{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
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{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin\n\n2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1914natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\n\nComposed and Printed By\nThe University of Chicajro Pn\nCbicasro, Illinois, U.S.A.\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n———— —— — — — — —\n\n—\n\n—\n\n——\n\nCONTENTS\nAct of Incorporation\n\ni\n\nBy-Laws\nCertificate of Incorporation\n\nS\n12\n\nCalendar of Meetings\n\n13\n\nOfficers for 1913-14\n\n15\n\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\n\n.\n\n19\n\nGENERAL SESSIONS\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI.\n\nII.\n\nBurnquist\n\n25\n\nSchulz\n\n26\n\nPowers\nIV. Lange\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome Fairchild\nPresident's Address Swain\nThe Responsibility of American Educators in the Solution of America's Oriental\nIII.\n\nProblem\n\nGulick\n\n27\n\n28\n28\n\n29\n\n35\n\nTopic: The Status of Woman\nA. Training Women for Social Responsibility\nB.\n\nMathews\n\n40\n\nSome Aspects of the Public School from a Social Worker's Point of View\nBreckinridge\n\n45\n\nC. The Humanities, Old and New\n\nPerkins\n\nD. Preparation of Women for Twentieth-Century Life Woolley\nTopic: Teachers' Salaries and Pensions\nA. The College Professor and the Nation Ddbney\nB. Salaries Based on the Position and Not on the Sex of Incumbent\nC. Teachers' Retirement Allowances\n\n...\n.\n\nHamilton\n\nRoss\n\nB. Education for Political and Moral Service\n\nThompson\n\n56\n\nStrachan\n\n60\n66\n\n....\n\n78\n\nThe Public-School Teacher and the Standard of Living Nearing\nTopic: Principles and Aims of Education\nA. Common-Sense and Beyond Bryan\nB. The Purpose of Elementary and High-School Education Schaeffer\nC. The Purpose of the Liberal College Meiklejohn\nTopic: Education in a Democracy\nA. Education for Social Service\n\n51\n\n.\n\n.\n\n71\n\n94\n98\n102\n\n....\n\n103\n\n106\n\nTopic: The Needs of the Public Schools\nA. Professionally Prepared Teachers\n\nCook\nGreenwood\nC. Systematic Education for Those Pupils Leaving School Too Soon\n\n113\n\nB. The Kingdom of Little Things\n\n115\n\nHarvey\n\nD. Progress of the Rural Schools Fairchild\nE. Let Both Grow Together Until the Harvest—Pear^e\nF. The Adaptation of the Work of the School to the Needs of the People\nJoyner\n\n119\n122\n125\n\n129\n\nV\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "—— ———\n\n—\n\n— ———\n\n——\n\n—\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TlON ASSOCIA TION\n\nvi\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE (Richmond Meeting, 1914)\n\nPAGE\n\nSecretary's Minutes—Lo^an\n\n^33\n\nAddnuotWdcome—ChandUr\n\n^39\n140\n\nRespooBC to Address of Welcome—Gr«tf»\nEducation and Social Economy Devine\nFundamental Distinctions between Liberal and Vocational Education\n\n142\n\nSnedden\n\niSo\n\nBagUy\n\n161\n\nSchool and Shop—Work and Study—C(mJ(w\nThe Apprentice Schools of the Santo Fe Railway System— r/kWkw\nTopic: Hopeful Experiments\n\n171\n\n17S\n\nA. Mississippi Canning C\\\\xhs—Powell\nB. Some Conditions in Rural Schools and Their Improvement—Prw/o«\n\n185\n\nC. The Moonlight Schools of Kentucky—5teTe>ar/\n\n193\n\nThe Foundations of Educational Achievement Thorndike\nReport of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education\nEconomy of Time in Arithmetic Jessup\nThe Determinants of the Course of Study Yocum\nHow the Course of Study Should Be Determined Withers\nRural-School Administration\n\nWilson\n\n189\n\n199\n206\n\n.\n\n209\n223\n235\n\nCubberley and Elliott\n\n244\n\nround tables\n\nRound Table op State and County Superintendents\nProblems That Confront the Stote Superintendent in His Relation to the Rural\nSchools\n\nMilUr\n\n251\n\nDangers of Overorganization of the Rural Schools\n\nSmith\n\n253\n\nInterrelation of the OlQ&ce of Stote Superintendent and That of County Superin-\n\ntendent\nBlair\n\n257\n260\n\nMorelock\n\nRound Table op Superintendents in Cities with a Population op over 300,000\nTopic: The Function of the School to the Conmiunity It Serves\n\nA. Its Scholastic Function\nB. Its Social Function\n\nGwinn\n\n264\n266\n\nGreenwood\n\nRound Table of Superintendents in Cities with a Population of prom\n25,000 TO 300,000\n\nTopic: Differentiation in Course of Study in the Upper Grades\n\nA. Shortening the Course\n\nWeet\n\n269\n\nB. Substitution of Work of Vocational or Pre vocational Character in the\n\nUpper Grades\nGreeson\n\n27a\n\nCamtnack\n\n274\n\nRound Table of Superintendents in Cities with a Population under 25,000\n\nHow Shall the Superintendent Measure His Own Efficiency?\nTesting Grade Teachers for Efficiency—Pw^ey\n**\n\nVance\n\n279\n\nHow Secure More Effective Supervision ?—Teitrick\n\n283\n286\n\nPre-delinqucnt Boys—Joiner\n\n289\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "—— —\n\n—— —\n\n—\n\n—\n\nCONTENTS\n\nvii\n\nNATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nlAGB\nSecretary's Minutes (Richmond Meeting)\n\nHealth Problems in the American Public Schooh— Wood\nMinimum Sanitary Requirements for Rural Schools\n\n....*..\n\nReport of the Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools and\nSchool Systems Strayer\nThe Public-School Survey Meek\nThe Method, Scope, and Value of the Survey in Relation to the Course of Study\n\nKinnaman\n\n293\n\n294\n295\n302\n310\n\n314\n\nTopic: Sex Hygiene\n\n— Twentieth-Century Ideal Strachan\n—^What the Schools Can Do Pearse\n\nA. Wanted\n\n317\n318\n\n^A\n\nB. Sex Hygiene\n\nSecretary's Minutes (St. Paul Meeting)\n\n325\n\nTopic: Co-operating Forces for the Improvement op Rural-School Conditions\nI.\n\nChamberlain\n\n327\n\nII. Schallenherger\n\nIII.\n\n332\n\nCary\n\n338\n340\n342\n\nIV. Baylor\n\nV. Johnson\n\nTopic: Superintendent Problems\nI.\n\nCarr\n\n344\n\nII.\n\nWolfe\n\n349\n354\n356\n358\n358\n361\n\nIII. Siders\n\nIV. MacDonald\nV. Monroe\nVI. Felmley\nPresident's Address\n\nAley\n\nHistory and Achievement of the National Coimcil of Education\n\nSome Positive Educational Gains of the Last Decade\n\nGreenwood\n\nCook\n\n364\n369\n\nTopic: Harmonizing Vocational and Cultural Education\nI.\n\nPreston\n\nII. Seerley\n\nLuckey\n\n375\n378\n\nrV. Crahtree\n\n380\n384\n\nV. Cook\n\n38s\n\nIII.\n\nTopic: Economy of Time in Education\nI.\n\nStrong\n\n386\n\nII.\n\nWilson\n\n390\n\nIII. Blair\n\n395\n\nIV. Harvey\n\n397\n401\n\nV. Scribner\n\nDEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n405\n\nAdaptation of the Work of the Kindergarten to the Needs of Individual Children\n\nGroszmann\n\n406\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "————— — —\n\n———\n\n—\n\n—\n\n5\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nviii\n\nPAGE\n\nWhat the United States Bureau of Education Is Doing for the Kindergarten—\n4i3\n\nWinchesUr\nStandardizing the Work in the Kindergarten and Elementary Schools—Alexander\n\n41\n\nDEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\n421\n\nSecretaiys Minutes\n\nTopic:\n\nA. Self-Expression in the School\n\n42 a\n\nSearson\n\n'427\n\nMacdonald\n\nB. Preparation for Service thru the School\n\nTopic:\n\nThe School Lite\n\nThe Individual Child and His Individual Needs:\nOF the Child\n\nThe Individual Child and His Individual Needs: The Home Life of\nTHE Child\nWalker\n\nA. Self-Expression in Society\n\n430\n\nB. Self-Protection thru Knowledge and Habit\n\nC. Constructive Civic Agencies\n\nSchallenberger\n\n435\n\n.\n\nWard\n\n439\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n445\n446\n\n—The Old and the New Westcott\n\nPresident's Address\n\nBishop Grundtvig and the People's High Schools\n\nCooley\n\n451\n\nThe Value of History of Art as a Study in Secondary Schools MacMurphy\nThe Progress of Industrial Education in Cleveland, Ohio Short\nSome Things Worth While in Industrial Education in Secondary Schools Alien\nThe Responsibility of the Teacher with Regard to the Teaching of Sex Hygiene—\n\n....\n\nBlount\n\n465\n\n470\n\nSome Experiments in Sex Education\n\nPeabody\n\n475\n\nMinutes of the Meetings of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary\nEducation\nProblems Confronting the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education\n\n460\n462\n\nKingsley\n\n481\n\n483\n488\n\nMinutes of the Meetings of the Conference of High-School Principals\n\nDEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n489\n489\n\nReligious Education in Universities—5/rowg\n\nThe Media of Religious Impression in College\n\nCrawford\n\n494\n\nDEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\nSecretary's Minutes (Richmond Meeting)\n\n....\n\nThe Reorganization of the Normal-School Curriculum—F«/w/ey\nThe Preparation of Teachers and Supervisors for the Industrial Branches and\nOther Special Lines—\nI-\n\nCorhly\n\n497\n498\n\n505\n^oo\n\nII. Crabtree\n\nExtension Work in Normal Schools—\nI.\n\nMatkes\n\n^i-\n\nU. Minnich\nin. WiUiam\n\nThe Twentieth-Century Normal School—/Ttfjfe\n\n.^\n\n........\n\"\n\n'\n\n.\n\nri6\n\n519\n524\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "— ————— — — —— —————\n—— —\n\n— —\n— ———\n\n—\n\nCONTENTS\nThe Twentieth-Century Normal School\nand New Ideals\n\nix\n\n—New Branches of Study, New Problems,\n\nPAGG\n\nPearse\n\n527\n\nThe Preparation of Teachers for High Schools Seerley\nThe Preparation of Teachers for Rural Schools Doyne\nThe Training-School Carrington\n\n529\n\nProfessional Experimentation and Investigation\n\n537\n\n532\n\n537\n\nGreen\n\nSecretary's Minutes (St. Paul Meeting)\n\n539\n\nThe Practice School and the Work of the Heads of Departments in It Cook\nHow Can Normal Schools Best Help the Forward Movement in Rural Life?\n\n.\n\nBrister\n\n541\n\n548\n\nThe Strength of the Normal Schools Johnson\nNotable Shortcomings of State Normal Schools Thompson\nThe Content of the Course in Sociology in a Normal School\n\n552\n\n554\nCheever\n\n.\n\n.\n\n559\n\nDEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n565\n\nStatement in Regard to the Work of the Committee on Vocational Education and\nVocational Guidance\n\nFuller\n\n568\n\nThe Economic Significance and Relationships of Vocational Education\nVocational Education ^Its Social Relationships Sumner\n\nSeeger\n\n.\n\n—\n\nPresident's Address\n\n572\n\nWilliston\n\n—\n\nVocational Education\n\nIts Terminology\n\n569\n\n577\n582\n\nPearse\n\nThe Place of Industrial Education in a Rational School System Chamberlain\nThe Need in America for Schools of Applied Art and the Necessity in American\n.\n\n586\n\nIndustries for Art Leaders and Designers of the Highest Grade\nArt Appreciation for the Masses Koehler\n\n.\n\n589\n\nArt Courses in Elementary, Intermediate, and High Schools\n\nRoberts\n\nFlagg\n\n594\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nArt Education as a Part of General Culture McWhorter\nThe Use of the Factory and Office Buildings in New York City for Vocational\nEducation Haaren\nTrade Agreements in Industrial Education of Apprentices in Chicago Roberts\n.\n\nThe Apprenticeship and Continuation Schools of Milwaukee, Wis. Cooky\nThe Renovation of the Home thru Home Economics Norton\nHow May the General Aims of Manual-Training Courses Be Best Conserved ?\n.\n\n597\n\n599\n602\n\n607\n\n614\n618\n622\n\nPotter\n\nDEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n625\n\n—An Opportunity Dykema\n\nCommunity Music\n\n627\n\nHigh-School Credit for Applied Music Taken under Special Teachers Outside of\n\nMcConathy\n\nSchool\n\n634\n\nA Psychological Analysis of the Basis on Which Credit for the Study of Music Is\nto Be Placed\n\nCragun\n\nWhen Music Fulfils Its Highest Function\n~\n\n635\n\nLutkin\n\n641\n\nDEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n649\n\nThe Present Status of Business Education in the United States and Some Recommendations\n\nGlade\n\n652\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "— — ————\n\n——\n\n——\n\n—\n\n—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nPreparatory Educational Requirements for Collegiate Training in Business, with\nSpecial Reference to Articulation between the High-School and College\n\n657\n\nCoursca—Co/«y\n\nDEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE\n663\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nSome Phases of the Health Supervision of Schools\nIndustrial Hygiene and Vocational Education\n\nThe Health Administration of Schools\nThe Attitude of the Child in Learning\n\n663\n668\n\nUines\n\nRapeer\n\nBracken\n\n672\n\nColvin\n\n677\n\nDEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n683\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nPhysical Care and Training of Children in European Schools\n\nRaihmann\n\nThe Physical Director in Relation to the School Samson\nShall Sex Hygiene Be Taught in the Public Schools?—\n\n684\n691\n\nKeene\n\n695\n\nn. Wright\n\n697\n\nI.\n\nThe History of the Development of Physical Education at Newcomb College Boer\nThe Physical Condition of the Child as a Leading Factor in Determining His\nVocational Guidance\n\nSchallenberger\n\n704\n\nSwedish Gymnastics in American Schools\n\nBlijenburgh\n—\nThe Heart Volume in Man ^The Nitrous Oxide Method and the Results of Professor Franz Miiller\n\n701\n\nBerry\n\n707\n713\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n—The Outiook for the Application of the\n\nPresident's Address\n\nto the Problems of Science Teaching\n\n721\nScientific Method\n\nTwiss\n\nCo-operation by Teachers for the Improvement of Science Teaching\n\n723\n\nRandall\n\n729\n\nTopic: Geography in Secondary Schools\nA. Geography in the Large High School\n\nWhUbeck\n\n732\n\nB. Geography in Village and Rural Sdiooh—Sutherland\n\nThe Use of Lantern Slides in a Course in Electrical Measurements\nMotion Pictures as an Aid to Education—5a«n<^r5 T\n\n738\n\nFrey\n\n742\n\nBiology in the Secondary Schools—Peabody\n\n743\n748\n\nPhysics for Girls by the Scientific Method—Fordyce\n\n750\n\nReport of the Conunittee on Janitor Service—Pw/naw\n\n750\n\nThe Tendencies and General Status of Courses in General Science—\nTimbie\n\n7^2\n^rg\n\nBarber\n\nApplied Science—Its Relationship to Shopwork and the Rest of the Curriculum\nin an Up-to-Date Technical High School—Morrison\n\n764\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n773\n\nProblems in the Successful Teaching of Mechanical Science—5eWe«\n\n774\n\nThe Heating, Lighting, and Ventilating of School Buildings—/«goW\n\n779\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "———————\n——\n\n— ——— —— ——\n\n——\n\n——\n\nCONTENTS\n\nxi\nPAGE\n\nA State Teachers' Employment Agency under the Supervision of the Department of\nPublic Instruction Malmin\nThe Success of a State Teachers' Employment Agency Law after Two Years\n\n785\n\nCritchett\n\n787\n\nLIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n791\n\nThe Library's Debt to Culture Dudgeon\nThe Country Child in the Rural Library Preston\n\n794\n796\n\nReport of the Committee on Rural-School Libraries\n\nWilson\n\nThe Newspaper Morgue, the Library, and the School\nLibraries and Schools: Educational Co-operation\n\nNormal-School Training in Library Methods\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nKerr\n\nNewberry\n\n817\n820\n\nWright\n\nReport of the Committee on High-School Libraries\n\n798\n810\n813\n814\n\nOvitz\n\nA Normal Budget for the High-School Library\nHigh-School Branches of Public Libraries\n\nJohnston\n\nHall\n\n823\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\nPresident's Address\n\n827\n\nGroszmann\n\n829\n\nAn Effort to Make the School Fit the Needs of the Exceptional Child Alderman\n\n830\n\nFear and Its Cure\n\n836\n\nWilliams\n\nMethods for Making Surveys of Public Schools, with Suggestions to Principals\nand Teachers for Recording Data on Subaverage, Subnormal, Backward,\nor Defective Children\n\nCampbell\n\n840\n\nThe Work of the National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional\nChildren\n\nGroszmann\n\n843\n\nA Practical Experiment with Backward Children—Carr\nReading and Arithmetic as Tests of Mental Ability\n\n844\n848\n\nSchmitt\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS\nSecretary's Minutes\nPresident's Report\n\n851\n\nReferan\n\n852\n\nSummary of Reports of State Joint Committees and Afl&liated Organizations,\n1913-14\nReport of the Committee on School Health\nTopic:\n\n8SS\n861\n\nBates\n\nThe Responsibility of School Patrons with Regard to the School\nQuestions\n\nA. School Health—5arfy\n\n865\n\nB. School Revenue\n\n870\n\nBlair\n\nDEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nRural Demonstration Schools and Study-Center\n\n877\n\nWork for Rural Teachers\n\nSeerley\n\nA Beginning in Rural High-School Work and Township Supervision\nThe Use of Raw Materials in Teaching Agriculture Welles\n\nGlissman\n\n878\n882\n886\n\nThe Course in Agriculture for Training Teachers in Normal Training High Schools\nI.\n\nII.\n\nMcBrien\n\n890\n\nStorm\n\n89s\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n—\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nxii\n\nPAGE\n\nThe Federated Bo>'s' and Girls' Club Work—5<?«jo»\nWhat Recognition Should Be Given Vacation and Other Out-of-School Work ?\nCrabtree\n\n898\n905\n\nDEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n909\n\nWords of Welcome to the New Department Swain\nWho Shall Administer Our Schools ?—i?a»ife/»\n\n911\n\n912\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF\nTHE UNITED STATES\nV\n\n1857-1870\n\nThe National Teachers Association\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n\nPurpose\n\n— To\n\nelevate the character and advance the interests of the profession\n\nof teachings and to promote the cause of poptdar edtication in the United\nStates,\n\nThe name\nAugust\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nassociation\n\n15, 1870, to the\n\nwas changed\n\nat\n\nCleveland, Ohio,\n\non\n\n\"National Educational Association.\"\n1870-1907\n\nNational Educational Association\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name,\n\n*\n\nchanged\n\nEducational Association,\"\n\nto\n\n\"National\n\n'National Education Association,\" which\n\nby\n\ncertificate\n\nwas\nfiled\n\nNovember 6, 1886.\n1907-\n\nNational Education Association of the United States\nIncorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\"\n\nThe charter was\n\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\n\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now officers and directors\n\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, *Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; * George W. Twitmyer, of\nDelaware;\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson, •William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District\n\n• Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nof Columbia;\n\nClem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann,\n\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsev, Thomas A.\n\nMott, of Indiana;\n\nJohn D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. lUggs, Ashley V.\n\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A..V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; * Warren Easton, of Louisi-\n\nana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot,\n•Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White,\n\n\\^lliam H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of\n\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, * James M. Greenwood,\nWilliam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\n\nNebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Can-\n\nMurray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\nPitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickam, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nfield, Nicholas\n\nL. Jarman, of Virginia;\n\nEdward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\n\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Grifl&ths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as ofl&cers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia\nby the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\n\nSec 3. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States.\n\nThis corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth,of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof\n\nMusic Education;\n\nninth, of\n\neleventh, of Child Study;\n\nInstruction;\n\nSecondary Education;\n\ntwelfth, of Physical\n\ntenth, of Business Education;\n\nEducation; thirteenth, of Natural Science\n\nfourteenth, of School Administration;\n\nfifteenth, the\n\nLibrary Department;\n\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\n\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or\n\npersonal\n\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorpora-\n\ntion;\n\nand to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educationa\n\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nDeceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OP INCORPORATION\nSec. 4.\\That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia,\n\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as a^resaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and fundi of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation;\n\nprovided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\n\nwhich shall not hk used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\npurposes of the coqjoration; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually\nfile,\n\nwith the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\n\nin detail the properly, real and personal, held\n\nby the corporation, and the expenditure\n\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\n\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\n\nmembers\n\n—\n\nviz.,\n\nactive,\n\nassociate,\n\nand corresponding\n\n—whose qualifications, terms of\n\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\n\na Board of Trustees.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\n\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association.\nThe United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\n\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\n\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\n\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees;\n\nand shall possess such other powers as\n\nshall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation.\n\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year.\n\nThe said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\n\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\n\nas may be given by said board.\n\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\n\nex officio, during his term of office.\n\nAt the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\n\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\n\none trustee for the term of four years.\n\nAll vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\n\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term;\n\nand the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\n\nshall forfeit his membership.\n\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\n\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trus-\n\nwho shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\n\ntees,\n\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon\n\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been\n\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nexpenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The itcome of the\nPermanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of\nthe Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless thi terms of the\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\n\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors.\n\nWhen\n\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\n\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\n\nThe Board of Trmtees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noffice for a period not to exceed four years.\n\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia; provided, That the meetings of the corporation, its officers\n\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and\nan office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws.\nSec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until\nthe expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until\nThat at such annual meeting the active members of the\ntheir successors are elected.\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States\"; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\n\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts,\n\nclaims,\n\nand property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and\n\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\n\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on\n\ndemand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nProvided, That a verified certificate executed by the\n\nof the corporation hereby created.\n\npresiding officer\n\nand secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\n\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, pro-\n\nvided further. That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\n\nby this* act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\n\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\n\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said ensting corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any sum\n\ndue or to become due, or any claim or demand,\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obli-\n\ngations and Uabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\nand contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action\nor proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested\n\nor impaired.\n\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Amended at meeting of active members held in St. Paul, Minn., July 9, 1914)\n\nARTICLE I—MEMBERSHIP\nSection i.\n\nTeachers, others actively engaged in educational work, and educational\n\ninstitutions as defined in Section 2, may become active members of the National Education\n\nAssociation of the United States upon the payment of an enrolment fee of two dollars\n\nand the annual dues for the current year.\nSec.\n\n2.\n\nEducational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library\n\nboards, educational publishers, and such clubs and similar organizations as are distinctly\n\neducational or have educational departments properly organized with a definite membership.\n\nSec. 3.\n\nEducational institutions as defined in Section 2 may be enrolled as active\n\nmembers and represented by any person regularly connected with or a member of the\ninstitution, and such representative may exercise all the rights and enjoy all the privileges\nof active membership, including the right to vote at business meetings; provided, That\nsuch representative presents a certificate showing that the person named therein has been\nregularly elected as such representative of the faculty or membership of such institution;\nbut no person shall under any circumstances have the right to cast more than one vote.\nSec. 4. The annual dues of active members are two dollars, which shall be paid\nat the time of the annual meeting of the Association, or shall be sent to the Secretary\n\nbefore November i of each year. An active member may discontinue his membership\nby giving written notice to the Secretary before November i. An active member\nThose who have forfeited or\nforfeits his membership by being two years in arrears.\ndiscontinued their membership may exercise the option of renewing the same by paying\nall arrears and getting the published Proceedings of the intervening years, or of becoming\nmembers on the same terms as new members. Active members shall be entitled to the\npublished Proceedings without coupon or other conditions.\nSec. 5. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members,\nand shall have all the rights and privileges of such members without the payment of the\n\nannual dues.\n\nThe right to vote and to hold oflfice in the Association or the departments\nmembers whose dues are paid; the right to vote and hold oflfice in\nthe Council is open to members of the Council whose dues are paid.\nSec. 7. Any person may become an associate member for one year by paying a\nSec. 6.\n\nis open to all active\n\nmembership fee of two dollars.\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nSec. 8.\n\nEminent educators not residing in America may be elected, by the Board\nThe number of corresponding members shall at\n\nof Directors, corresponding members.\n\nno time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues.\nbe printed in the\nSec. 9. The names of active and corresponding members shall\npublished Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their\n\nrespective educa-\n\ntional titles, ofl&ces, and addresses.\n\nARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the\nNational Education Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active\nmembers of the Association by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of\nthe votes cast being necessary for a choice.\n\nThey shall continue in office until the close\n\nof the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen,\nexcept as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their\n\nduties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall\nnot be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for\n\nwhich they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected.\n\nARTICLE\nSection i.\n\nm—DUTIES OF OFFICERS\n\nThe President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and\n\nshall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association.\n\nIn his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence\naU Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall\nprepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association,\n\nof\n\nand with the approval of the Executive Conmiittee, shall determine the time and place\nof the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely\nfixed by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in\nthe programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the\nannual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and\nchairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all\nbills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized\nby the Executive Conmiittee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the\nexpiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the\nensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication.\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and\nof the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided\nin the articles of incorporation\n\nand the by-laws, and in all matters not definitely preCommittee and in the\n\nscribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive\n\nabsence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the\nPresident, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same\neach month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the\n\nBoard of Directors or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings\nof the Board of Directors or on the approval of the President acting under authority of\n\nthe Board of Directors, or Executive Conmiittee. The Secretary shall have his records\npresent at all meetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors,\n\nand of the Executive Committee.\n\nHe shall keep a list of members as required by Section\n\n9 of Article I of these by-laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary\nof the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be\nthe custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and\nthe Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his\nduUes as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": "7", "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nto the Executive Committee not later than July\n\ni\n\n7\n\nprior to the annual meeting of the\n\nAssociation, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual\n\nmeeting.\n\nAt the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all\n\nmoneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association.\n\nThe\n\nSecretary shall not print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document\n\nwithout the approval of the publication committee.\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of\nthe Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall\n\npay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of\nthe Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds\nin his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts\nand expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirtieth\nday of June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than\nJuly I, and when approved by said committee, they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the\nweek of the annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nThe Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be\nrequired by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall\ntransfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association.\n\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed\nby Section 8 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council\nof Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power\nto fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to\n\nthe Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association,\nthe Council of Education, and the departments.\nall bills incurred under authority of\n\nThe Board of Directors shall approve\n\nthe Board of Directors, the Executive Committee,\n\nor the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or\n\nExecutive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amoimts\nof money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work\nof all special committees of investigation and research authorized and provided for by such\n\nactive members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the financial\n\ncondition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and\n\nthe Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meeting, and shall\n\ndo all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution.\nSec. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging\nfor the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council\nof Education, and of the various departments.\nThe Executive Committee shall recommend to active members at their annual\nbusiness meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research,\nthe subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Coimcil or by the active\nmembership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it\nshall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations.\n\nWhen\n\nsuch special conmiittees are provided for and duly authorized by the active members at\ntheir annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision\n\nof them; shall receive and consider all reports made by them and shall print such reports,\n\nand present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer,\nand the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon,\nto the active members at their annual business meeting. All such special committees\nshall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association.\n\nThe Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers\nof the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the\noffice of Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": "8", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION AS'SOCIA TION\n\n8\n\nSec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds\nperformance of their\nof such amount as may be determined by said board, for the faithful\nduties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report\n\nshaU be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first\nregular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the AssociaIt shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary.\ntion.\n\nARTICLE IV—THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nSection i.\n\nThe National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions\n\nof public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to\n\ntime, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual\n\nmeeting on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year\"; and in other ways use its\nbest eflforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education\nin general.\n\nSec.\n\n2.\n\nThe National Council of Education\n\nshall consist of\n\none hundred and\n\ntwenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education\nAssociation.\n\nAny active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the\n\nCouncil, and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected.\n\nThe annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time\nThe Board of Directors of the Association\nshall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall\nSec. 3.\n\nof the annual meeting of the Association.\n\nfill\n\nall\n\nvacancies in its quota of members.\n\nNo state, territory, or district in the United\n\nStates shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council.\n\nSec. 4.\n\nThe annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the\n\nannual meeting of the Association.\nSec.\n\n5.\n\nThe absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings\n\nof the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership.\n\nPersons\n\nwhose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary\n\nmembers of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association,\nwith the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its\ndiscussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Coimcil.\nSec. 6. The oflficers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\na secretary, and such standing conmiittees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of\nwhom shall be regular members of the Council. The secretary of the Coimcil shall, in\naddition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the\nAssociation a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication.\n\nSec.\n\n7.\n\nThe National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws\n\nfor its government not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the\nAssociation; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board\n\nof Directors of the Association before they shall become operative.\n\nSec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council\nabolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting\nof the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the\npreceding annual business meeting of the Association.\n\nARTICLE V—DEPARTMENTS\nThe following departments are now (1914) in existence, to wit: The\ndepartments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary\nSection i.\n\nEducation; fourth, of Higher Education;\nArts;\n\nsixth,\n\nof\n\nfifth, of Vocational Education and Practical\nKindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": "9", "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nSecondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Hygiene; eleventh,\nof Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administration;\n\nfourteenth, the Library Department;\n\nof School Patrons; seventeenth, of\n\nfifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth,\n\nRural and Agricultural Education; eighteenth, of\n\nClassroom Teachers.\nSec.\n\n2.\n\nThe active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each\n\ndepartment of the Association.\nSec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which\nmay hold its annual meeting in February of each year or at such other time as may be\ndetermined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation.\n\nThe object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of\nThe programs\nof these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and\nunder the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall\nSec. 4.\n\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work.\n\nbe limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session for business or informal round-table\nconference may be held at the discretion of the department officers.\nSec. 5. The oflEicers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\nand a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve\none year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their\nIn case there is a vacancy in the oflSce\nelection, be active members of the Association.\nof president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the\nPresident of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the president of the department.\nSec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the\nduties usually pertaining to his ofl&ce, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of\nthe proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication.\nSec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception\n\nThey shall be named in Section i of this article in the\nEach\ndepartment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent\nstated in Section 3 of this article.\n\norder of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued.\n\nwith the act of incorporation or these by-laws.\nSec. 8.\n\nA new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board\n\nof Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active\n\nmembers at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said\ndepartment, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular\n\nmeeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding\nannual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the\nfield of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be established.\nA\ndepartment already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a\ntwo-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members\nat any business meeting of the active members; provided, That announcement has been\nmade of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at\nthe preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it\nfails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years.\n\nARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES\nSection i. On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association, unless\nappointment has already been made, the President shall appoint a Committee on\nResolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a Committee on Necrology,\nconsisting of five active\n\nmembers, and on the third day of such meeting he shall\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": "10", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n10\n\nappoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active member from each\nand district represented at the meeting. Each state, territorial, and\ndistrict representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active members in\nstate, territory,\n\nattendance from said state, territory, or district; provided^ That three or more active\nmembers participate in said nomination in accordance with these by-laws; and\n\npronded further, That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, territory,\nor district to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with\nthese by-laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory,\nor district, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors\non the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee\nconsisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a\ntrustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided\nin Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of\nactive members. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated\n\nby the President of the Association at the time of its appointment.\nSec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories,\netc., to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held on the first day of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated\non the annual program by the President of the Association.\nSec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual\nmeeting at 9:00 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall\nnominate persons for the following offices in the Association, to wit: one person for President, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from\neach state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Directors.\n\nIt shall report to the active members at their annual business meeting.\n\nSec. 4.\n\nThe Conmiittee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting\n\nof active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to\n\nsaid committee, without discussion.\n\nThis committee\n\nshall receive\n\nand consider all\nsome time\n\nresolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President;\n\nduring the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold\n\na meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose\nof receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them.\n\nSec. s. The Conmiittee on Necrology shall prepare for the published Proceedings\na list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accom-\n\npanied by memorial sketches whenever practicable.\nSec. 6.\n\nWithin thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Associa-\n\ntion, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do\n\nbusiness as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accoimts,\npapers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and\n\ncompare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by\nthe Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by\n\nhim submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors,\nat their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association.\n\nARTICLE Vn—MEETINGS\nSection i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Coimcil of Education, and\nof each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined\nby the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance\n\nAn annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies\nmay be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of\nwith these by-laws.\n\nthe directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": "11", "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nSec.\n\n2.\n\nii\n\nThe annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning on\n\na day determined by the Executive Committee.\n\nTwo sessions shall be held daily, unless\n\notherwise ordered by the President of the Association.\n\nThe annual business meeting of\n\nthe active members shall be held on the fourth day of the annual meeting at ii :oo a.m.\n\nA regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual\nmeeting at 10:30 a.m.\n\nThe first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be\n\nheld as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session\nof the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in the printed\n\nprogram.\n\nThe Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient\n\ntime and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to\nabove in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman,\n\nand shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of\nthe Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by\n\nall meetings of\n\nthe secretary thereof.\n\nARTICLE Vm—PROCEEDINGS\nSection i.\n\nThe proceedings of the meeting of the Association, the Council, and\n\nthe departments shall be published under the direction of a committee consisting of the\nPresident, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President acting\nas chairman of the committee; provided. That in the opinion of the Executive Committee\n\nthe funds of the Association warrant the publication.\nshall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings.\n\nEach member of the Association\n\nAssociate members must make written\n\napplication to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order to obtain\n\nit.\n\nCorresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will receive the\npublished Proceedings without written application.\nSec.\n\n2.\n\nNo paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any\n\nof the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President\nof the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or\n\naddress be published in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive Committee.\n\nARTICLE IX—ELECTIONS, QUORUM\nSection i.\n\nThe certificate of membership, in connection with the official list of\n\nactive members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote.\n\nSec.\n\n2,\n\nRepresentatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute\n\na quorum in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors.\n\nARTICLE X—APPROPRIATIONS\nSection i.\n\nUnless otherwise ordered by the active members at their annual busi-\n\nness meeting, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year\nshall be set aside for such educational investigations\n\nand studies as may be ordered in\n\naccordance with Section $ of Article III.\n\nARTICLE XI—AMENDMENTS\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual business\nmeeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the\nactive members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially\n\nproposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action\nis taken;\n\ndue announcement of the proposed action shall be made in the annual published\n\nProceedings.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": "12", "text": "\"\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n12\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nNOW KNOWN AS THE\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of\n\nBy-Laws under Act of Congress approved\n\nJune 30, 1906.\n\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding oflBcer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Asso-\n\nciation held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate\n\nthe National Education Association of the United States,\n\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\n\nand accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\nofficers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\n\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\n\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907.\n\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\nverification\n\nresolutions adopted by the active members, july lo, i907\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\n\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\n\nAssociation of the charter granted by said act.\n2.\nResolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\n\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n\nThat the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\nEducation Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n\n3. Resolved,\ntitle \"National\n\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to\norganize\nunder the charter granted by the act of Congress.\n\nFiled\n\nm the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,\n\n1907.\n\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": "13", "text": "CALENDAR OF MEETINGS\nNATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION\n1864— OGDENSBURG. N.Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\n\ni8s7—PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chainnan.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO\n\ni86s—HARRISBURG. PA.\n\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\n\nS. S.\n\nGreene, President.\n\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\ni8s9—WASHINGTON, D.C\n\n1866—INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President\n\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BuLBa.EY, Secretary.\n\nS. H. White, Secretary.\n\nC. S. PENNELt, Treasurer.\n\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860—BUFFALO, N.Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLSY, President.\n\n1867\n\n—No\n\nsession.\n\n1868—NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\n\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\n\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n\n1861, 1862— No\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbkick, President.\n\n1869—TRENTON, N.J.\nL, Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\n\nJam£3 Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\nA. L. Barber, Treasxirer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby. Treasurer.\n\nNAME CHANGED TO\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n1871\n\n-ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\n1878—No\n\nJ. L. Pickard, President.\n\n1870—PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\n\nJ.\n\nE. E. White, President.\n\nOrmond Wilson, Treasure:.\n\n1880—CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y.\n\nS. H. White, Secretary.\n\nOrmond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\nJ.\n\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1873—ELMIRA, N.Y.\n\n1881-ATLANTA, GA.\n\nB. G. Northrop. President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\n\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1874—DETROIT, MICH.\n\n1882-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\n\nS. H. White, President.\n\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\n\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n187s—MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE, T. Tappan, President.\n\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1884—MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\nA. P. Marbm, Treasurer.\n\n1877—LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ.\n\n1885—SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\n\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\nOrmond Wilson, Treasurer.\n\nN. A. Calkins. Treasurer.\n\n13\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": "14", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n14\n\n1896—BUFFALO. N.Y.\n\n1886—TOPEKA. KANS.\n\nNewton C. Dodghmty, President.\n\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Shkldon, Secretary.\n\nUwm Shepard, Secretary.\n\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\nI.\n\nC. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1897-MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\ni88r-CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\n\nChaeles R. Skinnee, President.\nIrwin Shepaed, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nJ. H. Can?ield, Secretary.\n\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898—WASHINGTON, D.C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\n\n1888-SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaeon Gove, President.\nJ. H- Canfield, Secretary.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\nL C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1899—LOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\n1889—NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\n\nE. Orau Lyte, President.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\n\nE.\n\nC Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1900—CHARLESTON, S.C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\n\nl8go—ST PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901—DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\n\n1801—TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, Presidoit.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer.\n\nE. H. Coor, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n189a—SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\n\nigoa—MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilliam M. Beardshear, President.\n\nE. H. Cook, President.\n\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes. Treasurer.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\ni«93—CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education)\n\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n1904—ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook. President.\n\n1894—ASBURY PARK, N.J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenhy Rhoads, Treasurer.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M.\n\nGreenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1905—ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J.\nWn,HAM H. Maxwell, President.\n\n189s—DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Bdtlei, President.\niRWm Shepard, Secretary.\nI.\nMcNeill. Treasurer.\n\nC\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\n1906—No session.\n1907—LOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nNathan C. Schaeffer, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. N. WaEiNSON. Treasurer.\n\n^\n\nNAICE CHANGED TO\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES\n«9o8—CLEVELAND, OHIO\nEdwin G. Cooley, President.\n\n191\n\nElla Flago Youno, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nIiwiN Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\n1909—DENVER, COLO.\nLoRENio D. Harvey, President.\n\niRwm Shepard. Secretary.\nAethur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\n1910-BOSTON. MASS.\n\nx—SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nDurand W. Springer, Treasurer.\n\n191\n\na—CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nCarroll G. Pearse, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nKatherine D. Blake, Treasurer\n1913—SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\n\nJames Y. Joyner, President.\niRWDJ Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\nEdward T. Fairchild, President\nDurand W. Springer, Secretary.\nGrace M. Shepherd, Treasurer.\n\n1914—ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJoseph Swain, President.\n\nDurand W. Springer, Secretary.\nGrace M. Shepherd, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": "15", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS FOR 1913-14\nGENERAL ASSOCIATION\nJoseph Swain\nDuRAND W. Springer\n\nPresident\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\n\nSecretary\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\n\nGrace M. Shepherd\n\nTreasurer\n\nBoise, Idaho\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nE. T. Fairchild, President, New Hampshire College\n\nDurham, N.H.\n\n*A. C. Nelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nL. R. Alderman, Superintendent of City Schools\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nPortland, Ore.\n\nMary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\n\nDenver, Colo.\n\nLuther L. Wright, Superintendent, Michigan State School for the Deaf\nRose A. Bird Maley, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nThomas W. Conway, Superintendent of City Schools\nLinnaeus N. Hines, Superintendent of Schools\n\nFlint, Mich.\n\nJoseph Rosier, Superintendent of Public Schools\nMartha Stromberg, Teacher, Public School No. 23\nFrederick M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools\n\nFairmont, W.Va.\n\nCheyenne, Wyo.\nRaton, N.M.\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\n\nBaltimore, Md.\nLincoln, Nebr.\n\nBOARD OF TRUSTEES\nJ. Stanley Brown, Chairman\n\nJoliet, 111\n\nRobert J. Aley\n\nOrono, Me\n\nJames Y. Joyner, Secretary\nJames M. Greenwood\nJoseph Swain\n\nKansas City, Mo\nSwarthmore, Pa\n\nRaleigh, N.C\n\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 1916\nTerm expires in 1917\nEx officio\n\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\nJoseph Swain\nEdward T. Fairchild\nGrace M. Shepherd\nJ. Stanley Brown\n\nPresident\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\n\nFirst Vice-President\n\nDurham, N.H.\n\nTreasurer\n\nBoise, Idaho\nJoliet, 111.\n\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nChairman, Board of Trustees.\nMember by Election\n\nDurand W. Springer\n\nSecretary.\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\n\nLitUe Rock, Ark.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\nDirectors ex ofSLcio\nGrace M. Shepherd, Boise, Idaho\n\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nE. T. Fairchild, Durham, N.H.\n\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\n\nDurand W. Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nliife Directors\n\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W,, Providence, R.I.\nBoard op Education, Nashville, Tenn.\n\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N.J.\nGreenwood, James M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis.\n\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, New York, N.Y.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nClaxton, p. p., Washington, D.C\nCook, John W., De Kalb, 111.\nCooLEY, Edwin G., Chicago, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nFairchild, E. T., Durham, N.H.\n\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nJoyner, James Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W.Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, IlL\n\n* Deceased.\n\nIS\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": "16", "text": "NATIONAL EDU CATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl6\n\nPkakse. Camoll G., Mflwaukee, Wis.\nPiCKAiiD, JosiAH L., Cupertino, Cal.\nVox, Joshua, Jeraeyville, 111.\nSCHAETFER. Nathan C, Hamsburg, Pa.\nSkdwer, Charles R., Watertown, N.Y.\n\nState Teachers Association of Iiunod\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, lU.\n\nTeachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden. Mich.\nYoung, Ella Flago, Chicago, III.\n\nDirectors by Election\n\nFlorida\n\nFlorence\nH. J. Willingham, President, State Normal School\nPhoenix\nJohn D. Loper, Superintendent of Schools\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Little Rock\nSan Francisco\nArchibald J. Cloxto, Deputy Superintendent of Schoob\nSterling\nJakes B. Ragan, Principal, Industrial Arts High School\nFrank L. Glynn, Director, Trade Education Department,\nNew Haven\nBoardman Apprentice Shops\nWihnington\nA. H. Berlin, Principal of High School\nWashington\nE. L. Thurston, Superintendent of Schools\nW. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction.. . Tallahassee\n\nGeorgia\n\nM. L. Brittain, State School Superintendent\n\nIdaho\n\nAlbion\nG. A. AxLiNE, President, State Normal School\nWilliam H. Campbell, Examination Department, Board of\nChicago\nEducation\nSeymour\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nE. C. Bishop, Extension Department, Iowa State College . . . Ames\nTopeka\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\n\nAlabama\nArirona\nAritansas\nQijifornia\n\nColorado\nConnecticut\n\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia.\n\nIllinois\n\nIndiana\n\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\n\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\n\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\n\nMissouri\n\nMontana\n\n.\n\n.\n\nAtlanta\n\nRichmond\nJ. G. Crabbe, President, State Normal School\nBaton Rouge\nT. H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education\nOrono\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nBaltimore\nCharles J. Koch, Assistant Superintendent of Schools\nClarence D. Kingsley, High-School Inspector, MassachuBoston\nsetts Board of Education\nIshpeming\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools\nAgnes E. Doherty, Central High School\nSt. Paul\nGreenville\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of City Schools\nWilliam P. Evans, State Superintendent of Public Schools. Jefferson City\nHelena\nJohn Dietrich, Superintendent of City Schools\n.\n\nPennsylvania\n\nJames E. Delzell, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Lincoln\nKatherine M. Cook, Superintendent of Schoob\nPanaca\nNashua\nJ. H. Fassett, Superintendent of Schools\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children Plainfield\nAlvan N. White, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Santa F6\nJohn H. Finley, State Conmiissioner of Education\nAlbany\nF. M. Harper, Superintendent of Schools\nRaleigh\nNeil C. Macdonald, State Inspector, Graded, Rural, and\nConsolidated Schoob\nValley City\nCleveland\nJ. M. H. Frederick, Superintendent of Schoob\nEdwin S. Monroe, Superintendent of City Schoob\nMuskogee\nGrace DeGrapf, Public Schoob\nPortland\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruc-\n\nRhode Isbnd\n\nI. O.\n\nSouth Carolina\n\nD. B. Johnson, President, Wmthrop Normal and Industrial\n\nNebraska\n\nNevada\n\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew Yoik\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\n\nOklahoma\nOregon\n\ntion\n\nHarrisburg\n\nWmsLOW, Superintendent of Schoob\n\nProvidence\n\nRock HiU\n\nCollege\n\nSouth DakoU\n\nC. G. Lawrence, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Pierre\n\nTennessee\nTexas\n\nNashville\nJ. J. Keyes, Superintendent of Public Schoob\nF. M. Bralley, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Austin\nJ. P&ESTON Creer, Superintendent of Utah County Schoob. Spanbh Fork\nMason S. Stone, Superintendent of Education\nMontpelier\nR, C. Stearnes. State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Richmond\n\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\n\n.\n\nWashington\n\nC. R. Fraher, Superintendent of City Schoob\n\nWest Virginia\nWbconain\n\nM. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schoob\nL. P. BiNuiT. Superintendent of PubUc Schoob\n\nWyoming\n\nJ. J. Early, Superintendent of City Schools\n\nHawaii\nPhiUppine Islands\nPorto Rico\n\nWillis T. Pope, Superintendent of Public Instruction\nFrank L. Crone, Director of Education\nEdward M. Bainter, Commissioner of Education\n\n*Deceued\n\nEverett\nCharleston\n\nLaCrosse\nSheridan\nHonolulu\n\nManib\nSan Juan\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": "17", "text": ".\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\n\n17\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\nRobert J. Auey, President, University of Maine\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nExecutive Committee. .\n\nExecutive Committee.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nExecutive Committee\n\nOrono, Me.\nJames Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Raleigh, N.C.\nWnxiAM B. Owen, Principal, Chicago Normal School\nChicago, HI.\nJames M. Greenwood, Advisory Superintendent of Schools. Kansas City, Mo.\nEllen C. Sabin, President, Milwaukee-Downer College\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College\nRock Hill, B.C.\n.\n\nKindergarten\nPresident\n\nCatherine J. Tracy, Kindergarten Normal Department,\n\nVice-President\n\nLucy T. Ellis, Principal, Phoenix Kindergarten\n\nNew York, N.Y\n\nEthical Culture School\n\nPhoenix, Ariz.\n\nSecretary\n\nElementary\nVice-President\n\nM. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools\nJ. W. Crabtree, President, State Normal School\n\nSecretary\n\nFrances Jenkins, Supervisor of Elementary Grades, Public\n\nPresident\n\nKansas City, Kans.\nRiver Falls, Wis.\nDecatur, 111.\n\nSchools\n\nSecondary\n\nSecretary\n\nOliver S. Westcott, Principal, Waller High School\nI. M. Allen, Principal of High School\nE. C. Roberts, Principal of High School\n\nPresident\n\nC. A. Duntway, President, University of Wyoming\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nChicago, 111.\nWichita, Kans.\nEverett, Wash.\n\nHigher\nLaramie, Wyo.\nEllen C. Sabin, President, Milwaukee-Downer College\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nNathaniel Butler, Professor of Education, University of\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nChicago\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nNormal\nPresident\n\nJ. G. Crabbe, President, State Normal School\n\nVice-President\n\nU. S. Conn, President, State Normal School\nW. T. Carrington, President, State Normal School\n\nSecretary\n\nRichmond, Ky.\nWayne, Nebr.\nSpringfield, Mo.\n\nSuperintendence\n\nSecretary\n\nBen Blewett, Superintendent of Instruction, Public Schools St. Louis, Mo.\nW. E. Ranger, State Commissioner of Public Schools\nProvidence, R.I.\nA. S. Cook, Superintendent of Baltimore County Schools\nTowson, Md.\nAnna E. Logan. Ohio State Normal School\nOxford, Ohio\n\nPresident\n\nA. L. Williston, Director, Wentworth Institute\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\nVice-President\n\nMay Gearhart, Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools\n\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nSecretary\n\nIrene E. McDermott, Director of Household Arts, Public\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\n\nSecond Vice-President.\n\n.\n\nVocational Education and Practical Arts\n\nSchools\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\n\nMusic\nPresident\n\nOsbourne McConathy, Director, Public School Music De-\n\nVice-President\n\nLucy K. Cole, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools\nGlen H. Woods, Director of Music, Public Schools\n\npartment, School of Music, Northwestern University.\nSecretary.\n\n.\n\n,\n\nEvanston, HI.\nSeattle, Wash.\n\nOakland, Cal.\n\nBusiness\nPresident\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEarl J. Glade, Head of Commercial Department, Brigham\nYoung University\nProvo, Utah\nDavid P. Blankenbiller, Mechanic Arts High School\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nMargaret MacVichie, Head of Commercial Department,\nHigh School\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": "18", "text": "l8\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\nChild Hygiene\n\nC\n\nBagliy, Professor of Education, Univeisity of\n\nPrtsidmt\n\nWilliam\n\nVie^'PresidMt\n\nHelen C Putnam, American Academy of Medicine\n\nProvidence, R.I.\n\nSteretary\n\nL. N. Hines, Superintendent of Schools\n\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\n\nUrbana, 111.\n\nIllinois\n\nPhysical\n\nPmidmt\n\nBaroness Rose Posse, President, Posse Normal School of\n\nVif-PresidetU\n\nW. J. Monilaw, University of Chicago\n\nSecrttary\n\nOeson Ryan, Superintendent\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\nGymnastics\n\nSalt\n\nChicago, lU.\n\nof Jordan School\n\nDistrict,\n\nMidvale, Utah\n\nLake County\n\nScience\nViu-President\n\nGeorge R. Twiss, High-School Visitor, Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio\nCharles E. Siegerpoos, Professor of Animal Biology, University of Minnesota\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nSecretary\n\nA. A. Upham, Normal School\n\nWhitewater, Wb.\n\nPresident\n\nW. R. Hodges, President, Associated School Boards\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSanta Vi, N.M.\nJosi D. Sena, President, Board of Education\nFrank M. Bruce, Business Manager, American School Board\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nJournal\n\nPresident\n\nWillis H. Kerr, Librarian, State Normal School\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMrs. P. P. Claxton\nHarriet A. Wood, School Librarian\n\nPresident\n\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, National Associa-\n\nViu-President\n\ntion for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children Plainfield, N.J.\nFaribault, Minn.\nJames J. Dow, Superintendent of School for the Blind\nW. E. Taylor, Superintendent, State School for the Deaf and\n\nPresident\n\nSchool Administration\nSleepy Eye, Minn\n\nIiibrary\nEmporia, Eans.\nWashington, D.C.\nPortland, Ore.\n\nSpecial\n\nSecretary\n\nGooding, Idaho\n\nBlind\n\nSchool Patrons\nVice-President\n\nMrs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers. Chicago, HI.\nMrs. L. L. Blankenbero, General Federation of Women's\n\nSecretary\n\nMrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women\n\nPresident\n\nE. C. Bishop, Schools Section, Iowa State College\n\nVice-President\n\nDaniel H. Hill,\n\nSecretary\n\nM.\n\nPresident\n\n.\n\nClubs\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nBural and Agricultural\nPresident,\n\nMechanic Arts\nS.\n\nAmes, Iowa\n\nCollege of Agriculture and\n\nMcDowell, Agricultural\n\nRaleigh, N.C.\n\nExtension\n\nDepartment,\n\nPennsylvania State College\n\nState College, Pa.\n\nClassroom Teachers\nPresident\n\nFlorence Rood, Kindergarten Director, St. Paul Normal\n\nVice-President\n\nMary O'Connor, Public School No. sa\nMary Adeisson, Public Schook\n\nSchool\nSecretary\n\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nBuffalo, N.Y.\n\nDenver, Colo.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": "19", "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nFIFTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF\nTHE UNITED STATES\nST. PAUL, MINN., JULY 4-11,\n\niQU\n\nEDUCATIONAL SUNDAY\nIn accordance withfan established'custom, Sunday, July 5, was observed as Educational Sunday by a large number of the churches of St. Paul, on which date the respective\npastors held special services, preaching sermons on educational topics as follows.\n\nAll\n\nservices were held in the forenoon unless otherwise noted.\n\n—\n\n\"The Master Spirit in Education\" Rev. James F. Beates, Holy Trinity English\nLutheran Church.\n\"Education the Handmaid of Religion\" Rev. Benjamin Bxmn Royer, Merriam\nPark Presbyterian Church, at 7:30 P.M.\n\"Oxford and Rhodes Scholarships\"—Rev. W. P. Millar, First Methodist Church.\n\"An Age of Knowledge Is an Age of Faith\" Rev. Frank Doran, Central Park\nMethodist Church.\n\"The Teachers' Vocation\" ^Rev. Frank Doran, Central Park Methodist Church,\nat 8:00 P.M.\n\"Religion as an Education\" ^Rev. Maurice D. Edwards, Dayton Avenue Presbyterian Church.\n\"Fundamental Need in Modem Education\" Rev. S. T. Willis, First Christian\nChurch.\n\"Moral Leadership in Education\" Rev. F. M. Rule, Holman Memorial Church.\n\"Christian Education\" Rev. WiUiam C. Pope, Church of the Good Shepherd.\n\"Church and Public School\"—Rev. Karl Koch, St. Paul's Evangelical Church.\n\"A Teacher Come from God\" ^Rev. George Mahlon Miller, Olivet Congregational\nChurch.\n\"Patriotism and Spirituality\" Rev. Addison Moore, Peoples Church.\n\"Matters of Moment for Modem Minds\" Rev. Addison Moore, Peoples Church,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nat 7:4s P.M.\n\n—Rev. D. Dimond Mitchell, Grand View Heights\n\"Studying Our Magna Charta\" —Rev. B. Scott Bates, Knox Presbyterian Church.\n\n\"The Beginning of\nPresbyterian Church.\n\nWisdom\"\n\n\"Education\"—Rev. E. B. Woodruff, St. Clement's Memorial Church.\n\"The Call of the World for Teachers\"—Rev. J. D. McCormick, King Street Methodist Church, at 7:4s p.m.\n\"The Privileges and the Power of the Possessors of the Truth\"\nFirst Baptist Church, at 8: 00 p.m.\n\n—Rev. H. G. Beeman,\n\n\"Education: What Do We Imply by That Word?\"—Rev. G. R. Fisher, Hazel\nPark Peoples Church, at 8: 00 p.m.\n\n\"Education\"—Rev. Edward L. Roland. St. Paul's Church-on-the-Hill.\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nOpening Session\n\n—\n\n^Monday Afternoon, July 6, 2:00 o'clock\nThe Fifty-second Annual Convention of the National Education Association was\nopened in the Auditorium, St. Paul, Minn., at 2:00 p.m., on July 6.\n19\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": "20", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n20\n\nVice-President Edward T. Fairchild, president, New Hampshire College, Durham\n\nN.H., presided at the opening of the session.\nInvocation—Rt. Rev. John J. Lawler, Auxiliary Bishop of St. Paul, St. Paul, Minn.\nVice-President Fairchild then introduced the following speakers,\n\nwho delivered\n\naddresses of welcome: J. A. A. Bumquist, lieutenant-governor of the state of Minnesota; C. G. Schulz, state superintendent of education, St. Paul, Minn.; Winn Powers,\n\nmayor of St. Paul; and Dietrich Lange, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn.\nA response to the addresses of welcome was made by Vice-President Fairchild.\nFollowing the addresses of welcome and the response, Chairman Fairchild introduced to the audience Joseph Swain, president, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.,\npresident of the National Education Association, and transferred to him the conduct of\nthe convention.\n\nAt this point. President Joseph Swain delivered the presidential address of the year,\nwhich was entitled \"The Relation of the Teacher to American Citizenship.\"\nThis was followed by an address on \"The Responsibility of American Educators in\nthe Solution of America's Oriental Problem\"\n\nby Sidney Lewis Gulick, professor in\nDoshisha University and lecturer in Imperial University at Kyoto, Japan, and repre-\n\nsentative on Conmiission\n\non International Relations\n\nof the\n\nFederal Council of the\n\nChurches of Christ in America.\n\nThe following conmiittees were announced by President Swain:\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nWilliam O. Thompson, of Ohio, Chairman\nCharles E. Chadsey, of Michigan\nL. E. Wolfe, of Texas\n\nJohn H. PhiUips, of Alabama\nJohn R. Kirk, of Missouri\nE. T. Fairchild, of New Hampshire\n\nG. W. A. Luckey, of Nebraska\nP. P. Claxton, of District of Columbia\nArthur H. Chamberlain, of California\nFrancis G. Blair, of Illinois\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, of Indiana\n\nHomer H. Seerley, of Iowa\n\nCOMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY\nJames M. Greenwood, of Missouri, Chair-\n\n»w«\nKatherine D. Blake, of New York\n\nW. N. Sheats, of Florida\nJosephine C. Preston, of Washington\nJ.\n\nM. H. Frederick, of Ohio\n\nFollowing the announcements, the convention adjourned to Monday evening, the\nactive members of the Association reassembling by states at 5:30 p.m., either in sections\nof the Auditorium or at their respective state headquarters, for the selection of members\nof the nominating committee.\n\nSecond Session—Monday Evening, July 6, 7:30 o'clock\nPreceding the opening of the session, the following musical program was given\nby classes of the St. Paul Normal School, under the direction of Elsie M. Shawe, supervisor of music, city schools, St. Paul, Minn.\n\n....\n\nOperetta— \"Hiawatha's Childhood\"\nBessie M.Whiieley\n(Text selected from \"Hiawatha\" by Henry W. Longfellow)\nCAST OP CHARACTERS\nFrances Seddon\n5*t^*^!^\n\n^ A^\n\n.\n\n•\n\n•\n\n'\n\n,,\n\nMathilda Heck\n\nMudjikeewis (West Wmd)\nEthel Larpenteur\nlagoo (The Boaster)\nMildred Hessian\nWamors, Maidens, Wind-Spirits, Fireflies\n1. Introduction: Indian War\nDance\n2. Chorus: \"By the Shores of\nGitchie Gumee\"\n3. Solo: \"Ewa-yea.\"\nNokomis\n4. Wind Song and Phantom Dance: Wind-Spirits\nand Phantoms\n5. Chorus: \"At the Door on Summer\nEvenings\"\n6. Solo: \"Wah-wah-taysee.\"\nHiawatha\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": "21", "text": "—\n\nJOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n7.\n\n8.\n9.\n\n21\n\nDance of the Fireflies\n\n\"Saw the Moon\"\n\"Then the Little Hiawatha\"\n\nChorus:\nChorus:\n\n\"Go, My Son.\" lagoo\nSemi-Chorus: \"All Alone Walked Hiawatha\"\n12. Chorus: \"And the Birds Sang Round Him\"\nChorus\n13. Finale: (a) \"Then Upon One Knee.\"\n10. Solo:\n11.\n\n(b)\n\n\"DeadHeLay Therein the Forest.\"\n\n(c)\n\n\"But the Heart of Hiawatha.\"\n\n{d)\n\n\"Strong-Heart.\"\n\nSemi-Chorus\nChorus\n\nChorus\n\nStage Managers and Directors of Dances\n\nMary McClellan and Florence Rood\nAfter the musical program, the meeting was called to order by President Swain,\n\nand the following addresses were given on the general topic, \"The Status of Woman\":\n\"Training\n\nWomen for Social Responsibility\" —^Lois Kimball Mathews, dean of\n\nwomen, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\n\"Some Aspects of the Public School from a Social Worker's Point of View\"\nSophonisba Preston Breckinridge, assistant professor of social economy, University of\nChicago, Chicago, 111.\n\"The Humanities, Old and New\" Emma M. Perkins, professor of Latin, College\nfor Women, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\"Preparation of Women for Twentieth-Century Life\" Mary E. Woolley, president,\n\n—\n\n—\n\nMount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass.\n\nSECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nThird Session\n\n—^Tuesday Afternoon, July\n\n7,\n\n2:00 o'clock\n\nPreceding the addresses of the afternoon, the following musical recital was given by\nfour hundred children of the Ericsson Grade School, St. Paul, Minn., under the direction\nof Elsie M.\n\nShawe, supervisor of music, city schools, St. Paul, Minn.:\n\nSpring Song\n2. Barcarolle (from \"Tales of Hoffman\")\n3. Stars of the Summer Night\n4. Star Spangled Banner\n\nLeo Delibes\nOfenhach\n\n1.\n\nAfter the recital, the meeting was called to order by President Swain, and the fol-\n\nlowing addresses were given on the general topic, \"Teachers' Salaries and Pensions\":\n\n—\n\n\"Present Salaries of Teachers\" Margaret A. Haley, business representative,\nChicago Teachers Federation, and member of the National Education Association Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, Chicago, III.\n\"The College Professor and the Nation\" Charles William Dabney, president,\n\n—\n\nUniversity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\"Salaries Based on the Position and Not on the Sex of Incumbent\" Grace C.\nStrachan, district superintendent of schools, and member of the National Education\nAssociation Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"Teachers' Retirement Allowances\" ^Walter I. Hamilton, agent, Massachusetts\nBoard of Education, Boston, Mass.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, thru its chairman, Joseph\nSwain, announced that its report this year had been issued by the United States Bureau\nof Education as Bulletin No. 16, 19 14, under the title \"The Tangible Rewards of Teach-\n\nand that it was now ready for distribution. It also presented a supplementary\nby Scott Nearing, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania,\nPhiladelphia, Pa., on \"The Public-School Teacher and the Standard of Living,\" which\ning,\"\n\nreport prepared\n\nreport appears in the Proceedings.\n\n—\n\nPhilander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, WashJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.; Lloyd E. Wolfe,\nSan Antonio, Tex.; and David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial\nDiscussion\n\nington, D.C.;\n\nCoUege, Rock Hill, S.C.\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": "22", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n22\n\nTuesday Evening, July 7, 8:30 o'clock\nTuesday evening was given over to a reception at the state capitol, to which the\nvisiting teachers were invited.\n\nTHIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nFourth Session—Wednesday Evening, July 8, 8:00 o'clock\nPreceding the addresses of the evening, there was a program of moving pictures\nillustrating various phases of St. Paiil public-school activities.\n\nPresident Swain called the meeting to order, and the program of the evening was\n\npresented as follows, on the general topic, \"Principles and Aims of Education\":\n\n\"Common Sense and Beyond\"—William L. Bryan, president, Indiana University,\nBloomington, Ind.\n«•\n^ ^\n\"The Purpose of Elementary and High-School Education\"—Nathan C. Schaeffer,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\"The Purpose of the Liberal College\"—Alexander Meiklejohn, president, Amherst\nCollege, Amherst, Mass.\n,\n\nAt the close of the program, President Swain announced the following Committee\non Nominations:\n\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\nJohn W. Carr, of New Jersey, Chairman\nT. W. Palmer\nA. J. Matthews\n\nAlabama\n\nE. T. Fairchild\n\nArizona\nArkansas\n\nJ. Milne\n\nGeorge B. Cook\nElizabeth Sherman .... California\nColorado\nJames B. Ragan\n\n.New York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\n\nGeorgia\n\nIdaho\n\nS. E.\n\nIllinois\n\nS. S. CoLViN\n\nRhode Island ^\n\nIndiana\n\nJ. E.\n\nWalmsley\nC. G. Lawrence\nS. H. Thompson\n\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\n\nDistrict of Col.\n\nW. Cravens\nP. E. McClenahan\nT. W. Butcher\nM. A. Cassidy\nClara G. Baer\nRobert J. Aley\nA. J. PiETSCH\nA. L. WiLLiSTON\nC. E. Chadsey\n\n.\n\nW. E. Hoover\nJ. M. H. Frederick\nF. W. Wenner\nO. M. Plummer\n\nA. C. MoNAHAN\nG. M. Lynch\nG. L. Carver\nW. R. SiDERS\nF. G. Blair\nJ.\n\nKatherine D. Blake\nJ. Y. JOYNER\n\nNew Hampshire\nNew Mexico\n\nFlorida\n\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\n\nMaine\nMaryland\n\nWeber\n\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\n\nH. F. Estill\nA. C. Matheson\nG. P. Benton.\nJ. A. C. Chandler\nC. E. Beach\nT. C. Miller\n\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\n\nWashington\n\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMissouri\n\nJ. Callahan\n\nWisconsin\n\nJ. J. Early\n\nWyoming\n\nR. J. Cunningham\n\nMontana\n\nE. M. Bainter\n\nPorto Rico\n\nJ. E. Delzell\n\nNebraska\n\nFlorence Rood\nJ. A.\n\nWmTEFORD\n\nWest Virginia\n\nFOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nFifth Session\n\n—Thursday Evening, July\n\n9,\n\n8:00 o'clock\n\nPresident Swain called the meeting to order and the following program was given\n\non the general topic, \"Education in a Democracy\":\n\n\"For Social Service\"\nconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\n—Edward A. Ross, professor of sociology. University of Wis-\n\n\"For Political and Moral Service\"—William O. Thompson, president, Ohio State\nUniversity, Columbus, Ohio.\n\n\"Organization of Education for Democracy\"\ncommissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n\n—Philander P. Claxton, United States\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": "23", "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n23\n\nFIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nSixth Session\n\n—Friday Evening, July\n\n10,\n\n7:30 o'clock\n\nPreceding the opening of the meeting, a program of folk dances was given unde^ the\ndirection of Josephine Brower, physical director, State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn.\n\nPresident Swain called the meeting to order at 8:00 p.m.\n\nThe following addresses\n\nwere presented on the general topic, \"The Needs of the Public Schools\":\n\n—\n\n\"Professionally Prepared Teachers\" ^John W. Cook, president, State Normal\nSchool, De Kalb, lU.\n\"The Kingdom of Little Things\" ^James M. Greenwood, advisory superintendent\nof schools, Kansas City, Mo.\n\"Systematic Education for Those Pupils Leaving School Too Soon\" ^Lorenzo D.\nHarvey, president, Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.\n\"Progress of the Rural Schools\" Edward T. Fairchild, president, New Hampshire\nCollege, Durham, N.H.\n\"Let Both Grow Together imtil the Harvest\" Carroll G. Pearse, president. State\nNormal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\"The Adaptation of the Work of the School to the Needs of the People\" James Y.\nJoyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nAt this time, President Swain read a letter received from the President of the United\nStates, and his reply thereto, as follows:\n\nThe White House, Washington\nJune 30, 1914\n\nMy Dear Doctor Swain:\n\nI was very much complimented by the courtesy and urgency of the kind invitation\nwhich you conveyed to me to be present at the meeting of the National Education Association at St. Paul and genuinely regretted that public duties made it impossible for me\n\nto give myself that pleasure.\n\nThoughtful people all over the country follow the deliberations of the National Education Association with genuine interest. The problems of education are really problems\naffecting national development and national ideas.\nI think that no one long associated\nwith the profession of teaching can have failed to catch the inspiration of it or to see how\ngreat a power may be exercised thru the classroom in directing the thinking and the\nambition of the generations coming on, or can have failed to realize that nothing less than\na comprehension of the national life is necessary to fit a teacher for the great task of\npreparation and adaptation to the future that education attempts.\nCordially and sincerely yours,\n(Signed) Woodrow Wilson\nSt.\n\nPaul, Minn., July 6, 1914\n\nThe President,\nWashington, B.C.\n\nDear Mr. President:\nThe members of the National Education Association wish to express their great\nappreciation of your welcome and encouraging message. They beg you to receive their\ncordial and sincere greeting.\n\n(Signed) Joseph Swain\nPresident, National Education Association\n\nPresident Swain then read the cablegram sent to David Starr Jordan notifying him\nof his election to the presidency of the National\n\nEducation Association and the reply\n\nreceived thereto, as follows:\nSt. Paul, Minn., July 9, 1914\n\nDavid Starr Jordan\nBank of Montreal Limited\nLondon, England\nElected president of National Education Association unanimously.\nWire acceptance.\n\nCongratula-\n\ntions.\n\n(Signed) Joseph Swain\nPresident, National Education Association\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": "24", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n24\n\nLondon, England, July lo, 1914\nJoseph Swain, President\nNational Education Association\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nHonor highly appreciated.\n\nIf I\n\ncan serve the teachers, I will gladly do so.\n(Signed)\n\nDavid Starr Jordan\n\nIn closing. President Swain spoke as follows:\n\nWe\n\nhave come to the closing hour of the Fifty-second Annual Convention. I certainly deeply appreciate the good will of this Association as expressed in the resolution\nI appreciate still more the cordial co-operation of all\nof the active members yesterday.\nthe forces in the National Education Association and in this state and city, which have\nmade this convention an inspiration and an influence for good in the development of the\nschools.\nYour cordial reception reminds me of a statement of President Angell, of the University of Michigan. The alumni of Michigan on one occasion were trying to tell President Angell how much the University of Michigan was indebted to him for his service.\nWhen it came his turn to speak, he said: \"I did not make the University of Michigan.\npart has been the very humble one of helpThe University of Michigan made me.\"\ning you to give expression to the high ideal and tradition of this Association. In a very\nreal sense I have not made this convention, this convention has made me.\nI ask that you give David Starr Jordan, the scholar, the philosopher, the poet, the\ndemocrat of democrats, the promoter of the world's peace, the help and co-operation\n\nMy\n\nwhich you have given me.\n\nI cannot ask more.\n\nPresident Swain then announced the adjournment of the Fifty-second Convention\nof the National Education Association.\n\nDuRAND W. Springer, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": "25", "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES OF WELCOME\nI.\n\nJ.\n\nA. A.\n\nBURNQUIST, LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF\nMINNESOTA, ST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nWhile you are here as our guests, I wish it were possible for us, as\ncitizens of this commonwealth, to show you the state of Minnesota as we\n\nshould like to show it to you.\n\nWe should like to have you see the ten thousand beautiful lakes within\nWe should like to show\n\nits borders, its winding rivers, and its wooded hills.\n\nyou Minnesota's twenty million acres of agricultural lands now under cultivation, on which are being produced immense crops that within a few\ndays will be harvested and sent to the world's different markets, especially\nto those of our own state, in which are located the largest flour mills in the\nworld. I wish too it were possible for us to take you to the northeastern\nportion of the state, where are to be found the richest known deposits of\niron, where men are digging down into the depths of the earth and taking\nout of it this much-used mineral which is being manufactured into products\nthat are shipped thruout the length and breadth of this country and the\ncivilized world.\nWe should also be pleased to take you to those sections\nof the state where you could see our virgin forests.\nAlready large tracts\nof these forests have been cut down and sawed into lumber, some of which\nmay have been used in the building of homes where many of you are living\nand in the construction of the schoolhouses and college buildings in which\nsome of you have taught.\nBut especially do I wish that it were possible for us to have you visit\nour schools and colleges and universities, for we in Minnesota have ever\nbeen interested in education.\n\nOur first territorial governor, Alexander\n\nRamsey, who subsequently became the second governor of the state, more\nthan half a century ago recommended certain legislation which has resulted\nin a school fund that today is equal to more than thirty millions of dollars,\nand is larger, it is said, than the school funds of all the states east of the\nMississippi River put together, and which in the years to come will be\nequivalent to many times its present amount.\nWe, as residents of Minnesota, like to call the attention of our guests\nto the picturesque scenery, the healthful climate, the great industries, the\n\nnatural resources, and the educational system, of which I have spoken,\njust as you from other parts of the country like to speak of the interesting\nfacts relative to the sections from which you have come;\n\nand yet I feel\n\nthat, however great may be the pride that we have in our respective states\n25\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": "26", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n26\n\n[General\n\nand territories, we all have a still greater pride in our common country, the\nUnited States of America, and that today all of us, regardless of whether\nwe come from the South or the North, from the Atlantic coast or the\nPacific slope, regardless of where we live, rejoice in the fact that back of\nthe Constitution which gives us our federal government, back of the congress which enacts for us our laws, back of the federal courts which construe\nthat Constitution and those laws, and back of the federal executive who\nenforces them, stand the people, not of different, separate, independent, and\nfighting states, but the people of the whole of the United States as the real\npower and the true sovereignty in our representative form of government.\nSo, we of Minnesota, constituting a small portion of the great American\nRepublic, extend to you a most cordial welcome, trusting that you will\nreceive much profit from this convention and much enjoyment from your\nvisit to our state, and knowing that we shall be greatly benefited by your\n\npresence with us, for we realize that in the teachers of our country, in the\nideas which they impart, and in the ideals which they teach, are wrapped\n\nup the true prosperity, the real progress, and the highest development of\nour state and nation.\nn.\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, ST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nC. G. SCHTJLZ,\n\nIn extending welcome to the National Education Association, I speak\nfor the educational agencies in Minnesota as represented by our ten thou-\n\nsand rural schools and teachers, by the public-school forces of our towns\n\nand cities, by the higher institutions of learning, and by every agency that\nseeks to train and develop character thru organized educational forces.\nMinnesota is full of joy, of promise, of opportunity. Our resources\nare great, our confidence in our own ability to do and achieve the useful\nand the beautiful is of that subdued and silent character which must be\nexperienced in order that it may be known and felt. We have a pride in\nour progress, considering that scarcely more than half a century marks the\nstate's history in its industrial, social, educational, and religious activities.\nYou will find reflected in the school work of Minnesota types of what each\nstate is seeking to achieve thru its educational efforts.\nWhile we hope that\nyou may enjoy our climate, our scenery, and our hospitality, we, on our\npart, are conscious that the presence of the National Education Association\nin Minnesota will be an inspiration and a guide to more useful and practical\nefforts on our part.\n\nWe are young in years and still more youthful in spirit.\n\nTeaching in the Northwest not only retains but restores the vigor and\n\nWe are confident that the deliberations of the National\nEducation Association in the North Star State will mark such an epoch\nenergy of youth.\n\nin the history of this gathering of missionary workers in the educational\nfield that the entire movement for better schools thru more purposeful and\n\nbetter directed training will raise and advance the whole level of public-\n\nschool service thruout the nation.\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": "27", "text": "ADDRESSES OF WELCOME\n\nSessions]\n\n27\n\nm. WINN POWERS, MAYOR OF ST. PAUL, MINN.\nAny city which entertains a convention of the National Education Association is distinguished thereby and reaps a harvest of honor from its hospitality.\n\nEducation has been the glory of all nations that have prospered,\n\nbut in no nation has education meant what it means in this country, because\ndemocracy, which in America has sought and found its final expression,\nmust be founded upon the intellectual wealth of a whole people. An unenlightened aristocracy\n\na cesspool of injustice;\n\nis\n\nbut an unenlightened\n\ndemocracy, if such a thing were possible, would be hideous to contemplate\n\nIn the final analysis, democracy and education\nmust be one, since democracy cannot exist save thru the strength of its\nin the horror of its ravages.\n\nindividual units.\n\nHere on this continent, democracy, making not only its first but its\nfinal triumphant experiment in government and society, has taken its pain-\n\nful but progressive way step by step, not along the avenues of passion and\n\nprejudice, but slowly upward by paths of intelligent conquest, lighted by\n\nthe torch of wisdom upheld in thousands and thousands of schools and\ncolleges where brave and patient\ncitizens with a vision.\n\nmen and women have toiled to create\n\n^\n\nI contemplate such a gathering with a sense of reverential joy, with a\n\nsure belief that these days are to be big with a mighty devotion to high\nideals in the quest for truth.\n\nAs an American citizen, I am thrilled with the\n\nconsciousness that your work underlies the very foundations of our govern-\n\nment because it underlies the sanctity and integrity of our personal and\nsocial living.\n\nMy own sentiment toward your noble profession I cannot better express\nthan to use again the words I used in my inaugural address as mayor:\nI am strongly of the feeling that to no class of people do we owe so much as to our\n\nteachers.\n\nNo other profession calls for greater nobility of character, greater patience,\nWhatever we can do to lighten the burdens of those to whom we\n\nmore unselfish service.\n\ntrust, in so large a measure, the fashioning of each new generation should be done gladly\nand wilUngly, and we should, so far as is possible, make them feel that they fill a large and\nuseftd place in the city's activity, and that they represent the power and dignity of the\ncommimity, and have the support and sympathy of the people.\n\nSo I welcome you to our city gladly and heartily.\n\nI trust that you\n\nmay find time to test our hospitality, which I assure you will not fail.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nWe\n\nhave not the greatest city in the world as yet ^but we are a neighborly\npeople and keep our hearts warm and our hands open in welcome to all\nother people. During your brief stay here, you will be able, we trust, to\nglimpse something of our natural beauty; but most of all we hope that you\nmay realize the warmth of our personal sentiments toward you. A city's\ngreatness, while it may be built upon its material achievements, cannot be\nsustained by these alone, but must be kept alive and new by the human\nand kindly spirit of its people reaching out hands of friendship toward all\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": "28", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n28\n\nother people and all other communities.\nsincere and hearty.\n\n'\n\n[General\n\nIn this spirit I give you welcome\n\nI will not say, in the stereotyped phrase, that **the\n\nkeys of the city are yours,\" but rather I would say, \"We give to you the\n\nkeys to our hearts, to our homes, and to our affections.\"\n\nIV.\n\nDIETRICH LANGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nIt is only about half a century ago that the magnificent city which\nwelcomes you today was a small town on the Indian frontier. There are\nmen in this audience now who were then small boys who went to sleep\n\nmany a night with their heads tucked under their blankets, thinking that\nthus they would have a better chance to save their scalps from marauding\nIndians who were reported killing whites all over the state.\nIt is less\n\nthan a century ago that the first company of United States\n\nsoldiers pushed their batteaus up against the current of the Mississippi to\n\nthe white cliffs of Fort Snelling, where they built the old historic fort and\nthe old stone tower which very appropriately adorn the badges of this\ngreat convention.\n\nThese soldiers were one of the advance guards of civilization, and their\nwork was to enforce peace between the warring Chippewa and Sioux\nnations.\n\nAbout the same time, and at even earlier dates, missionaries came into\nthe wilderness to spread the gospel among both the Sioux and the Chippewa.\n\nYou, also, have come here as pioneers of progress and civilization.\n\nThe\n\nphysical conquest of this continent is rapidly being completed by the railroads, the telegraph, and many other powerful physical appliances of the\n\nwhite race.\n\nBut physical conquest, the building of machinery, and the\n\naccumulation of wealth alone do not make man better or life more worth\nliving, and it is pre-eminently the duty and privilege of the teacher to create\n\nin the growing generations a sense of devotion to duty, efficiency in all the\n\nwalks of life, idealism for the performance of even the humblest duties, and\nthat broad love, charity, and sympathy for all mankind of which the Great\n\nTeacher of Nazareth will always remain the most luminous example.\n\nFor this great and inspiring task I bid you Godspeed, and on behalf of\nthe teachers of St. Paul and the Commissioner of Education, I welcome\nyou.