. Wood), 104\nChildren,\nSchool\nRetarded,\n1095 Surveys of Backward and\nChildren, The Influences of Modem Education upon Handwork for Young, 647\n945 Mental Hygiene of ExcepChildren, tional,\nThe\nChildren with Permanent Mental Defects,\nAn Important Fimction of the HomeSchool for, 1 100\nin, 229The Deeper Problem of Education\nChina,\nment in, 17s\nChina, The\nRecent Educational DevelopCitizenship, The New, 702\nCivic Service, Reed College and, 757\nClark, Edith K. O. — ^The Large versus\nthe Small Unit for Rural-School Administration and Supervision, 710\nClark, Lillian M. — Kindergarten Legislation in California — How We Secured\nIt and Some of Its Results, 632\nClarke, Frances E. — Forces at Work for\nthe Betterment of School Music, 848\nClaxton, p. p. — The Organization of\nSections,\n747 into Junior and Senior\nHigh Schools\n\n"}
{"page": 1199, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nClubs, General Federation of Women's, i io6\nCohen, Mark — Educational Progress in\nNew Zealand since 1900, 56\nCollege, The Junior, 119\nCollege-Entrance Courses for Girls, Deviations for Standardized, 1015\nCollege Preparation for Teachers of Music\nin Secondary Schools (Ikving M. Glen),\n858\nCoLLicoTT, J. G. — The Bright Pupil, 457\nCombined System of Educating the Deaf\n(William A. Caldwell), 1097\nCommerce, The San Jose Junior Chamber\nof, 903\nConmiercial Teaching, Factors of Efficiency\nin Secondary, 893\nCommittee on Classification and Terminology ofthe Exceptional Child, Report\nof, 1090\nCommittee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education, Report of, 402\nCommittee on Elementary-School Libraries, Report of, 1073\nCommittee on Health Problems in Education, Report of, 583.\nCommittee on High-School Libraries,\nReport of, 1064\nCommittee on Normal-School Libraries,\nReport of, 1056\nCommittee on Research, Standardization,\nand Correlation, Report of, 930\nCommittee\non School Health, Report of,\n1 1 13\nCommittee on Standardizing the Course\nof Study in Library Instruction in Normal Schools, Report of, 1059\nCommittee on Tests and Standards of\nEfficiency in Schools and School Systems, Report of, 560\nCommunity, High-School Efficiency and\nWhat It Means to a, 742\nCommunity Center Work (Josephine\nCorliss Preston), 687\nCommunity Center Work (Elizabeth C.\nSterling), 503\nCompelling of Efficiency thru Teacher\nTraining (A. Duncan Yocum), 544\nConley, Emma — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofScience Instruction, 995\nContinuation School Work in Wisconsin\n(Robert L. Cooley), 308\nCook, F. B. — Address of Welcome, 1030\nCooley, Robert L. — Continuation School\nWork in Wisconsin, 308\nCooper, Frank B. — The Mentally Defective Pupil, 447\nCorporation School and Its Relation to the\nPubUc Schools, The Field for the, 319\nCorrelation of Chemistry and Agriculture\n(George H. Black and Earl S.\nWooster), 1005\nCorrelation of Physics and Manual Training (M. Thomas Fullan), 996; (George\nR. Twiss), 1000\nCost and Labor of English Teaching\n(Edwin M. Hopkins), 114\n\nIl8l\n\nCouncil of Jewish Women (Fannie S.\nLong), 1112\nCounty Superintendents, The Selection of,\n423\nCrabtree, J. W. — Personality in Supervision, 516; Rating of Teachers, 1165;\nThe Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Probational in Discipline in the Public\nSchools, 694; Discussion, 553\nCrone, Frank L. — Higher Education in\nthe Philippine Islands, 760; Physical\nTraining in the Philippine PubUc Schools,\n984;\nInstruction 166;\n— America's\nWork inPublic\nthe Philippines,\nSchool\nBmldings and Grounds in the Philippines, 1047; The Secondary Schools of\nthe Philippine Islands, 734\nCrook, C. W. — ^The Growth and Organers, 127ization ofthe National Union of TeachCuBBERLEY, Ellwood P. — Organization\nof Public Education, 91; School Surveys, 1032; University S\\uveys, 755\nCurrent Methods of Dealing with the Exceptional Child, A (Adelaide Steele\nBaylor), 445; B (Frank B. Cooper),\n447; C (George I. Aldrich), 449; D\ncott), 4S7\n(James E. Bryan), 452; E (J. G. ColliCurrent Practices in the Appointment of\nTeachers (William C. Griggs), 466\nCurricula and Orgjmization, School, 350\nDake,\nBureau,L.910Gilbert — The Placement\nDavie, John L. — Address of Welcome, 34\nCensus,\nDavis,\nJohn496W. — The Taking of the School\nthe, The\n1097 Combined System of Educating\nDeaf,\nDean, Arthur D. — A State Program for\nIndustrial and Social Efficiency, 292\nDecade of Progress in the Training of Rural\nTeachers (Ernest Burnham), 810\nDeclaration of Principles, 25\nDeeper Problem of Education in China\n(L. K. Tao), 229\nDefective Pupil, The Mentally, 447\nDeGrafp, Grace — Tenure of Office, 1051\n449\nDelinquent\nPupil (George I. Aldrich),\nDemands of Rural-School Districts\n(Frank W, Miller), 358\nDepartment of Business Education, 883;\nof Child Hygiene, 941; of Classroom\nTeachers, 1161; of Elementary Education, 671; of Higher Education, 755;\nof Kindergarten Education, 629; Library, 1055; of Music Education, 847;\nNational Coimcil, 527, 587; of Normal\nSchools, 763, 785; of Physical Education,\n971; of Rural and Agricultural Education, 131; of School Administration,\n1029; of School Patrons, 1105; of\nScience Instruction, 995; of Secondary\nEducation, 723; of Special Education,\n1089; of Superintendence, 253, 502; of\n\n"}
{"page": 1200, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nVocational Education and Practical\nArts, 815\nDesmond, Daisy Fox — ^The Night School\nas a Factor in Business Education, gi8\nDetennination of the School District\n(Francis G. Blair), 427\nDevelopment of the International Spirit\nthru\n244 Education (May Wright Sewall),\nDevelopment of the Philippine PublicSchool System in Co-operation with the\nHome and in Relation to Industrial\nConditions (Hugo H. Miller), 1116\nDeviations for Standardized CollegeEntrance Courses for Girls, A (Blanche\nO. Twiss), 1015; B (Mary E. Jones),\n1019; C (Hazel W.\nD (Ida Welch), 1022\n\nSevery),\n\n1020;\n\nDeWolfe, L. a. — Progress of Elementary\nAgricultural Education in Nova Scotia,\n520\nDickie,\nGeorge E. — Organization and\nManagement of Playgrounds and Recreation Centers, 972\nDistinctive Fimctions of Games and Gymnastics (Charlotte Stewart), 981\nDoDSON, John M. — Methods of Extending\nthe Propaganda for the Improvement of\nSanitary Conditions in Rural Schools,\n584\nDonoghue, Mary V. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Classroom Teachers, 161\nDonovan, John J.— School Grounds and\nSchool Architecture, 1041\nDoRSEY, Susan M. — The Special Teacher,\n713\nDouGAN, Lewis M. — The Education of\nAdult Immigrants, 440\nDresslar, F. B. — Some Problems to Be\nConsidered in the Selection of Sites for\nSchool Buildings, 951\nDyer, Franklin B. — Response to Addresses ofWelcome, 266\nEducation, Agricultural, 193\nEducation, Applied Science as the Basis\nof the Girl's, 1020\nEducation, Athletics as Education and\nAthletics as Business, 233\nEducation, Books and, 1085\nEducation, Development of the International Spirit thru, 244\nEducation, Elementary, 602, 6x6\nEducation, Financing PubUc, 76\nEducation, Germany's Recent Progress\nin Secondary, 137\nEducation, Health Problems in, 583\nEducation, Higher, 599, 610, 621\nEducation, Higher Ideals in, 232\nEducation, Is a National Standard of Education Practical? 