\n\nRESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME\nEDWARD T. FAIRCHILD, PRESIDENT, NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE, DURHAM, N.H.\n\nOn behalf of the National Education Association I thank you most\nsincerely for your friendly words of welcome.\n\nWe have come here with a full knowledge of the splendid citizenship\nWe are proud to be thus eloquently\n\nof St. Paul and of the state at large.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": "29", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nSessions]\n\n29\n\nand generously received by the lieutenant-governor of this state, the state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, the mayor of this city, and the\nsuperintendent of your city schools.\n\nOur interest has been challenged and our admiration aroused by the\nfacts and figures setting forth the charms and the material resources of the\n\ncity and the state.\n\nWe have listened with peculiar interest and satisfaction\n\nto the recital of the vast resources of Minnesota which are devoted to educational purposes.\n\nWe are glad to know that so much money is available\n\nfor the instruction of the youth and it will be our earnest endeavor while\n\nhere to study the manner in which these funds for educational purposes are\n\nused and to learn if possible how rich a return in citizenship is secured thru\nthe material help of the state.\n\nWe all know something of the importance and beauty of your city and\nthe splendid spirit of Americanism which characterizes the Twin Cities.\n\nThe description of St. Paul which we have just heard adds to our knowledge\nand confirms our admiration. But we are most interested in the description of your educational system as set forth by the state superintendent\nof public instruction.\n\nto us most.\n\nIt is the interests which he represents that appeal\n\nMinnesota, with her splendid universities, her well-equipped\n\nand fully modern high schools, and her most excellent elementary schools,\nimpresses us profoundly, and it is a pleasure to recall the efficient work\naccomplished by State Superintendent Schulz.\nAgain, gentlemen and citizens of Minnesota, we thank you most sincerely for this free, this full, this friendly welcome; we have no doubt that\nour sojourn here will be one of great pleasure and profit to ourselves, and\nwe trust that pleasant memories of our stay may linger long with you.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nTEE RELATION OF THE TEACHER TO AMERICAN\nCITIZENSHIP\nJOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA.,\nPRESIDENT OT THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nIt was\n\nmy privilege to spend several months not long since in Europe.\n\nWhile I had been abroad a half-dozen times previously, I was never before\nso impressed by the contrast of the privileges we enjoy in America with\nthose of the Old World, and I desire to give brief expression to the feeling\nof obligation which our opportunities place upon us.\n\nAmong the many things for which our American citizenship should be\nmost grateful is its comparative freedom from abject poverty. We have\nthe indolent, the unfortunate, the weak, and the poor, but we do not find\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": "30", "text": "NATIONAL ED UCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n30\n\n[General\n\nhere such hopeless conditions of want and degradation as we find in many\nparts of Europe. The mere struggle for existence among the lower classes\nin the Old World is much more severe than in the new.\n\nCaste, unjust laws,\n\nlong years of oppression, traditions, and crowded conditions of the people,\nhave made the\nlife under unhealthful and unwholesome surroundings,\nlives of the poor pitiable indeed.\n\nIn our land, while there are slums in parts\n\nof some of our great cities, and in some of our rural districts as well, they are\nnowhere so bad or so hopeless as they are in Europe, and they do not affect\n\nso large a proportion of our population.\n\nThis is a blessing the full meaning\n\nof which is not realized by many of us.\n\nOne who has never traveled in any country except our own cannot fully\nrealize how much better the condition of woman is in America than in other\n\nThe European woman seems too often to be either a doll or a\nEverywhere in the Old World one sees women working on the\nIn the higher walks of life,\nstreets and in the fields, doing the work of men.\nin aristocratic circles, yoimg women at least are guarded so closely that they\ncountries.\n\ndrudge.\n\nhave little contact with life and grow up, as it were, in a convent. If the\nAmerican man has greater opportunity than the man of other countries, the\nAmerican woman has far greater advantages than has her European sister,\nespecially far greater independence, and is held in much greater respect and\nesteem. She is becoming the best educated woman in the world, and bids\nfair to become better educated than the American man.\nThere is greater freedom in thought and action in America than in other\nparts of the world. Even in a democracy like that of France there are monWhere\narchical traditions, and the idea of caste is in no sense eliminated.\nthere are caste lines there can be no sense of equality of opportunity. There\nis a conviction that birth alone makes one man better than another, regardThere is no other country in the world\nless of attainment or character.\nhuman\nbeing, regardless of birth, wealth,\nthe\nindividual\nwhere the worth of\nor position, counts for so much as in America.\n\nAgain the United States has much cause for gratitude that it is a union\nof states a \"nation one and indivisible,'* under one flag, with a common\naim and purpose, one people speaking a common language, and com-\n\n—\n\nparatively free from sectionalism.\n\nFew nations of the earth are so favored.\n\nTake for example the Austrian empire. There the government is very\nunstable. Baron Plener, a member of the Austrian Senate, told me that\nthe Austrian government had to deal within the empire with people speaking twenty-six different languages.\n\nIn view of their past history, these conAltho there\n\nditions make jealousy, and lack of co-operation is inevitable.\n\nare as many or more languages spoken in the United States, there is one common language which all the inhabitants of the comitry are anxious to learn.\nIt is only by such comparisons as those given above that we in America\n\ncan realize how relatively simple our isolation from other nations makes\nthe problem of our government.\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": "31", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nSessions!\n\n31\n\nWe may well be grateful that we are not a military nation. The contiYou see him on every hand\nThere are many agencies to keep alive the military spirit.\n\nnent of Europe is ever guarded by the soldier.\nin\n\nGermany.\n\nOne feels at once in Germany that the highest idea of the nation is military.\nEven the spirit of the schools is military. Unless the political philosophy\nof Europe\nthat commercial and social power is determined by the strength\nof the army and navy can be replaced by reason and moral law, there\n\n—\n\n—\n\nseems no end but destruction and ruin.\n\nWhile America is spending large\nsums on her army and navy, she is spending, in proportion to her resources,\nmuch less than Europe. I, for one, would be glad to see her take a more\nconservative position.\n\nWe have in the United States a feeling of patriotism and fidelity to\nour democratic form of government because we believe in principles of\n\ndemocracy and know that we have a stable government. While our own\ngovernment is yet far from ideal, we may indeed be grateful that we have a\nstable democratic form of government in whose basic principles we believe\n\nand which it behooves us to uphold by an enlightened and courageous\ncitizenship.\n\nAn American diplomat, who has spent many years abroad in different\ncountries, told me he was sure that the moral sense of the American people\nis higher than that of any other people in the world.\n\nI heard ex-President\n\nEliot of Harvard once say, in answer to a charge that the American people\n\nwere materialistic, that he did not think so.\n\nwere idealistic.\n\nHe thought rather that they\n\nI believe President Eliot is right, but we are so busy most\n\nof the time that we do not give our idealism a fair chance.\n\nHowever this\n\nmay be, it is of the profoundest moment that the backbone of our nation\nis composed of men and women who have considered right and duty and\nthe welfare of humanity of first and highest importance.\n\nThis brings me to a point which it seems fitting on this occasion should\n\nbe emphasized.\n\nMy recent experience has made me realize more fully that\n\nthe continent of Europe furnishes no parallel to the American college.\n\nAll\n\nforms of higher education on the continent are professional in character.\n\nThe student goes directly from the gymnasium in Germany to the university,\nwhich has no college of liberal arts.\nspirit as\n\nI\n\nHe pursues his studies in the same\n\ndoes the student of medicine or law.\n\nam persuaded that the American college fills a vital place in our\n\nAmerican system\n\nof education.\n\nrelatively idealistic.\n\nThe spirit of the American college is\n\nIt has for its fundamental purposes the development\n\nof mind and character.\n\nThis spirit demands that education shall first mean\n\nthe harmonious development of all the powers of the himian personality.\n\nContact with foreign schools has led me to cherish still more the things for\nwhich the founders of the American college stood, and for which I hope, in\nthe providence of God, the college will always stand.\n\nNothing else can\n\ntake the place of that unswerving honesty, simplicity of life, loyal devotion\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": "32", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION A SSOCIATION\n\n32\n\n[General\n\nto duty, and abiding trust in the eternal verities of true religion, which was\n\nthe faith and practice of the founders of our American college. These now\nand ever are the need of the nation, and the graduates of our colleges have\n\na great inheritance and, therefore, special obligations.\nThe above are a few of the many advantages of American citizenship for\nwhich we should be profoundly grateful. That America has less poverty,\nlarger territory, better conditions of women, larger freedom, more love of\n\npeace, larger faith in democracy, more idealism than other countries is an\n\nadvantage.\n\nThey have cost blood and treasure, and it is for their children\n\nto increase the inheritance which the fathers have bequeathed to them.\n\nNothing is more shameful for a man than a claim to esteem, not on his own\nmerits, but on the fame of his ancestors. The glory of the fathers is doubtless to their children a most precious treasure, but to enjoy it without\ntransmission to the next generation and without additions is the extreme of\nignominy.\nIt will be observed that these blessings which have been pointed out are\nchiefly spiritual ones.\n\nThe higher the civilization of a people the less they\n\nvalue mere material things, and the more thought is given to things intellectual and idealistic.\n\nExcluding the state and the public press, there are three great instischool.\n\n—\n\nthe home, the church, and the\nOur complex modern life has made the home with a large pro-\n\ntutions for the development of citizenship\n\nportion of our citizenship less effective than formerly in its direct influence\n\non the children.\n\nThe church has not yet fully adapted itself to the needs of\n\nmen and women in this age when theology and sectarianism are no longer\npotent to make men and women go to church and blindly accept its tenets\nand dogmas.\n\nIt is hoped that both these powerful agencies will at length\n\nbetter fill their high place in the new order of society.\n\nHowever this may\n\nbe, certain it is that the great fact remains that the school from the kinder-\n\ngarten to and including the university is growing in power and influence\nfor good in the development of an enlightened citizenship.\nIf we are to have growth in citizenship from generation to generation we\nmust have growth in culture, in the intellectual and moral training and\npower of the teacher.\nOur public-school system not only must embrace the education of the\nchildren in the schools, but must provide for the continuous growth of\nevery boy and girl after they leave the regular school course as now constituted to fit them for the highest usefulness as citizens in the community\nin which they live.\nThis must be done by the continuation school and other\nagencies, which are destined to become of more vital concern in the future.\nTo meet this new demand of an enlarged duty of educating our citizens,\nwe must have teachers of the highest training. They must be men and\nwomen of vision, of sound body, of trained intellects, and of exalted char-\n\nacters.\n\nThey will continue to demand not only opportunity for a larger\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": "33", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nSessions]\n\n33\n\ntraining but more special knowledge in the subjects they are employed to\n\nteach.\nIf we are to have exalted character we must have teachers of faith and\nreligion.\n\nWhen I say faith and religion, I do not mean theology and dogma,\n\ntho each individual should have his own creed and profession of faith.\n\nI\n\nmean this:\nStripped of all forms of conventional language, laying aside the imagery and traditions which cling about the very word itself, religion presents itself to the faith of man as\n\nnothing other than the divine life in the human soul, a life which manifests itself by the\n\ngrowth which it brings forth, the divine flowers of the human heart, love, fearlessness,\nserenity, patience, service.\n\nIf this view of religion be correct, it is the chief business of men and\nwomen in the home, in the school, in the church, and in society to perform\n\nreligious acts\n\nand to lead others to perform them.\n\nThe religious spirit\n\nmay be developed thru the teaching of music, literature, science, and, in\ngeneral, thru the curriculum of the schools.\n\nThe cultivation of the spirit\n\nof wonder and reverence, dependence and humility, spiritual\n\nmastery and\n\nNot much instruction, either secular or\n\nfaith is legitimate in the schools.\n\nreligious, can be given without a well-equipped teacher, whose personality,\n\nlearning, and moral and religious life appeal to those under her care.\n\nThe\n\nteacher cannot teach what she does not know and cannot give to others the\nreligious life which she does not possess.\n\nNeither can she impart what she\n\ndoes know unless she has learned to teach.\n\nThe great need of citizenship in both the church and the school is a\nband of strong men and women who are willing to give their lives to young\npeople, who have a profound faith in humanity, who believe that the heart\nof the universe is sound, who believe that we are placed in the world for a\n\npurpose, and who show by their face and feature and every act that it is a\n\njoy to give a helping hand.\n\nFill\n\nour schools and our churches with such\n\nleaders, and we shall not need the terms \"secular\" and \"religious educa-\n\ntion,\" for the term \"education\" will include them both.\nIf the schools are to have the kind of teachers suggested, there are some\n\nthings which must be done to make it possible.\n\nIt will always be true,\n\nas it ought to be, that the man or woman who makes teaching a life work\n\nmust abandon all idea of accumulating wealth in dollars and cents. The\nteacher must find his or her wealth in the ability to serve. The average\nteacher teaches a few years as a stepping-stone to something else, for the\nvery good and simple reason that it is only in exceptional cases that one can\n\ndevote his life to teaching and still live a normal life, raise a family, and\nlay away enough for old age.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nrelatively\n\nunimportant from the standpoint of teachers as\n\nindividuals, because they can do in the future as they have done in the past\n\n—go into some other profession or business. But\nthe standpoint of our civilization.\n\nit means everything from\nThere are many things which must\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": "34", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n34\n\n[General\n\nI will briefly\n\nbe done before teaching can be a profession.\n\nname some\n\nof these:\n\nThe teacher must be paid a living wage. Salaries of teachers have not\nkept pace with increased prices, with the demands for training, for knowlI.\n\nedge, and for culture, with the social requirements in the community, with\n\nthe demands for attendance at simmier schools, with needs for the purchase\nof professional and other literature, with the desire for travel and recreation.\n\nOur states should provide a system of retiring allowances by which the\nThe good effect on the\nschools resulting from the teacher's ability to work with a contented mind,\n2.\n\nteacher may live in modest comfort in old age.\n\nwithout nervous anxiety about the necessities of life in old age, cannot be\noverestimated.\n\nThe school demands of the teacher larger powers and larger\n\nexperience than our present starvation systems can possibly secure.\n3.\n\nThe teachers in our lower schools should have a sabbatical year's\nis now the\n\nleave of absence for travel and study on at least half-pay, as\n\ncustom in many of our universities and colleges.\n\nThere is no expenditure\n\nof money that brings more return to a school than the sabbatical leave of\n\nabsence of one or more teachers from the school each year.\n\nSuch a teacher\n\nreturns with a new birth and brings a new enthusiasm and vision, not only\nto her own work, but to the work as well of the other teachers in the school.\n\nIncidentally it brings new hope and aspiration to the younger teachers in\n\nlooking forward to the opportunity which in turn will come to them.\n4.\n\nLastly, as the great body of our teachers are women, there are things\n\nwhich should be done especially for them.\n\nMore positions as superin-\n\ntendents, principals, and on boards of control should be open to women.\n\nThe best person for each position should be chosen regardless of sex.\n\nThere\n\nshould be equal pay for equivalent services, subject, of course, to the law of\n\nsupply and demand.\n\nOur young American citizenship should be trained\nby American citizens, and all teachers should have the rights and duties of\ncitizenship.\nIt is to me a self-evident truth, therefore, that all the teachers,\nboth men and women, should have the power and duties of the ballot. No\n\nother one reform in my opinion would do more for the schools or so increase\nthe influence and dignity of the teacher.\n\nGiven a cultivated, trained teacher of deep religious convictions, with\na sound body and an impressive personality, who goes to her work every\n\nmorning after a good night's rest, dressed neatly, with a cheerful face, at\npeace with God and man, and the public school or any other school that is\nvitalized by such a teacher will not\n\nbe Godless, but the best place in the\nworld for the growth of the child in practical righteousness and American\ncitizenship.\n\nThese are some of the things which will hasten the day when men may\nsee the vision so beautifully expressed by the late Justice Brewer:\n\nWith the eye of faith I see ixnrolled on the canvas of the future a glorious picture in,\nwhich shall be seen every laborer dwelling beneath his own vine and fig tree, receiving\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": "35", "text": "AMERICA'S ORIENTAL PROBLEM\n\nSessions]\n\n.\n\n3$\n\never a living wage for his toil, every merchant and manufacturer pursuing his business and\nhis industry without a thought of interruption by the ravages of war, and men of science\n\nand wealth combining in the achievement of more and more gigantic results, adding not\nmerely to the necessities, but also to the comforts and luxuries of life, taking possession\nof land and water and air, and all the forces to be found in them, and making them minister\nto human life.\n\nIn the foreground will be seen that highest type of womanhood, the\nMadonna, and across her bosom will be these words: \"Mary hath kept all these things,\nand hath pondered them in her heart\"; while underneath will shine in letters of fadeless\nlight, \"The United States of America has fulfilled its mission.\"\n\nTHE RESPONSIBILITY OF AMERICAN EDUCATORS IN THE\nSOLUTION OF AMERICA'S ORIENTAL PROBLEM\nSIDNEY LEWIS GULICK, PROFESSOR IN DOSHISHA UNIVERSITY AND LECTURER\nIN IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY, KYOTO, JAPAN, AND REPRESENTATIVE ON\nCOAIMISSION ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF THE FEDERAL\nCOUNCIL OF THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA\n\nThe awakening of Asia starts new problems for America.\n\nThe entire\n\nwhite race, indeed, has already been confronted with a new situation thru\nthe emergence of Japan into world influence.\n\nThe rapid changes now\n\ntaking place in China are pregnant with meaning, not only for all Asia, but\nfor all mankind.\n\nThe battles of Mukden and the Japan Sea announced to\n\nevery capital in Christendom that a new era in the relations of the East\n\nand the West had begun.\nJapan for 250 years feared the white man and his religion. To\nsave herself from the white peril she closed her doors and carried out\nwith rigor the policy of exclusion.\n\nWhen, in the middle of the last cenand at the mercy\n\ntury, she suddenly found herself hopelessly belated\n\nof the powerful, aggressive white man, after two decades of inner turmoil\n\nand finally of revolution over the problem of how to deal with him, she\nmade that momentous decision to learn from him; in a word, to master\nthe sources of his power in order to maintain the independence of her land,\n\nthe perpetuity of her imperial line, and the sovereignty of the government\n\nby the abolition of extraterritoriahty. For forty years she has followed\nthis new policy, with results which are producing a new epoch in the\nrelations of the races.\n\nThe Russo-Japanese War brought, not only safety to Japan, but light\nThe magic word had been spoken and all Asia heard. The\nManchu Dynasty has gone. The characteristic Chinese queue has largely\n\nto China.\n\ngone.\n\nChinese indifference to national disaster is giving place to patriotism.\n\nChina has definitely entered on that momentous course of national transformation which will bring her increasingly into contact with the West.\nMany decades, perhaps a century or two, may be needed for her to accomplish what Japan has done in the past half-century.\nBut as surely as the\ndawn follows the rising of the sun will China acquire our life, become\nequipped with our civilization, and utilize our methods of government,\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": "36", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n56\nof industry, of\n\ncommerce, and of armament.\n\ngreat competing nations of the world.\n\n[General\n\nShe will become one of the\n\nAnd all the world must reckon with\n\nthe new world-situation created by the renaissance of Asia.\n\nThis means much for America.\nor friendly ?\n\nAre our relations to Asia to be hostile\n\nIs the white man going to be an obstacle to her best develop-\n\nment, forcing upon her his disastrous militarism ?\n\nIs he going to yield to\n\nAsia only so much of privilege or justice as he is compelled to yield by her\nmilitary might ?\n\nFor China will arm if she feels, as Japan has felt, that\n\nshe can secure safety and justice only thru military power; and, in proportion as Asia arms, every white nation will fear and suspect her and develop\n\neach its own bristling armaments.\n\nOr, on the contrary, thru our sense of\n\njustice and our good will, shall America help Asia ?\n\nShall we aid her with\n\nchart and compass as she sails the storm-tossed seas on which she has now\n\nembarked ?\n\nShall we be her friend, to deal justly with her ourselves and\n\nsee that justice is done her by the other nations of the world ?\n\nThe attitude which the United States takes to Japan and China in this\nand the next few decades promises to be epochal in the history of man.\n\nAnd the responsibility for the attainment of the right attitude depends in\nno small measure on our educators and our institutions of learning. The\ngeneral attitude of our people is today one that is based on profound ig-\n\nnorance.\n\nIt expresses itself in disdain, scorn, misrepresentation.\n\nAsiatics\n\nare regarded as inferior in race, degraded in character, and unassimilable in\nnature.\n\nWe allow no Asiatics to become citizens of America, whatever\n\ntheir personal qualification.\n\nThis refusal of rights of naturalization\n\nis\n\nmade the ground of differential race legislation by several states. Such\nlegislation, however, is regarded by Japanese as invidious and humiliating,\ncontrary to the treaties, and in conflict with their national dignity and\nself-respect.\n\nThis is the crux of the so-called Japanese question.\n\nThis is what is\n\ncausing the Japanese people so much pain and indignation at the recent\nanti-Asiatic legislation of California.\nfor labor immigration.\n\nJapan does not ask for an open door\nShe is widely misunderstood at this point. She\n\ndoes ask for a square deal on the basis of manhood equality with other races.\nHer people are not willing to be regarded or treated as an inferior race or\n\nWhen China awakes to the situation, she will\nunquestionably develop the same feelings and make the same appeals as\nas intrinsically undesirable.\n\nJapan is making today.\nIt is impossible, however, for America to respond to this appeal of the\nAsiatic for equality of treatment, good will, and friendship so long as the\n\npresent conception of the Asiatic and his civilization prevails among us.\n\nTo admit him to our citizenship is regarded by many as intolerable.\n\nWe\n\nmight as well admit baboons or chimpanzees, some are openly saying.\nGood American citizens, and even Christians who believe in sending missionaries to Asiatics in their own land, regard them with disdain and scorn,\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": "37", "text": "AMERICA'S ORIENTAL PROBLEM\n\nSessions]\n\nholding that they are intrinsically different from us\n\n37\n\n— so different that\n\nit is\n\nimpossible for them ever to enter into our life, understand our civilization,\nor share with us in this great American experiment in democracy.\n\nSuch\n\nindividuals are fond of Kipling's famous ballad:\nOh, East is East and West is West\nAnd never the twain shall meet\nTill Earth and Sky stand presently\nAt God's great judgment seat.\n\nThat is to say, East and West are so different that, entirely regardless\nof the question of inferiority or superiority, these two great sections of the\n\nhuman race cannot possibly mix.\n\nThe effort to provide for their mingling,\nThey\n\nthey hold, will inevitably end in turmoil and finally in disaster.\n\nforget, however, that Kipling did not stop with the lines they love to quote.\n\nTho he well recognized the differences between East and West, he also saw\ndeeper and beyond.\n\nFor he added in the lines immediately following:\nBut there is neither East nor West\nBorder, nor Breed, nor Birth\n\nWhen two strong men stand face to face\nTho they come from the ends of the earth.\n\nThe fact is that the unities underlying all branches of the human race are\nThe differences are relatively\n\nfar deeper and more real than first appear.\nsuperficial.\n\nNow one of the outstanding duties of our educators is to study these\npressing problems of international\n\nlife\n\nand the new relations necessarily\n\nman's recent mastery of nature and the relative collapse of\nWe need to know the facts. Our entire people should be educated\n\narising thru\n\nspace.\n\non these matters.\n\nWe must be led by a sane and kindly attitude toward\n\nthose great civilizations of the Orient and their peoples, not by ignorance\n\nand race prejudice.\nOur popular attitude toward Asiatics today is based on ignorance of the\npeoples, their history, and their attainments.\nIt is based on a tradition\nthat has come down from the past, a tradition, however, which better knowledge does not justify.\n\nEducators should lead in the overthrow of these\n\nrace misunderstandings and prejudices which threaten to bring enormous\n\nand disastrous consequences to both the East and the West.\n\nThe popular view that Asiatics are undesirable because of their absolute\nis based on assumptions which modern biology, psy-\n\nnon-assimilability\n\nchology, and sociology, as well as actual experience, show to be quite errone-\n\nOur institutions of learning should promptly set to work instructing\nour people on these matters, for they are of highest international importance.\nous.\n\nThe rank and file of our people should no longer be misled by belated conceptions which, tho long regarded as scientific, are now seen to be baseless.\n\nWe are in great danger lest mediaeval views of race nature and race relations shall plunge us into serious yet needless difficulties.\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": "38", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n38\n\n[General\n\nModem education has overthrown, to a large degree, the mediaeval\ndogmas of theology, rendering thereby an inestimable service to religion.\nThere is crying need that it render the same service to our international life\nby overthrowing similarly mediaeval dogmatism as to race nature and race\nrelations.\n\nThe peace movements in the countries of Christendom are doing noble\nThe wide education of youth in our schools and colleges on peace\n\nwork.\n\nquestions, the work of the American School Peace League, and the Intercollegiate Peace Association with its prize essays and orations are all pro-\n\nmoting conviction as to the folly and wickedness of war and the need of\nright methods and organizations for the attainment of international justice.\n\nThey are good so far as they go.\nBut for the promotion of right relations between the white race and the\nThere is urgent need of active steps\npromoting respect and good will among us toward the Asiatic. The suggestion of Charles H. Levermore, in his annual report to the trustees of the\nWorld Peace Foundation in regard to peace textbooks, should be seriously\nAsiatic they are doing relatively little.\n\nconsidered.\n\nHe says:\n\nWe should have a textbook presenting a sympathetic analysis of the needs, duties, and\nideals of the great races, proceeding to a comparison of their mutual influence in politics,\nreligion, and the arts, and of their various associations for common action since the French\n\nRevolution, concluding with a study of the gradual emergence of various forms of worldorganization, of the peace movement,\n\nand of the financial, commercial, and industrial\n\ndevelopments that have already provided the world-organism with a single, sensitive,\nnervous system.\n\nThis suggestion is splendid; but let it definitely include the Asiatic,\n\nWe need a series of \"Race Readers\" in which the millions of children and\nyoung people in our schools and colleges shall learn of the noble characteristics and achievements of the various races.\nThey should be taught to\nrespect foreigners of every race, for each race has its noble ancestry and its\nheroes.\n\nThe systematic education of our youth in oriental history and civilmy mind, an important item in the new oriental policy which\n\nization, is, to\n\nmust shortly arise and be widely adopted, if the relations between the white\n\nman and the Asiatic are to be right and just and mutually helpful.\nIndeed, for the general elimination of race prejudice, education\n\nis\n\nneeded in regard to the histories of all the peoples from whom immigrants\n\ncome to our shores. Anthropological readers should be prepared, devoting\none or more chapters to each race and people of whom representatives live\nin our land, written from an appreciative standpoint and setting forth the\n\nnotable deeds of each.\n\nThey should be well illustrated with fine engravings\n\nof the best representatives dressed in modern European clothing, in order\n\nto avoid those caricatures which are so\npeoples.\n\ncommon in pictures of strange\n\nSuch readers would help the young to get over their spontaneous\n\nfeelings of race antipathy.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": "39", "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICA'S ORIENTAL PROBLEM\n\n39\n\nThe splendid deeds of heroism done by Jew and Spaniard; by Italian\nand Hungarian; French, German, and English; Japanese, Chinese, and\nHindoo should all be set forth with appreciation. For Japan and China\nand India have had their illustrious histories no less than England, Germany,\nand France. Should not the outstanding characters and achievements of\nthese lands be taught to our young? George Washington, Abraham\nLincoln, Benjamin Franklin, and many English and European heroes of\nprogress and high ideals are known, not only by name but also for what\nthey did, to all in Japan who have had a secondary education, and to all\nthe higher classes in\n\ngrammar schools.\n\nHow many in our land, even\n\ncollege graduates, could tell anything whatever of Shotoku Taishi,\n\nKusu-\n\nnoki Masashige, Nichiren, Shonen, and other great leaders in Japan ?\nis high time that the study of oriental peoples\n\nduced into our public schools.\n\nIt\n\nand histories should be intro-\n\nIt would help greatly to race reconciliation,\n\neven as impartial and appreciative histories of the Civil War have done\n\nmuch to reconcile the North and the South.\nThe time to prepare for the much-dreaded military yellow peril is before\nit arises.\nAnd the way to prepare for it is to develop such a widespread\nunderstanding of, and respect for, the Asiatic among our peoples at large\nthat we shall be able to do him justice, and assure him that there is no white\nperil.\nThe only possible source of a military yellow peril is the conviction\namong Asiatics that they cannot secure justice or decent treatment or safety\nat the hands of the white man except by force.\n\nHad Russia, Germany, and France not forced Japan to return Port\nArthur to China at the close of the China-Japan War, there would have\nbeen no Russo- Japan War.\n\nThe injustice then inflicted on Japan, the\n\ncontinuous encroachments of Russia in East Asia,\n\ntogether with the\nwhole attitude of Europe to Asia, was the real reason why Japan was\nforced to develop her armaments to a degree somewhat approaching that\nof a western people.\n\nIf\n\nChristendom refuses to Asiatics in our midst\n\nthat courtesy and justice which we accord to each other, can we condemn\nthose great nations of Asia for resentment and indignation ?\n\nAnd this grow-\n\ning feeling in Asia of a real white peril may ultimately lead to a military\n\nyellow peril.\n\nBut how is this attitude of courtesy and justice on the part of the white\n\nman to the Asiatic to be secured ?\ninto existence by legislation.\nfeeling which are\n\nIt is not something that can be brought\n\nIt can come only by habits of thought and\n\nfounded on knowledge and respect.\n\nresponsibility for our schools.\n\nThis is the point of\n\nTo the young of all the many races now\n\nhere, we need to teach the good and noble things for which their respective\n\nancestors are to be honored.\n\nWe need to cultivate a spirit of mutual race\n\nappreciation on the part of the numberless groups that now make up our\n\ncosmopolitan people; and in this movement of mutual respect the Asiatic\n\nmust be included.\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": "40", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n40\n\nI well recognize that\n\n[General\n\nmany practical problems confront us when we\n\nseek to reduce to practice our theories as to race equality. Would not,\nfor instance, an open door to Asiatic immigration, as that door has been\n\nopen to European immigration, involve us in intolerable difficulties? It\nwould, without doubt. But I contend that the equal treatment of Asiatic\nwith other races does not demand universal free immigration. The solution which I have proposed is a limited immigration for all races. But this\nis not\n\nthe time or place for the presentation of this plan in detail.\n\nThose\n\nwho are interested in the subject I may refer to my volume on the AmericanJapanese Problem.\n\nThe center of the plea which I here present is that educators have a new\n\nWe live in a\nWe can no longer ignore Asia, even as Asia has discovered that\n\nresponsibility placed upon them by the awakening of Asia.\n\nnew world.\n\nshe can no longer ignore us.\n\nOur educators must lead the way in training\n\nour young people, so that our rapidly growing contact with Asia may be\nfreed from the danger that confronts us and may become, on the contrary,\n\na source of mutual advantage.\n\nTOPIC: THE STATUS OF WOMAN\nA,\n\nTRAINING WOMEN FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY\n\nLOIS KIMBALL MATHEWS, DEAN OF WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nThere have been in the development of human folk since the beginning\ntwo tendencies the one toward individualism, the other toward\n\n—\n\nof time\n\nsocial responsibility in the largest sense.\n\nWhat is called the \"feminist\"\n\nmovement is as old as women are: it is merely the new name for the old\nattempt at self-realization. Nor is it this striving for the realization of\n\n—\nblush, the second tendency— that toward\nresponsibility\nsense—would seem to be diametrically opposed to the tendency\n\none's full capacities\n\n—inherently a\n\nselfish aim.\n\nAt first\nits largest\n\nsocial\n\ntoward self-realization.\n\nin\n\nOne's sober second thought perceives a profound\n\nrelation between the two, a relation capable of being used for the highest\n\nachievements and the noblest ends.\n\nThe one should in reality accompany\n\nthe other;\n\nand while women are being developed as\n\norganism.\n\nIt\n\nindividuals, they\nought also to be trained as members of a group, as parts of a great social\n\ncollege,\n\nis\n\nthe business of the family, the school, the church, the\n\nthe university to teach a girl at an early age her responsibility,\n\nher inescapable obligation to the family, the social community, and the\ncivic community.\n\nI must confine myself to the last of these agencies\n\nthe training the college or the university can and must give\n\n—to\n\nwomen if\n\nthey are to be fitted to assmne social responsibility in intelligent and\neffectual fashion.\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": "41", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTRAINING WOMEN FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY\n\n41\n\nFirst of all, the college or university must lay the foundations in the\n\nclassroom, by holding students to discipline of the mind, to bringing to a\nconclusion as well as they may any course which they begin, regardless of\n\nthe drudgery here and there involved in completing any piece of work.\nSpecifically, certain courses\n\ndo more than others in developing what one\n\nmay call the \"social point of view\"; courses in history, literature, and\npolitical science, with their vivid human interest; in economics, where one\nfinds the inestimable value of training which enables one to test the practical by the theoretical, which teaches the intellect to guide the emotions,\n\nthe mind to discipline the imagination.\n\nThere are also courses in sociology,\n\ntaken after a thoro grounding in economics, where one learns of problems\nof poverty, defective and delinquent classes, methods of charity work and\n\npoor relief.\n\nTurning to the realm of science, there are the great fields of\n\npreventive medicine, of public health, of psychology as a basis for social\nscience, of chemistry for\n\nobvious sciences.\n\nproblems of nutrition, and a dozen other less\n\nIn these courses are afforded at once specific training\n\nand the acquisition of a point of view, and each is quite as essential as the\nother.\nNo one, I think, feels that the last word has been said upon woman's\neducation when it precisely duplicates that of a man. The tremendous\npossibility of university courses in home economics when they are properly\n\ngroimded upon science and economics as a firm intellectual basis and discipline makes one stand aghast.\n\nWhen there are in combination, as is the case in Madison, a library\nschool and reference libraries for legislatures, municipalities, etc., an especial\n\nkind of laboratory work in social and public service is possible. Young\nwomen may not only prepare bibliographies, but may do investigational\nwork for the departments of the state and city governments, and also may\ndo constructive work in suggesting how conditions may be permanently\nameliorated. Such studies of actual conditions, made in scholarly fashion\n\nand handled scientifically, must be invaluable in solving the problems themselves, and no one who works upon such investigations can fail to acquire\n\nan abiding sense of social responsibility.\nBut a warning needs here to be sounded. There is grave danger\ninvolved in pushing back too far into the college curriculum these pieces of\nspecifically vocational work.\nCare must be. taken that sufficient background of general mental training and of real experience of life shall have\nbeen acquired upon which may be overlaid this intensive and specialized\nwork. Women have a natural aptitude for social service; to them municipal housekeeping is closely akin to family housekeeping, and municipal housecleaning not unlike that in which well-regulated households\nindulge daily and weekly. The temptation is great to mistake this natural\naptitude for a trained reaction, and so to apply it beyond its capacity and\nbefore it is developed, to give to enthusiastic, immature girls problems to\nsolve which require years of insight coupled with self-restraint. It will be\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": "42", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n42\n\n[General\n\ninteresting to note in the next few years the comparative achievements in\n\nand social investigation of the graduates of colleges like\nVassar, which adhere to the four years' course with no vocational training;\nor Simmons, with a four years' wholly vocational course; or Margaret\nMorrison Carnegie School in Pittsburgh, where two years of general college\nsocial service\n\nwork is followed by two years of vocational work. We are apparently to\nhave more differentiation of our women's colleges and to see much duplication of these three distinct types.\n\nAre there other ways in which\n\nSo much for training in definite courses.\n\nthe college and university may train women for social responsibility ?\nbelieve that there are.\n\nI\n\nTo this end are organized self-government associa-\n\ntions, whereby rules of conduct are made and standards maintained by the\n\nstudents themselves.\n\nStudent opinion is, if one can get to the root of it,\n\nsoimd and wholesome; but it is immature, limited in its scope, and often\nintolerant.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\ntherefore impossible to give over everything concerning\n\ncollege life and college standards to young students without any controlling\n\nforce\n\nfrom older and wiser heads;\n\nbut what\n\nis\n\nneeded is advice, not\n\nmandates.\n\nIn the University of Wisconsin, in each of our women's lodging-houses,\nGreek-letter society houses, and halls of residence, there is a representative\nof this organization who is ex officio a member of its central board.\n\nThe\n\ncentral board has its meetings for an hour once in two weeks, and it there\n\ntakes up questions of public concern for the women students\nquestion, the honor system,\n\n—the dance\n\nways of assimilating our 45 per cent of new\n\nstudents into the life of the 55 per cent of old students who represent continuity of policy and some sort of tradition, and other questions.\nEach\nmember of the board is responsible for her house its conduct, its standards,\nits observance of the few rules we have; and it is a serious trial of her tact\nand power of adaptability to make of her house a unit. She calls her house\n\n—\n\ntogether once in two weeks, and there gets a consensus of opinion on subjects\nto be taken up by the central board, and reports to them actions of that\n\nbody.\n\nThis year our self-government organization has appointed a junior girl\nto be adviser to each freshman girl, and while the plan is not working out\nideally, still it has sufficient success to warrant its continuance.\nThere is\na small executive committee of the Self-Government Association to deal\n\nwith breaches of the rules of the organization.\n\nThe whole association under-\n\ntakes to provide simple means of entertainment from time to time to make\npossible some social life among students who otherwise have little or none.\n\nHere is a task requiring delicacy and tact; it must not be obvious, yet it\nmust reach the so-called \"unsocial\" student the most difficult of all girls\nto deal with, and the one who most needs to get the social point of view.\nWe do not succeed wholly, nor ^I suspect does any other college. It is\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\noften poverty that lies back of the unsocial attitude of a girl;\n\nwe hope to\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": "43", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTRAINING WOMEN FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY\n\n43\n\nhelp to relieve that difficulty in another year by a co-operative house, such\nas is operated by Wellesley, Smith,\n\nand with unusual success by North-\n\nwestern University, where each girl materially reduces her expenses by\nassisting, for an hour or an hour and a half a day, in the conduct and care\n\nof the house under an efficient house-mother and a competent cook.\n\nWe\n\nbelieve that here will be a most effective means of training to a sense of\nsocial responsibility a number of girls\n\nwhom it is hard to reach. None of\n\nthese agencies, be it said, are or need be enormous time-consumers.\n\nIt is\n\nentirely possible to take an active part in these organizations and still be a\n\ngood student.\n\nBy not permitting students to hold office if their scholarship\n\nrecord is unsatisfactory, by limiting the amount of outside activity in which\n\nany one girl may indulge, and above all by maintaining in the classroom\na high standard by which work shall be judged, I believe it is possible to\naccompb'sh all the ends for which we are striving in the education of our\nyoung women before they go out into the world.\nSo far I have been speaking exclusively of the training of women who\ncome to the college or university, of those whom we are able to influence and\neducate within our very walls. There is another class which should be even\nlarger the women outside the university, who by dint of age or lack of\nmeans or home obligations are unable to come to us. Is it not right that\nthe facilities of the central institution be used for this large and eminently\nworth-while clientele? It is here that the work of the extension department comes in, with definite plans and an open mind to meet this great\nneed. There are thousands of women in small towns all over the state,\n\n—\n\nabsorbed in their own concerns, dissatisfied with their own mental attainments, hungry for something outside themselves that shall lead them to\nhigher and finer things.\nto them.\n\nThey cannot go to college, so the college must go\n\nWho can estimate the value of the child-welfare exhibit, especially\n\nwhen its concrete illustrations are driven home by an instructor from the\nhome economics department of the state university, who shall speak of the\nrights of the child to be well born, to be well nourished, to be well clothed,\n\nto be trained physically, to be trained morally, <and to be trained religiously ?\n\nThe exhibit itself is unique and novel to most of these women; but they\nhave not the training to make the most of it by applying these lessons.\nThru this means of instruction a woman grows, not only in a sense of responsibility regarding her own child, but in an interest in the problems of infant\nmortality and of child welfare everywhere.\n\nIn other words, she suddenly\n\nacquires, if she did not possess it before, the social point of view.\n\nSo with\nThere are, to be sure,\nassociations especially designed for carrying on this work, but they cannot\nafford to send to all these small towns, nor do the small towns know they\nneed the exhibits. It is a part of the university's business to create the\nrealization of what one does not know a part which it must not and cannot\nthe tuberculosis exhibit and with many others.\n\n—\n\nignore.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": "44", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n44\n\n[General\n\nThere is no movement of recent years more potent in arousing the social\nwomen than the women's club movement. When one\n\nconsciousness of\n\nreads the records of their achievements as set forth in their biennial reports,\n\none is amazed at what is being accomplished by these organizations working\nsingly and shoulder to shoulder.\nBut in Wisconsin they do not work alone.\n\nThe state university places all its resources at their disposal if they ask for\nit.\nThe home economics department, for instance, sends out programs\nand bibliographies for directing a year's special study, and provides speakers\nThe library commission\nto take up crucial and more technical subjects.\n\nWhen once a club has availed\n\nsupplies working libraries for the clubs.\n\nitself of these opportunities it is interesting\n\nagain, year by year, for further direction.\n\nto see that it comes again and\n\nClubs also send to the university\n\nfor expert lecturers on social problems, and on that basis undertake work\nin civic and industrial reform.\n\nA small club in Milwaukee this year set\n\nitself the task of learning all that was possible about the modus operandi of\n\nthe state of Wisconsin.\n\nThey began with the state university, and asked\nThey are now\n\nfor a speaker from that institution to inaugurate the course.\n\nup the state commissions, and are again sending for an expert\nThe members hope in another year to turn their knowledge to\nsome useful purpose. But it is noteworthy that they are first getting\naccurate and wide information first hand; later they will apply it. I need\nto take\n\nspeaker.\n\nonly speak in passing of the correspondence-study work, since that is well\n\nBut the work of the short course in agriculture and home ecofrom December i to March i while the\nwork on the farm is not overwhelming, men and women come to the uniknown.\n\nnomics, where for three months\n\n—\n\n—\n\nversity to get all they can as to recent scientific aids to farming, stockraising, house and dairy keeping, etc.\n\n—\n\nthis work is invaluable.\nThen for\ntwo weeks in the winter, intensive work is given to those who cannot spend\nthree months; and here all the resources of the university are brought into\nplay to stimulate or inaugurate a new point of view. It is pathetic, as\n\nwell as amusing, to see these men and women come to the women's gym-\n\nnasium for the evening play-hour, where they learn games, take exercise,\nand, often for the first time in their lives, really learn to play.\n\nTheir pas-\n\nsion for learning is enormous, their desire for information approaches greed,\n\nand if they go home to criticize we do not care, since that very attitude\n\nThe home economics work in the farmers'\nsame lines and is designed to reach those who cannot\nleave home for even two weeks.\n\nindicates an awakened mind.\ninstitutes is on these\n\nIn conclusion, how shall women be trained for social responsibility?\nFirst, by the development to the fullest possible extent of all their powers,\n\nphysical, intellectual, moral,\n\nand spiritual, to the end that each woman\n\nmay know her powers and her limitations.\n\nIn other words, train her as\nan individual, help her to realize herself, and lead her to a divine discontent\nwith selfish individualism.\n\nSecond, and at the same time, teach her her\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": "45", "text": "Sessions]\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOL FROM A SOCIAL WORKER'S VIEWPOINT\n\n45\n\ninescapable obligations to the various groups into whose membership she\nis\n\nborn\n\n—the family, the social group, the civic group. Teach her by con-\n\ncrete tasks,\n\nby working shoulder to shoulder with other women, that\nTeach\n\nimagination and sympathy which make for the social point of view.\n\nher by the attitude of the institution of higher learning to which she looks\n\n—whether immediately within walls or longingly from\n—that the only\nexperience worth having\nthe sort\n\nfor her inspiration\n\na remote horizon\n\nits\n\nsocial\n\nis\n\nthat women like Miss Addams have, the social experience that makes every\n\nman, woman, or child at ease in her presence because of an intuitive sense\nthat their ideals and aspirations are at one.\nGiven such a point of view,\nand the tools with which to work, one need not worry about achievement,\nfor such social responsibility is bound to find its outlet in service to the\ncommunity. To provide such training and such a sense of responsibility\nto every woman who desires it, or, as Mr. Benson says, \"who desires to\ndesire it,\" such is the obligation and the possibility of every institution of\nhigher learning.\n\nB.\n\nSOME ASPECTS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL FROM A SOCIAL\nWORKER'S POINT OF VIEW\nSOPHONISBA PRESTON BRECKINRIDGE, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF SOCIAL\nECONOMY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nTo the social worker the school appears as an instrument of almost\nunlimited possibilities, not only for passing on to the next generation the\nculture and wisdom of the past, but for testing present social relationships\nand for securing improvements in social conditions.\nThru the requirements of our compulsory attendance laws, we see to\nthe school assigned the duty of securing the presence of all children within\ncertain ages, supplying to them the knowledge, discipline, and culture of\nwhich they are capable, and determining when they have reached the age\nat which they may lawfully enter the labor market.\n\nThe social worker marvels at the magnitude of the task and at the\nextent to which its importance has gripped the conscience of the community.\n\nShe is often tempted to covet the millions of dollars allotted from public\nfunds, but she covets far more eagerly the simple\n\nand natural contacts\n\nestablished with the homes of the community.\n\nThe social worker looks with envious eye upon the opportunity lying\nbefore the school and is supremely grateful for the contributions it makes,\n\nnot only to an increasingly high level of community intelligence, but to the\nindependence and enrichment of lives among those to whom in the past a\n\nmeager share of the world's culture has been allotted.\nless reconciled to waste resulting\n\nShe is, therefore, the\nfrom the failure on the part of the school\n\nto take advantage of its opportunities for simple and effective approach to\n\nthe family groups and to the consequent loss in social well-being.\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": "46", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n46\n\n[Genend\n\nThree classes of failures come conspicuously to the attention of the\nsocial worker:\nI.\n\nThose cases\n\nin\n\nwhich the\n\nschool experience\n\nchild's\n\nmakes little\n\nimpression because of the physical conditions prevailing in his home.\nIf,\n\nat a well-ordered table, the digestive machinery of a child refuses\n\nto act, the child does not eat, and the failure in the attempt to feed the\nchild is evident.\n\nBut, in the school, the mental apparatus of a child may\n\nbe wholly clogged and inactive and no one know.\nThere are the children from homes where life is very irregular or, if\nregular, the routine is determined by the exigencies of the father's job and\nof the mother's limitations rather than by the children's needs. The rooms\nare crowded, the facilities for cleanliness all too scanty, the confusion great,\n\nthe heating excessive, the ventilation inadequate; the food possibly insuf-\n\namount, hastily prepared, and irregularly served. Many homes\ndo not measure even up to this level, for account must be taken of drunkenness with its resulting brutality, uncertainty, and irregularity, as well as\nof the many consequences of the lack of decent amusement, to say\nnothing of the notorious failure to abolish vice in districts in or near which\nficient in\n\nmany children live.\nBut the school replies, \" Whose fault is this ? Surely, those influences\nare to blame which permit to exist the causes giving rise to poverty the\ncomplacently virtuous who allow the saloon and organized vice to exist, the\ncorrupt city government, the venal police\" and this is all true. The school\n\n—\n\n;\n\nis not to blame, nor can the school undertake the task of securing adequate\n\nhousing, a living wage, decent surroundings, and rational recreation.\n\n—who can\n\nnot ask if it has done its share\n\nhas done all it could\n\n—\n\nis it\n\ntell what its share is ?\n\ndoing all it can ?\n\nI do\n\nI ask if it\n\nDoes it report every case in\n\nwhich it knows that its own resources are wasted because of these condi-\n\nHas it done all that might be done to develop devices by which\nmight know more fully, and to bring to bear reconstructive influences\n\ntions?\nit\n\nWe know that\nWe hear much of\n\non, the situations that interfere with its efficient work?\n\nshoes and other clothing are given to poor children.\n\nschool feeding, and the school lunch seems to justify itself.\n\nBut obviously\n\na child is unlikely to need clothing only, and underfed or wrongly fed\nchildren are probably underclothed and wrongly housed and need many\nIn many cases, what is needed\nsomething in addition to what the school is doing, even when there is\n\nother kinds of service besides the feeding.\nis\n\nmedical examination and a school nurse.\n\nAnd often there is needed some-\n\nthing quite different from what the school is doing.\n\nIn every case where\nany service to the home seems required, the determination should be made\nby a social worker rather than by a teacher by a person designated by a\n\n—\n\ntitle indicating a relationship to the school and a function other than teach-\n\nThis distinction should be made clear both\nnew form of service and for the sake of the clearer\n\ning, such as \"school visitor.\"\n\nfor the sake of the\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": "47", "text": "Sessions]\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOL FROM A SOCIAL WORKER'S VIEWPOINT\n\n47\n\nFor the teacher's real task, and it\nand it is unfortunate\nwhen either the teacher or the public becomes confused on that point.\n2. A second group of pupils in whose case the school fails are those\nwhose needs the school is, as yet, unable to meet. Deficiencies have been\npointed out in connection with immigrants, both children and adults, in\nappreciation o^ the teacher's real task.\n\nis a noble and a sufficiently difficult task, is teaching,\n\nthe interesting report recently made to the legislature of Massachusetts by\n\na state commission on immigration.\nThis is not the place to discuss and emphasize the recommendations\nintended to meet shortcomings on the part of the school system of Massachusetts.\n\nThe point is that failure to understand the social relationships\n\nand economic pressure means failure to perform efficiently the educational\ntask.\n\nWith reference to many others besides immigrant pupils, similar failures\nOf these the group most appealing is composed of those\nchildren who leave school at the earliest moment allowed by the law to\ntake up wage-paid work, to whom is given absolutely no preparation for\ntheir experience in seeking work nor for doing the tasks in the factory,\ncan be noted.\n\nshop, or office into which they go.\n\nWhat can or should be done for these\nwho can\n\nchildren should of course be determined by the educationalist,\n\nalone decide educational questions, but the decision should be based upon\n\ninformation furnished by those who know out of what surroundings the\nchildren come, and into what kinds of\n\nemployments they go.\n\nIn other\n\nwords, while he alone must decide, he cannot wisely decide alone.\n3.\n\nBut the striking failures are those in which the attendance of the\n\nchild is either not secured at all, or is secured irregularly or inadequately.\n\nThe volume of this failure is suggested by the figures of the Bureau of\nEducation showing great discrepancies between enrolment and attendance.\nThese figures are, however, most unsatisfactory. They give no clue to the\nvolume of absence without cause or for inadequate cause by which the\nchild loses in part, if not wholly, the benefit sought by the enactment of this\n\nNo estimate of this waste has been made. Perhaps it cannot\nbe made.' But the social worker is familiar with it and would gladly see\nit done away with at its source.\nIt is freely acknowledged that when there\nlegislation.\n\nare failures of the kind suggested, they are not to be attributed to the school\nalone.\n\nOther agencies may likewise fall short.\n\nThey cannot succeed alone,\n\nhowever, and closest co-operation with all other agencies concerned with the\nwell-being of children must therefore be developed by the school.\n\nMay, therefore, a few suggestions with reference to these groups of\nchildren be made without suspicion of carping or unjust criticism?\n\nIt\n\nhas been said that the social worker becomes aware of some of these\n' A study of the social aspects of compixlsory school laws based on a study of the Chicago schools will\nbe published during the autumn of 1914 by the writer in collaboration with Edith Abbott of the Chicago\n\nSchool of Civics and Philanthropy.\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": "48", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n48\n\nThink\n\nfailures.\n\nof the last class,\n\n[General\n\nnamely, those whose attendance\n\nis\n\ninadequately enforced. In every large city fortunate enough to have a\ngood charity organization society, many cases of children who obtain their\n\nworking papers too soon are discovered thru relief records.\n\nWhen a family\n\napplies for aid, the dates of birth of all the children are entered on the case\nrecord,\n\nand it is not easy to give incorrect ages.\n\nMoreover, the younger\n\nthe children, the more appealing is the distress of the appUcants.\n\nLater,\n\nwhen the child goes to work illegally, a resourceful charity visitor may\nsucceed in finding the evidence and return the child to school.\n\nThe point is that if one really has something to give that not only has\ncost very dear but that has a value beyond all measure, one does not lightly\n\nallow the beneficiary to be deprived of its enjoyment, and, knowing the\nattitude of many parents toward the education of their daughters, the pres-\n\nsure of poverty upon them to put their children at work, and all the other\n\nconfusing influences retarding the appreciation of education, it would not\n\nbe unreasonable to demand that confirmation of the parents' statement\nwith reference to the entering children which is available without too much\ndifficulty.\nFamily emergencies of all sorts fall heavily on children in poor\nhomes at best, and the school surely does not wish to contribute to these\nburdens in any way nor to fail when possible to relieve the children whose\n\nlives it tries to enrich.\nfailure.\n\nOften sickness in the family is the occasion of the\n\nIt is both mistaken kindness and neglect of legal duty to allow\n\nchildren to be deprived of education and health and to suffer the home to\n\nbe neglected on account of sickness.\n\nThese are wastes in which the school often passively acquiesces.\n\nBut\n\nthere are cases, not inconsiderable in number, in which the principal actively\n\nco-operates to the child's loss.\n\nThere are the excuses granted that the\n\nchild may stay at home, not only because there is illness, but because there\nis extra work, because there is the regular work, because a job is to be sought,\n\nor because there is a case in court where the child's services as interpreter\n\nare apparently needed.\n\nAll too frequently the teacher acquiesces in the\n\nThe undoing of the\npoor is their poverty often here as elsewhere, and perfectly needlessly, if,\nsacrifice of the child to the poverty of his parents.\n\nin addition to the education given by the public, there may be \" loaned the\n\nbrains\" of the school official or someone called on by him to view the\nsituation.\n\nFrom the standpoint of the charity visitor, to whom the school attendance of the children seems an important factor in successfully restoring the\nfamily under her care to independence, of the settlement worker\n\nwho\n\nexpects only to supplement the school in relating the family to wholesome\n\nand helpful influences, of the person concerned with improved labor conditions and a higher general level of industrial efficiency, these losses on the\npart of the children of the poor seem of enormous importance, and, to them,\n\nany acquiescence in considering the attendance officers as mere representa-\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": "49", "text": "—3\nSessions]\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOL FROM A SOCIAL WORKER'S VIEWPOINT\n\n49\n\ntives of the power of the law to make children attend seems a betrayal of\n\nthe trust committed to the school. To the social worker concerned, the\nattendance officer appears as the messenger from a truly generous public,\ninterpreting to those who do not know the incomparable value of the offer-\n\ning made the child, but likewise bringing back some estimate of what it\ncosts the parent, and some new statement of how that cost may be shared,\n\nor perhaps shifted, as much of it should, of course, be shifted by readjust-\n\nment of the wage-level.\n\nMoreover, it seems an additional waste to dis-\n\ncipline parents or children, while leaving undisturbed the influences which\nlie\n\nat the root of the difficulty.\n\nThis is not the place in which to suggest\n\nconcrete alterations in the machinery for receiving those children who are\n\nbrought voluntarily to school, or compelling the attendance of the others.\n\nThat there should be changes in the directions suggested is among the\nardent desires of those who come in contact with the children by the other\npath of approach, i.e., the need in their family group for some form of social\nservice.\nIf these statements are in any sense just, there is need of perfecting\ndelicate social devices within the system and of building up more perfect\nco-operation with agencies without.\n\nThere are reasons for these failures which are peculiarly convincing if\nthe evidence were really massed and honestly viewed, for in the school\n\nsystem is found a situation likely to result in a greater measure of failure\nof the kinds suggested than is at all necessary from the nature of the case.\n\nHere we have the great mass of children whose needs are under discussion\ncoming under the observation of women teachers who might be quick to\nsee the need and to realize the ineffectiveness of their own services to meet\n\n—\n\nthose needs according to the report of the commissioner of education 79\nper cent of the teachers in the elementary schools in 1910-11 were women\n\n.\n\nbut the opportunity to make known these needs and adequately to interpret\n\nthem is not given, since the great majority of the principals and practically\nall the school superintendents and members of school boards are men.\nThere is no channel thru which what they learn of the needs of those they\nwould serve can pass up to those in power; and what comes down from\nthose in power is dead bones of routine, as any undertaking separated from\nthe source of information, suggestion, and interpretation must be dead\nroutine.\n\nThe waste and stupidity of such an arrangement becomes obvious when\nwe remind ourselves of the number of women who have been teachers,\nwhose services might be appropriated by the community. These women\nwould be quick to see just the lack to which reference has been made.\n\nThey are, in fact, engaged in urging on legislatures modifications of the\nlaw, and on school boards the development of just such co-operative social\ndevices.\n\nBut such developments urged from below, as by the women\nwomen, come slowly.\n\nteachers in the grades, or from without, as by club\n\nAnd, of course, neither group uses its full intelligence, not being vested\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": "50", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n50\n\n[General\n\nYet the problems are sufficiently complicated,\nthe task is sufficiently difficult to command the fullest intelligence and\nwith\n\nfull responsibility.\n\nfreest endeavor of all concerned.\n\nMoreover, with reference to many of the problems, the experience and\nintelligence of women would be peculiarly valuable, and in many of the\n\nwomen are practically required or at any rate are\nefficient\nthan those of men. One hears much of the\nmore\nprobably much\nfeminization of the schools, and the disproportionate numbers of men and\ntasks the services of\n\nwomen teachers are cited as evidence. The evidence is totally irrelevant.\nThe question is not who does the task, but whose ideals prevail and who\nThe real need is a much greater feminization of\nexercises the authority.\nthe schools by applying to them the tests women apply to their own concerns\nof\n\n—the\n\nlife,\n\ntests of comfort, well-being, normal\n\ngrowth, increasing richness\n\nobservation of the failures, wringing from them correction of old\n\nmethods and suggestions for new.\nThere have been many attempts at true feminization.\nbe made to a few in illustration of this point:\n\nReference might\n\nSome years ago a number of the women teachers in Chicago conceived\nand carried into effect the feminine idea that the great corporations should\nbe made to meet their lawful obligations. They found themselves undergoing strange experiences in strange places as they sought to obtain the\n\nenforcement of legal obligations for the education of the little children in\nChicago.\nits\n\nIt was a purely feminine undertaking in its conception and in\n\naccomplishment, for who but foolish women could think the education\n\nof the children was more important than the favor of the great corporations ?\n\nAnother feminine idea has been that it might be well for those in authority\nto know what those who were doing the work were thinking. And the organization of the teachers' councils, meeting regularly to express their views,\nis\n\na step in the working-out of this idea.\n\nAgain only women could fancy\n\nthat the humble teachers at the bottom had counsel of value to the powerful\n\npersons at the top of the system.\n\nA third effort of a feminine character\n\nin connection with the Chicago schools was made this spring when information with reference to the issues at stake in the aldermanic campaign was\n\nallowed to be given to both teachers and children in form so simple that\n\nThe resulting vote of men and\nwomen alike on complicated questions such as bond issues was intelligent\nto an extent gratifying to those who are interested in the improvement of\ncity government.\nTo women, it seemed quite proper and possible to assist\nthose whose vote was going to be taken, whose own interests were going to\nbe decided, whose own concerns were involved, to come to just and wise\n\nit might be taken into the humblest home.\n\ndecisions.\n\nThe inequality in opportunity for promotion which is obvious, on which\nneither the Bureau of Education nor census reports throw light, is grounded\nin the\n\nsame causes which give rise to the present archaic and wasteful\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": "51", "text": "THE HUMANITIES, OLD AND NEW\n\nSessions!\n\n51\n\nexclusion of women from political power, and is the source of much bitter-\n\nness on the part of women and the occasion of many injustices.\n\nReference\n\nneed not be made to them, for the point is that removal of limitation about\n\nwomen in this profession, as in all lines of employment, could only raise the\nlevel of efficiency, and, as Nicholson, the distinguished English economist,\n\nhas pointed out, the only person who would \"suffer\" is the marginal man,\nthat is, the man now on the level of employment for men because that level\nis\n\nlow who would be below that level once it is raised.\n\nThat argument\n\napplies to all lines of activity upon which the school enters, but it applies\n\npeculiarly to\n\nall\n\nproblems in which the social and the educational are\n\nespecially interwoven.\n\nA plea for a closer study of failures of the school in this spirit is the\nburden of this appeal. Where it meets with response, there will be a\nquickening sense of the importance of more careful scrutiny of the facts\n\nwith reference to entering children, more delicate and responsive devices\nfor dealing with non-attendance, new agents in the form of school visitors\n\nto interpret the\n\nhome to the school and the school to the home, closer\n\nco-operation with other child-caring agencies, the creation of new relationships with industry in order that the child may be better prepared before\n\nleaving and more carefully guarded after having to go to work, and above\nall,\n\nperhaps, a breaking-down of those barriers on the upper side of which\n\nstand men with power, on the lower, women with that intelligence growing\n\nout of intimate contact with the child.\nIt is certain that our civilization is not of the highest type possible.\n\nIn all our\n\nrelations, there is too much of the primitive man's fighting instinct and technique;\nit is not impossible that the participation of\n\nand\n\nwoman and the lower races will contribute new\n\nelements, change the stress of attention, disturb the equilibrium, and force a crisis which\nwill result in the reconstruction of our habits on more sympathetic and equitable principles.\n\nCertain it is that no civilization can remain the highest if another civilization adds to the\nintelligence of its men the intelligence of its women.\n\n—[Thomas, Sex and\n\nSociety.]\n\nWith these illuminating if threatening words Thomas closes his remarkable study of sex and society. To paraphrase, certain it is that no profession\ncan attain the heights of efficiency it should attain, especially if its object\nis\n\nthe service of little children, young persons, and ignorant adults, if it\n\nfails\n\nto make use in the fullest and freest way of the intelligence both of\n\nthe women and of the men of the community.\n\nC.\n\nTHE HUMANITIES, OLD AND NEW\n\nEMMA M. PERKINS, PROFESSOR OF LATIN, COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, WESTERN\nRESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO\n\nWhen I chose my subject for tonight's discussion, I thought how insistently the early college woman had demanded a well-rounded education,\ndifferentiated in no way from a man's education.\n\nShe had to prove her\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": "52", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n52\n\n[General\n\nright to an education, and now, with her early trial passed, care must needs\n\nbe taken lest the hard- won privileges of royal training in so many of the\ntreasure storehouses of the world be bartered for a mess of pottage or for\na few paltry bits of scattered groundwork for specialization.\nDuring the last year of Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer's life, I said to her\nas she was visiting in my home:\n\nWhat is to be the next testing of woman's\nFrom what direction must we be on our\nguard?\" Her immediate answer was: \"From the women themselves, in\nseeing how highly they value their privileges, how they carry themselves,\nhow they rise to meet the opportunities now theirs, whether they fail to\n**\n\nrights to a higher education ?\n\nappreciate all that has been gained for them.\"\n\nAnother very clear thinker among the college women of our country\nme the other day: \"All this specialization along various non-\n\nsaid to\n\ncollegiate lines in\n\nundergraduate work for women is the last and most\n\ninsidious attack yet made against the higher education of\n\nwomen.\n\nundermining the very foundation of woman's higher education.\"\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nAnd so\n\nmy subject: \"The Humanities, Old and New.\"\nA man's education has never degenerated into being merely a man's\neducation.\n\nNo more should a woman's education, for both men and women\n\nare first of all human beings.\n\nThe claims of some forms of education for\nwomen today seem rather arrogant in their pretentiousness. These claims\nare urged upon a younger, thoughtless generation by women themselves\nliberally trained, by those who would not willingly part with one iota of\ntheir own liberal culture.\nIf these claims succeed in large measure in\nenforcing themselves, we shall have, in a generation or two, a narrowness\nin the horizon of the spirit, an inertia of the intellect where real intellectual\n\nproblems are concerned, that will remind one of the work that had to be\n\nwrought by the humanities in the intellectual life of Europe in the period\nof the Renaissance.\nGermany, at the close of the eighteenth century, in\nreconstructive work in science felt the influence of the humanities. England, in the nineteenth century, gave thru her poets the message of the\nhumanities. Humanism, by its inspiration from the past, has quickened\nthe life of the present. The youth of today needs humanistic ideals truly\ninterpreted.\n\nThe humanities are the priceless guardian of what is best in\n\nthe world's past and the imequaled means for uplifting the individual in the\npresent.\n\nYou may remember what Phillips Brooks has said:\nThe man who has learned what made a little peninsula in the Adriatic the mistress of\nthe world, or how Roman law has become the basis of the jurisprudence of Christendom, or\n\nhow the fall of empires was foreshadowed in the Republic of Plato, or how the growth of a\ncorrupt and privileged ecclesiasticism brought about the transformation of modem Europe\n\n—the time\n\nwill never come when the\n\nman who has learned these things\n\nlike learning, but in the length and breadth of their vast significance\n\nhighest sense the master of him who has not.\n\n—\n\n—not\n\nin a parrot-\n\nwill not be in every\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": "53", "text": "THE HUMANITIES, OLD AND NEW\n\nSessions]\n\n53\n\nWe are interested in this subject tonight, as I said earlier, lest woman's\neducational advantages be frittered away, lest leadership possibly hers, along\nlines where her assistance is needed, fail because of lack of knowledge.\n\nAt a commencement address given at our university in Cleveland in\nJune, Katherine B. Davis, commissioner of corrections in New York, told\nus\n\nhow continually the very best education is needed in all forms of\n\nwork carried on in any large way for the amelioration and alleviation of\n\nThe very best in education is needed in helping to solve the\n\nhumanity.\n\ngreat problems that confront us daily in our great cities.\n\nShe cited amusing\n\ninstances of how many women, lacking in knowledge and experience, ask\nfor work.\n\nWhen she inquires for what work they are fitted they say: \" Oh,\n\nI thought\n\nI could inspect\n\nsomething.\"\n\n\"Inspect what?\" she says; and\n\nthey answer: \"Oh, something, I don't know what, but I thought I could\nsurely inspect or investigate something.''\n\nHaving heard Miss Davis' arraignment of lack of preparation for work,\nI read with interest Mayor Mitchel's report on Miss Davis' first six months\n\nHe spoke especially of the savings in administration, and of the\nimprovement in the prisoners' diet and in sanitation, in spite of these\nMore important still was his comment on the new spirit brought\nsavings.\ninto the department, a spirit which makes it a department of correction\ninstead of a department of jails, a department where there is a consistent\nregard for the prisoners as human beings instead of mere world's waste.\nWhen we realize how much accuracy and care are needed in any imporof service.\n\ntant inspection, investigation, or organization,\n\nwe can realize the force of\n\nall earnest pleas for a well-rounded, liberal education.\n\nAccording to Charles\n\nW. Eliot the four educational processes of the trained mind are:\n\naccurate\n\nobservation; the correct record of things observed; the faculty of drawing\ncorrect inferences from recorded observations; the power of expressing one's\n\nthoughts clearly, concisely, and cogently.\n\nThese are exactly the results\nmost easily attained by means of a liberal education along humanistic lines.\nDo we need to have pointed out to us the remarkable results that might\nbe possible if all the children in all the primary schools in this great land of\nours were in the hands of liberally educated women, of women versed in\nlanguage, history, philosophy, science, and art? Many problems now\nours would not be ours if our primary children, at their most formative\nperiod, had been taught by those who by education, and so by knowledge,\nby suggestion, inspiration, and example, could have really given them some\nconception of the privileges of citizenship in a democratic government.\nInstead, you and I know that these young people at their most impressionable age are under the care of those whose training has been meager, who are\ncareless in speech, who with their own backgrounds lacking in ideals can\n\ngo no farther than the limit of the daily round, whose interests are some-\n\nThe richest background of training is none too rich for the\nmolding of every primary child in all the length and breadth of our country.\n\nwhat trivial.\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": "54", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n54\n\n[General\n\nThis training would simply give a necessary equipment for proper efficiency\nlater in educational, philanthropic, and professional work.\nIt has been well said that the difficulty of a democracy is in how to find\n\nand keep high ideals. Such ideals are needed at every step of educational\nwork whether that work be primary, secondary, collegiate, university, or\ngraduate. Such high ideals ought to be so diffused that they may really\nbecome the national standard; for nations are great only as their people\nserve an ideal greater than that of any one person, individually considered.\nThe old Greek proverb \"Know thyself\" has the greatest power when joined\nwith the knowledge of the world in the realization of the possibilities of the\nhuman spirit. The English universities of Cambridge and Oxford have\ngiven leaders in statesmanship, in law, in war, in diplomacy, and in executive and administrative work.\n\nTraining in letters has there given leaders\n\nwho have put their stamp on what we may call the national character. The\nleaders among us, whether men or women, should be those most broadly\ntrained on idealistic as well as practical lines.\n\nIt has been well said that a\n\nnation may be independent, may be energetic and successful, but that a\n\npeople cannot be a great nation without reason and culture.\n\nA correct interpretation of the present as the successor of the past, as\nthe forerunner and molder of the future, seems to my mind always more\neasily possible to a person trained in a\n\nknowledge of the literature, art,\n\nphilosophy, law, and government of the nations who gave us the classical\nlanguages.\n\nThe attitudes of mind of various groups of college students\n\nfrom year to year as they work in my department strengthen this impression.\nTheir estimate of life seems to grow with their appreciation and realization of the privileges afforded all human beings as heirs of the ages.\n\nPeople of my generation twenty-five years ago would have said that the\nlife of today is complex, not simple.\n\nBut to my mind our complexities are\n\nsimple to what the lives of the women of twenty-five or fifty years from now\n\nA liberal education gives poise, common-sense, well-balanced\njudgment, open-mindedness, generosity, independence in thought with\n\nwill be.\n\nsympathetic appreciation.\n\nAnd why is this important to us for women ?\n\nWe have running thru our national life four distinct and clear purposes.\nThese are defined as freedom in religious worship, popular government, a\npopular system of education, and a feeling of trusteeship or guardianship of\nthe future.\n\nWe all know that whether we consider one type of early colonist or\nanother, the spirit of freedom in religious worship was an animating prin-\n\nHumanism had exerted itself to that extent. This principle is in\nand out and above, beneath and around every moment of our nation's\nexistence.\nIt is a close bond in time of national peril\na bond indissoluble,\n\nciple.\n\n—\n\npermanent, abiding.\n\nPopular government demands as its corollary popular education, and\n\nwho more than the educated women are the firm supporters, aiders, and\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": "55", "text": "THE HUMANITIES, OLD AND NEW\n\nSessions]\n\nabettors of all these three purposes of our national life;\n\n55\n\nwho need more than\n\nthey a full training in the richest treasures of the past for a correct interpretation of the present's needs ?\n\nNo partial, specialized training can approach\n\nAnd, when I touch\nupon that fourth purpose of trusteeship of the future, I need only point you\nto the place of our country in the world's policies of today to show you the\nimportance of a liberal, not a narrow, training from a cultural point of view\nsuch a broad preparation as these purposes demand.\n\nfor the women of our country.\n\nThis government of ours was fortunate in having liberally trained men\nfor its framers.\n\nIt is needing more and more every day liberally trained\n\ncitizens for the interpretation of its best possibilities.\n\nclearness of vision, strength of imagination\n\nIt requires in all\n\n—such strength of imagination\n\nas that of the great poet with his message for his period;\n\nthe strength of\n\nimagination of the historian able to people past centuries; of the inventor\nfashioning new instruments for humanity's daily use;\n\nthe imagination of\n\nthe architect which sees in the mind's eye the outlines of future stately\nbuildings and great cities\n\n—such thought as has covered the land with bands\n\nof steel and the sea with ships, the strength of will that can stand four square\n\nto every wind that blows and the nobility of purpose that we phrase in\nnoblesse oblige.\n\nAs I came down the foothills of the Alps into the old city of Genoa and\nsaw the city's walls of defense running well up into the mountains, I said\nto myself,\n\n\"We do better in America: we build our public schoolhouses as\n\nour strongholds, our citadels of defense.\"\n\nFor we all know that if the great\n\npublic-school buildings in many of our cities were closed for one generation\n\nwe should have not American but foreign cities.\n\nOne never sees fifty or\n\nseventy-five thousand foreigners marching in procession thru our city\nstreets\n\nwithout realizing the importance of the educational training that\n\nmakes them into American citizens. The old Latin word disciplina tells\nthe story of what we do in education for the maintenance of a safe society\nand government.\nHumanism means for the future as for the past a progress on ever higher\nand higher national lines, because it means for the individual an appeal to\nthe world of the imagination and the spirit by its message of invincibility.\n\nThe Roman poet of old wrote \"Tendimus. ad Latium^'\nthe land of hope.\"\n\n— \"We steer to\n\nAll education should be fashioned on broad enough\n\nlines to steer to the land of hope\n\n—even\n\nif it requires at times the courage of\n\nthe hero, the strength of the martyr, the piety of the saint to hold the helm\nin sailing.\n\nIn times as practical as these, the dominant call seems to be\n\nthe voice from the market place.\n\nBut market places change verities do not.\nThe one who knows this in all its full significance is educated and can train\nothers.\nLife needs always a sovereign grace and a sovereign charm. The\nreal gains it does not lose, because it may be an ideal made real.\nSurely,\nin America, if anywhere, we have seen, we are to see, the dream come true\n;\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": "56", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n56\n\n[General\n\nof the ideal made real in making the best gifts of all the ages the free and\n\ngenerous possession of the lowliest among us, because we give all and withhold nothing in education's history.\n\nBecause humanity is priceless, we\n\nclaim humanity's training for humanity.\n\nMr. Hamilton Mabie has said that Americans will continue to strive to\nachieve a solution, not only of the political problem, which Matthew Arnold\ndeclared they had solved, but of the himian problem, which is infinitely\nmore complex and difficult and for which no race or nation has yet found\n\na final solution.\n\n—\n\nAs the Greeks of old loved beauty, the Romans loved duty duty\nthat gave them in character constancy, dignity, magnanimity, probity,\nand fidelity. We need more than ever today the love of both, that with\nthese and the teaching of Christianity we may fashion a national character\n\"kindred with the great of old.\"\n\nD.\n\nPREPARATION OF WOMEN FOR TWENTIETH -CENTURY\nLIFE\nMARY E. WOOLLEY, PRESIDENT, MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE,\nSOUTH HADLEY, MASS.\n\nThat education should prepare for life is not a new dictum, a recently\nBut when we say that education should prepare for\ntwentieth-century life, we are looking at an old truth from a new angle.\n\ndiscovered truth.\n\nPresident Jordan, of Leland Stanford Junior University, in an address\nto his students near the opening of the century, said:\n\nCompared with the centuries that are past, the twentieth century, in its broad outlines, will be like the rest.\n\nIt will be selfish, generous, careless, devoted, fatuous, efl&cient.\n\nBut three of its traits must stand out above all others, each raised to a higher degree than\nany other century has known. The twentieth century, above all others, will be strenuous, complex, and democratic.\n\nThe characterization of the century applies not only to men; it is equally\nThe mere statement that an age is strenuous, complex,\n\ntrue for women.\n\nand democratic, interpreting democracy as that which \"exalts the individual,\" values \"men as men\" and women as women, gives an insight into\nthe kind of preparation necessary in order to live its life strongly and well.\nIn a certain sense, the consideration must be a restricted one, for, under our\npresent social order, not every woman can have preparation for the life of\nthe century in which she lives, and that restriction in itself puts an added\nresponsibility upon the shoulders of the women who do have the opportunity. The earnest woman of today does not look upon education as a\npersonal acquisition, without bearing upon the common welfare, nor consider\nthat schools and colleges exist in order that she may be \"highly accomplished,\" stamped with the hallmark of culture.\nIt is well to remember\nthat the century calls for many kinds of service, from women as well as\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": "57", "text": ":\n\nWOMEN AND TWENTIETH-CENTURY LIFE\n\nSessions]\n\nfrom men.\n\nIt needs the service of the homemaker;\n\n57\n\nbut for the woman of\n\nthe twentieth century the question of homemaking must broaden into a\n\nconception not to be confined within the walls of her own dwelling.\n\nThe\n\nresponsibility includes as well the home of the other woman.\n\nIn other ways, the \"homemaker\" of the twentieth century has a very\nmuch wider responsibility than her grandmother a responsibility for the\nindustries taken out of the home and intrusted to bakeries and restaurants,\n\n—\n\nand soap factories, canneries and dairies, mills and tailoring\na responsibility for pure food and clean streets, hygienic\nschoolrooms and healthful amusements, for the prevention of contagious\ndiseases of the body, and the elimination of drunkenness and the social evil,\nthe contagious diseases of the soul. Above all, upon her rests the responsilaundries\n\nestablishments;\n\nbility for the child life of the nation, that it\n\nmay not be defrauded of the\n\nchild's right to play and happiness, education and good influence.\n\nFrom\n\nthe home, as the center of the century's life, radiate lines of activity for\n\nwomen of which our grandmothers little dreamed.\nTo have a part in the world's work is not simply or chiefly to discover\nnew applications of natural forces, to promote industry, to develop material\nresources;\n\nit is concerned also with the discovery of intellectual and spirit-\n\nual forces and their application to daily living, with the promotion of earnest\n\npurposes and high ideals, with the development of the resources of the mind\n\nand of the heart. The really vital things come within the teacher's province.\nSociety can exist without great wealth, enlarged industries, invention, dis-\n\ncovery\n\n;\n\nit cannot long stand without integrity, honor, truth, purity, idealism.\n\nIn considering the subject of work for women, one truth is very often\noverlooked, and that is that they must be considered as individuals and not\nexclusively as members of a sex.\n\nWe consider that the individual man has\n\na right to determine the career, the manner of life, for which he is best\nfitted and which circumstances make most feasible for him.\n\nPerhaps the\n\ngreatest change which the education of women has brought about is just\nin this direction.\n\nThe opponents of higher education are right in their fear\n\nthat it means something more than the opportunity to study calculus or\nto read the Greek dramatists in the original.\n\nIt has introduced into many\n\na household the startling and novel question: \"If John Jones has the right\nto become a dressmaker because he prefers it, why should not Jane Jones\nbecome a doctor, if she prefers that?\"\nIn the light of the pronounced interest in vocational training, it is perhaps not amiss to remind ourselves that the first essential to efficiency in\nany vocation is that which is essential to the stability of a building ^namely,\na good foundation. A strenuous, complex, and democratic century calls\n\n—\n\nfor a well-equipped\n\nhuman being.\n\nFifty-four years ago, before the out-\n\nbreak of the Civil War, our New England seer said, in his essay on \" Power \"\nFor performance of great mark, it needs extraordinary health.\n\nIf Eric is in robust\n\nhealth, and has slept well, and is at the top of his condition, and thirty years old, at his\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": "58", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n58\n\n[General\n\ndeparture from Greenland he will steer west, and his ships will reach Newfoundland.\nBut take out Eric and put in a stronger and bolder man Biom, or Thorfin, and the ships\nhundred miles farther,\nwill, with just as much ease, sail six hundred, one thousand, fifteen\n\nand reach Labrador and New England.\n\nThere is no chance in results.\n\nWith adults, as\n\nwith children, one class enter cordially into the game and whirl with the whirling world;\nthe others have cold hands and remain bystanders; or are only dragged in by the humor\nand vivacity of those who can carry a dead weight. The first wealth is health. Sickness\nis\n\npoor-spirited, and cannot serve anyone; it must husband its resources to live.\n\nBut\n\nhealth or fulness answers its own ends and has to spare, runs over, and inimdates the\nneighborhoods and creeks of other men's necessities.\n\nIt is true that some fine tasks have been performed for the world by\nthose who were physically handicapped, but that does not invalidate the\nstatement that physical unfitness is a handicap. The day is past when the\nsensible woman \"enjoys poor health\" or considers illness a \"dispensation\nof Providence.\"\n\nwork.\n\nShe realizes that health is an essential factor in her life-\n\n\"It is always a misfortune to be ill, frequently it is a disgrace,\" said\n\na wise teacher.\n\nA sane, wholesome, clean life, free from stimulants, nour-\n\nished by pure food, strengthened by exercise, sleep, water, fresh air—and,\n\nmay I add, cheerfulness—this is not too much to expect from a rational\nhuman being in this hygienically enlightened age.\nI should like to add, as one of the values that come naturally from\n\nphysical vitality, altho fortunately not absolutely dependent upon that,\n\na certain joyousness in living, the ability to \"take the old world by the\n\nhand and frolic with it,\" to quote from Stevenson; \"to keep the eyes open,\nthe heart warm, and the pulses swift, as we move across the field of life,\"\nfinding that \"half the joy of life is in little things taken on the run\"— in\n\nDr. Jordan's suggestive words.\n\nTo live earnestly but not take one's self\n\ntoo seriously is a lesson that is well worth the learning.\nIt may not be out of place, since this is an educational assembly, to\n\nsuggest the training of the intellect as a preparation for effective living even\n\nIn our institutions of learning, we fall into a\nrather apologetic attitude in these days when we can think of no reason\n\nin the twentieth century.\n\nwhy a subject is retained in the curriculum except that it is useful in training\nthe mind. And yet since the world began there has never been a time when\nprogress was not dependent primarily upon the mind directing the work,\n\nupon the thinker behind the thing accomplished. And the demand comes\nhome to women, certainly as directly as to men.\nLast month in the conunencement address at Mount Holyoke, the\ndistrict attorney of New York said:\nCan there be any question that for practically every advance or gain in the physical\nand material things of life, in the improvement of conditions under which men and women\nlive and work and play, in the vast changes of the century past, which have made better\nhomes for all, better food for all, better clothing for all, preservation of health, facilities\nfor fighting disease, safe and speedy transportation and communication, we are indebted\n\nto the silent men at work in our colleges and universities, and to the vast army of men and\n\nwomen who have been trained in them to correct thinking and accurate work, and who are\ninspired as well to the highest endeavor of which the human mind is capable ?\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": "59", "text": "—\n\nWOMEN AND TWENTIETH-CENTURY LIFE\n\nSessionsl\n\nThe alert mind is not the only desideratum.\n\n59\n\nAn illuminating article\n\nentitled \"To Virtue Knowledge,\" written by an alumna of Smith College,\n\nreminds us that altho it is important to act promptly and accurately, it is\nstill more important to be able to restrain action, to see things as they are\nin themselves, apart\n\nfrom utilitarian interest; that the former furnishes\n\nthe brain with useful paths of habit, the latter develops its deepest resources.\n\nWe often complain of the superficiality of the manual work of today, but\nthat criticism cannot be confined to the work of the hands.\n\n—\n\nthe deepest resources of the brain\n\nis\n\nTo develop\n\nthat not a function of education?\n\nSuch development does not come along the lines of least resistance; it is\nakin to the moral and spiritual wrestling which is the price paid for character, as this is the price paid for mentality.\n\nThe acquirement of informa-\n\ntion or knowledge and this power are not necessarily synonymous.\n\nThere\n\nare many subjects valuable in their content which do not develop it.\n\nThere is no waste time spent in work which demands and develops the\npower of gripping a subject, grappling with difficulties, and so strengthening the mental muscle, the muscle that the modern world needs for the\nsolving of its problems. I hope we shall never weaken the influence of the\ncollege by eliminating from our curricula the studies which call for the severest concentration and progress only along the lines of least resistance.\nThere is a quaint description in the Book of Judges concerning one of\nthe tribes of Israel. \"For the divisions of Reuben there were great searchings of heart.\"\n\nIn the twentieth century there will be, there already are,\n\n\"great searchings of heart,\" new ethical standards, higher business and\npolitical\n\nand personal morality, a purer civic life.\n\nCrime is not necessarily incident to crowded centers of population [is Mr. Whitman's\nstatement]. Drunkenness is not an unavoidable element in civilization, and the evil that\nis so prevalent, so horribly degrading, and so awful in its effects upon the human race\ncommonly known as the social evil is no more necessarily incident to the life of our\nAmerican people than are the plagues known in history and now checked by scientific\npioneers. The time is going to come in this land when the evils which are so prevalent\ntoday, the temptation to which young men and young women are subjected, will be\nregarded with incredulity and with horror. The world is not waiting for the collegebred man and woman as such, but the great field of himian endeavor is open to any\nand to all who are willing and able to make an honest contribution to the sum of human\n\n—\n\nknowledge.\n\nThis great field of human endeavor is not the exclusive responsibility\n\n— belongs to both, one of the unanswerable argu-\n\nof either men or women\n\nments\n\nit\n\nfor equal suffrage.\n\nRevelations of political corruption come as\n\na shock to the high-minded woman as to the high-minded man; revelations\nof civic corruption expressed in the social evil seem to her to touch the very\n\ndepths of degradation. The supreme need of the century is for clean hands\nand pure hearts, and our schools and colleges must recognize and attempt\nto meet this need, not only for the sake of the individuals who are directly\naffected, but for the sake of the common welfare. The strength which is as\nthe strength of ten because the heart is pure was never more needed than\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": "60", "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o\n\n[General\n\nin this modern day of ours with its insistent demands, its perplexing prob-\n\nlems, and its heavy responsibilities.\n\nOn Copley square in Boston, at the side of Trinity Church, there is the\nbronze figure of a bishop who was in a peculiar sense the bishop of New\n\nEngland, a personality too great and inspiring to be limited to any church.\nOne of his messages to the men of the nineteenth century we may well take\nas a message to the women of the twentieth\nOh, do not pray for easy lives. Pray to be stronger women! Do not pray for tasks\nPray for powers equal to your tasks! Then the doing of your\n\nequal to your powers.\n\nwork shall be no miracle.\n\nBut you shall be a miracle.\n\nEvery day you shall wonder at\n\nyourself, at the richness of life, which has come in you by the grace of God.\n\nTOPIC: TEACHERS' SALARIES AND PENSIONS\nA.\n\nTHE COLLEGE PROFESSOR AND TEE NATION\n\nCHARLES WILLIAM DABNEY, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI,\nCINCINNATI, OHIO\n\nThe importance of college teaching as compared with other professional\nwork is greatly underestimated by the average American. The ordinary\ncitizen selects a college for sectarian, social, or local reasons or, at best,\n\nwith reference to the calling which his son intends to enter.\n\nHe pays some\n\nregard, perhaps, to the general reputation of the institution, but he scarcely\n\nthinks of the professors and their ability and scholarship. The rich man,\nwho employs a twenty-thousand-dollar lawyer or a ten-thousand-dollar\nphysician, regards a fifteen-hundred-dollar college professor as good enough\nto train his son.\n\nThe indifference of the public to all intellectual and moral values is the\ndiscouraging characteristic of our times.\n\nMoney-making, politics, sports,\nand picture shows are the only things that seem really to interest it. The\ninvestigator or teacher\n\nis\n\nto the ordinary\n\nman a mere bookworm or a\n\ncrank.\n\nVarious attempts have been made to call the attention of the people\nto their duty to the college teacher, but these efforts have accomplished\n\nFollowing the publication six years ago of the report of the Carnegie\nFoundation for the Advancement of Teaching on the financial status of\n\nlittle.\n\nthe professor in Germany and America, there was a general discussion of\nthis subject\n\nm the press.\n\nThat report showed that the social position\n\nof the college teacher was constantly being lowered by the increasing pres-\n\nsure of the cost of living without the accompanying increase in his salary.\n\nOne of the most striking points brought out was that the professor reaches\nhis maximum salary at an average age of thirty-four, when other professional\n\nmen are just upon the threshold of their careers and are beginning to realize\nadequate returns on their heavy investment of special study and training.\nSays the report:\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": "61", "text": "THE COLLEGE PROFESSOR AND THE NATION\n\nSessions]\n\n6l\n\nWhile his intellectual brother-in-law in medicine and in scientific occupations rises\nsteadily in the large cities to ten, twenty, or thirty thousand doUars a year, and in smaller\n\ntowns to incomes not so large actually but relatively large in proportion to the scale of\nliving there, the professor, in a vast majority of cases, stands from that time on at the\n\naverage salary of $2,500.\n\nThis condition not only reduces the efficiency of the teacher by decreasing the output of scholarly work, but proves detrimental to the profession\nof teaching by not offering sufficient inducement to secure and retain men\nof\n\nmarked ability.\n\nSuch conditions are driving intellectual young men\n\nwith social instincts away from this most important profession.\n\nTo quote\n\nagain from the report:\nIn other callings great ability brings a proportionate reward; the exceptional man\nmay expect from twenty to forty times the reward of the average man. In industry and\nbusiness the best man may expect from two hundred to four hundred times the reward\nof the average man.\nBut in teaching and scholarship the best man cannot, under present\nconditions, expect much more than from two to four times the reward of the average man.\nNo matter how great the ability of the college professor as a teacher or scholar there is no\nprobability that he will ever be paid more than the minor officer of a railroad or industrial\n\ncompany.\n\nIt is not strange, therefore, that the possibility of teaching seldom presents\n\nitself nowadays to the best students in a large graduating class\n\nThe fiscal arrange-\n\nments of the profession of college teaching are just such as would attract a mediocre\nman who did not expect that in any other activity the world held out to him very much.\nThe need for larger prizes is pressing.\n\nThis conclusion was universally accepted six years ago as correct and\ncaused some institutions to inaugurate efforts to better the conditions of\ntheir professors.\n\nTo what extent then has the condition of the professor\n\nbeen improved ?\n\nHow does,the matter stand for him at the present time ?\n\nTo answer this question, I have sought official facts with regard to the\nsalaries of professors, assistant professors,\n\ncollege year.\n\nand instructors during the last\n\nThe United States Bureau of Education has kindly placed\n\nat my disposal the advance sheets of a bulletin^ containing data collected\n\nrecently about salaries in three classes of institutions.\n\nIn the first class\n\nare the state-aided universities and colleges; in the second class are those\n\nhaving more than a million dollars of endowment (not state aided); and\nin the third class are certain universities\n\nand colleges having less than a\nThese data are found in\n\nmillion dollars of endowment (not state aided).\n\nTables 38, 39, and 40 of the bulletin referred to above.\n\nFrom the Bureau's tables I have selected the data for certain representative positions and have compiled separately the salaries paid in each\nclass\n\nof\n\ninstitution.\n\nThe professorships\n\nselected were those of Latin,\n\nGerman, English, history, economics, philosophy, education, mathematics,\ncivil engineering, geology, chemistry, botany, and agriculture. The highest,\nthe lowest, and the average salary of full professors, assistant professors,\nand instructors in the institutions of each class were collated and the\naverages taken.\n»\n\nSince published as Bulletin No. 16, 1014.\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": "62", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n62\n\n[General\n\nThere are no Bureau figures for 1908 exactly comparable with these\ncollected in 1914.\n\nThe nearest to them are the figures in the Carnegie\n\nreport of 1908 for \"institutions in the United States and Canada appropriating $45,000 or over for the total payment of salaries,\" referred to above.\nThis corresponds fairly with Class II of the Bureau. This year the Carnegie\nreport also gives the salaries paid in institutions expending from $10,000\nto $45,000 for salaries, which corresponds approximately to the Bureau's\n\nClass III.\n\nWe have, also, in the reports of the Bureau of Education for\n\n191 1, salary data collected and classified in the same manner, presumably,\nas those collected this year. The averages reported for this year are for\n\nthe academic professorships, not including those of the professional schools,\n\nand were calculated by me from the data given by the Bureau in Bulletin\nNo. i6j 1914.\nIf we put the figures gathered from these reports into a table, they\nstand as follows:\n\nSalames of College Teachers, 1908-14, Averages\nUnivzesities and Colleges Having $i,ooo,cxx>\n\nOR More Endowment\nAND Spending $4S,ocx3\nAND Over for Salaries\n\nUniversities and Colleges WITH Less Than\n\nState-aided Colleges\n\n$1,000,000 Endowment\n\nAND Spending Less Than\n$45 ,000 FOR Salaries\n\n'i<^J\n\nCarnegie report of\n1908\n\nBureau report of 19 11\nBureau report of 1914\n\n$2,500 $1,600 $1,000\n3,326\n\n1,596\n\n$2,186 $1,427 $1,028\n1,091\n1,199 2,569 1,741\n\n$1,800 $1,200\n1,768\n\n1,388\n\n$ 800\n1,066\n\nIt will be seen from this that while there has been a tendency to increase\nsalaries as the cost of living has gone up, the increase has not been uniform\n\nin all classes and is still totally inadequate for every class of college teacher.\n\nIn the institutions having $1,000,000 endowment or over, most of them in\neastern cities, the salaries of the professors have been increased since 1908\nabout 33 per cent, and of the instructors about 20 per cent, while the salaries\nof the assistant professors have remained stationary.\nuniversities\n\nIn the state-aided\n\nand colleges, the salaries of professors have been increased,\n\nsince 1911, about 17 per cent, of assistant professors about 22 per cent,\n\nand of instructors about 6 per cent.\nless\n\nIn the universities and colleges having\nthan $1,000,000 endowment, the professors have lost a little salary\n\nsince 1908, while the salaries of assistant professors have increased about\n\n15 per cent, and of instructors about 33 per cent.\n\nWe know, however, that since 1908 the cost of living has increased at\nleast 40 per cent and the demands made upon the professor, which we may\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": "63", "text": "THE COLLEGE PROFESSOR AND THE NATION\n\nSessions]\n\ncall\n\n63\n\nthe cost of higher living, have certainly increased 10 per cent.\n\nprofessors in the smaller colleges\n\nour country\n\n—report that their\n\n—and they represent the largest\n\nsalaries\n\nThe\n\nclass in\n\nnow have only one-half the pur-\n\nchasing power they had in 1904.\n\nThe\nless\n\nthe state-aided institution has\nHis present salary, however, buys 25 or 30 per cent\n\ncondition of the professor in\n\nimproved the most.\n\nthan did the salary of ten years ago.\n\nThe assistant professor in the\n\nstate-aided institution stands relatively in the same condition;\nassistant professor in both\n\nwhile the\n\nthe heavily endowed university and in the\n\nsmall college finds himself in a more wretched financial condition than\nformerly.\n\nThe maximum salaries as well as the averages reported by the Bureau\nThe highest-salaried professors\nare found in institutions in the eastern states having $1,000,000 endowment\nor more. The largest salary paid in them is $7,500, which is received by\nfive professors of law and one of commerce.\nThe next highest salary is\n$7,000, and this is received by one professor in each of the following departof Education also furnish food for thought.\n\npolitical economy, sociology, philosophy, physics, and\nThese salaries are not found among the other classes of institutions.\nOmitting the professors of law, commerce, and medicine, there are\nthis year only five academic professors in all the classes who draw salaries\nas large as $7,000. I call attention to the fact that it is those who have\nprepared themselves for other than academic professions who command\n\nments:\n\nLatin,\n\nmedicine.\n\nthe largest salaries paid by our universities.\n\nThe man who has spent all\n\nhis time and energy in qualifying himself for the academic career has to\n\nbe content with the smaller salary.\n\nWe may gain a general idea of the\n\ninadequate salaries paid even by the wealthiest institutions from the state-\n\nment that out of 1,067 f^l college professors only 127 receive a yearly\ncompensation of $5,000 or more.\n\nAn examination of the salaries paid in the other two classes of institutions\n\n—those aided by the state and those having\nthan $1,000,000\n—reveals conditions even\nencouraging. The state-aided\nless\n\nendowment\n\ninstitutions have\n\nless\n\nno professors paid above $5,000 and show only thirty-\n\nthree of these, twenty of whom are engaged in work outside of the academic\n\nThe colleges and universities having less than $1,000,000\nendowment have, of course, still fewer highly paid professors. Out of\nCounting all the teachers\n1,060 only three get $6,000 and three $5,000.\ndepartments.\n\nat present employed in\n\nall\n\nthe institutions in the three classes we find\n\nthat only one in seventy-four has a chance of ever attaining to a salary\nof $5,000.\n\nWhat are the maximums for the assistant professors?\n\nOnly 725, or\n\n30 per cent, out of the 2,434 assistant professors in all these American\ncolleges draw salaries of $2,000 or more, and the majority of these are found\nin the $1,000,000 institutions in eastern cities, where this salary amoimts to\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": "64", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n64\n\nvery little.\n\n[General\n\nIn other words, only one-third of our assistant professors are\n\nreceiving what may fairly be considered a living salary.\n\nHaving examined the highest salaries paid in these different classes of\ninstitutions, let us now turn to a consideration of the minimum amounts\n\nby men supposed to be doing the same work as the highest-\n\nreceived\n\nsalaried professors just considered.\n\nThese small salaries give us a clearer\n\nconception of the situation for our American college teachers than even the\nconsideration of the averages.\n\nThe bricklayer who has steady work in any of our western cities now\nTaking this amount as the standard of comparison, we find that only 781, or one-fifth, of all the full professors in all\nearns $1,500 in ten months.\n\nthree classes of institutions\n$2,000,\n\ndraw a salary ranging between $1,000 and\nThis, however, is by no\n\nand averaging that of the bricklayer.\n\nmeans the minimum for the salary of the full professor;\n\nfor, in\n\nthe state-\n\naided colleges and the less heavily endowed institutions, it falls as low as\n$750, and in the case of five persons as low as $400. Nine men who gave\ntouch bottom\ntheir full time to the college this year received $750.\n\nWe\n\nwhen we record that there are in these United States 146 men called full\nprofessors who are giving their entire time and energy to college teaching\nWith regard to the estate\nfor the meager stipend of $85 and less a month.\nof the assistant professor and the instructor, it suffices to say that in all\n\nthe universities and colleges reporting to the Bureau this year, there are\n533 assistant professors who receive less than $1,500, and 1,108 instructors\nwho receive less than $1,000 a year.\n\nA few comparisons between the salaries of the college teachers and the\nWe have found that\n\nearnings of men in other professions may be made.\n\nthe average college professor, at the age of thirty-four, reaches his maximum\nsalary of $1,768 in institutions having less than $1,000,000\n\nendowment;\n\nof $2,569 in state-aided institutions; of $3,326 in institutions having endow-\n\nments of over $1,000,000.\n\nThe lawyer or engineer of equal education\n\nafter being out of school eight or ten years will be earning at least $5,000\n\nor $6,000, and a physician perhaps somewhat more.\n\nThe average college\n\nprofessor at thirty-four is certainly receiving from $1,000 to $2,000 less a\n\nyear for his services than his contemporaries in other professions and he\n\nhas reached his limit.\n\nHow do college men compare with high-school teachers ?\n\nIn one large\n\ncity in the near East where the high-school teacher receives from $2,000\n\nto $2,500, the professors in the university receive salaries of from $1,200\nto $1,800.\n\nThe salaries of assistant professors rarely equal those of high-\n\nschool teachers.\n\nA lieutenant just appointed in the army receives a total of $1,800 in\nsalary and allowances, but the average salary of the assistant professor,\n\nwho is usually older and has invested more money and time in preparing\nhimself for his work, is only $1,741 in state-aided institutions, $1,596 in\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": "65", "text": "THE COLLEGE PROFESSOR AND THE NATION\n\nSessions]\n\n65\n\n$1,000,000 institutions, and $1,388 in the universities and colleges having\nless than $1,000,000.\n\nIf\n\nwe consider the instructors whose average salary in all classes is\n\nabout $1,100, we find that this is exceeded by bricklayers and plasterers\nin our middle-western cities and about equaled by the journeymen plumbers\n\nand the policemen.\nIt\n\nis\n\nevident that the material rewards for the college teacher are\n\nwretchedly inadequate.\n\nIs he such a wretched fellow, then, as these salaries\n\nBy no means.\nWhat then leads able men to adopt the professor's calling?\n\nwould seem to suggest?\nit is fair\n\nI think\n\nto say that the chief attraction is the responsibility and influence\n\nwhich the professor has as a servant of society. A second motive with all\ntrue men is the love of study and the life of the scholar. The scholar evidently considers slightly the financial returns of his profession. He knows\nwhen he chooses his life's work how little his own teachers received and\nhow simply their families had to live. He, therefore, enters the profession\nwith his eyes open to its privations and sacrifices. In other words, he makes\n\na deliberate sacrifice of material things in order to get the opportunity\n\nand to become a member of what\nMr. Lowell calls the \"only aristocracy in America.\"\nto serve his generation as a scholar\n\nThe third great attraction, of course, is the opportunity for research.\nEvery true scholar must take a part in the work of extending our knowledge\nThe professor feels it his duty not only to keep\nas well as in teaching.\nabreast of the new knowledge in his subject, but to add to it at every opportunity.\nHe knows that to grow he must be productive. In such work he\nfinds great reward not only in the satisfaction he feels, but in the respect\nof his fellows.\n\nIt is a sad fact, but true, that research carried on by the\n\nuniversity men of this country leads to almost no such material returns\nas it does in Germany and other countries.\n\nHis only reward is the honor\n\nand respect of scholars like himself, who take up and use his work. Boards\nof management should remember then that the opportunity to do research\nwork is a very important part of the reward of the college professor.\nDeprive him of this and you take from him that which every growing\nprofessor must consider as his most precious privilege. We should rejoice\nthat this high and responsible service and these opportunities to study\nstill have strong attractions for the right men.\nIf they did not, there\nwould be no worthy men or scholars in the college faculties, for the other\nrewards are pitifully small. But it still remains true that the public must\ngive the college professor a decent salary, one sufficient to enable him to\nhave and bring up a family in a suitable way, or it will drive the best men\naway from this most important profession. The reduction of the net\nsalary of the college teacher cannot go on longer without great injury to\nour college work. The American people cannot afford to sweat the college\nprofessors for two reasons: First, the teacher is the maker of men. As the\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": "66", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n66\n\n[General\n\nteacher of all other teachers, the college professor is the most important\n\nman in the nation. For the grade of work he does, he is the worst paid.\nAnd, secondly, he is the discoverer of new knowledge. It is the duty of\nevery nation to do its share to advance science, to develop the powers of\nman, and to widen his vision in all directions. Thru science, we gain a\ngreater knowledge of the world in which we live, a greater power over nature,\na greater efficiency in invention, and better prevention and treatment of\nScience is, thus, our first industry. As the engineer directs the\ndisease.\nwork of the contractor, so science directs every human enterprise. To\nthe college professor, we must look to discover all this new knowledge and\nto train all our inventors. Where the lawyer, politician, business man,\nand physician do good service to a few people, the discoverer confers benefits\nupon the whole world, not for the present age only, but for all time. Surely,\nthen, society should properly support\n\nits\n\nablest\n\nmen in this service of\n\ndiscovering new knowledge and making men.\n\nB.\n\nSALARIES BASED ON THE POSITION AND NOT ON THE\nSEX OF INCUMBENT\nGRACE C. STRACHAN, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nBROOKLYN, N.Y.\n\nAt a dinner in Brooklyn recently Rev. Dr. Hillis said: \"There can\nbe no political or social equality so long as there is industrial inequality\nthru class legislation. There is but one solution of the social problem and\nthat is the application of the Golden Rule to the laws of the street.\"\nI am going to try to tell you in twenty minutes\n\nsome of the reasons\n\nwhy teachers in the city of New York feel so strongly about the subject of\nsex in salary.\n\nI have here a book containing nearly six hundred pages which\n\ntells part of\n\nthe story of the struggle made by the Interborough Associa-\n\ntion of Women Teachers of the city of New York for \"equal pay for equal\n\nwork,\" which lasted from April, 1906, to January i, 191 2, at which time a\nlaw went into effect providing that there should not be discrimination in\nsalary on account of the sex of the teacher, and adding $3,800,000 to the\n\nNew York City.\nyou that I myself have never\n\ntotal annual salaries of the women teachers of\n\nI feel that, to begin with, I must tell\n\nsuffered any discrimination in salary on account of sex.\n\nI began teaching\n\nin Buffalo, N.Y., where salaries are paid according to the position,\n\ncontinued\n\nand I\n\nmy teaching in Brooklyn where salaries were likewise paid\n\naccording to the position; and before the consolidation of Brooklyn with\nother municipalities into \"Greater New York,\" I was elected a superintendent, and as such for the past fourteen years I have received the salary\nof that position.\n\nWhen the various salary conditions existing in the different school systems at the time of consolidation were, in April, 1900, crystallized into a state\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": "67", "text": "SALARIES BASED ON POSITION AND NOT ON SEX\n\nSessions]\n\n67\n\nlaw as part of the charter of the new city, the women teachers found themselves in a situation which probably the teachers in no other part of the\n\nThey found that this law fixed\ncertain minimum salaries and fixed them for \"male\" and \"female\" teachers.\nThe words quoted were those used in the law. It was provided that the\ncountry except the East can fully appreciate.\n\nsalary of a \"female teacher\" should not be less than $600 a year and that of\n\na \"male teacher\" should not be less than $900 a year, and that the annual\nincrement for a \"female teacher\" should not be less than $40, nor less than\n$105 for a \"male teacher.\" This meant, for example, that my brother,\ntho he and I might have graduated at the same time from exactly the\n\nsame course, and might have begun teaching on the same date in exactly\nthe same grade, and tho he might have been a very much poorer teacher\n\n—as would probably be the case we were teaching in the lower\n—would begin at a salary $300 a year greater than mine, and at the\nend of the year— tho I might be marked \"A\" and he a bare \"B\" —would\nthan I\n\nif\n\ngrades\n\nbe rewarded with an increase of $105, as against my increase of $40. With\nthis rate of increase, I would be receiving $1,080 at the end of twelve years,\n\n—\n\nand he would be receiving $2,160 exactly twice as much. His salary\nwould remain at $2,160, unless he got into the higher grades where the\nmaximum was fixed at $2,400. The maximum for \"female\" teachers in\nthe grades of the first six years was $1,240, and in the grades of the seventh\nand eighth years was $1,320 and $1,440, with a bonus of $60 for \"boys\"\nand \"mixed\" classes. In the position of assistant to principal, the women\nreceived $1,600 and the men $2,400; and in that of principals the women\nreached $2,500 and the men $3,500. Women high-school teachers had\n$1,900 and men $2,400. The first assistants or heads of departments in\nhigh schools had $2,500 and $3,000 respectively. This basing salary on the\naccident of sex without regard to other conditions\n\nmade such absurd\n\nsituations as the following possible:\n\nA woman principal of a school having\n\n—in\n\nall grades from kindergarten to gradu-\n\n67 classes\n\n—4,000 boys and\n\ngirls\n\nating class, was receiving $2,500, while another principal, who happened to be\n\n—\n\na \"male principal\" but who had only 12 classes\n$3,500.\n\n—\n\n400 pupils was receiving\nAnother striking illustration of the \"gross injustices\" and \"glar-\n\ning inequalities\" (the words quoted are from Governor Hughes's veto\n\nmessage on our bill in 1907) existing under the law we were seeking to\namend was that of the teacher of a class of 28 girls who received $2,400\nbecause he was \"male,\" while near by was a class of 48 boys whose teacher\nbeing \"female\" received $1,500.\n\nThe men of the legislature and of various associations to whom we\npresented these facts readily saw the injustice of such discrimination.\n\nWhen you consider these conditions you will not be surprised that, after\naccepting them without formal protest for several years, the women united\nin an association, including all grades from kindergarten to district superin-\n\ntendent, for the purpose of correcting them.\n\nThis organization soon grew\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": "68", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n68\n\n[General\n\nto be very powerful, with a membership of over twelve thousand;\n\nyet it\n\ntook this immense body of teachers six years to secure a law which elimi-\n\nnated the words \"male\" and \"female\" from our charter, and provided cerThis law added $3,800,tain minimum salaries fixed according to position.\n\n000 to the salary budget of New York City. About $150,000 went to men\nteachers in the high and training schools, the maximum for assistant teachers\nin such schools being raised from $2,400 to $2,650. This caused an increase\nfor the women in high and training schools of $750 a year.\n\nThe women\n\nprincipals were given the $3,500\n\nand the women assistant principals the\n\n$2,400 formerly paid to men only.\n\nIn the grades of the elementary schools,\n\nthe salaries of the women teachers were not raised to the salaries that had\n\nbeen paid to the men\n\n—\n\na compromise between the former maximums of the\nmen and the women being proposed by the Board of Education and accepted\nby our association. The maximum for the kindergarten and grades of the\nfirst six years was made $1,500, and for the grades of the seventh and eighth\nSome people wonder why this was done. The answer is\nyears, $1,820.\nsimple.\n\nIt would have cost the city over ten millions of dollars to pay the\n\ntwelve thousand women in the grades of the elementary schools the $2,160\n\nand $2,400 maximums that were being paid to the twelve hundred men in\nsaid grades; and every man and woman here knows that to expect any city\nto add ten millions to its budget to increase teachers' salaries for one year\nwould be futile. The minimum salary of the women in the elementary\nschools was raised from $600 to $720 and the maximums were increased from\n$1,240 to $1,500 and from $1,320 and $1,440 to $1,820. The total increase\nto the women in the grades was nearly $3,000,000.\nSome of the arguments that were used by our opponents will, I think,\nbe of interest. Our chief opponents were our fellow-teachers, who under the\nlaw were classed as \"male.\" As our fight progressed we discriminated\namong them, and called those who supported our cause \"men teachers\"\nand the others \"male teachers.\" One of the favorite arguments was that a\n\nman had, or expected to have, a family to support. Now, we all know\nthat many of us women also have families to support; and our families\nare not the kind of family a man has to support. A man's family is usually\nmade up of children who will later support him if necessary, while a woman\nteacher's family\n\nis\n\nalmost always composed of those\n\nteachers themselves have grown old.\nin that argument, its application\n\nwho die ere the\n\nBut even if there were some force\n\nwas absurd;\n\nsince a married man with\n\nseven children and a mother-in-law to support was not paid any more than\n\na rich bachelor, nor than a man who had married a wealthy woman who\ncould easily have supported him.\n\nThe \"family\" argument was met by one\n\nof our speakers by the suggestion that the salary be fixed according to the\n\nand then that a bonus be allowed for each child or dependent\nbut that suggestion did not meet with favor, as most of the men\nwho opposed us were young bachelors.\n\nposition\n\nrelative;\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": "69", "text": "SALARIES BASED ON POSITION AND NOT ON SEX\n\nSessions]\n\n69\n\nThe argument of supply and demand and the scarcity of men teachers\nwas sometimes raised; but we were fortunate in that right in the midst of\nour fight the eligible list of women teachers in New York City was exhausted\nand the Board of Education had to advertise in educational papers and\nmagazines for women teachers. At the same time there was organized an\n\"Association of Unappointed Men Teachers.\" This organization was\ncalled \"The Association of Disappointed Men Teachers.\"\nWhat was the reason for this apparently anomalous situation? Simply\nthat the authorities believed that many classes are better taught by women\nthan by men. Notwithstanding the above facts, I know I am right in saying\n\nfrequently\n\nthat in the elementary schools of New York City there are\n\nmore male\n\nteachers than in those of any other public-school system in the country.\n\nAt the time of our fight, the proportion was about one man to twelve\nwomen, and now the proportion of men is greater.\nThere are certain conditions in which we believe it is proper to consider\nsex in connection with the salaries of teachers. Here in the West, at least\nin the elementary schools, all your classes are mixed classes; but in the city\nof New York, we have boys' classes and girls' classes, and, in many instances,\n\nschools\n\ncomposed wholly of boys, and others composed entirely of girls.\n\nNow we all know that it is easier to find a successful teacher of girls than it\nit is to secure a successful teacher of boys.\n\nsupply and demand properly enters.\n\nHere, therefore, the question of\n\nSince the supply of teachers who can\n\nsuccessfully teach girls is greater than that of those who can successfully\n\nteach boys, we believe that the salaries of teachers whose pupils are all boys\n\nshould be greater than those of teachers whose pupils are all girls.\n\nAs to the scarcity of teachers in the future, I predict that it is not going\n\nmen teachers. There is already a scarcity of the best\nwomen teachers; and as the years go by and more fields of work with better\nto be limited to\n\nsalaries and more social freedom are opened to women, the girls are going to\n\ntake up teaching in ever-decreasing numbers.\n\nI am told by the assistant\n\nprincipal in one of our best high schools that the brightest\n\nand best girls\nThat is\nsomething boards of education should consider. A member of our Board\nof Education told me recently that a woman in his employ had left him to\nsign a contract with another firm for $20,000 a year, and two or three trips\nto Europe annually at the firm's expense. There is no department of\neducation that is offering any such inducement.\nAnother favorite argument was that women feminize boys. I should like\nthe men in this audience to speak up and state how many of them remember\nthe influence of their mothers, and then to testify whether it made them\nweaklings. I know there are many here who teach in school systems where\nin the school are not going to the Training School for Teachers.\n\nthere are no men teachers in grades below the high schools.\n\nI think I am\n\nright in saying that in Indianapolis there are no men in the elementary\nschools, and I\n\nam sure that the boys who graduate from the schools of\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": "70", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n70\n\n[General\n\nIndianapolis are not lacking in courage, initiative, and other sterling quali-\n\nThe influence of the teacher depends not on sex but on personality;\n\nties.\n\nand a fine character enshrouded in the form of a woman is just as likely to\nbring out the best there is in the boy as is a fine character enshrouded in the\nform of a man. The fetish of feminization is exploded by such authorities\nas Professor Dewey and Professor Thorndike of Columbia. It is upheld\nonly by foreigners unacquainted with us, our customs, and our schools, and\nby a few misguided followers of such foreigners.\nThere are always some who say that women cannot do the same work as\nmen. When I hear that opinion expressed, I always tell this story: A\nwealthy society woman had been appointed a member of the Board of\nEducation and I had secured an interview with her in the hope of enlisting\nher sympathy for our cause. I was very pleasantly received in her beautiful home and for nearly two hours I presented facts and arguments and\ntried to make her understand why over twelve thousand of the teachers now\nunder her care were practically on strike. As I rose to leave, this woman\ncommissioner of the Board of Education said:\nI thank you for coming, Miss Strachan.\n\nI have been very much interested.\n\nBut I\n\nam not sure women can do the same work as men. Now I'm very much interested in\n\n—\n\nbirds\n\n^in\n\n—and I've been watching\n\nfact, I have an aviary on the top floor of this house\n\nthe birds, and I find that the work of the female bird is very different from the work of\n\nthe male bird.\n\nSome say: No two people can do equal work.\n\nProbably not.\n\nCompare\n\nthe work of Roosevelt as president and the work of Wilson as president.\n\nWho can say they are equal ?\n\nYet the salary does not vary, nor does anyone figure out how many children President Wilson has as compared with\nPresident Arthur, nor does he try to estimate how much greater are the\n\nexpenses of President Wilson, a man with three daughters, than those of\nPresident Taft, with one son and one daughter.\nfixed for the position\n\nNo, there is a salary\nand the person who is put into that position draws\n\nThat is as it should be.\n\nthat salary.\n\nDiscriminating against women teachers in the matter of salary is as\n\nbad for the man as for the woman.\n\nPaying a man more money for teaching\na class than is paid a woman for teaching the same class breeds two serious\nevils for the\n\nman teacher. The lesser of these is the lessening of his chance\nBy far the greater evil is the degeneraton of his fine\n\nof appointment.\n\nsense of truth, of honor, and of justice.\n\nThis placing of a false and inflated\nvalue on his services causes him to imagine he is something he is not. It is\nas if a four-foot man propped upon stilts should think he was actually a\nsix-foot man.\n\nIt is inevitable that the male teacher, put by the state in a\n\nspecial and privileged class based simply on the accident of sex, should come\n\nto think himself some strange and unusual creature that must be pampered\nand decorated and even fed and clothed at the expense directly of his sisterworkers and indirectly of the community which supports him.\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": "71", "text": "TEACHERS' RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES\n\nSessions]\n\n71\n\nIs there not great danger that the person who, sunply because he\nhappens to be of the male sex, receives twice as big a salary as another\nperson in an identical position who happens to be of the female sex, will\n\ngradually become an undesirable citizen?\nthings that are not rightfully his?\n\nIs he not taking unto himself\n\nAnd must it not follow, as the night\n\nthe day, that his sense of truth is warped; his sense of justice, untrustworthy;\nhis sense of right, generally,\n\nunbalanced?\n\nacknowledge that injustice is immoral.\nor uphold injustice\n\nis\n\nAll\n\nAll intelligent people must\nmust agree that to practice\n\ndangerous to the individual, the corporation, the\n\nmunicipality, the state, the nation.\n\nTEACHERS' RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES\n\nC.\n\nWALTER I. HAMILTON, AGENT, MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION,\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nSeven years ago two states were paying to teachers pensions from state\nNow twelve have made more or less satisfactory provisions for\n\nfunds.\n\nThese states contain over 25 per cent of the population\nIn several states, laws have been enacted authorizing any\nschool district to pay retirement allowances. In a number of others, special\nacts have been passed, establishing retirement funds for teachers in designated communities. In all, twenty-three states have enacted laws of varysuch pensions.\n\nof the country.\n\ning scope regarding teachers' retirement allowances, with the result that\nnearly, if not quite, one-third of the teaching force of the public schools of\n\nthe United States now has the protection afforded by some sort of pension\nfund.\n\nCHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF RETIREMENT SYSTEMS\n\nTwenty to fifteen years ago, retirement funds as a phase of social welfare\nhad scant attention in this country. Today, workingmen's\n\nlegislation\n\ncompensation, widows' pensions, industrial insurance are subjects for an\n\namount of legislation thruout our country as well as the\nwhole civilized world. Reinforcing public interest in, and demand for,\nsuch protection at public expense is the rapid extension of old age and disability retirement plans operated by great industrial organizations.\nMore\never-increasing\n\nthan one hundred large corporations now have retirement systems for their\nemployees.\n\nAdd to these the workers protected by such compulsory insur-\n\nance laws as are in operation in Massachusetts and New York, and we have\nevidence of an awakened public conscience as regards the duty of society\nto its aged and disabled members\n\nand a new insight into the economic\nWe have reached the time\nwhen we are beginning to apply this conscience and this insight to the\neconomic and educational problems presented by the group of workers to\nsignificance of old age, sickness, and accidents.\n\nwhom society has intrusted the training of youth.\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": "72", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n72\n\n[General\n\nTwenty to fifteen years ago, people thought in smaller units; then plans\nfor teachers' pensions rarely contemplated including more than the teachers\n\nof certain cities.\n\nPension systems were, naturally, first inaugurated in the\n\nlarger and populous centers, as the need there was greatest, attracting and\n\nholding, as they did,\n\nmany teachers who became superannuated in the\n\nToday, the situation is changed. We are in a period of merging\npreviously established local pension systems into complete state systems,\nand of the establishing of state systems in areas where few, if any, local\nservice.\n\npensions are paid.\n\nThe merging process is illustrated in such states as\n\nNew York, Massachusetts, and California, while Maine is an example of a\nstate inaugurating a state system where no local pensions have heretofore\n\nbeen paid.\n\nUNSOUND RETIREMENT SYSTEMS\nIf there is one characteristic of our American people that stands out\nmore conspicuously than another, it is our capacity for faith, and our\noptimism in substituting faith for real knowledge. As a people, we have\n\"guessed\" that bridges and embankments have been strong enough until\na catastrophe has shocked but hardly changed us. We have \"guessed\"\nand taken on faith alluring statements regarding insurance of a tontine\nvariety; we have embraced the dazzling promises of the promoter to whom\nwe would not personally lend five dollars. Characteristically, we have also\nbuilt up teachers' retirement funds on a scarcely more substantial financial\nbasis than sympathy and a somewhat vague faith that income would be\ngreater than outgo.\nRegretfully, we have to admit that various teachers'\nretirement plans have been formulated by amateurs without, and sometimes in spite of, competent actuarial advice and have been enacted into\nlaw by legislators open to sympathetic appeal. When the funds break\ndown^and there is evidence that several inevitably must the teacher\nfacing retirement will doubtless have an inexhaustible fund of sympathy\nto draw upon for support and comfort.\nFor the virtue of sympathy, we can have only the strongest praise, but\nfor sympathy as a substitute for real knowledge of what is sound and safe\nin the administration of funds collected from the meager salaries of teachers\nand taxes collected from a public, on the whole favorably disposed to\nteachers as individuals and as an organization, we can have only the\n\n—\n\nstrongest condemnation.\n\nCONTRIBUTORY OR NON-CONTRIBUTORY RETIREMENT SYSTEMS\n\nThe time has passed for discussing the justice and the practical benefits\naccruing to the teacher and to the public from a sound system of retirement.\nThe question for discussion today is what kind of a system.\n\nTwo plans for\nretirement funds have had extensive development thus far:\n(a) the sunple non-contributory straight pension system; (b) the relatively\n\nteachers'\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": "73", "text": "—\n\nSessions]\n\nTEACHERS' RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES\n\n73\n\ncomplex contributory system supported by contributions from the public\ntreasury and by deductions from teachers' salaries.\nThere is no general agreement among teachers at present as to which\nplan is more satisfactory or equitable to them and to the taxpayers.\n\nTwo\n\nmonographs published within a twelvemonth support opposite conclusions\non this point. In an address before this Association in 1907, Dr. Keyes\ncommended the Rhode Island non-contributory plan, but of nine states\nthat have since established state systems only one Maine ^has followed\nthat plan. Arizona has a plan permitting the state board of education\nto pension certain teachers, but this cannot be regarded as a complete or\nequitable method of retirement. The other state systems require contributions from the teachers. The tendency of the times is clearly toward\ncontributory systems, and this is in line with experience with pensions for\nother large groups of workers at both public and corporate expense. It\nis also in line with social insurance plans developed in Germany and New\n\n—\n\n—\n\nZealand.\n\nOpponents of contributory systems have recently pointed out that the\nonly teachers' retirement systems now in financial straits are those based\n\nupon the contributory plan, and argue that this is sufficient reason for\nregarding such plans with suspicion.\n\nThey allege such plans to be complex,\n\ndifficult of comprehension, wasteful because involving somewhat expensive\n\nmachinery for the collection of assessments due, and that the exact amount\npayable to any teacher at the time of retirement is rarely stated in terms\nof dollars and cents.\nThese objections seem to them unanswerable arguments in favor of a gratuity from the state or municipality, and some con-\n\ntend for a fixed level pension for all grades of teachers.\n\nTo some of us these contentions do not seem to be well grounded. We\nwould claim the only satisfactory pension system to be one that promotes\nthe welfare of the worker, safeguards the efficiency of the teaching profession, and protects society from poverty and dependence.\n\nWe believe that\n\nany industry furnishing product or service, if it uses up human life and\nenergy, should pay its due share of the cost. Such payments are reasonable overhead charges on the industry, be it railroading or school-teaching,\nbut we would further claim that since old age, sickness, and accidents are\ninevitable risks of human life, due attention to provision for, and protection\nagainst, these risks tends to forethought, frugality, economy, and self-help\nall of which are fundamental virtues in a sturdy citizenship, not to be\ntransferred lightly to the benevolence or generosity of the public.\n\nThe state is fully as much concerned with building up a thrifty citizenship as with relieving the schools of a relatively small number of teachers\n\nwho, because of advanced age or disability, are no longer efficient.\ngratuitous pension does not encourage thrift;\n\nA\n\na contributory system\n\ndemands it. Admittedly, several contributory systems are facing bankruptcy because too much has been promised and the rate of contribution\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": "74", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n74\n\nhas not been fixed sufficiently high to cover the risks assumed.\n\n[General\n\nA number\n\nof plans have tried to insure agairist old age, and disability at any age due\n\nto sickness or accident, all being risks that can be calculated against, but\n\nfundamentally they are as separate as fire insurance and life insurance.\nWe should probably regard with suspicion the agent who offered to insure\nour homes and lives at the rate prevailing for fire insurance.\n\nIn several\n\nstates agents offering such an inducement would be transported to jail or\n\nYet that is essentially what we have done when\nwe guarantee fixed retirement allowances based upon years of service rather\nthan a fixed age; when we pay life annuities for disability based on service\nrather than age; in short, when we utterly ignore insurance experience and\noutside the state limits.\n\nstatistics as\n\na basis for computing financial protection against old age,\n\naccident, and sickness.\n\nRepeatedly, we have \"guessed\" that if we retain\n\none-fourth or one-half of the contributions of those who remain in service\nfor a short time, add to that the dog tax or a certain part of an excise tax,\n\nalso the amount deducted for absence, together with the payments of those\n\nwho remain in the service, we could build up a fund sufficient to compensate\nOur faith has hardly been justified by\n\nfor numerous unascertained risks.\n\nour works, but citing the breakdown of such a \" cat-and-dog \" fund as\nevidence against the soundness of the contributory principle does no credit\nto our intelligence.\n\nA STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES\nCurrent knowledge of teachers' retirement funds makes possible an\nassertion of principles now apparent to fair-minded students of the problem.\n\nAmong them may be enumerated the following:\n1.\n\nThe straight, or gratuitous, pension as applied to teachers does not,\n\nand, probably on account of its expense to the public, as well as the question\nof public policy, never will,\n\nmeet the needs of the public-school service.\n\nOn the part of the public there is a growing hostility to such payments,\nbut an increasing willingness to participate in helping those who help\nthemselves.\n2.\n\nThe cost of a contributory system to teachers will to a degree be\n\nshifted over to the public in the form of higher salaries, particularly in the\n\ncase of the lowest-paid teachers, but even so the by-product of such a\n\nsystem, the habit of regularly saving a part of one's income, is of no small\nvalue, considering the number of people involved.\n3.\n\nThe custody of the accumulated savings by the state or municipality,\n\nforced savings tho they may be, guarantees safe investment for a group of\n\npeople not heretofore conspicuously successful in their investments.\n\nThe return of the total amount of all savings with compound interest\nto the teacher who withdraws from service before being retired should be\n4.\n\nguaranteed in every retirement system hereafter established.\n\nRetaining\n\nany portion of these savings is absolutely unjustifiable so long as teaching\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": "75", "text": "TEACHERS' RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES\n\nSessions]\n\nremains a short-lived profession.\n\n75\n\nUnder existing conditions the average\n\nteaching life of all who enter teaching is less than eight years.\n\nOn the basis\n\nof such statistics as we have, not over 10 per cent of those who teach ever\n\nreach the age, or term of service, required for retirement on a pension.\n\nTaxing the 90 per cent for the benefit of the 10 is not defensible.\n5.\n\nThe justification heretofore alleged for retaining a portion of a with-\n\ndrawing teacher's contributions has been the promise of payment of allowances for disability after a fixed term of service, if disability should occur.\nThis promise is the feature in which most retirement systems depart from\ninsurance actualities, and enter the realm of speculation, as will be discussed\nlater.\n\nA fund so accumulated will prove sufficiently, not mathematically,\n\ndemonstrable, and such a scheme should be abandoned for a better.\n6.\n\nFixed annuities payable thruout the remaining\n\nficiaries\n\nshould be paid only on the basis of age.\n\nlife\n\nof the bene-\n\nThis is sound insurance.\n\nThe premium charged for such insurance should be adequate, and is ascertainable.\n\nIf it be alleged that such a charge is a severe burden upon the\n\npoorly paid teacher, and that California, for example, offers its teachers\n\nequal protection at a flat rate of $12, while Massachusetts charges a mini-\n\nmum of $35, we can only say that the latter rate is sound. New York\nexperience justifies the prediction that in a decade or less California\nteachers will be seeking\n\namendments to the law.\n\nWe can further point\n\nout that Massachusetts refunds total contributions with interest to\nteachers withdrawing from service, and California does not. If a sound\n\npremium rate proves an unbearable burden, be assured salaries will go\nup, for there is no reason for believing that the public will, in the long\nrun, stand for the poorer teaching that would follow a permanent reduction\nin salaries.\n7. If disability is to be included as a cause for retirement only two safe\nmethods are open. One, advocated by the Carnegie Foundation in its\nSeventh Annual Report, is to pay the annuity purchasable by the teacher's\ncontributions at the age of retirement and supplement this by an equal\namount from the state fund when the years of service exceed a fixed number.\n\nWhile this method may be financially sound it is hopelessly inadequate.\nAn annuity of $100 or less will not remove from the service the unfortunate\nsufferer from chronic dyspepsia, neuritis, or other physical disorders to\nwhich teachers are heirs, and which render their presence in the schoolroom\na positive injury to the children in their care, but will continue their presence\n\nbecause of the sharp necessity of earning a living until they collapse.\n\nThe\n\nother method has not as yet been tried in this country, but it promises the\n\nonly rational solution of an urgent problem.\nability fund, probably on a\n\nWe should establish a dis-\n\nmutual insurance basis, and certainly charge\n\na sufficient premium to guarantee decent retirement allowances.\n\nAt pres-\n\nent, we are unable to do this because we know little or nothing about the\n\noccupational risk of teaching;\n\nwe have no complete or reliable statistics\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": "76", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n76\n\nupon which to base either rates or equitable annuities.\n\n[General\n\nWe have not these\n\nfigures because thus far we have preferred to ''guess\" rather than investi-\n\ngate, but the time is now ripe for an investigation that will result in real\n\nknowledge.\n\nMay we soon have it, and be freed from \"the trial and error\"\n\nsubstitution for mathematical formulae!\n\nTHE PRESENT SITUATION\n\nWhen I compare the successive laws regarding teachers' pensions\nenacted in the several states, I am reminded of Herbert Spencer's formidable\ndefinition, in which\n\nhe says, \"Evolution is a change from an incoherent\n\nhomogeneity to a coherent heterogeneity, accompanying the dissipation of\nmotion and integration of matter.\"\nIn the evolution of teachers' retirement systems, our homogeneity seems\nto consist in trying to meet an obvious need in our public-school service.\nThat our manner of doing it is incoherent is clearly shown by the hundreds\nThat we are dissipating motion is shown in\nof differences in existing laws.\nhalf a dozen states where projected pension plans repeat the errors of pre-\n\nvious legislation.\n\nThat we are integrating by ascertaining and building on\n\nsound principles of social insurance in the several states where teachers'\npension laws are under consideration, I am not sure. That a coherent\nheterogeneity may be the goal, I am prepared to admit. Iowa's problem\n\nmay not be identical with Connecticut's; their constitutional provisions may\nbe different, their teaching conditions may be different, their sources of\nrevenue may be different, there may be a thousand differences, but their\nproblems are identical in this: their teachers grow old, they become incapacitated for service thru disease and accident, and the welfare of society\n\ndemands vigorous, healthy teachers, free from financial or other worry.\n\nWe can never attain coherency until we recognize these factors in our\nproblem and make equitable provisions therefor, on a financial basis at\nonce adequate and mathematically sound.\n\nWe should learn by experience. We should urge no teachers' retirement legislation in the several remaining states until we have familiarized\nourselves with all available knowledge on the subject. The questions\ninvolved are too complicated to be settled on a priori grounds. We have\nin a large measure created \"the public sentiment\" pleaded for by Dr.\nKeyes. In fact it is an open question if we have not too much sentiment\nand not enough facts, but we have not, to any great extent, disseminated\n\"information\" of the sort that will bear analysis.\nIn any campaign for teachers' retirement laws, we need three kinds of\nexpert service.\n\nWe need the insurance expert— the actuary— the educa-\n\nand the legal expert. Rarely are they combined in one\nperson, and still more rarely can the services of any number of amateurs\nin these fields be accepted as equivalent.\nFor satisfactory and permanent\ntional expert,\n\nplans, we should utilize the mathematical knowledge of the expert in social\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": "77", "text": "TEACHERS' RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES\n\nSessions!\n\n77\n\ninsurance, the skill of the lawyer trained in writing legislation, reinforced\n\nby the social vision of the educator.\nTHE PRESENT NEED\n\nA movement that has gained such impetus in a comparatively few years\nwill not end until all public-school teachers are included in its scope.\n\nTo\n\nguarantee movement in the right direction, we need more than anything\nelse a scientific investigation into the occupational risk of teaching.\nis\n\nThis\n\na study simple enough in the main, but of such a nature that no one\n\nThe results would be of great value,\nbut since an adequate study would demand the efforts of half a dozen\nperson can afford to undertake it.\n\npeople for a year, it is a project requiring subsidy from some source.\nstate association of teachers can undertake\nis\n\nlikely to.\n\nit,\n\nNo\n\nand no state commission\n\nSome philanthropist interested in social welfare legislation\n\nmight find here a useful piece of work; so might such an organization as\nthe Sage Foundation; possibly a national organization representing the\npeople most affected might well turn some of its resources in this direction.\nI submit this for your consideration.\n\nTHE FUTURE\nSeventeen states have had laws permitting towns and cities, or school\nto pension teachers.\nIn some states under these laws vested\nhave accrued and complicated the problem of establishing state\n\ndistricts,\n\nrights\n\nsystems. In fact some local systems have been so well organized that they\nhave checked or prevented complete state systems. It can never be\ndemonstrated that local pension systems raise the general level of teaching\nand public-school efficiency thruout a state. Indeed it would seem that in\nso far as a pension system makes the work more attractive, cities paying\n\npensions would attract an undue proportion of the more highly skilled\nteachers, leaving behind the less skilful.\n\nA certain mobility in the teaching\n\nforce of a state is desirable, but in the long run cannot be maintained unless\n\naccrued rights in a retirement fund can be transferred from one locality to\n\nIn view of these considerations and a variety of others, there is\ngrave doubt whether any teachers should seek further extension of local\nanother.\n\nmake state systems\nAs I have previously stated, pensions for teachers naturally\n\npension systems, unless constitutional restrictions\nimpossible.\n\ncome first in cities, but in the states where no pensions are yet provided,\ncity teachers should join with their fellows in rural areas and work for the\ncommon good. In such states, and in the states where local systems will\nbe merged into state systems, the degree to which the city teachers rise\nabove local and personal considerations, and whole-heartedly support a\nplan tending to promote the welfare of all teachers, at the same time protecting the educational interests of the entire state, will indicate the degree\nof professional consciousness to which they have attained.\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": "78", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n78\n\n(General\n\nCONCLUSION\nBecause of the acute need of revising some of our retirement laws and\nthe consequent publicity, teachers in some states fear that the movement\n\nhas been retarded so that attention to their needs will be long deferred.\nIn a cause involving social justice, educational benefit, and sound finance,\nthere need be no fear.\n\nThe lesson of the twentieth century in our Republic\n\nwill be the more equitable and scientific distribution of the fruits of labor.\n\nIn this reorganized distribution social welfare plans will have a conspicuous\npart.\n\nBy basing our efforts on the accomplishment of the past ten years,\n\nthru our national organization and our state associations, we can, if we will,\nexercise a leadership worthy of imitation by other groups of workers.\n\nstatesmanlike task!\n\nA\n\nMay we have the vision to see our duty.\n\nTHE PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHER AND THE STANDARD\nOF LIVING'\nscott nearing, the wharton school, university of pennsylvania,\nphiladelphia, pa.\n\nForeword\nIt is essential that the salaries paid by the public to its school-teachers\n\nshould be suflicient in amount to enable them to live according to the\naccepted standard of the community in which they teach.\n\nRecent years\nhave witnessed a very rapid and general increase in the cost of living, as\nRobert C. Brooks has amply demonstrated in the Report of the Committee\non Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living of the National Education Asso-\n\nciation.\n\nApparently the time has come when, in any city or town in the\n\nUnited States, public opinion must ask this question: \"Are the salaries\n\nnow paid in this place sufficient to allow the teachers receiving them to\nlive at the\n\nstandard of living generally accepted as adequate in this lo-\n\ncality and\n\namong the group of people with whom as teachers they are\n\ncalled upon to associate ? \"\n\nversal answer.\n\nTo such a question there is, of course, no uni-\n\nIt must be answered specifically by each locality.\n\nWhile there is no universal answer to a question respecting the adequacy\nof salaries to maintain a given standard of living, there may well be a uni-\n\nversal method of procedure by means of which each conununity can secure\n\nthe answer for itself.\n\nThere is no universal answer to the classification of\nThere is, however, a universally accepted method\n\nnew botanical specimens.\n\nof determining their classification.\n\nSo, in the face of the standard-of-living\n\nproblem, each community is an individual case, but the system of metrics\n\nby which each standard may be measured is of general application.\n\nIt is\n\nthe purpose of this report to indicate the lines of procedure that have been\ngenerally adopted by social scientists in their efforts to measure the ade»\n\nPresented as part of the Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living.\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": "79", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\n79\n\nquacy of a standard of living, and to show in what respect such methods\n\nmay be adapted to the work of analyzing the standard of living among\npublic-school teachers.\n\nThe aim thruout has been for a simplicity and a\n\nbrevity that would at the same time furnish a working basis for a standardof-living investigation in any interested community.\nI.\n\nWhat do we mean by a standard of living?\n\n—Every self-supporting\n\nperson is constantly brought face to face with three of that species of stub-\n\nborn life-facts which are technically called \"economic/'\n\nThese three facts,\n\nunderlying, as they do, all possibilities of self-support, are of such signifi-\n\ncance that a brief statement of their character must precede an intelligible\nconsideration of the standard of living.\nFirst of all, man has certain wants or desires for things and for help in\nliving.\n\nThe things which he wants\n\n—\n\n—food, clothing,\n\nshelter,\n\nsidewalks,\n\nand wagons are called \"goods.\" The help which he receives in\nliving from doctors, kitchen maids, and grocers is called \" services.\"\nGoods\nand services supply wants. If wants are well supplied, a person is said to\nbe contented or happy. If the wants are inadequately supplied, a person\nis discontented or miserable.\nThus, in so far as happiness and misery come\nfrom the possession or non-possession of goods and services, these two\nstores,\n\nthings determine the economic atmosphere of a person's life, and, since\nwants and strivings after want satisfactions appear in every phase of man's\ncontact with the economic world, the problems arising out of want satisfaction are among the most important that men and women face.\n\nUnder the conditions of modern civilization, goods and services must\nbe paid for by the use of a standard medium called \"money.\" The amount\nof pay is called the \"price,\" or perhaps a person says: \"This hat costs so\nmuch.\" In any case, the thing wanted has a market value, which must be\ngiven in exchange before the thing can be secured. Thus wants and desires\nlead to exchanges and purchases. Want is the first economic fact; price\nis the second.\n\nThen, in the third place, since goods and services must be had in order\nto supply wants, and since these goods and services have a price or cost,\n\nthe person wanting goods, in order to pay the price for them, must have\nsome means of earning or securing money, some source of income. The\nprice for foods and services can be paid only by people who have some\nmeans of income.\n\nThe whole matter may be briefly summed up by saying that the combination of goods and services which a person enjoys constitutes a standard\nof living; that this standard of living is obtained at a purchase price known\n\nas the cost of living, and that the money with which the cost of living is met\nis\n\nderived from a wage or salary.\n\nA contrast is thus made between the\n\nstandard of living, the cost of living, and income.\n\nThe fact seems almost too obvious for emphasis, yet it is sometimes forgotten that all people, unless they are to live a Crusoe existence, are more\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": "80", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o\n\nor less dependent on goods and services for their existence.\n\n[General\n\nThis is true\n\nbecause all people have at least a minimum number of wants which must\n\nbe met if life is to continue.\n\n—\n\nThe wants of the people may be divided into two classes primary or\nThe primary wants are\nthe wants which men have in common with other similarly constituted\n\nnatural wants, and secondary or acquired wants.\n\nanimals.\n\nSuch, for example, are the wants for shelter in inclement weather,\n\nand for food at all seasons.\n\nUnless these natural wants are provided, men\n\ncannot continue to maintain life.\n\nA comparatively small part of the wants of men and women falls in the\nclass of natural wants.\n\nIndeed many of the wants even of savages' are\n\nmodern society almost all of the goods and services\nrendered to people are wanted because an elaborate system of education\nhas cultivated human desires far beyond their natural bounds. The want\nacquired, while in\n\nfor a hat in sunamer; for white kid gloves at a dance; for purely decorative\n\njewelry; for shoes with patent leather on the outside;\n\nfor education;\n\nfor\n\nbooks and magazines; and for all of the innumerable other things which\n\nmodern industry provides were, most of them, unknown a thousand years\nago. Yet they have come to constitute so real an element in our lives that\nunless we are able to obtain them we feel profoundly miserable.\nThe goods and services which provide for both natural and acquired\nwants make up the standard of living a phrase which conveys as many\nvariations of thought as the word \"stone\" or \"wagon.\" Just as there\nis a multitude of different varieties of stones, and a multitude of differ-\n\n—\n\nent kinds of wagons, so there\n\nis\n\na multitude of different standards of\n\nliving.\n\nEach group of people has its own standard of living, a standard that is\nbased almost wholly upon the things to which those particular people have\n\nbeen used during the greater part of their lives.\n\nFor example, the frontiers-\n\nman wants, among other things, plenty of room, a gun, good hunting and\nfishing, a life fraught with incident and excitement; the ranch owner wants\n\nto ride a broncho; the city dweller is entirely satisflfed with close neighbors\n\nand a\n\ntrolley car.\n\nSurrounding conditions, plus education, determine\n\nlargely the things that people shall want;\n\nbut, within a given group, no\n\nsingle person can live at ease unless he is able to provide himself with the\n\namount of goods and services ordinarily obtained by persons within that\ngroup. Living in a certain class of society, you must have a new gown for\neach social event; living in another class, you must have at least one new\ngown a year. The demands in one case are equally as absolute as the\ndemands in the other.\nThus each \"set\" of society determines the standards of living. Then,\nstandards having become firmly established, it follows that all of the persons\nliving within the group who are unable to afford the standard must either\nleave the group or be miserable.\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": "81", "text": "THE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\n8i\n\nSchool-teachers belong in a rather well-defined community.\n\nAs a rule\n\nSessions]\n\ntheir parents are neither very poor nor very wealthy.\n\nIn the city, where\n\ncomparatively high teaching standards are demanded, teachers come from\n\namong what is sometimes called \"the middle class.\"\n\nIn small towns and\n\ncountry districts they are recruited from families which are sufficiently\n\nIn either case,\n\nwell-to-do to be able to afford a long period of schooling.\n\nteachers, after entering the profession, are expected to live up to a rather\n\nexacting standard of dress and social position.\n\nA study of the standard\n\nof living among public-school teachers becomes valuable if it can show (i)\n\nwhat the teacher's standard of living is, or should be;\n\n(2) what such a stand-\n\nard costs; and (3) whether her salary enables her to buy that standard.\n\n—\n\nSocial science has proceeded far\n2. The study of the standard of living.\nenough to make some rather definite statements regarding the standard of\nliving.\nThe matter is no longer open to dogmatic misrepresentation; it\nis one that must be dealt with thru the medium of scientific analysis and\nexposition.\n\nThe facts must be secured, and upon them alone sound con-\n\nclusions may be based.\n\nThe standard of living may be studied in one of several ways. There\nan old, and in many ways an unsatisfactory way, which until very\nrecently was generally accepted as the proper means of making a standard\nScientists, following this method, analyzed the actual amount of\nstudy.\ngoods and services secured by specific families. Such studies are important\nis\n\nbecause they give an accurate picture of the economic conditions existing\n\nunder consideration, and because they may be so readily\ncompared with an ideal standard of living. The actual amounts of food,\nclothing, shelter, and the like secured by the family are set out in great\ndetail; income is also ascertained and contrasted with expenditure; some\nsuch studies contain careful descriptions of the family surroundings and the\nfamily life. Altho the method of making these individual studies varies,\nthe result is the same a picture of the economic conditions existing in the\n\nin the families\n\n—\n\nfamily under consideration.\n\nPersons desiring to make a detailed study of\n\nthis subject will find valuable illustrations in the Report\n\non Condition of\n\nWoman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, \"Family Budgets of\nTypical Cotton-Mill Workers\" (Washington: Government Printing Office,\n1911), XVI, 46 and 99;\n\nand in L. B. More, Wage-Earners' Budgets, p. 167.\nSuch detailed family studies are still made indeed they form the basis\nof standard-of-living investigations\nbut they become really valuable for\nscientific conclusions only in cases where they are made in sufficient numbers\nto justify general conclusions and only in cases where there has been previously established some model standard with which they may be contrasted.\nStudies of the economic conditions in individual families are\n\n—\n\n—\n\nimportant because of their fidelity to the actual situation.\nlies in\n\nTheir defect\n\nthe failure to determine whether or not the conditions which they\n\nreveal are adequate to maintain home life or human efficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": "82", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n82\n\n[General\n\nIn the past few years this has led to a new type of standard-of-living\nstudy, which aims to determine the amount of goods and services which\n\na person or family needs to maintain either bodily existence or efficiency.\n\nThe former is called a standard of\n\n**\n\nminimum subsistence\";\n\nthe latter is\n\ncalled a \"fair,\" \"normal,\" or \"efficiency\" standard.\n\nThe fair standard of living is now generally accepted as the social ideal.\nIt was formerly taken for granted that if a family was provided with a mere\n\nsubsistence, everything necessary\n\nhad been done.\n\nDuring recent years,\n\nhowever, particularly in Germany, great emphasis has been laid on the\n\nmaintenance of efficiency, as well as of mere physical existence. Starting\nas an industrial concept aimed at the preservation of the workers for industrial\n\nor even military purposes, the efficiency idea has spread into social\n\nfields, until there is a general recognition of the desirability of maintaining\n\nan efficiency standard in every walk of life. Nowhere, perhaps, is the\nneed for efficiency greater than among the teachers who are called upon to\nshape the lives of America's future citizens.\nIn the case of the teaching profession, mere subsistence means little or\nnothing.\n\nThe teacher must be able to maintain not only physical and\n\nmental efficiency, but likewise a certain professional proficiency which can\ncome only thru leisure time spent in reading the right books, in pursuing\n\nadvanced studies either under direct instruction or by correspondence, in\ntravel and observation of places and methods, and in any other legitimate\npursuits which enable her to keep abreast of the times.\n\n—\n\nThe standard of living and the teaching profession. ^The teachers of\nany locality, where a standard-of-living study is attempted, fall naturally\ninto three well-defined groups. In the first group there are the te3,chers\nwho are living at home and do not absolutely need the income which they\nearn as teachers. For them teaching is either a pastime or a means of\nsecuring additional income. With them this study has really nothing to\ndo because their standard of living is set by forces entirely apart from the\n3.\n\nsalary received in the teaching profession.\n\nmissed from consideration at once.\n\nThey may be, therefore, dis-\n\nThis decision seems more justifiable\n\nin view of the fact that such teachers probably constitute a small minority\nin the teaching profession.\n\nIn the second place, there are teachers who must be largely, or wholly,\nself-supporting.\n\nIf they live at home they are expected to make a contri-\n\nbution to the maintenance of the family;\n\nif they live\n\naway from home, they\n\nare of course subject to all of the expense involved in individual up-keep.\n\nThe third group of teachers is made up of those who must support\nthe women who have dependent parents, children, or other relatives; the very few married women who teach, thereby adding to family\nincome; and the married men who secure a living for their families thru\nthe teaching profession. The exact proportion in which their various groups\nmake up the profession is suggested by the figures of the United States\nfamilies\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": "83", "text": "THE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\nSessions]\n\n83\n\nBureau of Education and the United States Census Bureau. Any other\nstudy of the standard of living among teachers must of necessity take into\naccount the very different situation of the girl of twenty-five who has only\nherself to look out for and who expects in any case to marry and be sup-\n\nported by her husband, and that of the man of twenty-five who hopes to\n\nmarry and support a family on the salary which he secures as a teacher.\nNevertheless, the same questions can be asked about each of these classes,\n\nAmong school-\n\ntho the answer will differ materially in the two cases.\n\nteachers, a standard-of-living study involves, first of all, a determination of\n\nthe amount of goods and services which will be required to maintain teaching\nefficiency or which would be considered a \" fair \"standard for teachers.\nAfter this standard is set, two facts must be determined:\nthese goods and services cost?\n\n(2) Is\n\n(i)\n\nWhat will\n\nthe salary paid to school-teachers\n\nsufficient to enable them to pay the price of a fair standard of living ?\n4.\n\nMeasuring the standard of living.\n\n— Teachers in each community must\n\nsolve their own standard-of-living problem;\nliving vary with each community;\n\nservices varies with each community;\n\neach community.\n\nfirst, because the standards of\n\nsecond, because the cost of goods and\n\nand third, because salaries vary with\n\nAltho the specific work of determining efficiency living\n\nstandards must be done by the local teachers' association, there are certain\ngeneral principles which may be followed in that work.\n\nThe first step in a standard-of-living investigation involves the determination of what should be included in a standard of living.\n\nAltho it is\n\ndifficult to decide upon a classification of things that will fit all needs, the\n\nfollowing headings cover most of the things needed by the ordinary teacher:\n1.\n\nFood.\n\n6.\n\nHealth.\n\n2.\n\nHousing.\n\n7.\n\nInsurance.\n\n3. Clothing.\n\n8.\n\nRecreation.\n\n9.\n\nSundry minor items.\n\n4.\n\nFuel and light.\n\n5.\n\nCarfare.\n\nIt is easy to go into greater detail,^\n\nbut\n\nsufficient\n\naccuracy for all\n\npractical purposes may be secured by using the simple schedule outlined\n\nabove.\n\nThe actual collection of facts should be in charge of a committee. In\nordinary standard investigations, paid agents would fill schedules, going\nfrom family to family for the purpose; but, in the case of teachers, the filling\nof schedules can be intrusted to the teachers themselves, since they are\nsufficiently acquainted with such detail to be able to answer the questions\nsatisfactorily.\n\nThe facts must be uniform in order that they may be comparable and\nSuch uniformity is insured by the preparation of a schedule. The\n\ndefinite.\n\ncommittee should prepare a schedule in some simple form, asking only\nthose questions to which answers are absolutely essential. The schedule\n»\n\nArthur Shadwell, Industrial Efficiency, pp. 224-25.\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": "84", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n84\n\n[General\n\nshould be so printed that the teachers furnishing answers to questions may\n\nThe schedule should be printed on paper\nheavy enough to stand in an upright file, or else it should be filed in an\nenvelope which should contain all the data about the same family. In\nsmall towns most of the teachers may be included in the investigation. In\nlarger places, however, the work is necessarily restricted to a small group\nof teachers.\nIf the results of the investigation are to be accepted, the\ngroup of teachers or of families about which facts are to be secured must be\nrepresentative of the whole body of teachers in the locality under investigation.\nA hundred cases in any group are adequate to any ordinary study,\nbut a committee will do well to start with at least a hundred and fifty,\nbecause of the inevitable dropping-out of some of them. The hundred\ncases should be so picked that they are t3T)ical of the entire group for which\nthey are selected. Furthermore, the records about the cases should be\ncomplete; no data should be missing. Records are not really complete\nunless they are kept for an entire year; but as this is usually impracticable,\nwrite on the schedule blank.\n\nthey are considered sufficient if kept for one, three, or six months— the\nlonger the better.\n\nMost of the standard investigations have been made\n\nin records of from one to six months.\n\nThe determination of the standard of living, in the case of single teachers, is\n\ngreatly simplified.\n\nItems 1,2, and 4 in the standard classification\n\n(food, housing, fuel and light) may be lumped together under the one item,\n\n*'board.\"\n\nThe price at which good board can be obtained may be accepted\n\nas a fair standard and the money equivalent of these three items at once\nsecured.\n\nThese items, in the case of teachers with families, present a much more\ncomplicated problem, of which the measurement of the amount of food\nnecessary to maintain a standard of living is by far the easiest part.\n\nFood\n\nrequirements are usually measured in calories of energy, and, in order to\nsecure uniformity, they are stated in terms of the requirements of an adult\nman. The United States Department of Agriculture, which has made\nsome valuable experiments on food values, states that a man in the full vigor\nof life, doing moderate muscular work, requires each day a quantity of food\n\nBy the time this\nfood is eaten, it will contain but 3,500 calories, from which quantity the\ncontaining, as it is purchased, 3,800 calories of energy.\n\ndigestive system extracts 3,200 calories of energy.^\n\nAfter an analysis of the\nRowntree concludes that Atwater's estimate of 3,500\ncalories for a man doing \"moderate muscular work\" must be interpreted\nin terms of very moderate work if it is to be adequate.^'\nGenerally, however,\nit is conceded that from 3,200 to\n3,900 calories of energy, depending upon\nthe intensity and character of the work done, must be supplied to the body\navailable data,\n\neach day.\n«\n\nYearbook of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1907, p. 371.\n\n•\n\nB. S. Rowntree, Poverty, pp. 91-97.\n\nArticle by\n\nC F. Langworthy.\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": "85", "text": "THE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\nSessions]\n\n85\n\nThe actual amounts of food consumed vary considerably from this\nstandard. Atwater has compiled an extensive table, in which he sets down\nthe results of \"comparing the dietaries of persons with different occupations\n\nThe\n\nand incomes and performing different amounts of muscular work.\"\n\nenergy supplied by the rowing clubs in New England, for instance, is 3,955\ncalories; by football teams in Connecticut and California, 6,590 calories;\nby farmers' families in eastern United States, 3,415 calories; by professional\nmen, 3,200 calories; by poor families in New York City, 2,845 calories;\nand by negro families in Alabama and Virginia, 3,395 calories.^ Since the\n\ndietaries of different groups of people differ as radically in their content as\n\ndo the various foods in their energy-yielding power, the computation of the\ndietary value of any group is a purely individual affair.\n\nIn order to analyze on a scientifically comparable basis the diet of a\n\nnumber of families, Atwater prepared a system of comparison between men,\nwomen, and children, showing the relative amount of food consumed by\neach.\n\nAn adult woman requires.\n\n8 as much as an adult man\n((\n<\ni(\n«\n\nA boy of 15 to 16\nA boy of 13 to 14\nA boy of 12\nA boy of 10 to II\nA girl of 15 to 16\nA girl of 13 to 14\nA girl of 10 to 12\nA child from 6 to 9\nA child from 2 to 5\nA child under 2\n\n.9\"\n8\n.7\n.6\n.8\n\n(\n\n\"\n\n«\n\n<\n\n((\n\n(\n\n\"\n\n«\n\n(\n\n«\n\n((\n\n<\n\n\"\n\n((\n\n(\n\n((\n\n(\n\n\"\n\n((\n\n(\n\n(<\n\n<\n\n\"\n\n((\n\n(\n\n«\n\n(\n\n\"\n\n«\n\n(\n\n((\n\n(\n\n.5\"\n\n•7\n\n.6\n\n«\n\nc\n\n((\n\n(\n\n\"\n\ntt\n\n(\n\n<(\n\n<\n\n.3\"\n\nti\n\n<\n\n«\n\n(\n\n.4\n\nThese estimates by Atwater may be accepted, since they correspond\nrather closely to similar tables prepared by other experts.\n\nTheir value lies\n\nin the fact that, by means of them, the food consumption of families may\n\nalways be reduced to a common denomination\n\n—the requirements of a man.\n\nThe method of applying this formula is stated very well by Chapin.\n\" Suppose that a family consists of father, mother, a girl of\nof 3, and a baby under 2.\n\n4 years, a boy\n\nThe father buys lunch six days in a week.\n\nThe\n\ncalculation therefore runs: \"^\n\nman\n15 meals per week\nwoman 21 meals, equivalent for man to 21X0.8 meals per week\n\"\n\"\nI boy\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n21\n\"21X0.4 \"\nI\n\n15.0\n\nI\n\n16.8\n\nI girl\n\nI\n\nchild\n\n8.4\n\n21\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n21X0.4\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n8.4\n\n21\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"21X0.3\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n6.3\n\nTotal number of meals, on basis of consumption of adult man\n\n54.9\n\nThe family under consideration is, therefore, consuming weekly the\nAny other family, or any\n\nequivalent of 54.9 meals for one adult man.\n•\n\nW. O. Atwater, Principles of Nutrition (Washington: Government Printing Oflace, 1910), pp. 34 and 35.\n•R. C. Chapin, The Standard of Living among Workingmen's Families in New York City, pp. 126 and 127.\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": "86", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n86\n\n[General\n\nnumber of families, may, in this manner, have their dietaries reduced to a\n\ncommon denomination for the purpose of comparison.\nThere are two ways in which this standardized method may be used to\nmeasure the status of a particular family. The family dietary having been\nsecured and analyzed, an expert may say whether or not the amount of\nfood consumed provides adequate nutrition;\n\nor else some given dietary\n\nmay be fixed upon as standard and the dietaries of individual families\ncompared with it.\n\nThe simplest way for a local committee to proceed is to take a dietary\nsuch as that adopted in the federal investigation already referred to and,\naccepting that as a standard, to compare with it the dietaries of the families\n\nunder consideration.\n\nThe authors of the federal investigation began their food study with\nan analysis of the very carefully prepared dietary of the federal prison in\nAtlanta.\n\nThis dietary was then compared with those of families which\n\nwere living fairly well.\n\nThe comparison shows that\n\nfor breakfast and dinner the quantity of food of the family living fairly well is not far\n\ndifferent from the prison diet;\n\nthey have a little more variety, perhaps.\n\nFor supper,\n\nhowever, the prison diet falls short of what the people demand as a fair standard for food.\nBread, butter, and coffee are not regarded as a satisfactory meal after a long day's work.\nIt is clear from the menus of those who are living fairly well that a fair standard must\n\nallow either a meat or a vegetable for supper.\n\nquantity of protein it furnishes.\n\nAgain, the prison diet is a little low in the\n\nThe addition of a meat or vegetable for supper would,\n\nperhaps, bring it nearer the requirements.^\n\nIn order to make the matter entirely concrete, the menu of one family,\n\nwhich was living well but not extravagantly and which represented in its\ndiet a varied and a complete supply of nutrition,\n\nsenting a fair standard.\n\nwas adopted as repre-\n\nIn this family, the average value of food consumed\n\nper man per week for the year was $1.67.\n\nThe menu for the week ending\n\nJanuary 3, 1909, was:'\n\nMonday\nBreakfast:\n\nHam, sausage, biscuit, coffee, sugar, butter, syrup.\n\nDinner:\n\nBaked sweet potatoes, stewed Irish potatoes, collards with bacon, com\n\nSupper:\n\nHam, Irish potatoes, biscuit, coffee, butter, syrup.\n\nBreakfast:\n\nFried pork (fresh), biscuit, butter, syrup, coffee, sugar.\n\nDinner:\n\nPeas and bacon, butter beans, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, buttermilk,\n\nSupper:\n\nBeefsteak, Irish potatoes, biscuit, butter, coffee, sugar, syrup.\n\nBreakfast:\n\nFried pork, ham, butter, cheese, biscuit, coffee, sugar.\n\nDinner:\n\nCabbage with bacon, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn bread, biscuit,\n\nSupper:\n\nSteak, rice, biscuit, butter, syrup, coffee, sugar.\n\nbread, biscuit, coffee.\n\nTuesday\n\ncom bread, biscuit, coffee.\nWednesday\n\ncoffee, sugar.\n\n» Report\non Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the United Stales, \"Family Budgets of Typica\nCotton-Mill Workers,\" XVI, 143.\n\n'Ibid., pp. 40-41.\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": "87", "text": "THE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\nSessions]\n\n87\n\nThursday\nBreakfast:\n\nPork, sausage, biscuit, butter, syrup, coffee, sugar.\n\nDinner:\n\nCollards and bacon, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn bread, biscuit,\n\nSupper:\n\nBeefsteak, rice, biscuit, coffee, syrup, sugar.\n\nbutter, buttermilk.\n\nFriday\nBreakfast:\n\nPork, rice, biscuit, butter, coffee, sugar.\n\nDinner:\n\nPeas, bacon, butter beans, sweet potatoes, fried pork, onions, pickles,\n\nSupper:\n\nHam, cheese, biscuit, butter, coffee, syrup, sugar.\n\ncorn bread, biscuit, coffee, sugar.\n\nSaturday\nBreakfast:\n\nPork and rice, biscuit, butter, syrup, coffee, sugar.\n\nDinner:\n\nCollards, bacon,\n\nIrish potatoes,\n\nsweet potatoes, corn bread, bread,\n\nbiscuit, coffee, sugar.\n\nSupper:\n\nOyster stew, fried pork, biscuit, butter, syrup, coffee, sugar.\n\nBreakfast:\n\nPork, oyster stew, biscuit, butter, coffee, sugar.\n\nDinner:\n\nBeans, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, pork, biscuit, corn bread, coffee,\n\nSupper:\n\nHam, biscuit, butter, syrup, coffee, sugar.\n\nSunday\n\nsugar.\n\nAn itemized statement of the cost of the food entering into this menu\nfollows the menu.'\n\nThe character of the food dietary in each community necessarily varies.\nFor a given locality, however, a diet can be outlined which will contain all\nof the necessary food ingredients and will at the same time be considered\nfair by the community.\n\nThe standard for housing is fixed more arbitrarily. Most studies have\nassumed that decency requires a proportion of at least three rooms for five\npeople (a man, wife, and three young children). Four rooms for five people,\nnot including the bathroom, would be a much fairer estimate. They have\nlikewise insisted on the sanitary conveniences, including a bathroom and\ntoilet, as essential to a fair standard.\nA little inquiry will show the amount\nof rent for which such a house can be secured.\nFuel and light necessarily vary with the size of the house and the locality.\nAgain the decision must be arbitrary. The number of tons of coal,\nfeet of gas, and gallons of kerosene required by a careful housewife for a\nfive- or six-room house must be accepted as the measure of a fair standard\nof living.\nTheir cost can readily be computed by an appeal to local prices.\nThe items of board for single teachers, and of food, housing, and fuel and\nlight for teachers with families, include the major part of the expenditures.\nProbably two-thirds of the money spent by families earning less than\n$3,000 will go for these items. ^ There are other things which figure naturally in the expenditure list, however.\n^ Jbid.,\n\np. 41.\n\n•R. C. Chapin, op. cit., p. 70.\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": "88", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n88\n\n[General\n\nThe clothing is by far the most difficult item because of the immense\ndifference in cost\n\nbetween ready-made and made-at-home clothes.\n\nPro-\n\nfessor Chapin solved the problem by making an arbitrary list of clothing.*\n\nThe federal study, proceeding in a much fairer way, based its calculations\non the clothing of families which were well dressed.*\n\nA similar method must\n\nbe resorted to in the case of teachers or of teachers' families.\n\nThe clothing\n\nitems of a careful, well-dressed teacher or teachers' family must be taken\nas a standard, and the cost of a fair standard of clothing based on them.\n\nA particularly clever woman can make clothes and trim hats in a way that\nmake a thoroly presentable appearance.\n\nwill\n\nNevertheless, the average\n\nwoman cannot be expected to possess such accomplishments.\n\nReady-\n\nmade clothes are always an element in the budget of the average family.\nThe woman can be expected to patch and make over, but not to create.\nCarfare (item 5) either is or is not an item, depending entirely on the\ndistance the teacher lives from the school, since carfare expenditures for\nrecreational purposes are charged under recreation.\n\nIf only\n\na small per-\n\ncentage of teachers live beyond easy walking distance from school, carfare\n\ncannot be regarded as an item in a fair standard of living.\n\nIf, on the other\n\nhand, frequent transfers of teachers to distant parts of a large city make\n\nwalking impossible, carfare will be an item.\n\nThe standards for health, insurance, and recreation are purely arbitrary and vary extremely with the conmiunity and the individual.\n\nFor\n\na man with a young family, doctors' bills are inevitable and insurance is a\nnecessity.\n\nIn the small town, recreation\n\nis\n\ninexpensive.\n\nIn the\n\ncity,\n\npleasure trips, music, and drama all are important items in a fair standard\nof living.\n\n—\n\nWhen the facts regard5. Estimating the cost of a fair standard of living.\ning each item in the standard of living have been secured, the cost of a\nstandard of living may be determined.\n\nThe method of doing this is well\n\nillustrated in the federal study, where the items are divided into those which\n\nvary with the size of the family and those which do not so vary.\nis thus prepared, showing both groups of facts.^\n\nA table\n\nIt is to be noted that the\n\nproportion of income spent for various items varies considerably with the\nsize of income.4\n\na given standard of life, the relation is very\n\nStill for\n\nsimilar.\n\nThe cost of a Standard having been estimated, but one thing remains—\nthe comparison of the cost of a standard of living and the income of the\nteachers under consideration.\n\nThis comparison will show that the teachers\n\neither are or are not receiving salaries sufficient in amount to provide a fair\n\nstandard of living.\n\nA conclusion reached in this manner is sufficiently\n\nscientific to be well-nigh unanswerable.\n\nIt will show whether the teachers\n\n»\n\nIbid., p. 166.\n\n•\n\nReport on Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, XVI, 144-46.\n\n» Ibid.,\n\npp. 149-53-\n\n<\n\nR. C. Chapin, loc. cit.\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": "89", "text": "THE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\nSessions]\n\n89\n\nare adequately paid, and, if not, the investigation will place in the hands of\n\nthe committee conclusive evidence on the basis of which a campaign for\nhigher salaries may be fairly inaugurated.\n6.\n\nThe economic dilemma of the public-school teacher.\n\n— The time may not\n\nyet have arrived when the public-school teacher is willing to recognize that\nshe has social rights and to assert them publicly.\n\nAt no very distant date,\n\nhowever, economic pressure will compel teachers to secure a new relation\n\nbetween salaries and the cost of living, or else to lower the standard upon\nwhich they have been accustomed to live. There is no longer any doubt\nFigures show\nThere might be a reasonable doubt about the adequacy\nof the teacher's salary to buy a fair standard of living were it not for the\nunanimity with which teachers assert the contrary.\nThe inquirer is astounded by the frankness and sincerity with which\nteachers state their economic position.^ No less surprising is the apparent\ninadequacy of the salaries generally received to meet the ordinary expense\nrequirements of the profession. There is, to be sure, no question of\nsecuring the bare necessaries of living. The difSculties which confront\nthe teacher are concerned with the maintenance of that standard of\ncomforts and of luxuries which is generally expected of those in the\nthat living costs have risen faster than teachers' salaries.\nthat very plainly.\n\nteaching profession.\n\nTeachers report peculiar difficulties in living up to the standard of their\n\nDuring recent years, these standards have advanced with alarming\nand the salary schedule, trailing far in the rear, makes no provision whatever for the increased budget which the teacher is forced to\ncarry.\nThe same standard of life is expected of her in spite of the failure of\nstandards and salaries to rise in like ratio.\ngroup.\n\nrapidity,\n\nTeachers encounter peculiar difficulties in continuing those forms of\nprofessional\n\nwork which are indispensable to good teaching.\n\nThe edu-\n\ncational journals, some of the latest and best books, observation of schools\nin neighboring towns, and travel all absorb time, energy, and money.\n\nAll\n\nare necessary to good work, yet most of these expenditures place a tax upon\n\nthe salary which the ordinary teacher is unable to afford.\n\nDespite the oft-\n\nrepeated warnings of superintendents, principals, and institute lecturers,\nthe public-school teacher is failing to follow out a course of study that would\n\nmean increased teaching efficiency.\n\nThe failure is often due to financial\n\nstringency, not to choice.\n\nTeachers are unable to make provision for exigencies.\n\nTheir salaries\n\nare not sufficient to enable them to save adequate sums against ill health\n\nand old age.\n\nBe it said, by way of explanation, that ill health is alarmingly\nThe teacher who is confronted with the\n\nprevalent among school-teachers.\n\nnecessity of caring for a dependent relative finds her salary utterly insufficient to meet such a demand.\n»\n\nMoving from one town to another eats up a\n\nReport of the Committee on Teachers* Salaries and Cost of Living, pp. 217-44.\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": "90", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nQO\n\nThey buy only the day-\n\nSalaries do not allow of surplus.\n\nyear's savings.\n\nIGcneral\n\nto-day necessaries.\n\nThere is probably no group of the population which is harder pressed\n\nby the necessary cost of living than are the school-teachers. Their standards have risen with the rapidly rising standard of life among the well-to-do\nportion of the population. The prices of the things which they buy have\nincreased during the past two decades at a phenomenal rate.\nsalaries have lagged woefully\n\nbehind or have stood stock-still.\n\nMeanwhile\nBetween\n\ntheir Scylla of higher living costs and their Charybdis of stationary income,\n\nthe public-school teacher finds herself hard put to it.\n\nThe time has evi-\n\ndently come when teachers as a body must face the issues squarely, discover\nthe cost of a fair standard of living, and insist that the teaching profession\nreceive salaries high enough to enable them to pay for that standard.\n\nA LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT BOOKS DEALING WITH THE\nSTANDARD OF LIVING\nBooth, Charles: Life and Labor of the People in London.\n\nV\n\nand VI. Vol. IX, Part III, chap. jdii.\nVol. I, Parts\nare given in Vol. I, pp. 136-39.\n\nLondon, 1889-92.\n\nThe budgets of thirty families\n\nBosanquet, Mrs. Bernard (Helen Dandy): The Standard of Life and Other Studies.\n\nLondon, 1898.\n\nA discussion of the conception of the standard of living and its relation to wages.\nBoykin, James C, and King, Roberta: The Tangible Rewards of Teaching, 1914.\n\nA 465-page monograph issued under the direction of the National Education Association Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, and published by the\nUnited States Bureau of Education as Bulletin No. 16, 1914.\n\nBruere, M. D. and R. W.: Increasing Home EflSciency.\n\nNew York: Macmillan Com-\n\npany, 1912.\n\nA suggestive and very popular study of standards of living among people earning\n$1,200 to $1,800 a year.\n\nChapin, Robert Coit: The Standard of Living among Workingmen's Families in New\n\nYork City. New York, 1909.\nThe most elaborate of any of the recent studies. Goes into very great detail regarding the family expenditures of 391 New York families.\nDevine, Edward T.: Principles of ReUef.\n\nNew York, 1905.\n\nChap, iii, \"The Standard of Living.\"\n\nForeman, S. E.: Conditions of Living among the Poor.\nBureau of Labor, No. 64, May, 1906.\n\nBulletin of the United States\n\nExpenditures in detail for five weeks for nineteen families in the District of Columbia.\n\nJohns Hopkins University Studies, Vol.\nXI, No. I. Baltimore, 1893.\nA comparison of family budgets of workers in coal, iron, and steel in the United\nStates and in Europe, based on the sixth and seventh annual reports of the United\nStates Bureau of Labor.\n\nGould, E. R. L.: Social Condition of Labor.\n\nGreat Britain, Board of Trade: British and Foreign Trade and Industry, 1903, Series i,\n\nConsumption of Food and Cost of Living.\n(i) estimates regarding quantity and cost of food for a typical family;\n(2) itemized returns of expenditures for food from 286 urban families.\n209-58.\n\nContains\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": "91", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\n91\n\nGreat Britain, Board of Trade: Cost of Living of the Working Classes. Report of an\ninquiry into working-class rents, housing, and retail prices, with the standard rates\nof wages in the principal industrial towns of the United Kingdom.\n\nLondon, 1908.\n\nCompares by index-numbers rents in eighty-nine towns with rents in London, with\ndata regarding cost of food and fuel.\nGreat Britain, Board of Trade: Cost of Living in German Towns. London, 1908.\nA comparison of housing and retail prices of food and fuel in thirty-three German\ntowns with conditions in the United Kingdom. The total number of family reports\nobtained is 5,046.\n\nGreat Britain, Board of Trade: Memoranda on British and Foreign Trade and Industrial\nConditions, 1904, Series 2.\n\nEmbraces deductions from reports received from 1,800 families with reference to\nweekly expenditures for food and for housing together with calculations of the variations in cost of all the principal items of household expense since 1880.\n\nNew York, 1905.\n\nHerzfeld, Elsa G.: Family Monographs.\n\nTwenty-four families on the West Side of New York City are studied, primarily from\nthe sociological rather than the economic point of view.\n\nThe Records of a City. A Social Survey of Lowell, Mass.\nYork: Macmillan Company, 191 2.\nChap. V deals generally with the standard-of-living problem.\n\nKenngott, George F.\n\n:\n\nLovejoy, Owen R.:\n\nSocial Standards in Industry.\n\nStandards of Living and Labor.\n\nNew\n\nA Platform by the Committee on\n\nNational Association of Charities and Correction,\n\nCleveland, Ohio, June, 191 2.\n\nA brief and notable summary of the work to 191 2.\nMore, Louise Bolard: Wage-Earners' Budgets. A Study of Standards and Cost of Living\nin New York City.\nNew York, 1907.\nA study of 200 family budgets, obtained in the southwestern section of New York.\nNearing, Scott: Financing the Wage-Earner's Family. New York: B. W. Huebsch, 1913.\nA comparison of standards and wages, employing the latest data available in 19 12-13.