373\nEducation, Is the Board of Education an\nIncubus on Modem? 1037\nEducation, Modem Implications of Secondary, 82\nEducation, My System of, 64\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEducation, National Aid for Vocational,\nEducation,\nses in, 771Normal-School Extension CourEducation, Organization of Public, 88, 91\nEducation,\nReport of Committee on Econ322\nomy of Time in Elementary, 402\nEducation, Secondary, 593, 609, 6x6\nEducation, Sex Hygiene and Sex Morality\nas the Aim of Sex, 148\nEducation, Some Defects in Our Legal, 207\nEducation, The Aims of, 560\nEducation,\nThe 593\nHistory and Development\nof American,\nEducation, The Influences of Modem\nEducation\nupon Handwork for Yoxmg\nChildren, 647\nEducation, The Night School as a Factor\nin Business, 9x8\nEducation, The Place and Function of the\nHigh School in the American System of,\n724\nEducation, The Problem of Handedness in,\n837\n959\nEducation, The Purpose of a National\nSystem of, 588\nEducation, The Social Phases of Vocational,\nEducation, The Study of Education in the\nNormal School and the University, 539\nEducation, Vocational, 292\nEducation, cations,Vocational,\nIts Wider Impli832\nEducation, Way of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in School, 239\nEducation (Child) as a Basis for the New\nInternationalism, 667, 668\nEducation Essential, Physical, 993\nEducation\nfor World-Living\n(Henry\nChurchill King), 251\nEducation\nin AgriciUture\nin Normal\nSchools, 227\nEducation\nretoff), in\n190 Bulgaria (Stephen PanaEducation\nof, 229 in China, The Deeper Problem\nEducation in French Schools, Moral, 73\nEducation in Guatemala\n(Federico\nS.\ndeTejada), X52\nEducation in North Africa — Particularly\nin Tunis, The Progress of, 171\nEducation in Nova Scotia, Progress of\nElementary Agricultural, 520\nEducation in Relation to the Imagination\nof the Littie Child (Maria MontesSORl), 66 X\n\nEducation\nin the Philippine\nIslands,\nHigher, 760\nEducation in the PhiHppines, Some Social\nPhases of Vocational, 843\nEducation\nof Adult Immigrants\n(Ben\nBlewett), 439; (Lewis M. Dougan),\ncation of the Engineer (Charles D.\nEduMarx),\n223\nEducation of the Japanese in America, 157\n440\n\n"}
{"page": 1201, "printed_page": null, "text": "83\n\nINDEX\nEducation of the Physician (Ray Lyman\nWilbur), 212\n\nEducation of the World for a Permanent\nPeace (Fannie Fern Andrews), 246\n144\nEducation\nsince 1900, Changes in English,\n\nEducat\nthe Foreru\nof Univer\nsal\nnner\nio\nPeace,n Ideal, 205\nEducational Development in China, The\nRecent, 175\nEducational Progress in New Zealand since\n1900 (Mark Cohen), 56\nEducational Progress of Continental Europe\nsince 1900 (Frederic E. Farrington),\n\nExtension\nCourses in Education, NormalSchool, 771\nSchool, 777\nExtension Courses in Five States, NormalExtension Service for Iowa Teachers\n(Homer H. Seerley), 781\nExtra-curricular\nActivities: Their Rela893 tion to the Curricular\nWork of the\nSchool (V. K. Froula), 737\nFactors\n\"43 of Efficiency in Secondary Commercial Teaching (John E. Treleven),\n\nFarley, George L. — How Boys and Girls\nRespon to Home Work in a Large City,\nd\n\nEducational Progress of the Past Fifteen\nYears (Elmer E. Brown), 48\nEducational Situation in South Africa\n(Charles T. Loram), 135\nEducational Statesmanship, The State\nDepartment and, 511\nEducational System, Should It Include\nActivities Whose Special Purpose Is\nPreparation for War? 335, 337, 344\nEducational Value of Playgrounds\n(Richard G. Boone), 989\nEducational Values of Work (J. M. Mills),\n\nFarm Statistics and Standardized Accoimts\n(J. A. Bexell), 925\nFarrington, E. A. — An Important Function of the Home-School for Children\nwith Permanent Mental Defects, 11 00\nFarrington, Frederic E. — Educational\nProgress\n1900, 199 of Continental Europe since\n\nEfficiency and Preparation of Rural Teachers (Harold W. Foght), 100\nEfficient Country School (David B. Johnson), 683\nElementary Education (Grace C. Strachan), 616\nElementary Education (H. B. Wilson), 602\nElementary Music Education as a Basis\nfor Secondary and Higher Music Education Q.Lawrence Erb), 851\nElliott, Edward C. — How Shall the\nEfficiency of Teachers Be Tested and\nRecorded ? 469\nEllis, Mrs. Don Carlos — The Southern\nAssociation of College Women, 1109\nEllis, Florence E. — Discussion, 820\nEngineer, The Education of the, 223\n144\nEngUsh\nEducation since 1900, Changes in,\n\nFinancial Support of the Public Schools\n(M. P. Shawkey), 415\nFinancing PubUc Education (James Y.\nJoyner), 76\n\n1136\n\nEnglish Grammar (William H.Maxwell),\n565\nEngUsh\nTeaching, The Cost and Labor of,\n114\nErb, J. Lawrence — Elementary\nMusic\nEducation as a Basis for Secondary and\nHigher Music Education, 851\nEssence of Success in Evening Vocational\nWork (Frederick H. Evans), 430\nEurhythmies of Jaques-Dalcroze (Grace\nSmith), 869\nEurope\nsince 1900, Educational\nProgress of Continental, 199\nEvans, Frederick H. — The Essence of\nSuccess in Evening Vocational Work, 430\nEvans, Paul L. — School Savings Banks,\n904\n\nEvolution of the Training of the Worker\nin Industry (Charles A. Prosser), 296\n\nFerguson, James — Teachers' Salaries,\nTenure, and Pensions, 1162\nField for the Corporation School and Its\nRelation\nto 319\nthe Public Schools (W. L.\nChandler),\n\nFiNLEY, John H. — Should Our Educational\nSystem Include Activities Whose Special\nPurpose Is Preparation for War ? 344\nFoght, Harold W. — Efficiency and Preparation of Rural Teachers, 100\nForces at Work for the Betterment of\nSchool Music (Frances E. Clarke), 848\nForeman, North H. — Gardening and\nFarming in the Philippine Schools, 1156\nFoster, William T. — Athletics as Education and Athletics as Business, 233;\nReed College and Civic Service, 757\nFrench Schools, Moral Education in, 73\nFrost, Joseph M. — Discussion, 464\nFroula, V. K. — Extra-curricular Activities: Their Relation to the Curricular\nWork of the School, 737\nFuLLAN, M. Thomas — Correlation of\nPhysics and Manual Training, 996\nFuture High School (Lewis B. Avery), 748\nFuture Outlook and Possibilities, A (Grace\nC. Strachan), 616; B (J. Stanley\nBrown), 616; C (Guy Potter Benton),\n621\n\nGardening and Farming in the PhiUppine\nSchools (North H. Foreman), 1156\nGarrison, LiNDLEY M. — Should Our Educational System Include Activities\nWhose\nPurpose Is Preparation\nfor War Special\n? 335\nGary System, The Pros and Cons of the,\n363\nGeneral Federation\nof Women's\nClubs\n(Mary G. Barnum), 1106\n\n"}