\nPatten, S. N.: The New Basis of Civilization. New York, 1907.\n\nA suggestive interpretation of the meaning of an ample standard of living in its effect\nupon the welfare of mankind.\nRichards, Ellen H.:\n\nNew York, 1899.\n\nThe Cost of Living.\n\nSuggestions as to economy in expenditures, especially for families with incomes\nbetween $1,500 and $2,500.\n\nRowntree, B. Seebohm: Poverty, a Study of Town Life. London, 1901.\nA study of the city of York. Chap, iii deals with the standard of life of various\nincome-classes; chap, vi with housing; chap, vii with health; chap, viii contains\nanalyses of eighteen family budgets with discussion of dietary standard.\n\nA Living Wage: Its Ethical and Economic Aspects. New York, 1906.\nA vindication of the right to a living wage, with an estimate of its actual content.\n\nRyan, John A.:\n\nShadwell, Arthur:\n\na Comparative Study of Industrial Life in\nLondon, 1906.\n\nIndustrial Efl&ciency:\n\nEngland, Germany, and America.\n\nIn Vol. II, chap, xi treats of housing; xii, of cost of living; xiii, of social conditions.\n\nThe Standard of Living among the Industrial People of America.\nBoston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 191 1.\n\nStreightoff, Frank H.:\n\nA very well-made book.\n\nIt approaches the standard-of-living\ntheoretical side, citing many original sources.\n\nproblem from the\n\nUnited States Commissioner of Labor: Eighteenth Annual Report. Cost of Living and\nRetail Prices of Food. Washington, 1904.\nA very discursive report on 25,000 workingmen's families in thirty- three different\nstates.\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": "92", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n92\n\n[General\n\nWoman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States.\nFamily Budget of Typical Cotton-Mill Workers. Washington: Gov-\n\nWorcester, W. F. and D. W.:\nVol. XVI.\n\nernment Printing OflSce, 1911.\n\nAn intensive study of the standards among cotton-mill families in Fall River, Mass.,\nand in certain southern mill towns.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.\n\n—^We have discussed the\n\nquestion of teachers' salaries and rediscussed it, again and again.\n\nWe have collected data\n\nThe public realizes that in most places teachers'\nThe real question at this time is, \"What are we going to do\n\nand written reports and published them.\nsalaries are inadequate.\n\nabout it ? \"\nprogram:\n\nI offer the following as a brief synopsis of what seems to me to be a practical\n\nKeep down other expenses so that there may be funds for increasing teachers'\nIn making up the school budget, it usually happens that everything else is\nprovided for before any provision is made for increasing teachers' salaries. The result\nis that other school expenses are increasing far more rapidly than the advance in teachers'\nsalaries.\nLet us keep down the \"miscellaneous expenses\" and we shall have more money\n1.\n\nsalaries.\n\nfor teachers' salaries.\n2. Standardize expenses, and in many localities there will be suj6&cient funds to pay\nreasonable salaries to teachers without increasing the burdens of taxation at all. By\nstandardization of expenses, I mean the pa3H[ng of a reasonable price for all commodities\nand service which are really needed, but no more. I give a few examples by way of\nillustration.\nIn 1903, there were more than four himdred country schools in Indiana\neach with an enrolment of fewer than five pupils, and more than eleven hundred such\nschools with an enrolment of fewer than ten pupils. By consolidation, these schools\ncould have been taught with one-third the number of teachers. In a small city, the\namount expended for books and educational supplies exceeded $17,000 per year. A careful estimate of the supplies actually needed was made and money appropriated accordingly.\nThe result was that altho the attendance had increased more than a thousand, yet the\nannual decrease in expenditures for supplies was more than $2,000. By many small\nsavings, the amount available for teachers' salaries may be materially increased.\n3. Utilize the various teachers' organizations for the study of tax laws and the laws\nand practices for collecting and distributing school funds. Appoint active executive\nconimittees whose duties it shall be to see to it that the fimds which are voted are really\navailable for school purposes. In many localities if the tax dodgers and dead heads were\nmade to pay up, there would be adequate fimds for teachers' salaries.\n4. Organize and maintain educational publicity committees\nlocal, state, and\n^\nnational. The people want to know what the great body of teachers really need in the\nway of support in order that they, the teachers, may do their work most effectively. In\nmost communities that is all that is required to secure the necessary legislation to provide\nminimum salary laws, permanent tenure, and adequate pensions. The great report of\nthis Association on \"Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living\" has done and is doing much\nto acquaint the people with real conditions, but such work needs to be supplemented by\npermanent committees whose duties are to keep the public informed.\n5. Lastly, let us go to our homes, formulate a reasonable salary schedule for the\nparticular locality in which we live, and then see if we cannot get it adopted.\nIn my\nhumble opinion the most difficult problem we shall have will be to agree among ourselves\nas to what is a reasonable schedule. Let teachers agree among themselves on a schedule\nwhich is reasonable, and in most communities the schedule will be adopted. Nothing is\ndearer to the hearts of the American people than their public schools, and in the end\nthey will see to it that their teachers receive reasonable compensation for their services.\n\n—\n\nL. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.\n\n—^The physical,\n\nintellectual,\n\nand moral powers of\n\nthe twenty million children of this country are active for good or evil, during twelve months\nof each year.\n\nLikewise, the needs of the teacher for food, clothing, and shelter continue\n\nfor twelve months of each year.\n\nIn other words, neither the teachers nor pupils belong\nOn account of the foregoing, our schools should be\n\nto the class of hibernating animals.\n\nin session, in cities, towns, and villages, practically the year round; and in order that the\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": "93", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE TEACHER AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING\n\n93\n\nwork might not unduly fatigue teacher or pupil, it should consist of a judicious combina-\n\nThe general practice in other lines of employment is twelve months' service with two weeks' vacation. The work of the schoolteacher is more fatiguing than some other kinds of employment because, in our almost\nexclusive book course of study, we attempt the unnatural and irrational.\ntion of books, industrial training, and play.\n\nThis lengthening of the school term would incidentally give teachers a larger salary,\n\nbut not in proportion to the lengthened term, for the salary now paid teachers for six to\nten months' service is practically a yearly salary, since teachers seldom earn anything\nfrom outside service. While I believe at least an eleven months' term is sooner or later\ninevitable, in most communities this term will be reached gradually. With the lengthened\nterm and the book-industrial-play course of study will doubtless come the lengthened school\nday, especially during the longer days of the year. Think of a half-million teachers, in a\nnation-wide chorus, lamenting the want of time to teach the modem, many-sided course\nof study, when they are not using more than half the time already available.\nIn view of the continuously diminishing purchasing power of money since 1897, and\nthe ever-increasing investment by teachers in professional improvement, thru summer\nschools, correspondence, and other non-residence courses, the able report of our committee\non teachers' salaries and pensions together with this and other discussions is very timely.\nIn order that this report may bear fruit thruout the coimtry, a synopsis of it should,\nfrom time to time, be sent to school board members, the press, and state teachers' associations with the request that the subject be given a half-day on the program.\n\nBut such salary agitation has its dangers, already apparent in many quarters;\nnamely, that praiseworthy movements for increase of salary may degenerate into a\nscramble for higher salaries that will overshadow efforts for the professional improvement\nof the teachers.\n\nGreatly increased emphasis should be given to the improvement of\n\nteachers in service.\n\nSuperintendents in counties, and superintendents, supervisors,\n\nprincipals, and superior teachers in cities and towns should be organized for the profes-\n\nsional improvement of the teaching corps, with a graded course of study definitely related\n\nto schoolroom ej65ciency, and with creditsieading to higher certificates, and higher salaries.\nThere is a tremendous waste in our present poorly organized teachers' meetings.\nNot only do the interests of the children demand that professional growth and efl5ciency be prime considerations, but that efl&ciency be made a chief factor in determining\nadvance of salary. I am reliably informed that in some cities, a rule conditioning advance\nin salary upon attaining a high rank in efficiency is nullified by an organized pressure\ninside and outside of the teaching force, resulting in according this high rank to practically\n\nthe entire corps.\n\nThe signs of the times indicate that there is an irrepressible conflict between the\nmembers of the board, superintendent, and members of the teaching corps who believe\nthat efficiency should be a prime factor in determining salaries and promotions, and those\nwho believe that length of service alone should determine salary.\nThe making of efficiency a prime factor in salary schedules is in the interest of the\nchildren, is in line with the practice in the business and industrial world, and ought ultimately to prevail thruout the country. With the universal adoption of this principle\nwill come more definite standards and tests of efficiency, greater reliance upon the supervising corps in determining the promotion of pupils, and possibly the more general practice\nof promoting teachers with their pupils.\n\nAgain, the world-wide movement for efficiency in both public and private expenditure\n\nshould react powerfully to stimulate efficiency in educational expenditure.\n\nPublic service\n\nand we must not deceive ourselves by supposing\nthat public-school service is an exception to the rule. There are probably few school\nsystems in this country in which an able superintendent (held to definite results by an\nindependent committee), if given an absolutely free hand in selecting, promoting, training\nand dismissing teachers, could not add 20 per cent to the efficiency of the system. It\nis notoriously inefficient and wasteful;\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": "94", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n94\n\n[General\n\nseems harsh to speak of dismissing teachers for inefl5ciency, yet it is not nearly so bad as\ndepriving helpless children of their only opportunity to prepare\n\nfor\n\ntheir\n\nlife-work.\n\nBesides, a vigorous policy of appointment, promotion, training, and dismissal would save\n\nto the school system in eflfidency many times what it would cost to pension the teachers\n\nwho are inefficient on account of age.\nAgain, the fact that, in common with the other civilized nations of the world, we are\nrapidly approaching a tax burden that will be confiscatory, re-emphasizes the necessity\nof permitting neither whim nor false sentiment to prevent the adoption of every available\n\nelement that makes for efficiency.\n\nDavid B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock\nNo achievement of the National Education Association could be of more\n\nHill^ S.C.\n\n—\n\nvital importance to the welfare of the coimtry than to secure for the teachers' calling\n\ndignity, security, independence, proper financial\n\nand social rewards, and certainty of\n\nsupport in old age or in case of disability.\nThe present inadequate salaries and insecurity of position are keeping many of our\nbest men and women out of the teachers* calling, which should command the services of\n\nthe best brain and character of our land.\n\nThe good school is the hope of the coimtry,\n\nand the good teacher is the hope of the school.\n\nWhat a prosperous, well-governed, law-\n\nabiding, progressive, enlightened country, flowing with milk and honey, we would have\nin a few years if we had in each schoolroom a devoted, skilful, intelligent teacher, imbued\n\nwith the spirit of civic service and having scholarship and patriotism and social leadership\nand the freedom and independence resulting from adequate salaries, permanency of\nposition, and security as to the future! Then, indeed, would appear the Golden Age.\nThe salaries of teachers were low enough ten or fifteen years ago, but since that time\nthe cost of living has been steadily increasing, so that the purchasing power of a dollar\nnow is only about 70 per cent of what it was then. As a result, it is not to be wondered\nat that so many teachers drop out of the work every year. In some of the states of the\nsouth more than one-fourth of the teachers drop out annually.\nThe exhaustive discussion of pension systems, by President Henry S. Pritchett, in\nthe 1913 report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, is worthy\nthe study of anyone interested in this subject. Dr. Pritchett strongly favors pensions\nfor teachers of the public schools, but urges a careful study of the whole question before\nany plan is adopted. He shows that pensions are justified upon the grounds of a larger\nsocial justice and as a necessary condition to an efficient school system.\n\nTOPIC: PRINCIPLES AND AIMS OF EDUCATION\nA.\n\nCOMMON -SENSE AND BEYOND\nPRESIDENT, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, IND.\n\nIn our time a multitude is bent upon establishing a new education in\nwhich children shall be taught to earn their bread. Meanwhile a stout\nminority is afraid that this new industrialism will sacrifice the essential\ninterests of the spirit.\n\nIt has been suggested to me that I should speak on\n\nsome phase of the profound conflict between these two points of view. I\nshall try to suggest in a few words my view of the underl3dng philosophy\nof that conflict.\n\nIn a word I may say that I do not agree with either side in this conflict\n\nwhen it Is opposed to the other.\n\nI do indeed believe that an industrialism\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": "95", "text": "COMMON-SENSE AND BEYOND\n\nSessions]\n\n95\n\nwhich excludes or slights any accent of the spiritual life is perilous to the\nand to society. But I also believe that an idealism which\n\nindividual\n\nignores or slights the spiritual values of the industrial life is equally perilous\nto the individual and to society.\n\nI agree with the idealist Bergson that the\n\nintellect itself was very largely developed on this planet by the making of\n\nthings with the hands.\n\nAnd I agree with the idealist John Dewey that the\n\ncollege professor who chastely withdraws from concern with the economic\nlife\n\nand who imagines that he is the special conservator of the higher cul-\n\nture^ is the victim of an illusion and is, in fact, a tame parasite.\n\nin which I believe is the spirit incarnate.\n\nThe spirit\n\nI wish at this time, however, to\n\ndwell especially upon one side of this question and to afl&rm the practical\nreality of the forces\n\nwhich transcend the immediate vision of common-\n\nsense.\n\nWe must all live in the world of common-sense, with its familiar things,\nThe laws of that world are harsh, and are\nThe best\nthing which the world of common-sense does is to make us work at sensible\ntasks,\n\nand ways of doing.\n\nenforced by penalties such as failure, hunger, misery, and death.\n\ntasks.\n\nThis is the best safeguard against insanity and the best means of\n\ndeveloping practical judgment and efficiency.\n\nThe worst thing which\nis to make uS^ believe\n\nthe world of common-sense does is to make us blind\n\n—\n\nthat there is nothing beyond itself, nothing but superstitions, speculations,\ntheories, dreams.\n\nPhysical science has done\n\nmuch to correct this false belief.\n\nWhen,\n\nin the fall of 1752, Franklin sent a kite up into a thundergust in order to\n\ncatch lightning in a bottle, his kite went clear and clean out of the world\nof common-sense into another world of which common-sense by itself knows\n\nnothing at all.\n\nThe lower end of that kite-string was held by the man who\n\nHe wrote of thrift: \"An empty bag\nHe wrote\nof prudence: \"An egg today is better than a hen tomorrow.\"\nHe wrote of\n\nwrote Poor Richard^ s Almanac.\ncannot stand alone.\"\n\n\"Diligence is the mother of good luck.\"\n\n\"The most exquisite folly is made of wisdom\n\"There are many witty men whose brains cannot fill\ntheir bellies.\"\nIt was this supreme genius of common-sense who went\nout in a rising storm to find a new world, not like Columbus with ships,\nbut with a kite and a bottle. And he foimd it. He and others of his\nkind found a world incalculably more vast and rich than the America of\nColumbus. They found the world of force, within whose infinite ranges our\n\npretended wit and learning:\n\nspim too fine.\"\n\nworld of conmion-sense floats like a bubble.\n\nIt is the special business of\n\nscience to send up kites of every sort in every direction.\nstation for the flying of kites.\n\nA university is a\n\nThe fire that comes back along their strings\n\nwe must have. It bakes our bread. And the same fire, blazing high, lights\nup for us the immeasurable world of force invisible to common-sense.\nExactly the same connection exists between common- sense in its application to the conduct of life and the higher spiritual laws by which we are\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": "96", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n96\n\nfGenetal\n\nbegirt.\nThe everyday rules of thumb for the conduct of life are essential.\nThey teach us, as children, the first necessary lessons of obedience. They\nteach us common ideals and ways of doing, so that we can live together in\nfamilies and as neighbors and citizens.\nTo paraphrase St. Paul, commonsense is our schoolmaster, to bring us to the truth.\nBut common-sense\nnever teaches us the whole truth. It does a man fatal harm to believe\nthat it can. It does a man fatal harm to believe that he can choose\n\nfor himself a little world with little purposes, little standards of success,\n\nand little rules of cunning, and there can shut himself in safe from the\nGod.\nThere has lately appeared the biography of a man who thought he\ncould do this, tho, like many of his kind, he believed in a sort of absentee\nGod who might make trouble after death and who might be appeased by\n\nliving\n\nFifty years ago this man was one\nLike Rousseau, Benvenuto Cellini, and others,\n\nthe founding of a theological seminary.\nof the richest in America.\n\nhe wrote with naked frankness the inside facts of his life. He wanted one\nthing money. He believed really in nothing else. What would bring\n\n—\n\nmoney was practical and good.\nbrushed aside.\n\nWhatever stood in the way must be\n\nHe brushed aside considerations of friendship and loyalty.\n\nAgain and again he tells of betraying and ruining his own partners.\nness is business,\" he said.\n\n'*\n\nBusi-\n\nHe tells of organizing the farmers of Putnam\n\nCounty, New York, into a protective league against Vanderbilt's Hudson\nRiver steamboat monopoly, and then selling out the farmers to Vanderbilt.\n\n\"The dog that snaps quickest gets the bone,\" he said.\n\nHe tells\n\nof arranging to get his partners into his debt so as to have them in his power.\n\n\"You own your debtor,\" he says, \"body and breeches. You are the cat;\nHe brushes aside considerations of patriotism. \"Such\n\nhe is the mouse.\"\n\nwars in Mexico, Missouri Compromises, slave wars in\nKansas could not be allowed to come in and take my thoughts away from\nbusiness.\" Again: \"I saw very quickly that the War of the Rebellion\nwas going to be a money-maker for me.\" \"It's good fishing in troubled\nfar-off things as\n\nwaters.\"\n\nHe tells of corrupting officials of the government in the interest\n\nof stock manipulations, but adds:\n\n\"We didn't dare to make offers of the\n\nkind to Old Abe.\n\nLincoln was an impractical man as far as money went.\n\nAll he thought of\n\nwas saving the Union.'*\n\nconsiderations of loyalty to his family.\n\nFinally, he brushed aside\n\nIn his last days his greed for money\n\non any terms so possessed him that he proved an unsafe trustee of the estates\nof his grandchildren,\ncourt.\n\nand he was dismissed from his trusteeship by the\n\nBy an accident of fortune which does not always happen,\n\nthe\n\nmoney and died in poverty and solitude.\nHis philosophy of life is expressed in a paragraph by Balzac: \"The\n\nmillionaire lost all his\n\nmore cold-blooded your purpose,\" says a worldly countess to her young\n\"the surer you will be of success. Strike without pity, and the\nworld will fear you. Treat men and women as post-horses. Ride them\nrelative,\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": "97", "text": "COMMON-SENSE AND BEYOND\n\nSessions]\n\n97\n\nand leave them foundered at each relay, if you would attain the goal of\nyour desires.\"\n\nFrom this terrible picture turn to the President whom the millionaire\ncalled impractical.\n\nIn truth, Lincoln was the very genius of practical\n\nNo other man of his century knew so well as he the range of forces\nby which men are actually moved. He knew, among other things, the\npowers of money. He knew that there must be soldiers and cannon and\nmules and corn and bacon, and money to pay for all. He knew that the\nUnion must be saved by good financing as well as by hard fighting. He\nsense.\n\nknew thoroly well that the world of money has laws from which neither men\nnor nations can escape.\n\nLincoln was asked once how long a man's legs\n\nshould be.\n\nHe replied, \"A man's legs should be long enough to reach the\n\nground.\"\n\nHis feet were planted on the ground as solidly as Franklin's.\n\nBut, like Franklin, in the extremity of need he stretched forth his hand\nto the impractical heavens.\nlightning.\n\nIf\n\nAnd there he found forces mightier than\n\nyou ask where in literal fact he found the spiritual forces\n\nwhich saved the Union, I cannot tell, except in part. I know in part. It\ncame from millions of common men, such as you and I, who a little while\nbefore had been all worldly prudence and cowardice and compromise.\nAnd then, somehow, in millions of common men, such as you and I, something burst up from within which burned up their prudence and their fear,\nand sent them marching on to death in the service of the Spirit.\nDante believed that there are above the earth many heavens, one\nThis is to us a myth. In substance it is the truth.\ncircling above another.\nThere is what Dante might have called a heaven of physical force,\ninvisible to common-sense, slowly revealed thru men of science, still largely\n\nBut we know its reality because every day and more and more\nour work.\nit\ndo\nmake\nwe\nunknown.\n\nThere is a heaven of art.\n\nIt\n\nseems quite unreal\n\n—nothing but play,\n\nBut in truth these have proved their reality in\nbattles\nworks\nand\nof\nmen\nas surely as any force which engineers can\nthe\ngreat\nin dream and rises in song, and often\nEvery\nwork\nbegins\nmeasure.\nperishes\nthe\ndream\nand\nthe song survive.\nthe\nwork\nwhen\nromance, song, dreams.\n\nYou may not\none chance\nbarter\nyour\nit.\nmay\nmay\ntry\nto\nescape\nYou\nYou\nfor your\ncunning\nmight\nand\nwork\nwith\nYou may\nof life for a mean wage.\nusing\nworst,\nthe\nothers,\nand,\nat\ndesire,\ncareless\nhow\nyour\nwork\naffects\nlow\nthe\nway.\nby\nperishing\nleft\npost-horses\nridden\nand\nmen and women as\nto be\nthick\nof\nIn\nthe\nLife.\nchild\nInfinite\nthe\nhardest\nman\nis\nstill\nof\nthe\nBut\na\nseized\nmay\nyou\nbe\nvictory,\nbattle,\nin\nthe\nmoment\nyour\nmeanest\nyour\nof\nand shaken by the ultimate need of man to give and receive unselfish\nfriendship.\nIn that moment the dollar and the bank and the factory and\nFinally, above all others, there is the heaven of charity.\n\nbelieve in it.\n\n—\n\nthe whole hard, practical world turn to ashes and you are caught up before\nthe judgment seat whose law is the terrible charity of God.\n\nIn like manner\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": "98", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n98\n\n[General\n\nyou may try to found your home life upon motives of shrewd worldly\npolicy, or upon baser motives, and, at the worst, you may thus descend\ninto horror and darkness.\nBut, in truth, you and your mate are children\nThe hour may come when you shall realize that.\nof the Infinite Life.\nIn that hour the voices of worldly prudence and evil passion shall be still.\nIn the heart of your mate you shall see something infinitely sacred, something that shall smite you into unspeakable reverence. You shall stand\ntogether in your home and know that you are also standing, like Dante\nand Beatrice at the last, in the most holy heaven.\nThe Lord of that heaven was not of those idealists who despise the\nearth and earthly labor. He was himself a carpenter and a physician. He\nsaid, \"Raise the stone and thou shall find Me.\nCleave the wood and there\nam I.\" And His supreme idea for Himself and for us, for our politics,\nour industry, our education, is found in the phrase, \"The Word was\nmade Flesh and dwelt among us full of grace and truth.\"\n\nB.\n\nTHE PURPOSE OF ELEMENTARY AND HLGH-SCHOOL\nEDUCATTON\n\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nHARRISBURG, PA.\n\nMany of our so-called educational reformers give the teacher a bad\nconscience with reference to her school, and, before a teacher whose conscience has been thus disturbed can again be happy in her work, it is neces-\n\nsary to clarify her mind on the purpose of elementary and high-school\neducation.\n\nIt goes without saying that every school in our day aims and\n\nshould aim to conserve the health of its pupils.\n\nIf the laws of health and\n\nsanitation are to be obeyed, they must be known;\n\nthey must be taught\n\nif\n\nthey are to be known,\n\n—taught both by example and by precept. From this\n\npoint of view I do not regret woman's invasion of the high school.\n\ncan go thru college without contracting the cigaret habit.\n\nA girl\n\nShe can teach\n\nhalf a day without taking whiffs of tobacco between successive recitations,\n\nthus neutralizing by her example what she is trying to teach by precept.\n\nWe may lay it down as a universally accepted proposition that from the\nkindergarten to the university it should be the aim of the school to conserve\nthe health of the pupil and to develop his powers of body and mind into\nhealth, strength, and maturity.\n\nBut the preservation of health was not the purpose for which the school\nwas originally established. It will throw light upon our problem if we look\nat a few facts culled from the history of education.\n\nAccording to John\n\nFiske, Lewis Morgan, and other high authorities, the human race passed\n\nthru several stages before the school and the vocation of the schoolmaster\n\nwere called into existence.\n\nAt first man lived on nuts and berries and the\n\nfruits of the earth, then he learned how to catch fish, how to build a fire and\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": "99", "text": "—\nPURPOSE OF EDUCATION\n\nSessions]\n\n99\n\nto prepare food by means of fire, and later he domesticated the dog and\n\nlearned to hunt game with bow and arrow.\n\nBut neither fishing, nor hunt-\n\ning, nor the building of a fire called the school into existence.\n\nThe next great step upward was due to a discovery made by woman.\nIs it not strange that when the average girl begins to study history she soon\n\nwishes she had been born a boy ?\n\nWhy ?\n\nBecause the histories are written\n\nand the subject is taught as if everything great and heroic belonged to the\nother sex. At a New England dinner, they were glorifying the pilgrim\nSome one proposed\nfathers, telling what hardships they had to endure.\na toast to the pilgrim mothers who endured all the hardships the pilgrim\nfathers endured and then had to endure the pilgrim fathers besides. It is\na function of the school to teach the girl that what makes life worth living\nis not found in carrying a gun and spilling blood, nor even in science and\nliterature, but in the personal relations which the human being sustains to\na domain in which woman reigns\nhis fellows and to his God and Maker\nsupreme. As soon as the girl learns that lesson she no longer wishes she\nhad been born a boy.\nHere is a woman who, in order to retain the juices of the game which her\nproud lord has brought from the hunt, thatches the basket in which the meat\nis to be cooked, and by the time the meal is prepared the clay is baked\nand the secret of the art of pottery has been discovered. This discovery\nimproved food conditions to such an extent that man left his savage state\na state in which he does not feel the need of a school and a schoolmaster.\nIn the making of pottery, one finds secrets which the pupil can learn from\na master. Pottery is a trade, but the original school was not a trade school.\nUpon the new plane, life is at first nomadic. Wealth consisted in cattle\ngrazing upon a thousand hills and valleys. If you are introduced to a cattle\nking who can write his check for thousands of dollars, do not blush because\nyou are a teacher; your vocation sprang up later and ranks higher.\nNext, man learned to irrigate the soil and to practice the arts of\nhusbandry. When people talk as if the primary purpose of the school were\n\n—\n\nto make farmers, I enter\n\nmy protest as a student of the history of education.\n\nWithout question a good school makes the farmer a better farmer, just as it\nmakes the man a better workman and the workman a better man. The\nlittle woman who cultivates the immortal minds of a score of children does\na higher work than the man who raises for the market thousands of cabbage\nheads and vegetables and other eatables.\n\nMan took another important step before the advent of the professional\nschoolmaster.\n\nIn his upward progress he gradually learned how to smelt\n\nores and to work in iron.\n\nWork in metals did not call the vocation of the\nHe came later than the ironmaster and did\n\nschoolmaster into existence.\n\na more important work for civilization.\n\nWhat caused the dawn of civilization ?\n\nAccording to John Fiske and\n\nother historians, civilization dawned when man learned how to record his\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": "100", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nlOO\n\nIGeneral\n\nthoughts and achievements and how to transmit the knowledge of the same\nIt was the need of written\nto distant peoples and to future generations.\n\nlanguage that called the school and the vocation of the schoolmaster into\nVolumes of history are crystalized in the letters of the alphabet.\nexistence.\n\nIn other words, it is the primary purpose of the school to banish illiteracy\nand to make ignorance impossible. Without a knowledge of reading,\nwriting, and reckoning, no one is adjusted to the demands of American life.\n\nTo read English, to write English, and to understand English is the primary\naim of the evening schools which Pennsylvania has established for the\nAs soon as they know EngA knowledge of the\nlish, the number of accidents is greatly diminished.\nthree R's, of drawing, and of geography is still the most essential part of the\nforeigners who work in our mines and shops.\n\npreparation for vocational\n\nlife.\n\nFrom the viewpoint of the industrial\n\nschool, there is little justification for placing history in the school currictdimi.\n\nFrom the \\dewpoint of preparation for citizenship, a knowledge of the\ngenesis and history of our free institutions is of inestimable importance.\n\nTo teach our native and foreign-bom boys our patriotic songs is to beget\nin them love of the flag and of all that for which the flag stands.\n\nMoreover, while the pupil is learning the things in the traditional school\ncurriculum, he should be acquiring certain habits without which he cannot\n\nhold a job or fill a position in the industrial world.\n\nFrom the very routine\n\nof a good school, the pupil develops habits of punctuality and regularity, of\n\naccuracy, veracity, and obedience, of politeness, self-restraint, and\ncontrol\n\n—habits which, when the\n\nself-\n\nwill enters into them, become the school\n\nvirtues, and lay the foundation of industrial, commercial, and professional\n\nsuccess.\n\nIt is not surprising that the boy who has been faithful at school\n\nis preferred above the\n\nboy who has formed the habit of playing truant.\n\nI find that the ambitious parent considers a trade school a good school\nfor his neighbor's son, but for his own son he prefers, at least if the boy will\n\ntake to it, the training of the traditional high school.\n\nThere is a sub-\n\nconscious motive for this preference, which deserves to be lifted into the\nlight of consciousness.\n\nThere are today about forty vocations which have\n\nin them the best-paid workers and which the boy cannot enter if he quits\n\nschool before the completion of four years of training in a standard high\nschool.\n\nAbout five millions of our people are engaged in these vocations,\n\nevery one of which has a basis in the scientific knowledge of this age.\n\nIn\n\nthe elementary school we must often be satisfied if pupils learn to go thru\nthe motions,\n\nif\n\nthey grasp the surface relations of things.\n\nIn the high\n\nschool the pupil should be taught to penetrate beneath the surface to the\nrelations that are scientific.\n\nWhat is science?\n\nScience is the knowledge\n\nof things in their causes and essential relations.\n\nIt is the function of the\nhigh-school teacher to get the pupil's mind to move from cause to effect,\n\nfrom reason to consequence, from law to its application.\ncentury will be an age of science and scientific applications.\n\nThe twentieth\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": "101", "text": "—\nPURPOSE OF EDUCATION\n\nSessions]\n\nloi\n\nIt is a source of surprise that American superintendents can visit the\n\nschools of Germany without discovering the radical difference between the\n\nEuropean school and the American school.\n\nThe European schools are\n\norganized to perpetuate the distinction between the masses and the classes.\n\nIn the United States\n\n—to use Huxley's phrase—we have constructed an\n\neducational ladder, stretching from the humblest walks thru the free high\n\n—a ladder on which any boy,\n\nschool into the college and the university\n\nif\n\nhe\n\nhas the strength to climb, can rise into one of the forty vocations which\n\nhave in them the leaders of our civilization.\nThe workman will sooner or later win an eight-hour working day. It\ndevolves upon the school to determine whether the eight-hour day shall be\na curse or a blessing. If the hours which are not needed for bread-winning\nare spent in dissipation and riotous living, the eight-hour day will prove a\ncurse instead of a blessing.\n\nOn the other hand, if the school will teach the\n\nrising generation to enjoy good music and a good book, if the school will\n\nteach its pupils to relish high thinking and plain living, the eight-hour day\nwill prove a source of uplift and progress.\n\nIf I were called upon to put above the door of the schoolhouse one word\n\nexpressive of the aim of elementary- and high-school education, I would\n\nput there in electric light the word \"truth.\"\nedge altho the latter is the broader term.\n\nTruth is more than knowlKnowledge may abide as a mere\n\nmatter of intellect, but truth touches the heart out of which are the issues\nof life.\n\nIf truth passes into speech, it\n\nbecomes truthfulness or veracity.\n\nIf it passes into life, it gives us true men and true women.\n\nIt is true men\n\nand true women that our nation needs everywhere. Pythagoras had so\nhigh an estimate of truth that he said if the deity should make himself\nvisible to man, he would choose light for his body and truth for his soul.\nGive us true men and true women as teachers in our public schools\nteachers in whom the truth has become incarnate as it was in the Great\nTeacher, who said of himself, \"I am the way, the truth, and the life\"\nand we shall realize the highest aim of elementary- and high-school education\nby giving back to the nation, thru the silent influence of example and the\npotent word of instruction, true men and true women. By way of admonition and guidance to the teacher, I close in the words of another:\nThou must thyself be true\nIf thou the truth wouldst teach;\n\nThy soul must overflow\nIf thou a soul wouldst reach;\n\nIt takes the heart's o'erflow\n\nTo give the lips full speech.\nThink truly and thy thought\nShall the world's famine feed;\n\nSpeak truly and every word\nShall be a fruitful seed;\nLive truly and thy life\nShall be a noble creed.\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": "102", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI02\n\nC.\n\n[General\n\nTEE PURPOSE OF THE LIBERAL COLLEGE\n\nALEXANDER MEIKLEJOHN, PRESIDENT, AMHERST COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS.\nThere are many different interpretations of the purpose of the liberal\nThey are all partially true but most of them are false as accounts\n\ncollege.\n\nof the primary aim of liberal education.\n\nThe liberal college is not simply\n\na quiet retreat shut off from the conflicts of real life. Such men as Kant\nand Darwin, in the quiet of the study and the laboratory, were molding and\nshaping the entire social scheme of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.\n\nThe warfare of ideas may be quiet, but it is not shut off from the affairs of\nThe liberal college is not a place where\nlife; it is fundamental to them all.\nboys may seek *' culture\" in some sense which shall make them consciously\nsuperior to their fellows.\n\nGenuine culture is always a by-product.\n\nIt\n\ncomes not by seeking, but by doing something worth while. The liberal\ncollege is not concerned merely with the classics, if by that is meant a study\nNo people were ever more modern in spirit than the Greeks.\nof the past.\nTheir language and literature, their art and philosophy are well worthy of\nour study. But perhaps the best lesson they have to give us is that of the\nThe\nvital necessity of knowledge of our own time and our own people.\nliberal college is not an institution which has lost its mission.\nIt is sometimes said that since the college was founded to train ministers and since\nthat work is now done by the theological schools, it has no longer any\nBut the old college had something to give, not\njustification for existence.\nonly to ministers, but also to doctors, lawyers, teachers, and business men.\nAnd the new liberal college has the same mission for men whatever their\ncalling is to be. It is sometimes said that the task of the liberal college is simply to train boys to think, to give them intellectual method, and that hence\nit makes very little difference what they think about, what courses they\ntake, during the college years.\nBut if thinking is worth doing, those four\nyears should not be wasted. There are certain essential and fundamental\ninterests to which any liberally educated man should give attention; and\nno man is liberally educated unless he has in some way or other dealt with\n\nthem in his own experience.\ninstitution for training\n\n*'\n\nFinally, the liberal college is not merely an\n\nscholars,\"\n\nmen who are to be by profession\n\n\"investigators\" in some field of learning.\n\nIn a democratic society the\n\nliberal college is seeking, not merely the intellectual boy, but also the average\n\nAmerican boy, and it proposes to train him for life whatever his profession\nor calling may be.\n\nThe fundamental principle of the liberal college, like that of all advanced\neducation, technical or professional, rests on the opposition of action by\n\ncustom and action by intelligence. All schools alike believe that activities\nguided by ideas are, in the long run, more successful than activities deter-\n\nmined by habit and hearsay.\n\nThe liberal college has, therefore, selected\n\none group of activities for study.\n\nJust as the bridge builder studies mathe-\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": "103", "text": "EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL SERVICE\n\nSessions]\n\n103\n\nmatics and applied mechanics, just as the physician studies chemistry and\nbiology, so the teacher in the liberal college studies those activities which\n\nare common to all men.\n\nWe believe that human living can be made more\nWe set our boys, or should set them, to\n\nsuccessful if men understand it.\n\nthe study of the religious life, the moral problems, the social and economic\ninstitutions, the world of physical and natural phenomena, the records of\n\nHere are features of human living common to all\nTo understand them, to be acquainted with them, is to be liberally\n\nliterature and history.\n\nmen.\n\neducated.\n\nThere are men who would prefer that their sons be not educated with\nThese men want\nall the new appliances in farming, all the newest devices and inventions in\ntransportation and engineering, but they, would prefer that the fundamental\n\nregard to religion, morals, social and economic problems.\n\nthings of life be left to habit, tradition, and instinct.\n\nAs against such men\n\nThere never was a time when men needed\nlight on the great himian affairs, the things we have in common, more than\nwe need it now. Intelligence has improved our roads and bridges; it will\nimprove ourselves, our living. The task of the liberal college is just as\nIts day is not ending; it is just\ndefinite as that of any technical school.\nbeginning to dawn.\nthe liberal college is up in arms.\n\nTOPIC: EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY\nA.\n\nEDUCATION FOR SOCIAL SERVICE\n\nEDWARD A. ROSS, PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nWithin the last twenty years many of our colleges and universities have\n\nBut in the schools naive\nOur more promising youth still issue from the\nclassroom into practical life with glowing visions of a personal and private\nThey have been told of the wonderful chances to rise and have\nsuccess.\ncaught something of the social view of things.\n\ncommercial ideas prevail.\n\nbeen stimulated with the assurance that the harder they studied the sooner\n\n\"Out in the world,\" we tell them, \"there is\nGo in and win.'* Upon\nmany of us it has not dawned that one aim of our public schools should be\nto make it impossible for the boys to accept the game as they find it.\nInto the public mind have filtered during the last twenty years many\nthey would get up in life.\n\nthe great game, and there are the great prizes.\n\nof the newer ideas about the meaning of industry and trade.\n\nBut, on the\n\nother hand, business men have been drawing together into associations and\n\nhearkening to the utterances of their big dominating personalities.\n\nWhile\n\nthe social view has been making headway in the general public, the contrary\n\nmanner of thinking has been hardening and defining itself within the business world. Commercialism has become self-conscious and aggressive.\nIt insists that business is an arena in which the strong hearted and the\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": "104", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI04\n\n[General\n\ncapable contend with one another for the Supremely Desirable, i.e., money.\n\nIn this battle, strength has a place and cunning has a place.\n\nThe \"tricks\n\nof the trade\" are to be tolerated as we tolerate the feints and ruses of the\n\nObviously, the rules of the fight should not be changed while\n\nprize ring.\n\nthe fight is going on, and, of course, the fight is going on all the time.\ntie\n\nTo\n\ndown the combatants with rules limiting the use of their superior\n\nstrength,\n\nadroitness,\n\ncunning\n\nor\n\nspoils\n\nsport\n\nand\n\nis\n\nunfair\n\nto\n\nthe\n\n\"better man.\"\n\nIn these commercial battles, natural resources, and workingmen, and\nchild toilers\n\ncome to be looked upon as mere raw material to be moved\n\nabout, husbanded, or sacrificed, as the exigencies of the fight may demand.\n\nAs to the consuming public\n\n—\n\n—for the sake of which,\n\nin sooth, all such enter-\n\nvague in the dim background with no interest in the\nfight save as humble and admiring spectators.\nThe hampering of the con-\n\nprises exist\n\nit lies\n\ntending business men with pure-food laws, sanitary requirements, safety\nregulations, anti-combination acts, and, finally, the\n\nmeddling of a trade\n\nconunission on the alleged behalf of the consuming public, is an intrusion\n\nand an impertinence inflicted on \"legitimate business\" by the demagogy\nof \"politicians.\"\n\nIn some of the professions likewise the combat idea is well established.\n\nThe typical newspaper man is by no means apologetic of the sensationalism,\nred-ink, fakes, deceitful headlines, and spiced news, by which he has beaten\nhis rival in circulation.\n\nAll is fair in circulation-getting,\n\nand the other\n\nfellow would have done the same if he had been smart enough.\n\nno kick coming.\n\nThe public ?\n\nHe has\nOh, they are there to be gulled, and besides\n\nWe are simply \"giving the public what it wants.\"\nMost of the lawyers are warm defenders of the time-hallowed contentious procedure by which our courts ascertain the right and wrong of dis-\n\nthey like it.\n\nputes, despite the obvious consideration that the stronger side ought to\n\nwin the case, not the side with the means to retain the stronger champion.\n\nAs a whole the legal profession looks askance at the new matter-of-fact\nprocedure, followed by the new administrative boards and commissions,\nwhich sends impartial experts to search out the matter in dispute or adjourns\nto the laboratory instead of listening to contending hired advocates.\n\nIn spite of the impression social ideas have made on the worker and the\nproducer, commercialism has gone on developing within its sphere until\nit is\n\nbecoming a religion.\n\nare its temples.\n\nBoards of trade and chambers of conmierce\n\nThe business interests are its priests;\n\nMonday to Saturday.\n\nIts promise is prosperity.\n\nits\n\nholy days are\n\nIts first great command-\n\nment is \"Let us alone.\" Its plea is \"Suffer little children to come unto\nme and forbid them not.\" Its beatitude is \"Blessed is the employee who\ndemands nothing and expects nothing, for verily he shall not be disappointed.\"\n\nIts favorite parable is of the man who burned down his barn\n\nto get rid of the rats.\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": "105", "text": "EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL SERVICE\n\nSessions]\n\n105\n\nThis whole conception of business as a jungle fight with its implied\na wonderfully clever fellow; its\n\nadmiration of the money-maker as\nthinly veiled contempt for the\n\nman who wins only a livelihood;\n\nits cool\n\nignoring of the public for whose sake business exists belongs in a class with\n\nSlowly there is rising in the popular\ntrial by ordeal and judicial combat.\nmind the idea that businesses and professions are not owned by the men\nwho, for the moment, are engaged in them, that they are but instrumentalities for meeting the wants of the public, not roped rings for the con-\n\nduct of a prize fight; that while oceans of legal verbiage are poured forth\non the question whether or not this or that business is \"affected with a\npublic interest,\" there is, in fact, no legitimate business or profession that\nis not affected with a public interest, and should not be required to square\nitself with\n\nthe ascertained social welfare.\n\nRebellion\n\nis\n\nspreading against manufacturers gradually converting\n\nchildren into worn-out paupers which the public\n\nis\n\nto support, against\n\nindustry's needless production of cripples for the public almshouse to\nshelter, against engineered scarcity of the necessities of life, against brought-\n\non panics, against the ruthless maneuvers of big business, trampling us down\nas if we were caught in the midst of a herd of maddened elephants.\nThe social service that is supreme is not some bit of charitable work,\nbut the following of one's calling as a service, not as an exploit. Education\nfor social service is to open the eyes of the young to the social nature of\ntheir work in life, to purge their minds of the current false notion that to\nenter one's life-work is to take a hand in a poker game or put on the gloves\nfor a prize fight.\nIt is to persuade them that it is wisdom to spend wealth\nfor more welfare, but folly to spend welfare— even somebody else's welfare—\nfor the sake of more wealth, that industries should be run to yield dividends\nrather than profits, that a \"living wage\" must come before a \"living\ndividend,\" that commercialized sports, commercialized amusements,\ncommercialized newspapers, and commercialized vice are tumors, not flesh,\nthat \"prosperity\" in the business man's sense is but one element in social\nwell-being and not always the greatest.\nThe next social service is to fight the anti-social tendency of the combat\nregime. Education for social service ought not to dampen the primal\nimpulses of moral indignation.\nFive-sixths of American teachers are\nwomen, and there is danger lest they, with their ladylike ideas of conduct,\nquench the natural pugnacity of our boys below the point of even chivalrous\nspunk. Certainly, a woman-taught generation is showing an alarming\nwillingness to take oppression and robbery lying down. The goodgovernment movement, I notice, attracts many mild-mannered gentlemanly citizens who are quite bluffed by ward-heeler's invitations to the use\nof the natural weapons.\n\nI fear our schools are turning out too many sissies,\n\nand that the rough, greedy element are taking advantage of it.\ndeplore the ladylike- citizen.\n\nI, for one,\n\nSocial service implies not only a willingness\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": "106", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nio6\n\n[General\n\nto be spent for the common good, but, as well, a capacity for ire and hardhitting.\n\nOne way to divert the people from fundamentals is to get them hurrahing for petty betterments.\n\nI sometimes suspect that trivial social service\n\nemployed to sidetrack people from economic reform. The kept newspaper is strong for \"swat the fly,\" anti-roller- towel, and \"clean-up'* movements. Likewise, it seems as if little charities for newsboys or tenement\nbabies or hospitals prosper greatly just because they raise no embarrassing\nquestions and leave the public with a soothing illusion that something is\n\nis\n\nbeing done.\nIt seems to me sometimes as if the springing-up of a great variety of\n\npetty charities which annoy nobody, antagonize nobody, and produce but\ntrifling results is to\n\nbe interpreted as an endeavor to switch the public\n\nmind from big reforms involving questions of fares, prices, wages, hours,\nand conditions of work, which antagonize prominent people, but which\nalso hold forth the possibility of raising the plane upon which great groups\nNot that there is a purpose behind it all; but those who start\nof us live.\ncharities\ninnocent\nget support and put them thru; while those who promote\nmovements that lessen somebody's profits or dividends or rentals get the\ncold shoulder and fail.\n\nSo that the promoters of social service learn the\n\n\"Ask for reading-rooms, or fresh air, or teddy-bears; don't ask\nfor less risk, or less hours, or for more pay, or more rights.\"\n\nlesson:\n\nA democracy, then, will use its schools to coimteract the anti-social\nspirit that too often radiates from the big masterful figures of commercial\n\nIt will rear its youth in the ethics of brotherhood,\n\nteamwork, and\naim is at something\ngreater than lessons in kindness and consideration. It presents life from\na new angle. It employs ideas, not appeals and exhortations. It meets\ncurrent notions of success and reward with more exacting ideals growing\nout of a new vision of social welfare. It aims to turn out youth ready,\nlife.\n\nresponsibility.\n\nIn educating for social service,\n\nits\n\nnot only to make their calling a service, but to grapple with the old egotistic\ncarnivorous type and eject him from places of influence where he can be a\nsinister pattern and pace-setter for the next generation.\n\nB.\n\nEDUCATION FOR POLITICAL AND MORAL SERVICE\n\nWILLIAM\n\nO.\n\nTHOMPSON, PRESIDENT, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY,\nCOLUMBUS, OHIO\n\nThe modem idea of democracy implies a state where all citizens are\ninterested in,\n\nand perform the duties of, citizenship.\n\nThis involves for\n\nsuccessful administration a clear vision of the functions of government, the\nwilling and cheerful paying of taxes, a hearty response to public service, and\n\na service of integrity and honesty on the part of those who represent the\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": "107", "text": "EDUCATION FOR POLITICAL AND MORAL SERVICE\n\nSessions]\n\npeople in public\n\ndemocracy\n\n—one\n\noffice.\nis\n\nBriefly stated there are\n\ntwo great issues in a\n\nthe integrity of the citizen, the other is the integrity of\n\nhis representative in office.\nfall\n\n107\n\nThese two being realized, most other problems\n\ninto proper perspective and await an easy solution.\n\nThe familiar phrase \"of the people, by the people, and for the people\"\nsuggests the three fundamental things, namely, the source of all authority,\n\nthe people; the agency springing from the people in the form of duly accred-\n\nand third, the object of the government, the welfare\nwhere all the people operate thru the people,\nIt need not be more than remarked that\nin the interest of all the people.\nthis ideal of democracy is realized only in part.\nited representatives;\nof the people\n\n—that\n\nis to say,\n\nThe topic now under consideration raises the general issue as to the\nfunction of education in a democracy in the preparation of citizens for\npolitical\n\nand moral service.\n\nI know not the distinction in the minds of\n\nthose who selected this topic, as between the terms \"political\" and \"moral.\"\n\nIn these days the term \"political\" suggests the office, the holder of the\n\nand all the means and organizations necessary to the operation and\nThe word \"political\" is, therefore, of narrower horizon than the word \"moral.\" The political to which reference is\nmade is therefore but one phase of citizenship for which education should\noffice,\n\nmaintenance of government.\n\nprepare us.\n\nThe moral service involves all our personal, social, financial,\n\npolitical, private,\n\nand public relations growing out of our experiences as\n\nproductive and constructive factors in society.\nqualities\n\nand attitudes necessary in\n\neveryone who would render important service.\n\nFirst of all is that of intel-\n\nThere are certain fundamental\nligence.\n\nIn the matter of political service our preparation has been limited\n\nin the elementary\n\nand secondary schools to a brief study of civics and\n\nAmerican history.\n\nThis study has been confined chiefly to the forms of\n\ngovernment and the great movements in history. We have studied the\nforms of a state government, we have committed to memory the names of\nthe offices, but this has been often futile for the very reason that the forms\nof local government have been frequently changed so that educated people\nare often limited in their intelligence upon details. The duties of officeholders and the requirements necessary for filling an office satisfactorily\nreceive superficial treatment. In the colleges where advanced courses\nin\n\npolitical\n\nscience are offered\n\nthe theory of\n\nthe state\n\nreceives\n\nthe\n\nmajor portion of time and study. Recently a tendency has developed\nto make a practical study of actual conditions within limited areas, but\nit remains true that few professors of political science, to say nothing\nof the college graduates, would pretend to anything more than a superficial knowledge as to the duties incumbent upon officeholders.\nUnhappily\nmost of the education in this field has been gained from the instruction\nof the practical politician who has not always been inspired by the\npurest motives for the public welfare.\n\nThe evils of patronage have proved\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": "108", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nlo8\n\n[General\n\na serious handicap in the matter of presenting the truth concerning\npolitical\n\noffice.\n\nThe second consideration is that a genuine sympathy with the purpose\nany progress in political or moral\nHere the school may render a large service in stimulating popular\n\nof popular government is essential for\nservice.\n\nA genuine patriotism develops as we come to see the vital things\n\nsentiment.\n\nfor which government stands.\n\nIt should be drilled into the consciousness\n\nof the American people that government stands for service.\n\nIt is the organ-\n\nized agency of the people thru their representatives to do what the indi-\n\nvidual cannot do, and to do in better form some things that groups of individuals might undertake,\n\nand in general to respond to the intelligent\n\nToo often the agencies of the people are construed\nas opportunities for private profit to the individuals who succeed in winning\ndemands of the people.\nthe agencies.\n\nThis enlarged conception of the state, together with a very decided\ntendency to utilize the state's power not only for protection but for pro-\n\nmotion of the interests of the people, calls for a wider patriotism and a corresponding sympathy with the purpose of all government.\ntheory of the government made it a power to be feared.\n\nThe old police\nThe modern\n\ntheory that the state is the organization of all the people for public welfare\n\nmakes it a thing to be loved and patriotically served.\nIt is fundamental, therefore, that in our system of education the youth\nof the land should be brought to understand the importance of the indi-\n\nvidual in a democracy and to appreciate his place and function.\n\nHe should\n\nbe brought to understand that citizenship carries with it duties and obligations.\n\nIf\n\nthe government stands for the rights of the individual it must\n\nalso insist that he recognize his correlative duties.\n\nThe moral obligation to\n\nfulfil one's duties as a citizen in a free government cannot well be overstated.\n\nThe school should recognize its freedom to insist, as one of the agents of\nsociety for the education of the people, upon the moral obligation resting\n\nupon every youth educated at public expense to meet his duties with a\nresolute will.\n\nThis injunction as to moral responsibility with reference to\n\nmuch of the detail now presented for conThe spectacle presented in many of our commonwealths in\n\ncitizenship is more vital than\nsideration.\n\nrecent years where fully one-third of those entitled to vote failed to exercise\ntheir franchise, and thus perform a duty, should soon be an experience of\n\nthe past.\n\nAn educated draaocracy cannot tolerate a condition where a\n\nlarge minority of the people are indifferent to political duty.\n\nA third consideration is that all education should bring attention to,\nand emphasis upon, the fact that at some time and to some degree all\ncitizens are leaders.\n\nIt is an interesting observation that all active citizens\n\nsooner or later attain an unexpected prominence or a degree of influence\n\nwholly unlooked for.\n\neven in politics.\n\nThere is a large amoimt of leadership unrecognized\n\nMany men whose names are not heralded are the deter-\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": "109", "text": "EDUCATION FOR POLITICAL AND MORAL SERVICE\n\nSessions]\n\nmining factors in local elections and government.\n\n109\n\nEducation should, there-\n\nfore, bring to view the moral qualities necessary for all leadership if govern-\n\nment is to be safe, beneficent, and patriotic.\n\nNo leadership, even in the\n\nsmallest circles, can long be trusted where integrity\n\nis\n\nlacking.\n\nPerma-\n\nnent leadership among an educated people is synonymous with abiding\nintegrity in the leaders.\n\nAn educated democracy will learn more and more\n\nto rely upon such leadership.\n\nWe must, therefore, develop a keener sense\n\nof trusteeship in public affairs.\n\nGrover Cleveland has been credited with\n\nthe wise remark that public office is a public trust.\n\nWe need now to develop\n\na keener moral sense upon this idea of trusteeship.\n\nIn the ordinary experiences of life, trusteeships have been held sacred,\nillustrating the\n\nmost honorable relations among men.\n\nWitness the high\n\ncharacter of service rendered by the trustees of the great endowments for\neducation.\n\nWitness the conscientious devotion of trustees of religious\n\nfunds, both for education and for missionary service.\n\nOnly a little lower\n\nranks the service of trusteeships in estates where family interests are at\nstake.\n\nTo be sure the courts with a high sense of honor have enforced\nApart, however, from the attitude of the court, men have\n\nthese ideals.\n\nusually recognized with singular fidelity the honor of trusteeships.\n\nThere\n\nis no higher trusteeship than to have committed to one's hands the interests\n\nof all the people in a local community, a commonwealth, or in the nation.\nIn the great crises of history, men have recognized this high obligation. I\n\nam making the appeal, however, that the school shall insist upon it that\npublic office of whatever rank is a public trust to be defended as valiantly\nas one's personal honor.\n\nIn concluding upon the phase of education for political service, let me\nsuggest that such a career, if properly presented, could be made attractive\nto the best youth of the land. In my opinion it should be so presented.\nA proper public sentiment would prevent a low-minded or selfish grasping\n\nindividual from asking to be made trustee of public affairs.\n\nThe upgrowing\n\ngeneration might well be taught that the highest forms of human service\nthe truest heart, and the most courageous of charUnder this high idealism, political service, which is only another\n\ncall for the best talent,\n\nacter.\n\nname for public service, offers opportunity for the development of the highest type of character and makes appeal to the best of motives.\nThe schools\ncan render a great and notable service by setting out the moral qualities\n\nneeded for public service and the open opportunity for noble development\nin rendering the service.\n\nThere has been enough of this unselfish devotion\n\nto the public welfare among public officeholders to warrant a recasting of\n\nmuch of the material of American history with a view to putting a new\nemphasis in a new place.\nPassing now to the broader conception of education for moral service,\none can readily see that any principles announced as applicable to political\nservice would be alike applicable for any service a citizen might render.\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": "110", "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nDistinctively Christian service makes this appeal in the interests of humanity.\n\nPhilanthropic service falls within the same general category.\n\nThe\n\nand somewhat overemphasized social service of recent years is\nbased upon the reorganized conception of modem political economy and\nsociology.\nIndeed, the strictly financial circles of the world are coming to\nrecognize that the financial operations of great banks and business enterAmerican experience with the\nprises are in the last analysis moral issues.\nNew Haven Railroad is not exceptional, but only the last pronouncement\nupon the fact that the moral issues are the supreme issues even in the management of a railroad. The producers of great wealth are coming to underfamiliar\n\nstand that it is easier to build a great fortune than to maintain it with\nintegrity.\n\nSince the day when Admiral\n\nDewey sailed into Manila Bay,\n\nthe moral quality of American citizenship has had a deeper significance than\n\nEvery new advance that the world makes in its own progress\nand development brings a wider vision and a heavier obligation both upon\nthe individual and upon society. If our education may be expected to prepare citizens for complete living, it is evident that the schools must interpret citizenship in larger terms than heretofore. The mere ability to read\na section of the Constitution of the United States is no preparation for\nAmerican citizenship. If, as we have fondly hoped all these years, our\ncountry is steadily to take its place in the council of nations and to meet\nthe obligations resting upon a great country rich in resources of materials\nand of men, then it is evident that the supreme issues of the future will\ninclude the moral integrity of American citizenship. The schools must,\ntherefore, come to the rescue with no uncertain sound as to fundamental\nmorality as related to the perpetuity and character of the nation. This\nmorality must be something more than mere expediency. It must be an\ninherent principle that makes men fear to do wrong and love to do the right.\never before.\n\nIn my opinion there will be religious sanctions for the abiding morality of\nthe future. Such principles as reverence for God and reverence for manhood and womanhood underlie the moral commands protecting the sacredness of human life and human property.\n\nNo doctrine of mere expediency\n\nwill ever protect a nation's or an individual's honor.\n\nIt is not necessary\n\nthat any objectionable religious doctrines be injected into our system of\npublic education in order to maintain the religious sanctions of morality.\n\nA generation taught that honesty is the best policy should never be deceived\ninto thinking that honesty is merely a matter of policy.\nresults of a great truth should never\n\nThe incidental\n\nbe substituted for the truth itself.\n\nThere is a long-standing academic and philosophic interest in the origin of\nethics.\n\nMen love to speculate upon these things. The common judgment\n\nof the multitudes, however, wliich is usually a correct test upon elementary\nthings, is that the abiding sense of moral obligation is proof of man's intimate relation with God under whose moral government he lives. It takes\n\na highly specialized course of university thinking to get a country boy far\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": "111", "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION FOR POLITICAL AND MORAL SERVICE\n\niii\n\nenough away from his conception of morality to enable him to live a standard life on mere expediency.\n\nI\n\nam disposed to believe, therefore, and\n\nbecause I believe I therefore declare, that the nation at large will never lose\nits moral quality until it loses its vision of God.\n\nThis vision will interpret\n\nhuman duty and measure all bounds of obligations.\nOur moral ideas will in the end determine our own estimate of service.\n\nall questions of\n\nPeople with a fine moral sentiment are capable of the highest service.\n\nWherever this sentiment is lacking, brutality and crime steadily make their\nentrance. The human family, which is the finest flower of a Christian\ncivilization, reaches its most beautiful expression under the Christian idealism underpinning our moral conduct. The American home, commonly\ncited as the bulwark of the American nation, has been essentially a Christian\nhome from the beginning. Every lapse of moral integrity in the home may\nbe traced to a loosening of the religious sanctions underlying American\nmorality. This problem is sufficiently serious to command the attention\nand interests of our most thoughtful citizens. While not receding a single\ninch from the obligation of the church or the family, or the obligation of the\nindividual citizen to propagate the truth, it is yet evident that education\n\nneed not assume any of these obligations in order to have a distinct duty in\npreparing citizens for moral service.\ncharacter.\n\nService is the highest expression of\n\nThere will be no beautiful moral service in a generation lacking\n\nin moral character.\n\nThe American school system, from the kindergarten\n\nto the university, should, in\n\nmy judgment, recognize not only its oppor-\n\ntunity but its duty to organize education in the interest of character and\n\nThis problem of education for\nThere could be no condition of society\n\nthe service that only character can render.\n\nmoral service is intensely practical.\n\nin which the practical phases would not develop.\nThe condition in the\nAmerican population, however, is such as to intensify the problem. We are\nrapidly changing our locations, and thus citizens from one community\ncarry to their new locations the ideals of the community from which they\nmigrate. The centralization of large populations in our cities, and the\nremoval of the family from the ordinary influences affecting morals, put\nupon the school the special burden of instilling the right moral ideals into\nthe lives of school children. The steady stream of immigration from\nEuropean countries brings a population unfamiliar with the customs of\nAmerica and oftentimes unprepared to adjust promptly to the new American life. In this early experience prejudices are often engendered requiring\n\na generation to eradicate.\n\nMeantime the children of these immigrants, if\n\nAmericanized, absorb most readily the undesirable features in American\ncustoms, while tardily acquiring the moral ideals that constitute the safe-\n\nguard of American citizenship.\nin the case.\n\nNo blind optimism should ignore the facts\n\nThe problem of education in moral ideals is beset with a good\n\nmany difficulties, but a determined patriotism should turn aside from all\npetty strifes about words and face the problem with that moral earnestness\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": "112", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n112\n\n[General\n\nwhich grows out of a clear vision of the needs of American citizenship. It\nto know that in educational circles, at least, there has been a\nkeen appreciation of the importance of the ethical foundation in our systems\n\nis gratifying\n\nof education.\n\nThere has been no disposition to forsake or deny the funda-\n\nmental tenets of morality, but the awakening of the last two decades has\nshown a remarkable lack of the application of these truths to practical living.\n\nThe demand now is that men square their conduct with their consciences.\nMen are now appreciating the embarrassment of holding to a theory while\ndenying its application. Conduct must be illuminated with our ideals.\nTruth which does not express itself in human life and conduct fails to interest us.\n\nThis evidence of progress only emphasizes the necessity of bringing\n\nthe new generation and the acquired generation into conformity with the\nbest ideals of our time.\nIt may be urged that the opportunity of the school is either indirect or\n\nremote.\n\nI\n\ndoubt whether this is as true as it seems.\n\nThe organizing\n\nagencies of the school and the living teacher can never be wholly divorced\n\nfrom the practical life of the school.\n\nIn some way the school reflects the\n\nidealism both of the community and of the teacher.\nreaction with the teacher distinctly in the lead.\n\nThere is a mutual\n\nIt is therefore most vital\n\nthat the teachers of America should catch the spirit of American education in its relation to the service which the product of the public school is\n\nexpected to render.\n\nIn my opinion, most teachers, if asked to analyze the\n\npresent situation and to account for the undesirable features in student\nlife,\n\nwould point us immediately to the counteracting influences that drift\n\nin upon young life from irresponsible sources.\n\nThere is no direct or positive\n\ncharge against the home for false teaching, but somehow teachers feel the\nlack of support together with the demoralizing effect of social life.\n\nThe\n\nteacher is the chief expression of society's organization for constructive\nmorals, and realizes that the efforts of the school should at least be parallel\n\nwith social organization, formed for the purpose of aiding the school in\nprotecting the youth against the assaults of degenerative influences, while\ninstilling into them the truth which develops and builds character.\n\nIn conclusion let me suggest that the highest type of political or moral\nservice will always require that he who renders it shall reinforce his message\n\nCharacter must somehow\nThe law of \"like teacher like pupil\" will have\n\nor his service with his own personal character.\n\nexpress itself in action.\n\nincreasing force as we understand that service is the highest expression of\n\ncharacter and that character is the true measure of men and of nations.\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": "113", "text": "PROFESSIONALLY PREPARED TEACHERS\n\nSessions]\n\n113\n\nTOPIC: THE NEEDS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nA.\n\nPROFESSIONALLY PREPARED TEACHERS\n\nJOHN W. COOK, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DE KALB, ILL.\nLast year there were enrolled in the public schools of this nation more\nThis army is officered by nearly five\n\nthan eighteen million children.\n\nhundred fifty thousand teachers and is maintained at an annual expense of\nalmost a half billion of dollars. It must also be remembered that this vast\nexpenditure does not include interest on an investment of approximately\na billion and a half.\nNotwithstanding this enormous enrolment and this vast expenditure of\nmoney, the nation has far from ideal results. One-fourth of the pupils\nenrolled were absent every day. The enrolment, large as it is, includes but\nlittle more than half of the population between the ages of five and eighteen.\nSo far as the public schools are concerned, the average child of school age\nis receiving but ninety days of schooling each year.\nIf this is the record\nshown by the average child for the thirteen years lying between five and\neighteen, it would mean that the completion of the sixth grade of the elementary school is what we are to rely upon in the way of a common scholarship in perpetuating the institutions of which we are so proud and which\nhave been established by so immense an expenditure of blood and treasure\nand toil.\nI do not forget that I am dealing with that anomalous creature that\nnever had a concrete existence the average child. Nor do I forget the\nincalculable value of an educated leadership which will continue to emerge\nfrom our higher institutions of learning. But I insist that there is another\nthing that should not be forgotten, and that is the theory of the nature and\ndestiny of man upon which our system of government is broadly grounded.\nThis is not a theory of the average man but of the individual man, and\n\n—\n\nwhat we are learning about the average man in these startling statistics\npoints to the more startling fact that as there are vast numbers above the\naverage, so there are vaster numbers below the average, because of the\nsmall contribution of their limited education.\n\nMoreover, these statistics\n\ndo not seem disposed to change. It is evident that these conditions must\nchange and change radically or we must rely upon some other agency than\npopular education for the perpetuity of our civilization.\nBut this is not all that lies on the shadow side of the picture. There are\nindeed five hundred thousand teachers, which will afford one to every\ntwenty-four of the children that are at school every day.\n\nIf they were all\n\nthoroly skilled in their task, the favored twenty-four would be well cared\nfor during the brief time of their attendance at school.\n\nCertainly, since the\n\nchildren are to be there for so short a period, every consideration would\n\nseem to demand that the teachers should possess the highest attainable\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": "114", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n114\n\n[General\n\ncapacity so that no part of this precious fragment of opportunity should\nrun to waste. Conservation of resources is the watchword of our modern\nindustrial\n\nlife.\n\nSave everything that will yield a profitable atom is the\nThe pride of the manufacturer bears an\n\nessence of our economic theory.\n\ninverse ratio to the size of his scrap-heap.\n\nBut what of this human scrap-\n\nheap and what it suggests of all the other consequent scrap-heaps if the\nteaching shall lack in effectiveness because of the poor qualifications of the\n\"As is the teacher so is the school\" is as trite as the multiplica-\n\nteachers ?\n\ntion table and also as true.\nfactory,\n\nit will\n\nIf there shall be a negligible scrap-heap at the\n\nmean that thoroly trained operatives are doing the work.\n\nIn some way they have learned the technic of their calling. There should\nnot be even a negligible scrap-heap at the school; every worker should be\na master of technic in the multiform relations of a teacher to a child.\nWhere does the capable worker in the great factory get his skill ?\n\nHe\nHe is not permitted\nto spoil material in learning how to produce a product. He must begin\n\nacquires it thru a carefully guarded apprenticeship.\n\nwith the elements of his art and proceed by slow stages to independent\n\nWe have all seen him at his work when his only task was\nhand the required tool to the master. However apt he may be by\nnature, years must elapse before he can presume to claim recognition as a\nmaster workman or even as a journeyman. Yet he would be the last to\nconstruction.\n\nto\n\ndesignate his calling as a profession.\n\nHe calls it an art, an occupation\n\nlearned by imitation and practice, a dealing with inert matter, with no\n\nextended study of historical background, of fundamental principles, of wide\nknowledges, of the relation of what he is doing to the existence of those\ninstitutions that determine the course of civilization and hence of human\n\ndestiny, that give the ultimate explanation, indeed, of what he is spending\nhis life upon in his daily calling.\n\nTurn from the capable artisan to the teacher and what do we find?\nSociety dignifies his occupation by including him within the professional\nclass, a class that is supposed to be differentiated from other workers by a\n\nclear consciousness of the scientific principles which determine its procedure.\n\nIt goes without saying that in every profession there is an art side, possibly\n\nan artisan side, but no calling has warrant to be designated as a profession\nlack this regulative scientific knowledge. Teaching is unquestionably\nan art, but if it is not more then it must be denied the privilege of ranking\nif it\n\nwith the professions.\n\nAll of us have seen the \"natural\" teacher with her\n\nwonderful \"knack,\" doing wretchedly bad things in a wonderfully skilful\n\nShe was left to her own devices. She learned as the apprentice\nwould learn if he had no master. As he would consign spoiled material to\nway.\n\nthe scrap-heap by his educational blunders, so she will consign precious\nmaterial to the spiritual scrap-heap as the price of her education.\n\nAnd what shall we say of our five hundred thousand teachers ?\n\nI shall\n\ncertainly be among the last to deny the existence of a class of workers in\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": "115", "text": "THE KINGDOM OF LITTLE THINGS\n\nSessions]\n\n115\n\nthis vast organization who are as clearly entitled to professional honors as\n\nany men and women in the great complex of our civilization. They have\nreached their eminence by the traditional method of producing a professional class\n\n—thru a thorogoing study of the underlying\n\nscientific principles\n\nand their rational application in practice.\n\nUnfortunately the greater part\n\nmay not thus be regarded.\n\ncome to them thru a wasteful\n\nexperience;\n\nSuccess has\n\nthru a violation of this principle of conservation that is the\n\nbattle-cry of the time;\n\nthru the sacrifice of the richest resource of any\n\npeople.\n\nAllowing six years for the average life of a teacher, and the estimate is\nliberal, more than eighty thousand new teachers annually find employment\n\nin the elementary grades of the public schools.\n\ngraduate some twenty thousand;\n\nsixty\n\nThe public normal schools\n\nthousand untrained teachers\n\nannually begin to find their way to skill by their experiments with the\ndefenseless children; sixty thousand more have been struggling with their\nproblem for a year; and another sixty thousand are beginning to feel some-\n\nwhat comfortably at home after an experience of two years, if they have\nbeen so favorably conditioned as to be under intelligent supervision.\n\nIf\n\nthey have not, the chances are that their latter state is as bad as their first\n\nand possibly worse.\n\nThe case is clear.\ntrained teachers.\n\nThe supreme need of the school is a body of carefully\n\nTo this end the professional schools for their preparation\n\nmust be multiplied until there shall be a real profession of teaching and no\none shall be admitted within its portals who lacks the password.\n\nB.\n\nTHE KINGDOM OF LITTLE THINGS\n\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD, ADVISORY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nKANSAS CITY, MO.\n\n\"Wisdom and knowledge shall be the stability of thy times. Get\nwisdom, get understanding, and forget it not.\" This injunction does not\n\n—\n\nexist for the educational triflers in \"The Kingdom of Little Things.\"\n\nLet\n\nus go back to fundamental truths before we have cast aside all charts,\n\ncompasses, logbooks, instruments, mental and mechanical, to take observations with on this unexplored sea we are endeavoring to navigate.\n\nIs it\n\nnot the part of wisdom to take an inventory of the merchantable educational stock we already have before throwing it into the junk pile ?\n\nare many who think so.\n\nThere\n\nMany new assets are worthless in any market;\n\nmost of them have no quotable value in any educational stock\nLet it be granted that educators ought to judge of means,\nagencies, and achievements from the nearness as well as the remoteness of\nthings.\nVery close to each one are growing and changing boys and girls,\nand each one is composed of thousands of traits, tendencies, and variations\ninherited from a long line of ancestors, modified by environment of former\n\nin fact,\n\nexchange.\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": "116", "text": "ii6\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nages reaching down to the present.\n\n(General\n\nThe homely but true adage that \"you\n\nmust earn for yourself before you can call it yours\" is a discarded balance\nin many of our modernized methods of forming independent, self-centered,\nand self-controlled men and women.\nAttention has been so focused upon the lame, the halt, the dullards,\nand the feeble-minded that the \"ninety and nine\" have been lost to view\nor relegated into the lot back of the bam, and no shepherd has been detailed\nto look after them.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\na glorious thing to take care of the dependent\n\nweaklings and no heart goes out to them with a deeper fervor than mine,\n\nbut it is for the great mass that I plead.\n\nHas it not been true for years\n\nthat at all educational meetings and social improvement congresses emphasis\n\nhas been placed on the little things adapted to the weak and helpless, while\nthose children of average ability and those of superior mental endowment\n\nhave virtually been reduced in their studies and powers to a common\ndenominator with the slow, the lazy, the dullards, verging down nearly to\nthe scale of imbecility?\n\nCourses of study, textbooks, application, habits\n\npower of concentration are all on the low line of a\nmediocrity that is an insult to the children themselves as well as to their\nparents. Once it was the rankest heresy to bribe children to make them\nwork either in school or at home. Children did their work because it was\nthe right thing for them to do, and it gave them a stability and firmness\nof steady industry,\n\nof character for doing best their fractional part of the world's work.\n\nWhen\n\nthe shoddy stuff of doing small chores about the house, in the garden or\norchard, or on the farm is to be given so many credits in this branch or that\none, are not school engineers nearing the danger line of mental unsoundness ?\nHealthy children ought to work and on the same principle of selfimprovement that they should obey their parents, respect those in authority, be polite, cleanly in speech and thought, and fear to do wrong.\n\nI thank\nheaven and my parents that I was taught to work at home, and that I was\n\nsent to school to obey the teacher, get my lessons, play at the proper time,\n\nand when school closed to walk home and do my assigned part of the chores\n\nThe only motive held up before me was that an\neducation was a better thing to have than money, in fact the very best\nboth night and morning.\n\nthing in the world except a good\n\nname meritoriously deserved.\n\nHiring\n\nchildren to do their duty should be placed as a statutory offense against\n\nthe peace and dignity of the state. Our truancy laws, juvenile courts,\nhouses of correction, detention homes are so many evidences of the spread\nof this contagion in American homes.\n\nIt is high time that we stop, each\n\none, and question ourselves on the output of results—the harvest of \"the\n\ncrop of little things.\"\n\nPedantic school superintendents in too many instances are fertile in\n\na moment and then vanish forever.\nHumanity has traveled a long and weary road, and it has learned that\nnovelties that catch the eye for\n\nnearly all the world must learn and work.\n\nThe common-sense of mankind\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": "117", "text": "7\n\nTHE KINGDOM OF LITTLE THINGS\n\nSessions]\n\nII\n\naffirms in no uncertain sound that a system of education that puts children\n\nto work at home after the necessary lessons and play have been had each\n\nday is the best nurture for the healthy, growing child, and it will be better\noff mentally and physically.\nIt\n\nis\n\nnot a matter of surprise that our best educational thinkers are\n\ncriticizing our schools on the very points that I have mentioned, and telling\n\nthe American people that our boys and girls are two or three years behind\n\nthe boys and girls in their studies in the corresponding European schools,\nand that too among nations who do not rush thru life at the same speed\nas we are accustomed to go. Our children in completing the elementary\ncourse of study can do one or more years' work beyond what they now do\nif\n\nthey were put at it in earnest.\n\nSchool frivolities, ignorance, laziness,\n\nstupidity in high places, slow-going processes, and thinly gruelled textbooks\n\nhave so entrenched themselves behind innumerable hoards of supervising\nbandits that the teachers have no time to do the real, essential work of the\nschools.\n\nThere are so many efficiency engineers running hand cars thru\n\nthe schoolhouses in most large cities that the grade teachers can hardly\n\nturn around in their rooms without butting into two or three of them.\n\nUnder such conditions real progress in the things the children ought to\nis impossible.\nIf some device could be contrived by which the\n\"snapshot\" schoolmaster and the \"snapshot\" school could be sent to the\n\nlearn\n\nshades below for a season, the order of banishment should be issued at once.\n\nHow much we can stand of brainless theories, aimless studies, mindless\nmethods, without providing an asylum for dangerous leaders running at\nlarge, no one can predict.\n\nThere is an encouraging feature, notwithstanding\n\nthat so much educational thinking is running at a very low ebb; there are\n\nstreams of educational intelligence that issue from pure fountains which\nare displacing mere animal existence and the savage virtues by searching\nfor the purpose and reason for things.\n\nEducation on a low plane is not\n\nit does not form men\nand women to pursue each his own individual ends with enlightenment\nand intelligence, and to make the most of his powers for benefiting the world.\nStruggle counts and one should never play football with his convictions.\nIf one does, his underpinning has a bad attack of wobbles.\nIt is bad taste\nto mock at painful impotence or bodily or mental deformity, but when\nsupposed grave educators set about seriously making mental cripples of\nwell-born children, it is such a wretched spectacle as would make Jupiter\nOlympus weep. All the keen edge of interest has been blunted off the child's\nmind, because he has not been trained in the elementary school to cut to\nthe heart of any subject; no memory trained, enriched, and reliable; no\nimagination heightened and chastened; no judgment balanced by frequent\ntrials on intricate points; no habits of remorseless application acquired and\nnobly exercised. He may have much bluff, but no power; he may be to\ndiscipline a stranger, and to definite principles in any branch of learning a\n\na good collective result for community interests;\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": "118", "text": "Ii8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nbarbarian and outcast.\n\n[General\n\nHe has been distracted, amused, nauseated, but\n\nnot educated in the fundamentals in any study.\nIt is a serious question as to whether those who advocate many things\nin ''The Kingdom of Little Things \" have a well-assorted stock of educational\n\nAre they not judging the size of things by their nearness\nand unchanging value?\nA single horseweed may blot out the most beautiful landscape and keep the\neyes from seeing it. We need to widen the intellectual horizon of our boys\nand girls rather than to fit them into little narrow holes of living and box\nup their thoughts. Our people need capacity to look at the world from\nmany angles. Thru the aid of expert advice, the mother can do nothing\nideas of their own.\n\nor remoteness without considering their eternal\n\nbut look at her little one and love him.\n\nYet her inner sense tells her that\n\nshe can do much more and many things that no other one can do for him.\n\nShe knows that self-reliance, thoughtfulness, and thoroness should all be\ninculcated.\n\nFor efficiency it is necessary to know thoroly the skeleton of each subEvery day in school should be the equipment of the child\nTeaching is to be judged by\nfor larger and more complicated knowledge.\n\nject studied.\n\nthe condition of mind it produces in the learner.\n\nIf it produces a devour-\n\ning eagerness, independent judgment, accuracy, and rapidity in doing the\n\nwork, and a becoming modesty, it is good teaching, however done.\n\n.\n\nThe interest in school work should be steady and quiet, and there is\nno use in trying to make good school work soft and mushy, but there is\nmuch need of making it serious and cultivating the habit of steady pulling\nagainst a cold collar. Live children like to be fed from a full educational\nmanger, not from a soup bowl. A subject should still continue to be a\nmatter of interest after it has ceased to be a study, and one needs frequently\nto go back and visit with it, unless the intention is to make the child a mental\nvagrant. After the child begins his formal education, there ought to be\na constant desire for knowing the things that are far away and high longing to know more. \"The Kingdom of Little Things\" is making a scattering scramble of smatterings. Children, like grown people, delight in the\nvictories of effort and purpose.\nSound knowledge pays the largest and\nsurest dividends. To educate a useful human being there should be a good\nbeginning, a strong middle, and a glorious ending.\nRaise up a child in the\nway he should go, and keep him going on that way as long as he says father\nand mother, if he is to lead a healthy, rational, and full life to save him from\n\"The Kinlgdom of Little Things.\"\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": "119", "text": "PUPILS LEAVING SCHOOL TOO SOON\n\nSessions]\n\nC.\n\n119\n\nSYSTEMATIC EDUCATION FOR THOSE PUPILS LEAVING\nSCHOOL TOO SOON\nLORENZO D. HARVEY, PRESIDENT, STOUT INSTITUTE, MENOMONIE, WIS.\nTwo-thirds of the children who enter the elementary schools in the\n\nUnited States drop out of them and end their school work before or by the\ntime they have reached fourteen years of age.\n\nThe best statistics avail-\n\nable indicate that at least two-thirds of this number leave school, not from\n\npressure of necessity but from choice, and, of those who leave school from\nchoice, by far the greater number choose to leave because the elementary\n\nschool as now organized does not give the kind of work which appeals to\n\nthem or to their parents as being worth while.\nThe whole theory upon which our educational system has been developed is an argument for pupils remaining in school beyond the age of\nfourteen, and that argument is reinforced by every consideration of the\nunproductive character of the work open to the fourteen-year-old child as\nregards his best development for future usefulness.\n\nLaws have already been passed by some states, and other states are\nconsidering the advisability of passing laws, for the establishment of a\n\nsystem of continuation schools to give systematic instruction to those\nchildren who have been compelled to leave school and go to work. The\nestablishment of the continuation school is a prime necessity for this class\nof children.\n\nIt may not give\n\nadequate opportunity for education, but. it\n\ngives all that can be given and all of which the individual may be able to\navail himself.\n\nThe continuation school is for the one-third who drop out\n\nof school too early from necessity;\n\nthirds\n\nwho drop out from choice.\n\nit is\n\nnot what is needed for the two-\n\nFor them the reorganization of the\n\ncurriculum of the elementary school, providing the kind of work that will\nappeal to them as having a value in increasing their wage-earning power, is\n\na necessity.\nThis, then, brings me directly to the problem of what shall be done in\n\nour public school to make its appeal more effective than it now is to the\ntwo-thirds of that large number of children who leave school each year at\n\nfourteen years of age\n\n—those who leave from choice and not from necessity.\n\nIn determining what readjustment of the public-school courses of study\nshould be made, it is essential to consider first what modification must be\n\nmade to make the appeal of the schools so strong as to hold in school longer\nthe class of pupils of which I am speaking.\n\nIt is clear that the requisite\n\nreadjustment will not result from a mere change of textbooks or of subjects\ntaught thru the textbooks.\n\nThere are two reasons for this: One is that\n\nfor the larger number of these pupils who leave school from choice at the\n\nage of fourteen years the mental stimulus of the printed page is not sufficient to secure an effective response from them;\n\nand since it is not stimulus\n\nthat educates, but effective response to stimulus, it follows that if there\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": "120", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI20\nis\n\n[General\n\nno such effective response the pupil is not being educated, his interest\n\nis lost, he leaves school, or, if he remains, the school becomes of little value\n\nto him.\n\nThe second reason is that even where there is an effective response\n\nto the stimulus of the printed page, the pupil does not see its value and for\n\nthat reason his interest lessens and the school loses its appeal to him. We\nmust recognize that from this class of pupils the demand is for some kind\nof work that will increase their earning capacity, and that not far in the\nfuture.\nIf courses of study can be so readjusted as to meet this need, the\nschool will become attractive to a very large number of the class of pupils\nunder consideration, and the parents of these children will see a value in it\nthat they have not seen before. The combined interest of pupil and parent\nwill result in the child's remaining longer in school.\n\nBy far the larger number of these pupils will after leaving school be\nemployed in occupations requiring handwork of some sort. Mental training is essential in any education, but, when the work of life demands skill of\nhand, the mental training should to a considerable extent be directly related\nto motor training, and one must supplement the other. We must recognize\nthat for the broadest training the stimuli for mental training must come,\nnot from a single source, but from many sources; and for the mental training\nthat is to develop power in the control and guidance of motor activity to\nproductive ends, the stimulus must come thru an appreciation of a given\nend to be realized and thru the materials, tools, processes, and means\nemployed to reach that end.\nIf this statement is correct, there is ample justification for the introduction of instruction in the manual arts into our courses of study, and that\n\nentirely irrespective of whether the manual arts are taught with a direct\n\nvocational end in view or not.\n\nThe boy who has had good training in the use of even a limited number of\ntools where close observation of materials and processes was necessary, who\n\nhas had a clear understanding of what was to be done and then has made\n\na definite effort to do it, who has compared the results of his doing with\nother similar work of high standard, and who has made a renewed effort\nto improve the quality of his own work has taken on quality of mind and\ngained a control of his motor activities thru the action of the mind that will\n\nmake it easier for him to master the use of any other set of tools in working\nwith any other kind of material. If we broaden his training so that he\nshall be trained to use a great variety of tools and work with a corresponding\n\nvariety of materials, with correlative demands upon his mental and motor\nprocesses, he will find it much easier either to develop a high skill in the\n\nuse of any one of these varieties of tools or to master a new and different\nkind.\n\nIt has been discovered that boys in the seventh and eighth grades\n\nmay be trained to do many kinds of work requiring motor activity which\nit\n\nhas heretofore hardly been thought practicable to give even in the high\n\nschool.\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": "121", "text": "PUPILS LEAVING SCHOOL TOO SOON\n\nSessions]\n\n121\n\nTo me it is entirely clear that the mental training resulting from properlyorganized instruction in the manual arts is of great value to the child whose\n\nsubsequent vocation makes little demand for manual dexterity, and that\nit is indispensable for the child whose subsequent vocation does require\nmanual dexterity, provided his education is to aid him directly in earning\n\na livelihood.\n\nThe readjustment of the courses of study may not mean that every\nchild is to be trained in the public schools to the point of developing the\n\ngrade of manual dexterity required in the labor market; but it does mean\nthat the chUd will have as a result a somewhat developed industrial intelligence, a wide acquaintance with materials and processes employed in the\nindustries, and such training of the hand in a wide variety of processes with\ntools and materials as will enable him to form some intelligent judgment of\n\nthe kind of work for which he is adapted and will give him at least the beginnings of industrial efficiency.\n\nHe may not travel very far upon that road,\n\nbut, whatever the distance, he has shortened by that much the route to be\ntraversed.\n\nHe can turn himself to a great variety of work, not at the wages\n\nof the skilled workman, but at better wages than he could possibly secure\n\nwithout this training, and with the certainty of advancing more rapidly\n\nthan he otherwise could to the ranks of the skilled workman.\nIt is not\n\nmy purpose to enumerate in detail the different kinds of work\n\nin the manual arts nor the scope of that work which I deem essential in this\n\nreadjustment of the courses of study, but simply to indicate on broad general lines the principles upon which such readjustment should be made.\n\nTo\n\ndo the former would be to rewrite the courses of study in detail, and that is\ntoo large a task for any single individual.\nThis readjustment may be made in two ways.\n\nIt may be made by\n\norganizing the kind of work I have indicated as a part of the course of\n\nstudy for all pupils in the public schools; or it may be made by differentiating the work of the pupils at about the fifth grade so that a pupil may\nhave an option of a course of instruction which does not involve motor\ntraining for vocational ends, or of a course of instruction which does involve\n\nsuch training and requires less of the textbook work than is required in the\nother course.\n\nIf either plan is\n\nadopted, much more time must be given\n\nto this portion of the course of study than has been given in most of the\n\nGood teachers are required for good work\nWith a traditional textbook course, an inferior\nteacher may make a showing thru rote and memoriter work out of all proportion to the benefits derived. Such a teacher cannot make any such\nelementary schools in the past.\n\nwith any course of study.\n\nshowing in that portion of the course of study devoted to instruction in the\n\nmanual arts. The pupil's work is not measured in words, but in things that\nhe has wrought with his hands, which things bear permanent witness to the\ncharacter of his thinking and to his skill in expressing that thought thru\nthe work of his hands. This work in the manual arts must be begun early.\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": "122", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n122\n\n[General\n\nIt would be justified in the lower grades for the relief it brings to the monot-\n\nony of textbook work if for no other reason, but it has other value.\n\nIt\n\nbegins earlier to present this new kind of stimulus (new in the schools)\n\nA properly organized course\n\nwhich demands and controls motor expression.\n\nof study in this field will present varied and progressive stimuli for mental\n\nactivity which the textbook course presents in a much more limited way.\n\nThe essential things demanded, then, in this readjustment of the course\nof study so that it shall present an effective appeal to the thousands leaving\n\nschool from choice at fourteen years of age are a wide range of instruction\nin manual arts, with adequate time and equipment and teaching force;\n\nan\n\nelimination of the nonessentials and the less essential things in the existing\n\nand a co-ordination of what remains, after these elimiThat portion of the\ncourse of instruction devoted to the manual arts must be carefully organized with a view to presenting that which has the largest value and the\nstrongest appeal to pupils. It must not be organized with the idea that\nIt\nthis work is simply preparatory to work in a more advanced school.\nmust be organized primarily with the idea of holding a pupil if possible\nuntil he is sixteen years of age, with the certainty that large numbers who\nremain for these two years will have developed an interest and an ambition\nthat will carry them on into some higher school for a longer or shorter time.\n\ncourse of study;\n\nnations are made, with the work in the manual arts.\n\nD.\n\nPROGRESS OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nEDWARD T. FAIRCHILD, PRESIDENT, NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE, DURHAM, N.H.\nThe growing interest in our rural schools is most encouraging.\n\nIn\n\nevery state the effort to develop and to modernize the school for the boy\n\nand girl in the country is bearing fruit, while the gap between the city\nschool and the country school is sensibly lessening. The public is beginning\nto understand that the one half of our school population must have educational facilities equal to that of the other half.\n\nEvidence of this somewhat\n\nbelated consciousness of the rural youth is not wanting.\n\nThe national Bureau of Education has set forth in plain but vigorous\nlanguage the weakness and the needs of the rural schools; the press has\ncommented on these facts; and the people are realizing\n\nthe situation.\n\nState superintendents of public instruction see that in the country school\nlie their greatest problems, while increasing numbers of lesser school oflScers\nand many thoughtful citizens are displaying a commendable interest in\n\nthe educational welfare of the rural child.\n\nSurveys, state and local, are\n\nadding to our knowledge of country-life conditions and to our sense of\nindividual and collective responsibility.\n\nOther signs of rural progress thruout the nation are:\nI. The unprecedented interest in all rural-life problems thruout the country\nincluding the rural school, the rural home, the country church, scientific agriculture,\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": "123", "text": "PROGRESS OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nSessionsl\n\nand industrial education.\n\n123\n\nThe rural-school and rural-life conferences that have been\n\nheld during the past and in recent years have had these subjects as the principal topics\n\nThe publicity given these discussions by the public press has been\n\non their programs.\n\nfar-reaching in its effect and has brought about signal progress in rural education.\n2.\n\nThe departments of rural education, rural economics, and sociology in all of the\nhome economics and manual\n\nleading state normal schools of the United States, and\n\ntraining in our colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, with their extension courses\n\nand rural leaders; the great campaign for rural-life betterment provided for in the SmithLever Bill, thru the agency of our land-grant colleges and the thousands of rural leaders\nto be sent out under this act.\n3.\n\nThe rural educational rallies and all associations held thruout the country during\n\nthe past and recent years; the boys' and girls' industrial clubs, educational exhibits, etc.\n4.\n\nstates.\n\nThe provisions made for effective supervision of rural schools by the various\nThe first national conference of state supervisors and inspectors of rural schools\n\nwas held at Louisville, Ky., in April, 1914, thirty-seven states being represented in that\nconference.\n\nThe proceedings of this conference will give a nation-wide interest in the\n\nwork of more effective supervision of the rural schools.\n5.\n\nThe agricultural departments established in hundreds of our best high schools\n\nin rural communities; the establishment of county agricultural high schools and consoli-\n\ndated rural schools.\n6.\n\nThe professional zeal of rural teachers in taking advantage of the extension\n\ncourses as offered by the universities, colleges, and normal schools;\n\nand the thousands\n\nof rural teachers now in attendance at summer schools in a study of rural education.\n7.\n\nThe teacher-training courses for rural teaching as established in the Central West,\n\nNew York, Vermont, Maryland, and Virginia on the Atlantic Coast, and in California,\nOregon, and Washington on the Pacific Coast.\ncourses in high schools.\n\nSixteen states are now providing such\n\nThis year in one state alone twenty-eight hundred graduates of\n\nfour-year high schools took the state examination for normal-training work, having\n\ndevoted more than a year to the study of rural-school problems.\n\nThe qualifications of\n\nrural teachers have been raised in many of the states; in some none is eligible unless a\n\ngraduate of a four-year high school.\n\nThe requirements of rural teachers have been\n\nraised in 50 per cent of the counties of the western coast states during the past three\nyears.\n\nA LARGER UNIT OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION\nI quote the resolutions adopted yesterday by this Association:\n\nThe Association indorses and approves the plan of a larger unit in school organization\nand administration. It believes that the logic of events, as well as considerations of\neconomy and eflSciency, will displace the small district and recognize the county as the\nnatural unit of administration\n\n—supervising the township, groups of townships, or such\n\nother geographical divisions as would be suggested by community convenience.\n\ncounty is now the school\nwhich states are west of the Mississippi. Campaigns are\non in several states for the county as the unit. Thirty states are now supplied with rural-school inspectors, while the number of assistant rural\nIt\n\nis\n\nsignificant that in thirteen states the\n\nunit, five of\n\nsupervisors is constantly increasing.\n\nFull of promise is the growing senti-\n\nment to take the oflSce of state and county superintendence out of politics.\nThe day is here when the child can no longer be bartered for pohtical gain.\nConsolidation of weak districts into strong central divisions is constantly\ngrowing. Mr. Monahan, of the Bureau of Education, says that more\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": "124", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n124\n\ninquiries about consolidation are received than\n\n[General\n\nupon any other subject\n\nin relation to the rural schools.\n\nMore commodious and more sanitary rural buildings are the order of\nthe day.\n\nIn the state of Washington, teachers' cottages are provided,\nPlay sheds in\n\nespecially in Spokane County, and hot lunches are served.\n\nWashington, Oregon, and northern California have been provided that\nchildren may play in inclement weather. New Mexico has given more than\nfifty\n\nthousand dollars this year to weak districts that better school build-\n\nings may be erected for rural children.\n\nTo all this we may add the fact that courses of study are being liberalized\nand made to articulate with the environment of the country child. More\nmoney is provided for the maintenance of the school and the payment of\nbetter salaries.\n\nAnd yet, it is but the morning of a better day.\n\nWhen we realize how\n\ngreat a number of the three hundred thousand rural teachers have inadequate\ntraining, many whose education does not extend beyond that of the grades;\n\nwhen we think of the short terms of schools in many parts of our country;\nwhen we realize that the majority of the rural schools still lack proper\nsupervision, we find that the battle is just begun.\nOf the army of twentyseven million of educable youth, more than sixteen million receive their\nelementary training in the rural schools.\n\nneed men and women of\n\nAll of these schools urgently\n\ndeep social insight,\nand personal power as supervisors. There is also\nneeded a type of teacher who understands and is interested in rural service.\n\nlarge executive\n\nfine professional training,\n\nskill,\n\nThere are those who say that these betterments cannot be secured\nuntil the country people themselves demand them.\n\nrural problems this is not true.\n\nway to rural progress.\n\nIn the light of other\n\nThe agricultural colleges have shown the\n\nBy carrying the college to the people they have\nBy similar means the\n\nsecured their confidence and hearty co-operation.\n\npeople may be won to a true conception of the need of twentieth-century\nschools.\nis\n\nsaid there is no demand for normal-trained teachers in country\n\nschools.\n\nIf this be true, the state can easily secure a demand by providing a\n\nIt\n\nsmall bonus to every school employing a properly prepared teacher.\n\nThe\n\nup as it is with the whole rural-life problem,\nhas now become too complex to be solved by local effort. The state must\nrural-school problem, tied\n\nrealize that its prosperity is the prosperity of all the people.\n\nState aid\n\nmust be given as generously as it is now extended to state institutions of\nhigher learning.\n\nAdopting this policy, practically all of the ills of the country school\ncan be overcome.\n\nMoney from the state, even in small amounts, will\nIt will open the way to\n\nhasten consolidation where physically possible.\n\ntownship high schools, thus solving the problem of secondary education\nfor the country child,\n\nand will furnish a powerful incentive to the pupil\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": "125", "text": "LET BOTH GROW TOGETHER UNTIL THE HARVEST\n\nSessions]\n\n125\n\nAnd by the same simple process we may\nmany of our hopes for the rural school. We think\n\nto remain thru the grades.\ncrystallize into fact\n\nin millions as to higher institutions, in thousands as to elementary schools;\n\nno man should find it necessary to remove from the farm to educate his\nchildren.\n\nE.\n\nOur people are coming to realize the truthfulness of this principle.\n\nLET BOTH GROW TOGETHER UNTIL THE HARVEST\n\nCARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nOur social structure and the educational system we have built up within\nupon the theory of equal social and educational\nopportunities for all. Our common schools are meant to give the son of the\nmill worker and the son of the mill owner alike training for good citizenship,\nand to open to each alike the doors of opportunity to whatever extension\nof education and whatever future economic and social status he may have\naspiration and ability to attain.\nTo this end we have generally arranged the studies in our elementary\nschools so that children of ordinary ability devote to them eight years,\nfrom their sixth thru their fourteenth, and not before the fourteenth birthit for our children are based\n\nday are they brought face to face with the necessity of deciding whether\nthey wish to and can go on thru the high school, and perhaps beyond, or\nwhether they must or wish to seek work as wage-earners or begin the\npreparation for some particular craft or vocation.\nWe have become conscious of late that the course of study which we\nhave framed for these elementary schools, especially that for the grammar\ngrades, is not so well adapted to tjie needs and the interests of the growing\nand developing boy and girl as is desirable; we have been compelled to\nnotice that large numbers of them are leaving the schools at the end of the\nMaking due allowance for\nfifth or sixth or seventh grade to begin work.\nthose who are compelled by their own or the family circumstances to become\nearners, and for that equally large number for whom earning is not necessary,\nbut who, to please greedy parents or to gratify their own desire for spending,\nearly leave the school, there still remains too large a number who go because\n\nthey are not interested and do not care to stay.\n\nSome employers who use child labor complain that the children sent\nout of our schools are not well fitted to take up the special work in their\nestablishments; these employers desire from the schools a product more\n\nimmediately profitable to the mill owner.\n\nSome persons concerned with\n\neducation have the opinion, which is doubtless correct, that children can\nlearn French and Latin and allied subjects more easily and thoroly if they\n\nare able to devote six years to the study of those subjects, beginning them\nat the end of the twelfth, rather than at the end of the fourteenth, year;\n\nand these persons wish to move downward two years the division line that\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": "126", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n126\n\nseparates the elementary from the secondary school\n\n[General\n\n—a plan which\n\nis\n\nintended to result in separating from their companions at the end of the\ntwelfth year those children whose parents have destined them for higher\nstudies\n\nand liberal culture, while less favored pupils are to be put into\n\nseparate classes or separate schools, there to receive training for the employ-\n\nment and the station in life to which they have been \"devoted.\"\nThus, curiously enough, we have the mill owner, who wishes a more\nimmediately profitable quality of child labor, the avaricious parent, who\nperhaps plans to live in idleness on his children's earnings, the educational\nperson, who wishes French and Latin to be better learned and who wishes\nto bring about an earlier separation of those children who are destined for a\nliberal education\n\nand a higher station in life, and, not infrequently, the\n\nworried schoolmaster, who sees too great a number of his charges slipping\n\nout of the school one, two, or three years before they are fit to go, all imiting\nin advocacy of what is probably the most dangerous proposal made in many\n\nyears for modification of our public educational system.\nIt makes little difference whether this proposal comes in the guise of the\n\njunior high school, which is to take boys and girls at the end of the sixth\n\ngrade and retain them for six years (if possible), such a school, by the very\nfact of its organization, presupposing a separation of its pupils into groups\n\nor classes in accordance with the careers for which their parents or their\nteachers have destined (or doomed) them; or whether it comes in the form\nof a frank demand for the selection at the end of the sixth grade and the\ntraining, in \"industrial\" or \"commercial\" or \"pre- vocational\" classes or\n\nschools, of those children who are to be \"devoted to labor,\" thus sending\n\nthem to their prospective employers with some preliminary training in\nthe work of the shop or other establishment, and rendering it less necessary\nfor the employer to waste time in training childish hands; the effect of any\nsuch plan will be, in general, to shorten by two years the elementary-\n\nschool period, to fix two years earlier than now that point in the school life\nof our children where they will feel—and in thousands of cases their parents\nwill feel— that the elementary-school course having been finished the\nchild\n\nmay with propriety leave school and take up the sterner duties of life.\nAny such plan will force most of our children, two years earlier than now, to\nthe iron gates of decision. Those who leave school at that time will by\nthat fact have decided; those who remain must also decide, and, all raw and\n\nimmature and unconscious of their powers and the possibilities which the\nfuture holds for them, choose the way to liberal culture or to this vocation\n\nand station or that.\nthis redivision of\n\nWhatever may be the thought of those who advocate\ntime between the elementary and secondary schools,\n\nand whether or not it is their wish to do so (and it seems to be the wish of\n\nmany of them), we may be sure there can be but one result— for tens of\nthousands of our children school life will be shortened by two years, and\nthousands of those who do not leave will be forced, two years earlier than\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": "127", "text": "Sessions]\n\nLET BOTH GROW TOGETHER UNTIL THE HARVEST\n\n127\n\nnow, to decide their future career or the direction which the remainder of\ntheir education shall take.\n\nThe fact that in some European countries the\n\nplan proposed is in operation, and children are forced to this decision, or\nothers decide for them, at their twelfth year, need have no weight with us.\n\nAmong us, the citizen does not exist for the state, the state exists for the\nThe purpose of our educational system is not to make mechanics,\nit is to make citizens and\nmen and women who know their duty to their state and do it, but who are\ncitizen.\n\nor commercial experts, or doctors of philosophy;\n\nfree and untrammeled in their right of choice as to a career, and to\n\nwhom\n\nno door of opportunity, educational or vocational or social, is closed provided they have the desire and the courage and the ability to enter and\noccupy.\n\nThe American schoolmaster, worried by the premature withdrawal\nmany grammar-school boys and girls, need not feel driven to the\n\nof so\n\nadoption of this plan for a six-year elementary school, copied from foreign\nlands, where different industrial and social conditions and different ideals\nof life and opportunity prevail.\n\nOther remedies lie ready to his hand.\n\nThe present grammar-school course is not sacred;\n\nliberties\n\nmay safely\n\nbe taken with an arrangement which is a survival of conditions, industrial\nand social, that no longer exist. This course should make good citizens,\nintelligent, well disposed, fairly well\n\neqmpped for the duties which all\n\ncitizens may be expected to perform, and with some basis for wise choices\n\nin citizenship\n\nand in vocation or career.\n\nThere is no reason why each\n\ngrammar-school girl should not get a good elementary knowledge of the\nduties and occupations of a house-mother and some training in their perform-\n\nance, since probably nineteen out of twenty women sooner or later come\ninto their kingdom at the head of their own household.\n\nThere seems no\ngood reason why each boy should not have such training in the use of the\nelementary hand tools as will make him decently useful about his own house\nwhen he comes to have one, and shall put him in such touch with industrial\nemployments that he will be able to judge whether he has any liking and\nability for them, and toward which one, if any, he is attracted.\nThere\nseems no valid reason why both boys and girls should not have such chance\nto acquire certain of the knowledge useful in business offices as will enable\nthem to decide whether they have some aptitude in this direction, and how\nand where best to continue their studies to fit themselves for such employment if they wish, and, incidentally, to acquire a knowledge of business\nmethods and correspondence and record-keeping which will be of use to\nthem in their own affairs, no matter what their future employment\n\nmay be.\nFor those children who are tempted by the promise of a small wage\nwhich they wish for spending-money, but who do not need to leave school,\nthe school may make some systematic arrangement, either for small employ-\n\nment out of\n\nschool hours or for the turning of\n\nsome of the knowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": "128", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n128\n\n[General\n\nlearned at school to practical account thru the sale of articles which the\nchildren can make or service which they can render.\n\nFor those cases where the necessity to earn is real, the part-time plan\ncan be brought into requisition. It should be possible for employers to\nrealize both their duty and their advantage and to co-operate with the\nschool in arran^g so that children who need to do so may work half time\n\nand attend school half time, thus enabling children to prolong their time\nin school and insuring to the employers in the future far more intelligent\nand effective help.\nIf it is thought necessary that certain pupils have an opportunity at the\n\nend of the sixth grade to begin French or Latin, it need not be impracticable\nfor such classes to be formed as extras, open to those who desire them,\neither as additional work or in lieu of some other of the less vital portions\nof the curriculum.\n\nThe preservation of democracy among us and the prevention of stratification\n\nand the growth of classes in our society are difficult enough at\n\npresent without introducing a plan which would in effect cut off two years\n\n—\n\nfrom the elementary school that school in which all our citizens should be\ntrained and which would in effect begin at the twelfth year, instead of at\nthe fourteenth, to separate the sheep from the goats, the wheat from the\n\n—\n\ntares, those children who are to enjoy the benefits of the higher education\n\nfrom those who are not. Those charged with responsibility for our schools\nshould be on their guard against such suggestions from those who look\nupon foreign systems as necessarily better than our own and those who\nwant a more inamediately profitable grade of labor from children's hands.\nThere are enough other ways to meet the real problem and minister to the\nneed of our youth.\n\nThe school people should be the last to assist in crowding downward\nthe time when they finish the elementary\n\nthe harvest-time for our children\n\n—\n\nschool and come to the time of decision and separation, according to the\n\nmade of a future career or occupation.\n\nThey need each other's\nand companionship, the continuance of common studies and\ninterests and comradeship, at least as long as they have it now\nthru the\nfourteenth year. Lengthen then the time rather than shorten it. Shun\nany practice which will tend toward untimely separation and make stratichoice\n\nsociety\n\n—\n\nMake later, rather than earlier, the harvest. And, in the\nwords of the Great Teacher: ^*Let both grow together until the harvest.\"\n\nfication easier.\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": "129", "text": "WORK OF SCHOOL AND NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE\n\nSessions!\n\nF.\n\n129\n\nTHE ADAPTATION OF THE WORK OF THE SCHOOL TO THE\nNEEDS OF THE PEOPLE\nJAMES\n\nY.\n\nJOYNER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nRALEIGH, N.C.\n\nSTATEMENT OF THE PRINCIPLE AND ITS BASIS\nPerhaps the most remarkable educational movement of the past\nquarter of a century has been the rapid democratization of educational\n\nPerhaps the greatest educational need of the hour\nideals and methods.\nand of the future in this democracy of ours is the further democratization\nof these imtil there shall be the closest adaptation of the work of the schools\nof all grades to the needs of the people of the states and communities that\nthey serve and by whom they are supported.\nIn a democracy, equality of educational opportunity can mean nothing\nless than the opportunity to each\n\nman to develop to the fullest such ability\n\nas he has in a school adapted to his ability and needs and to the needs of\n\nthe community in which he lives and serves.\n\nLowell's definition of a uni-\n\nversity as a \"place where nothing useful is taught\" illustrates the old ideal\nof the university and almost of the college and the secondary school, but\nit is out of date in this age.\n\nThe modern university is a place where every-\n\nthing useful is taught to everybody, and the modern college and secondary\nschool are rapidly becoming just such places.\n\nDIFFICULTY OF APPLICATION OF THIS PRINCIPLE\n\nThe application of this principle of adaptation of the work of the school\nto the needs of the community is one of the most difficult problems in modern\n\neducation.\n\nThe difficulty of the problem in a country like the United\n\nStates will be readily suggested by the mere contemplation of the diversity\nof environment and conditions—natural,\nand urban\n—the diversity of the population, the diversity of individual and\ncapacity—mental, moral, physical, and sexual— the corresponding diversity\nindustrial, social, rural,\n\nracial\n\nof needs arising out of these, and of schools and courses of study required\n\nto meet such diversified needs.\n\nExcept in certain essentials tested by the\n\nages and found to be adapted to certain common needs of humanity, there\n\ncan be no static uniformity in the courses of study.\n\nThe principle of adaptation of the work of the school to the diversified\nneeds of diversified communities has had but tardy recognition in the\n\nUnited States except in the larger cities, but during this decade it has made\nrapid headway, and it promises to become the dominant factor in determining the types of schools of the future and the courses of study in them.\n\nQUESTIONS SUGGESTIVE OF NECESSARY READJUSTMENTS\nLest I appear dogmatic upon a subject which is still in a stage of interesting experimentation, let me conclude this paper with a few questions\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": "130", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI30\n\n[General\n\nsuggestive of some of the readjustments that will be involved in the application of this principle of adaptation.\n\nMust not intelligent direction of the work of the community school\nbe preceded by careful diagnosis of the conditions and needs of the community? Except in the essentials for meeting the fundamental common\nneeds of humanity, should not the rural school be essentially different in\n\ntype and in course of study from the urban school ? If 90 per cent of the\npopulation of the United States is industrial and only 10 per cent professional,\n\nshould not the work of the schools, urban and rural, be readjusted\n\nto minister more to the needs of the industrial classes in city and country\nrespectively ? Is there not some radical defect in our educational system\nwhen there is an oversupply of professional workers and many misfits\nand an undersupply of industrial workers and many inefficient and few\nskilled artisans ?\n\nAccording to the report of the United States Bureau of Education,\n92 per cent of the children of school age are enrolled in the elementary\nschools, only about 5 per cent in the secondary schools, and only about 2\nper cent in the higher institutions; at least one-half of these children leave\nschool before finishing the sixth grade, and only about one-third ever enter\n\nthe eighth grade.\n\nDo not these facts call for a readjustment of the work of\n\nthe elementary schools to correlate primarily with the life and the everyday\n\nneeds of the two-thirds rather than with the curricula of the high schools\n\nand colleges, and to assist them in preparing for life's problems and duties ?\nOnly a small percentage of high-school students complete the four-year\ncourses perhaps not more than 10 per cent; only a very small part of\nthese enter any higher institution; a very large percentage of these highschool students leave school at the end of the first year; and a still larger\npercentage at the end of the second year. Do not these facts demand a\nreadjustment of the work and a reorganization of the courses of study of\nthe secondary schools in city and country so as to correlate with the life\nand minister to the needs of the large majority as well as of the few, and\nthereby retain a larger number till graduation, and better fit all for more\nefficient, happy, and contented living in their environment ?\nDo not these\n\n—\n\nfacts also call for complete short courses of study for the large number of\n\nshort-term students in these secondary schools ?\n\nIs one-fourth, one-third,\n\none-half of a four-year course as good as a complete one-, two-, or three-\n\nyear course?\n\nAre there differences in sex needs, tastes, and duties that\n\nshould be given more recognition in the work and courses of study for boys\n\nand girls respectively in the secondary schools ?\nFinally, should not the determining question in the method of teaching\nany subject and in the selection of the subject to be taught to any child\nin any school be: \"Does it function with life in his environment?\"\nIf\nefficiency and utility are the ultimate ends of all education, is not adapta-\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": "131", "text": "Sessions]\n\nWORK OF SCHOOL AND NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE\n\n131\n\nbility of the work of the people's school to individual capacity and individual\n\nand community needs and environment the only means of attaining these ?\nIn the readjustments that must follow the inevitable wider application\nof this principle of adaptation to the work and curricula of our public\nschools, must not some subjects, hoary with age and sacred from long use,\nbe eliminated to give time for others more needful? Must not shorter\ncourses and briefer and fewer textbooks in some subjects be arranged to\nmake time for the study of some new subjects and for longer courses in\nother old but more important subjects ? Must there not be less of grind\non senseless facts and more of study of vital forces more of practice and\n\n—\n\nless of theory ?\n\nIn the delicate and difficult adjustment necessitated by the intelligent\napplication of this principle of adaptation to the diversified needs of diversified communities, are not well-trained, well-paid, well-housed, long-tenured,\n\nprofessional teachers absolutely necessary?\n\nCONCLUSION\n\nWe teachers must seek and find a way to secure unity without uniformity, flexibility without chaos, variety without loss of accuracy\nthoroness,\nideality.\n\nutility\n\nand\n\npracticability\n\nwithout\n\nsacrifice\n\nof\n\nculture\n\nand\nand\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": "132", "text": ""}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": "133", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\nRICHMOND MEETING, FEBRUARY 23-28, 1914\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST DAY\nEVENING SESSION—Tuesday, February 24, 1914\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in the\nCity Auditorium, Richmond, Va., at 8:00 p.m., President Ben Blewett, superintendent\nof instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo., presiding.\n\nThe session opened with an invocation by Rev. H. D. C. Maclachlan, of the Seventh\nStreet Christian Church.\n\nAddresses of welcome were given by George Ainslee, mayor of Richmond, and J. A. C.\nChandler, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va., to which response was made by\n\nJames M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J.\nEdward T. Devine, director, New York School of Philanthropy, New York, N.Y.,\npresented a paper entitled \"Education and Social Economy.\"\nA joint resolution from the General Assembly of Virginia welcoming the National\nEducation Association, and inviting its members to visit the legislative halls at any\ntime they desired, was read and unanimously accepted. The privileges of the\nY.M.C.A. building were also proffered. Thanks were extended by the department for\nthese invitations.\n\nPresident Blewett appointed the following committees:\n\nCommittee on Nominations\nGeorge I. Aldrich, superintendent of schools, Brookline, Mass.\nJoseph M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools. New Orleans, La.\nFred L. Keeler, superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich.\nArchibald A. McDonald, superintendent of schools, Sioux Falls, S.D.\nBettie A. Dutton, principal, Kentucky Street School, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\nCommittee on Resolutions\nJohn A. Whiteford, superintendent of schools, St. Joseph, Mo.\nCharles D. Lowry, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nPaul W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex.\nH. Whitford Maxson, supervising principal of schools. West New York, N.J.\nJosephine C. Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.\n\nSECOND DAY\nMORNING SESSION—Wednesday, February 25, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order by President Blewett at 9:30 a.m. in the Auditorium\nAfter music by the John Marshall High School Chorus\n\nof the John Marshall High School.\n\nthe following program was presented:\n\n\"Fundamental Distinctions between Liberal and Vocational Education \"—David\nSnedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.; and William C.\nBagley, professor of education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n^33\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": "134", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n134\n\n[Richmond\n\nGovernor Stuart, of the Commonwealth of Virginia, welcomed the Department of\nIn response, President Blewett voiced the appreciation\n\nSuperintendence to Richmond.\n\nof the audience for the honor of this greeting.\n\nOn motion, the discussion of the morning's topic was elaborated by Commissioner\nSnedden and Professor Bagley. This was further discussed by the following persons:\nArthur D. Dean, chief. Division of Vocational Schools, State Education Department,\nAlbany, N.Y.; Henry Suzzallo, professor of philosophy of education, Teachers College,\nColumbia University, New York, N.Y.; William W. Black, dean. School of Education,\nIndiana University, Bloomington, Ind.; C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Madison, Wis.;\n\nGeorge H. Bremhall, president, Brigham Young University,\n\nProvo, Utah; Edwin Hebden, director, Bureau of Statistics and Research, Department\nof Education, Baltimore, Md.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:00 p.m. in the High School Auditorium, with\nVice-President Walter E. Ranger, state commissioner of public schools, Providence, R.I.,\nin the chair.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n1.\n\n\"School and Shop\n\n—Work and Study\"—Randall\n\nschools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\nJ.\n\nCondon, superintendent of\n\n—\n\nF. W. Thomas,\n2. \"The Apprentice Schools of the Santa Fe Railway System\"\nsupervisor of apprentices, Topeka, Kans.\nLewis Gustafson, superintendent of David Ranken Jr. School\n3. \"Trade Schools\"\nThis paper was read by Clifford B. Connelley,\nof Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, Mo.\ndean of School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\n—\n\nA discussion followed in which Mrs. Milton Higgins, Worcester, Mass., and Paul\nKreuzpointner, chairman. Committee on Industrial Education, American Foundrymen's\nAssociation, Altoona, Pa,, took part.\n\nGeorge Piatt Knox, assistant superintendent of instruction, public schools,\n\nSt.\n\nLouis, Mo., announced the aims and purposes of the new National Vocational Guidance\nAssociation.\n\nEVENING SESSION\nAfter the singing of many southern airs by the negro singers from the Whitlock\nTobacco Factory, the meeting was called to order at 8:00 p.m., in the City Auditorium by\nPresident Blewett.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Hopeful Experiments\":\na) \"Mississippi Canning Clubs\"\nSusie V. Powell, state agent. Girl's Clubs,\nUnited States Bureau of Plant Industry, Jackson, Miss.\nb) \"Some Conditions in Rural Schools and Their Improvement\"\n^Josephine C.\nPreston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.\nc) \"The Moonhght Schools of Kentucky\"\nCora Wilson Stewart, president,\nKentucky Illiteracy Commission, Frankfort, Ky.\n2. \"Some Conditions in Rural Schools and Suggestions for Their Improvement\"\nP. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C.\n1.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nTHIRD DAY\nMORNING SESSION—Thursday, February 26, 1914\nAfter music by the pupils of the high school, the meeting was called to order by\n\nPresident Blewett in the Auditoriimi of the John Marshall High School at 9:30 a.m.\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": "135", "text": ":\n\n:\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nI35\n\nPresident Blewett announced the following committee to act with Commissioner\nClaxton to secure adequate support for the United States Bureau of Education\n\nFrancis G. Blair, of Illinois\n\nW. K. Tate, of South Carolina\n\nJohn H. Finley, of New York\nJames E. Russell, of New York\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, of Pennsylvania\n\nWilliam P. Evans, of Missouri\nEdward Hyatt, of California\n\nM. L. Brittain, of Georgia\nW. S. Sutton, of Texas\n\nC. N. Kendall, of New Jersey\nRobert L. Jones, of Tennessee\nC. G. Schidz, of Minnesota\n\nThe following program was presented:\n1. \"The Foundations of Educational Achievement\"\n\n—Edward L. Thorndike, proNew\n—\n\nfessor of educational psychology. Teachers College, Columbia University,\nYork, N.Y,\n2. \"Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Education\"\nHarry B. Wilson,\n\nsuperintendent of schools, Topeka, Kans.; James F. Hosic, head of the English department, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, lU.; and W. A. Jessup, director, School of\nEducation, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.\nC. R.\n3. \"Report of Committee on Uniform Nomenclature in English Grammar\"\nRounds, head of department of English, West Division High School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n—\n\nThe annual business meeting followed the program.\nAt this time, Superintendent C. E. Chadsey, of Detroit, Mich., made the following\nmotion:\nI move that the Department of Superintendence receive the Report of the Committee\non Economy of Time in Education as a preliminary report; that this committee be continued; that the president of the Department of Superintendence be authorized to appoint\ntwo additional members to the committee; and that the National Council of Education\nbe requested to recommend to the Conrntiittee on Appropriations an appropriation of\nfive hundred dollars to meet the necessary expenses to be incurred by the committee.\n\nThis motion was adopted after being amended as follows by Superintendent Frank B.\nCooper, of Seattle, Wash.\nIf it appear that the appropriation requested is not forthcoming from the National\nEducation Association it is moved that a special finance committee be appointed for the\npurpose of raising funds from the members of the department for the use of the committee.\n\nPresident Blewett then called for the report of the Committee on Nominations,\nwhich was as follows:\nFor President Henry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J.\nFor First Vice-President Paul W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex.\nFor Second Vice-President E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich.\nFor Secretary ^Mrs. EUor C. Ripley, assistant superintendent of schools, Boston,\nMass.\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nOn motion, the report of the committee was adopted and the secretary was instructed\nto cast the vote of the department for the persons named for the various positions.\n\nThis\n\nbeing done, the persons named were declared duly elected.\n\nThe following report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Superintendent John A. Whiteford, of St. Joseph, Mo., chairman of the committee:\n\nWe, your Committee on Resolutions, beg to submit the following report:\n1. Resolved, That we recognize in the pubUc schools the foundation of our form of\ngovernment, the bulwark of democracy, and we believe that they are the surest means of\nsolving our social and civic problems and of fixing correct American ideals in the youth\nof our country.\ninvestment does so much to promote the general welfare as taxation\nfor education and no public service is of more consequence than that rendered by teachers\n\nNo\n\nand school officials.\n\nWe\n\ninvite constructive criticism from those who have the welfare\nof the schools at heart and we deplore any attempt to exploit the schools for personal or\npartisan gain.\n2. Resolved, That we indorse the movement to establish and support vocational schools\nfor pupils over fourteen years of age; that we urge the special preparation of teachers\nfor this vocational work; that we encourage the estabUshment of continuation schools\nfor boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years who have entered\n\nvocational life; that we recommend that the attendance upon these continuation schools\nbe made compulsory for such boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen.\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": "136", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n136\n\n[Richmond\n\n3. Resolved, That every rural school should provide a home including a small farm for\nthe teacher. This teacher will be one trained for rural schools, will know the child and\nhis needs, will cease to be a tramp teacher, will be able to correlate school life with life\nin the country, and will be a leader of men. That we favor a county or a larger administrative district unit for rural school work, thus providing equality of educational privileges, equ£dization of taxes, adaptation to the growing needs, and eflScient supervision.\n4. Resolved, That we indorse the work being done by our national Commissioner of\nEducation; and that we particularly appreciate that phase of his work which consists of\nsending out letters whereby helpful experiments along educational^ lines in various parts\nof the Union are called to the attention of city and county superintendents. Resolved,\nfurthermore, That we believe that the national Bureau of Education should be provided\nwith financial support, buildings, and equipment in keeping with its importance.\n5. Resolved, That we recognize fully the importance of the proper teaching of sex\nhygiene, but that we believe the ideal place for giving such instruction to be the home;\nthat we believe the school should be willing and anxious to help the home in this matter\nas best it can. If instruction in sex hygiene is to be given in school at all it should be\ngiven not to classes but to individuals, and by teachers specially qualified for such work.\n6. Whereas, The Educational Committee of the House of Representatives has\ngranted a hearing on the bill now pending to establish a national university, to which\nhearing the standing committee of the National Education Association has been invited,\ntherefore be it\nResolved, That we reafl&rm the declaration favoring a national university made by the\nNational Education Association in 191 2, and recommend that the president of this department appoint a conmiittee to attend said hearing in co-operation with the standing committee of the National Education Association.\n7. Resolved, That the thanks of this department be given President Blewett and his\ncommittees for the strong program that has been presented for our consideration and\nespecially for that part which provides ample opportunity for discussion from the floor.\n8. Resolved, That we express our appreciation of the consideration shown us by the\nrailroad associations in extending to us an open rate for this meeting.\nexpress the\nhof)e that this plan may be continued for succeeding meetings.\n9.^ Resolved, That our sincere thanks be given to the Governor and the legislature of\nVirginia for the courtesies extended to us; to Superintendent Chandler and the local\nconunittees and citizens for the generous hospitality shown us, and especially to Mrs.\nA. J. Montague and her committee of ladies for the warm-hearted courtesies shown the\nladies of this convention.\n10. Resolved, That in the recognition of the power of the press in molding public\nopinion, our thanks be given to the local papers for the publicity they have given our\nmeetings and for the reports of our proceedings that they have published.\n11. Resolved, That it is a matter of pleasure and pride to this organization that one\nwho has for the greater part of his life been a professional school man should have possessed\nthe confidence of the American people to such an extent as to be elected by them for the\nhighest position within their gift, and that in the performance of his duties in this position\nhe should have proven that a man may be both a \"schoolmaster and a statesman.\"\nResolved, furthermore, That we find in this instance merely another refutation of the\nidea sometimes advanced that school men are not capable of Uie administration of practical affairs of great difficulty and importance.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nWe\n\nJohn A. Whiteford, of Missouri\nCharles D. Lowry, of Illinois\nPaul W. Horn, of Texas\nH. WmxFORD Maxson, of New Jersey\nJosephine C. Preston, of Washington\nCommittee\nSuperintendent J. M. Gwinn, of New Orleans, La., moved that the report be accepted\nas a whole.\n\nObjections were raised to Section 5, by Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools,\n\nChicago,\n\n111.,\n\nand discussed further by Charles McKenny, president. State Normal\n\nCollege, Ypsilanti, Mich., Carroll 0. Pearse, president. State Normal School, Milwaukee,\n\nWis., and J. J. Keyes, superintendent of schools, Nashville, Tenn.; and to Section 11,\nby A. S. Downing, assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.\nA substitute motion was then made by Superintendent Keyes to adopt all of the\n\nreport except Sections 5 and 11, reserving those for further discussion.\n\nThis was adopted.\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": "137", "text": "\"\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n137\n\nSuperintendent Young, of Chicago, 111., then moved that the last sentence in Section\n5 be made to read as follows: **If instruction in sex hygiene is to be given in the schools,\nit should be given\n\nby teachers specially qualij5ed for the work.\"\n\nThe original section,\n\nthus amended, was adopted.\nSection 11 was adopted as amended by A. S. Downing, assistant commissioner of\n\neducation, Albany, N.Y., striking out the clause beginning, \"Resolved, furthermore.\"\n\nPresident Blewett expressed his appreciation of the kindness of Superintendent\n\nChandler and his local committee as shown in handling business matters, in the courtesies\nextended and help given, and in the service rendered by the young men ushers.\n\nThe alphabetical roll call of the states by President Blewett brought invitations from\nthree cities to hold the meeting of the department for the year 1915.\n\nSuperintendent\n\nYoung presented the claims of Chicago but subsequently withdrew them; Superintendent\nCondon, those of Cincinnati; and Superintendent Chadsey, those of Detroit. The vote\nbeing favorable to Cincinnati, Superintendent Chadsey withdrew the name of Detroit\nand moved that Cincinnati be declared unanimously the meeting-place for 1915. This\nwas so adopted.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION\nThe afternoon session was given to round-table conferences, as follows:\n(a)\n\nChairman\n\nround table of state and county superintendents\n\n—^Augustus L. Downing, assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.\n\n\"Problems That Confront the State Superintendent in His Relation to the Rural\nGeorge B. Cook, state superintendent of public instruction, Little Rock, Ark.;\nand Frank W. Miller, state commissioner of schools, Colmnbus, Ohio.\n1.\n\nSchools\"\n\n—\n\nGeneral discussion.\n2. \" Problems That Confront the County Superintendent in His Relation to the Rural\nSchools\" ^Albert S. Cook, superintendent of Baltimore County Schools, Towson, Md.\n\n—\n\nGeneral discussion.\n3. \"Dangers of Overorganization of the Rural Schools\"\nintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me.\n\n—^Payson Smith, state super-\n\nGeneral discussion.\n\"Interrelation of the OflEice of State Superintendent and That of County SuperinFrancis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.;\nOliver J. Morelock, superintendent of Essex County Schools, Newark, N.J.\n4.\n\ntendent\"\n\n—\n\nGeneral discussion.\n\nround table of superintendents in cities of over 300,000 population\n\n(b)\n\nChairman\n\n—Martin G. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nTopic: The Function of the School to the Community It Serves\n\n—\n—\n\n\"Its Scholastic Function\" ^J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, New\nOrleans, La.\n2. \"Its Economic Function\"\nF. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\n3. \"Its Social Function\"\n^J. M. Greenwood, advisory superintendent of schools,\n1.\n\nKansas City, Mo.\n(c)\n\n—\n\nround table of superintendents in cities with 25,000 TO 300,000 population\n\nChairman\n\n—Ernest O. Holland, superintendent of schools,\n\nLouisville, Ky.\n\nTopic: Differentiation in Course of Study in the Upper Grades\n\n—\n\n1. \"Shortening the Course\"\nHenry Suzzallo, professor of philosophy of education,\nTeachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; H. S. Weet, superintendent\n\nof schools, Rochester, N.Y.\nWilliam A.\n2. \"Substitution of Work of Vocational or Prevocational Character\"\nGreeson, superintendent of schools. Grand Rapids, Mich.; Ira I. Cammack, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": "138", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n138\n\nGeneral discussion:\n\n[Richmond\n\nLloyd E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.; David Snedden, comLeonard P. Ayres, director,\n\nmissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.;\n\nNew York, N.Y.; W. L. Ettinger.\n\nDivision of Education, Russell Sage Foundation,\n\nassociate city superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y. ;\n\ndty superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.\n\n;\n\nJohn H. Haaren, associate\nand M. H. Stuart, principal Manual\n\nTraining High School, Indianapolis, Ind.\n(d)\n\nChairman\n\nround table of StJPERINTENDENTS IN CITIES UNDER 2 5, COO POPULATION\n\n—E. E. Bass, superintendent of schools, Greenville, Miss.\n\n—\n\n^William McK.\n1. \"How Shall the Superintendent Measure His Own Efl&dency?\"\nVance, superintendent of schools, Delaware, Ohio.\nEdwin D. Pusey, superintendent of\n2. \"Testing Grade Teachers for Efl&ciency\"\n\n—\n\nschools, Durham, N.C.\n\n—\n\nReed B. Teitrick, deputy super3. \"How Secure More Effective Supervision?\"\nintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nC. E. Joiner, superintendent of schools, Monmouth, 111.\n4. \"Pre-delinquent Boys\"\n\n—\n\nEVENING SESSION\nThe meeting was called to order by President Blewett at 8:00 p.m. in the City Auditorium.\nAfter m.usic by a quartet of negroes from the Whitlock Tobacco Factory, the following program was given:\n\n—\n\nA. Duncan Yocum, professor of\n1. \"The Determinants of the Course of Study\"\neducational research and practice. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\n2. \"How the Course of Study Should Be Determined\"\n^John W. Withers, president,\nHarris Teachers College, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n—\n\nFOURTH DAY\nMORNING SESSION—Friday, February 27, 1914\nAfter music by the High School Chorus, the meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m.,\n\nHigh School Auditorium, with President Blewett in the chair.\nprogram was presented:\n\nin the\n\nThe following\n\n—\n\n1. \"The Work of the General Education Board\"\n^Wallace Buttrick, secretary,\nGeneral Education Board, Nfew York, N.Y.; and Abraham Flexner, assistant secretary. General Education Board, New York, N.Y.\n2. \"Rural-School Administration\"\nA collaborated paper by Ell wood P. Cubberley,\nprofessor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.;\nand Edward C. Elliott, director, course for the training of teachers, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n(This paper was read by Edward C. Elliott.)\n\n—\n\nPresident Blewett added to the Committee on Economy of Time in Education the\nnames of John F. Bobbitt, assistant professor of school administration, University of\nChicago, Chicago, 111., and Vivian A. C. Henmon, assistant professor of education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\nPresident Blewett then asked Superintendent Chadsey, of Detroit, Mich., to conduct\nPresident-elect Henry Snyder to the platform, after which the new officer was presented\n\nto the department with high words of appreciation, to which Superintendent Snyder\n\nresponded, thanking the department for its confidence and pledging himself to the office.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nAnna Elizabeth Logan, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": "139", "text": "ADDRESS OF WELCOME\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nI39\n-*\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS OF WELCOME\nJ.\n\nA. C.\n\nCHANDLER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, RICHMOND, VA.\n\nIt is a pleasure for me, as superintendent of the schools of Richmond,\n\nto\n\nwelcome the visitors\n\nof the\n\nDepartment\n\nof Superintendence of the\n\nThe chief execuMayor George Ainslie, has, for the city government and\nthe citizens of Richmond as a whole, assured you of the delight that he\n\nNational Education Association to the city of Richmond.\ntive of our city.\n\nfeels at your gathering in\n\nsuch large numbers in our historic city.\n\ncitizens by their presence here tonight assure you of their welcome.\nit is\n\nMany\nBut\n\nnot for our city fathers, nor for the united body of citizens, but for\n\nschool\n\nofficials,\n\nteachers,\n\nand pupils that I wish to speak.\n\nFrom all of\n\nthese I bring you greetings and give you a most cordial welcome to our city\n\nand our schools.\n\nWe are glad to welcome you as visitors to our schools. We trust that\nin our exhibits and in our classrooms you may find some things to delight,\n\nWe know you will be a help and\nOur educational system is young. Previous to the war\n\nothers to help, and some to stimulate.\ninspiration to us.\n\nbetween the states, many children were educated at the expense of the\nstate,\n\naided by small appropriations from the literary fund; but, on the\n\nwhole, every man paid the tuition of his own children.\n\nTherefore, we say\n\nthat the free-school system for all the children began in 1870, since which\n\ntime our growth has been rapid.\n\nWith your permission, I shall for a few moments indulge in a few figures\nand a little past history with regard to Richmond.\nJust twenty years ago, the Department of Superintendence of the\nNational Education Association met in Richmond. You found at that\ntime a city with a population of 81,000, and a school population of 24,000,\nwith a school enrolment of 12,000. Today you find a city of 127,000\npopulation, a school population of 29,000, and a school enrolment of 21,000\npupils.\nThe total number of teachers twenty years ago was 244. Today,\nincluding night-school teachers and supervisors, we have 635. Twenty\nyears ago the expenditure for the entire school system was $151,000, Last\nsession our expenditures were $707,000.\n\nTwenty-two years ago the superintendent of Richmond urged the introduction of manual training in a very able report on that subject.\n\nHis ideas\nwere regarded as absolutely ridiculous and nothing was really accomplished\n\nTwenty years ago there were\nno fads in our school system ^no music, no manual training, no medical\ninspection, and no domestic science, except a class in cooking at the high\nschool, which class was soon discontinued.\nAccording to some reports, this\nclass was discontinued because it was thought that French was more\nin carrying out his admirable suggestions.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": "140", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI40\nimportant.\n\n[Richmond\n\nToday you will find that we have many fads, which we regard,\n\nhowever, as essentials;\n\nsuch, for example, as medical inspection, music,\n\ndomestic science (in both high and elementary schools), woodworking centers, manual-training courses in the high schools, and drawing and physical\n\neducation thruout the system.\n\nToday, moreover, the citizens and school board of Richmond believe\nthat the proper type of education is that which will adjust the child to the\n\ncommunity in which he is to live, and more and more the needs of Richmond\nare being studied, and we are trying to give the children of our city such\n\neducational facilities as will be most helpful to them in the vocations that\n\nthey will have to follow.\n\nThis effort to adjust our education to the needs\n\ncommunity has made possible a most rapid development in the\nnight schools, and at present we have an enrolment of over 3,000, an\nincrease of more than 130 per cent over last year.\nThe members of this Association will be more particularly interested,\nof the\n\nhowever, in our dual system.\n\nWe have a well-developed system of educa-\n\ntion for white pupils, in which we try to meet the needs of 14,000 pupils;\n\nthen we have another equally distinct system of education in which we try\nto meet the needs of 7,000 colored pupils.\n\nI\n\nam happy to say that in the\n\nadjustment of this dual system we have no friction.\n\nWe shall be glad for you to visit all of our schools, good or bad, for\nThe doors are open to you. We invited you to\n\nwhite or colored pupils.\n\ncome to our city in order that we might learn from you, but we hope also\nthat there are some things in Richmond which may be helpful to you.\nTherefore, in the name of the school board, teachers, and pupils, and in\nthe hope that this meeting may be helpful, not only to our city but to our\n\nwe welcome you. We urge of you to make yourselves at home.\nThe mayor has thrown open to you the city; the schools are open to you;\nvisitors,\n\nMay your visit here be so pleasant that you will\ncome again to see us. For retired capitalists and indigent school-teachers,\nRichmond is a pleasant home. In any event, come to see us often.\n\ngo wherever you desire.\n\nRESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME\nJAMES M. GREEN, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, N.J.\nIt was very gracious in the people of Richmond to invite the Department of Superintendence of our National Education Association to be their\n\nguests at this time.\ntinguished.\n\nA guest is honored in proportion as the host is dis-\n\nWhen we recall the illustrious records of your citizens on the\n\npages of our country's history our appreciation of the honor you have\nconferred upon us is secure.\n\nThere are reasons other than those of historic associations why we have\nlooked forward to this meeting with more than ordinary interest.\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": "141", "text": "RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nThis seems to be a period of general unrest in our country.\n\n141\n\nWe hear\n\nmuch of tariff, revenue, and currency reforms; much of the regulation of\nour business corporations and our public utilities; much of industrial and\nsocial reforms; much of the reform of our judicial system, our army, and our\npolice; much of the reform of the ballot, of municipal government; much\nof the application of literary tests and other restrictive influences to immi-\n\ngration.\n\nIt is but a natural consequence that this spirit of unrest should reflect\nitself in\n\nour educational institutions.\n\nmuch that is good.\n\nOur national education has in it\n\nIt has enabled us to accomplish great things.\n\nWe\n\nhave been able to receive great tides of immigration, largely from the least\neducated of other nations, and assimilate them, make them law-abiding and\nhelpful.\n\nWe have been able to carry on great enterprises in engineering,\n\nin railway and canal construction; we have erected great buildings and made\n\nmany inventions, and we have produced men of science and letters who are\nrespected by the civilized world, and yet the most enthusiastic of us will\n\nadmit that our national educational system is in a certain sense a patchwork.\nIt would be too ambitious to undertake to point out the way to an easy\nit will be within the\nbounds of modesty to suggest that we carefully take our soundings, that\nwe examine our chart, and, in the light of the great men whose spirits surround us here, find our bearings.\n\nsolution of our national educational problems, but\n\nThe limitations of my time prevent my reviewing the thoughts of any\nnumber of those who have figured here in the annals of education, such as\nWashington and Lee and Madison, but I may briefly refer to the educational\nchart of the one who was most conspicuous in your roll of educators, the\ngreat Jefferson.\nIt is very encouraging to teachers generally that\n\none who wrote the\n\nDeclaration of Independence and served as President of the United States\n\nshould choose as the crowning work of his life the founding of an educational\n\nHis range began with the primary and included the\nHis expressed purposes were:\n\nsystem for his state.\nuniversity.\n1.\n\nTo give every citizen the information he needs for the transaction of his own\n\nbusiness;\n2.\n\nTo enable him to calculate for himself, and to express and preserve his ideas, his\n\ncontracts and accounts, in writing;\n3.\n4.\n\nTo improve, by reading, his morals and faculties;\nTo understand his duties to his neighbors and country, and to discharge with\n\ncompetence the functions confided to him by either;\n5. To know his rights; to exercise with order and justice those he retains; to choose\nwith discretion the fiduciary of those he delegates; and to notice their conduct with\n\ndiligence, with candor and judgment;\n6.\n\nAnd in general, to observe with intelligence and faithfulness all the social relations\n\nunder which he shall be placed.\n\nHe favored practical learning.\n\nHis chemistry, natural history, anat-\n\nomy, medicine, law, modern languages, fine arts, principles of justice and\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": "142", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n142\n\n[Richmond\n\ninternational relations came direct from the laboratory of daily contact and\n\nThe community was his educational unit. He saw at that\nearly day that it is the community that largely defines our education, that\nindeed outside the community there is little need of education. The state\nexperience.\n\nwas his organic community.\nThe program that has been prepared for us offers a variety of topics\nand yet they all relate themselves to the liberal and the practical, the\neconomic and the social. To consider these great fundamentals in a setting\nwhere the spirits of the historic great look down upon us and to be welcomed to institutions and homes by a worthy lineage is an opportunity that\ncalls for our best effort and our sincerest gratitude.\n\nEDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY\nEDWARD T. DEVINE, DIRECTOR, NEW YORK SCHOOL OF PHILANTHROPY,\n\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\nThe persistent problems of social economy are poverty, disease, and\ncrime, for which the conventional remedies have been respectively relief,\n\nmedicine, and jails.\n\nThe social economist discovers by experience that\n\nrelief is no cure for the first,\n\nthird.\n\nnor medicine for the second, nor jails for the\n\nRelief, medicine, and jails are no doubt needed, for our sins, until\n\nwe learn how to apply real remedies, until we have social programs adequate\nto our problems, but conceived as remedies they are all alike futile, inade-\n\nquate, obsolete, undemocratic, uneconomic\n\nuneducational\n\n—that\n\nis to\n\n— that\n\nis\n\nto say wasteful\n\n—and\n\nsay stupid.\n\nIn these extremely unsympathetic characterizations I am, of course, but\nplagiarizing from eminent authorities in the three special fields to which the\n\nthree particular problems belong.\n\nWhat is now proposed in regard to\n\npoverty is not to relieve it but to abolish it: to abolish it by the education\nof the individual and by economic and social changes.\n\nWe recognize that\n\nsociety now has potentially at its disposal, in our American communities at\n\nany rate, resources sufficient to enable a decent standard of living to be\nmaintained in every class.\n\nIf this seems to involve various kinds of social\n\naction, such as shortening the hours of labor, fixing a minimum wage, pre-\n\nventing the exploitation of women and child workers\n\n—\n\nextending women's\nwork in directions which are not injurious, and restricting children's work\nin directions which are taking the mentally defective under more complete\nsocial protection, organizing employment exchanges for the better distribu-\n\n—\n\ntion of labor, shifting the geographical location of industries, aiding the\n\nimmigrant to find the place where there is a legitimate demand for his labor,\nproviding for social insurance against dependence from death, protracted\nillness,\n\nand even unemployment, and above all modifying our elementary\n\neducational system in such a way as to increase substantially the efficiency,\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": "143", "text": "—\nEDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n143\n\nthe earning capacity, of those who yearly enter and have entered industry,\n\ncommerce, or agriculture, then we are ready to consider any and all such\nmeasures, if for no other reason because they are necessary steps, altho by\n\nno means the only steps, in the abolition of poverty.\n\nWhat is true of poverty is also true of disease.\n\nThe members of the\n\nmedical profession are the officers and leaders of the campaign for the pre-\n\nWhat they can do which the rest of us cannot is to\nand the treatment of disease is no more to be identified with\nits prevention than the relief of distress is to be identified with the prevention of poverty. The monopoly of responsibility ceases when it becomes a\nvention of disease.\ntreat disease;\n\nproblem of reducing the death-rate, of lengthening the working life, of\neradicating preventable,\n\nwhat Metchnikoff calls \"violent,\" deaths, i.e.,\n\ndeaths from any other cause than old age, the yielding in the fulness of time\nto that instinct for death which is perhaps as natural and as little to be\n\ndeplored when the time for it comes as the instinct for life, for generation,\n\nand for immortality.\nIt is a commonplace, again, among students of social work that the\ncriminal courts, the policemen, and the keepers of prisons are no longer our\nmain reliance for the prevention of crime. Judges and reformers who look\nan inch beyond their immediate tasks are continually appealing for public\nco-operation, not only in prevention, but in reformation and correction.\nThe probation system which has developed in the courts as a substitute for\nimprisonment is avowedly an educational and not a penal measure.\nIf we agree that neither public relief nor voluntary charity, however\nnecessary and valuable they are, has any potency in itself for the abolition\nof poverty, we are driven a step farther to an analysis of its causes, to the\ndiscovery of its tap-root cause, if we can find that, if there is any such thing.\nAnti-socialists, when they have a clearSocialists find it in exploitation.\ncut philosophy on the subject, are likely to find it in economic inefficiency.\nBeing neither a socialist nor an anti-socialist but an impartial student of\nas of course many socialists and anti-socialists are also\nsocial economy\nI am constrained to combine the two partial explanations into one which I\n\n—\n\nthink really does explain the larger part of our poverty.\nexploitation of the exploitable;\n\nIt is in fact the\n\nthe underpay of those who can be under-\n\npaid; the overwork of those who do not know how to secure leisure; the\nlack of protection of the subnormal; the cultivation for commercial profit\nof vicious habits, of depraved appetites, of human weaknesses; the play of\n\nunrestrained greed upon individuals who do not have resisting power as\nindividuals\n\nand whose combined latent resisting power, in the form of\n\nsocial control, has never been brought into effective counterplay.\n\nDisease results when there is an unhappy coincidence of an infecting\n\nagent with a receptive condition in the human body, just as an explosion,\nto use an old illustration, results when a lighted match comes into contact\n\nwith dry gunpowder.\n\nWe may prevent the explosion by extinguishing the\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": "144", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n144\n\n[Richmond\n\nmatch or by dampening the powder. We may prevent disease by destroying the bacilli or by increasing resisting power.\nCrime, likewise,\n\nis\n\nto be attributed neither to natural depravity or\n\ndegeneracy alone, on the one hand, nor to social and economic influences on\nthe other, but to accidental and preventable combinations of these two\n\n—\n\nThis is especially true of the so-called petty crimes the very\ncrimes which have the most serious social consequences. Do not believe\nhalf-causes.\n\nit if they tell you\n\ncrimes.\n\nthat treason, murder, arson, and the like are the serious\n\nOn the contrary, the serious crimes are truancy, vagrancy, drunk-\n\nenness, prostitution, commercialized vice, desertion and neglect of family,\nIf we look out for misthieving, quarreling, and disorderly conduct.\ndemeanors felonies will take care of themselves. Penal reforms will help.\nBetter industrial and living conditions, altho this is not their motive, will\nhelp more. Better homes and schools, altho this is not at all their prime\nfunction, will help most.\nPenal reforms are negative, removing the reproach\n\nthat society actually manufactures criminals in its bungling attempts to\n\npunish crime.\n\nEconomic and social reforms are positive, but external, in\n\nthat they lessen temptation, occasion, and opportunity;\n\nbut the radical\n\nadvances in the conquest of crime are not to be negative or external.\n\nThey can be made only where habits are formed, where the will is trained,\nwhere the permanent foundations of character are laid in infancy, childhood, and adolescence; where motives are differentiated, clarified, and\nstrengthened; where individuals are individualized, and personal diflftculties,\nhowever exceptional, are discovered and removed.\nThe moral of the statement which I have tried to make of the persistent\nproblems of social economy is obvious. The omnipresent local social\n\nFor what do we mean by social economy but the\nmany directions of the influences which center or\n\neconomist is the school.\nlogical projection in\n\nshould center in the school?\nlike astronomy,\n\nSocial economy as I understand it is com-\n\na distinct branch of human knowledge,\nbut something far more ambitious, viz., the organization\n\nmunity housekeeping.\n\nIt is not\n\nof knowledge for the common good.\n\nIts end is practical, viz., the utiliza-\n\ntion of whatever is usable in that which the student gets from history and\nliterature and science, from disciplinary studies and from cultural studies,\n\nto enrich his civic life, to insure his becoming a contributor to social welfare\n\ninstead of its debtor, to make him less a parasite and more a creator of\nsocial values.\n\nThe problems of education have been variously formulated, sometimes\nin terms of culture or of character,\nefl&ciency.\n\nsometimes in terms of productive\n\nI am informed that the tendency now most in favor among pro-\n\ngressive school\n\nmen is to emphasize the very principle for which social\n\neconomy stands, that education is to be tested neither by culture in the\nabstract nor by utility in the concrete but by the extent to which any\nslight knowledge and any manual dexterity and any useful tricks of spelling.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": "145", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY\n\n145\n\ncounting, and the rest are assimilated into thd organic complex of personal\ncharacter.\n\nThe assumption of social responsibility for poverty, disease, and crime\nclearly involves the transformation of the school into the foremost instru-\n\nment of social economy.\n\nThis is not merely to tack a new label on an\n\ninstitution already sufficiently belabeled.\n\nOn the contrary, it means some-\n\nAnd what it means is:\n\na different training of teachers;\n\nthing.\n\nsecond, a new curriculum;\n\nFirst,\n\nand third, more vital and diversified contacts\n\nbetween the school and the adult community.\n\nThe first demand then is that teachers, who are the most numerous of\nall the regiments of social workers and in the vanguard, shall become more\n\neffective as social workers, more conscious of this their high calling, better\n\nprepared for this, the greatest, as I believe, of their great opportunities.\n\nTeachers are teachable; but they have approached their tasks from the\npublic-school system direct or from the normal school, and have not yet\nfully caught the new social spirit which is in the air.\n\nThey have thought\n\nthat they are to prepare pupils to pass into the next grade, into the high\nschool or the college, and so they are, among other things.\nIf the larger social task of the teacher could be more clearly formulated,\nif before\n\ncoming into the schoolroom the teacher were to learn some of the\n\nelementary facts about social conditions, about the death-rate and what the\nthings are that raise and lower it, about juvenile and adult crime and what\n\nthe underlying causes of it are, about poverty, industrial inefficiency, casual\nlabor and unemployment and their causes, the relation of physical defects\nto mentality, and of undernourishment to physical defect, about the principles\n\nand methods of family rehabilitation and child welfare, if in short\n\nthey could take an extended course in one of the schools of philanthropy,\nthen we might hold them to a more useful service on this side of their work.\nThe more practicable means, I presume, to this end is the introduction of\nbrief courses in social work in the high school, college, and normal school.\n\nTeachers cannot cultivate the civic spirit, economic efficiency, and physical\nwell-being unless they know\n\nwhat they are, unless they have a genuine\n\ninterest in them and an enthusiasm for imparting that interest and knowl-\n\nedge, unless they are in effect social workers and citizens.\n\nI cannot help\n\nthinking that the acquisition of the franchise, however it\n\nmay work in\n\ngeneral, will put the women who are training citizens in the schools in a\n\nstronger and more logical position in this field.\n\nThe preparation of non-technical, pedagogically well-arranged and typographically attractive textbooks, leaflets, outlines,\n\nand other available\n\nprinted material would no doubt be an aid in instruction of this kind.\n\nBut\n\ntraining in the study and interpretation of social conditions can never be\n\nobtained from books.\n\nPerhaps it is an advantage to our generation that,\n\nfor lack of textbooks, we are compelled to look at realities instead of symbols.\n\nIn this field it is our high privilege to help our students to create a literature,\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": "146", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n146\n\n(Richmond\n\nperhaps to the bedevilment of future generations but certainly to the\nemancipation of our own.\n\nThe social econo-\n\nThe second demand relates to the school curriculum.\n\nmist holds that the prevention of poverty, disease, and crime is the first,\nelementary,\n\nfimdamental\n\nobligation\n\nof\n\na\n\npublic-school\n\nsystem.\n\nHis\n\ndemand for a re-examination of the curriculum in the light of this primary\nobligation is radical and insistent.\nIt is not to be put off by any plea of a\ncrowded course of study or conflicting demands from other quarters. It is\nnot a class demand, nor a fad and fancy, nor an external pressure such as\nmight come from a university or from commerce or industry. It is simply a\nformulation of a universal social need, of a vital condition of social health\n\nand progress, nay, in the last analysis, of social existence.\n\nIf the three R's,\n\nor history, geography, and pure science, interfere with accomplishing the\n\nend we are here considering, then they must be cut out or circumscribed\nas cheerfully as we would spare the latest novelty of them all.\n\nBut the\n\nfact is that the disciplinary studies and human-interest studies are useful\nin developing\n\nan appreciation of economic values, which is the cure for\n\npoverty; respect for the rights of others, which is the cure for crime; and\nrespect for one's own health, the cure for disease.\n\nThe acceptance of the\n\npoint of view of social work, the realization of the obligation on the part of\nthe schools for the prevention of crime, disease, and poverty, may or may\n\nnot involve a change in the subjects nominally pursued.\nexperts to say.\n\nThat is for the\n\nIt does involve, I think, a re-examination of the order of\n\nstudies from this point of view.\n\nIt does put the burden of proof on those\n\nwho champion any existing curriculum to show that it does contain the\nelements which the vital interests of society so imperatively demand, and\nequally upon those who propose changes to show that they are in harmony\n\nwith these purposes.\n\nMy own belief is that no curriculum in any school\n\nshould be allowed to stand from year to year without frequent and drastic\noverhauling, or, at any rate, unprejudiced reconsideration.\n\nThe abstract studies which may be said roughly to correspond to the\nthree particular fields of which I have been speaking are, I suppose, eco-\n\nnomics, civics, and hygiene.\n\nBut the purpose which we have in view is not\n\nthe mastery of any three abstract disciplines.\n\nThere is no necessary con-\n\nnection between a knowledge of economics on the one hand and economic\nefficiency on the other; between a knowledge of civics and law-abidingness;\nbetween a knowledge of hygiene and its practice. Natural relations there\nare, but natural relations are sometimes poor relations.\n\nnot theories about efficiency;\n\nIt is efficiency and\n\nrespect for the rights of others and not a\n\nclassification of rights or familiarity with the mechanism for enforcing rights;\n\nclean and wholesome living and not acquaintance with the facts of physi-\n\nology and anatomy, that are required.\n\nThe knowledge which is power, the\nknowledge which leads to virtue, the knowledge which illumines the understanding, is the knowledge to be sought.\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": "147", "text": "EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n147\n\nWhat John MacGunn, of Liverpool, calls the nurture of the civic spirit\nand by analogy the nurture of economic efficiency and the nurture of the\nhealthy body are the ends in view. It should be possible to ascertain precisely what studies will have these effects; what exercises and activities; what\nplays and what tasks; what personal counsels; what warnings or other\ndisciplines; what opportunities; what rewards and punishments; what\ninfluences extending from the school into the home or elsewhere.\n\nCertainly\n\nthe one great thing which it does mean is a complete scheme of vocational\neducation: industrial, commercial, and agricultural. I have heard threats\n\n—serious and\n\nsignificant threats\n\n—that the educational experts are about\n\nto be relieved of the responsibility for devising\n\nand directing vocational\nI have\n\nteaching and especially for the system of continuation schools.\n\nbeen assured vehemently that nothing of practical value can be expected\nfrom the inside; that Caiaphas could have been expected to found\nChristianity or Tetzel to abolish indulgences as soon as school superin-\n\ntendents to bring the schools into vital relation with industry on a democratic basis, on any basis which workingmen who know their own interests\n\ncan rightly accept.\n\nNo doubt that is a libel, and perhaps the best way of\n\nproving it to be so is for the experts voluntarily to bring representative\n\nemployers and representative wage-earners into consultation, into continuing co-operative relations in working out such a basis.\n\nMy own belief,\n\nwhich I shall not elaborate, is that only teachers with the teacher's instincts,\nteachers with sympathy, who know, not so much by the accretions of much\npedagogical instruction, as by the power of wise discrimination and exclusion, what the essential elements of an elementary education are, teachers\n\nwho do individualize their pupils and are really fit to teach may be intrusted\nwith vocational studies and that all others would better stick to the old\nsubjects, to the old textbooks, to the old and still current, even if undermined, traditions.\n\nOur third demand is for more varied and more vital contacts between\nthe school and the community; and while this may take many forms, such\nas the use of the school plant for civic purposes\n\nand the development of\n\nvocational guidance as a part of the school system, what I have chiefly in\n\nmind is the personal leadership of the superintendent of schools in specific\nsocial movements, such as those for improved housing and for the prevention of disease, for rational recreation of young men and women and adults,\nfor the enforcement of child-labor laws, for measures for the protection of\n\nwomen in industry, and for the more rational treatment of criminals.\n\nIn\n\nevery town and every countryside there is need for organized social work,\n\nand the most natural initiator, counselor, and promoter of such social work\nI believe to be the official head of the school system.\nIt is desirable that all such social measures shall be in fundamental har-\n\nmony with the aims and purposes of the school systems.\n\nIt is desirable\n\nthat the abounding evidence of the need for such work which the experiences\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": "148", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n148\n\nbe made available.\n\nof the schoolroom present shall\n\nsuch movements shall be\n\n—\n\nlike the schools\n\n[Richmond\n\nIt is desirable that\n\n—non-partisan, non-sectional,\n\nabove all suspicion of any other motive than the public good.\n\nSome com-\n\nmunities boast leading citizens who by various routes attain the eminence\n\nwhich gives such guarantee to any cause to which they give their names,\nbut speaking generally the citizen who is intrusted with the conduct of the\npublic schools should be such a citizen ex officio. His position gives him\nthe facts needed, or at least the possibility of securing the facts; gives him the\npublic ear for a sympathetic hearing of the facts and the remedies; gives\n\nhim easy command of allies such as scarcely any other citizen has so readily\nat his disposal.\n\nday's work\n\n—\n\n—perhaps time that seems needed for the\n\nIt will take time\n\n^but within reasonable limits it will be\n\na good investment of\n\nFor there is no more economical method of getting that kind of\nvision without which the schools will indeed perish.\nSo if there is any bad social condition such as an alley problem, a high\ninfant death-rate, congestion of population, immoral and notoriously dangerous places of amusement, a corrupt and inefficient civil service, an\nunspeakable jail or workhouse, or above all men or women unemployed\ntime.\n\n—\n\nbecause they are inefficient, the superintendent or principal of schools has\n\nno right to an easy conscience. From the very nature of the case the\nleader of the schools has no private life. His personal conscience has perforce become a social conscience.\nWith the welfare of the children on his\nconscience by contract, he carries there also, by implicit understanding, the\nconditions which affect that welfare. Both working conditions and living\nconditions do vitally affect the present welfare of school children,\n\nand\n\ninversely the value of the education which the children receive is tested by\n\nthe extent to which those conditions are improved as the children take their\nplace in active life in successive years.\nrising,\n\nIs the standard of living steadily\n\nthe death-rate falling, the working life lengthening, then the pre-\n\nsumption is that the schools are not wholly ineffective. Are the homes\nmore sanitary, the food more wholesome and better prepared, the standards\nof taste in art, literature, furniture, and dress, etc., improving, then the\neducation of the children must have some, at least, of the elements that are\nrequired. If there is to be this close relation between the school and the\ncommunity, the one who leads the school, who has the guiding voice in\nshaping the curriculum, in establishing the educational standards, must be\na leader also in the community, helping there effectively to shape the larger\n\ncurriculum of the school of life, to establish social standards, to learn at\nfirst hand what are the real problems of the city and of the nation.\n\nIt has occurred to\n\nme that it would be an excellent thing for every\n\nsuperintendent of schools to be tempted at least once in his life to become\n\na thorogoing radical revolutionist.\nto yield to the temptation.\n\nIf\n\nI do not know that I should want him\n\nhe can\n\nreassurances that conservative progress\n\nsummon forces of equilibrium,\npossible, so much the better;\n\nis\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": "149", "text": "EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n149\n\nbut no man who has ever faced squarely the evidences to the contrary, who\nhas felt the sickening, unhuman misery which disease, unemployment, or\n\neven mere inefficiency bring in their train, felt them until his soul revolts\nangrily against the civilization of which they are the seamy side, will fail\nto understand the plea for such further transformation of the schools as\nwill make them mighty engines of social improvement.\n\nShake the schools from their still too complacent lethargy, my brethren;\nbring them into line with the insurgency against social injustice, social\nneglect, social ignorance, social exploitation, social impotence.\n\nGive us a\n\nrace of men who are sound in body, who cannot be exploited, who will know\n\nhow to combine in the common interest, not class conscious but community\nconscious, spurning from their midst the conditions which break down\nhealth and the conditions which break down character, watching with\ntender solicitude every influence which heals and strengthens and enriches\nthe common life.\n\nYou have made the schools democratic, now make them\nYou have made them free, now make\nthem from the social point of view more valuable. You have put psychology\nand nature study into them, now put social economy and civic nurture into\nthem. You have taught the facts about alcohol and tobacco, now teach\nmore thoroly and drive home to the understanding the facts about intemperance in food, overeating, and undernourishment. You have brought\npositively and constructively social.\n\npeople to the point at which they are willing to be counted once in ten years\n\nNow bring them to the point at which they will not balk at\n\nin the census.\n\nregistering continuously births, deaths, marriages, diseases, residence, and\n\noccupation.\n\nI wonder whether even in this audience there would not be\n\na substantial minority who would fail to see the necessity for a complete,\ncontinuously corrected registration of the entire population.\nis\n\nAnd yet there\n\nno simpler test of whether the inoculation of the socializing process has\n\nreally taken.\n\nI may seem to have spoken as if the school were the only agency of\nsocial welfare;\n\nas if the whole responsibility for the prevention of poverty,\n\nand other social ills unnamed devolves upon the school.\nBut I do not forget that the family exists; that churches exist; that industry\nitself has certain responsibilities; that the state has created and will gradudisease, crime,\n\nally bring to greater independent usefulness such agencies of social welfare\n\nas the public-health service, industrial commissions, and a factory-inspec-\n\nthat numerous voluntary social agencies such as settlements\nwith their clubs, philanthropic societies with their varied preventive and\ntion service;\n\neducational programs have their part to play; and that it is high time for\n\nus to consider anew the relation of all these agencies to one another.\n\nThe public school has undoubtedly suffered from the tendency to\nimpose upon it too many tasks even if it were well suited for each of them\nseverally, which it is not.\n\nI\n\nam no friend of the pack-mule theory of edu-\n\ncation even if the \"donkey\" were more patient.\n\nIt is true that almost any\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": "150", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI50\n\n[Richmond\n\ngroup of enthusiastic well-organized fanatics have found the schools an easy\nvictim of their propagating zeal.\n\nIt is not surprising if after many expe-\n\nriences school men become a trifle cautious about admitting new claimants,\n\neven if they come in the name of progress. What is most of all needed is an\nunderstanding, a differentiation of functions, a co-ordination of social\nagencies, a survey of overlapping fields.\n\nRecognizing that under existing conditions the family rather than the\nschool is responsible for health, so far, at least, as it relates to original physical constitution and resistance, and that the home and that composite of\n\ninfluences which for convenience we may call the street have perhaps more\n\nthan the school to do with determining whether a boy is to be law-abiding,\nthe third of our big responsibilities, protection from poverty and failure in\nlife by the development of efficiency, certainly remains largely if not primarily on the school.\n\nIt is fortunate that our generation is inclining to\n\nformulate the task of education largely in economic terms, in terms of\nearning and spending, of productive efficiency and standards of living.\n\nThose are no ignoble or materialistic terms. It is a misinterpretation of\nthis tendency to say that it is for the advantage of industry.\nThe demand for economic efficiency is made, not in the interests of\nindustry, but in the name and in the interests of education. If we can\nincrease by 50 per cent the earning capacity of the boy who enters industry,\nwe shall make him relatively independent of his employer at the same time\nthat we bind them closer together in mutual interest. If he becomes worth\nnine dollars a week at the start instead of six to industry, he becomes by the\nsame educational process worth more than that to himself. I am far\nfrom suggesting that earning capacity at the moment of leaving school\nis the only or even the best test\n\nof the efficiency of the schools, but it is a\nvery definite test and one from which the exponents of modern ideas in\n\neducation dare not shrink.\n\nMen and women who are fit to do the work of\n\nthe world and keen to appreciate in due proportions the fruits of labor,\n\ncapable workers, and discriminating ultimate consumers and producers of\n\nwealth\n\n— these are the goal of education as the social economist would\n\nformulate it, asking from the schools not everything, but a generous slice.\nof that large everything of which social welfare consists.\n\nFUNDAMENTAL DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN LIBERAL AND\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nI.\n\nDAVID SNEDDEN, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR MASSACHUSETTS,\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nFor many years, even centuries, secondary schools, colleges, and elementary schools have existed for the purpose of giving to young people,\nand especially to those of greatest promise, what we call general, or liberal,\neducation. Every civilization has had its schools, wherein have been taught\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": "151", "text": "LIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n151\n\nthe vernacular and other languages, philosophy, science, art, literature, and\nhistory.\n\nMany and varied have been the alleged objects of this general\n\neducation.\n\nAt times, peoples have sought thru it to increase and diffuse\n\nthe social inheritance of culture which they had evolved largely from within\nthemselves.\nto\n\nIn other eras, peoples have sought thru their schools primarily\n\nmake available the liberal learning of other peoples and sometimes of\n\nother ages.\n\nSo long have schools for the giving of general culture existed that their\nmethods and processes have become fixed and stereotyped those that\nare wasteful and ill adapted hardly less than those that are fruitful and\ndemonstrably efficient. These methods and processes, like those found in\nthe pre-scientific stages in almost all other lines of human endeavor, have\nbeen formed thru ages of selection, have become crystallized as customs,\nand are approved and defended usually with all the fervor that attaches to\n\n—\n\nthe historic laiths.\n\nBut in education the ages of faith are coming to an end and the age\nEducation henceforth can rest on a basis of custom\nand dogma hardly more than can medicine, engineering, agriculture, and war.\nThe public is forcing the demand for a more purposeful, a more scientific,\nand a more efficient liberal education in the schools. This demand is not\nalways articulate and always lacks definition, but it is real, nevertheless.\nIt is the public, likewise, that is back of the present demand for schools\nof science is drawing on.\n\nfor vocational education.\n\nVocational education has hitherto been carried\n\non in civilized society largely by agencies other than schools, among which\nthe shop and the home have been the most conspicuous. Schools have,\nindeed, long existed wherein have been trained physicians, engineers,\nteachers, accountants, military leaders, and the like.\nThese schools have\ncome to be recognized as the chief agencies in training for the professions;\nbut for other callings, not professions such as those followed by the car-\n\n—\n\npenter, the machinist, the weaver, the farmer, the cook, the stone-cutter,\n\nand the thousand other specialized workers in modern society\nhave yet been organized or even projected.\n\n—few schools\n\nNow comes the twentieth century, with its demands on America, as\non other civilized countries, that opportunities for vocational training in\nschools shall be made available for any and all of those desirous of entering\n\nthe great variety of pursuits wherein\nservice to the world.\n\nmen and women contribute useful\n\nIt is a matter of easy demonstration that the work-\n\nshop, the home, and other non-school agencies are unable, under modern\nconditions, to\n\nHistory\n\nis\n\nmeet the demand\n\nhere repeating\n\nitself,\n\nfor\n\nan\n\nefficient vocational\n\neducation.\n\nsince schools of general learning were\n\nestablished when the home, the church, and the forum proved unequal to\n\nthe task of providing liberal education in needed amounts.\n\nStatesmen and educators are now confronted by the gigantic work of\norganizing vocational schools in great variety and in large\n\nnumber to\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": "152", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n152\n\nsupplement schools of general education.\n\n[Richmond\n\nSociety is demanding that these\n\nand\nhomemaking occupations and is insistent that such schools shall not\ndisregard the needs and capacities of any young people over fourteen years\nof age, as these are confronted by the necessities of entering upon profitschools provide training for the agricultural, commercial, industrial,\n\nable occupations.\n\nThe difficulties to be encoxmtered in establishing vocational schools\nFew satisfactory precedents\n\nare great and almost endless in number.\n\nfor systematic vocational education for occupations other\n\nfessions exist.\n\nthan the pro-\n\nProfessional schools offer but limited suggestion as to suc-\n\ncessful forms of vocational education for agricultural, industrial, and other\n\nnon-professional pursuits.\nIt is very necessary that, before we begin to organize vocational schools,\n\nto formulate courses of instruction,\n\nand to train teachers for vocational\n\neducation, we should endeavor to state, as clearly and definitely as possible,\n\nour theories as to effective aims and methods for this form of education.\nThe public will charge us, and rightly so, with gross inefficiency if we undertake to spend the public money in creating new types of education before\n\nwe have clearly defined our aims and plans for its profitable administration.\n\nWe occupy the position of educational architects.\n\nIt is to us that the public\n\nlooks, first, for our sketched plans of the structures that it is proposed to\nerect, and, later, for detailed plans and specifications.\n\nThe questions first encountered are as to how far vocational education\nresembles, in\n\nits\n\nunderlying principles, desirable methods and serviceable\n\npractices, the forms of historic school education with which we have already\n\nbecome familiar.\n\nWhat are the essential likenesses and differences between\n\nvocational education and the general, or liberal, education which now for\n\nmany centuries we have seen carried on in school and college ? How can\nwe expect to utilize our experience in connection with general or liberal\neducation as a basis in devising a suitable practice in vocational schools ?\n\nTo what extent can the two forms of education be carried on side by side,\nor merged, in actual practice, and to what extent must they be kept distinct\n\nand perhaps, in a measure, opposed to each other?\n\nHow far will it be\n\npracticable to utilize existing administrative machinery, including such\nfactors as school boards, superintendents of schools, school principals,\n\nschool buildings,\n\nand the various material appurtenances of education,\n\nto accomplish the ends both of liberal and of vocational education?\n\nTo\n\nwhat extent can teachers trained for the one form be utilized in the other ?\nObviously, these questions are of fundamental importance, in view of the\nprevalent tendency to demand that the existing school organization shall\n\nbe expanded so as to include the new forms of education.\nIt is the primary thesis of this paper that vocational education differs\nfrom general, or liberal, education fundamentally as regards its essential\n\naims, and that, therefore, it will differ also, fundamentally, as regards the\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": "153", "text": "LIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n153\n\nmeans and methods of instruction, as well as the administrative agencies\nwhich are intimately related to means and methods of instruction. It is\nfurther contended that vocational education and liberal education cannot\nbe effectively carried on, so far as regards a given group of pupils, in a way\nwhich permits of a considerable blending of the unlike types of instruction.\nTo attempt this is to defeat the aims both of liberal and of vocational\ntraining.\n\nOne of the essential conditions of genuine efficiency in either\neducation is a considerable degree of concentration\n\nliberal or vocational\n\non the part of the pupil on the one type or the other, so far as regards the\nexpenditure of his time and energy in any given time.\n\nThe chief difficulties encountered in the effort to make the foregoing\nthesis comprehensible arise from the fact that, as respects many phases of\n\neducation and especially that of secondary grade, we have as yet no\n\naims which are of demonstrable validity.\n\nclearly defined\n\nof the effort which we\n\nA large part\n\nexpend on general education is directed by aims\n\nwhich are the outgrowth of custom, crude psychological analysis, and vague\naspirations after culture and social efficiency. These aims do not yet stand\nthe tests of efficiency as should aims that are scientifically derived and purposefully pursued.\nClearly, there is as yet comparatively little definiteness to be found in\n\nour formulations of the aims of any of the forms of education.\n\nIndeed,\n\nwe educators seem to be reluctant to define our aims in ways that are\nconcrete and specific.\n\nIt is a reproach to education that this should be so.\n\nWith the exception of a few of the subjects taught in the primary grades, it\nseems clear that we have quite failed so to define our educational purposes\nas to demonstrate,\n\non the one hand, their worth or validity, and, on the\n\nmake such purposes serve both as the guide and as the\nmeasure of the results which we attain thru the practices that we employ.\nA few illustrations may serve to make this statement clearer. In the\nprimary school, among other ends held in view, is that of teaching children\nother hand, to\n\nto write\n\n—that\n\npenmanship.\n\nis, of giving them mastery of the art and skill designated as\nThe educational value of this subject is one about which\n\nthere can be comparatively little dispute.\n\nWe have not, perhaps, as yet\n\ndefined our standards of attainment quite clearly.\n\nNevertheless,\n\nwe all\n\nappreciate that the ability to write constitutes a distinct social asset for\n\nevery individual, both in his vocational and in his cultural relationships\n\ntoward life, and that effort expended in giving the pupil mastery of this\nart is well worth while.