{"page": 1202, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nGeneral Science for the First Year of High\nSchool (Ida Welch), 1022\nGeography Contribute to the Survey of\nVocational\nOpportunities\nfor Girls,\nWhat Can the Teacher of ? loi 2\nGermany's Recent Progress in Secondary\nEducation (Anton H. Appelmann), 137\nGiles, J, T. — Discussion, 483\nGirls, A Chemistry Course for, 1019\nGirls, Deviations for Standardized CollegeEntrance Courses for, 1015\nGirl's Education, Applied Science as the\nBasis of the, 1020\nGirls in the Rural Schools, Special Science\nfor, 1015\nGlen, Irving M. — College Preparation\nfor Teachers of Music in Secondary\nSchools, 858\nGrammar, EngUsh, 565\nGrant, Robert A. — The Training and\nField of the Amanuensis, 897\nGreen,\nClyde\nC. — The Promotion of\nTeachers on the Basis of Merit and\nEflBciency, 473\nGreen, James M. — Principles Underljdng\nthe Determination of a Course of Study,\nGreenwood,\nJames M., In Memoriam, 533\n350\nGreeting from Guatemala (Natalie G. V.\nDE Morales), 229\nGriffin, F. L. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Rural and Agricultvu*al\nEducation, 1131\nGriggs, William C. — Current Practices\nin the Appointment of Teachers, 466\nGrowth and Organization of the National\nUnion of Teachers (C. W. Crook), 127\nGuatemala, A Greeting from, 229\nGuatemala, Education in, 152\nGuLiCK, Sidney L. — ^The Teachers of\nAmerica and the Problems of Asia, 186\nGwinn, J. M. — Discussion, 412\nGymnastics, The Distinctive Functions\nof Games and, 981\nHall, Mary E. — Report of Committee on\nHigh-School Libraries, 1064\nHandwork for Young Children, The Influences ofModem Education upon, 647\nHargreaves, R. T. — The PossibiUties of\nthe High-School Library, 730\nHarmony in High Schools, The Teaching\nof, 8ss\nHarrison, C. K. — Agricultural Education\nin the State of Victoria, AustraUa, 1154\nHarrison, Gail — Modem Psychology in\nIts Relation to Discipline, 658\nHartwell, S. O. — The Administration of\nCompulsory Attendance Laws, 485\nHawaiian Music (Helen G. Cadwell), 875\nHealth,\n1113 Report of Committee on School,\nHealth Problems in Education, A (Thomas\nD. Wood), 583; B (John M. Dodson),\n584\nHealth Supervision of Schools in a Small\nCity (Peter Olesen), 963\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHealth\nThe Teacher's Field in\nPublic, Work,\n676\nHenderson, Wilson H. — Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Vocational\nEducation and Practical Arts, 815\nHigh-School Efl&ciency and What It\nMeans\na Community (William H.\nSnyder),to 742\nHigh-School Extension in Agriculture\n(C. H. Lane), 1132\nHigh-School Libraries of California (Ella\nS. Morgan), 1071\nHigher Education (Guy Potter Benton),\n621\nHigher Education (Elmer E. Brown), 599\nHigher Education (Frank Strong), 610\nHigher Education in the Philippine Islands\n(Frank L. Crone), 760\nHigher Ideals in Education (Charles F.\nThwing), 232\nHistory and Development of American\nEducation, A (Charles E. Chadsey),\n593; B (Elmer E. Brown), 599\nHistory of the Extension Movement in\nIllinois (Walter P. Morgan), 777\nHo AG, Ernest B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Child Hygiene, 941\nHoffman, Ruth C. — ^The KindergartenPrimary\nSchool, 637Course in the State Normal\nHoke, George W. — ^What Can the Teacher\nof Geography Contribute to the Survey of Vocational Opportunities for\nGirls?\n239 1012\nHoLDEN, Perry G. — Our Rural Schools,\n97\nHoLMAN,\nHenry — ^Way of Approach to\nthe Supreme Ideal in School Education,\n\nHolmes\nIda H. — ^Ameri\nHistor m\ny\n,\nElementary\nSchools, 1078can\nHome Economics, School Credit for Boys'\nand Girls' Club Work and Extension\nActivities in Agriculture and, 1144\nHome Economics AppUed to Life (Martha\nVan Rensselaer), 821\nHome Work in a Large City, How Boys\nand Girls Respond to, 1139, 1143\nHopkins, Edwin M. — ^The Cost and Labor\nof English Teaching, 114\nHorn, P. W. — Discussion, 415\nHoRTON, utes,Marion\nL. — Secretary's\nMinLibrary Department,\n1055\n1 143\nHow Boys and Girls Respond to Home\nWork in a Large City (Clayton F.\nPalmer), 1139; (George L. Farley),\nHow Shall the Efficiency of Teachers Be\n(Edward C.\nTEelsltieodtt and469 Recorded\n?\n),\nHughes, Percy M. — ^Discussio 501\nn,\nHyaMen\ntt,talE, dw945\nard — ^Address of Welcome, 33\nChildren, The\nof Exceptiona\nHygiene\nl\n\nIdeal Education the Foreruimer of Universal Peace(MiRZA Ali Kuli Khan), 205\n\n"}
{"page": 1203, "printed_page": null, "text": "8s\n\nINDEX\nIllinois, History of the Extension Movement in, 777\nIlliteracy and Industrial Efficiency in\nLarge Cities (Albert SmELs), 433\nImagination of the Little Child, Education\nin Relation to the, 661\nImmigrants, The Education of Adult, 439,\n\nJones,\nW. Franklin\n— ^The 959\nProblem of\nHandedness\nin Education,\n\n440\nImportant\nFunction of the Home-School\nfor Children with Permanent Mental\nDefects (E. A. Farrington), iioo\nIn Memoriam — James\nM.\nGreenwood\n(Ben Blewett), 533\nIndiana, Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary\nSchool Buildings in, 967\nIndustrial and Social Efficiency, A State\nProgram for, 292\nIndustrial Arts, The Kindergarten and, 647\nIndustrial\nEfficiency in Large Cities,\nlUiteracy and, 433\n125\nIndustrial\nTraining (Ella Flagg Young),\n\nJOYNER,\nJames\nEducation,\n76\n\nIndustrial Values, Practical Connections\nbetween Aesthetic and, 654\nIndustry, The Evolution of the Training\nof the Worker in, 296\nInfluences of Modem\nEducation\nupon\nHandwork for Young Children (Marion\nB. Barboxtr), 647\nInstrumental Music and Instrument Study\nin the Oakland Schools (Glenn H.\nWoods), 865\nInternational Spirit thru Education, Development of the, 244\nIntemationaUsm, Child Education as a\nBasis for the New, 667, 668\nInui,\nK,\nS. — Japanese\nEducation\nin\nAmerica, 157; Music of Japan, 872\nInvestigation of the Efficiency of Schools,\nand School Systems (James H. Van\nSickle), 379; (Leonard P. Ayres),\n384;\n(Calvin\nN. Kendall),\n389;\n(William H. Maxwell), 395\nIowa Teachers, Extension Service for, 781\nIs a National\nStandard\nof Education\nPractical ? (William Howard Taft) , 3 73\nIs the Board of Education an Incubus on\nModem\nEducation?\n(Reynold\nE.\nBlight), 1037\n\nIssuance of Work Permits and Its Bearings\non Other School Problems (Helen T.