\n\nEfforts are now being made to define more pre-\n\ncisely the standards of legibility, speed, and form which should determine\n\nour aims in the various grades.\n\nWhen we come to know with a reasonable degree of certitude the purposes which should control in the teaching of penmanship, we can turn to a\ndiscussion of the most suitable means and methods of realizing these aims.\n\nWe are able to test, comparatively, various methods of teaching.\n\nIn the\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": "154", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n154\n\n[Richmond\n\ncourse of time we shall undoubtedly find ourselves able to test the efficiency of teachers, as well as their methods, in terms of the product of their\nteaching.\n\nA similar condition exists as regards formal reading and spelling as\nelementary education where aims are quite satisfactorily\n\nsubjects\n\nof\n\ndefined.\n\nBut outside of these limited fields, we possess no satisfactory\n\ndefinitions of valid\n\naims such as a well-developed educational scheme\n\nobviously requires.\n\nWe have, for example, been urging for many years the introduction\ninto the elementary school of rudimentary science teaching, variously\n\n''elementary science,\" and \"general\nBut we have never yet developed a generally acceptable formu-\n\ncharacterized as \"nature study,\"\nscience.\"\n\nWe\nWe have set\n\nlation as to the aims which should control in teaching this subject.\n\nhave argued in many tongues as to its educational value.\n\nup for it, indeed, a variety of aims, of a more or less mystical nature,\nusually expressed by such general phrases as \"love of nature,\" \"general\ninformation,\" and \"scientific spirit.\" None of these formulations of aim\nhave stood the test of time in the sense that they serve to define and test\nmethods of teaching. A partial consequence of this situation is that means\nand methods of teaching nature study, as well as the organization of the\nsubject itself, have been without guiding purpose, and have therefore\nremained chaotic, vague, and futile.\nSimilar criticisms can be appUed to much of the other work in elementary\nThe situation in secondary education is worse. We surely have,\nschools.\nfor example, no clearly defined purposes to control in the teaching of mathe-\n\nmatics in high schools— purposes, that\n\nis,\n\nof a demonstrable validity.\n\nTwo purposes now are supposed to guide our efforts in this field—-one that\nof fitting pupils for examination and the other that of giving general mental\n\ntraining.\n\nNeither of these objects, however, can be called educationally\n\nThe first is surely not an end, but a means, while the latter possesses\nno necessary connection with the steps which are now taken in mathematical\nteaching. In other words, tho we may intend that mental training shall\nresult from the teaching of mathematics, we have no assurance that it\nvalid.\n\ndoes so result, nor is this end yet so clearly defined as to have a bearing\nupon the means and methods of instruction which we employ.\nIt would appear that we should be capable of giving more clear\ndefinitions to vocational, than to liberal, education, because in its simplest\n\nand most\n\nsignificant\n\nis some form of eduyoung person for a recognized calling. In\nvocational education, we have already, indeed,\n\nsense vocational education\n\ncation designed to equip a\n\nendeavoring to define\ncreated\nus,\n\nmany unnecessary obstacles.\n\nIt should surely\n\nbe possible for\n\nby studying the requirements of recognized callings, such as medi-\n\ncine,\n\nteaching, bookkeeping,\n\ncarpentering, printing, tailoring,\n\ncooking,\n\nand the like, to derive from each one and to define those specific re-\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": "155", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nLIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n155\n\nand ideals which persons\nHaving thus defined the ends\nwhich we are to achieve, the procedure of seeking appropriate means and\nmethods of realizing these aims should not be difficult.\nWe have undoubtedly been confused as regards vocational education,\non the one hand, by our efforts to link such education up with the practices\nof general, or of liberal, education.\nWe have also obscured the situation\nby our unwillingness to undertake in our schools more than a part of the\nquirements as to\n\nskill,\n\ntechnical knowledge,\n\ntrained for that vocation should possess.\n\nvocational training actually required to produce efficiency in a calling.\n\nIn most normal schools at the present time, for example, the ostensible\naim is to train teachers for elementary schools; but usually no clear distinction or difference exists between that training which is truly vocational in\nits nature and that other training which is designed to give culture and general intelligence to students in normal schools. The effort to make such a\ndistinction is often resented, as tho it would result in an impairment of the\nefficiency of instruction instead of greatly increasing such efficiency.\n\nAgain, engineering schools, while having made great progress in defining\nthe professional ends which they seek to achieve, have, nevertheless, also\nconstantly laid stress on certain general studies, especially mathematics\nand science, which are supposed in some way to furnish a background of\nprofessional competency.\n\nSimilarly, in schools designed to train mechanics,\n\nespecially where such schools have been influenced by the demand for technical instruction as it manifests itself in\n\nreluctance to\n\nevening schools, there has been a\n\nmake clear-cut distinctions between the kind of specific\n\ntraining that the successful mechanic requires in any particular field and\n\nthe general education which might be useful to him as a man, but which\n\nhas little or no direct bearing on his efficiency as a mechanic.\n\nThe failure\n\nto make those distinctions is largely due to the persistence of the academic\ntradition in all public education.\n\nAgain, while it is generally recognized that completely to equip a person\nfor any given calling requires not only a greater or less amount of instruc-\n\ntion in technical subjects related to that calling,\n\nbut also a considerable\n\namount of actual practice in the calling itself, under carefully controlled\nconditions, with a view to giving skill\n\nand the other habit-products of\n\nprolonged participation in actual work, it is obviously difficult for schools\nto provide this latter element in vocational training.\n\nIn the early stages of\n\nthe development of vocational education in schools, whether on the professional or other levels, the\n\nproblem of giving such training has been\n\nevaded.\nIt has been said above that the aims of liberal, or general, education,\n\nas now carried on, are not clearly defined.\n\nSome of the alleged aims con-\n\ntrolling in the choice of ways and means of liberal education are directed\n\ntoward what are, in reality, means only, as when a school seeks to make\nthe mastery of Latin, or of algebra, or of ancient history a goal of its efforts.\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": "156", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nIS6\n\n[Richmond\n\nOther aims, often held forth in glowing terms, but which are rarely analyzed\nand defined, are vague and mystical, lacking definite connection with the\neducational processes as actually administered.\n\nSuch are the ends described\n\nby the mystical phrases \"culture,\" \"character,\" \"mental\n\"self-realization,\" \"capacity for self-direction,\"\n\ndiscipline,\"\n\n\"social efficiency,\"\n\nand\n\nmany others of similar nature.\nBut in the best of contemporary practice where the liberal education\nof youth from fourteen to twenty years of age is concerned, three types of\n\naims\n\nmay be distinguished, each of which possesses obvious validity,\n\naltho the actual \"functioning\" of the means employed to attain them is\noften questionable.\n\nIn the first place, the attempt is made to have the youth master the\nuse of certain intellectual tools which are assumed to be capable of general\napplication in the pursuit of vocational, as well as in the pursuit of cultural,\n\nThe most perfect example of these intellectual tools is that of Eng-\n\nends.\n\nlish expression,\n\nwhile modern languages and mathematics probably rank\n\nnext in importance.\n\nIn the second place, contemporary secondary and college education\nseeks to have the youth become master of certain more general intellectual\nprocesses of work, such as scientific methods of inquiry, the use of logical\n\nmethods of reasoning, ready abilities to employ reference materials, and the\nlike.\n\nThis is not a well-defined aim yet.\n\nIn the third place, the endeavor is made to have the youth gain in appreciation of some of those forms of art, literature, science, and other divisions\nof the social inheritance, the general or universal possession of\n\nwhich is\n\nesteemed a thing of value.\n\nThe three foregoing classes of educational aims as found in liberal\nThe criticism that\nmay be made of the educational practice by which we seek to realize\nthem is that we yet possess no definite means of ascertaining to what\n\neducation are all, without doubt, valid in a degree.\n\nextent the practice based upon these aims actually produces the results\nsought.\nIt is probable that a more fundamental analysis of the aims of liberal\n\neducation will be necessary before the contrasts which undoubtedly exist\n\nbetween it and vocational education can be clearly defined.\n\nIt is also\n\nprobable that, to a certain extent, contemporary so-called \"liberal education\" is actually confused by the attempt to realize certain quasi- vocational\naims.\n\nFor example, it may be doubted whether algebra, as the subject\n\ncommonly taught, contributes in any way to culture or liberal learning,\nwhereas for some students it possesses undoubted usefulness as a vocational\ntool.\nThe attempt to teach it in conjunction with liberal studies, however,\n\nis\n\nleads to confusion, because the\n\nmethods of approach and the character\n\nof study suited to algebra as a vocational tool do not suit such studies as\n\nEnglish literature, history, and others of a more purely liberal nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": "157", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nLIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n157\n\nIt is the writer's conviction that the most useful definition of liberal\n\neducation now available is that which defines it primarily in terms of education toward higher utilization.\n\ntwofold relationship.\n\nMan stands, to the world about him, in a\n\nHe is a producer of utilities on the one hand, and on\n\nthe other, for his own growth and development, he must utilize utilities.\n\nThat education which trains him to be a producer is vocational education.\nThat education which trains him to be a good utilizer, in the social sense\nof that term, is liberal education.\n\nMen specialize their efforts greatly in producing utilities. Men become\nrespectively teachers, farmers, machinists, novelists, scientific investigators,\nengineers, sailors, in their endeavors to find fields of service adapted to\nthen: powers, the products of which are in social demand.\n\nOn the other hand, men as consumers, or utilizers, do not specialize.\nOwing to ignorance, undeveloped interests, and poverty, their standards of\nBut given sufficient leisure and economic\nliving may be low or deformed.\nresources, each one of us seeks to utilize literature, art, music, history,\nscience, newspapers, the drama, and the various forms of service rendered\n\nby those who minister to us in providing medical knowledge, means of travel,\nIn each of these directions,\nfoodstuffs, clothing, shelter, and protection.\ncapacities for right utilization can be refined, elevated, and socialized.\n\nAn education that seeks to make a man vocationally efficient must first\nfind a calling in which a given combination of inherited talents most ade-\n\nquately fits, after which systematic training toward efficiency in that calling\n\ncan be made a dominant purpose.\n\nA system of education which trains men\n\nas utilizers must touch the world at many points, often superficially, and\n\nwith due regard to inherited tastes and interests.\n\nThe pedagogical methods\n\nof approach to the two types of education must be fundamentally unlike\n\neach other.\nLiberal education embraces, however, something more than the development of appreciation and the ability to make valuable choices among the\n\nvarious utilities offered for man's utilization.\n\nIt\n\nmay include, as noted\n\nabove, in contemporary practice certain definite forms of training in the use\nof intellectual tools, such as reading a foreign language, and the like, and\nalso probably certain definite intellectual powers or habits which are capable\nof quite general application, such as appreciation of scientific method.\nIf the foregoing analysis possesses validity, it indicates quite clearly\n\ncertain distinctions that will follow in the organization\n\nand conduct of\n\nliberal education, on the one hand, and vocational education, on the other.\n\nVocational education will not be begun until the youth has reached an\n\nage suitable for active and concentrated participation in vocational activities\n\nDuring all the period of childhood, a\ncomprehensive system of education will give the child and youth abundant\n\nwith the vocational end in view.\n\nopportunity to participate in a great variety of the practical affairs of life,\n\nbut not on the vocational basis.\n\nHe will participate in them in play and\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": "158", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n158\n\nin the spirit of the amateur.\n\n[Richmond\n\nHe will gain in experience, enlarging his\n\nworld.\n\nBoth nature and custom, however, seem to indicate that for a large\nmajority of people vocational capacities as well as genuine vocational\ninterests develop between the ages of fourteen and twenty.\n\nDuring this\n\ntime the youth should have the opportunity to concentrate his endeavors\nfor long periods in acquiring vocational competency. This is not a time\nfor allowing liberal education to monopolize his attention.\n\ntion may, indeed, be still carried on as a minor\n\n— that\n\nis,\n\nLiberal educa-\n\noccupying leisure\n\nhours in evenings and holidays.\nIt may be expected that a vast deal will have been done for the youth,\nin the way of liberal education, long before he reaches fourteen years of\n\nFor those who have the time and the inclination, the period from\n\nage.\n\nfourteen to twenty may also be taken for liberal education, with the under-\n\nstanding that during this period every attempt will be made to raise the\n\nstandards of utilization manifested by the individual.\n\nIdeals, finer senti-\n\nments, appreciation of those products of civilization which are accessible\n\nwith difficulty should be cultivated.\n\nIt is in this field that the higher\n\nreaches of art, literature, science as a culture, the application of art to sur-\n\nroundings are to be made much of.\nIt is still questionable as to how far, during the adolescent period, any\nyouth may devote himself primarily to obtaining an extended Uberal education.\n\nIt is certainly possible that further inquiry will show us that for\n\nall youths a certain amount of devotion\n\nto vocational education, from the\n\nage of fourteen onward, will prove wholesome and valuable.\n\nThis voca-\n\ntional training, however, must be so adjusted as regards time and concen-\n\ntration as not to produce in the youth the spirit of the dilettante.\n\nLong\n\nperiods must be devoted to it, and the product must be of a definitely\n\nvaluable nature.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\neasy to give excessive attention to the abstract\n\nelements of vocational training at this time\n\n—a process which\n\nis probably\n\npsychologically unwise.\n\nAs a basis for future discussion as to the distinctions between Hberal and\nvocational education, the following theses, or conclusions, are submitted:\n1.\n\nThe permanently valid ends of liberal, or general, education are as\n\nyet shrouded in the clouds of mysticism.\n\nProximate or immediate ends,\n\nas expressed in terms of the mastery of subject-matter, are, of course, not\n\ngenuine ends, but in reality are means only.\n\nRemote and general ends as\n\nheld forth by secondary schools and colleges, such as \"mental discipline,\"\n\"culture,\" \"social efficiency,\" are too vague, intangible, and unrelated\nto the means actually employed in education to be of value in scientific\nanalysis of educational means and methods.\n2.\n\nUntil recently, vocational education as defined by school men has\n\nbeen, to a large extent, also confused by an element of mysticism.\n\nEdu-\n\ncators have fallen victims to the popular belief that some form of manual-\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": "159", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nLIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\ntraining or textbook instruction in various of the practical arts\n\ncontribute in marked degree to vocational efficiency.\nis\n\n159\n\nwould\n\nThis uncertainty-\n\nnow passing away, and, where sincere and positive thinking prevails,\n\nvocational education is capable of being defined quite clearly as to the aims\n\nwhich should control its processes, thus clearing the ground for a discussion\nof the most effective ways and means by which it is to be realized.\n3. From the standpoint of a sound social economy, there can be no\ndoubt that society is developing a constantly increasing need of a more\ngeneral and a more \"functioning\" liberal education, especially for young\npeople from twelve to eighteen or twenty years of age.\n4. Also, from the standpoint of a sound social economy, the demand of\nsociety that effective vocational education shall be available in vocational\nschools is sound and normal, this demand, in fact, growing out of the fact\nthat non-school agencies of vocational education have largely ceased to be\neffective in the face of modern demands.\n5.\n\nThere is ample evidence that vocational education, carried on in\n\nschools especially designed to meet the needs of some one calling, can be\n\nmade effective.\n\nSchools of medicine, engineering, pharmacy, stenography,\n\nmachine-shop practice, bricklaying, sign-painting, plumbing, and farming\n\nhave already demonstrated that a school organized primarily to train a\nyoung person to proficiency in a calling which he has determined to enter\nupon can be made effective.\n6. There is no satisfactory evidence that vocational education has been\nachieved to any satisfactory and economic degree in schools where such\neducation is blended with the traditional processes of liberal education.\n\nIn general, the commercial school that makes specific conamercial training\nonly a feature, and perhaps a minor feature, in a program of general education, while it\n\nmay give good general education, does not produce any\n\nconspicuous degree of vocational power.\n\nSelected graduates of such schools\n\nundoubtedly succeed in the occupations toward which the general\natmosphere of the school has directed their attention; but this is no proof\n\nwill\n\nthat vocational efficiency has been produced\ncourses offered in such schools.\n\nby the alleged vocational\n\nSimilarly, most existing secondary schools\n\nof agriculture do not actually produce competent ability in their students\n\nas farmers.\n7.\n\nAvailable evidence points to the conclusion that any school designed\n\nto give successful vocational education must make possible a large amount\nof concentration in the practical even more than in the theoretical phases\n\nof such education.\n\nAn evening school can be vocationally effective only\n\nif its instruction is intimately correlated\n\nto the wage-earning work done by\n\nits students during the eight or more hours of a working -day.\n\nA short course of instruction in an agricultural college can become\neffectively vocational for\n\npractical\n\nyoung farmers who have already faced, in a\n\nway, the problems of agriculture.\n\nOther so-called \"part-time\"\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": "160", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ni6o\n\n[Richmond\n\ncourses designed for people who have had practical experience can be made\neffective in this way.\n\nBut, for young people who have not already a learning basis in practical\nexperience, a vocational school must, to a large extent, reproduce practical\nprocesses, must give the pupil many hours of each working day in actual,\n\nand must closely correlate theoretical instruction to this\nTo meet these requirements, therefore, it is required that\nwhen the pupil enters a vocational school he should be able to give at least\nsix or eight hours per day of undivided attention to the ends of vocational\neducation. Under these conditions, liberal education must be regarded,\nfor such a pupil at this time, as a minor issue.\nSome liberal education will\nresult, as a by-product, from a sound program of vocational education;\nbut it is quite unwise to plan for any extended amount of liberal education\npractical work,\n\npractical work.\n\nin this way.\n8. It is desirable\n\nthat boys and girls shall be encouraged to remain in\n\nschools of general or liberal learning as long as their economic resources and\nposition justify.\n\nFor some, the proper time for leaving the general school\n\nmay be fourteen years of age, for others sixteen, for others eighteen, and for\nothers twenty-two.\n\nWhen, however, the time comes to turn to the voca-\n\ntional school, concentration of effort should be required for the latter purpose.\n9.\n\nIn much of liberal education the controlling purpose, pedagogically,\n\nis not to produce skill or highly organized and definite knowledge, but rather\n\nto\n\nexpand intellectual experience, to provide for deeper appreciation of\n\nthose things of the social inheritance that are most worth while, and to\nrefine tastes\n\nand create intellectual interests of various kinds.\n\nTo this\n\nend, the most effective pedagogical methods must be quite xmlike those\n\nwhich will give best results in vocational education.\n10.\n\nThe controlling purpose in vocational education being to produce\n\ncertain fairly definite forms of skill and power which shall enable the learner\n\nto become a successful producer of valuable service, the pedagogical methods\nto be employed must be those involving concentration, painstaking appli-\n\ncation to detail,\n\nand continuity of purpose.\n\nThese pedagogical methods\n\nwill be quite unlike those suited, in the main, to general or liberal education.\n11.\n\nAvailable experience points, therefore, to the conclusion that voca-\n\ntional and liberal schools should possess separate organization and administration, in order that there may not be fatal confusion of aims and processes\n\nemployed.\n\nThe vocational school must be in a position to go constantly\n\nto the world of economic activity, in order to derive clear knowledge of\n\nthe purposes which should control it. It should be governed by or possess\nan advisory conaunittee containing men who are intimately identified with\nthe occupation for which it trains, both as employers and employees. The\nvocational school should divest itself as completely as possible of the\nacademic atmosphere, and should reproduce as fully as possible the atmos-\n\nphere of economic endeavor in the field for which it trains.\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": "161", "text": "Superintendence]\n\n12.\n\nLIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\ni6l\n\nThe school of liberal learning, whether secondary or collegiate,\n\nshould increasingly bring its students into contact with the wide and varied\n\nforms of the social inheritance of our day, in order that they may gain in\n\npowers of appreciation and of effective response to it. The liberal school,\naiming to produce good \"utilizers,\" must develop a wide and very flexible\nprogram.\n\nThe school of liberal learning may well include so-called prac-\n\ncommercial subjects, and\n—manual training, household\nagriculture—as phases of\nlearning whereby pupils, thru participaarts\n\ntical\n\narts,\n\nliberal\n\nan\nSuch practical training is\n\ntion in practical activities in the spirit of the amateur, shall gain\n\nappreciation of the economic activities of life.\n\nnot to be regarded as vocational, since it does not bear profitable fruits in\nthis direction.\n\nIt may be so adjusted as to contribute valuable results to\n\nvocation finding\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\nit\n\nmay be pre-vocational training, in the true\n\nsense of that word.\n13. While vocational and liberal schools must be organized apart\nfrom each other, and on independent foundations, nevertheless the con-\n\ntrol of the two types should somewhere be unified, in order that a proper\n\nco-ordination of activities may result.\n\nIn a city, it might be well for the\n\nsuperintendent to have under him an assistant superintendent giving his\nentire time to vocational schools, the superintendent\n\neducation being the unifying force.\n\nand the board of\n\nIn states and communities not yet clear\n\nas to the purposes of the two forms of education, it is probable that the\n\nseparate organization of both a local and a state machinery of control for\nvocational education would expedite the development of right ideals and\n\nstandards of such education.\n\nIt will be\n\nmany years before the school-\n\nmaster, as such, will fully appreciate either the social significance or the\n\npedagogic requirements of genuine vocational education.\n\nn.\n\nW.\n\nC.\n\nBAGLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS,\nURBANA, ILL.\n\nIt is possible to contrast vocational education with cultural education\n\nfrom a number of different points of view. The contrast that appeals to\nme as most fundamental and thorogoing is based upon the necessity of\nproviding thru vocational education for specialized efficiency in some one\noccupation and of providing thru liberal education for adaptability to\nchanging conditions.\nIf we grant this as at least one important difference between the two\n\nwe have a possible explanation of the relative obscurity of aim\nwhich is charged so frequently against what we call liberal education.\n\ntypes,\n\nVocational education deals with a specific and tangible problem; liberal\neducation with a very complex problem\nresistant to helpful analysis.\ninfer\n\n—and a problem that\n\nis\n\nhighly\n\nThe grave danger lies in our tendency to\n\nfrom this difliculty of analysis that the problem is not really very\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": "162", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1 62\n\nimportant or that we can dispense with its solution.\n\n[Richmond\n\nThe great difficulty\n\nlies not in the fact that the aims of liberal education are inherently obscure\n\nbut rather in the fact that they are inherently remote and inherently broad\nBecause \"social efficiency,\" for example, or \"adapt-\n\nand comprehensive.\n\nability,\" or \"morality\" are so broad as to make analysis difficult, it does\n\nnot follow that they are unimportant or that we can replace them by\n\nnarrower aims.\n\nWhat we must do is to analyze them and find what inter-\n\nmediate ends must be interpolated, so to speak, between our practical work-\n\naday teaching task and the remote end that we seek.\nIn certain respects, liberal education has accomplished this task. It\nhas recognized the importance of mastering certain units of knowledge\n\nwhich represent certain large and admittedly important phases of human\nThis has been a definite aim looking toward a more remote\nexperience.\n\nand while the exact connection between the immediate aim of getting\nand the remote aim of\nbecoming socially efficient on the other hand has often been lost to view,\nthe solid fact remains that getting lessons and passing examinations has\ndone something to secure the desired results. We are hearing so often\ntoday these charges that the traditional methods and processes of teaching\nhave been utterly futile that we are coming to take the statement as a\ngoal;\n\nlessons and passing examinations on the one hand\n\nfact without asking for the evidence.\n\nThe evidence for these sweeping\n\nindictments has, so far as I know, never been presented.\n\nThere is abundant\n\nevidence that we fail with certain individuals and that we fail to realize\nall of\n\nthe possibilities with all individuals.\n\nBut, after all has been said,\n\nthat policy which emphasizes the systematic mastery of race experience as\n\nthe basic condition of human welfare and human progress is clearly established.\n\nIt remains for us to improve and refine the methods and processes\n\nthru which we seek to attain our ends.\n\nWe need certainly to be clearer\n\nupon the precise nature and function of these interpolated aims, and for\nthis reason we should be grateful for the suggestions which Dr. Snedden\nmakes in this interesting distinction between the productive activities and\nthe consumptive activities.\n\nHe would define vocational education as that which aims to develop\nthe productive capacities; he would define liberal or cultural education as\nthat which aims to develop capacities \" for utilizing the products of others\n\nupon a broad and social scale.\" The distinction is only partially new, for\nrepresents altho upon a broader plane the older distinction between\nan education which prepared for work and an education which prepared\nfor leisure.\nThe older distinction harks back to the time when leisure\nand labor were sharply differentiated by the all but impassible chasm of\nsocial caste.\nThe gentleman was the man of leisure, and essentially the\nconsumer; the working-man was essentially the producer, and the man of\ntoil.\nThe trend of social organization and development today is to combine these two functions in one and the same individual, to insist that every\nit\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": "163", "text": "LIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nSupmntendencel\n\n163\n\nman produce at least in proportion to his consumption, and to insist that\nevery man consume with reference, not to his own selfish gratification,\nbut to his efficiency as a producer and to the service that he should render\nsociety.\n\nWhile I should agree with Dr. Snedden that an important task of\nliberal education is to train the consumer to utilize intelligently and upon a\n\nbroad social plane the products of others, I cannot agree with him that this\nconstitutes an ultimate or even an exclusive function of this type of education.\nI believe, furthermore, that an attempt to distinguish between the\ntwo types of education on this basis, while it will clarify certain aims of\nliberal education, will obscure and often entirely hide others that are much\nmore important. My objections to the production-consumption theory\nmay be summed up under the following heads:\nI. In the first place, production and consumption are convenient\nabstractions made by the economist for the same purpose that other\nabstractions are made by other sciences the purpose, namely, of promoting clear thinking with reference to a specific problem. The economist's\ntask is to define wealth and to describe the processes by which wealth is\ncreated and consumed. Now, by extending the idea of wealth to include\n\n—\n\nall\n\npossible goods of\n\nlife\n\n—immaterial goods as well as material goods,\n— quite clear that\n\nanything that satisfies human desires of any kind\n\nit is\n\nproduction and consumption may be made to cover a large number of life's\nactivities.\n\nIt would be quite possible to conclude with Professor Weeks that\n\nthese economic terms comprise and include all of one's relationships; for,\n\nfrom this point of view, one is always either satisfying one's needs or\nproducing satisfiers for the needs of one's self and others.\n\nIt is, I repeat,\n\nquite possible to reach this conclusion and to base a theory of educational\n\nvalues upon this distinction.\nin solving our problem?\n\nBut, granting the possibility, does it help us\n\nAre not these two terms, like all the technical\n\nterms used by special sciences, really abstractions devised for the purpose\n\nAnd is there not always a danger in applying\n\nof solving special problems ?\n\nthese abstractions to processes that they were not intended primarily to\n\n—a danger of narrowing our point of view and of overlooking impor-\n\ncover\n\ntant values simply because it is difficult to fit them into our special categories ?\n\nNow the processes of life can be comprehended under an infinite\n\n—\n\nabstractions that can be easily made to\ncomprise the whole gamut of experience just as comprehensively as do pro-\n\nvariety of separate abstractions\n\nduction and consumption.\n\n''Matter\" and \"motion,\" for example, can be\n\nmade to cover the universe.\n\nOrganic life can be reduced to \"nutrition \" and\n\"reproduction\"; and I have no doubt that an enthusiastic biologist could\n\nconstruct a plausible theory of educational values based upon these two\nabstractions.\n\n\"Normal\" and \"abnormal,\" \"healthful\" and \"patho-\n\nlogical,\" \"sane\" and \"insane\"\n\n— each of these pairs of terms can be used to\n\nseparate the human species into two great varieties.\n\nAnd each of these\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": "164", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ni64\n\n[Richmond\n\npairs of teclinical abstractions is useful and valuable in respect of the specific\nproblem for the solution of which it was devised. We may apply them\nbeyond the limits of these specific problems, but in so doing we are incurring\nrisks of which we should at least be cognizant before we invade other fields.\nThe field of education has always been peculiarly open to this type of\nexploitation at the hands of doctrinaires. Twenty years ago, when I\nbegan the study of education, I was convinced that its problems could\nbe adequately described, formulated, and solved in terms of nerve cells and\n\nnerve fibers. These concepts of physiological psychology had their brief\nday and added their small mite to educational theory a day much briefer\nand a mite much smaller than I dreamed of at that time. A little later,\nexperimental psychology, with its distinction between the motor-minded\nand the eye-minded and the ear-minded, held the field. Then genetic\npsychology, with its culture-epoch-parallelism, came and went in its turn,\nleaving behind it a host of disappointed hopes and a few grains of precious\n\n—\n\ntruth.\n\nAnd today a veritable host of abstractions are clamoring for educa—Madame Montessori with\n\ntional content to give them meat and substance\n\nher borrowings from the Italian anthropologists and the French alienists,\nto say nothing of her Mediterranean theory of morality and her rejection of\n\nthe statisticians with their modes\nand their medians, their traits and abilities; the behaviorists with their\n\nsacrifice and duty as second-rate virtues;\n\npuzzle-boxes; the physical educationists with their glorification of muscle\n\nand brawn; the pragmatists with their contempt for the absolute; and a\nhost of others.\n\nAs has been suggested, each of these partial points of view has its own\nadvantages and its own mite to contribute toward the solution of our problem.\n\nWe should not have it thought that we do not welcome them. EduWe are anxious for all the light\n\ncation has never failed to welcome them.\n\nBut no single\nnorm, borrowed from a science which must, by the very nature of science,\nthat our sister sciences can bring to illuminate our task.\n\nbe an abstraction from the total of human experience, should be accepted as\na criterion for educational values.\n\nEducation, too, has its own specific\n\nand its own specific problem; and it must insist upon its right to\nformulate its own standards and to define its own task.\n2. But all this represents a theoretical objection to Dr. Snedden's\nproposals. Let us pass to the practical difficulties which beset the applicafield\n\ntion of his doctrine.\n\nIn the first place, it is clear that there is no sharp\n\ndistinction between a man as a producer and as a consumer.\n\nA man does\n\nnot produce during so many hours of the day and then consume or utilize\nduring the remainder of his time.\n\nAs a producer, he is also a consumer.\n\nIn\n\nhis vocational life, he is utilizing the skill that he has learned from others or\n\ndeveloped for himself; he is utilizing the tools that others have invented;\nhe is utilizing the principles and rules of procedure that have come to him\n\nfrom the past experience of his fellow-workers; he is utilizing the ideals.\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": "165", "text": "••\n\nLIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n165\n\nthe standards, and the tastes that the race has wrought out of its long\nexperience.\n\nWhat phase of education is to be responsible for the inculca-\n\ntion of these skills, tools, principles, ideals, standards, and tastes which he\nutilizes as\n\na producer ?\n\nObviously both his vocational education and his\n\nIs a man who\nconsuming literature and art adding to his vocational efficiency ? Certainly if he is not gaining new strength, new standards, new enthusiasms\n\nso-called liberal education will contribute each its own share.\nis\n\nfor his daily work, his recreative activities are a pretty costly luxury.\n\nAgain, there are certain fundamental activities of life which I defy\nanyone to classify satisfactorily as either predominantly productive or\npredominantly consumptive. Take, for example, two activities of life\nwith which education, by common consent, must be intimately concerned\nthe activities involved in citizenship and the activities involved in the home\nrelations.\nWhen a man is a good citizen, is he a producer or a consumer or\nboth or neither ? Certainly one might say that he is producing good government in which case training for citizenship is vocational training. Consequently training for good citizenship belongs in a separate vocational school\nwhere it will not be confused and rendered ineffective by the processes that\nare preparing pupils to be consumers that is, if the producer-consumer\ntheory means anything. This, of course, is akin to word-quibbling;\nbut it simply illustrates the absurdity of applying economic concepts to a\nfield that they do not include and with which their relationships, while\nimportant, are upon an entirely different level than that contemplated in\nthe application. The same strictures could be passed upon the attempt to\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThey simply will not fit. They\nThe housewife is both a producer and a con-\n\ncover home activities by these concepts.\nconfuse rather than help.\n\nsumer, and the activities are so intimately interwoven that any attempt\n\nEven if we take the mere\nwe may say that a woman con-\n\nto separate them leads to hopeless confusion.\n\nmatter of aesthetic adornment, while\n\nsumes the artistic products of others, she is producing or trying to produce\nattractiveness something, let us say, for others to look upon and admire\nthat is, to consume.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nAgain,\n\nlet\n\nus test the production-consumption theory by application\n\nto certain accepted subjects in the elementary and secondary programs.\n\nWe shall all agree, I take it, that every individual should know that the\nearth is round.\n\nIs this fact productive or consumptive in its tendencies ?\n\nObviously, neither; and yet it is a basic fact with which everyone must\n\nbe familiar.\n\nA theory of educational values must make some provision for\n\nthat type of value which is purely conventional; for it is a very real type\nthat\n\nwe should neglect with certain disaster.\n\nShall\n\nwe teach literature\n\nin order primarily to give the pupil a taste for good literature and so enable\n\nhim to consume literature more effectively and helpfully, or shall we also\ntry to make literature the vehicle of great ideals and standards of conduct\ncrystallized in fundamental types of character?\nIf we do the latter as\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": "166", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1 66\n\nwell as the former, we are influencing every phase of life\nwell as consumptive.\n\nShall we teach physics as a\n\n[Richmond\n\n—productive as\n\nliberal\n\nsimply and solely to make the pupil a better consumer ?\n\nstudy in order\n\nA consumer of\n\nwhat? Electric lights ? Automobiles? Pumps? Literature on physics ?\nBut would these useful consumptive capacities be at all inconsistent with\ngiving the pupil some comprehension of the method of science, some appreciation of what mechanical progress has cost? And would this not affect\nhis productive life just as much as his consumptive life\nand a form of life\nmost of all that is neither productive nor consumptive, but more important\n\n—\n\nthan either ?\n3.\n\nOne further objection, however, I should urge against this dis-\n\ntinction;\n\nand that is that it perpetuates an older prejudice under which the\n\nso-called liberal education already suffers too much.\n\nI refer to the notion\n\nthat the liberal education is in some way opposed to the practical things\nof life.\n\nIt is natural that this notion should have held sway at the time\n\nwhen liberal education was the prerogative of the leisure class; but even then\nit did not always or perhaps often mean impracticality.\nIt meant efficiency\nof a different sort than that which we should include under the head of\ntechnical skill. It meant often productive efficiency of a high order, and\nnot alone capacity for utilizing the products of others.\nit\n\nIt often meant, as\n\noften means today, constructive leadership, the highest kind of produc-\n\ntive efficiency.\n\nBut the old distrust of liberal education still clings, in spite of the fact\nthat human freedom owes to liberal education its existence today; in spite\nof the fact that the surest measure of a nation's station in the scale of\ncivilization is most clearly indicated by the extent to which liberal educa-\n\ntion is diffused among its masses.\n\nOur public schools are branded today\n\nas a failure by the more radical advocates of the very plan that Dr. Snedden\n\n—\n\nproposing. Yet with a predominantly liberal program characterized\nby all the vagueness that Dr. Snedden has described these schools have\nsucceeded in saving us from the fate of Mexico and Bulgaria and Spain\nand Russia. Never was anything more unjust than this persistence of the\nis\n\n—\n\nnotion that liberal education is impractical.\nthis\n\nAnd one reason why I dislike\n\nproducer-consumer theory is that it still represents that unjust and\n\nworn-out prejudice.\n\nDub a program of studies as designed to produce\n\nThe conEven the cartoonist takes a shot at him,\ndelineating him as a diminutive, weak-jawed, bespectacled individual who\nis continually being ground down by the tariff-protected producer.\nThere\nis no particular credit in the popular mind in being a consumer; it is something that one just has to be. Think what a time the consumer has had\nefficient consumers, and you give it a black eye from the start.\n\nsumer is not a popular idol.\n\nin this\n\ncountry in getting a slight recognition of his rights!\n\nI fear that\n\nwith this theory in full swing he would have an equally hard struggle in\neducation.\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": "167", "text": "—\nSuperintendence]\n\n4.\n\nLIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n167\n\nToward constructive differentiation of the two terms under discus-\n\nsion, I should offer the following suggestions:\n\nThat the distinction between vocational and liberal education\nnow current in our discussions be replaced by a distinction between\nspecific education on the one hand and general education on the other hand.\nHere the differentiating principle would be extremely simple: Educational\nmaterials and processes which are of chief or exclusive value in training for\nspecialized occupations or modes of life will comprise the materials and\nprocesses of specific education. Those materials and processes which will\nFirst:\n\nwhich is\n\nbe of probable value to every individual, whatever his specific occupation\nor mode of life may be, will constitute the content of general education.\nIf desired, specific education\n\nmay be divided into subordinate types, of\n\nwhich vocational education, as we now understand the term, may be one.\nGeneral education may also be subdivided into at least three well-recognized\n\nThe first of these is most clearly represented by the tj^ical elemenprogram\nof studies.\nIt comprises those habits, skills, knowledges, and\ntary\nideals which must be made the common property of all: (i) the arts of\nspeaking, writing, and reading; the fundamental arts of computation;\n(2) the specific habits that make up the universal social amenities\ngood behavior, deference to age and womanhood, respect for the authority\nof the law as representing the collective will of society, and social service;\n(3) the habits and ideals that make for personal and social health; (4) the\nhabits and the information representing the fundamentals of good citizenship; (5) the basic facts of geography and of national history; and (6) those\nmethods of work that are applicable to all types of human endeavor so\ntypes.\n\nfar as these can be made the common property of all.\n\nThis type of general\n\neducation should have a name which I am not ready to propose, but I\nshall call it for the sake of convenience fundamental education.\n\nA second type of general education I shall call liberal education. Its\nprimary aim will be to make the individual adaptable to changing situations.\nIt will equip him, not so\n\nmuch with specific skill in the narrower sense,\n\nfor this is the function of\n\nfundamental and vocational education which\n\nprepares for situations that can be predicted with reasonable certainty.\nLiberal education will deal rather with explanatory principles which will\n\ngive him the possibility of a rational control over new situations which\n\nwe cannot foresee, but which we are morally certain will arise in his life.\nIt will\nIt will aim to make the world just as meaningful to him as possible.\nhim\ndevise\nmethods,\naim to give\nthe power to detect new situations and to\nimplements, and devices for their solution. It will furnish him with standards of value, thru which he can view his problems in their proper proportions\n\n—not distorted by\n\nlocal, selfish, sectional, or partisan points of view.\n\nIt will rid his mind of the fallacy of the immediate; thru the study of history, it will give him a time-perspective upon his own life and upon the\n\nissues of his own generation which he must help to meet.\n\nThru science,\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": "168", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ni68\n\n[Richmond\n\n—\n\nmind of superstition and fraud and error those soul-destroying\nand energy-destroying forces that reduce strong men to the helplessness\nof infancy.\nThru literature and art, it will reveal the finer and more subtle\nforces which dominate human motives and so often determine human\nconduct forces so subtle that only the masters can detect them and interpret them but which, once caught and crystallized, are available to all who\ncan appreciate and understand.\nit will rid his\n\n—\n—\n\nHow much of this liberalizing or \"liberating\" education we can give to\nevery individual will depend upon a variety of factors\n\n:\n\nhow long we can keep\n\nhim in school; how clearly we can connect these materials and processes with\nthe motives and interests that dominate him at the time; how skilfully we\ncan stimulate effort to the systematic mastery of recorded knowledge;\nwith what economy we can meet the demands of fundamental education on the one hand and of vocational education on the other hand.\n\nMy\n\ncontention in the present connection is that we have here a type of training,\ncoeval in its importance with fundamental education and vocational education.\n\nFrom the point of view of a national policy of education, this type\n\n— for\n\nneeds perhaps the greatest emphasis\n\nit is\n\nthe liberal education, inter-\n\npreted in thi3 way, and made universal among the people, that makes a\nnation truly great.\n\nIt is because an education of this sort inevitably leaves\n\n—\n\nits stamp upon every act of a man's life\n\n'it\n\nis for this reason that I protest\n\nagainst identifying liberal education exclusively with the training of the\n\nconsumptive or\n\nutilizing capacities.\n\nI protest, too, against the theory\n\nthat this type of education is merely for adornment or for enjoyment.\nlies\n\nat the very basis of progress.\n\npelling motive of toil and sacrifice and effortful achievement.\n\ntoday the world's great battles\n\n—\n\nIt\n\nIt furnishes very frequently the com-\n\nit is in the very\n\nIt is fighting\n\nvan of the struggle against\n\ncorruption and evil and exploitation and injustice.\n\nIt is not alone unfair to\n\nliberal education to give it (in the eyes of the young and the untutored) a\n\nsubordinate position;\n\nit is a sin\n\nagainst the children of the land, and it is a\n\ncrime against posterity.\n\nAs I have suggested, there is here a large need for a much more adequate\nanalysis of functions and values than has hitherto been attempted.\n\nWe\n\nmust learn to think clearly from the details of subjects, methods, and\n\nThe steps must be\nworked out just as carefully as possible, and what each step may bring with\nit must be determined.\nBut this is far from saying that everything that\nrequirements to the ultimate goal that we have in view.\n\nwe teach will inevitably fulfil the fimction that we have in mind. In the\nvery nature of liberal education, something perhaps much that is\ntaught will fail to influence life. For here we must imitate Nature, we\nmust be prodigal. The organs of the body are commonly larger and\n\n—\n\n—\n\nstronger than the normal demands require. Of the forty thousand or\nmore sensations which can bring us information about our environment,\nwe commonly use but a small fraction. Nature thruout her realm has been\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": "169", "text": "Superintcndencel\n\nLIBERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n169\n\nand we also in education\nAnd that, I believe, is the peculiar function\n\nprodigal, for Nature must provide against crises;\n\nmust provide against crises.\n\nof liberal education as contrasted with the other types.\n\nA third subtype of general education I should call cultural and while\n^\n\nthe distinction between the liberal education and the cultural education\n\nshould not be sharply drawn, I should think of the latter as essentially the\neducation that prepares for leisure.\n\nLiterature\n\nand art and music and\n\nhealthful sport all have a function here, altho each may also have a function\n\nunder one or another of the heads already discussed. This is the t)^e of\neducation that does train the consumer in the sense in which Dr. Snedden\n\nand Dr. Weeks use this term.\n\nIt is important and must not be neglected;\n\nbut again it is a mistake to think that all education which cannot be justified\n\nupon the basis of its specific vocational value must either seek justification\nas a preparation for leisure or surrender its claim to a place in our schools.\n\nAnd now a final word with regard to the bearing of these distinctions\nupon the problem of educational administration. Dr. Snedden argued\nfrom the distinction between productive and consumptive activities to the\nconclusion that vocational and general education are essentially different\nin aim, content, and method, and therefore demand separate schools and,\nsome would add, separate administration. If my own analysis is correct,\nall forms of education are most intimately connected and correlated.\nNay, more than this, every curriculum proposed for a boy or a girl should\nrepresent in a fair proportion each of these distinctive types of training.\n\nWe shall grant the necessity for intense specialization in vocational subjects;\nwe should not grant for a moment the wisdom of making any vocational\ncurriculum so intense that the liberal or the cultural should be neglected.\n\nThe arguments for separate vocational schools are commonly argimients\nfrom expediency. Dr. Snedden's plea is more fundamental than this, for\nhe urges these basic differences between the two types of education to\nsupport his contention. The aims are different, he says, and the methods\nmust consequently differ. But, as I have attempted to point out, the aims\nWith the more adequate analysis of\ndiffer only in degree and not in kind.\nthe remote aims of liberal education, we shall have these interpolated aims\napproaching in definiteness the aims of vocational education. And one\nreason why I should protest against the proposed division lies in the fact\nthat competition with the definite and tangible vocational subjects will hasten this analysis and compel the formulation of these interpolated aims.\nThis process is already going on in some schools, and one of the most successful attempts that has thus far been made to formulate concrete values\nfor a traditional subject has been in connection with that bugbear of the\n\nsecondary program, Latin.\n\nIf I mistake not, it was this very competition\n\nthat worked this desirable miracle.\n\nNor should we overlook the influence which concrete vocational interests\n\nmay have in making meaningful and vital the more general and abstract\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": "170", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nlyo\n\nprinciples and processes with which liberal education deals.\n\ntions\n\n[Richmond\n\nThat correla-\n\nbetween vocational and liberal subjects may be worked out with\n\ngreat profit to both and without destroying the integrity of either I have\n\nno doubt.\n\nI\n\nknow that it has been effectively accomplished in certain\n\ncases.\n\nAgainst the danger of social stratification that are inherent in separate\nvocational schools, even upon the secondary level, warnings innumerable\n\nhave been voiced; and so far as I know they have never been answered\nexcept by the question-begging statement that such stratification already\nexists.\n\nEven granting its existence, we can see no good reason for extend-\n\nA stratified society and a permanent\nprime conditions of a certain t)rpe of\nnational efficiency. But wherever our people have been intelligently\ninformed regarding what this type of efficiency costs, they have been fairly\nunanimous in declaring that the price is too high. As a people we are\ning it or for making it still more rigid.\nproletariat are undoubtedly the\n\npretty clearly committed to the theory that talent is distributed fairly\n\nevenly among the masses and that it is the special prerogative of no especial\nclass or group.\n\ntalent\n\nAs a people, we are fairly firm in our faith that this latent\n\nmay be trained to high efficiency in practically every case.\n\nWe\n\nmean to keep open the door of opportunity at every level of the educational\nladder.\n\nIt is a costly process, but so are most other things that are precious\n\nand worth while.\n\nDISCUSSION\nEdwin Hebden, director, Bureau of Statistics and Research, Department of Education, Baltimore, Md.\nPermit me for a moment to present one or two points in this dis-\n\n—\n\ncussion from the viewpoint of the student of statistics.\n\nRecently, at the request of the\n\nBoard of School Commissioners, I sent a questionnaire to a number of cities in this country,\nseeking for information as to what was being done along vocational lines. The replies showed\nthat almost every subject in the curriculum was, in one place or another, considered as\nentering into vocational education.\nresult.\n\nOne can see the confusion that must necessarily\n\nMy point is that there should be agreed upon a terminology that would be inter-\n\npretable by all alike.\nmisinterpretation.\n\nIn this way the experience of all would become available without\n\nIt seems to me that thus at the threshold of this comparatively new\n\nbranch of educational activity such an agreement might be reached by a properly constituted committee of this Association.\n\nAt the same time, and as a result of the questionnaire above referred to, there was\nshown the greatest need for scientific basis and organization of the course of study for the\nvocational work. In this subject educators are not enthralled by tradition and inheritance as they have always been in the course of study for the regular academic branches.\nHere again there should be worked out a course of study based upon scientific data and in\nterms that would be uniformly understood thruout the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": "171", "text": "SCHOOL AND SHOP—WORK AND STUDY\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n171\n\nSCHOOL AND SHOP— WORK AND STUDY\nRANDALL J. CONDON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, OHIO\nIn an old Cincinnati directory which has recently come into my hands,\n\n\"Attached to the institution is a farm of one hundred\n\nI read these words:\n\nand ten acres; and the students are required to labor either on the farm\nor at some mechanical business three hours a day.\" The principal of the\nschool is given as Rev. Lyman Beecher, D.D.; the institution. Lane\nTheological Seminary; the date of the old directory is 1836.\n\nIn the same directory I read that the Woodward High School\noffers the means of education for all pursuits.\n\nThe parent who designs his son for the\n\nbar, the medical profession, or for the sacred desk may find for him [in this school] as thoro\n\na classical and philosophical training as can be obtained in any other [institution] in the\n\nWest.\n\nAnd those intended for mercantile pursuits, civil engineering, or any other of the\nlife may enjoy [in the high school] all those advantages for\n\ndepartments of business\n\nthe acquisition of the preparatory education which is so essential to their future respectability and success.\n\nHere, then, is the \"Cincinnati idea\" of 1836: Shop and school; work\n\nand study combined\ncourses of study:\n\n—education for different vocations with differentiated\n\nclassical\n\nand philosophical training for the law,\n\nfor\n\nmedicine, and for the ministry; industrial training for mercantile pursuits,\nengineering, and other departments of business life;\n\n—those \"designed\" by their parents\n\nance\n\nand vocational guidand those\n\nfor the professions\n\n\"intended\" for industrial pursuits; and the end or purpose of education,\n\"future respectability and success.\"\n\nWe haven't been able to improve much on that program in eighty years.\nIt all has a very familiar sound;\n\nit might have been written in\n\n19 14 instead\n\nof in 1836 as an expression of what Cincinnati and many other cities are\n\ntrying to do in adapting education to the needs of individual pupils,\n\nhelping them to prepare for the occupations of their choice\n\n—doing\n\nit that\n\nthey may be respectable and successful, and hoping to accomplish this thru\na union of mental and manual activity.\n\nThis \"Cincinnati idea\" is further emphasized by one of the symbolic\nwindows in the city hall, before which I often pause as I mount the stairs to\nmy office. It bears these significant words: \"Labor and Education.\"\nBut in spite of this constant reminder that the two must be united, in\nspite of the fact that they had been combined in actual practice in the early\ndays, they had been divorced in Cincinnati, as well as elsewhere, until\nDean Schneider, of the University of Cincinnati, again brought them\ntogether in 1906 in his co-operative courses in the college of engineering, by\nwhich the students were to spend alternate weeks working in the shops\nor out on the road with the construction crew. And he added this one new\nand important principle: The work was to be not merely work, but work\nthat was an application of the study; and the study not merely study, but\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": "172", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n172\n\n[Richmond\n\nan interpretation of the work. This principle once having been recognized\nand applied, its extension and adaptation to different phases of education\nhave been comparatively easy and rapid.\nIn Cincinnati, its first application was in the continuation school for\napprentices in 1909, to which the apprentices from some twenty machine\nshops are sent for a half-day a week, receiving pay for the time so spent,\nto obtain instruction in mathematics, blue-print reading, mechanical and\nfreehand drawing, English, economics, and civics all bearing more or\nless directly upon their present and future work as machinists and their\nrelation to the community as good citizens.\nA similar plan of co-operation\nand instruction for the printer's apprentices followed a little later. These\nclasses were all composed of pupils who had left school, generally at the end\nof the fourth or fifth grade, to go to work.\nThe school reached out and\ninvited them to come back for a half-day a week, and asked the employers\nto permit them to attend without loss of pay.\nIt would be more correct\nto say that the offer came from the employers themselves.\nFor under\ndate of May 21, 1909, six of the largest machine manufacturers addressed\na communication to Superintendent Dyer asking for such a school and\n\n—\n\nsaying:\n\nThe manufacturers consider this training of such importance that they have agreed\non their part that if you will establish these classes they guarantee to furnish enough\nboys for at least one teacher, and to send their boys to school one-half day each week;\nand, as an inducement to attend the school, they will agree to pay the apprentices regular\nwages during the period of instruction.\nIts next application appeared the following year, 19 10, in the organiza-\n\ntion of the high-school co-operative courses for both boys and girls, in the\n\ntwo largest high schools, Hughes and Woodward.\n\nDuring the last two\n\nyears of these courses, the boys are spending alternate weeks in various\nindustrial establishments, while the girls are alternating between school and\n\nand department stores. This\nhave extended the plan to the Seniors in the\ncommercial department, whereby they have the opportunity to apply in\nthe office and counting-rooms of the commercial establishments the bookkeeping and stenography which they are taught in the high school.\nThe third application of the principle appeared in the organization of the\ncompulsory continuation classes in 191 1, whereby all pupils under sixteen,\nwho had left school before the completion of the eighth grade, were required\nto attend school for not less than four hours a week. This particular phase\nof the work will largely disappear next year, under the enactment of the\ndressmaking,\n\nmillinery\n\nestablishments,\n\nyear, for the first time, we\n\nChildren's Code at the last session of the legislature, requiring all girls to\n\nremain in school until they are sixteen and boys until they are fifteen;\n\ngirls\n\nmust also have completed the seventh grade and boys the sixth grade before\nthey are permitted to work.\n\nSo the only group for the elementary con-\n\ntinuation schools will be boys between fifteen and sixteen years of age who\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": "173", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL AND SHOP—WORK AND STUDY\n\ngo to work before they have completed the eighth grade\n\n173\n\n—a comparatively\n\nsmall number.\n\nWe are hoping, however, to secure at the next session of the legislature\nthe enactment of a law with reference to co-operative courses for pupils\n\nbetween fourteen and seventeen or eighteen years of age, under which they\n\nmay be employed for half-time as a part of such courses.\nAll of these developments are only applications of the principle of related\n\nwork and study, each reinforcing and giving content to the other; for it is\nnot enough that the two should go on side by side in school and shop.\nThey must be essential parts of one comprehensive plan, under the control\nTo better realize this, a teacher who had\nof the educational authorities.\nhad large shop experience was appointed in September of 19 13 who gives\nnearly all of his time to the supervision of the work of the high-school\nboys doing only such teaching as will enable him to establish helpful\nrelations on the school side, applying from his shop experience certain\nA similar appointment was\nlessons which he is best prepared to teach.\nmade for the girls' co-operative work a teacher who by experience and\ninclination is able to direct their work along educational lines and who\ncomes into close touch with each girl during her working assignments.\nIt is not essential that the periods of alternate study and work should be\nthe same for all industries; they may be varied to meet varied conditions.\nIn the commercial work, we have started with biweekly alternations; in\nthe machine shops, the length of the period is one week; in millinery and\nsome other occupations, it is seasonal; in others it may be a half-day of\nstudy and a half-day of work.\nHowever, it is essential that the plan should be worked out upon a cooperative basis, not simply that the pupils should be permitted to work for\n\n—\n\n—\n\na part of their time, but the arrangement should be undertaken with a\nconscious purpose to make the work educational.\n\nAnd it should be in\n\naccordance with a definite agreement between the school authorities and\nthe employer, specifying the hours of work, the rate of pay, and permitting\n\nemployment only when the conditions as to safety, sanitation, and morals\n\nmake it desirable for the pupils to undertake such work.\n\nWhen these conditions are met, I am in favor of permitting pupils to\nwork between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years for not more than onehalf of each biweekly period, considering the work and study, whether in\nschool or shop, as a distinct part of their education, to be carefully directed\n\nby school ofiicials with that end in view.\n\nThe agreement should also speci-\n\nfically require employers to provide such opportunities for work and instruc-\n\ntion in the same as will afford the pupils so employed the largest possible\n\nopportunity for learning as a whole the occupations in which they are\nengaged, and will also afford opportunity for promotion to the more\ndesirable positions within the establishment.\n\nIt should be the business of\n\nthe educational authorities to see that there is no attempt at exploitation.\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": "174", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n174\n\n[Richmond\n\nthru the development of productive skill, at the expense of a more general\n\nknowledge of, and education in, the occupation as a whole.\n\nThey should\n\nreserve the right to decide many of these questions and should withdraw\n\nfrom the agreement whenever it appears that the employer is not endeavorPupils should be permitted to work only in establishments which have been carefully inspected\n\ning in good faith to meet his part of the contract.\n\nand approved.\nI believe, too, that we should extend our educational control to all minors\n\nunder eighteen years of age, providing co-operative courses connecting with\nall the leading industries;\n\nand that we should be ready to organize any such\n\ncourse, when not less than twenty pupils desire the same.\n\nThe principle should be clearly established that we are approaching\nthe problem from the educational end, retaining pupils under school control\nuntil they are eighteen, but permitting them to work for a part of the time\nbetween fourteen and eighteen as an essential feature of their education.\n\nAnd this must be compulsory education: compulsory on the child to\nattend; on the parent to send the child to school; on the community to\n\nprovide the right kind of education\n\n;\n\nand on the employer, not only to permit\n\nthe child to attend school, but, under certain conditions, to provide such\nopportunities in his establishment as will make education possible thru work\n\nconnected with study.\nPestalozzi said:\n\n\"The end of instruction is making ideas clear,\" and\n\n\"Impressions and expressions united lead to clear ideas.\"\n\nIf this is so,\n\nthen the best way to produce clear ideas is not by applying the instruction\nat some subsequent period, but in connection with the teaching.\n\nThe\n\nlearning process, considering both the teacher and the pupil, seems to follow\n\nsomewhat this order: explanation; demonstration or illustration; appKcation;\n\nrepetition;\n\nwith a judicious mingling of these elements of teaching\n\nThe school is the place where the teacher explains and\ndemonstrates; the shop, store, and home the place where the pupil applies\nand learning.\n\nand repeats the process, until he has learned that which the teacher taught.\nBack and forth from the school to the shop and store; from the store and\nshop to the school, the teaching and the learning go on side by side\nexplanation and application; theory and practice; study and work until\nby sufficient repetition the process has been learned and the teaching has\n\n—\n\nbeen forgotten.\n\n—\n\nBut we must not forget that it is to be educational work not so much\nwork for work's sake, but work for the worker's sake so organized and\ndirected as to give a maximum of educational value, a value which will be\nmeasured largely by the joy of accomplishment the consciousness of\ndifficulties overcome and made the stepping-stones to higher accomphshments. And to this end the industries, as well as the schools, must be\norganized with reference to vocational education that is liberal and funda-\n\n—\n\n—\n\nmentally sound; for I believe we may obtain the elements of a liberal\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": "175", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPRENTICE SCHOOLS OF SANTA FE RAILWAY\n\n175\n\neducation from work-study, when rightly organized, quite as much as from\n\nword-study.\nCulture comes not from the particular form of study, but rather from\nthe spirit awakened by study.\n\nFor one the approach to the spirit and the\n\nopportunity for self-expression will be found in art; for another, in music;\nfor another, in literature; for another, in nature; for others, it will be found\n\nat the forge, the anvil, the carpenter's bench; in the machine shop and the\n\ncounting-room;\n\nor in farm and household occupations.\n\nripening of life, the inner self-enlargement;\n\nCulture is the\n\nand the daily toil and the daily\n\nrest must supply the opportunity and the incentive for this enrichment of\nIf it is not found here it will not be found anywhere.\n\nlife.\n\nThere must be\n\nless study for study's sake and more study that expresses itself in terms of\n\nwork; learning that becomes knowledge thru its application and wisdom\nthru its expression in terms of unselfish service.\nthat the soul is enlarged.\n\nIt is only in its outgo\n\nIt is the things that we love deeply that influence\n\nour lives in large measure.\n\nIn developing our plans for industrial education, and other forms of\neducation as well, we need to be on our guard that we do not imprison the\nsoul.\n\nThe routine and the mechanical must be so taught and learned and\n\npracticed that there will still be opportunity for the cultivation of those\nsoul-qualities that give joy to\n\nwork and that find in the humblest tasks\n\nopportunities for expanding self-expression.\n\nThese are some of the fundamental principles that have controlled\nand will guide in the development of the work-study program in the\nCincinnati schools.\n\nTHE APPRENTICE SCHOOLS OF THE SANTA FE\nRAILWAY SYSTEM\nF.\n\nW. THOMAS, SUPERVISOR OF APPRENTICES, TOPEKA, KA.NS.\n\nThe Santa Fe is a railway running from Chicago on the lakes to San\nFrancisco and Los Angeles on the Pacific, reaching the Gulf of Mexico at\nseveral places in the Lone Star State -and touching the Mexican frontier\nat El Paso and\n\nas\n\nSan Diego; gridironing the state of Kansas with nearly\n\nmany miles of road as are within the state of Virginia; five times\n\ncrossing the\n\nRocky Mountains and the\n\nelevation above seven thousand feet;\n\nSierras\n\nor their spurs at\n\nan\n\nwith nearly a thousand miles of\n\nroad in the arid or desert section upon which not enough business origi-\n\nnumber of\nmust at times be\n\nnates to pay the cost of maintaining the roadway; with a\ndivision terminals located in the desert where water\n\nhauled one hundred miles or more, not only for drinking purposes but\nfor its locomotives.\n\nI have used this introduction to show the conditions under which this\n\nartery of commerce operates, in order that some of the tenderfooters this\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": "176", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n176\n\n[Richmond\n\nafternoon may appreciate fully some statements I shall make later on in\nthis paper.\n\nThere is no road in the country that requires any more exacting service\nof its employees, and there is no road in the country that has done more\nfor the comfort and happiness and welfare of its employees than the Santa\n\nThru its pension system it provides liberally against old age; thru\n\nFe.\n\nits magnificent hospital system it furnishes succor to the sick and injured;\n\nthru its recreation halls and clubhouses it furnishes wholesome amusements\nfree to all its employees even in the remote desert terminals;\n\nand, lastly,\n\nthru its educational department it furnishes a place and means where chil-\n\ndren of its employees and the boys living adjacent to its lines may learn\n\na vocation, receive a training for lifers work under a system which we think\n\nmoney and means and brains can devise.\nThe apprentice system is as old as time as far back as we have any\nauthentic history, scriptural or profane, we read of boys learning trades,\nis the best that\n\n—\n\nboys being bound out to serve a master.\nchosen people had an adage:\n\nThousands of years ago God's\n\n\"He who teaches his son no trade teaches\n\nhim to be a thief.\" Not only was the son of the poor taught a trade but\nall classes had to learn a trade.\nSaul of Tarsus, tho born of well-to-do\nparents, an aristocrat by birth, who studied at the feet of Gamaliel, the\ngreatest teacher of that age, was still taught the trade of tent-making.\nWho knows but that the lessons learned thru association and contact while\nserving that humble apprenticeship gave him that insight into human nature\nwhich so brilliantly illuminates the pages and sermons of that great missionary to the Gentiles ?\n\nIn 1907, the Santa Fe, like all the great employers of labor, during that\nyear of flood-tide business, suffered from the lack of competent and skilled\n\nworkmen. Good wages, pleasant surroundings, splendid treatment, and\nan indulgent corporation, all these could not bring them for the reason that\nthere were none to come. Our management said that if we couldn't find\nand hire them we would make them. So in August, 1907, a committee\nwith orders visited a great many manufacturing plants and railroad shops,\nlooking into those having an apprentice system. A report was made as\nto what should be done. Orders came back to organize and put it into\neffect\n\nwithin three weeks.\n\nRailroad orders are orders to be obeyed.\n\nNothing was said as to preparation, as to expense, as to the personnel of\nthe organization only to start things by September 15. A place in an\nalready crowded shop had to be found for a schoolroom, furniture had to\nbe made, lessons and problems had to be written, drawing instruments, etc.,\n\n—\n\npurchased, and instructors selected; but three weeks later, September 15,\nthe machinery was set in motion, some of it crudely designed, some roughly\n\nthrown together, but we had an abundance of lubrication in the shape of\nbacking, a hearty co-operation, intense interest, and enthusiasm.\nOur first school at Topeka being fairly installed, two months later we started\n\nofficial\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": "177", "text": ".\n,\n.\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nAPPRENTICE SCHOOLS OF SANTA FE RAILWAY\n\n177\n\nanother in California, two weeks after California we jumped to Texas,\n\nthen to Kansas again, to Colorado, New Mexico, Iowa, etc.\nsix\n\nmonths.\n\n—\n\nall\n\nwithin\n\nUnder our present organization of minute detail operation,\n\nI wonder how we accomplished so much within that six months. Today\nwe have twenty-nine apprentice schools with thirty-eight instructors and\n\nover eight hundred apprentices.\n\nTHE ATCHISON, TOPEKA & SANTA FE RAILWAY SYSTEM\nReport of Apprentice Department\nShowing Growth in Number of Apprentices in Each Trade from September 30, 1907, to\nJanuary 31, 1914\n\n11\n\n1\n§\n\n^s\n\ns\nJ4\n\nw\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n231\n\n35\n\n302\n326\n409\n472\nSi«\n570\n570\n\n44\n49\n52\n73\n\n69\n95\n96\n\nS\n\n?!\n\n•ss\n\n0^\n\n-^\n\n.a\n\nS'-'\n\nuS.\n\n>l\n\n*\"0\n\n•ll\n\nSeptember 30, 1907\nSeptember 30, 1908\nSeptember 30, 1909\nSeptember 30, 1910\nSeptember 30, 1911\nSeptember 30, 1912\nSeptember 30, 1913\nTotal January 31, 19 14\n\ni\n\n1\n\n.ai\n\nm\n\nu\n\nIS\n18\n\n19\n\n30\n32\n37\n43\n42\n45\n42\n\n14\nIS\n\n24\n22\n21\n\n20\n\n11\nH\n\n2\nc\n\n1\n\n1\n\nIS\n\n1\n\n1\ns\n\nA,\n\n(^\n\n20\n\n5\n\n15\n\nI\n\n4\n\n23\n\nt\n\n28\n29\n\n4\n4\n3\nI\n\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n\n3\n10\n\n36\n34\n39\n37\n\n20\n20\n20\n18\n18\n20\n\nI\n\n17\n\n4\n\n2\n\nt>\n\nI\n\n3\n2\n\n4\n8\n6\n\nc«'\n\n8\n8\nII\n12\n\n10\n\n3\nH\no\n345\n64\n449\n487 126\n580 178\n682 248\n723 343\n815 457\n803 490\n\nDon't confound the Santa Fe apprentice system with any public institution nor think of it as a school.\n\nIt is simply an advanced method of\n\ntraining and educating boys to fill the places made vacant by retirement\n\nand to take care of the increased number of positions due to the road's\nexpansion and growth a recruiting system.\nAt each mechanical division point, we have a room or building set\naside and dedicated to the cause of education and known as the Apprentice\nSchool.\nThis room is furnished with desks, drawing-tables, models,\ncabinets, etc.\nA man both theoretically and practically educated presides\nhere.\nThe apprentices are required to attend a stipulated number of hours\na week during daylight or regular working hours and are paid while in\nschool the same as if they were at work in the shop. The schoolrooms in\nthe beginning were modest in appearance, painfully plain. We did not\nhave time to build a house; we simply picked out the most suitable unused\nroom or building near the shop and began business. Today we have modern\n\n—\n\nschoolrooms, splendidly equipped, specially constructed for our needs,\nthese being conveniently located in the midst of the other shop buildings.\n\nWe teach these boys spelling, writing, arithmetic, shop mathematics,\nsome of the simpler elements of mechanics, sketching, mechanical and\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": "178", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n178\n\nfRichmond\n\nfreehand drawing, and also give them a short treatise on their trade and the\nmaterials with which they work.\n\nWe originally intended teaching them\n\nonly mechanical and freehand drawing, but we found that the majority of\n\nboys of sixteen years of age coming to us were so practically deficient in\nthe first-mentioned subjects that we added spelling, writing, and arithmetic, three branches above all others which our public schools should\nteach and teach thoroly.\n\nIn the shops where the boy must learn the real work, we have a shop\ninstructor for every twenty-five boys a man skilled in his particular trade,\n\n—\n\na man of pleasing personality and engaging manners, a boy-loving man,\n\nHe is not respon-\n\nwhose sole duty is to instruct the boys under his charge.\n\nsible for the output of the shop, not responsible for the management of the\n\nshop, not concerned as to the cost of the products, but his only duty is\nto take the raw material in hand and make a mechanic.\n\nThe boy upon\n\nentering the shop finds a new world, a sea of whirling machinery, a bedlam\nof strange noises, a thousand new faces, a\n\nthousand eyes gazing at him;\n\nhe feels lonely, frightened, fearful of his personal safety, fearful of some\n\nHe longs for home and friends; but here he finds a warm hand,\na kind heart, a friendly face, a man who takes him by the hand and guides and\n\nmisstep.\n\ndirects him step by step, day by day, from machine to machine.\n\nFor four\n\nyears he is drilling, teaching, and instructing that boy, molding a mechanic\n\nfrom that young, green, embarrassed boy of four years ago. The boy soon\nThere is\nrealizes when he enters the shop that he is making something.\nThe\nfirst\nhe\ndoes\nis\nmaking\nsomething\nto\nbe used,\nexperimenting.\njob\nno\nsomething useful. He soon, and probably for the first time in his life, learns\nthe value of time. A job in a railroad shop to be finished at eleven o'clock\nmeans eleven o'clock; not five minutes past eleven, or twelve o'clock, but\neleven o'clock. He soon learns the absolute meaning of obedience and\nsubordination. He soon finds out that the two unpardonable sins in railroading are disobedience and insubordination.\nIn the selection of apprentices, we are not so very strict or particular.\nIf a boy\n\ncan read intelligently, write legibly, and perform accurately the\n\nfour fundamentals of arithmetic\ndivision\n\n—we\n\nwill take him.\n\n—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and\n\nHe must be physically sound, free from any\n\nserious organic troubles or chronic ailment.\n\nWe don't care so much about\n\nhis father, so long as the boy is honest and industrious.\n\nHe fills out an\n\napplication blank which gives his name, age, nationality of parents, his\n\nheight and weight, and schooling, and which states\n\nwhy he left school\n\nand what work he has ever done. We do not care for character letters\nas they are about the most worthless things in existence.\nWe question\nhim closely as to his domestic affairs, his playmates, recreation, sweetheart, etc. We aim to find out from him as much about himself as possible.\nWe want to know as much as we can gather as it will help us in our dealing\nwith, and treatment of, the boy during his apprenticeship. These little\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": "179", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPRENTICE SCHOOLS OF SANTA FE RAILWAY\n\n179\n\npersonal examinations bring out some strange stories, some sad tales, some\n\nThere is nothing which\nThere is nothing\nwhich has softened my heart so much as the story of a boy prematurely\ngrown old thru neglect, thru mistreatment a life robbed of all the boy's\njoys and the pleasures of the 'teens, a life with little or none of the sim's\nof the real, uncolored romances of everyday life.\n\ntouches me so much as the story of real hardships of a boy.\n\n—\n\nrays of hope and happiness.\n\nWhile we desire a boy with a grammar-school education, we do not\nOf the boy of unlimited opportunities, we require much upon admittance; with the boy with few opportie\n\nourselves down to any ironclad rule.\n\ntunities, we are exceedingly charitable.\n\nFour years ago one hot August day, a boy, very small for his sixteen\nmy office. In his hand was a personal letter,\nan autograph one, addressed to me, from the superintendent of shops,\nrequesting me to examine the bearer for the position of painter apprentice.\nHe was very small, poorly dressed, illy fed and nurtured, extremely bashful,\nand nervous.\nGiving him a glass of ice water and a seat in front of a cooling fan,\nwith a few words to allay his feelings, we began to draw out his life's story.\nWe found that his father was a worthless, brutal man, a drunkard who had\nleft home.\nThe boy had been so unmercifully beaten by an inhuman father\nthat his very being and nature were cowed. His mother, who could not\nstand without the aid of crutches, was doing her best to eke out a living\nYes, he said, there were some\nfor herself and brood by taking in washing.\nyears, stood in the doorway of\n\nmore, some \"leetle\" ones at home.\nshops knew the story.\n\nI\n\nknew then the superintendent of\n\nMy first and natural impulse was to turn him down,\n\nWe did not have the heart to do so, tho I knew he\nwas the least promising boy that ever came into my office. Three months\n\nbut I could not do it.\n\nlater, the shop instructors reported that he was only fair, was away below\n\nthe standard, below the average.\n\nThe school instructor was using a great\nThe boy could read\n\ndeal of that characteristic which made Job famous.\n\nsimple words, knew nothing of arithmetic, could spell a few of the simpler\nwords.\n\nOne day the instructor accidentally ran upon something.\n\nThe\n\nboy had made, on the under side of the piece of paper on which he was\nsupposed to be writing, an Old English letter \"A,\" shading and illuminating it in a manner that would have been a credit to one who had been trained\n\nNext day he uncovered the head of an Indian chief, gloriously decorated with feathery headgear. We did not scold him. That\npoor boy was never scolded by us. We gave him more of that very kind of\nwork each day. His interest was aroused, his tongue was loosened, his\nmind so long cramped and imused began to expand. Last week we\ngraduated him as a journeyman painter, capable of doing any work in\nin such work.\n\npainting and decorating our passenger cars or office furniture.\n\nHe has not\n\nentirely outgrown the cowed, subdued spirit infficted by his brutal father\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": "180", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl8o\n\nIRichmond\n\nand he never will, but he has grown in body, in mind, in intelligence, and\nhas been a blessing and comfort to his mother and the little fellows.\n\nHe has\n\nbeen faithful during his apprenticeship and I have no doubt but that he\nWe have issued\nwill give many years of faithful service to us as a man.\n\nhim a diploma which will be the open sesame to a job anywhere they may\nneed painters. But he prefers to stay with the Santa Fe, and will do so\nat the full rate of pay paid journeymen. In reward for his faithfulness as\nan apprentice, we have given him $135 in cash. This will go toward\nbuilding a home upon some land already purchased with money saved from\nhis apprentice wages.\n\nAbout the first thing we noticed upon opening the school phase of our\napprentice system was the absence of suitable textbooks.\nin print.\n\nThere were none\n\nWe had to get busy at once, writing our own books. We chose\n\na loose-leaf lesson system, and having our own printer and press we change\nthese leaflets any time we see fit.\n\nThe success of the schoolroom work\n\nhas been due first to the men we selected as instructors, men practically\n\nand theoretically educated, intensely enthusiastic over their work, and,\nabove all, thoroly in accord with the head of the department and most\nunselfishly loyal.\nNext I attribute it to the individuality of our instruction.\nWhile the boys come to this apprentice schoolroom at the same time,\neach is a class unto himself. There is no massing of boys of unequal age,\nimequal talent. Each progresses just as fast as he masters the subject.\nNext I attribute our success to the adaptability of our lesson sheets. We\nmake them simple, very plain, each having a direct bearing on the boy's\ntrade, each drawing lesson, each problem relating directly to some engine,\ncar, shop tool, or feature of the railroad.\nThis fixes in his mind some definite\ngoal, and the course leads directly to that goal.\nNo side trip, no excursion\nin foreign fields, no rambling in strange lands.\n\nHe stays at one station of\n\nthe work, but is brightened by the light or scene of the station just ahead.\n\nThe reason, the purpose, the cause are plainly apparent to him.\nAnother factor which has made our apprentice system so successful\nis\n\nour determined effort to find out the fitness of the boy after he enters.\n\nThe first six months is a probationary period, and when a new boy enters\nupon his apprenticeship we send a notice every thirty days to his general\nforeman, department and gang foremen, his shop and school instructors,\nadvising them of the fact that he is a new boy and requesting them to pay\nconsiderable attention to him so as to be able to intelligently act at the end\n\nmonths, or probationary period. The above-named shop\ncompose what we call the Apprentice Board. They compose a\njury which at any time during the apprenticeship may make recommendaof his first six\nofficials\n\ntions as to a boy's unfitness for the trade he is indentured to learn.\n\nThis\nboard is bound by no laws but their own opinions; each has as much power\nas the other, each member must handle the boy during his apprenticeship,\n\nand some afterward.\n\nAt the end of the first six months, or probationary\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": "181", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPRENTICE SCHOOLS OF SANTA FE RAILWAY\n\nl8l\n\nperiod, they meet in a serious session to finally say what the future of the\n\nboy must be. If the boy is adapted to the trade, we keep him, if not, we\nThere never was a jury or\ntransfer him to other work or dismiss him.\ncourt any more anxious to deal out real justice than these apprentice boards\nof the Santa Fe Railway. They may dismiss a boy, but they do not do it\nbecause he is simply a boy, or because he is a boy without influential friends\nand without a pull, or because he may be poor, or because they may not\npersonally like him. They meet in solemn session to aid that boy in his\nlife's work and their action is the result of this conference.\nWe are firm believers that God has endowed each with some peculiar\nor dominant talent and we endeavor to locate or find it. A great deal of\nthe misery of life and distaste for work is caused by the unsuitableness of\n\nWe all like\nWe do those things well or better\n\nthe talent for the task, or, in other words, because of misfits.\nto do those things which we can do well.\n\n— a boy with constructive talent loves\n\nwhich utilize our dominating talent\n\nto build things, loves to use the hammer and saw; a girl who has talent\nfor embroidery loves to make things requiring fine needlework;\n\nagricultural taste and talent wants to plant, to cultivate,\n\na boy with\nand reap; one\n\nwho has mechanical talent is never so happy as when working with machinery.\nTo require any boy to learn the blacksmith trade when all his talents\nare for medicine or surgery, to require any boy to learn the trade of machinist or telegrapher\n\nwhen his heart yearns for the farm, is doing him an unpar-\n\ndonable injury.\n\nYou are overturning the will of the Creator.\n\nYou are\n\ncommitting a crime against his young life and against society.\nRight here is where our public schools are lame, where our colleges are\n\nThere is seemingly no effort upon their part to locate the talent\nno defined effort to ascertain the dominating talent or pronounced tendency of the brains of the boy. The average teacher cannot\nunderstand why a boy may be dull in grammar and a prodigy in arithmetic,\nwhy he may be a dunce in history and a genius with carpenter's tools.\nThis scheme of locating the boy is to be one feature of our new schools and\ncolleges.\nThe public-school teacher of the future will find out and say or\nat least advise as to the future of her boys.\nShe will say when the boy\nought to leave school and go to work; she will advise him whether to go on\nthru high school and on to college. There is no duty save motherhood so\nsupremely great as that which aids a young boy in determining his future,\nhis life's work.\nThe home training for a life's work has long since left the\nhome and gone to the factory. We no longer spin and weave our cloth at\nhome; we no longer forge the farm implements, for we can buy these\ncheaper and better than we can make them at home. Who is to say what\nthe child must do for a life's work? You take the child away from its\nmother's arms, fresh from the hands of the Maker, and from six to sixteen\nhe is yours to make and shape his plastic young soul. Is it not your duty\nto study the boy, in order that you may recognize the mold that his Creator\n\nweak.\n\n—\n\nof the boy\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": "182", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1 82\n\nIRichmond\n\nhas built for him to occupy, and so to drill, so to teach, so to develop the\nboy that he shall fill the mold to the uttermost and that the cast shall not\nbe faulty from your neglect ?\nThe idea or scheme of the elementary schools is to prepare the child for\nhigh school, and the idea of the high school is to prepare for college. The\n\nwhole curriculum, the whole training, is for that one idea or end.\n\nNot\n\nSeventy-five per cent have no need for\n\nall\n\ngo to college; not all can go.\n\nit;\n\n50 per cent will be severly handicapped by having a college education;\n\nsome do not have the means.\n\nThe great majority have to leave school at\nThe necessities of life, of family, make\n\nthe age of fifteen to go to work.\n\nmany a child of sixteen a bread-earner.\nhim for this serious reality ?\n\nWhat have you done to prepare\n\nIt is soon to be the problem for you to map\n\nout your course to suit the needs of the child— not what those who have\n\ngone before have thought, not what you may deem the proper thing, but\n\nwhat the boy needs.\n\nThe time is coming when you will be called upon to\n\nprovide clerks for the stores, stenographers for the ofiSces, and apprentices\nfor our shops, and the public will demand that you be able to do it.\n\nThis\n\nmay interfere with that which you call culture and it may change the idea\nor meaning of so-called cultural education.\n\nPeople are rapidly learning that a college or university diploma does\n\nnot necessarily spell culture.\n\nWe are too prone to call cultured the agri-\n\nwhose hands have never touched the plowshare, but whose\nknowledge has come from books, papers, and colleges; too prone to call\ncultured the surgeon whose knowledge is deep only from long years of study\nand reading, yet whose hands have never wielded the knife in removing\nor correcting some disorganized portion of our anatomy. That culture\nwhich has zeal without practical knowledge, and enthusiasm without sanity,\nshould no longer sit with the mighty. We admire and love real culture,\nthat culture which brings peace, happiness, and contentment to the community, which builds homes, rears families, gives them the conveniences\nof life and some of the luxuries, which makes one honor and love his\nneighbor, and makes one interested in the affairs of the town, the state,\nand the nation a culture whose mission is objective and not always subculturalist\n\n—\n\njective.\n\nThe prevalent idea that a college or university education is\n\nsynonymous with culture, coupled with the idea that culture and work are\nforeign to each other, is one reason why we have so many young men in\ncollege and coming from college with no fixed idea of the future, no sane\n\nview or thought of life's work, with faculties practically wild and undisciplined, without willingness to do as they are told, and without that dis-\n\nciplined faculty of concentrating their attention\n\non unpleasant work or\n\nThe term \"cultural\" is too closely allied to a life of ease\nand luxury, and this so-called cultural education fits him for such a life and\n\nnecessary tasks.\n\nnot for a life of work, not for a life which finds real happiness in work and\nin life's material things.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": "183", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPRENTICE SCHOOLS OF SANTA FE RAILWAY\n\nOur public educational system,\n\nin\n\nall\n\nits\n\n183\n\nteaching and textbooks,\n\n—\n\nfew characters of history as examples of emulation those who\ngrew great in wars and bloodshed, Alexander, Caesar, Napoleon, Grant,\nselects a\n\nand Lee.\n\nMere mention is made of the inventor of the printing press;\n\nI do not see anything in our modern histories of George M. Pullman, of\n\nMatthew Baldwin, of Edison, of Marconi, or of Luther Burbank, and any\none of these has done more for the commercial world, and for our own comfort and happiness, than all the generals and heroes of war and bloodshed of\nall\n\ntimes.\n\nNo wonder our business men decry the failure of our college men\nwhen you are making them dreamers and criticize even our high schools\nwhen indirectly you are teaching social ostracism against him who by the\nsweat of his brow earns his living; against the mechanic of today, whose\ngenius may startle us ten years hence; teaching education and culture and\n\nnot work, not the love of work, nor the true greatness and nobleness of\n\nwork.\n\nWe teach our apprentices that the trade they have indentured themselves\nto learn is the best possible vocation for them;\n\nwe teach them that not all\n\nthe great brainy men of the country are practicing law, practicing medicine,\n\nmaking laws in Congress, or engaged in professorial work; that there are\njust as many and great brains in agricultural work as in law, just as wonderful minds in engineering as in medicine, just as ponderous thinking in financial fields as in the professor's chair;\n\nwe teach them that the plumber or\n\nmachinist is of as much value and use to the community as the lawyer or\nbanker, that a good carpenter or a good tinner is far more valuable to\nthe town and community than a poor doctor or a poor banker;\n\nwe teach\nthem that the average earnings of our graduate machinist apprentices\nnow working in our shops are greater than the average earnings of the\nlawyers or doctors of Kansas, of Virginia, or of any other state; we teach\nthem the great value of clean living, of clean thinking, and of good citizenship.\nWe have our rules and regulations governing the employment and\ntraining of apprentices, but only two ''don'ts\" appear therein.\nWe say:\n\"You must not drink intoxicants or smoke cigarettes,\" and we enforce it.\nWe say: \"You must work and not loaf.\" The worker is rewarded, the\nloafer is disciplined.\nThe other regulations were made to safeguard the\nboys' interests.\n\nis\n\nThe railroad company realizes fully that this system of training boys\na recruiting scheme and shall not be used as a matter of convenience.\n\nWhile the system is in fact a great convenience, the Santa Fe Railway\n\nSystem has taken a broad view of things, which is a wise course in preparing\nfor the future.\n\nIt is not all work with our apprentices.\nThe system is not a merciless\nmachine moving in one fixed path, for it is humane in the extreme. Fields\n\nare provided for athletic contests in baseball, football,\n\nand basket-ball\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": "184", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1 84\n\n[Richmond\n\nbetween apprentice schools of the various localities, and some athletic\nteams are allowed to go from five hundred to a thousand miles for such\nThe boys have their clubs and social organizations. Brass\ncontests.\nbands of from twenty to forty pieces, orchestras, and glee clubs may be\nfound at several places.\n\nAll of this that indulgent corporation encourages\n\nand fosters.\nWhile discipline is strong and determined, it is tempered with mercy.\nWe no longer send a boy home or suspend him for any infraction of our\nrules and regulations.\nWe do not let him loaf in the streets subject to all\nkinds of temptations, which a suspension would offer. We penalize him\non his agreement by making him serve a little longer. For every day which\nwe would have suspended him, we add that much to his regular apprentice\ntime. The rule works both ways. Afterward, by close application to\nbusiness for a stipulated period, he may have part or all of his penalty\nremoved.\n\nWe keep a real record of all the apprentices. We know the boy before\nhe enters the service, and the records in my oflSce will tell me what he has\n\ndone each day during his four years' apprenticeship, his good deeds and his\nbad ones. We do not stop here. Our records show that we follow up that\nyoung man. If he moves to any shop on the system our record follows\nhim, sometimes precedes him.\n\nIf he leaves the road\n\nand goes elsewhere\n\nwe know and keep up with him; know what he is doing, how he is doing it,\nand the wages he is getting. Seventy per cent of all the mechanics we have\ngraduated the past\n\nsix years are\n\nTwelve per cent are\n\nwith us today.\n\noccupying official positions.\n\nIn the year just passed, 1913, the Santa Fe Railway System, which\nreaches thirteen states, paid into the treasury of the state of Kansas alone\n\n$420,000 in taxes for the support of her schools.\n\nNo wonder Kansas has\n\nfewer illiterates than any other state in the Union.\n\nWe have never used\n\nthis to bring about a curriculum that will fit the boys particularly for our\nservice, but we do hope that it may be used to the better advantage of the\n\nthousands of boys and girls who must leave school at sixteen and go out\ninto the world to earn their daily bread.\n\nIt is up to you superintendents.\n\nI pray you may look at it in its right light and not deaden your ears to their\n\nappealing cry.\n\nDISCUSSION\nPaul Kreuzpointner, chairman. Committee on Industrial Education, American\nFoundrymen's Association, Altoona, Pa. ^It is very gratifying to know of the progress\nbeing made along lines of trade and shop school training as outlined so ably by Mr. Thomas\n\n—\n\nand Mr. Gustafson.\n\nWe are fully aware of the value of such schools, and it is highly\n\ncreditable for us to have as many of them with as many students as has Germany.\n\nWe have now 144 railroad shop schools with some 6,000 apprentices, and some forty\nprivate corporation schools with about 3,000 apprentices, but when we realize what the\nindustries of our country need along lines of skill and general intelligence in order to carry\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": "185", "text": "MISSISSIPPI CANNING CLUBS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n185\n\non their work successfully, and when we further contemplate that there are some eight\nmillions of industrial workers of all kinds, who, in one way or another, have to contribute\ntheir share, however little it may be, to material prosperity and the general mental and\nmoral welfare of the country, then all the shop and trade schools help us but very little\nto meet the educational problems of the industrial masses. Out of every hundred railroad shop workers, there are but two or three in shop schools, and out of every\nhundred workers in the shops, only four or five of the kind of graduates the Ranken and\nsimilar schools turn out are needed.\n\nAccording to the latest statistics from the Bureau of Education at Washington,\nthere are about 60,000 students in all of our shop schools, trade schools, and technical\n\nhigh schools, and of all these only about five or six out of every hundred are eventually\n\nfound in shops as mechanics or at the lathe or bench. Upon the other hand, history tells\nus in unmistakable terms, and those who have their eyes open can see it plainly enough\n\nnow, that in the end the masses always will rule and if they do not rule by intelligence\nthey will rule by brute force. Hence it is not the two or three out of every hundred found\nin the shop school as described by Mr. Thomas, or the four or five out of every hundred\nindustrial workers turned out by the Ranken and other technical schools, who will eventually rule this country, but it is the seven or eight millions for\n\nwhom we have made no\n\nprovisions, and who, as industrial and economic conditions now are, must get their industrial and civic training in part-time and continuation schools.\n\nTherefore since part-time\n\nschools of the Fitchburg kind will not attract many, it will be left to continuation schools\nto prepare the great mass of our industrial workers in shop, store,\n\nvocational and civic duties.\n\nand office for their\n\nThis will be all the more necessary because we have to meet\n\nthe competition of the 800,000 German industrial workers who have been and are being\n\nGermany, and who, with the exception of the\nand mine workers, get, in many cases, better industrial and civic\neducation than we give our young people in our shop and trade schools. And not only\nGermany but all other industrial countries are making strenuous elfforts to train effectively\ntrained in the continuation schools of\n\nunskilled laborers\n\ntheir industrial workers.\n\nFrom all my experience and observations of the workings of large shops, mills, and\nfactories, during more than a generation, industrial and economic success depends not so\n\nmuch upon the specific trade training of the highly skilled few, but it depends in the last\nanalysis upon a comparatively high degree of general intelligence of the masses of the\nindustrial workers in shop, store, and office.\n\nWith the decrease of quality or quantity of\n\nour natural resources, when the waste of material and time multiplied by millions of hands\ndaily amount to enormous quantities annually, it is not the high skill of the few, but the\n\ngeneral intelligence of the many which must secure for us, not only material success in our\nindustries, but also that intellectual and moral standard in the community whereby peace\n\nand order and general good will are vouchsafed for our country.\n\nSince it is manifestly\n\nimpossible to diffuse this education for the masses, as far as the school can do it, thru\n\nour high schools, we must do it with the help of continuation schools and a compulsory\nlaw.\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nHOPEFUL EXPERIMENTS\n\nMISSISSIPPI CANNING CLUBS\n\nSUSIE V. POWELL, STATE AGENT, GIRLS' CLUBS, UNITED STATES\nOF PLANT INDUSTRY, JACKSON, MISS.\n\nBUREAU\n\nIn February, 191 1, under instructions from Seaman A. Knapp, cooperating with the State Department of Education, the Canning and Poultry Clubs were first organized in Mississippi.\n\nThis first year the work was\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": "186", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1 86\n\n[Richmond\n\nconfined to two adjoining counties, with an enrolment of one hundred and\nfifty members.\n\nIn 191 2, the clubs were organized in twelve counties, most\n\nof these being in the southern part of the state where the ravages of the\nboll- weevil were most felt.\n\nIn 1913, twenty- three counties were organized,\n\nincluding several northern counties.\n\nAlready, for 1914, thirty-two counties\n\nhave been organized with a membership that will probably reach five\nthousand. The state agent of Girls' Clubs is also supervisor of school\nimprovement and has promoted the club work thru the state and county\nschool improvement associations. One of the requirements for organizing\na club in any county is that the county superintendent and his teachers\nshall pledge their co-Operation as follows:\n\nBy organizing local clubs in their school communities.\nBy sending the names and addresses of members to the county agent.\n3. By arranging for club meetings at which the county agent may\n1.\n\n2.\n\ninstruct the club\n4.\n\nmembers.\n\nBy correlating the common-school studies with the club work as a\n\ncenter of interest.\n\nThe second requirement is that sufficient funds be raised to pay the\nAs\n\nsalary of a woman to supervise the club work for at least two months.\n\nlong as the appropriation from the General Education Board lasts this\n\nThe average term of service in 19 14 will be about\nThe local funds are given by business men, club women,\nboards of trade, and boards of supervisors. It is due these women who are\namount is supplemented.\nfive\n\nmonths.\n\nacting as county agents that it be said that while they receive pay for their\nservices for a few months in the year, they have worked at the organization\nof the club work for ten or twelve months in each year.\n\nThe local clubs elect the usual officers and meet every two weeks to\nstudy the bulletins and letters of instruction and to report on their work.\n\nPrograms for these local clubs are furnished from the State Department\nof Education, and all the material for these programs may be found in\nthe textbooks on agriculture and the bulletins issued from the Bureau\nof Plant Industry.\nThese programs consist of lessons on the hotbed,\ncold frame, preparation and cultivation of the soil, staking, pruning,\nspraying, and the canning processes. At these meetings the girls learn\nclub songs and yells that embody the very spirit of co-operation. They\nlearn to make their uniform cap and apron, which teach by their daintiness the lesson that household work and neatness of dress should go\n\nhand in hand.\n\nThe purposes of the club for girls are:\nI. To make living conditions in the home cheaper and better by conserving the vegetables and fruits that would otherwise go to waste and\nhaving these in a permanent form for the family table, instead of having\n\na superabundance for a few months and living on meat and bread the rest\nof the year.\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": "187", "text": "MISSISSIPPI CANNING CLUBS\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n2.\n\nTo afford the girls an opportunity to make some money without\n\nleaving the protection of their homes.\n\nThis is done by canning the surplus\n\nvegetables and fruits scientifically and selling\ndealers\n3.\n\n187\n\nthem largely to the local\n\nand housekeepers.\n\nTo supplement the instruction given in the rural school and to\n\nvitalize the conamon-school studies by correlating them with the club work\n\nas centers of interest.\n\nThe measuring and la)dng-off of the plot illustrates\n\nlessons in mensuration.\n\nKeeping accounts of proceeds and expenditures,\n\nestimating profit or loss, ordering canning supplies, all embody vital prob-\n\nThe depositing of money earned in a bank and learnThe canning\nprocess calls for a knowledge of bacteria and spores. The use of the vegelems in arithmetic.\n\ning to draw a cheque on it are both cultural and comfortable.\n\ntables serves to provide a balanced ration for the family, which is practical\n\nphysiology.\n\nCombining muriatic and zinc to make a soldering fluid, and\n\nhaving the sealing irons in a mixture of sal ammoniac and solder are both\nchemical processes.\n\nThe cultivation of the plot puts into practice the lessons\n\nfrom the textbooks on agriculture, geography, and nature study. Giving\nreports of the club work affords opportunities for both oral and written composition, and when a girl writes the history of her club work she puts into\neffect all the lessons she has been taught in composition, including spelling,\ncapitalization, punctuation, paragraphing, and right use of words.\nIn fact,\nevery subject taught in the rural schools is enforced thru the club activities.\n\nThe state board of examiners has decided that the examinations for\nteachers should embody the affairs in which they are required to show an\ninterest, therefore for the last year at every examination held from one to\n\nthree questions concerning industrial clubs for boys and girls have appeared.\nThese easily fall under the heads of arithmetic, physiology, geography,\n\ncomposition, agriculture.\n\nLessons in correlation are given to the teachers at the summer normals,\n\nand suggestions are given in the oj0&cial school journal. Exhibits of booklets illustrating schemes for such correlation are shown at the county and\nstate fairs and the state teachers' association.\nIn 1913, 375 girls packed 210,000 pounds of tomatoes and 6,000 gallons\nof other vegetables.\nAt least a dozen girls spent a whole term in college\nas a direct result of their club work. Two girls made more than $200 while\nten made more than $100 from their club work. The average profit was\nabout $50 for each member. The earning of this money and its careful\nexpenditure have taught the girls valuable and much-needed business\nlessons.\nMost of these girls never had $5 to spend as they pleased before,\nand, if a few spent their money or part of it unwisely and for what some\nmight call foolishness, let the one of us who has not spent one dollar foolishly\nin the last week cast the first stone of reproach at these girls, some of whom\nlearned by actual experience for the first time the purchasing power of\n\nmoney of their very own.\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": "188", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n1 88\n\n[Richmond\n\nThe club work trains the head, hand, and heart, and conserves health.\nOpportunities for social service arise constantly in the work. Ethical\nlessons are abundant. The girl whose plot is grassy and cloddy and whose\ngoods are carelessly packed and labeled is the girl who does slipshod work\nin school, while the one who studies carefully the instructions and puts these\n\ninto practice is the girl who carefully prepares her lessons for the school-\n\nroom.\n\nThe club member who makes false reports to win a prize is the same\n\nstudent who will cheat on examination and forge the answer to a problem.\nThe club girl who puts on the market goods that are light weight, poor\nquality, and otherwise under the standard is very apt to give the wrong\n\nanswer to school problems and in fact to the problems of life.\nIn organizing the clubs, we are confronted at present with two problems\n\nupon the solution of which depends the success of the work. First; We\nmust provide funds for paying competent women to supervise the work.\nSecond: We must have competent, educated women to do this work of\nsupervision. At present, our county boards of supervisors may pay a\ncounty agent to teach the farmer and his son how to make the soil more\nproductive, to house his Percheron horses, his Jersey cattle, and his Berkshire pigs in sanitary and hygienic manner, and to feed them a balanced\nration; but under a strict interpretation of the law they cannot pay one\ndollar as salary to a woman to instruct the farmer's wife and daughters how\nto conduct home affairs with efficiency and economy, how to make the\nhome healthful, comfortable, and beautiful, and how to supply the family\ntable with proper food.\n\nHuman beings are fully as important as live stock, and as much attention, at least,\n\nshould be given to the proper housing and balanced rations\n\nfor the one as for the other.\n\nOur legislature is being asked to enact a law that will enable boards of\nsupervisors to pay a county agent of home economics to supervise industrial\n\nclubs for girls and women and other organizations for home improvement.\n\nClose personal supervision is necessary to bring out steady, honest work\nrather than extravagant claims.\n\nThe offer of large prizes without this super-\n\nvision has given rise in a few instances at least to extravagant reports with-\n\nout the substantial bases of steady, honest, thoro work.\nDr. Knapp very wisely said that the supervision of the plot gives the\nagents entrance to the home garden, and supervision of the canning gives\n\nthem entrance to the kitchen, which is the heart of the home.\ncounty agents have got\n\nWhen these\n\nthis far, their opportunities for service to the\n\nmother and daughter are measured only by their tact, judgment, good\ncoEomon-sense, and training. Therefore it is vitally important that we\nhave superior women thoroly trained for this work and we cannot expect\nto hold such women unless we can give them a reasonable remuneration.\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": "189", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nB.\n\nSOME CONDITIONS AND THEIR IMPROVEMENT\n\n189\n\nSOME CONDITIONS IN RURAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nJOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nOLYMPIA, WASH.\n\nThe need of constructive work in rural schools and rural life is everywhere recognized. We have a new vision of the socialized community life\nin our rural neighborhoods.\nThe rural-school problem is the country-life\nThe rural school represents the community life. If the community is progressive, that atmosphere permeates the rural school; but if\nthe community is indifferent, has low ideals, or is prejudiced toward all\nchange, then even the most capable teacher finds it impossible to make much\nheadway.\nThe three things which I have in mind to present to you tonight as a\npartial solution of the rural-school problem are: First, community centers;\nsecond, boys' and girls' contest work; and third, cottages for rural teachers.\nWashington has a law for consolidation of schools and many consolidations have been effected which have materially bettered the rural schools\nand, at the same time, have maintained a rural atmosphere.\nproblem.\n\nThe difficulty with the consolidation plan is that it operates too slowly.\nThe people many times must come to consolidation only thru the process\nof education after prejudice, neighborhood contention, and selfish interests\n\nare overcome.\n\nExperience has shown that consolidation,\n\nbefore the community mind is prepared for\n\nit, is\n\nif\n\nattempted\n\ninvariably accomplished\n\nby contention and strife that engender much bitterness of feeling which\noperates against the desired ends. The purpose of consolidation is wise,\nbut practice has demonstrated that if we wait for the consolidation plan to\nsolve the problem of the rural school, we shall wait until human nature is\ngreatly modified.\n\nIn my work in Washington, I felt unwilling to wait for consolidation to\nsolve the rural-school problem;\n\nI felt that we must move faster.\n\nYet I\n\nrealized that the state was not ready for a complete reorganization of its\n\npresent district boundary plan which would give us larger, stronger, and\n\nmore economic educational units. So I gave consideration to the plan of\nstimulating community interests and vitalizing community life by making a\nsocial center of the rural school.\n\nThe legislature of the state of Washington in 19 13 provided by statute\nfor the \"Wider Use of the School Plant\" in these words:\n\nThe school board in each district of the second class and third dass may provide\nfor the free, comfortable,\n\nand convenient use of the school property to promote and\n\nfacilitate frequent meetings and association of the people in discussion, study, improve-\n\nment, recreation, and other community purposes, and may acquire, assemble, and house\nmaterial for the dissemination of information of use and interest to the farm, the home,\n\nand the community, and facilitate for experiment and study, especially in matters pertaining to the growth of crops, the improvement and handling of live stock, the marketing\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": "190", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nigo\n\n[Richmond\n\nof farm products, the planning and construction of farm buildings, the subjects of house-\n\nhold economics, home industries, good roads, and community vocations and industries;\n\nand may call meetings for the consideration and discussion of any such matters, employ a\nspecial supervisor, or leader, if need be, and provide suitable dwellings and accommodation\nfor teachers, supervisors, and necessary assistants.\n\nBecause of the increasingly larger land holdings and the consequent\ndepopulation of rural\n\ndistricts, it\n\nwas not possible to fully socialize all\n\nindividual districts, so I went a step farther and asked each county superin-\n\ntendent to divide his county into natural neighborhood centers, usually\n\ncomposed of the graded school at a trading center and the rural schools\nnaturally tributary to it. In each community group, the principal of the\ngraded school usually acted as supervising principal and was the social\nWhile the supervising principal was not a supervisor in the ordiengineer.\nnary acceptance of the term, he organized the social activities of his supervisory district. This plan carried with it a series of school contests in\nspelling, declamation, cooking, sewing,\n\nstock judging.\n\nmanual training, gardening, and\n\nTwo general contests and one large representative com-\n\nmunity gathering were attempted at each community center during the\n\nAt the general meeting outside speakers were usually provided\nby the county superintendent. Sometimes we found that a district was\n\nyear.\n\nout social-center work.\n\nsufficiently able within itself to carry\n\nIn such\n\non independent commimity activities,\nunless some neighboring district needed its help.\nBecause the country-life problem is primarily one of community organization, and because the great rural need is a plan of organization that will\ninclude the whole interest and enlist the united energy of the people, we have\nurged that the \"community center\" be large enough to form an efficient\nsocial and economic group with conmion interests.\nThus we now have the basis for districting the county into natural\nsupervisory districts with the leader provided for. Our hope is to secure\n\ninstances, the district could carry\n\nlegislation that will make it possible to legalize this reorganization of the\n\ncounty into larger educational units and thus give efficient supervision and\nRural neighborhoods are realizing the\nall rural districts.\n\nleadership in\n\nneed of teamwork, and the desire for organized effort is constantly growing.\n\nWe are attempting to show them the superior advantages of equalization\nof educational privileges,\n\nequalization of burdens of taxation, general\n\nelevation of standards of\n\nefficiency,\n\nmore complete\n\nunffication,\n\nthoro\n\nsupervision of all schools, better adaptation to growing needs, broadening\n\nthe scope of usefulness, economy in administration, improvements in\nsanitation,\n\nand\n\njustice\n\nto the pupils.\n\nThis year the State Department of Education launched a state-wide\nplan for boys' and girls' agricultural and industrial contests.\n\nThese con-\n\ntests were attempted in the community centers, winners of events went to\n\nthe county fairs, and, as a climax, a state children's contest was held.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": "191", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSOME CONDITIONS AND THEIR IMPROVEMENT\n\n191\n\nmovement was enthusiastically supported by the bankers, the farmers,\nthe women's clubs, and the other educational agencies, and the 1913 state\nlegislature gave a liberal financial support to be handled thru the state office.\n\nWe started a unique plan of working contests.\n\nEach of the larger high\n\nschools sent a team of three picked students to our state contest\n\nsewing, one in cooking, and one in manual training.\n\n—one\n\nin\n\nIn a series of uniform\n\nbooths these teams went to work at the sound of a referee's whistle and\n\nstopped at a similar signal.\n\nSix working periods during the three days con-\n\nstituted the time limit of the contest.\n\nDuring that time the sewing girls\n\neach worked on a plain dress, the cooking girls on preparing and serving\nspecial dishes, and each boy on a bookrack for a desk.\n\nAt the close of the\n\ncontest, the teams were each given a total rank, the winning team getting\nfor its school a\n\nhandsome silver cup donated by the governor.\n\nWe are\n\ngoing to extend and enlarge upon these working contests, adding such\nfeatures as potato or apple paring, typewriting, stock judging, etc.\n\nBut\n\nas important as the state contest may be, the real value of the contest work\nlies in the local or community exhibitions where each and every boy and girl\n\ncomes and sees his products matched with those of his neighbors.\n\nWhile\n\nthe benefits of these local contests may be hard to put into figures or tables,\n\nthey are not hard to see and feel when we go into these communities and\nnote the greater mental activity and self-confidence of the children who have\nactually achieved something in tangible, practical work.\n\nWhen we get\n\nour club system organized upon the broad foundation laid by general exhibit\nwork, we shall be able to show increased land yields, boys who have bought\nand paid for property while going to school, and girls who have become\nproficient homemakers during spare hours of their school years.\nIt is now\nour plan to articulate this contest work with the boys' and girls' club work\nmanaged by the federal department of agriculture. When the plans for\nthis contest work are fully carried out, we shall have a means of disseminating scientific information and giving a system on many problems confronting\nthe rural worker in the field of agriculture and household economics.\n\nIn my experience as a county superintendent in the state of Washington,\nfound increasing difficulty in properly housing the teacher. Better\naccommodations were needed in many parts of the coimtry. In most\nI\n\nhomes were closed to the teacher-boarder, while,\nsome instances, the undesirable home, for purely mercenary reasons,\nopened its doors. I found, also, that any change made by the teacher in\nher boarding-place in a rural neighborhood, imless approved by the whole\ncommunity, involved the teacher in neighborhood dissensions and sometimes meant dismissal.\nI well remember my experience one fall when a young girl came across\ncases, the desirable\n\nin\n\nThe family that always\nboarded the teacher had moved to the county seat for high-school advanthe state to teach in one of our wealthiest districts.\n\ntages.\n\nEvery door in the neighborhood was closed to the teacher-boarder.\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": "192", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n192\n\n[Richmond\n\nThe farmers' wives claimed that they had too much to do in summer to be\nconfined to their homes in winter because of a boarder. The winter was\ntheir opportunity to get away for social purposes.\nOne farmer said that\nhe did not want a stranger at his fireside all during the winter months.\n\nIn\nanswer to my proposal that he give the teacher a stove in her own room so\nthat she might not have to intrude her presence upon the family life, he\n\nindignantly exclaimed: \"If I found a teacher who thought herself too good\nto sit with my family circle in the evening, she could not stay a minute in\n\nmy home.\"\n\nI insisted that that district should provide the teacher with a\n\ncomfortable boarding-place or I should transfer her to another district.\n\nA\n\nhappy idea came to the teacher and the clerk, that of using a portable house\nin the farmyard directly opposite the school for a dwelling-place for the\nteacher.\nIt was moved into the school yard, banked up, and for nine\nmonths the teacher kept house.\nThe idea of a teacher's cottage grew out of this experience, and the\nfollowing September a comfortable two-room cottage was built on the\nschool grounds where the teacher lived with her mother for three years,\nleaving only when the opportunity presented itself to finish an incomplete\ncollege course.\n\nI took the stand in\n\nmy county that no teacher could give her best\n\nservice in the schoolroom\n\nboarding-place;\n\nif\n\nshe was unhappy or uncomfortable in her\n\nthat she was entitled to good board, to a comfortable\n\nroom, to peace of mind, and to be by herself when she desired.\n\nFriends\n\nwarned me that I was treading on hallowed and dangerous ground when I\nattempted to make the problem of the teacher's boarding-place a part of\nthe administrative work of the county superintendent's office. But this\ndetermined stand, persisted in, gradually brought about a recognition of\nthe importance of the problem with the result that either the board of\ndirectors took the responsibility of providing a suitable boarding-place or\n\na teacher's cottage was built.\nTeachers' cottages came as a welcome solution to the housing accom-\n\nmodations for teachers, thus attracting some of the best talent to the\ncountry and adding permanency to the teacher's tenure of office. Home\nlife is pleasant because it is real.\n\nThe home for the teacher appeals more\n\nstrongly to me perhaps than any other one thing accomplished.\n\nIt took\n\ncourage to stand firmly for the teacher's right against a community's\ninherent right to give or deny the privilege of comforts and good home\n\nfood to the molder in the schoolroom of the future citizens of one of our\ngreat states.\n\nThe three movements which I have presented to you tonight have\ncome to me as a partial solution to rural-life problems. The commimity\ncenter idea grew out of\n\nmy intimate knowledge of rural conditions.\n\nI\n\ncame to realize fully that \"community and school must develop together\"\nand that organization of rural centers was inevitable. The boys' and girls'\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": "193", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE MOONLIGHT SCHOOLS OF KENTUCKY\n\n193\n\ncontest work came from the need of attention being directed thru our schools\n\ntoward practical home work.\n\nLiving in an agricultural state with a course\n\nof study slightly touching the agricultural needs, the farmers, the bankers,\n\nand rural-school people urged a vitalized school curriculum.\n\nC.\n\nTHE MOONLIGHT SCHOOLS OF KENTUCKY\n\nCORA WILSON STEWART, PRESIDENT, KENTUCKY ILLITERACY COMMISSION,\nFRANKFORT, KY.\n\nThe various impressions which have obtained thruout the country as\nto the moonlight schools of Kentucky, as expressed in letters to me, have\n\nbeen most interesting and amusing indeed.\n\nSome have conjectured them\n\nto be schools where children studied, scampered, and played on the green\n\nsome have imagined them to be ideal courting\narm in arm, quoted poetry, and told the\nold, old story by the light of a bewitching moon; while others have speculated as to their being schools where moonshiners, youthful and aged, were\ninstructed as to the most scientific method of extracting the juice from the\ncorn and the most secretive method of providing successfully against government interference.\nThree years ago there was established in Rowan County, Kentucky, the\nlike fairies in the moonlight;\n\nschools where lovers strolled\n\ninstitution known as\n\n\"moonlight schools.\"\n\nThey were so called because\n\nin the begmning they were held only on moonlight nights.\n\nThese schools\nwere designed primarily to emancipate all the men and women in the\n\ncounty who were enslaved in the bondage of illiteracy.\n\nThey were intended,\n\nalso, to afford an opportunity to those who possessed a limited education.\n\nFirst, the public-school teachers of Rowan County were called together\nand informed of the conditions and needs, an appeal was made to them,\nespecially on behalf of the eleven hundred and fifty-two men and women\nwhom the schools of the past had left behind, and they were asked to volunteer for night-school service. Those teachers received the plan and purposes of the moonlight schools with sympathy and enthusiasm, and not\n\nonly volunteered to teach at night, free of charge, but to canvass their districts in advance and to inform the people of the purpose of these schools\nand to urge them all to attend. That they did their work well, and that\nthey met with hearts responsive and minds hungry for learning and souls\nthat yearned for higher things was attested by the fact that when the first\nsession opened on the bright moonlight evening of September 5, 191 1,\ninstead of the lone and solitary student or the straggling few at each school,\nas was anticipated, they came thronging up out of the hollows and over\nthe hills, they came hurrying in groups, they came walking for miles, they\ncame carrying babes in arms, they came leaning on canes and bent with\nage— they came twelve hundred strong. There were overgrown boys who\nhad dropped out of school at an early age and had fallen behind their classes\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": "194", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n194\n\n[Richmond\n\nand who had felt ashamed to re-enter school and be classified with \"tiny\ntots\" and they came to catch up again; there were maidens in their teens\nwho had been deprived of an education earlier by reason of isolation, home\nduties, invalidism, and other causes, but whose souls had yearned for better\nthings than ignorance dense; there were women who had married in childhood, practically, as is too much the wont of our mountain girls, and who\nfor years craved that which they knew to be their inherent right, their\nmental development; there were their husbands by their sides, who had\ntoo often known the sting of humiliation when making their marks in the\npresence of the educated and when they had asked the election ofl&cerS to\ncast for them a vote for the candidates of their choice; there were middleaged men, who had seen a hundred golden opportunities pass them by\nbecause of the handicap of illiteracy, whose mineral and timber and material stores, as well as their time and energy, were in the control of the educated men, making them but beggars, as it were, on the bounty of those\nwhom they enriched; there were women who had seen their children grow\nup and vanish from the home, some of them into the Far West, and, when\nthe spoken word and the handclasp had ceased, there had been no heartto-heart communication, for a third person as an interpreter between\nmother and child is but a poor medium at the best; there were grandfathers\nand grandmothers who had heard the Bible read and the gospel propounded\nbut had never had the privilege of reading and verifying the precious promthese and other folks, such\nises of that Book of Books with their own eyes\nas make up the average rural community in the southern mountains, some\nhalf-educated, and some more, made up these schools.\n\"Just to learn to\nread my Bible\" was the cry of many a patriarch and many a withered dame.\n\"To write my children with my own hand and read their letters with my\nown eyes\" was the earnest wish of the mother's heart. \"Just to learn\nto write my name to escape from the shame of making my mark!\" was\nthe appeal of the younger men, while \"Just to have a chance with other\nfolk, to be something and do something in the world!\" were the desires\nexpressed by the younger people. The youngest student was aged eighteen\nand the oldest was eighty-six. It was a scene to bring tears to the eyes,\nand yet to make the heart rejoice, to see these robust young people and\nthose hoary-haired old people, as they sat at their desks and studied together\nor stood at the blackboard and wrote their names for the first time with\ninexpressible pride, or stood in a row and spelled.\nThey learned to read and write during the first session and wrote letters\nto their friends and loved ones. Two school trustees, who could read and\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nwrite but possessed little other literary attainment, received encouragement\n\nand inspiration from their rapid progress in the night school and entered\nthe day school when the night school closed, pursuing their studies with\nunsurpassed diligence, and they are today two of the most faithful members\nOne man, who had labored for\nof the corps of teachers in that county.\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": "195", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE MOONLIGHT SCHOOLS OF KENTUCKY\n\n195\n\nyears at the low wage of $1 50 and had seen many men less worthy promoted above him from time to time, specialized in mathematics, mastering\n.\n\nthe principles of the branch which dealt with his particular business,\nlimibering, and at the close of the night school was promoted at a salary\n\ndouble the one which he had previously earned.\n\nThere were a hundred\nand individual achievement which\nare on my lips to tell you tonight if time would but stay its hand. The joy\nin achievement, simple achievement tho it was, is beyond the power of\nmortal tongue to describe. The newly learned wrote their names with\nfrenzied delight on fences, posts, barns, logs, barrel staves, and every available scrap of paper, and those who possessed even meager means drew their\nstore from its hiding-place and deposited it in the bank and wrote their\nchecks and signed their names with satisfaction. Friction and factional\nfeeling, which existed in some districts, gave place to a spirit of co-operation.\nA community spirit and Sunday schools and other organizations were direct\ninstances of individual development\n\nresults of the moonlight schools.\n\nThe institution was too popular and too fruitful of results to abandon.\n\nWhen the teachers entered their districts the next year they were greeted\nwith a chorus of inquiries, \" When will the night school begin ? \" A teacher\nwho hesitated was a teacher who lost the good will and esteem of his\npatrons.\n\nWe conducted a six weeks' session the second term, running\nWe surpassed our first year's record in every par-\n\nforty-eight schools.\n\nSixteen hundred students were enrolled, 350 were taught to read\nand write, and a man aged eighty-seven came and put to shame the record\nThe moonlight\nof the proud school girl of eighty-six of the session before.\nschools were now an established institution in Rowan County and had been\nadopted in some one or more districts in eight or ten other counties in the\nstate, and whether it was in the bluegrass county of Madison, among the\ntenant class, or in Garrard in the distillery section, or in Johnson among\nthe miners, or in Lawrence among the farmers, it had always been with the\nsame results: there had been men and women in large numbers who came\nand eagerly welcomed the opportunity and who strove with all their might\nto make up for the years which they had lost and who plead for a longer\nterm when the session closed.\nticular.\n\nWhen the third session of moonlight schools opened in Rowan County,\nin August of 1913, it was destined to be the most strenuous campaign against\n\nworld had ever known. The teachers had met in the\nmonth of March and had agreed with their superintendent to wipe illiteracy\nfinally from that county.\nWe had employed each trustee in April to take\na careful census of the illiterates of his district, and when the reports came\nilliteracy that the\n\nin each individual case\n\nwas investigated and an illiteracy record made.\n\nOn this record we had not only the name and age of every illiterate in the\ncounty, but the history of each and every one, his religious preference, his\npolitical faith, his weaknesses, tastes, his peculiarities, his family ties, his\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": "196", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n196\n\n[Richmond\n\nhome environment, and the influence or combination of influences thru\nwhich he might be reached.\nof illiterates in\n\nEach teacher was provided with the record\n\nher particular district, with instructions to call and culti-\n\n—\n\nlike good politicians\n\nvate these people\nbegan.\n\n—\n\n^before the session of night school\n\nWe established a home department, in which the feeble and those\n\ndisinclined could be instructed\n\nby the teacher or by someone under the\n\nteacher's direction in the home.\n\nWe enlisted every educated person possible\n\nto campaign, to speak, or to teach.\n\nMinisters, doctors, lawyers, stenog-\n\nraphers, merchants, school children, and even many of the illiterate themselves as soon as they passed out of the illiterate class\n\nbegan to teach\n\nmembers of their families and their friends. We tried by every means, fair\nand foul, to get every man in the county to learn to read and write. An\noverwhelming majority accepted the opportunity with joy and gratitude.\nA few had to be coaxed. Four in their ignorance had a false conception of\nthe movement and stubbornly and persistently refused to attempt to learn;\nsix were afflicted with defective eyesight or total blindness;\n\nfive were con-\n\nfirmed invalids languishing on beds of pain; six were imbeciles; and two who\n\nmoved in at the close of our session did not learn to read or write, leaving\nus twenty-three\n\nilliterates\n\nin\n\nA few weeks ago a Rowan County\n\nall.\n\nteacher, whose school had closed, took a sudden and peculiar notion to go\n\nand board a while with one of the stubborn old women who had refused to\nShe induced the woman\nto teach her to knit and as they sat and knitted together they became fast\nand familiar friends, and when the time was ripe this teacher said:\nlearn and to pay her an exorbitant price for board.\n\nNow you have been so kind as to teach me something which I have always wanted\nI am going to teach you to write to Elias in\n\nto know, I am going to be as kind to you.\n\nthe state of Washington and to Jacob in Illinois and to Charies in Indiana.\n\nI know how\n\nglad they will be to have a letter from their mother and how happy you will be to read\n\na letter from them.\n\nAnd all the time she was talking the teacher was getting her paper and\npencil\n\nand materials together, and this old woman, either from a long-\n\nsmothered desire to communicate with her absent loved children, or from\nthe fear of losing a valuable boarder and charming companion, or from\n\nsome other inducement, was soon at work copying the letter \"E,\" the first\nOn last Thursday, this earnest little teacher came up\nthe stairway and knocked at my door. I opened, and, with shining eyes\nbut without a word, she laid that old woman's first letter on my desk. Oh,\nthose Rowan County teachers! They have the spirit and they know the\nmethod, and I do not believe that any illiterate within their reach has a\nletter of her name.\n\nchance to escape them!\nIlliteracy is\n\nan easy thing to eradicate.\n\nadult to learn to read and write.\nthis his first letter that it\n\nIt does not take long for an\n\nSaul Dehart, aged thirty-eight, states in\n\ntook eight evenings' instruction to achieve it.\n\nS. P. Johnson, a Baptist preacher aged fifty, says that he could only write\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": "197", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE MOONLIGHT SCHOOLS OF KENTUCKY\n\none letter in his name when the night schools began, the letter \"S.\"\n\n197\n\nIn\n\nfour days, he signed his name to the assessor's list for the first time and\nafter seven lessons wrote me this, his first letter, pleading that we should\n\nnot let the night schools go down.\n\nMose Wallace says that it required five\n\nevenings for him to learn sufficiently to write me this, his first letter.\nStapleton says that four evenings sufficed for him.\n\nTom\n\nBurr Harfield says that\n\nhe learned in two evenings, and is very happy, and his teacher verified his\n\nHenry Kissick says that the school supervisor taught him in\nthe woods, where he was making ties, and I have his and the supervisor's\naffidavits stating that he had never attempted to write before he learned\nto write and wrote this note, which was done after only two hours' instruction and practice.\nWhile we were reducing our illiteracy in Rowan County, we had time to\norganize and direct night schools in other whole counties and in individual\nstatements.\n\ndistricts in twenty-five other counties in the state.\n\nIn Grayson County,\n\nwhere we organized twenty-two night schools last August, a man ninetyfour learned to read and write and wrote me this letter which I hold in my\nhand, and which may be plainly read, and which, it is needless to say,\nI treasure more than fine gold.\n\nThese statements as to the rapidity with which some men have learned\nto read and write and the achievements of these venerable students may\n\nmeet with skepticism in some. They are too unusual and too remarkable,\nI realize, to meet with fullest credence from those who have known no such\nexperience and have never witnessed such efforts and results. And, notwithstanding the fact that all the world knows that it is risky to dispute\na Kentuckian's word, I should cringe and cower to stand before this intelligent audience and make such assertions did I not have in my possession\nproofs to substantiate them.\nI hold in\n\nmy hand photos of the most remarkable group of students in\n\nthe world: Dulcina Morefield, aged eighty-three; Dicie Carter, aged eightysix;\n\nMartin Sloan, aged eighty-seven, and John Hatfield, aged ninety-four.\n\nTo every apostle of education seated in this audience, the desire and the\ndetermination and the efforts of these men and women to escape from\nignorance, even as they stand at the very portals of the grave, should be\n\nan inspiration and a stimulus to a newer and fuller and completer consecration to the great and noble profession in which those assembled here\n\nhave chosen to engage. It should stimulate us to a consecration which\nwould hold us to the task beyond the shining hours of day and impel\nus by some means to pry open the doors of all the schoolhouses in this\ncountry for the use of the people at night. There sit in this audience\nmen and women who are superintendents of rural communities. The\nUnited States Census Bureau reports that illiteracy exists in the rural\ncommunities in almost double the proportion that it does in the urban,\nand this despite the fact that a stream of illiterate foreigners is pouring into\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": "198", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n198\n\nthe urban districts daily.\n\n[Richmond\n\nI want to ask you who are superintendents of\n\nrural schools, whether section, township, county, or state, if there is any\n\ngood reason why a night school should be a city product and a city institution only.\n\nIs there any just reason why our sturdy pioneers, who were\n\ndeprived of an education in the strenuous duties of pioneer life in the newly-\n\ndeveloped sections, and our pure-blooded Anglo-Saxon retarded mountaineers of the Appalachian highlands, and our American farmers should be\n\ncondemned to everlasting ignorance, while illiterate foreigners who enter\nthis country may find the schoolroom\n\ndoor wide open in the cities where\n\nthey land ?\n\nA day school in every community Once it was a doubtful experiment,\nand it has come up only thru trials and tribulations and struggles innumerable.\nBut it is firmly established, and forever so. A night school in every\ncommunity! If a cultured community, a night school for more culture, for\nspecialization, for social development; if an ignorant community, a night\nschool for the emancipation of illiterate men and women and for their new\nbirth into the realms of wisdom and power. I believe that the public school\n!\n\nshould be as liberal in its policy as is the church.\n\nI do not believe it has\n\nany right to say to men and women, *'If you embrace me not early I will\nThe hour of\nclose my doors to you at a certain time or a certain age.\"\na man's opportunity should be that hour in which he awakens to his need,\nwhether that be at the age of six or one himdred and six.\nKentucky is awake on the subject of her adult illiteracy and her heart\nbeats a sympathetic response to the cries of **Wait\" from her men and\nwomen whom the schools have left behind. Kentucky's governor recommended in his message to the general assembly, which is now in session,\nthat an illiteracy commission should be created to study and to relieve the\ncondition of adult illiterates in the state. I was privileged to be present\nwhen the lower house passed that measure with a unanimous vote, and\nsome of its members were so enthusiastic in its favor that not content with\nvoting once they voted twice, shouting \"Aye! Aye!\" One week ago today\nI received this message telling of the disposition of the measure in the\nSenate:\n\nDated C. H. Frankfort, Ky. 18\n\nTo Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart,\nMOREHEAD, Ky.\n\"Your illiteracy bill passed the Senate this morning by unanimous vote and many\ncomplimentary remarks about you and your noble work in the state of Kentucky.\"\n(Signed)\n\nStarling L. Marshall\n\nThis commission is designed to organize the other counties of the state\n\n—to prac-\n\nto do in six years what one of its counties accomplished in three\ntically wipe out illiteracy.\n\nHasten the day when the rural dweller, wherever he may be, whether\nin the mountains or by the sea, in the cotton fields or on the western plain,\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": "199", "text": "—\nSuperintendence]\n\nFOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT\n\n199\n\nmay have a school that is not only open to his children and his grandchildren\nby day but is open to his wife, his grown son, his aged father, his hired man,\nand himself by night. Hasten the day when there shall be no men and\nwomen in this country who have eyes to see but see not the splendid truths\nwhich have been written in books, and who have hands to write but write\nnot the thoughts which, if recorded, might stamp with genius someone\nwhose wisdom the world, in its urgent need, is seeking tonight.\n\nTHE FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT\nEDWARD\n\nL. THORNDIKE, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL TSYCHOLOGY,\nTEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nA minister of the gospel who was asked to enumerate the foundations of\nthe religious\nuse.\"\n\nlife\n\nanswered, \"Everything in God's world and its proper\n\nDoubtless the proper use of everything in the world of knowledge\n\nand skill and conduct is not too wide a description of the fundamentals\nYou do not, however, expect anybody to\nof educational achievement.\noutline an entire educational creed and practice in thirty minutes. What\n\nyou wish,\n\nI judge, is that, as\n\na representative of educational psychol-\n\nogy, I should report any contribution that recent psychology has to offer\nto your work of making schools more efl&cient\n\n—of increasing educational\n\nachievement.\n\nThere is such a contribution, and, as I hope to convince you, an imporhuman nature which recent studies of\nhuman thought and action support.\nAbout fifteen years ago the point of view of students of human nature\nshowed the first clear signs of what has been a rather abrupt change toward\nthinking of a man's mind as the sum total of connections between the situaUp till\ntions which life offers and the responses which the man makes.\nthen the mind had been thought of primarily as a set of magical faculties\nor powers attention, memory, inference, reasoning, choice, and the like\ntant one in the general view of\n\n—\n\nor as a collection of certain contents\n\nand the like.\n\n—sensations, images, thoughts,\n\nvolitions,\n\nToday the progressives in psychology think of a man's mind\n\nas the organized system of connections or bonds or associations whereby\n\nhe responds or reacts by this or that thought or feeling or act to each of the\nTheir\nmillions of situations or circumstances or events that befall him.\n\ncustomary name for the mind is the connection-system;\n\ntheir ideal of\n\npsychology is a science which can predict what any given situation or\nstimulus will connect with or evoke in the way of thought, feeling, word,\nor deed in any given man; their offering to education is an offering of knowl-\n\nedge of the laws whereby connections in thought and behavior are made\n\nand broken, are preserved and weakened, and are of help and hindrance\none to another.\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": "200", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n200\n\n[Richmond\n\nFrom this point of view educational achievement consists, not in\nstrengthening mystical general powers of the mind, but in establishing connections, binding appropriate responses to life's situations, \"training the\n\npupil to behavior\" (\"behavior\" being the name we use for \"every possible\nsort of reaction\n\non the circumstances into which he may find himself\n\nbrought\"), building up a hierarchy of habits, strengthening and weakening\n\nbonds whereby one thing leads to another in a man's life.\n\nThe first suggestion resulting is the obvious and simple but profitable\none that nothing is achieved by schools unless some connection is influenced,\nthat we cannot assume change in any pupil unless bonds have been made or\n\nbroken so as to cause him to respond as he did not before.\n\nThe connection\n\nmay be one leading only to an attitude, say of interest or enjoyment.\nIt may be only partly made, guaranteeing the possibility of a certain\nresponse, not its surety. It may be hidden, showing itself only indirectly,\nor only after years, or in some subtle modification of intellect or character.\nIt may lead from\n\nsome elusive element or feature of a situation, such\nnumber or the subjunctiveness of a subjunc-\n\nas the \"place- value\" of a\ntive,\n\nto\n\nsome general element or feature\n\nof\n\nmany responses, such as\n\nopen-mindedness, or cheerfulness, or readiness to do what one accepts as\n\nBut if anything is achieved, some actual connection or bond has\nA child's mind is never a\nwitch's pot to be set in action by educational incantations. Its defects\nare not curable by faith. To discipline it means to improve its specific\nhabits.\nTo develop it means to add bonds productive of desirable responses\nand to weaken their opposites. Learning is connecting. It never becomes\nright.\n\nbeen made, strengthened, weakened, or broken.\n\nso spiritual, so general, or so involved as to evade expression in terms of\n\nconcrete couplings between real happenings to a man and real responses\n\nby him.\n\nOf any assumed educational achievement that does evade such\n\nexpression, we should be suspicious.\n\nProbably its only existence is in our\n\nhopes or fears.\n\nWhat bonds are being formed, what is being put with what in the pupil's\nexperience,\n\nthen\n\nachievement.\nhabits,\n\nbecomes a fundamental question concerning school\n\nIt is of course the old, old question of what knowledge, what\n\nwhat interests, what skill, and what ideals are being taught, but\n\nput so as to encourage real rather than verbal, and detailed rather than\nvague, answers. We need to ask it. For this new point of view protects\nus against careless omissions and mistakes.\n\nFor example, I venture to\n\nprophesy that more will be achieved in arithmetic by special exercises in\nteaching the addition-combinations with the higher decades that is, in\n\n—\n\nforming the connections 26 and 5 are 31, 26 and 6 are 32, 26 and 7 are 33\n\nthan by leaving them to be deduced from the previously formed connections\n6 and 5 are 11, 6 and 6 are 12, 6 and 7 are 13, and so on.\n\nWhether or not\n\nthese particular bonds do need special drill or may be left to come by transfer,\n\nthe general rule, not to assume that a bond exists imless you find it or\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": "201", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT\n\nmake it, is sound.\n\n20l\n\nAgain, I venture to prophesy that written single-column\n\naddition with sums of lo or more and without carr)dng should and will\n\ndisappear as a preparation for addition with carrying.\n\nA child who adds\n\n6 and 4 and 3 and writes down the 13 is forming a habit that he will have\nto break when in two-place addition he has to write down only the 3 and\n\nuse the i in adding.\n\nannounced orally.\n\nThe answers in the preliminary drill may be better\n\nHowever this particular case be, the general rule, other\n\nthings being equal, not to form any connection that will have to be broken,\nis\n\nsound.\n\nAgain, I venture to prophesy that soon the millions of connec-\n\ntions formed in the present teaching of arithmetic and algebra only to test\n\nthe existence of some other connections will be replaced by connections\nthat do this disciplinary and drill work as well and also serve some intrinsically worthy end.\n\nFor the psychology of connection-forming carries the\n\neducational corollary, \"Other things being equal, favor those situations\n\nwhich life itself will offer and those responses which life itself demands.\n\nForm connections for use.'*\nLet me read you one or two problems, all from arithmetics published\nwithin the last ten years, and ask you to consider whether, if the writers had\n\nthought of just what bonds or connections these problems formed, they\nwould have printed them.\n1.\n\nThe step of an ostrich measures 5 feet.\n\nHow many yards does it travel in taking\n\n120 steps?\n\nAt I of a cent apiece how many dozen eggs can I buy for $60 ?\nEight (8) times the number of stripes in our flag is the number of years from 1800\nuntil Roosevelt was elected President.\nIn what year was he elected President ?\n2.\n\n3.\n\n4.\n\nIn a school there are 12 classes and an average of 50 pupils in a class.\n\nIf everyone\n\nin the school should make 500 straight marks on each side of his slate, how many would\n\nbe made in all ?\n\nThese needed connections now neglected, avoidable connections now\nformed only to be broken, and wasteful connections formed only for the\nsake of some principle or power which really useful connections could\nillustrate or exercise as well, I\n\nhave illustrated in the case of arithmetic\n\nBut any other school subject would have served as well or better.\nIf each of you will master the psychology of learning, and then scrutinize\neach page of your approved textbooks and each exercise prescribed by your\ncourse of study, asking, Ime by line, \" What connections are formed by this ?'*\nthe importance of the facts and the point of view for criticism and for cononly.\n\nstruction will soon be proved.\nI turn now to a second fundamental principle for school achievement,\n\nThe bonds to be formed having\nbeen chosen, the next step is to arrange for their most economical order of\nthe order of formation of the connections.\n\nformation\n\n—to arrange to have each help the others as much as possible,\n\nor, as we psychologists say, to get the\n\nof inhibition.\n\nmaximum of facilitation and minimum\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": "202", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n202\n\n[Richmond\n\nYou have heard so many discussions and read so many treatises concerning the sequence of topics, the correlation of studies, and the like, that\n\nyou perhaps shrink from re-examining a minute inventory of all school\nwork and reconsidering its best possible arrangement as a system or hierarchy of connections to be formed, each with the interests of all the others\nin view.\n\nIt must, indeed,\n\nbe admitted that the work is long and also\n\ntedious, unless one has a scientific interest in minute matters of educational\nefficiency and in principles whereby to adjudicate them.\n\nIt is, however,\n\nimportant, for economy in educational achievement means that we form the\n\nmost desirable connections in the most useful order.\n\nAnd it is needed;\n\nfor, in spite of the very great advance of the past hundred years, textbooks\n\nand courses of study still follow mere traditional customs or the order which\nhappens to appeal to some individual expositor.\nI\n\nmay illustrate this need in the simple case of the bonds between\n\nprinted words and their meanings that should be formed before, or at the\n\ntime that, certain work in arithmetic is to be done.\n\nIt is obvious that to\n\nfollow printed directions and to solve printed problems a pupil needs to be\n\nable to read the directions and problems\n\n—that\n\nis, to have formed the bonds\nand phrases to their meanings.\nWhat I propose to show is that even the best of our modern arithmetical\n\nleading from the sight of certain words\n\ntextbooks presuppose, at stage after stage, ''word-meaning\" connections\n\nwhich, at that stage, have not been and should not have been formed;\n\nand that, on the other hand, they and the textbooks in reading fail to\nform in early grades certain connections which would enormously facilitate\nthe arithmetical learning for these grades.\nI shall first read you a list of words all of which occur within the first\nfifty pages of one or more of four elementary beginning arithmetics intended\n\nfor pupils in\n\nGrade II (or Grade III at the latest).\n\nI\n\nsubmit that the\n\nmajority of the children in question will not have formed the connections in\nquestion and should not be expected to have done so, and that to make\nachievement in arithmetic hang on knowledge of these words as a prerequisite is a monstrous offense against rational organization of learning.\n\nThe words beginning with \"c\" are:\ncabbage\n\nCalifornia\n\ncamped\n\ncamphor\n\ncandles\n\ncardboard\n\ncarriage\n\ncharity\n\nClara\n\nCharlotte\n\nCarrie's\n\ncircus\n\ncircumference\n\ncloset\n\ncloudy\n\nclothespin\n\ncocoa\n\ncollected\n\ncombinations\n\nconmiittee\n\ncovered\n\ncounty\n\ncradles\n\ncrane\n\ncranberries\n\ncrew\n\ncrumbs\n\ncurrants\n\n,\n\nThese four books show in the first fifty pages at least four hundred words\nwhich not half of the children at the middle of Grade II can read or should\nFor example, in one or more of the four may be foimd\na galaxy of seventy proper names which these children must master before\n\nbe expected to read.\n\nthey can understand their problems.\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": "203", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT\n\nI submit that so long as such offenses\n\n203\n\ncome in our best textbooks a\n\nscrutiny of the order of formation of bonds in school work is no empty-\n\npsychological amusement, but a vital concern for educational policy.\n\nOn the other hand, consider the bonds between these words and their\nmeanings:\n\nHow much, how many, count, with, together, add, sum, difference, take away, is\nleft, are left, once, twice, two times, three times, four times, half of, some, all, in all, any,\n\nnot any, equal, part, whole, greater, less, longer, shorter, cost, buy, bought, sell, sold,\nmeasure.\n\nThe existence and sure action of connections between these words and their\nmeanings must precede or accompany early work in arithmetic, if it is to\nbe efficient, yet few books or courses of study in arithmetic provide for their\nformation save hit-or-miss;\n\nand surely the primers and first and second\n\nThe four books in arithmetic which I examined actually\navoid forming these bonds. The word difference,\" for example, occurs\n\nreaders do not.\n\n*'\n\nonly once in twenty pages, the pupils' time being spent in getting acquainted\n\nwith such words as\ndairyman\ndepartment\n\ndepot\n\ndischarged\n\ndishwater\n\nDorothy\n\nTwo of the four do not use the word \"sum\" in these fifty pages, yet find\nroom for Samuel, Susan, Susie, swimming, syllable, syrup, soldiers, sparrows,\nstrips, stripes, and so on.\n\nBear in mind that the textbook writers who thus leave unformed important facilitating connections, and burden the beginners of arithmetic with\n\nthe task of learning to read the names of rare food products, strange vehicles,\n\nand the Adele, B)^on, Dorothy, Esther series, are from our best\n\n—that\n\nwithout such a deUberate warning to consider the place of every connection\nin the hierarchy as I have given not one of us\n\nwould have done better.\n\nBear in mind also that textbooks in elementary geography show a similar\nstate of affairs.\n\nA psychologist examining the connections made by the school subjects\nwith a view to their arrangement in an optimum order finds many of these\nchances for sure improvement and also many problematic cases where, it\nappears, experimentation has a fair probability of showing ways to increase\nschool achievement.\nas illustrations.\n\nAny few of these problems for investigation will serve\n\nConsider, for example, teaching certain facts about pints\n\nand quarts, feet and yards, cents, dimes, and dollars, very early as an\nintroduction to and confirmation of knowledge of our system of decimal\nnotation and of the processes of \"carr3dng\" in addition and \"borrowing\"\nin subtraction.\nThe later decimal-system habits would undoubtedly\nthen be more mtelligent and less productive of interference. Whether\nthis gain would be outbalanced by other losses can best be discovered by\nexperiment. Or consider, for example, teaching the metric system as an\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": "204", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n204\n\n[Richmond\n\nintroduction to, instead of as a consequence of, decimal fractions.\n\nThis\nchange may seem preposterous, but I venture to remind you that doing\njust this in the case of United States money is one of the most successful\n\nfeatures of the arrangement of modem textbooks.\n\nOr consider teaching much of United States history first in the reverse\nchronological order\n\n—from aeroplanes to automobiles, to the\n\nto the steam railroad, to the stagecoach;\n\nelectric trolley,\n\nfrom the building of the school-\n\nhouse to the settlement of the town, to pioneer days, to the Pilgrims;\n\nfrom the discovery of America by Isidore Strauss to the discovery by\nColumbus reviewing and expanding and co-ordinating later in a direct\nchronological account. As romance or panorama, history begins with\ncenturies back, but as a science, it may perhaps best begin at home, and\nwith facts near and verifiable, as we have found it profitable for geography\n\n—\n\nto do.\n\nOr consider the order of acquaintance with the words in a foreign lanThe commonest bonds found among words are those binding words\nto their opposites (good-bad, father -son, boy-girl, hot-cold, up-down, and\nthe like), yet I have searched a score of Latin, French, and German language\nbooks without finding any systematic use of this fact. Again the wordmeaning connections of most help in facilitating reading are with the relational words, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, and\nYet these words are very rarely given early or extensive\ndirective adverbs.\nor ingenious treatment. Indeed, I do not find much recognition of any\nguage.\n\nprinciples of economical arrangement of vocabularies save the utterly\n\nobvious one that words not fitting the grammatical and translational\nexercises are kept out, and the common words or words used in the \"first\nfive\n\nbooks of Caesar'* or the like are worked in.\n\nYet the maxunum of\n\nachievement demands that there should be a reason for every word taught\n\nand for teaching it at just that time and no other.\nSuch problems as these in mental mechanics ^problems in choosing,\nordering, and manipulating the mind's connections are now the growing-\n\n—\n—\n\npoint of experimental education.\n\nBy skilful analysis of human learning\n\ninto the millions of elementary connections between situation and response\n\nwhich constitute it and by experimental study of the ways in which these\nconnections are best formed, preserved, organized, and used, the psychologist\n\nhopes to get both comprehension and control of the foundations of\n\neducational achievement.\n\nThe foundations of educational achievement are these connections or\nbonds or habits of response, but these habits themselves lead us back farther\nHuman beings,\nto the unlearned, original capacities and tendencies of man.\nas you well know, are not indifferent clay to be molded at will by the\nteacher's art.\ninherit as a\n\nThey are themselves active forces to help or hinder. They\nhuman birthright instincts and interests of which education\n\nfrom the start and thruout must take account.\n\nEducational achievement\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": "205", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nis\n\nFOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT\n\n205\n\nsmall or great in proportion as it neglects these natural untaught tend-\n\nencies in man or utilizes them to further his ideal aims.\n\nAnd educational\n\nscience needs as its basal equipment an exact and adequate inventory of the\noriginal nature of man as a species and of the idiosyncrasies of individual\n\nmen.\n\nNo choice of the habits of thought or action to be formed by schools is\nsound which gives technique irrespective of needs felt by the pupil, or adds\nknowledge without any motive for its use, or tries to cultivate artificial\nvirtues in disregard of the crude forms of courage, kindliness, zeal,\n\nand\n\nhelpfulness which nature already affords.\n\nNo arrangement of the mind's connections is economical which fails to\nuse the inborn organizing power of curiosity, the problem-attitude, and the\ndesire to test and verify or refute by eyes and hands.\n\nNo manipulation of bonds in learning is efficient which disregards the\npupil's\n\nown sense of sociability, kindness, and achievement during the\nThe original proclivities of the human animal are as\n\nlearning process.\n\nand condition these thruout.\nformed in the service of some instinctive interest.\nreal as its laws of learning\n\nEvery habit is\n\nThe inborn interests of man in movement, novelty, color, life, the\nbehavior of other human beings, sociability, cheerfulness, notice, approval,\nmastery, and self-activity are not ultimate aims of education, nor is their\npresence a guaranty that school work is well directed and efficient.\n\nBut\n\nwe double achievement if we get them on our side and we enrich life\nenormously at little cost if we turn these fundamental passions into line\nwith higher nature and the common good.\nI hold no brief in favor of avoiding in schools anything necessary for\n\nhuman welfare, either because it is hard or because it is disliked. I find\nmany of the tendencies born in man to be archaic, useless, immoral, adaptations to such a life as man lived in the woods a hundred thousand years ago,\nwhen affection had not spread beyond the family, or justice beyond the\ntribe, or science beyond the needs of tomorrow, and when truth was only\nthe undisputed and goodness only the unrebuked. That the natural is the\ngood is a superstition which psychology cannot tolerate. Still less, however, can psychology tolerate the superstition that there can be any foundation for educational achievement other than the best that human nature\nitself affords.\nTruth is only what the best in human intellect accepts;\ngoodness is only what the best in human nature craves.\n\nWe mean by the\n\nand impersonal aims of education only the nobler inborn\nhuman interests purified of their crude accompaniments and broadened to\nharmonize with the common good. We must not find too much fault with\nrational, ideal,\n\nhuman nature; for ultimately it is all we have!\n\nIts best elements are the\n\nbest the world has or ever will have.\n\nWhat psychology offers education today is thus a matter-of-fact view\nof human nature as a set of original unlearned connections or tendencies to\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": "206", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2o6\n\n[Richmond\n\nrespond, which we redirect and to which we add by arranging the situations\nof life so that new and better connections are formed.\n\nThe efficiency with\n\nwhich we do this work will depend on our knowledge of man's inborn equipment, our wisdom in choosing and arranging the connections to be formed,\nand our justice and ingenuity in maneuvering these forces of instinct and\nhabit for human betterment.\n\nA flawless architecture of human affairs will\n\nnot be attained until every possible response of every variety of himian\nbeing to every situation of life is thus understood and controlled by human\nreason in the interest of human weKare.\n\nHowever, each minute addition\n\nof scientific knowledge of man's nature means one more stone (or at least\n\none molecule of cement!) of wise placing in the foundation for education's\nbuilding.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN\nEDUCATION\nH. B. WILSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA., KANS., CHAIRMAN\n\nIn its report of progress one year ago, your conmiittee indicated that\nthe largest result of its labors by that date consisted in securing the cooperation of a number of investigators, each undertaking some study with\n\na view to a future report on some significant phase of the general problem\nof economy of time in public-school education.\nUndoubtedly, the most significant thing which occurred during the\npast year in relation to this general problem was the publication of the\nreport by the Committee of the National Council of the National Education\n\nAssociation on\n\nEconomy of Time in Education by President James H.\n\nBaker, chairman, together with the other members of his committee.\n\nThis report, as\n\nis\n\nwell known, resulted from the persistent efforts\n\nof\n\nPresident Baker since the meeting of 1903 and represents the labors of\n\nPresident Baker and the other members of his committee, working since\n1908.\n\nAs a result of their efforts and upon their advice, two co-operating\n\n—\n\ncommittees have been created within the past three years one from the\nNational Association of State Universities and the other from this department.\n\nThe work of President Baker's committee is of significant value in that\nthe attention of educators thruout the country has been constantly kept\n\nupon this problem of such consequence during this period of wonderful\neducational reconstruction, and in that, resulting from their work, there\nhas developed a large amount of co-operative thinking, practicing, and\ntesting, and in that the printed report sets forth clearly and succinctly the\nfundamental principles which should consciously guide in a constructive\nway in the further work upon this problem, and in that they proposed in\nclosing their report the following divisions and distribution of the time\nconsumed in the period of general and special education:\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": "207", "text": "8\n2\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nCOMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nElementary Education\nSecondary Education (two divisions\n\n207\n6 to 1\n\n—4 years and years)\n2\n\n12 to 1\n\n18 to 20 or 16 to 20\n\nCollege\n\nUniversity (graduate school and professional schools)\n\n20 to 24\n\ncommittee also suggests that upon the\nAssociation\nof American Universities and from this\ncommittees from the\nIn a letter to\nresponsibility\nof a final solution.'*\nthe\ndepartment \"rests\nIn closing their report, this\n\nthe chairman of your committee following the issuance of this report,\n\n\"I believe the final solution of the problem will\nwork\nof your committee.\"\ncome largely thru the\naggressive work on the part of your\nyear,\nextended,\nDuring the past\nPresident Baker says:\n\ncommittee has been impossible owing to financial embarrassment. Altho\nthis department at its meeting in Philadelphia one year ago recommended\nthe continuance of your committee and the appropriation of $500 to defray\nnecessary expenses, and altho the Council at its summer meeting indorsed\nthis recommendation to the Committee on Appropriations of the National\n\nEducation Association, the funds available did not enable the setting apart\nof any money for the use of your committee.\n\nAs soon as we were ofiicially\n\ninformed that the expected deposit could not be made to our credit, we proceeded to learn the size of our overdraft and to notify all investigators\nthat no additional expenses could be defrayed.\n\nIn spite of the heavy\n\ndraft on the funds of the National Education Association, however, all\nbills which had been contracted were properly paid.\n\nDespite the fact that\n\nwe were unable to lend them financial encouragement, a number of the\nco-operating investigators have found ways of continuing the work, some\n\nmeeting their expenses personally, and others finding ways of charging\nlimited expenses to the institutions with which they are connected.\n\nIn\n\naddition to the two reports which are to be presented in the program of this\nsession we are able to report definite progress on the part of the following\n\nco-operating investigators:\n\nW. C. Bagley, on \"The Formulation of the Minima in Geography and History.\"\nL. D. Coffman, on \"The Size of Classes in Relation to Economy of Time.\"\nW. W. Black, on \"Reading.\"\nC. W. Stone, on \"The Elimination of Arithmetic in the First Two Grades.\"\nL. W. Rapeer, on \"The Relation of Health to Economy of Time.\"\nO. I. Woodley, on \"What the Normal Schools in the United States Are Doing in\nPractice and in Theoretical Investigation Pertaining to Economy of Time.\"\nWhile he has not begun his investigation, W. W. Charters has completed his plans for studying \"The Methods of Prolonging the Professional\n\nGrowth of Teachers in Active Service.\" During the year, F. E. Spaulding\ncompleted his study of \"Measuring Efficiency,\" which was published in\nEducation for December, 19 13.\n\nFurther progress is manifest thru the interest in the work of your\ncommittee which has been evidenced by numerous inquiries from educational\n\nassociations\n\nand investigating committees thruout the United\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": "208", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2o8\n\n[Richmond\n\nStates and by the attention to the topic of economy of time in the programs\n\nThe most significant and exhaustive of\nsuch programs was that of the Western Section of the Northern Illinois\n\nof various educational meetings.\n\nTeachers Association which met at Rockford, 111., in the autumn of 19 13,\nthe program for which was organized by Superintendent J. B. McManus,\nof La Salle, 111.\n\nCopies of this program may be had by those interested\n\nin constructing similar programs by writing to Superintendent McManus.\n\nThere is probably no more effective means of carrying this theoretical\ndiscussion over into practice than that of arranging for its detailed presentation and consideration in the programs of educational meetings.\n\nMeetings held by your committees since the opening of this session of\nthe department show that your committee is able to announce the issuance,\n\nby the time of the meeting of this department one year hence, of a printed\nstatement of the minimum content which both good practice and theoretical\nconsiderations indicate should be required in a number of subjects of the\n\nelementary curriculmn.\n\nThis statement will attempt to indicate also the\ntime which should be required in the teaching of this content as reflected\n\nin the general practice thruout the country and particularly in that practice which indicates that less than the usual time is sufficient for the doing\n\nof thoroly adequate work.\n\nArrangements have already been completed\n\nfor the formulation of such a report on arithmetic by W. A. Jessup;\n\non\n\nlanguage by J. F. Hosic; on history and geography by W. C. Bagley; on\nspelling by Hugh C. Pryor; on reading by R. G. Jones; and on writing by\n\nFrank N. Freeman.\nPlans have also been consummated for the publication of these reports\nas a yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Your\ncommittee confidently believes that this step insures a significant advance\nin the matter of insuring, in the near future, additional safe attempts to\n\neconomize time in public education.\n\nThis yearbook will contain a study\n\nof systems which are definitely attempting practical programs for econo-\n\nmizing time, setting forth concretely such facts in reference to their organization and practices as are essential to understanding specifically their practical programs and undertakings.\nThis study will be made by Frank E.\nThompson. A study will also be made of the time distribution by subjects\nand grades in representative cities in the United States the study being\n\ninterpreted from the standpoint of the suggestions it may contain in relation\nto economy of time.\n\nThis study will be in charge of Frank E. Spaulding.\n\nThe need at this time, as it seems to your committee, is further serious\nstudy of the problem, from the standpoints of both practice and theory.\nThis end will be furthered, as we believe, in very specific and concrete\nfashion by the studies above announced for publication.\n\nThat programs\n\nfor securing desirable economies may actually work out in practice, ways\n\nand means of insuring constructive thinking and doing on the part of the\nrank and file of teachers and superintendents must be sought. In this\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": "209", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\n\n209\n\ninterest, we urge the study of the topic on the part of teachers in service\n\nas well as on the part of intending teachers now in training.\n\nWe also urge\n\nthe testing-out of various plans for economizing time as they may come to\nthe attention of those in administrative positions.\n\nIt will also aid a popular\n\ngrasp of this program if our local as well as our national educational journals\ngive space to good articles relating to the topic and if educational programs\n\nprovide opportunities for presentation and discussion of various significant\nphases of the problem.\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\nWALTER A. JESSUP, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, STATE UNIVERSITY\nOF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA\nIn September of 1913 a questionnaire was sent by L. D. Coffman, of\nthe University of Illinois, and myself to the city superintendents listed\nin the directory of the United States Bureau of Education, which includes\n\npractically all of the cities with a population of 4,000\n\n1,700 in\n\nall.\n\n—about\n\nand over\n\nThe same questionnaire was sent to every sixth county\n\nsuperintendent in the United States.\n\nThe questions were answered by 52 per cent of the city superintendents,\nand by 24 per cent of the county superintendents. Returns were received\nfrom practically every sized city in the country. However, the larger\ncities were a little better represented in the matter of replies than were the\n\nEach section of the country was well\nThus it can be said that the data here submitted\n\nsmaller cities and rural districts.\n\nrepresented in returns.\n\nrepresent the attitude of one-half of the superintendents distributed quite\n\nevenly over the country as to size of city and geographical location.\n\nQuestionnaire\n\neconomy of time as related to material used in arithmetic\nCity\n\nState\n\nUnderscore once the subjects which should receive slight attention;\n\nunderscore\n\ntwice the subjects which should be eliminated: apothecaries' weight, troy weight, furlong,\n\nrood in square measure, dram, quarter in avoirdupois weight, surveyors' tables, foreign\n\nmoney, folding paper, reduction of more than two steps, long method of G.C.D., L.C.M.,\ntrue discount, cube root, partnership, compound proportion, compound and complex\nfractions, cases in percentage, annual interest, longitude and time, unreal fractions,\nalligation, metric system, progression, aliquot parts.\n\nOthers\n\nUnderscore the subjects which should receive more attention than is usually given:\naddition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, percentage, interest, saving\n\nand loaning money, banking, borrowing, building and loan associations, investments,\nbonds and stocks, taxes, levies, public expenditures, insurance as protection and investment, profits in business, public utilities.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": "210", "text": ".\n\n2IO\n\n,\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Richmond\n\nECONOMY OF TIME AS RELATED TO THE METHOD USED IN TEACHING\n\n123456789\n\nPercentage of recitation time in arithmetic which should be given over to strictly drill\nexercises in each grade.\n\nGrade\nPercentage\n\nPercentage of recitation time in arithmetic which should be given over to rationalization work in each grade.\n\nGrade\n\n2\n\ni\n\n3\n\n4*5\n\n6\n\n7\n\n8\n\n9\n\nPercentage\n\nApproximate number of minutes per week given over to recitations in arithmetic in\nyow^ schools in each grade.\n\nGrade\nNo. Minutes\n\n2\n\ni\n\n3\n\n4\n\n5\n\n6\n\n7\n\n89\n\nRemarks:\n\nSigned\n\nCity\n\nMANIPULATION OF DATA'\n\nThe returns were distributed so as to reveal differences, if any, between\nthe responses of school men in the different sections of the country and\nfor the cities of different sizes.\n\nSome of the superintendents answered\n\nonly a part of the questions; hence the totals in the various parts of the\nreport are not\n\nall\n\nthe same.\n\nAll doubtful answers were eliminated or\n\nchecked by means of a supplementary inquiry asking for verification of\nstatement.\n\nMATERIAL USED IN ARITHMETIC\n\nThe percentage of superintendents who favored elimination was calculated so as to show the difference in attitude toward each of the twentyfive\n\ntopics suggested.\n\nA large percentage favored the elimination of\n\ncertain formal subjects such as alligation, cube root, unreal fractions,\n\nprogression, etc.,\n\nand certain more or less obsolete tables such as paper-\n\nfolding, surveyors' measure, etc.\n\nTable I shows the exact distribution for\n\neach subject.\n\nMany superintendents who did not go so far as to favor absolute\nelimination did favor the plan of giving less attention to these subjects.\n\nTable II shows the percentage of superintendents distributed for each\nsubject.\n' This report would have been impossible had it not been for the painstaking statistical work done by\na group of students in the graduate seminar in the College of Education, State University of Iowa. The\n\nfollowing men assumed the chief resjwnsibility: James Richardson, Chester Buckner, H. W. Anderson.\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": "211", "text": ",\n.\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n211\n\nChart I is made up by combining Tables I and II and reveals the attitude of 867 superintendents toward these topics.\n\nThe crosshatched portion\n\nindicates the percentage of superintendents who favor the elimination of\n\neach of these subjects;\n\nthe shaded portion indicates the percentage of\n\nsuperintendents who favor giving less attention to each of these subjects;\n\nand the unshaded portion indicates the percentage of superintendents who\nIt is seen from Chart I that the super-\n\nare satisfied with the present status.\n\nintendents are overwhelmingly inclined to favor the elimination or at least\n\na lessening of emphasis on these subjects.\n\nTABLE I\nPercentage of Superintendents Who Favor Elimination of the Topics, Distributed so AS TO Reveal Differences in Attitude in Large\nCities, Cities and Counties, and for All Cities\nCities of 100,000\n\nTopic\n\nand Over\n\nCities and Counties\n\nAll Cities\n\nPer Cent\n\nPer Cent\n\nPer Cent\n\nApothecaries' weight\n\n72\n\nSI\n\n53\n\nTroy weight\n\n75\n\n40\n\n42\n\nFurlong\n\n8S\n\nRood in square measure\n\n13\n78\n81\n72\n25\n\n70\n19\nS8\n66\n\n72\n20\n\nDram\nQuarter in avoirdupois\nSurveyors' tables\n\n:\n\nForeign money\nFolding paper\nReduction of more than two steps\n\n63\n.\n\nLong measure of G.C.D\nLeast common multiple\nTrue discount\n\nCube root\n\nCompound and complex fractions\n\n.\n\nCases in percentage\n\nAnnual interest\nLongitude and time\nUnreal fractions\nAlligation\n\nProgression\nAliquot parts\n\n28\n\n35\n\n25\n\n21\n\n22\n\n33\n20\n\n35\n\n66\n56\n50\n\n44\n\n47\n\n41\n23\n\n46\n\n72\n28\n28\n\n49\n\n63\n13\n\n40\n\n72\n\n70\n82\n19\n63\n19\n\n88\n41\n88\n\nMetric system\n\n27\n\n34\n\n66\n25\n\nPartnership\nCompound proportion\n\n43\n\n60\n68\n47\n\n24\n18\n7\n\n22\n\n25\n52\n26\n20\n41\n\n8\n74\n85\n20\n67\n21\n\nAnalyses of these data indicate that the superintendents of the larger\ncities are inclined to\n\nof the smaller cities.\n\nrepresent the rural\n\nfavor more elimination than are the superintendents\n\nThe returns from the county superintendents who\nschools\n\nseem to reveal no\n\nstriking\n\ndifferences\n\nin\n\nattitude.\n\nAnalyses of the replies on the basis of the geographical sections of the\ncountry indicate that there is a slight difference between the North and\nthe South, but this is no greater than the difference to be found between\nthe North Central division and the North Atlantic division.\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": "212", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n212\n\n[Richmond\n\n^Uquo f parts\n\n7Q:>od\n\nfjscfi/cHon\nThrfne^r^hip\n\nT*oreign mon^\n\nfajpe'ir folding\n\nffn. Tnf&resi:\n*Jroy v^t\n\n^(/hc tvot\nSun^eyorb *Jahtes\n^iscoirnir\n(^ojj^. pr(jpojfioj7\n\n^po/hecaries t^.\n\npTogression\nQvarfGjr\nFSjrlong\n\nUnreal fh^c^t\n\n^ItigaHoj^\n10\n\nChart I.\n\nZO 30\n\n90\n\nJ'O\n\neo\n\n70\n\n80 30 100\n\n—^Percentage of superintendents who favor \"elimination\" or \"less atten-\n\ntion\" (830 dties represented).\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": "213", "text": ".\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n213\n\nAfter distributing and tabulating the material in order to learn of\ndifferences in cities of different sizes in different sections of the country,\nit\n\nseems safe to say that the differences are so slight that Chart I can be\n\ntaken as a representative measure of the attitude of the superintendents\nof the country toward the elimination or decrease of attention in regard\n\nto the different topics in the list.\n\nTABLE n\nPercentage of Superintendents Who Favor the Plan of Giving Less Attention TO THE Topics, Distributed so as to Reveal Differences in Attitude IN Large Cities, Cities and Counties, and for All Cities\nCities of 100,000\n\nTopic\n\nand Over\n\nApothecaries' weight\n\nCities and Counties\n\n31\n32\n12\n\nTroy weight\nFurlong\n\nRood in square measure\n\n46\n20\n39\n24\n\n37\n18\n14\n\nDram\nQuarter in avoirdupois\n\nAUCiti\n\n36\n44\n19\n42\n\n17\n\n23\n17\n\nSurveyors* tables\nForeign money\nFolding paper\n\n40\n47\n\n40\n\n40\n\n57\n\n31\n\nReduction of more than two steps\nLong measure of G.C.D\nLeast common multiple\n\n45\n47\nSO\n\n34\n46\n39\n44\n\n57\n35\n48\n40\n45\n31\n37\n\nTrue discount\n\n27\n\nCube root\n\n34\n39\n38\n49\n36\n\nPartnership\n\nCompound proportion\nCompound and complex fractions\nCases in percentage\n\nAnnual interest\nLongitude and time\n\n35\n\nUnreal fractions\n\n9\n\nAlligation\n\n31\n39\n43\n33\n42\n\n55\n\n44\n\n34\n\n32\n44\n35\n\n32\n55\n\n11\n15\n\n4\n\n17\n10\n\nMetric system\n\n42\n\n42\n\n44\n\nProgression\nAliquot parts\n\n12\n\n21\n\n28\n\n31\n\n20\n32\n\n9\n\nADDITIONAL EMPHASIS\n\nThe percentage of the superintendents who favored the plan of increasing the emphasis upon certain subjects was tabulated so as to show the\ndifferent\n\nattitudes\n\ntoward each\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nsubjects\n\nsuggested.\n\nA\n\nlarge\n\npercentage were in favor of giving more emphasis to the fundamental\nsubjects such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.\nThere was also a very strong sentiment in favor of increasing the emphasis on the applications of arithmetic to the social and economic conditions of the day; such as the saving and loaning of money, taxation,\npublic expenditure, insurance, etc. Table III shows the exact distribution\nfor each subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": "214", "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n214\n\n[Richmond\n\nThe replies were also tabulated on the basis of size of the different cities\nThe superintendents of the larger cities seemed to be less\n\nrepresented.\n\ninclined to favor an increase in attention to these subjects.\n\nThis may be\n\ndue to the fact that these cities are already giving more emphasis to these\nsubjects than are the small cities.\n\nTABLE ni\nPercentage of Superintendents Who Favor the Plan of Giving More Attention TO THE Topics, Listed so as to Reveal Differences in attitude\nIN Large Cities, Cities and Counties, and for All Cities\nCities of 100,000\n\nTopic\n\nand Over\n\nAddition\nSubtraction\n\nPercentage\n\n59\nSO\n59\n56\n56\n31\n\nInterest\n\n25\n\nMultiplication\nDivision\nFractions\n\nSaving and loaning money\n\n.\n\n.\n\nBanking\nBorrowing\nBuilding and loan associations\n\nCities and Counties\n\nAll Cities\n\n75\n\n75\n\n68\n\n69\n\n72\n\n72\n70\n65\n\n69\n66\n\n50\n39\n\n51\n\n41\n61\n\n50\n38\n\n61\n\n40\n37\n46\n44\n\n39\n37\n48\n44\n20\n\nInvestments\n\n22\n13\n16\n\nBonds and stocks\nTaxes\n\n9\n\n20\n\n25\n\nS3\n\nProfits\n\n6\n28\n31\n28\n\n36\n54\n54\n47\n\n46\n\nPublic utilities\n\n34\n\n57\n\n57\n\nLevies\nPublic expenditure\nInsurance\n\n53\n35\n55\n55\n\nThe replies were tabulated on the basis of the geographical sections\nOnly a slight difference was found in this particular. The\n\nof the country.\n\nSouth is perhaps slightly better satisfied with present conditions. This\nChart II,\n\nmay be due to a situation similar to that in the large city.\n\nbased on the returns from all cities, seems safely to represent the present\nattitude toward the increased emphasis\n\nupon these topics.\n\nThe shaded\n\nwho\n\nfavor giving\n\nportion indicates the percentage of superintendents\n\nmore attention to each of these subjects.\nPOSSIBLE ECONOMY OF TIME\n\nIn connection with the special problem in which the committee is interested, namely, to find out if conditions are favorable for effecting an economy\n\nof time by means of the elimination of certain subjects, or\n\nby means of\n\nreducing the time being given these subjects, it seems reasonable to say\nthat the time gained from this elimination or decreased attention to the\ntwenty-five foregoing subjects may wisely be given to the nineteen subjects which demand more attention.\n\nWhile it is true that it is impossible\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": "215", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n215\n\nto say how much time will be saved thru this change in emphasis, it should\n\nbe borne in mind that the superintendents overwhelmingly favor increased\n'Stocks }F ^onda\n\nficinking\n\nIn Merest\nTry^estm en ts\n\ny//\n\n^vilding if h>oan\n\nrrqfif\nP®rc&xyi-age\n\nInsvrancer\n\"Pvhlic Wap&nditvre Vy\n\nJrhhtic Utitifiea\n\nSailings money\n\nT*r act tons\n\nQvhfractlon\nWit^ision\n\nJ^vtHpilcafion\n^ddii-iorx\n<f^-\n\nChart II.\n\n—Percentage\n\niO ZO\n\n30 iC 50 60\n\nof superintendents who favor giving\n\n70\n\ndO SO 100\n\nmore attention to each\n\nof these topics (830 cities represented).\n\n—addition, multiplica-\n\nemphasis on the fundamental divisions of arithmetic\ntion, subtraction,\n\nand division.\n\nSurely, with\n\nmore thoro instruction in\n\nthese fundamental subjects, a distinct saving of time might be gained.\nIt should\n\nbe noted that the method of learning most of the twenty-five\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": "216", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2l6\n\n[Richmond\n\nsubjects is thru memory, while the method of learning the new subjects\nis, with the exception of the fundamentals, largely thru thinking or rationali-\n\nIt is believed that the superintendents may wisely adopt the plan\n\nzation.\n\nTABLE IV\nGrades\nNo. MnrurBS per\n\nWeek\nISt\n\n2d\n\n3d\n\no\n\n136\n\n31\n\n4\n\nic\n\n7\n\n2\n\n2<\n\n18\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n«o\n««\n\n10\n\n7\n\n5\n\nI\n\n40\n\n6\n\n4\n\n2\n\n5\n\n2\n\nI\n\nAe\nCO\n\n99\n\n36\n\n3\n\nI\n\n4\n\n4\n\n2\n\n2\n\n6s::::::::::::::::\n6c\n\n27\n\n22\n\n10\n\n5\n\n3\n\n4\n\n5\n\n5\n\n4\n\n70\nfC\n\n3\n103\n\n3\n127\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\nI\n\nI\n\n59\n\n12\n\n4\n\n80\n\n6\n\nS\n\n10\n\nII\n\n2\n\n3\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n00\n\nS\n\n6\n\n12\n\n3\n\n4\n\n2\n\n3\n\n3\n\n2\n\no<\n100\n\n108\n\n83\n\n156\n\n129\n\n71\n\n31\n\n14\n\n10\n\n3\n\noc\n10\n\nI\n\nI\n\n6\n\n5\n\n3\n\n2\n\nI\n\n6\n17\n\n10\n\n13\n\n13\n\n4\n\n\"3\n\n19\n109\n\n18\n\n90\n\n12\n132\n\n22\n\n40\n\n59\n\n36\n\n5\n\n3\n\n4\n\n5\n\n6\n\n9\n\n3\n\n2\n\n4\n\n6\n\nI\n\n9\n\n8\n\n2\n\n4th\n\nsth\n\n6th\n\n7th\n\nSth\n\noth\n\n24\n\n439\n\n20\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\nr^\nI\n\n2\n\n81;\n\nT<\n\n20\nI2<\n40\n\n2\n\n«e\n4,0\n\nAC\nS3\n\n66\n\n98\n\n129\n\n158\n\n196\n\n210\n\n192\n\n30\n\n60\n\nI\n\n2\n\n4\n\n4\n\n6\n\n2\n\n7\n\n8\n\n5\n\n6c\n70\n176\n\n2\n\n6\n\n8\n\n9\n\n3\n20\n\n3\n31\n\n28\n\n35\n\n37\n\n6\n\n80\n\n2\n\n5\n\n6\n\n3\n\n9\n\n16\n\n15\n\n4\n\n96\n\n121\n\n60\n\n2\n\n5\n\n7\n\nI CO\n\ncc\n\n2\n\nI\n\n8c\n\n00\noc\n200\n\n.\n\nI\n\nI\n\n.\n\n. . . .\n\nII\n\noc\n10\n\n33\n\n54\n\n3\n\n2\n\nS6\n\n52\n\n72\n\nI\n\nIC\n\n20\n22c\n\n4\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\n10\n\n25\n\n19\n\n22\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\n2\n\n28\n\n31\n\n38\n\n27\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": "217", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n217\n\nTABLE lY—Continued\nGrades\nNo. MnfCTTES PER\n\nWeek\nISt\n\n3d\n\n2d\n\n^0\n\n4th\n\nsth\n\n6th\n\n7th\n\nSth\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\n2\n\n2\n\n9th\n\n....\n\n^t\n\n40\nAC\n2 \"JO\n\nI\n\n4\n\n8\n\n8\n\n4\n\n4\n\n4\n\n7\n\nI\n\n9\n\n25\n\n39\n\nSI\n\nSI\n\n4S\n\n34\n\n13\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\n2\n\n2\n\nCC\n\n60\n\nI\n\n6«;\n\n70\n\nI\n\nI\n\n4\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\n2\n\n8\n\n7\n\n3\n9\n\n2\n\n271;\n\n8\n\nS\n\nI\n\nTo 300\nTo ^\"^o\nTo AKO\n\n4\n\n14\n\n24\n3\n\n30\n\n30\n\n38\n\n2\n\n3\n\n7\n2\n\nI\n\nof lessening the emphasis\n\nI\n\nI\n\nS\n2\n\n3\n\nupon the twenty-five subjects and uniformly\n\nincreasing the emphasis on the nineteen subjects.\n\nSurely, this is in the\n\ndirection of a more economical use of time.\n\nAMOUNT OF TIME GIVEN TO THE RECITATION OF ARITHMETIC\nReports were received from 630 superintendents showing the actual\ntime distribution for the recitation in arithmetic in each grade in each city.\n\nThe wide variation found in time expenditure is shown in Table IV.\nThis table should be read\n\nas\n\nfollows: in\n\nthe\n\nfirst\n\ngrade\n\n136\n\ncities\n\nallow no time for arithmetic, 7 allow 15 minutes per week, 18 allow 25\n\nminutes per week, and so on down the column.\n\n(Extreme cases were veri-\n\nfied by supplementary correspondence, so that the variations here indicated\n\nare truly descriptive of variations in practice.)\n\nChart III shows graphically the variation and the central tendency in\npractice.\n\nIt is seen that the median time spent in the first grade for the\n\nUnited States as a whole is 75 minutes; for the second grade, 100 minutes;\nfor the third grade, 125 minutes;\n\nfor the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh\n\ngrades, 150 minutes; for the eighth grade, 165 minutes.\n\nThis means that\n\none-half of the cities spend this amount of time or more in the various\n\nThe 25 percentile shows\nthat one-fourth of the cities spend 25 minutes or less in the first grade;\n\ngrades, and one-half this amount of time or less.\n\n75 minutes or less in the second grade; 100 minutes or less in the third and\nfourth grades; 125 minutes or less in the fifth and sixth grades; and 150\n\nminutes or less in the seventh and eighth grades.\n\nAgain, the upper quar-\n\ntile brings out the fact that another fourth of the cities spend\n\nor more in the first grade;\n\n100 minutes\n\n125 minutes or more in the second grade;\n\n150\nminutes or more in the third grade; 200 minutes or more in the fourth,\nfifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades.\n\nThus, from the foregoing analysis\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": "218", "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2l8\nit\n\n[Richmond\n\nmay be seen that some spend relatively far more time than others on\n\narithmetic.\n\nComparison of the 157 cities spending the greatest amount\n\nof time with the 157 cities spending the least amount of time indicates that\n\nalready many of these cities are making headway in the economy of time.\n\nMay we not look to these cities for suggestions ?\ncan get satisfactory results with\n\nIf one-fourth of the cities\n\nan expenditure of from 5 to 20 minutes\n\npr.wk.\n\n2S0\n\n22s\n\n200\n\n/\n/\n\n/\n\nZ\n\n/\n\nfOG\n\n/ 1/\n\nIK\n\n//\n//\n\n•\n•\n\n•\n\n•\n\n.^\n\ntfr%r%*\n\n1\n1\n\nr tpifyf h'/f.\ntan\n\n1\n\nrfUc\n\n/\n/\n\n/\n\n1\n1\n\n9T t-.\n\nGrades Z\n\n3\n\n'f\n\nS\n\n6\n\n—Showing median and quartile distribution\n\nChart III.\n\n7\nof time per week given over\n\nto recitations.\n\nper day or less in the first to fourth grades, there is reason for inquiry as\nto the accomplishment of cities which spend from 20 to 40 minutes or more\n\nper day during the first to fourth grades.\n\nAgain, if one-fourth of the cities\n\nare able to get satisfactory results in from 20 to 30 minutes per day or less\nin the fifth to eighth grades, certainly we have cause to question the reason\n\nwhy another fourth of the cities spend from 40 to 60 minutes or more per\nday in these grades. On the whole, it seems safe to say that the wide variation of recitation time in the various cities of the United States suggests\n\nthe possibility of attempting to effect an economy of time by means of\nstandardizing the number of minutes in the recitation period.\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": "219", "text": "Supcrintendencel\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\n\n219\n\nA comparison of the actual results obtained in cities giving a large\namount of time to the recitations in arithmetic with the cities giving a\nsmall amount of time would be invaluable in arriving at this standard\namount of recitation time for each grade. It may be said, however, that\npractically all of the investigations\n\nwhich have been made thus far on\n\nthis subject indicate that there is less relation between the time expendi-\n\nture and the achievement than many have supposed. In other words,\nfrom these investigations, we have no reason to expect that city A which\ngives twice as much time as city B to arithmetic will get results in the same\n\nproportion.\nIt would seem that the conservative superintendent who is spending\n\na relatively large amount of time on arithmetic might safely reduce the\n\ntime at least to the median for the country for each grade.\n\nThe less con-\n\nservative superintendent might reduce the time to the 25 percentile without\n\nendangering his school, while the radical superintendent might join the\n157 who spend still less time on the arithmetic recitation. Thus, the 50 per\ncent of the cities spending the most time might simply join the 50 per cent\n\nspending the least time.\n\nSurely, this plan need not frighten even the most\n\ncautious, because half of the cities have already tried out the reduction plan.\nIt is noteworthy that the North Atlantic and South Atlantic states\nspend from 25 to 50 per cent more time in arithmetic than do the cities\nin the other parts of the country.\n\nIt would be interesting to compare the\n\narithmetical efficiency of the schools in the different sections.\n\nLarge cities seem to give more time to arithmetic recitations than do\nsmaller cities, altho the difference is not great.\n\nThe county superintendents\n\nreporting on rural schools report a very much smaller proportion of time\n\ngiven to the arithmetic recitation.\n\nThis is due, no doubt, to the difference\n\nin the organization of the daily program in the rural schools.\n\nHowever, these differences in practice are not so great as to make it\nimpossible for the adoption of the sliding standard suggested above.\nsection or city differs so\n\nNo\n\nmuch from the central tendency as to make it\n\ndifficult to work toward some part of\n\nthe lower half of the curve of time\n\ndistribution for recitations in each grade.\n\nDISTRIBUTION OF TIME AMONG THE DIFFERENT GRADES\nIt is interesting to note that the median time distribution for the grades\nshows a regular increase in the time given to the recitation in the classes\n\nup to the fourth grade. Chart III shows this clearly. For example, the\nmedian for the first grade is 75 minutes per week; for the second grade, 100\nminutes per week; for the third grade, 125 minutes per week, and for the\nfourth grade, 150 minutes per week; beyond which grade there is no\nincrease.