\nWoolley), 489\nJapan, Music of, 872\nJapanese Education in America\n(Kiyo\nSue Inui), 157\nJaques-Dalcroze, The Eurhythmies of, 869\nJara, Josefa — Music of the Philippine\nIslands, 879\nJenkins,\nAnna I. — Secretary's Minutes,\n629\nDepartment\nof Kindergarten Education,\nE\nB — A\nD\nn, cation ainvNiodrm . Schgoricultur2a2l7; Tdhueols,\nal\nEfficient Country School, 683\nJones, Mary Ethel — A Chemistry Course\nfor Girls, 1019\nJohnso\n\nJordan, David Starr — President's Address—The Teacher and War, 38; The\nAdministration\nof the American University, 522\nJoumal of Proceedings of the General\nSessions, 21\nY. — Financing Public\n\nJuDD, Charles H. — Normal-School Extension Courses in Education, 771;\nReading Tests, 561; The Protection of\nProfessional Interests, 269\nJunior College (Alexis F. Lange), 119\nKeith, John A. H. — The Place and Scope\nof Sociology in the Normal School, 764\nKendall, Calvin N. — ^The Investigation\nof the Efficiency of Schools and School\nSystems,\nin\nService,389;\n287 The Training of Teachers\nELhan, Mirza Ali Kuli — Ideal Education\nthe Forerunner of Universal Peace, 205\nKindergarten and Industrial Arts, A\n(Marion B. Barbour), 647; B (Catharine R. Watkins), 654\nKindergarten and the Elementary School,\nA (Ruth C. Hoffman), 637; B (Mary\nC. C. Bradford),\n641; C (Lillian B.\nPoor),\n642\nKindergarten Course of Study in the Elementary642\nSchool, Progressive Development of the,\nKindergarten Legislation, A (Mrs. H. N.\nRowell), 631; B (Lillian M. Clark),\n632\n\nKindergarten\nLegislation\nin Some\nCalifornia\n—\n637 We Secured\nHow\nIt and\nof Its\nResults (Lillian M. Clark), 632\nKindergarten-Primary Course in the State\nNormal School (Ruth C. Hoffman),\nKing, Henry Churchill — Education for\nWorld-Living, 251\nKing, W. F.— Ten Million Dollars for\nSanitary School Buildings in Indiana,\n967\nKirk, John R. — Unconscious Discipline\n— ^The Blend of the Self-Acting Group,\n,\nnal ducation nd\nLabor119Problem Vocatio\nE\na\nthe, 828\nLane, C. H. — High-School Extension in\nAgriculture, 113 2\n706 Alexis F. — ^The Junior College,\nLange,\n\nLapEducation,\nNation\np, John — 322\n\nA\nf V\nal id or ocational\nLarge versus the Small Unit for RuralSchool Administration and Supervision\n(Edith K. O. Clark), 710\nLasher,\nS. — Secretary's Minutes, DeMeeting)G.\n, partment\n785of Normal Schools (Oakland\nField and\nLatin-American\n(John Barrett), 934\n\nOpportunity\n\n"}
{"page": 1204, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nLee, Herbert — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofSecondary Education, 723\nL^al Education, Some Defects in Our, 207\nLewis, E. P. — ^The Place of Pure Science\nIq Our Public-School System, 1024\nLibraries, Report of Committee on\nElementary-School, 1073\nLibraries, Report of Committee on HighSchool, 1064\nLibraries, Report of Committee on NormalSchool, 1056\nLibraries of California, High-School, 107 1\nLibrary, The Basis of Selection of an\nElementary-School, 1075\nLibrary, The Possibilities of the HighSchool, 730\nLibrary as a Continuation School (Bernard C. Steiner), 108 1\nLibrary Instruction in Normal Schools,\nReport of Committee on Standardizing\nthe Course of Study in, 1059\nLibrary Training in the Normal Schools\n(Carroll G. Pearse), 807\nLinking School Work with Business Enterprises, A (R. R. McMasters), 903; B\n(Paul L. Evans), 904; C (E. W. Barnhart), 980; D (L. Gilbert Dake), 910;\nE (Clyde Blanchard), 913; F (P. E.\nQuinn), 916; G (Daisy Fox Desmond),\n918; H (N. O. SmvELY), 921\nLocHNER, Louis P. — Should There Be\nMilitary Training in Public Schools ? 217\nLong, Fannie S. — ^The Council of Jewish\nWomen, 1112\nLong, Mary G. — ^Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Physical Education, 971\nLoRAM, Charles T. — ^The Educational\nSituation in South Africa, 135\nMcDonald, A. A. — Discussion, 500\nMcKiNNEY, W. S. — Report of Committee\non Research, Standardization, and Correlation, 930\nMcMasters, R. R. — ^The San Jose Junior\nChamber of Commerce, 903\nMcMuRRAY, Orrin Kip— Some Defects\nin Our Legal Education, 207\nManual Training, Correlation of Physics\nand, 996) 1000\nMartinez, Rupino — Standard School\nBuildings and Grounds in the Philippine\nIslands, 955\nMartzoltf, Clement L. — ^Normal-School\nExtension in Ohio, 782\nMarx, Charles D. — ^The Education of\nthe Engineer, 223\nMatthews, A. J.— ^What to Stress and\nWhat to Slur in the Preparation of Elementary Teachers, 793\nMaxson, Henry M. — Discussion, 482\nMaxwell, William H. — English Grammar, 565; The Investigation of the\nEfficiency of Schools and School Systems, 395\nMeetings, Calendar of, 13\nMental Hygiene of Exceptional Children\n(Lewis M. Terman), 945\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCooper), Defective\nMentally\nPupil (Frank\n447\n\nB.\n\nMethods of Extending the Propaganda for\nthe Improvement of Sanitary Conditions\nin Rural Schools (John M. Dodson), 584\nMilitary Training in Public Schools, Should\nThere Be? 217\nMiller,\nFrankDistricts,\nW. — ^The\nRural-School\n358 Demands of\nMiller, Hugo H. — The Development of\nthe Philippine Public-School System in\nCo-operation with the Home and in\nRelation to Industrial Conditions, 11 16\nMiller, James Collins — ^The School\nShop and Bread winning, 824\nMills,\nWork, J.\n1 136M. — ^Educational Values of\nModem\n\nImplications of Secondary Education (Ernesto Nelson), 82\nModem Psychology in Its Relation to Discipline (Gail Harrison), 658\nMontessori, Maria — Education in Relation to the Imagination of the LitUe\nChild, 661; My System of Education,\n64; The Mother and the Child, 1121;\nThe\nOrganization\nof Intellectual Work\nin School,\n717\nMoral Education\nin French\nSchools( Ferdinand Buisson),\n73\nMorales, Natalie G. V. de — A Greeting\nfrom Guatemala, 229\nPhillips),\nMorals\nin the\n574 Public Schools Q. H.\nMorgan, Ella S. — High-School Libraries\nof California, 1071\nMorgan, Walter P. — ^History of the\nExtension Movement in Illinois, 777\nMother and the Child (Maria Montessori), 1121\nMusic, Forces at Work for the Betterment\nof School, 848\nMusic and Instniment Study in the Oakland Schools, Instnmiental, 865\nMusic Education, Elementary Music Education as a Basis for Secondary and\nHigher, 851\nMusic Education, Uniformity of Standards in Secondary, 863\nMusic in Secondary Schools, College Preparation for Teachers of, 858\nMusic of Japan (K. S. Inui), 872\nMusic of the Orient, A (K. S. iNxn), 872;\nB (Helen G. Cad well), 875; C\nQosefa Jara), 879\nMusic of the Philippine Islands (Josefa\nJara), 879\nsori), 64 of Education (Maria MontesMy System\nNational Aid for Vocational Education\n(John Lapp), 322\nNelson, Ernesto — ^Modern Implications\nof Secondary Education, 82\nNew Citizenship (Fannie Fern Andrews),\n\nNew Zealand since 1900, Educational\nProgress in, 56\n702\n\n"}
{"page": 1205, "printed_page": null, "text": "I187\n\nINDEX\nNight School as a Factor in Business Education (Daisy Fox Desmond), 918\nNormal School, The Kindergarten-Primary\nCourse in the State, 637\nNormal School, The Place and Scope of\nSociology in the, 764\nNormal School, The Relation of the High\nSchool to the, 786\nNormal School, The Spiritual and Professional Assets of the, 279\nNormal School and the University, The\nStudy of Education in the, 539\nNormal-School Extension Courses in Education (Charles H. Judd), 771\nNormal-School Extension Courses in Five\nStates, A (Walter P. Morgan), 777;\nB (Homer H. Seerley), 781; C (Clement L. Martzglff), 782\nNormal-School Extension in Ohio (Clement L. Martzolff), 782\nNormal-School Libraries, Report of Committee on, 1056\nNormal-School Point of View (Homer\nH. Seerley), 539\nNormal Schools, Agricultural Education\nin, 227\nNormal Schools, Library Training in, 807\nNormal Schools, Report of Committee on\nStandardizing the Course of Study in\nLibrary Instruction in, 1059\nNormal Schools, The Question of Federal\nAid for, 766\nNormal Schools and the Training of HighSchool Teachers, The State, 809\nNyi, Z. T.— The Recent Educational Development inChina, 175\nOfficers of General Association for 1914-15,\n15; of Departments, 17\nOhio, Normal-School Extension in, 782\nOlesen, Peter — ^Health Supervision of\nSchools in a Small City, 963\nOrganization and Management of Playgrounds and Recreation Centers\n(George E. Dickie), 972\nOrganization of High Schools into Junior\nand Senior Sections (P. P. Claxton),\n747\nOrganization of Intellectual Work in\nSchool (Maria Montessori), 717\nOrganization of Public Education (Payson Smith), 88; (Ellwood P. Cubberley), 91\nOrient, The Music of the, 872\nOur Rural Schools (Perry G. Holden), 97\nOwen, Herman E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, 847\nOwen, William B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nNational Council of Education, 527, 587\nPalmer, A. N. — Penmanship, 888\nPalmer, Clayton F. — ^How Boys and\nGirls Respond to Home Work in a Large\nCity, 1139\nPanaretoff, Stephen — Education in Bulgaria, 190\nParrott, Ava L. — Abolishing the Rating\nof Teachers, 1168\n\nParsons, Frank A. — ^Art in Its Relation\nto National Growth, 816\nParsons, Gertrude B. — ^Uniformity of\n279\nStandards\ncation, 863 in Secondary Music EduPayne, A. C. — Discussion, 480\nPayne, Bruce R. — ^The Spiritual and Professional Assets of the Normal School,\nPeace, Ideal Education the Forerunner of\nUniversal, 205\nPeace, The Education of the World for a\nPermanent, 246\nPearse, Carroll G. — Library Training\nin Normal Schools, 807; The Purpose of\na National System of Education, 588;\nVocational Education and the Labor\nProblem, 828\nPenmanship (A. N. Palmer), 888\nPersonahty\ntree), 516in Supervision (J. W. CrabPhiUppine Islands, Higher Education in\nthe, 760\nPhilippine Islands, Music of the, 879\nPhiUppine Islands, Standard School Buildings and Grounds in the, 955\nof the,\n734\nPhihppine Islands, The Secondary Schools\nPhilippine Public-School System in Cooperation with the Home and in Relation\nto Industrial Conditions, The Development of the, 1 1x6\nPhihppine\ning in the,PubUc\n984 Schools, Physical TrainPhilippine Schools, Gardening and Fanning\nin the, 1156\nPhiUppines,\nPubhc\nWork in the,\n166 Instruction — ^America's\nPhilippines,\nin the, 1047School Buildings and Grounds\nPhilippines, Some Social Phases of Vocational Education in the, 843\nSchools, 574\nPhillips,\nJ. H. — Morals in the Public\nPhysical\nEducation\nE. WiNSHIP),\n993\n\nEssential\n\n(Albert\n\nPhysical Training in the Philippine Public\nSchools (Frank L. Crone), 984\nPhysician, The Education of the, 212\nPhysics and Manual Training, Correlation\n\nof, 996,\nPlace\nand 1000\nFunction of the High School in\nthe American\nSystem\nof Education\n(J. Stanley Brown), 724\nPlace and Scope of Sociology in the Normal\nSchool (John A. H. Keith), 764\nPlace of Pure Science in Our Public-School\nSystem (E. P. Lewis), 1024\nPlacement Bureau (L. Gilbert Dake),\nty, 75\nund\nPlaygrounds, for Womens, A Universi\n9\nPlaygro ds, Athletic in, 97a9l\nn\nn\no\nu\ni\no\nPlaygr\nThe Educat\nValue of,\n989910\nPlaygrounds\nand\nRecreation\nCenters,\nOrganization and Management of, 972\n\n"}
{"page": 1206, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPLtTMMER, O. M. — President's Address,\n103 1\nPoor, Lillian B. — Progressive Development of the Kindergarten Course of\nStudy in the Elementary School, 642\nPossibilities of the High-School Library\n(R. T. Hargreaves), 730\nPotter, John S. — Some Social Phases of\nVocational\nEducation in the Philippines,\n843\nPower, Effie L. — Report of Commit\ntee\non Elementary-School Libraries, 1073\nPractical Connections between Aesthetic\nand Industrial Values (Cathaiune R.\nWatkins), 654\nPreparation of Teachers for the Elementary\nSchools, A (Allison Ware), 786; B\n(A. J. Matthews), 793; C (M. Madilene Veverka), 797\nPresent Activities and Accomplishments,\nA (H. B. Wilson), 602; B (Payson\nSmith), 609; C (Frank Strong), 610\nPresident's Address (O. M. Plummer),\n103 1\n\nPresident's Address — The Teacher\nand\nWar (David Starr Jordan), 38\nPreston, Josephine Corliss— Community Center Work, 687\nPrinciples, Declaration of, 25\nPrinciples Underlying the Determination\nof a Course of Study Qames M. Green),\nProblems\nof Handedness in Education\n350\n(W. Franklin Jones), 959\nProblems of Vocational Guidance (Frank\nE. Spaulding), 331\nProgress of Education in North Africa —\nParticularly in Tunis (Benjamin Buisson), 171\nProgress of Elementary Agricultural Education inNova Scotia (L. A. DeWolfe),\n520\nProgressive\nDevelopment of the Kindergarten Course of Study in the Elementary School (Lillian B. Poor), 642\nProject Teaching (J. A. Randall), 1009\nPromotion of Teachers on the Basis of\nMerit and Efficiency (Clyde C. Green),\n473\nPros and Cons of the Gary System (David\nSnedden), 363\nProsser, Charles A. — ^The Evolution of\nthe Training of the Worker in Industry,\n296\n\nProtection\nof\nProfessional\nInterests\n(Charles H. Judd), 269\nPsychology (Modem) in Its Relation to\nDisdpUne, 658\nPublic Instruction — America's Work in\nthe Philippines (Frank L. Crone), 166\nPupil, Current Methods of Dealing with\nthe Exceptional, 445\nPupil, The Anemic, 452\nPupil, The Backward, 445\nPupil, The Bright, 457\nPupil, The DeUnquent, 449\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPupil, The Mentally Defective, 447\nof,477\nPupils, A motion\nSatisfactory\nBasis for the ProPurpose of a National System of Education (Carroll G. Pearse), 588\nQuestion of Federal Aid for Normal\nSchools (William C. Bagley), 766\nQxjinn, p. E. — ^Trade Possibilities between\nthe United States and Australia, 916\nRandall, J. A. — Project Teaching, 1009\nRating of Teachers (J. W. Crabtree), 1165\nReading Tests (Charles H. Judd), 561\nRecent Educational Development in China\n(Z. T. Nyi), 175\nReed\nCollege and\nT. Foster),\n757 Civic Service (William\nRelation of the High School to the Normal\nSchool (Allison Ware), 786\nReport of Committee on Classification and\nTerminology of the Exceptional Child\n(Samuel B. Allison), 1090\nReport of Committee on Economy of Time\nin Elementary Education — Minimum\nEssentials of a Course of Study — ^The\nObjectives\nand Guiding Principles of the\n1073\nReport (Harry B. Wilson), 402\nReport of Committee on ElementarySdiool Libraries (Effie L. Power),\nReport of Committee on Health Problems\nin Education (Thomas D. Wood), 583\nReport of Committee on High-School\nLibraries (Mary E. Hall), 1064\nReport\nof Committee\non Normal-School\nLibraries,\n1056\nReport of Committee on Research, StandMcKinney), ardization,\n930 and Correlation (W, S.\nRepKjrt of Committee on School Health\n(Florence E. Ward), 1113\nReport of Committee on Standardizing\nthe Course of Study in Library Instruction in Normal Schook, 1059\nReport of Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools and School\nSystems, A (Ben Blewett), 560;\nB (Charles H. Judd), 561; C (William\nH. Maxwell), 565; D Q. H. Phillips),\n574; E (George D. Strayer), 579\nReports of Organizations Affiliated with\nthe Department of School Patrons,\nA (Mary G. Barnum), 1106; B (Mrs.\nDon Carlos Ellis), 1109; C (Fannie\nS. Long), 1112\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome (Franklin B. Dyer), 266; (Joseph Swain), 37\nRipley, Ellor Carlisle — Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to\nSatisfy Social Demands in Different\nSchool Districts? Within the Same\nDistrict? 354; Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment\nof Superintendence\n(Cincinnati Meeting),\n253\nRoman, Frederick W. — ^Vocational Education— Its Dependence upon Elementary Cultural Training, 11 73\n\n"}
{"page": 1207, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nRosier, Joseph — A Satisfactory Basis for\nthe Promotion of Pupils, 477\nRound Tables — State and County Superintendents, 415; Superintendents of\nCities with a Population of over 250,000, 430; Superintendents of Cities\nwith a Population of from 25,000 to\n250,000, 445; Superintendents of Cities\nwith a Population under 25,000, 466;\nChild Relations, 485\nRouse, John E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Higher Education, 755\nRowell, Mrs. H. N. — What the California\nCongress of Mothers Has Done for\nKindergarten Legislation, 631\nRural-School Administration and Supervision, The Large versus the Small Unit\nfor, 710\n\nRural-School Districts, The Demands of,\nRural\n3S8 Schools, Child Welfare and, 104\nRural Schools, Methods of Extending the\nPropaganda for the Improvement of\nSanitary Conditions in, 584\nRural Schools, Our, 97\nRural Schools, Special Science for Girls\nin the, 1015\nRural Schools, Standardization of the, 679\nRural Teachers, A Decade of Progress in\nthe Training of, 801\nRural Teachers, Efl&ciency and Preparation\nof, 100\n\nSadler, Michael E. — Changes in English\nEducation since 1900, 144\nSalaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers,\n1162\n\nSan Jose Junior Chamber of Commerce\n(R. R. McMasters), 903\nSatisfactory Basis for the Promotion of\nPupils (Joseph Rosier), 477\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C. — Should Our Educational System Include Activities\nWhose Special Purpose Is Preparation\nfor War? 337\nSchallenberger, Margaret E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Elementary Education, 671\nSchool, Extra-curricular Activities: Their\nRelation to the Curricular Work of the,\n737\nSchool, General Science for the First Year\nof High, 1022\n\nSchool, Progressive Development of the\nKindergarten Course of Study in the\nElementary, 642\nSchool, Some New Problems for the Old,\n691\n\nSchool, The All-Day Trades, 313\nSchool, The EflBcient Country, 683\nSchool, The Field for the Corporation\nSchool and Its Relation to the Public, 319\nSchool, The Future High, 748\nSchool, The Kindergarten and the Elementary, 637\nSchool, The Kindergarten-Primary Course\nin the State Normal, 637\n\nSchool, The Library as a Continuation,\n1081\n\nSchool,\nWork The\nin, 717Organization of Intellectual\nSchool, The Place and Scope of Sociology\nin the Normal, 764\nSchool, The Relation of the High School\nto the Normal, 786\nSchool, What Becomes of the GrammarSchool Graduates and the High-School\nNon-Graduates? 708\nSchool Administration and Supervision,\nThe\nRural,Large\n710 versus the Small Unit for\nSchool-Board cellor),Members\n(William E. Chan1033\nSchool Buildings, Some Problems to Be\nConsidered in the Selection of Sites for,\nSchool Buildings and Grounds in the\nPhilippine Islands, Standard, 955\nSchool Buildings and Grounds in the Philippines (Frank L. Crone), 1047\nSchool951Buildings in Indiana, Ten Million\nDollars for Sanitary, 967\nSchool Census, The Taking of the, 496\nSchool Codes, State, 415\nSchool Credit for Boys' and Girls' Club\nWork and Extension Activities in Agriand Home Economics (O. H.\nBenson),culture1144\nSchool Curricula and Organization, A\n(James M. Green), 350; B (Ellor\nCarlisle Ripley), 354; C (Frank W.\nMiller), 358; D (David Snedden),\nSchool District, The Determination of the,\n427\nSchool Districts, The Demands of Rural,\nSchool\nExtension\nCourses in Education,\nNormal,\n771\nNor\nmal\n,\n777\nSchool Extension Courses in Five States,\n\nSchool Grounds and School Architecture\n(John J. Donovan), 1041\nSchool (High) Efficiency and What It\nMeans to a Community, 742\nSchool in the American System of Education, The Place and Function of the\nHigh, 724\nSchool Problems, The Issuance of Work\nPermits and Its Bearings on Other, 489\nSchool Savings Banks\n(Paul L. Evans),\n904\nSchool\nShop and Breadwinning (James\nCollins Miller), 824\nSchool\nSupervision\nin New\nEngland\n(Payson Smith), 509\nSchool\n1032 Surveys (Edward P. Cubberley),\n\nSchool Surveys of Backward and Retarded\nChildren (J. Harold Williams), 1095\nSchool System, The Place of Pure Science\nin Our Public, 1024\n\n"}
{"page": 1208, "printed_page": null, "text": "iigo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSchool S5r5tem in Co-operation with the\nHome and in Relation to Industrial\nConditions, The Development of the\nPhilippine Public, 1116\nSchool Systems, Report of Committee on\nTests and Standards of Efficiency in\nSchools and, 560\nSchool Systems, The Investigation of the\nEfficiency of Schools and, 379, 384, 389,\n395\nSchool Work in Wisconsin, Continuation,\noom indow William . att),\nE W\n(\nW\nSch3o0o8lr\n, merican istory n lementary,\ns\nl\no\n2\no\n4\nh\n9\nc\nS\nA\nH\ni E\n1078\nSchools, Child Welfare and Rural, 104\nSchools, Financial Support of the Public,\n41S\nSchools,\nLibrary Traimng in the Normal,\n807\nSchools, Methods of Extending the Propaganda for the Improvement of Sanitary\nConditions in Rural, 584\nSchools, Morals in the Public, 574\nSchools, Our Rural, 97\nSchools, Physical Training in the Philippine Public, 984\nSchools, Preparation of Teachers for the\nElementary, 786\nSchools,\nSelf-Govemment in Secondary,\n109\nSchools, Should There Be Military Training in Public? 217\nSchools, Special Science for Girls in the\nRural, 1015\nSchools, Standardization of the Rural, 679\nSchools, The Question of Federal Aid for\nNormal, 766\nSchools, The Use of Tests and Scales of\nMeasurement in the Administration of\nSchools, 579\nSchools, The Wisdom of a Wider Use of\nthe Probational in Discipline in the\nPublic, 694\nSchools in a Small City, Health Supervision of,963\nSchools into Junior and Senior Sections,\nThe Organization of High, 747\nSchools of the Phihppine Islands, The\nSecondary, 734\nScience for Girls in the Riiral Schools,\nSpecial, 1015\nScience for the First Year of High School,\nGeneral, 1022\nScience in Our Public-School System, The\nPlace of Pure, 1024\nSecondary Education Q. Stanley Brown),\n616\nSecondary Education (Charles E. Chadsey), 593\nSecondary Education (Payson Smith), 609\nSecondary Schools of the Philippine Islands\n(Frank L. Crone), 734\nSeerley, Homer H. — Extension Service\nfor Iowa Teachers, 781; The Normal-\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSchool Point of View, 539; The State\nNormal School and the Training of\nHigh-School Teachers, 809\nSelection of County Superintendents\n(William E. Chancellor), 423\nSelf-Govemment in Secondary Schools\n(Richard Welling), 109\nSevery, Hazel W. — Apphed Science as\nthe Basis of the Girl's Education, 1020\nSewall, May Wright — Child Education\nas a Basis for the New Internationalism,\n667; Development of the Internationalism Spirit thru Education, 244\nSex Hygiene and Sex Morality as the Aim\nof\n148Sex Education (Thomas M. Balliet),\nSexton, Elmer K. — Discussion, 441\nShawkey, M. p. — Financial Support of\nthe Public Schools, 415; Some New\nProblems for the Old School, 691; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Superintendence (Oakland Meeting), 502\nShiels, Albert — Illiteracy and Industrial\nEfficiency in Large Cities, 433\nShtvely, N.manship, 921O. — ^Advertising and SalesShould Essentials of the Course of Study\nVary to Satisfy Social Demands in\nDifferent School Districts? Within the\nuey), 354\nSame District? (Ellor Carlisle RjpShould Our Educational System Include\nActivities Whose Spedd Purpose Is\nPreparation for War? (Lindley M.\nGarrison), 335; (Nathan C. Schaeffer), 337; QoHN H. Finley), 344\nShould There Be Military Training in\nPublic Schools ? (Louis P. Lochner), 217\nSissoN, E. O. — Books and Education,\n1085; The State Department and Educational Statesmanship, 511\nSluss, Homer O. — Discussion, 489\nSmith, Grace — ^The Eurhythmies of\nJaques-Dalcroze, 869\nSmith, Payson — Organization of Public\nEducation, 88; School Supervision in\nNew England,\n509; Secondary Education, 609\nSnedden,\nDavh) — ^The Pros and Cons of\nthe\nWar,Gary\n54 System, 363\nSnowden, Mrs. Philip — ^Woman and\nSnyder, Edwin R. — ^Discussion, 841\nSnyder, William H. — High-School Effimunity,and742 What It Means to a Comciency\nSocial Demands in Different School Districts? Within the Same District?\nShould Essentials of the Course of Study\nVary to Satisfy ? 354\nSocial Efficiency, A State Program for\nIndustrial and, 292\nSocial Phases of Vocational Education\n(Richard G. Boone), 837\nSociology in the Normal School, The\nPlace and Scope of, 764\n\n"}
{"page": 1209, "printed_page": null, "text": "II91\nINDEX\nSome Adjustments That Might Secure\nCloser Integration (Mary C. C. BI^ADford), 641\nSome Defects in Our Legal Education\n(Orrin Kip McMurray), 207\nSome Factors Making for Growth of Elementary Teachers in the Field (C.\nLomsE Boehringer), 672\nSome New Problems for the Old School\n(M. P. Shawkey), 691\nSome Problems to Be Considered in the\nSelection of Sites for School Buildings\n(F. B. Dresslar), 951\nSome Social Phases of Vocational Education in the Philippines (John S.\nPotter), 843\nSouth, Supervision in the, 506\nSouthern Association of College Women\n(Mrs. Don Carlos Ellis), 1109\nSpaulding, Frank E. — Problems of Vocational Guidance, 331\nSpecial Science for Girls in the Rural\nSchools (Blanche Olin Twiss), 1015\nSpecial Teacher (Susan M. Dorsey), 713\nSpiegel, Frederick S. — Address of Welcome, 261\nSpiritual and Professional Assets of the\nNormal School (Bruce R. Payne), 279\nStandard School Buildings and Grounds\nin the Philippine Islands (Rufino\nMartinez), 955\nStandardization — Wise and Otherwise\n(A. E. WiNSHip), 528\nStandardization of the Rural Schools\n(E. F. Carleton), 679\nState Department and Educational Statesmanship (Edward O. Sisson), 511\nState Normal Schools and the Training of\nHigh-School Teachers (Homer H. Seerley), 809\nState Program for Industrial and Social\nEfficiency (Arthur D. Dean), 292\nState School Codes, A (M. P. Shawkey),\n415; B (A. G. Yawberg), 419; C (William E. Chancellor), 423; D (Francis\nG. Blair), 427\nSteiner, Bernard C. — ^The Library as\na Continuation School, 1081\nStenographer, The Student, 913\nSterling, Elizabeth C. — Community\nCenter Work, 503\nStewart, Charlotte — The Distinctive\nFunctions of Games and Gymnastics, 981\nStone, W. S. — Teaching the Fundamentals\nof Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes,\nor Training Students to Think, 884\nStoops, Richard O. — Discussion, 463\nStrachan, Grace C. — Elementary Education, 616\nStrayer, George D. — The Use of Tests\nand Scales of Measurement in the\nAdministration of Schools, 579\nStrong, Frank — ^Higher Education, 610\nStudent Finances (E. W. Barnhart), 908\nStudent Stenographer (Clyde Blanchard),\n913\n\nStudy, Principles Underlying the Determination ofa Course of, 350\nStudy, Should Essentials of the Course of\nStudy Vary to Satisfy Social Demands\nin Different School Districts? Within\nthe Same District ? 354\nStudy of Education in the Normal School\nand the University, A (Homer H. Seerley), 539; B (A. Duncan Yocum), 544\nSuperintendents,\nThe Selection of County,\n423\nSupervision, PersonaUty in, 516\nSupervision in the South (M. L. Brittain),\nSurveys, School, 1032\nSurveys, University, 755\nWelcome, 37\nSwain, Joseph\n— Response to Address of\n506\nTaft, William Howard — Is a National\nStandard of Education Practical? 373\nTaking\nthe School Census (John W.\nDavis),of 496\nTao, L. K.— The Deeper Problem of Education in China, 229\nTeach, Charles\nE. — ^Athletics in Playgrounds, 979\nTeacher, The Special, 713\nTeacher, Working Plans for the Home, 698\n38\n. . The President's Address,\nTeacher\nand War,\nTeacher\nTraining,\nEfficiency\nthru, 544 The\n\nCompelling\n\nof\n\nTeachers, A Decade of Progress in the\nTraining of Rural, 801\nTeachers, Abolishing the Rating of, 1168\nTeachers,ment of,Current\nPractices in the Appoint466\nTeachers, Efficiency and Preparation of\nRural, 100\nTeachers, Extension Service for Iowa, 781\nTeachers, Rating of, 1165\nTeachers,\nThe419Appointment, Salary, and\nTenure of,\nTeachers, The Growth and Organization\nof the National Union of, 127\nTeachers, The Promotion of Teachers on\nthe Basis of Merit and Efficiency, 473\nTeachers, The State Normal Schools and\nthe Training of High-School, 809\nTeachers, The Training of, 279\nTeachers, What to Stress and What to\nSlur\n793 in the Preparation of Elementary,\nTeachers Be Tested and Recorded? How\nShall the Efficiency of, 469\nTeacher's Field in Public Health Work\n(Elizabeth Wilson Allison), 676\nTeachers\nfor the Elementary\nSchools,\nPreparation of, 786\nTeachers in Service, The Training of, 287\nTeachers\nin the Field, Some\nFactors\nMaking for Growth of Elementary, 672\nTeachers of America and the Problems of\nAsia (Sidney L. Gulick), 186\nTeachers of Music in Secondary Schools,\nCollege Preparation for, 858\n\n"}
{"page": 1210, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTeachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions\n(James Ferguson), 1162\nTeaching, Project, 1009\nTeaching of Fundamentals of Accountancy\nin Bookkeeping Classes, or Training\nStudents to Think (W. S. Stone), 884\nTeaching of Harmony in High Schools\n(Alice C. Bumbatjgh), 855\nTejada, Federico S. de — Education in\nGuatemala, 152\nTen MiUion Dollars for Sanitary School\nBuildings in Indiana (W. F. King), 967\nTenure of Office (Grace DeGraff), 1051\nTerman, Lewis M. — ^The Mental Hygiene\nof Exceptional Children, 945\nTextbooks — Educationally, Commercially,\nand PoUticaUy (A. E. Winship), 274\nThe Trap (William Lowe Bryan), 268\nThey Who Sit at Our Feet (M. Madilene\nVeverka), 797\nThomas, Harriet P. — Child Education\nas a Basis for the New Internationalism,\n668\nThomson, Harriet W. — A University\nPlayground for Women, 975\nThwing, Charles F. — ^Higher Ideals in\nEducation, 232\nTrade Possibilities between the United\nStates and Australia (P. E. Quinn), 916\nTrades School, The All-Day, 313\nTraining and Field of the Amanuensis\n(Robert A. Grant), 897\nTraining of Teachers, A (Bruce R. Payne),\n279; B (Calvin N. Kendall), 287\nTraining of Teachers in Service (Calvin\nN. Kendall), 287\nTreleven, John E. — Factors of Efficiency\nin Secondary Commercial Teaching, 893\nTwiss, Blanche Olin — Special Science\nfor Girls in the Rural Schools, 1015\nTwiss, George R. — Correlation of Physics\nand Manual Training, 1000\nUnconscious Discipline — The Blend of the\nSelf -Acting Group (John R. Kirk), 706\nUniformity of Standards in Secondary\nMusic Education (Gertrude B. Parsons), 863\nUniversity, The Administration of the\nAmerican, 522\nUniversity, The Study of Education in the\nNormal School and the, 539\nUniversity Playground for Women (Harriet W. Thomson), 975\nUniversity Surveys (Ellwood P. Cubberi^y), 755\nUse of Tests and Scales of Measurement in the Administration of Schools\n(George D. Strayer), 579\nVan Norman, H. E. — ^What Becomes of\nthe Grammar-School Graduates and the\nHigh-School Non-Graduates? 708\nVan Rensselaer, Martha — ^Home Economics Applied to Life, 821\nVan Sickle, James H. — ^The Investigation of the Efficiency of Schook and\nSchool Systems, 379\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nVerplanck, F. A. — Discussion, 495\nVeverka,\nM. 797\nMadilene — ^They Who Sit\nat Our Feet,\nVocational Education, A (Arthur D.\nDean), 292; B (Charles A. Prosser),\n296; C (Robert L. Cooley), 308;\nD (E. C. Warriner), 313; E (W. L.\nChandler), 319; F (John Lapp), 322;\nG (Frank E. Spaulding), 331\nVocational Education — Its Dependence\nupon Elementary Cultural Training\n(Frederick W. Roman), 1173\nVocational Education, Its Wider Implications (Thomas M. Balliet), 832\nVocational Education, National Aid for,\nof, 837 Education, The Social Phases\nVocational\nVocational Education and the Labor\nProblem (Carroll G. Pearse), 828\n322\nVocational\nEducation in the Philippines,\nSome Social Phases of, 843\nVocational Guidance, Problems of, 331\nVocational Opportunities for Girls, What\nCan the Teacher of Geography Contribute to the Survey of? 1012\nVocational\nWork,\nin Evening,\n430 The Essence of Success\nWaldo, D wight B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment\nof Normal\nSchools (Cincinnati Meeting),\n763\nWalker, Frances E. — ^Discussion, 495\nWar, Should Our Educational System\nInclude Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for? 335, 337, 344\nWar, The Teacher and, 38\nWar, Woman and, 54\nWard, Florence E. — Report of Committee on School Health, 1113\nWare, Allison — ^The Relation of the\nHigh School to the Normal School, 786\nSchool, 313 E. C— The All-Day Trades\nWarriner,\n193\nWaters, cation,Henry\n\nJ.— ^Agricultural Edu-\n\nWatkins, Catharine R. — Practical Connections between Aesthetic and Industrial Values, 654\nWindow,\n942\nWatt,\nWilliam\n2\n39\n\nE. — ^The Schoolroom\n\nWay, Alvah B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Business Education, 883\nWay of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in\nSchool Education\n(Henry Holman),\nWelch, Ida — General Science for the First\nYear of High School, 1022\nWelling, Richard — Self-Govemment in\nSecondary Schools, 109\nWhat Becomes of the Grammar-School\nGraduates and the High-School NonGraduates? (H. E. Van Norman), 708\nWhat Can the Teacher of Geography Contribute to the Survey of Vocational\nOpportunities for Girls? (George W.\nHoke), 1012\n\n"}
{"page": 1211, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nWhat the California Congress of Mothers\nHas Done for Kindergarten Legislation\n(Mrs. H. N. Rowell), 631\nWhat to Stress and What to Slur in the\nPreparation\nof Elementary\nTeachers\n(A. J. Matthews), 793\nWheaton, H, H. — Discussion, 443\nWilbur, Ray Lyman — The Education of\nthe Physician, 212\nWilliams, J, Harold — School Surveys\nof\n109sBackward and Retarded Children,\n\nWoman and War (Mrs. Philip Snowden),\n\nWilson, H. B. — Elementary Education,\n602; Report of Committee on Economy\nof Time in Elementary Education,\nMinimum Essentials of a Course of\nStudy, 402\nWindow, The Schoolroom, 942\nWiNSHip, Albert E. — Physical Education Essential, 993; Standardization\n— Wise and Otherwise, 528; Textbooks\nEducationally, Commercially, and Politically, 274\nWisdom of a Wider Use of the Probational in Discipline in the PubUc Schools\n(J. W. Crabtree), 694\n264\nWiTHROW,\nJohn M. — ^Address of Welcome,\n\nWoolley, Helen T. — The Issuance of\nWork Permits and Its Bearings on Other\nSchool Problems, 489\n\nWomen, The Council of Jewish, 1112\nWomen, The Southern Association of College, 1 09\nWood, Thomas D. — Child Welfare and\nRural Schools, 104; Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education,\n583\nWoods, Glenn H. — Instrumental Music\nand\nInstrument\nStudy in the Oakland\nSchools,\n865\n\nWooster, Earl S. — Correlation of Chemistry and Agriculture, 1005\nWork, Community Center, 503, 687\nWork Permits and Its Bearings on Other\nSchool Problems, The Issuance of, 489\nWorking\"5 Plans for the Home Teacher\n(Amanda Mathews Chase), 698\nYawberg,\na. G. — ^The\nAppointment,\nSalary, and Tenure of Teachers, 419\nYocuM, A. Duncan — The Compelling of\nEflSciency thru Teacher Training, 544\nYoung, Ella Flagg — Industrial Training,\n\n"}
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{"page": 1215, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\nNational Education Association\n13\nof the United States\n*■\nN3A13\nAddresses and pro^§F\n1915\nceedings...\n>\n\nPLEASE DO\nCARDS\n\nNOT\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n\\\n\n"}
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