\n\nCertain sectional differences are found. For example, the median\ntime in the North and South Atlantic states increases up to the seventh\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": "220", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n220\n\n(Richmond\n\ngrade which is the maximum; while the median time in the North Central,\n\nSouth Central, and Western states reaches a maximum in the sixth grade.\nAnalysis of the data indicates that the large city gives more time to arith-\n\nmetic in the sixth and seventh grades than in the eighth, which is contrary\nto the practice in smaller cities.\n\nSuch variation in practice simply empha-\n\nsizes the possibility of effecting economy of time thru the widespread adop-\n\ntion of a standard for the recitation time as suggested above.\n\nPERCENTAGE OF RECITATION TIME GIVEN OVER TO DRILL\n\nThe superintendents were asked to make a tabular statement showing\nthe percentage of recitation time in each grade given over to drill.\nof these returns revealed a wide variation in practice.\n\nAnalysis\n\nChart IV shows\n\ngraphically the situation in terms of medians and quartiles for 564 cities.\nIt should be noted that the median percentage of time given to drill\nin the city schools begins in the first grade at 43 per cent, increasing to\n\n53 per cent in the third grade, and decreasing steadily from then until the\nwhich means that one-half of the cities spend\n\nclose of the eighth grade,\n\nthis percentage or more of the recitation time in drill and one-half spend\nthis percentage or less in\n\neach grade.\n\nThe wide variation in practice is\n\nrevealed by comparing the line which indicates the lower quartile with the\nline which indicates the upper quartile.\n\nThat is to say, one-fourth of the\n\ncities spend 25 per cent of recitation time or less in drill in the first grade,\n\n35 per cent or less in the third grade, decreasing to 5 per cent or less in the\neighth grade; while one-fourth of the cities spend 80 per cent or more of\nthe time in drill in the first grade, and 25 per cent or more in the eighth\ngrade.\n\nThe same variation exists in the country schools.\n\nThese answers\n\nare significant in that they express the idea which the school superintendents\n\nand teachers have in regard to the emphasis which should be placed on\ndrill in each grade.\nThey clearly show that the distribution of time in\nthe recitation between drill work and the so-called rationalizational work\nis not standardized.\n\nWe have no adequate means of evaluating the comparative arithmetical\nefficiency obtained in the schools differing in the amount of time given over\n\nto drill.\n\nHowever, it would seem safe to say that if one-fourth of the cities\n\nare devoting 80 per cent or more of the recitation time in the third grade\nto drill, 50 per cent or more in the fifth grade, and 25 per cent or more in\n\nthe eighth grade, we should inquire into the effectiveness of the arithmetic\nteaching in the 140 cities devoting 35 per cent or less of the recitation time\nin the third grade to drill, 26 per cent or less in the fifth grade, and 5 per\n\ncent or less in the eighth grade.\n\nIn other words, such wide variation sug-\n\ngests the possibility of waste in the method at this point.\n\nA thorogoing comparison of results attained in cities with widely\ndifferent standards for the time given to drill would be of great value in\n\nconnection with constructive recommendations.\n\nThe scientific investiga-\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": "221", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n221\n\ntions on the value of drill in arithmetic have thus far been confined to a\nnarrow range of time, grades, and other conditions. However, the results\nof these investigations have led to the conclusion on the part of the investi-\n\ngators that drill within the limits of their investigation is of decided value.\n\nIn the absence of scientific data for the evaluation of the different\ndegrees of emphasis on drill, it is of importance to know the central tendency\n\nso\n86\n\n1\n\netiy Schools\n\neo\n\n\\.\n\n')6\n\nt/f3f»er fuarfilc\n\n\\\n\\\n\nto\n\n—\n\n1\n\n\\\\\n\n5i\n\n/\n\n/\n\ns.\n\nN\n\n/\n\n\\,\n\n^\n\n/\n\n/'\n\nJO\nIS\n\n—\n\n\\\n\n60\n\n'H\n\n......\n\n\\N\n\n\\,\n\n\\ \\\\\n\\\n'\\ \\\n\n\\\n\n\\.\n\n.,.>\n\n\\\n\n> v^\n\"-v\n\n'\\\nw\n%\n\n\"-.\n\nGmdes U\nChart IV.\n\nM\n\n—Showing the median percentage\n\nn w\nof time given over to strictly drill work\n\nin the recitations in each grade (564 cities).\n\nof existing practice based on the experience in hundreds of cities.\n\nA con-\n\nservative view will no doubt tend toward the adoption of a standard such\n\nas the median for the whole country unless local conditions offer some\nspecific reason to do otherwise.\n\nAnalyses of the replies on the basis of the size of cities represented\nrevealed only slight difference in the time distribution for drill in the cities\nof different sizes.\n\nFurther analysis of the returns reveals the difference in different sections of the country.\n\nThe North Atlantic section stands out in striking\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": "222", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n222\n\n[Richmond\n\ncontrast to the South Atlantic section in that in the North a very much\n\nhigher percentage of time is devoted to drill in the first three grades than\nin the South.\n\nIt would be of interest to compare the arithmetical achieve-\n\nment in the schools of the North Atlantic division with the schools of the\nother sections where very much less emphasis is placed on drill in these\ngrades.\nIt is significant that there is great agreement in regard to the emphasis\n\nplaced on drill in the three lower grades.\n\nThis is true not only for the\n\ncountry as a whole, but it is also true for cities of different sizes and for the\ndifferent\n\nsections of the\n\ncountry.\n\nExperience seems to have become\n\nstandardized in regard to stage of emphasis if not as to degree of emphasis.\n\nSUMMARY\nThis study reveals the fact that there is an overwhelming tendency on\nthe part of half of the superintendents in this country in favor of either\neliminating or lessening the attention to be given to certain subjects in\n\narithmetic such as alligation, cube root, unreal fractions, progression, and\ncertain obsolete tables such as folding paper, surveyors' tables, etc.\n\nAgain,\n\nit reveals an overwhelming attitude in favor of increased emphasis on such\n\nfundamental subjects as addition, multiplication, subtraction, and division.\n\nThere is also a decidedly strong disposition to favor increased emphasis\non the application of arithmetic to the social and economic conditions of\nthe day, such as the saving and loaning of money, taxation, public expenditures, life insurance, etc.\n\nThe wide variation in the recitation time given to arithmetic as a whole,\nand in the different grades indicates that many cities are already effecting\na large economy of time in this particular. // is recommended that the 50\nper cent of the cities spending the most time reduce this to the amount being\nexpended by the 50 per cent of the cities spending the least time.\n\nThis plan\n\nwould cut the range of practice in two and still give opportunity for the\nexpression of the conservative and radical points of view. This standard\nis shown in Chart III.\nThe wide variation in the percentage of time given to drill indicates\nthe importance of scientific investigations of the relative achievements\n\nThe median time allotment\nnow in the different grades thruout the United States most\nnearly represents the judgment of the school men based on their own experisecured from the different time allotments.\nin practice\n\nence.\n\nIt is suggested that this median percentage of recitation time given over\n\nto drill\n\nin each grade be adopted as a standard until scientific investigations\n\nThis standard is shown in Chart IV.\nIn conclusion it should be said that this investigation clearly points\n\nhave proven this to be in error.\n\nto the desirability ot a study of relative achievements attained in the work\nin arithmetic in these same schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": "223", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE DETERMINANTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n223\n\nTHE DETERMINANTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\nA.\n\nDUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE,\nUNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nFour sharp distinctions are fundamental for course-of-study-making:\nBetween (i) knowledge and power; (2) specific and general usefulness;\n(3) general education and specialization; and (4) essential and optional\n\nThe first three represent all possible forms of usefulness. The\nIf, by reducing\neach of the three to its simplest terms, usefulness is made definite; if a\nvalid test is provided which, by measuring relative usefulness for all three,\n\nmaterial.\n\nfourth results from the measurement of relative usefulness.\n\ndiscriminates between what is so essential that it must be compelled of all\nlearners and what must be presented to all but left to the option of each,\n\ncourse-of-study-making can become a science.\n\nKNOWLEDGE EDUCATIONAL ONLY THRU FIVE FORMS OF FORMAL ACTIVITY\nAs education depends upon the retention of experience and the control\nof new experience thru activity which has been given continuity and domi-\n\nnance by the old, knowledge in the educational sense means an idea or\nactivity in the relationships in which it is retained by the learner, and\npower the resulting forms of self-activity which form or control his future\n\nexperience.\n\nNow our everyday experience furnishes us with the fate of all presentations from the standpoint of retention, whether we gain them in school or\n\nMost of them are forgotten altogether, except thru vague impressions\nSome of them, usually in the form of new words, are\n\nout.\n\nthey leave behind.\n\nbarely held in mind, in some partial or accidental relationship; about others,\n\nmany-sided associations gradually gather, differing in individual learners\nwith varying interests, experiences, moods, and circumstances, but resulting\nin fuller ideas,\n\ninformation, and mental interconnection.\n\nStill\n\nothers,\n\ndefinitely and certainly retained in specific relationships, take the\n\nform of\n\nhabit and systematic knowledge.\n\nA few, general enough to be found in\n\nother fields than that in which they are acquired, are more or less generally\napplied in other fields.\n\nAll knowledge gained in school, or out, is retained\n\neither in forgotten relationships, in single or partial relationships, in varying\n\nand many-sided relationships, in definite and certain relationships, or in\nrelationships general enough to be found in various fields of experience.\n\nThe usefulness of knowledge as a means to power or mental training\nconsists solely in its contribution thru these five sets of relationships in which\nit is\n\nretained to five corresponding forms of formal activity.\n\nForgotten\n\nrelationships result in impression, which cumulatively develops permanent\ninterests, tastes, ideals, and points of view.\n\nSingle or partial relationships\n\nform vocabulary thru the partial concepts by which most words and ideas\nare held in mind; many-sided relationships bring about an interconnection\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": "224", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n224\n\n[Richmond\n\nof ideas which constantly reassociates them in new and varying connections.\n\nDefinite and certain relationships result in specific discipline in the sense\nof habit and system; while a relationship general enough in its form may,\n\nunder favorable conditions, bring about a general discipline or application\nwhich carries ideas over into branches of knowledge and fields of experience\nother than those which have developed them.\n\nEven with analysis as rough as this, the strength and weakness of\nFor the growing many-\n\npresent-day mental training stand revealed.\nsidedness and vocabulary which constitute\neducation, Herbartianism\n\nis\n\ntion of children's books\n\nand periodicals,\n\nits\n\nstrength in elementary\n\nonly partially responsible.\n\nThe multiplica-\n\nstory-telling, the\n\nphonograph,\n\nthe mechanical piano-player, the moving-picture show, the improvement in\n\nmethods of instruction which gives the pupils of the first school grade a\nall tend to vocabulary expansion and\ninformation getting, with a consequent mental interconnection, widely\nhalf-dozen readers in place of one\n\n—\n\nvarying in the case of each pupil.\n\nIn the general college course this many-sidedness is threatened by an\noverspecialization, which excludes it from essential domains of knowledge\n\nand experience.\n\nPartly thru the elective system, partly in reaction from\n\nit, partly as a concession to vocational specialization,\n\nbut even more largely\n\nthru the influence of graduate-school training upon college teaching, a\n\ntendency to concentration upon a few academic subjects has set in, which\nis\n\nmore of a menace to democratic culture than the old classical course itself.\nIf the mastery of mathematics and the ancient languages, as elementary\n\nwholes, long required of all, involved the certain memorizing of technical\ndetails, useless both in everyday life and to habit formation, it at the same\n\ntime compelled moral and intellectual habits which, if not economically\ninsured elsewhere, cannot be bought too dear.\n\nIf limitation of culture to\n\nthe study of Greek and Latin literatures made it aristocratic and excluded\nit\n\nfrom broad fields of modern thought and experience, it insured more\n\nmany-sided contact with the spiritual inheritance of the race than either\nthe elective system or the more persistent academic specialization being\nseized upon as its antidote.\n\nThe most serious weakness of present-day education on the side of\nmental training is its failure to compel what is most useful:\n\nits lack of per-\n\nsistency in the development of tastes and ideals thru cumulative impression;\n\nlack of the drill and continuity adequate to the building-up of permanently essential habit and system; its failure to insure the conditions\nfavorable to general application; and even in the individual and varying\n\nits\n\nselection, necessarily left to each learner, from the material not made certain\nby drill, its failure to so limit and control that what is relatively most\n\nuseful is given the greatest likelihood of survival.\n\nIn course-of-study-making at least three facts concerning power or\nmental training must be held in mind; First, all vaguer terms and generaliza-\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": "225", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE DETERMINANTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n225\n\ntions regarded as essential to mental development either can be reduced to\n\none or more of these five forms or can result from them.\n\nSecond, all five\n\nforms must be considered in determining the usefulness of material in any\n\nbranch of knowledge or any phase of preparation for life. Third, no one\nof the five forms can be fully developed by any one branch of knowledge and\n\nsome can result only from the partial use of all. Cumulative impression\nupon an emotional form of expression which is strongest\nin nature, literature, music, and art, while vocabulary and varying interconnection, as the Herbartians have long demonstrated, result from the\nis mainly dependent\n\ncorrelation of essential parts of all branches of knowledge.\n\nSpecific dis-\n\ncipline can be developed by any subject that insures habit and system, but\n\ngeneral discipline or application cannot fully result without the varying\n\ninterconnection which comes from the study of the more general phases\nof all subjects.\n\nIt is difficult to determine which assumption is more stupid\n\n—that any subject which insures habit and system\nspecific usefulness,\n\nis useful regardless of its\n\nwhen so much of habit and system is incapable of\n\ngeneral application;\n\nor that mere many-sidedness of knowledge insures\n\napplication, in the absence of the thoro drill and never-ending review which\n\nmust build up the habit and system useful enough and permanent enough\nto be applied.\n\nALL FIVE FORMS OF FORMAL ACTIVITY CAN BE SPECIFICALLY OR\nGENERALLY USEFUL\n\nThe second fundamental\n\ndistinction\n\nnecessary to course-of-study-\n\nmaking is between general and specific usefulness: that is, between \"mental\ntraining,\" \"general knowledge,\" \"discipline,\" or \"culture,\" and direct and\nWhile direct preparation for life consists in\ndefinite preparation for life.\nmental training, mental training does not necessarily prepare for the\nvarious phases of life. A man may be generally learned or intelligent, but\nimmoral, imhealthy, industrially inefficient, unsocial, weak or dangerous as\n\na citizen, and ill prepared for the right enjoyment of leisure.\n\nIndeed the\n\nmore learned and intelligent he is, the greater the menace he may be to the\nconmiunity and the state. On the other hand, a man may in a very definite\nand certain sense be prepared for every phase of life and at the same time\nbe a mere creature of habit unintelligent in his action and ignorant of all\n\n—\n\nthat he has not put to specific use.\n\nIn either case, every step in his educa-\n\ntion has resulted in one or more of the five forms of formal activity.\n\nBut\n\nthe specific usefulness that prepares for life involves impression, vocabulary,\ninterconnection, habit,\n\nand application that are definitely and certainly\n\nuseful to religion and morality, health, industry, social service, citizenship,\n\nHowever variously we phrase it, this is\nwhat we mean by education as \"adjustment\" or the \"social aim.\" While\ngeneral usefulness, on the other hand, consists of mere multiplication of\nor individual and social leisure.\n\nvocabulary in general, all possible interconnection of ideas, knowledge for\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": "226", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n226\n\n[Richmond\n\nthe sake of knowledge, and the ideals and the habits of some academic\nfield that\n\nmay or may not carry over to life.\n\nIn any efficient scheme of education, general and specific usefulness\nmust supplement each other. No one questions the primary necessity of\ndirect preparation for life, but we have too slowly come to the realization\n\nthat the school must contribute to every phase of it, at every stage of\n\ndevelopment.\n\nBecause of the lessening educational service possible to\n\nhome and to organized industry, because the school, legally at least, reaches\nall learners as the church can no longer reach them, because of its growing\n\nand because of the fact that as a democratic institution its\nit is being compelled to add\nevery form of specific training to an academic learning whose general\nefficiency,\n\ninstruction is accepted as a universal right,\n\nusefulness in the sense of the mastery of elementary subjects as wholes is\n\nbeing seriously questioned.\n\nIn order that material adequate to the effect-\n\nive teaching of each specific educational end shall be supplied, the details\n\nwithin each branch of knowledge must be examined with a view to their\nrelative usefulness for each specific end.\n\nIn order to insure material\n\nadequate to the development of each form of formal activity in its general\nusefulness, the details within each branch must be examined with a view\nto their general as well as their specific worth.\n\nNo detail of knowledge\n\nis educationally useful which does not further one or\n\nmore of the five forms\n\nof formal activity in either a specific or a general usefulness.\nIt is readily apparent that the most useful details are those that add to\ndefinite and specific usefulness the possibility of general usefulness.\n\nBut\n\nthere are generally useful facts that have no specific value except for aca-\n\ndemic specialization and specifically useful details that have no general\nvalue either within or without the field in which they are taught. Every\ndetail within each of these classes will be included, or excluded, either on\naccount of a unique usefulness which nothing else can supply or its relative\n\nworth as compared with other details.\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL ABSURDITY OF SACRIFICING THE PARTIAL STUDY OF MOST\nBRANCHES TO THE EXHAUSTIVE STUDY OF THE FEW\n\nNow it has already been demonstrated that all branches must be\ndrawn upon, if the course is to contain all that is essential to the five forms\nof formal activity in general.\n\nIt is equally true that all the branches taken\n\ntogether will fail to contribute any more material than is essential to specific\n\npreparation for some of the various phases of life, and that each will contribute relatively useful material to preparation for one or more phases.\n\nNothing, then, can be more obvious than the inconceivable folly of\nsubstituting the exhaustive study of a few branches as elementary wholes,\n\nwith their great mass of relatively useless details, for the partial study of\nall branches in general, confined to the relationships most useful in both\nthe specific and general sense.\n\nYet this is the absurd basis on which the\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": "227", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE DETERMINANTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\ncourse of study is at present organized.\n\n227\n\nA fallacious seeking after thoro-\n\nness in the sense of exhaustive detail, for the sake of discipline, has defeated\nits\n\nown purpose.\n\nThe thoroness that truly makes for discipline is repetition\n\nadequate to the mastery of a few essential relationships, persistent continuity of instruction necessary to their\n\npermanent retention, and the\n\ncumulative association of the material favorable to their general application.\n\nAt best, from the standpoint of discipline, the detailed study of some\none elementary science, a historical period or a branch of mathematics, to the\nexclusion of material infinitely more useful contained in others, insures a\n\nfew fixed habits, without the conditions favorable to their being carried\nover to other fields or even any certainty of permanence thru continuity of\ninstruction and relationship to everyday life.\n\nEven the crudest sort of pedagogical analysis reveals the utter weakness\nof a high-school course that teaches one or two sciences in technical and\ninsignificant detail, to the exclusion of what is fundamental in all others;\n\nalgebra and geometry in the\n\nfirst\n\ntwo years without any continuity of\n\ninstruction to keep their essentials alive until they are reviewed in the\nfourth, taken up again in college, or forgotten altogether in life; or Greek\nand Roman history, or English and American history in petty detail, in\nplace of that general sequence of historic periods and epochs which assures\nthe only unique contribution made by history to mental training the\ngreat mnemonic system thru which all ideas belonging to the past can be\n\n—\n\nnot only remembered, but placed in mental proximity with others to\n\nwhich they may be essentially related.\nThe remedy is twofold. First: In the general school course, logical\nthoroness, thru the mastery of a few subjects as detailed elementary\nwholes, must give way to pedagogical thoroness, thru the partial mastery\nof all subjects in proportion to the relative worth of their details to the five\n\nforms of formal self-activity, both in their general usefulness and in their\nspecifically useful relationship to each phase of direct preparation for life.\n\nSecond:\n\nThe continuous review and cumulative expansion of this essential\n\nmaterial at such intervals thruout the entire school course as are found to\ninsure its permanency and its dominance.\n\nIn the elementary school, this means that the study of the most useful\nmaterial in geography, history, or arithmetic, instead of ending with the\n\ngrade in which it is first mastered, will be reviewed and broadened at\ngradually increasing intervals thruout the entire elementary and high-school\ncourse.\n\nProbably above the sixth grade, a review period each week for each\n\nsubject will be adequate, owing to the fact that as the amount of material\n\naccumulates the time necessary to the review of the older material lessens.\n\nDetermination of the interval effective for the retention of definite relationships is one of the most important problems for experimental pedagogy.\n\nIn the high school, general science, general mathematics, and general\nhistory, for one or two years, will be followed by review courses of, say a\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": "228", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n228\n\n[Richmond\n\nperiod a week, thruout the remaining school years.\n\nIn a formal program,\nsuch studies in their initial presentation may seem superj&cial and as review\ncourses attenuated, but they are infinitely more thoro in the sense of mental\ntraining, continuity, and dominance than courses full of relatively useless\ndetails that are not reviewed at all.\n\nOne important consequence of limiting\n\nrequired work in courses such as these will be more adequate provision\nfor specialization.\n\nTHE EXTENT TO WHICH SPECIALIZATION SHOULD BE PROVIDED FOR IN THE\nGENERAL SCHOOL COURSE\n\nis\n\nIn fact, the third distinction fundamental for course-of-study-making\nbetween general education and specialization between the material\n\n—\n\nthat is presented to all learners in\nparticular individuals.\n\ncommon and that presented only to\n\nSpecialization in this, its true meaning, involving\n\nthe presentation of qualitatively different material to chosen individuals,\n\nadapted to their varying abilities, interests, and vocations, must be distinguished from quantitative differentiation\n\nmade in the proportionate\n\namount of material presented to so-called bright pupils as compared with\nthose who for any reason are incapable of learning as much; and from both\nquantitative and qualitative differentiation, yet to be discussed, due to the\nfact that most of the material presented to all learners in common cannot\nbe made certain to all thru drill, and therefore must be left to the varying\nretentiveness and interests of each individual.\nThree phases of specialization must eventually be provided for thru\nthe school:\n\n(i) early opportunity for specialization according to individual\n\nabilities and interests;\n\n(2) inclusion of such material in the general course of\nstudy as will keep the door open to the commoner forms of specialization\n\npossible later on;\n\n(3)\n\nprovision for specialization with vocational intent\n\nabove the sixth or the eighth school year.\n\nAdaptation to the social and\neconomic needs of different communities in course-of-study-making will be\nbrought about thru provision for these three forms of specialization, rather\nthan thru variation in what is most essential to general mental training\nand specific preparation for life in general. It will also be provided for thru\nthe great mass of optional material of approximately the same relative\nusefulness from which selection can be made from the standpoint of\nindividual abilities and community needs.\nEarly specialization thru special aptitude must in the end be made\npossible in the earliest school years, either thru provision for more rapid\nadvancement in some part of the general course of study than in others,\nor thru assignment to special classes where instruction is given in subjects\n\nnot included in the required elementary course: such as foreign languages,\na natural science, instrumental music, stenography, or in more advanced\nphases of any required subject, whether it is mathematics, literature and\ncomposition, or drawing, painting, and manual training.\n\nSuch work as\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": "229", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE DETERMINANTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n229\n\nthis will either continue in the higher schools as academic specialization or\nmerge in vocational specialization at some point above the sixth school\n\nyear.\n\nThe inclusion of material in the required course, with a view to keeping\nthe door open to future specialization,\n\nis\n\nespecially necessary for those\n\nsubjects which are conditioned by a certainty and persistency in habits,\ntastes,\n\nand ideals or a cumulative system of knowledge and experience.\n\nThe approach to some specialized subjects is kept open thru the fact that\nthe general course\npresuppose.\n\nThis\n\nitself\nis\n\nrequires\n\nall\n\nthat effective specialization must\n\nprobably true of the aesthetic appreciation basal\n\nand of fundamental habits essential to natural science.\nBut for those branches of knowledge where the course required of all\nfor the fine arts\n\nlearners in common fails to insure all that is preliminary to future specialization, opportunity for early specialization cannot be safely counted upon to\n\ninsure\n\nit.\n\nIndividual interests and abilities are often late in revealing\n\nthemselves and occasionally late in development.\n\nSome material, there-\n\nfore, must be included in the general course wholly with a view to keeping\n\nthe door open for future specialization\n\n—at least for those subjects, such\n\nas mathematics and the languages, that lead the way to a variety of occupations or avocations.\nFor example, utilitarianism in the narrow sense has\ngone too far with its elimination from arithmetic of all complex problems\n\nand operations and all causes or explanations of rules and principles that\nafford no aid to practical application. Perhaps the most fundamental conditions to success in mathematical specialization are the feeling of confident\n\nwillingness and the habit of persistency, in the face of complex mathematical\ndiflGiculty,\n\nand the rational attitude of mind due to the consciousness that\n\nevery mathematical process and judgment has a necessary reason behind it.\nIt is not necessary that either a complex solution or the definite cause of\n\neach operation or principle should be remembered, but only that they should\n\nbe experienced often enough to insure an attitude of mind. All that ideals\nrequire is adequate repetition of impression extending thru long periods of\ntime, frequently combined with an utter forgetfulness of most of the experi-\n\nences thru which the impressions have been gained.\n\nThis is not true of\n\nthe cumulative knowledge and gradually developing system of habits and\n\njudgments necessary in arithmetical reasoning, mainly useful thru their\n\nown definite retention thru drill and review rather than thru impressions\nwhich they leave behind.\n\nHere, usefulness to future specialization must\n\nbe very great and the necessity for cumulative development thru a long\nperiod of time certainly demonstrated, before material, otherwise of little\n\nworth, can be required in the general course.\n\nBut the usefulness of any\n\nmaterial is greatly increased if to specific usefulness, general usefulness, or\nis added usefulness from the standpoint of future specialization;\nand each subject must be investigated to determine the specialized material\nuseful enough to parallel or be included in the general course.\n\nboth\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": "230", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n23©\n\n[Richmond\n\nTHE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ESSENTIAL AND OPTIONAL USEFULNESS FUNDAMENTAL FOR COURSE-OF-STUDY-MAKING\n\nThe contrast just made between the forgotten experience adequate\nto ideals\n\nand the specific retention essential to a cumulative system of\n\nhabits involves the fourth and most fundamental distinction necessary in\n\ncourse-of-study-making\n\n—between essential and optional material; between\n\nthe material which must be certainly memorized and persistently retained\n\nby all learners in common on account of its supreme usefulness, and the\nmaterial which, while presented to all alike, will be variously retained and\nassociated by different individuals according to their native retentiveness,\ninnate abilities, past experience, and immediate interests. Much of the\npast discussion has been planned to make this less familiar distinction\napparent, and compelling.\nEach of the five phases of formal self-activity, whether developed on\n\ndefinite,\n\naccount of its specific or general usefulness to all or its usefulness in specialidevelopment some relationships which have been\n\nzation, requires in its\n\ndefinitely and certainly mastered.\n\nThat is, habit, in the broad sense of\n\ndefinite and necessary relationships, conditions all the others.\n\nCumulative\n\nimpression must center about a permanent idea or activity, and is greatly\nfurthered if it is transformed into an emotional center thru certainly and\n\npermanently associating with it one or two exceptionally emotional inciVocabulary expansion and mental interconnection\ndents or experiences.\nare immensely aided thru the earliest practicable memorizing of general\nterms and groups of ideas that tend to reach out after others.\n\nGeneral\n\napplication of a fundamentally useful idea depends not only\n\nupon the\n\nmany-sided interests, vocabulary, and interconnection thus insured, which\nmakes it possible to apply it to any experience, but its firm retention in the\nrelationship that makes it a useful habit and in the most general form in\n\nwhich it can be usefully applied; such specific centering of cumulative\nimpression upon it as will emotionalize it and create a permanent desire\nto apply it; such definite association with it of vocabulary and interconnection most many-sidedly related to it as will tend to make its application\n\nprobable in every field in which it ought to be applied; and, in the case of\nideas that are supremely useful, a further system of habits and knowledge\n\nthat insures all remaining conditions favorable to their application.\n\nThat\n\ndependent upon the specific system peculiar\nto mathematics, a language, or a science than upon a specific pedagogic\n\nis, general application is far less\n\nsystem definitely planned to insure it.\ndrill\n\nNo matter how mechanical the\n\nor slavish the imitation, if it is necessary to the building-up of the\n\nsystems of knowledge and habits essential to these five forms of formal\nself-activity, it constitutes the most direct and certain road to the intellectual freedom which they alone can insure.\n\nLogically opposed, but educationally complementary, to this essential\n\nmaterial which must be made as certain and continuing as possible for all\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": "231", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nlearners\n\nis\n\nTHE DETERMINANTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n231\n\nthe optional material which, tho presented to all learners, will,\n\nthru the very absence of adequate drill, be variously retained and associated\n\nby each individual.\n\nIt is just as necessary educationally that each learner\n\nvary in the experiences that are creating cumulative impression,\nin the relationships in which a developing vocabulary is held in mind, and in\nshall\n\nthe many-sided associations which bring about completeness of mental inter-\n\nconnection as it is that all learners shall be compelled to possess the definite\n\nand unvarying relationships that are generally most useful in developing\nvocabulary and interconnection and specifically most useful either to\nspecialization or to morality, health, industry, social service, citizenship,\n\nindividual leisure, and social intercourse.\nEssential material is limited in quantity, both by the fact that relatively\n\nfew details are so highly useful that they must be required or compelled\n\nand by the limited amount of memorizing and review possible for each\nindividual and for the majority of individuals.\n\nIt is the uniform element\n\nin the course of study, almost wholly identical for all localities and indi-\n\nviduals, for the sake of insuring to all, not only the common essentials of\n\na community and social life that must be led in\ncommon, but the equally common elements in general training essential\n\nspecific preparation for\n\nto individuality and specialization.\n\nOptional material exists in unlimited quantity.\n\nEverything is useful\n\nsome one or other some time or other. Thru it, the test of relative\nworth must add to the compulsion of repetition, the compulsion of selection\nand emphasis. While each individual mind will freely select from the\noptional material the details it prefers and the relationships in which it\nto\n\nwill retain them, the test of relative worth should prevent the presentation\n\nany material that excludes what is relatively more useful, and should\nwhat is presented, that the most useful\nmaterial will have the greatest likelihood of being retained, and that, in\nmaterial equally useful, the details which have the greatest likelihood of\nsurvival and permanence will be most likely to be selected. With optional\nof\n\nresult in such emphasis within\n\nmaterial, then, uniformity consists not in identity of details, but in equality\n\nVarious communities may have equally useful courses of study\nand various individuals equally useful selections from them, if their few\nessential and identical details are retained in common by all pupils thru\ndrill in the specific relationships in which they are most useful and if the\noptional material presented in each to serve the same educational end\ndiffers in everything but its relative worth to that end.\n\nof worth.\n\nTHE TEST OF RELATIVE USEFULNESS NECESSARY TO DISTINGUISH ESSENTIAL\nFROM OPTIONAL MATERIAL\nIn the\n\nlast\n\npaper read before the department at the Philadelphia\n\nmeeting, a test of relative worth was presented in technical form and detail.\nAll that is necessary to point out at present is that relative usefulness, from\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": "232", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n232\nall\n\nof the points of\n\n[Richmond\n\nview which analysis yields, can be measured by its\n\nmany-sidedness of useful relationship, its frequency of recurrence in useful\nrelationship, and its inherent sensational or emotional appeal.\n\nThe main object of such a test is the determination for each school\nsubject and educational aim, first, of the details so obviously essential in\n\nsome definite relationships that their permanent mastery must be compelled by drill; second, of those so low in their relative worth that they can\n\nbe excluded altogether; and, third, of those lying between these two extremes\nwhich exist in such variety for each degree of relative worth that it does not\nmatter which are chosen, except in so far as they differ in relative likelihood\nof survival.\n\nWhile exact determination is unnecessary for each of these classes, the\ntest of relative worth is capable of the mathematical expression essential to\nscientific exactness.\n\nDegree of emotional appeal can be measured, the\n\nnumber of useful relationships possible for an experience counted, and\nfrequency of occurrence estimated.\n\nwithout the others.\n\nNo one of these tests is adequate\n\nIndeed a few things have so unique a usefulness that\n\nsince nothing else can take their place, no comparison of relative values is\n\nnecessary to insure their inclusion in a course of study.\n\nIMMEDIACY OF USEFULNESS DETERMINES THE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT AT\nWHICH MATERLAL SHALL BE TAUGHT\n\nThe most serious misuse yet made of any of these factors is thru the\nassumption that sensational or emotional appeal should determine the\nmaterial to be introduced into the course of study and the period at which\nit shall be taught.\n\nests children,\n\nIt is false doctrine to proclaim:\n\nand you know what to teach;\n\n\" Find out what inter-\n\nfind when it interests them,\n\nand you know when to teach it.\"\nEssential things are not useful because they are interesting.\n\nThey\n\nmust be made interesting because they are useful. The true basis for\nselection at each stage of advancement is relative usefulness and immediacy\nThat is, the most useful material should be taught as early\nof usefulness.\nin the grades as its many-sidedness and recurrence become in part immediate\nfor the learner and always early enough to insure the time necessary for\nits mastery before its many-sidedness and recurrence begin to be inmiediate.\nIf material is capable of\n\nexpanding vocabulary, multiplying intercon-\n\nnection, furthering specific usefulness, or supplying conditions favorable to\nuseful application, if it gives children something to remember by and think\n\nwith, compels right habits, broadens their interests\n\nand develops their\n\nwhat does it matter whether their comprehension of it is complete\nor whether the time when itfe educational usefulness begins coincides\nwith the time when it can be most readily developed or when interest in it\nideals,\n\nis\n\nmost natural and spontaneous? The too frequent defect both of the\nmethod in the elementary school and of the textbook\n\nso-called spiral\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": "233", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE DETERMINANTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n233\n\nprepared by the specialist for high school or college lies in the assumption\nthat because subject-matter can be understood at a given period of develop-\n\nment is reason why it should be taught there.\n\nEqually misguided is the\n\ncomplementary defect of insisting on immediate fulness of comprehension\nIt has manifested itself in substituting\nfor all ideas that are to be taught.\nwords that are simple in the sense of having few associations for words\nthat cannot be fully comprehended because they have a wealth of associaIt teaches island\ntions that will gradually be added with the growing years.\nand volcano in the first school year, because they seem objectively simple,\nin place of California and\n\nNew Jersey, which, tho objectively complex, more\n\nor less many-sidedly recur in the life of most children.\n\nIt teaches all possible\n\ncombinations which can result in the number six and all into which six can\n\nbe separated, because\n\nsix is\n\nobjectively smaller than the subjectively\n\nmore useful decimal concept involved in ten times six, or\nsixty and six, or sixty-six and one. It teaches Robinson Crusoe in monosyllables or makes an objectively simple phonetic reader instead of polysyllables more many-sided and recurring in child life outside the school.\nIt substitutes a juvenilized literature that is fully understood, and at least\nsimpler and\n\nthe efifort at fulness of comprehension of Burke's Conciliation with America\n\nand the Merchant of Venice, for a far more partial and more loving comprehension of what is noblest and most impressive in every field of literature.\nIf life outside were not less simple and primitive than some culture epochists\nand biologists have attempted to make life within the school, their simple\nschools would make simple children. Such mental development that\nvictims of over-simplification have gained has been in spite of a simplified\nschool.\n\nTo this misuse of comprehension has been added the misapplication of\nculture epoch, child study, and biology in determining thru natural interest\n\nand points of readiest development what shall be taught in the various\ngrades. It may be that modern flesh creeps at the touch of a fur coat\nbecause antediluvian bodies jumped when in contact with a cave bear\nand that children successively pass thru the same stages of development\nthat civilization has passed thru, but this is no reason why their primers\nshould contain bloody pictures of prehistoric combats between man and\nbeast or why their primary arithmetic should fail to make them think by\nmeans of the simple judgments and combinations of judgments which must\nbecome habitual thru long periods of time to prepare for the more complex\nreasonings of the grades above.\n\nBecause things are naturally interesting\n\nor ready of development in a particular school grade is no reason why they\n\nshould be taught there.\n\nBecause they respond to natural interest at a\n\nlater period or can be more readily developed is no reason why their teaching\n\nAt best, natural interests and nascent periods point\nBut it can be followed in the\nwork of the school only when they make easier the mastery of something\n\nshould be postponed.\n\nout the educational line of least resistance.\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": "234", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n234\n\n[Richmond\n\ndeveloped, not because of its immediate naturalness, but because it is\nimmediately useful. Material must be included in the course of study\nin the order of its relative usefulness, in the relationships which make it\nuseful, as early as its usefulness\n\nbecomes partially immediate.\n\ncomplex, it can be partially understood.\nit\n\nIf it is\n\nIf it is not naturally interesting,\n\ncan be made interesting thru cumulative impression and growing inter-\n\nconnection.\n\nIf it is difficult of\n\ndevelopment, it must be more effectively\n\nand persistently taught.\n\nTHE SUCCESSIVE STEPS NECESSARY IN SCIENTiriC\nCOURSE-OF-STUDY-MAKING\n\nWith the completion of this rough\n\nanalysis, the bases for course-\n\nof-study-making can be definitely summarized.\n\nWhether we approach\n\nthe problem from the standpoint of what is most useful within an academic\n\nbranch or from what is most useful in realizing a specific educational end,\nthe procedure is the same:\n1.\n\nClassification of all useful material within each branch of knowledge\n\ninto what definitely furthers cumulative impression, vocabulary develop-\n\nment, varying interconnection, habit and system, and application.\n2.\n\nIts further division into (a)\n\nwhat is specifically useful either to the\n\nbranch as a specialty or (b) to a particular phase of direct preparation for\nlife\n\nand (c) what is generally useful or (d) what is both specifically and\n\ngenerally useful.\n3. Its classification within these phases and divisions in the order of its\n\nmeasured by its possible many-sidedness, recurrence,\nand sensational and emotional appeal.\n4. Its division thru its many-sidedness and recurrence (a) into material\nuseful only to the specialist, including the specialist whose aptitudes are\ndiscovered in the early school years, and (b) into the material useful in\ngeneral education, including what is essential to keep the way open for\nrelative usefulness\n\nfuture specialization.\n5.\n\nIts distribution\n\namong the grades in the order of its relative use-\n\nfulness as it becomes partially immediate\n\n—in the sense both of immediate\n\nmany-sidedness, recurrence, or emotional appeal and of sufficiently early\npresentation to insure the drill necessary to the mastery of what will become\n\nmany-sided and recurring in the immediate future.\n6. Its\n\ndivision within each grade into (a) the essential material so\n\nexceptionally high in its immediate usefulness as to be made certain and\n\npermanent by\n\ndrill,\n\nfor all localities\n\nand individuals, and\n\n(b)\n\noptional\n\nmaterial often varying with localities, but including nothing at the expense\nof what is immediately less useful and emphasizing what is most useful and\n\nhas exceptional chance of survival.\n7.\n\nThe inclusion in essential material of certain details unique in their\n\n—especially from the stand-\n\nusefulness, regardless of their relative value\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": "235", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW COURSE OF STUDY SHOULD BE DETERMINED\n\n235\n\npoint of adequate representation for each phase of specific preparation\nfor\n\nlife.\n\nThe limitation of essential knowledge at each stage, both by the\namount that can be newly memorized and by the gradually accumulating\nmass of essentials already memorized that must be adequately reviewed.\n9. Such organization of the material so selected, classified, and limited,\nthru textbooks and courses of study, as will make possible an actual manysidedness and insure the system both essential and optional that results\nfrom the correlation and subordination of material in accordance with its\n8.\n\nrelative worth.\n\nThe science of course-of-study-making is no simpler than any other\nscience,\n\nno less technical.\n\nwhy should it be?\n\nFundamental as it is for the mastery of all,\n\nIf the present paper to any extent contributes to its\n\nformation, it is thru its attempt to reduce complex familiar factors to their\n\nlowest terms and to include every^ factor that affects educational values.\n\nIf\n\nany have been omitted, further analysis will surely include them; if others\nlack definiteness, they will be further simplified. But analyses, resulting\nas this has resulted from the combined efforts of many thinkers, must in\nthe end compel the agreement of all. There is one compulsion stronger\nthan tradition or authority, before which individualism, however strongly\nintrenched in idealism or successful practice, has always given way; and\nthat is the compulsion of the universally valid fact which analysis and\nresearch must sooner or later reveal.\n\nHOW THE COURSE OF STUDY SHOULD BE DETERMINED\nJOHN W. WITHERS, PRESn)ENT, HARRIS TEACHERS COLLEGE, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nTo get this problem fully before us it is necessary to consider the\nmeaning, scope, and aim of education in modern life; the means and processes involved;\n\napplied;\n\nthe agencies by which the means are to be selected and\n\nthe public school's rightful place among these agencies, and its\n\nits own peculiar work and the part of this work\nwhich should be accomplished thru the course of study.\nOn the meaning and scope of modern education I submit the following\n\nproper relation to them;\n\npropositions:\n\nThe needs and values of life to which education in the broad-\n\nest sense should minister cover the whole period of life and cannot be con-\n\nfined to\n\nany particular part of it; these needs and values can only be\n\nprogressively realized\nitself;\n\n;\n\neducation is a continuous process coextensive with life\n\nthe aim of education, in the case of any individual, is either furthered\n\nor hindered\n\nby every experience thru which he passes, he is being edu\n\ncated to some degree and in some direction every moment of his waking\nlife;\n\neducation cannot take place except thru experience, but experience\n\nitself is\n\nnot education.\n\nBy experience is meant any interaction between\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": "236", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n236\n\n[Richmond\n\nan individual and his environment; it is the response, physical and mental,\nwhich he makes to any situation which his environment provides or suggests.\n\nEducation as a process\n\nmay be identified with this living inter-\n\naction, but education as a result\n\nleaves behind.\n\nis\n\nthe modification or effect which\n\nit\n\nThe experience which thus produces education may be,\n\nand usually is, conscious, but the education which results can only be\nknown by the influence which it exerts on subsequent experience and\nbehavior.\nBriefly then education is taking place wherever responses are being\n\nmade directly or indirectly to one's environment; it is by no means confined to the school, but involves all human experiences including those that\nhinder as well as those that further the aims and purposes of life. They\nall educate in one way or another.\nThe terms \"environment,'* \"situation,\" \"response,\" and \"modification,\" which I shall continue to use, need definition.\n\nBy environment is meant all forms of energy or other influences external\nAn educative\n\nto an individual and capable of evoking responses in him.\n\nsituation is that part of an individual's total environment which acting upon\n\nhim at any given time calls forth in him an educative response.\n\nThis\n\nresponse may be considered from two points of view: the direct, immediate, and partial response, and the indirect, prolonged, and complete response.\n\nThe direct response is the kind of consciousness immediately called forth\nand the bodily behavior directly occasioned by the situation. The indirect\nresponse consists of the reflective, emotional, and volitional processes that\nare started by the direct response and guided and controlled by association,\nattention, and will.\n\nIn the science of teaching, therefore, there can be fundamentally only\n\ntwo kinds of problems:\n\n(i)\n\ngiven a desired educational result, required to\n\nfind the situation or series of situations which thru the educative responses\n\nevoked will produce that result; and (2) given a certain situation or series\nof situations including the method of applying them, required to ascertain\nthe educational result that should be expected to follow. The two terms\n\"educative situation\" and \"educative response\" therefore involve all that\n\nmeant by education as a process.\nAs already stated, education as a result is a modification or effect\nThis result may be and usually is of a twofold\nleft behind by experience.\ncharacter, for the individual is different and the environment may be differBoth these changes\nent, after the experience, from what they were before.\nexercise\nan\neducative influence\nmay\nboth\nfor\nsignificance,\nhave educational\nof\nother\nindividuals.\nThe\nand\nsame\nof\nthe\nexperiences\nover subsequent\nimportant\nmeans\nof\nedubecome\npersist\nthat\nchanges in the environment\ncation; taken collectively and for the entire human race, past and present,\nis\n\nthey constitute the whole of material civilization.\n\nThe change that takes\n\nplace in the individual is both mental and physical and is known by the\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": "237", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW COURSE OF STUDY SHOULD BE DETERMINED\n\n237\n\nwhich it exerts upon his subsequent life of consciousness and\n\ninfluence\n\nbehavior.\nConsidering, then, the educative process as an observable transaction\n\ntaking place in the physical world and determined by the two facts,\neducative situation and educative response, I desire to distinguish three\n\nimportant processes that influence the determination of the course of study,\n(i) The process of educating may evidently go on without the aid of a\n\nby the nature of the educand and of the eduIt therefore involves two variables,\nthe nature of the environmental situation and of the individual making\nIt is determined\n\nteacher.\n\ncative situation to which he responds.\n\nresponse to it;\nvariables.\nis\n\nthe outcome or resulting education is a function of both\n\nThe basic science is educational psychology.\n\n(2)\n\nTeaching\n\nthe process of selecting and applying environmental situations that are\n\ndesigned to evoke or stimulate responses on the part of the educand.\n\nThis\n\nprocess is determined by the will, intelligence, and skill of the teacher and\n\nthe availability of appropriate environmental means.\n\nIt therefore exer-\n\ncises a limited direct control over but one of the variables involved in edu-\n\ncating.\n\nThe basic science is the science of teaching.\n\n(3)\n\nTesting\n\nis\n\na\n\nprocess of ascertaining as accurately and fully as possible the results of educating.\n\nLike teaching, testing is also limited to environmental control.\n\nSince the results of educating can only be known by the influence which\n\nthey exert upon the subsequent experience and behavior of the educand,\nthe process of testing can only determine thru the study of new responses\nthe modifications produced by former ones.\n\nIts problem is that of ascerany given case will truly reveal the effects of\nprevious educational effort and of providing the proper situations to call\n\ntaining what responses in\n\nforth these responses.\nas does teaching\n\nTesting stands as truly in need of a basic science\n\nitself.\n\nThere\n\nis\n\nprobably nothing more significant in\n\npresent-day education than the effort that is being made to attain at least\nthe beginnings of such a science. The hope of much further improving\nboth the theory and the practice of teaching, in real fact rather than in\n\nmere opinion, lies to a very large degree in the direction of improving the\nmeans of scientifically testing, as far as possible, the results of teaching.\nHerein lies also the hope of detecting and eliminating useless material from\nthe course of study and of otherwise improving the course by ascertaining\nthe relative effectiveness of different methods of instruction and different\nplans of organizing and presenting the subject-matter of the course.\nFrom what has been said up to this point, it is obvious that the means\nof education are limited entirely to educative situations.\n\nThe course of study\n\nitself is nothing but a gigantic plan or scheme designed to aid the teacher in\n\nproviding the right situations to call forth in the child the desired educative\nresponses.\n\nThis is the one operation of fundamental importance to which\n\neverything else is subordinate.\n\nA school or system of schools is, in fact, an\n\norganization having the one supreme function of providing thru the course\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": "238", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n238\n\n[Richmond\n\nof study or otherwise educative situations of the right sort, in the right\norder,\n\nand at the right time.\n\nThe actual production of the situations\n\nplanned for in the course of study is, of course, under the direct control of\nthe teacher, and the effectiveness of the course depends mainly upon his\ninsight, intelligence,\n\nand skill in making the situations which the course\n\ncalls for real and vital to\n\nthe child.\n\nThe teacher is the biggest factor in\n\nmaking any course of study really effective.\nSince the whole means of education are the environmental situations\nwhich call forth the responses of life, it follows that the only means that\ncan be employed by one person in the effort to educate another are physical\nand confined to the possibility of modifying, in one way or another, the\nphysical environment of the educand.\nis\n\nIn fact, the whole effort to educate\n\nbut an effort to make changes in the physical environment with more\n\nor less definite ends and purposes in view.\n\nWithout such changes and the\n\ncapacity to respond to them there can be no education.\n\nThe teacher can,\n\nwithin certain limits, manipulate the environment of the child, but when\n\nhe has done this, if the desired response does not take place, there are no\nother different means which he can employ.\n\nTaken as a whole the means of education are of two general kinds,\nThe latter are those which are determined and\napplied by non-human forces constituting the natural environment. The\nhimian means, those which are, or may be, determined and controlled by\nhuman agencies, are also of two kinds, the direct and the indirect or symbolic.\nThe former consist of the manipulations of things, objects, etc.;\nthe latter of language, illustrations, and symbols of all kinds.\nIf the foregoing conception of the means of education is tenable, and\n\nhuman and non-human.\n\nI am sure it is, it is evident that all the facts of education are essentially\n\nsuch as can be studied by the same scientific methods that have proved\nsuccessful in other less complicated and difficult fields.\n\nHaving defined the general meaning and scope of education, the processes involved, and the means that may be employed, we may now consider the aim of education as governing, in general, the choice of means.\n\nA satisfactory conception of the general aim of education must meet\nthe following conditions: (i) it must be general enough to cover the whole\nof education, not merely that of the school;\n\n(2) it must represent the inter-\n\nests of society as well as those of the individual and give the right value to\n\neach;\n\n(3) it must include education as a process and also as a result, since\n\neducation as a process is life, or the living interaction between an individual and his environment, and since education as a result is not life, but\nthe effect of life whose value comes solely from the fact that it prepares for\nlife;\n\nthis is equivalent to saying that the aim of education is identical with\n\nthe aim of life, and that changes in the conceptions and practices of the one\n\nmust keep pace with changes in the conception and needs of the other;\nand (4) the aim of education must be consistent with the spirit which per-\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": "239", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW COURSE OF STUDY SHOULD BE DETERMINED\n\n239\n\nmeates the life and thought of the present. It must take account, not only\nof the profound changes that have taken place in our economic and social\nlife, in recent years, but also of those changes, equally potent and profound,\nin our mental attitude toward the world and toward human life in all its\n\nThere is growing need that present-day education, in its aims,\nand products, shall be characterized by open-mindedness and\nreasonable adaptability. There is also the increasing conviction that we\nmust look to education more than ever before to solve the hard problems,\nminister to the needs, and promote the values and ideals of our increasingly\nrelations.\n\npractices,\n\ncomplex democratic life. As a result of these transitions, profound changes\nhave also taken place on the moral side of life. Previously accepted standards have proved more or less inadequate; the influence of recognized moral\nsanctions has in general declined; the contacts and wants of life have\ngreatly increased; the opportunities to go wrong as well as to do good have\nbeen multiplied; the pace of life has been accelerated and its strains increased; in short, the whole problem of moral life and moral education has\n\nbecome exceedingly complex and difficult.\nBriefly, then, we define the aim of education as being the aim of human\nlife, both individual and social.\nAs we conceive the latter, so must we\nconceive the former.\n\nEducation's central purpose is to reduce suffering\n\nand waste of life and to promote individual and social well-being, to assist\nas fully and economically as possible in meeting life's needs and in the\nrealization of life's values thru the proper selection and control of the means\nof education.\n\nAll agencies in modern life which in any way control and apply the\nmeans of education are involved in the realization of this aim. Among\nthe most important of these are the school, the home, the playground, the\n\nvarious occupations, the neighborhood, the church, the press, the library,\n\nthe stage, the museum, the club, and the government.\n\nEach of these has\n\na share in the work which varies more or less with local conditions and with\nthe time considered.\n\nThe principles which must be applied in determining the public school's\n(i) The\n\nproper relation to other educative agencies are the following,\n\ntotal task of education should be accomplished in such a manner, at such\n\nperiods of life, and by such agencies as will secure the most perfect conservation and utilization of human energy in doing the work and realizing\n\nthe values and ideals of individual and social life.\n\n(2)\n\nEach agency having\n\na share in the work should be held responsible for that part of it which that\n\nagency can do more efficiently and with greater economy than any other.\n(3)\n\nThe principle of co-operation among the various agencies should be\n\napplied in such a way as mutually to stimulate endeavor and as far as\npossible eliminate waste in accomplishing the total work.\n\n(4)\n\nThe public\n\nschool as the only exclusively educative agency which represents the collective will of the people should be regarded as the final arbiter\n\nand\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": "240", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n240\n\ncustodian of the child's educational well-being.\n\n(5)\n\nrRichmond\n\nIn our democracy, the\n\npublic school is charged by the state with the pecuhar responsibility of\ndefining the aim and work of education as a whole, and of determining the\nright relation of other educative agencies to itself and to each other.\n\nApplying these principles we note that the public school should endeavor\nto understand the actual operation and results of other educative agencies\nin so far, at least, as they are operative in its own particular community,\nand to the extent that is necessary to ascertain their significance. It should\nhave a definite constructive policy with regard to other educative agencies\noperating within its own territory it should actively stimulate and encourage them to do the part of the total work which belongs to them and should\nattempt in some degree even to direct their operation. If such agencies\nneglect the functions which belong to them or faU properly to discharge\nthem, these functions should be taken over by the public school within limits\ndetermined (o) by the social necessity for the performance of these functions;\n(b) by the legal right and actual ability of the public school adequately to\nperform the neglected functions in addition to those that are peculiarly and\ndistinctively its own; (c) by the probable deleterious effect upon the efficiency of other agencies which would be produced by taking over their special\n\n—\n\nfunctions; and, if the results of other agencies neutralize or vitiate those of\n\nthe public school, (d) by the latter's responsibility in the matter which it\n\nhas no right to ignore but which it must try to meet in any way that is\nlegitimate and effective.\n\nBut what is the public school's own peculiar function and what are the\nvalues which it should directly seek to realize ?\n\nReferring once more to the educative process as involving both the\n\neducative situation and the corresponding educative response,\n\nwe must\n\nfind the source as well as the realization of all educational values in edu-\n\ncative responses and their results.\n\nIn other words, the value of any edu-\n\ncational effort must be measured by the character of the responses which\nit\n\nproduces and the more or less permanent educational results of those\n\nWith reference to the aim of education, these results are of\ntwo kinds: those which are of value to society, and those which are of\nvalue to the individual himself. Those results which are of primary\nimportance to society are the organized motor tendencies and bodily forms\nresponses.\n\nof expression constituting behavior in its broadest meaning.\n\nThe results\n\nwhich are of first importance to the individual are those which secure for\nhim the satisfactions of life. A bit of organized mental life which is the\nresult of education, and which may be highly valued by the individual, is\n\nof no concern to society unless it somehow actually or conceivably influ-\n\nences his behavior in relation to others.\n\nThe word \"behavior,\" as I am\n\nusing it, is not restricted in meaning to volitional conduct, that is, conduct\n\ndetermined by consciously chosen ends, nor merely to the grosser forms of\nbehavior.\n\nIt\n\nmeans bodily behavior of all sorts that can in any way\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": "241", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW COURSE OF STUDY SHOULD BE DETERMINED\n\n241\n\ninfluence the lives of others and thus become means of education, including\n\nthose forms which are initiated and controlled by consciousness and those\n\nthat are not.\n\nThere are two and only two ways in which anything may have value;\nmay have value either in itself directly or as a means to something else\nwhich has value in itself. The first kind of value may be called intrinsic,\nand the second instnmiental. The seat of all human values is in the feeling\nor emotional aspect of individual human consciousness. To eliminate\nit\n\nfeeling entirely would be to eliminate the possibility of value of any sort.\n\nBut feeling is individual; its very essence lies in its being experienced by\nsomebody. It follows, therefore, that all intrinsic educational values can\nbe realized only in individuals and that they are for the individual the\nvalues that are of primary concern.\n\nIt is also evident that society is primarily interested in the behavior aspect of the educative responses of indi-\n\nviduals, for it is this aspect alone that can serve as means of producing\n\ndesirable conscious responses in other individuals. In other words, my\nfellow-men are interested in my education and are willing to tax themselves in order that I may receive it, but they do so fundamentally because\nthey hope that out of that education will come forms of behavior which\n\nmay serve as means of enhancing the lives of others by producing in them\nThe artist's behavior in producing a picture, for example, is socially valuable chiefly because of the\ndesirable forms of conscious experiences.\n\naesthetic satisfaction which it brings to others.\n\nHence the primary purpose of public education is the determination of\nsocially valuable\n\nindividual behavior.\n\nAn individual's knowledge and\n\nother organized forms of mental life resulting from education are, of course,\nsocially valuable, because they are important means of determining behavior.\n\nUnless they actually or conceivably influence the individual's behavior\nthey have no social value, and if they result in behavior that is detrimental\nto the general well-being they are, of course, socially undesirable.\n\nThe\n\nprinciples therefore which should control the organization and direction of\n\npublic education must be derived from the study of human behavior and\nof the means of determining and controlling it.\n\nFor my present purpose, I shall resolve the problem into two subordinate ones and deal with these in the order mentioned,\nof behavior are socially as well as individually valuable ?\n\n(i)\n\nWhat kinds\n\n(2)\n\nHow shall\n\nthe means of producing such behavior be selected and apphed ?\nI have shown that society is primarily interested in the behavior aspect\nof education, and that behavior can have only instrumental value and that\nit has this only in so far as it serves to promote directly or indirectly, in the\n\nindividual himself\n\nand in other individuals, the realization of intrinsic\n\nThe essence of behavior, therefore, from an educational point of\nview, is individual and social service; to serve anyone is to assist him by\nmeans of one's behavior to realize intrinsic values for himself either\n\nvalues.\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": "242", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n242\n\ndirectly or indirectly.\n\nbe rendered.\n\n[Richmond\n\nThis is, in fact, the only way in which service can\n\nNow an individual can by means of his behavior serve him-\n\nself and others in two and only two general ways:\n\n(i) by what he produces\n\nfor the use of himself and others and by his manner of producing it;\n\n(2) by\n\nwhat he himself uses and the way in which he uses it.\nFor both these kinds of behavior education is not only possible but\nnecessary under modern conditions.\n\nThe realization of the general aim\n\nof education is impossible without it.\n\nAn individual cannot realize him-\n\nself and promote the well-being of society unless there is developed in him\n\nthe capacity and the disposition, not only to produce well himself, but to\n\nThe individual who is merely a user,\nwho does not produce anything for the inspiration and use of others, is a\nuse wisely the products of others.\n\nparasite on the social organism and therefore an undesirable citizen whether\n\nhe be a millionaire or a tramp.\n\nOn the other hand, one who produces\n\nskilfully and well much that society needs, but himself uses comparatively\nlittle of the products of others, is, of course, not wholly undesirable, but he\nis\n\ncertainly not the\n\nmost desirable member of the community.\n\nThis is\n\neasily seen to be true when we multiply the\n\nnumber of such men in any\nconmaunity. To the extent that such a man does not spend his means in\nsecuring and using the products of the toil and inspiration of others, he prevents them from satisfying their own proper physical and spiritual wants\nby the use of products which they in turn might secure. The one who best\nrealizes himself, and at the same time promotes as fully as possible the wellbeing of others, is the one who is best equipped and most disposed, not only\nto produce, but to use, the good things of life.\n\nIn fact, these two types of activity, producing and using, constitute\nthe fundamental game of all civilized human life; and education in all its\n\nforms\n\n—\n\nscience, philosophy, training for citizenship, aesthetic, ethical, and\n\nreligious instruction\n\n—\n\nall are intended to develop the capacity, produce the\n\ndisposition, and provide the rules for the playing of this game and for the\n\nrealization of those values of life\n\nwhich come from playing it properly.\n\nGeneral public education, therefore, whether accomplished in the schools\nor by other educative agencies, naturally takes the two forms, education\nfor production and education for use.\n\nThe sense in which the terms \"production\" and \"use\" are employed\n\nMan is a producer whenever he makes environmental changes of\nany sort, temporary or permanent, that may be used for the satisfaction of\nany human want, physical or spiritual. He is a user whenever he appropriates any such change, whether made by himself or by others, for the\nis this.\n\nsatisfaction of his own wants.\nIf we define general or fundamental education as that which is designed\nfor, and supposed to be needed by, all, and also accept the proposition that\n\nthis education, so far as it goes, must be both liberalizing and vocational,\n\nthat is, education for use and production, we must distinguish two grades\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": "243", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW COURSE OF STUDY SHOULD BE DETERMINED\n\n243\n\nSpecialized vocational education,\nof vocational and liberal education.\nwhich later on in the child's life seeks to develop specialized knowledge,\nskill, and efficiency in some form of productive activity accepted as the\nchild's life-work, must be based upon, and grow out of, a more general and\nfundamental kind of vocational education which seeks to give the child\nthose forms of experience, ideals, attitudes, and habits that will help to\n\ndetermine for him his appropriate place in the world of producers.\n\nSpecial-\n\nized liberal education which in secondary school or college seeks to develop\n\na refined taste and appreciative use of any products of the labor and inspiration of others, past and present, must also be based upon an elementary\n\neducation in the right appreciation and use of the simpler and more common\nthings of life.\n\nThe public elementary school should not attempt to provide specialized\nvocational education or specialized liberal education, but a general or\n\nfundamental education that is the best possible preparation for both, that\nprovides for marked individual differences, makes for adaptability, and is\nin general well suited to the nature and capacity of children.\n\nTherefore in making the curriculum for the public elementary school\n\nwe should answer as well as we can the following questions:\n\n(i) Are there\nany experiences, forms of knowledge, types of behavior, mental attitudes,\nand dispositions that are fundamental to those vocations, at least, upon\nwhich the majority of the children of a given school system are likely to\n\nenter?\n\nIf so, these\n\nshould be provided for in the elementary course of\n\nWhat are those values, knowledges, forms of behavior, and\nqualities of mind which are fundamental in enabling an individual to make\nstudy.\n\n(2)\n\nthe most of his opportunities to live a rich, sanely balanced, happy, whole-\n\nsome, and socially valuable life as a user of the increasing wealth of things\n\nwhich the labor and inspiration of all men of all time have made possible\nfor his comfort and for the enrichment of his life ?\n\nSo far as possible, these\n\nvalues must also be provided for in the elementary curriculum.\n\n(3) What,\nfrom the standpoint of the elementary school, for the period of the child's\nlife which it covers, is the relative importance of these two aspects of life;\nand how shall these two types of material be rightly woven together and\n\nadministered so as to develop in the child a unified, rightly disposed personality, and at the same time assist in finding for him that vocation and\n\nthat type of culture for which he is by nature best fitted ?\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": "244", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n244\n\n[Richmond\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL., AND EDWARD C.\nELLIOTT', DIRECTOR OF THE COURSE FOR THE TRAINING OF\nTEACHERS, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS.\nFor one who has given but little attention to the subject, it is hard to\nappreciate the great revolution in rural life which has taken place during\n\nthe past three-quarters of a century.\n\nThe changes which have been accom-\n\nplished have been of far-reaching importance, and they have touched every\n\nAlmost nothing now is as it used to be; almost nothing\ndone now as it was done three-quarters of a century ago. We of today\n\nphase of rural life.\nis\n\n— a world of which our grandfathers scarcely dreamed.\n\nlive in a new world\n\nLife everywhere today is far more complex, intricate, difficult, and fruit-\n\nboth pleasure and profit than was that of which our grandfathers\nformed a part. The great changes which have taken place in living and\nindustry have affected all of our people, rural and urban, but perhaps\nnowhere has the revolution been of more far-reaching importance than to\nthose of our people who live on the farms and in the little villages of our\nful of\n\nnation.\n\nThis social and industrial revolution has profoundly changed the whole\nnature of rural life and created entirely new rural problems.\n\nSome rural\n\ncommunities have naturally experienced a greater change than others,\n\nbut no community has wholly escaped.\n\nThe revolution, too, has been so\n\nrapid, so extensive, and so far-reaching in its consequences that both rural\n\npeople and rural institutions have not changed anywhere rapidly enough to\n\nkeep pace with the demands of the new civilization.\n\nThe result has been\n\nthe development of a rural-life problem of great social, educational, and\n\neconomic consequences, and one which involves most of the cherished\ninstitutions of rural society.\n\nIt has become particularly acute as it relates\n\nto the character and elements of the rural population itself, to the conditions\nof land ownership and farm tenancy, rural home life, rural society, the rural\n\nTaken altogether and as a whole we call this\nproblems the rural-life problem. Of this rural-life problem\nthe rural-school problem forms only a part, but if the rural-school problem\nchurch, and the rural school.\n\ncollection of\n\nis to have\n\nany satisfactory solution it must be approached with some under-\n\nstanding of the rural-life problem which surrounds it.\n\nPerhaps more than any other rural institutions, the rural and the smallvillage church and the rural school have felt the effect of these profound\nsocial changes.\n\nEverywhere we read of the decline in influence and the\n\ndying-out of the rural church; and everywhere thoughtful men look almost\nhopelessly at the problem, wondering what the future will be.\n\nThe decline in influence of the rural and village churches serves to\nmodify the whole nature of rural education and, in consequence, to throw\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": "245", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\n245\n\na much greater burden upon the rural and small-village schools.\n\nIn pro-\n\nportion as the church declines in social, moral, and religious influence, other\n\ncommunity forces must take its place and do its work. Chief among these\nmust be the school, tho it, too, has been hard pressed by the great social\nand economic changes which have marked our agricultural development.\n\nThe result of the many changes in rural-life conditions, brought about\nby the changing economic and social conditions in our national life, is that\nthe rural school has lost its earlier importance and finds itself today in a\nIt is no longer, generally speaking, the important community institution it was forty or fifty years ago. It has largely ceased to\nminister, as it once did, to community needs; its teacher no longer plays\n\nsorry plight.\n\nthe important part in neighborhood affairs that he used to play;\n\nit has lost\n\nmost of its earlier importance as a community center; its attendance has\nshrunk to a fraction of what it once was; it finds itself in a serious financial\ncondition; and it has been left far behind, educationally, by the progress\nwhich the cities have made. The rural-school problem as we now find it,\ntied up as it is with the whole rural-life problem, has become too complex to be solved by local effort, and little short of a fundamental reorganization of rural education will meet the needs of the present and of the\nfuture.\nThe problem is not a simple or a single one, but is in reality composed of a number of related problems in educational organization and\nadministration.\n\nWe now propose to indicate briefly the reorganizations\n\nwhich must be effected if any rearsolution is to be had.\nIn the first place, the district system of school organization should be\nabandoned in favor of a unit of larger jurisdiction, preferably the county.\nSo clearly have the defects and limitations of the district system been\nrevealed that a number of states already have entirely abolished the system,\nwhile almost all the others have limited the powers of the district authorities in many ways.\nAs a system of school organization, it has done its work\nand should be abandoned in favor of a system better calculated to serve the\nneeds of rural life. As a system of school administration, it is expensive,\nshortsighted, inefficient, inconsistent, and unprogressive; it leads to great\nand unnecessary inequalities in schools, terms, educational advantages, and\nto an unwise multiplication of schools; the trustees, because they hold the\npurse strings, frequently assume authority over matters which they are not\ncompetent to handle; and most of the progress in rural-school improvement\nhas been made without the support and often against the opposition of the\ntrustees and the people they represent.\nThe unit, too, is too small for taxing purposes, and the substitution of\nsome larger taxing unit than the school district is necessary if any substantial progress in rural-school administration is to be made.\nAdequate\nfinancing, state and county taxation for education, and a wise system for\nthe apportionment of the money lie at the basis of any marked improvement\nin the educational conditions surrounding the rural schools in nearly all\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": "246", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n246\nof our states.\n\n[Richmond\n\nMore money for the schools is an absolute essential, and\n\nuntil this can be obtained no very satisfactory progress in rural education is\npossible.\n\nIt cannot well come from an increase in district taxation,\n\nand\n\nhence must come from increased general taxation, or from a reorganization\nof rural education, or from both.\n\nAnother fundamental need is a rational scheme for the reorganization\nand consolidation of the districts, so as to form a unified school system of the\nbest possible type for all of the people of the counties.\n\nIn the days of cheap\n\nschoolhouses, cheap teachers, cheap education, and local taxation, it was\n\nthought wise to encourage the process of multiplying districts, and pride\n\nwas taken in the abundant school facilities thus provided. The result is\ncheap and poorly equipped schoolhouses, four times as numerous as there\nThis unwise multiplication of school districts should\nis any real need for.\nbe stopped; consolidated schools, which will afford the kind of education\nneeded by rural children, should be provided, whenever possible; and a\nrearrangement of expenditures should be made which will provide sufficient\nfunds to maintain the necessary number of good schools and attract good\nteachers to them.\n\nThis is feasible only thru a reorganization of the edu-\n\nand educational\nSuch a reorganization proposes nothing more nor less than the creation\nfor country children of as good schools for their needs as city children now\nenjoy. It contemplates the abandonment of dozens of the small and\ninefficient one-teacher schools which dot the surface of almost every county,\nand the creation, instead, of a much smaller number of centrally-located\ncational resources of our counties along good business\nlines.\n\nconsolidated schools, with partial or complete high-school facilities attached.\n\ntwo generations to accomplish this, under the present\nHere and there in some states,\na county superintendent of larger insight and energy from time to time succeeds in doing some rather brilliant piece of work and, by the force of a\nstrong personality, or the exercise of an abiding patience and persistence, succeeds in creating a few reorganized schools, which are effective and which\nreally minister to the community life; but the large interest among school\nmen, which such accomplishments create, only serves to cause to stand out\nin contrast the antiquated, inadequate, and practically unchangeable conditions which on all sides surround their one or two accomplishments.\nThe\nwork seems wonderful only because so few such successes can be made.\nWhereas what now is so rare ought to be universal. The Kingsville School,\nin Ohio, a pioneer in the consolidation movement, has been heard of everywhere, but, after more than twenty years of successful work, the county\nin which it is located has townships in which no change has been effected.\nThe work of Kern, in Winnebago County, Illinois, has, deservedly, received\nmuch attention, yet the accomplishments there after more than a decade\nand a half of effort, and considering the county as a whole, were really very\nIt will require\n\nconditions in educational organization.\n\nsmall for the energy expended.\n\nThe county has today as a result a few excel-\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": "247", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\n247\n\nlent consolidated schools, while Kern's work, successful as it was, has\n\naffected the conditions in surrounding counties and in the state of Illinois\n\nbut little.\n\nUnder the county unit of organization, the needs of the county as a\nwhole may be planned for at one time, and stranded districts or ill-advised\nunions, common in all states where voluntary district consolidation has been\naccomplished,\n\nmay be prevented. The Minnesota plan of county-unit\n\nplanning, where the county is carefully surveyed and a plan of reorganization for the whole county\n\nis\n\nadopted,\n\nis\n\nof particular merit in this\n\nrespect.\nIf our rural schools are to be properly reorganized, however,\n\nand con-\n\nducted on a plane as efficient and intelligent as our city schools are conducted, provision must be made both for securing and for retaining real\nleadership at the top.\n\nThis demands the elimination of the county super-\n\nintendency from the political column.\n\nNever before in the history of our\n\neducational systems has there been such urgent need for men and women of\n\nadequate professional preparation, deep social and professional insight,\n\nand large executive skill and personal power for the supervision of our rural\nschools; and such men, once selected and appointed, need to be given the\nsame tenure, compensation, and free hand which a superintendent of\nschools in a well-organized city-school system has today.\ncities\n\nLong ago our\n\nabolished their districts, stopped choosing their superintendents by\n\npopular election, and began to manage their schools as a unit, and not until\n\nour counties introduce something of the same unit-system into their educational\n\nmanagement, and begin to compete in the educational markets\n\nfor real leadership, will rural education ever be made very effective or be\n\nput on a competitive basis with city education.\n\nFor the pleasure of retain-\n\ning an antiquated and worn-out administrative system, electing a horde of\n\nunnecessary school trustees, and voting for another county officer, our rural\npeople have, as a consequence, an unnecessary number of small, costly, and\ninefficient rural schools, poorer teachers than is necessary, inadequate and\n\noften unsuitable instruction, and supervision, in most of our states, which is\nlittle more than a name.\n\nSay what we may for the present system, the stubborn fact remains\nthat the office of county superintendent today, outside of a few southern\nstates and the states of\n\nNew York, New Jersey, and parts of Utah, is but\n\na poorly paid job, offering but temporary employment, no career for anyone,\n\nand no incentive to anyone to prepare for the work except in the school of\npolitics.\nOnce take the office out of politics, make it appointive instead of\nelective, abolish the local residence requirement, throw it open to competition as city superintendencies and high-school principalships now are, and\nbase salary, tenure, and promotion on efficiency in the service, and the office\nof county superintendent would offer a career for which a man or woman\nwould be warranted in making long and careful professional preparation.\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": "248", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n248\n\n[Richmond\n\nNot until this has been done can our rural schools ever hope to enjoy a\nsupervision which is as close and as effective as our cities today enjoy or\n\nthat intelligent guidance and direction of which they stand so greatly in\nneed.\n\nTo one who stands off and looks at the rural-life situation as affecting\nthe school and compares\n\nit\n\nwith the city-life situation as affecting the\n\nschool, another striking difference as to leadership at once appears.\n\nThis\nwhich means so much to the welfare and development of the\nrural public school, represents the second item of supreme importance in the\nsolution of the rural-education problem and consists of the almost total\nabsence of civic leadership in rural communities. Whatever else may be\nsaid by way of criticism of the life in American cities, rarely is one able to\nfind a city without some evidence of a deep-seated civic pride and civic\nspirit.\nVoluntary organizations such as civic leagues, philanthropic organizations, commercial societies, women's clubs undertake to do that which\nindividuals and municipal government neglect to do, or are unable to do.\ndifference,\n\nTo the leaders of such organizations is due the largest share of credit for\nwhat our cities have recently accomplished in the way of civic progress and\nreform. These leaders have been, in the majority of cases, men and\nwomen who have been possessed of a desire to give something, to do something, for the general betterment of the community in which they lived.\nIt may be said, in contrast to this, that rural communities in which there\nis\n\nfostered anything akin to the civic spirit of the city are few\n\nbetween.\n\nand far\n\nThe generally isolated conditions of life in the country contribute\n\nto the development of an individuality which masquerades under a variety\nof names— such as self-reliance or independence— but which from the stand-\n\npoint of the conmion welfare is nothing but a more or less virulent form of\nselfishness.\n\nOne hears frequent charges nowadays concerning the material-\n\nism and commercialism of modem life, and by general consent these are\nthought to apply exclusively to the life of the city.\n\nOne hears also many\n\nsighs from old-fashioned people, or from people who think they would like\n\nto be old fashioned, for the good old times when we did not live so much in\n\nwhen we did more plain living and high thinking. We venture to\nremark there is no class of people who so uniformly measure every action\nin life by its possible value in dollars and cents as do the people of the better\nagricultural sections of this country; no class which has a more highly\ncities,\n\ndeveloped spirit of selfishness.\n\nNow the personal virtues of excessive industry, frugality, and economy,\nhowever valuable and desirable they may be in individuals, are likely to\nlead to certain undesirable characteristics in the\n\ncommunity life, among\n\nwhich may be mentioned the distinctive tendency to permit community\naffairs to take care of themselves.\nThe school is the most important community affair that any rural territory possesses; and it is because every-\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": "249", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\n249\n\nbody's business has been nobody's business that the school has suffered from\nneglect and parsimony.\n\nSuch things have happened and are happening in\n\nbut the difference between the country and the city is that whereas\nthe country seems generally unable to produce from its own citizenship\nthose who are willing to lead the way toward better things, the city is able\ncities;\n\nto do so. This difference is not due to the city's having more ability or\nmore energy than the country has, but rather to the fact that the country\n\nnot yet in the habit of using its own strength for its own betterment.\nThe real reform of the rural-school situation must come not from without\nis\n\nbut from within.\n\nCounty-life commissions and educational investigators\n\nmay serve a valuable purpose; but each community must be led out into\nthe high road of progress by one of its own members.\n\nThere is also need of a new type of teacher, one with a deep insight\nand interest in rural service and having a new conception of the curriculum\nas a living thing adapted to the present and future needs of rural children,\nrather than to the needs of a period which has passed by forever.\nNot only must our system for the selection and preparation be so altered\nand improved as to give a better grade of men and women as country\nschool-teachers, but the system of compensating the teacher must be modified in such a way as to reduce to a minimum the prevalent methods of competition and private barter whereby the local school authorities buy in the\ncheapest and the teachers sell in the dearest markets. One need not hesitate to say that in nine out of ten cases today the country school-teacher\nis regarded in the light of a private employee of the district school officers.\n\nThe status of the teacher must be changed from that of a private servant\nto that of a public officer, whose qualifications and whose training are pre-\n\nscribed to fit the demands of the service to be performed.\nofficer,\n\nAnd as a state\n\ncompensation will be fixed and paid directly by the state, and not\n\nby the local school community.\n\nPresent and past experiences fully justify\n\nthe conclusion that, until the standard of compensation is raised and maintained at a level far above that now existing, the country school will be\n\nwithout trained and efficient teachers, and the rural-school problem will\n\nremain a permanent one.\n\nOn this point, tho, we have not time to dwell. Our main theme is that\nthe really fundamental need today is that rural and small-village education\n\nshould be reorganized along efficient administrative lines, to enable such to\n\nmeet the needs of our rapidly changing rural civilization, and that the educational reorganizations made necessary by the great and far-reaching\nchanges in our rural life and rural needs are essentially those which we have\njust outlined.\nThese involve a county unit of organization, administration,\nand finance; the election of a lay county board of education, analogous to\na city board of education, to select the experts and to determine the larger\nquestions of policy and procedure; the substitution of an appointed for an\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": "250", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n250\n\n[Richmond\n\nelected superintendent, and the reorganization of the county administrative\nofl5ce along the lines of the best city administrative experience;\n\na redirection\n\nof the instruction to meet modern educational needs;\n\nand the training of\na body of teachers for rural work who can and will render commimity as well\n,\n\nas educational, service.\n\nTo inaugurate such reorganization will not be especially easy.\n\nThe\n\nprecedents of three generations and the selfish interests of individuals and\ncoEomunities will need to be overcome.\n\nIn not a few states constitutional\n\nSuch a fundamental reorganization cannot be expected\nto come thru the voluntary co-operation of district authorities, upon which\nwe have so far placed our chief hope. District authorities are too shortsighted and know too little as to fundamental rural or educational needs.\nNeither can we expect much assistance from the average politically-elected\ncounty superintendent. The system of which he is a product too often to\nhim seems a sacred system, and, in the district-system states at least, he is\ntoo afraid of the enemies he may make in the districts, and the opportunities he may give an opponent to defeat him for re-election, to render much\nservice looking to any fundamental reorganization of rural education. The\nnecessary reorganizations are of such a fundamental character that they\nwill have to be superimposed from above, sweeping away before them the\nopposition of both county and district-school officials. The state, in the\nexercise of its inherent right to demand constructive reforms, must demand\na reorganization of rural education which will create a system adapted to\nmodern rural educational needs, one under which business can be transacted in a modern manner, and one under which rapid progress will be\nobstacles exist.\n\npossible.\n\nCounties which refuse to reorganize their school systems on a proper\neducational basis, and to provide properly for the needs of their children,\n\nshould be penalized by a reduction of the apportionment of state funds to\n\nno more than would be demanded, for the same educational facilities now\nprovided, if regrouped under a proper educational reorganization.\nAfter a few years of operation under such a county-unit reorganization,\n\neach county would have a much smaller number of community-center consolidated schools, with partial or complete high schools attached, adequate\n\nand professional supervision and direction, and a new and an effective t)^e\nWhat now seems so wonderful and so exceptional,\nwhen carried thru by some energetic and persuasive county superintendent,\nwould then become the rule.\nof rural education.\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": "251", "text": "I'\n\nPROBLEMS OF THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n2$\n\nROUND TABLES\nROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\nPROBLEMS THAT CONFRONT THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT IN HIS\nRELATION TO THE RURAL SCHOOLS\nFRANK W. MILLER, STATE COMMISSIONER OF SCHOOLS, COLUMBUS, OHIO\n\nWhen I was elected state commissioner of common schools of Ohio, I had a preconceived notion that intelligent people would have at least a vague idea of the duties of the\nposition.\n\nof\n\nYou can weU imagine with what amazement I heard the questions of many\nWhat are you supposed to do ? \" \" How much of your time wiU it take ?\n\nmy friends\n\n'\n\n*\n\n:\n\n'\n\n\"Will it interfere with your school work ? \" If these questions had come from Hungarians\nor from the drawers of water and hewers of wood, they would have been passed by and\nsoon would have been forgotten. But coming from professional men, lawyers, doctors,\npreachers, and shrewd business men, men who know the duties of the constable, the street\n\ncommissioner, the mayor, the probate judge, the congressman, the secretary of state, the\ngovernor;\n\nmen who could discuss intelligently the measures before Congress and the\n\nPresident's message, and who were conversant with the news of the world, such questions\n\nhave a deep significance.\nWhat is wrong? Have we, as state superintendents, been working in the wrong\nchannels and misdirecting our energies ? Have we been leaders, and, if so, leaders of\n\nwhom?\nThere may be many here who are not in accord with my views, but I do not believe\nthat it should be the duty of the state superintendent to give most of his time to lecturing\nat teachers' meetings upon pedagogical subjects, but rather to attend to the business\n\nphase of the school system of the state.\n\nWe have in our teachers' colleges and normal schools men and women who have the\nopportunity and the time to study existing methods, methods recently developed in other\nstates and in other countries, and to devise new ones of their own;\n\nmen and women who\n\nare thoro students of psychology and the history of education, and who, by processes of\n\nreasoning and by experimentation and observation, can determine what courses of study\n\nand what subjects are most effective in developing the highest and strongest type of\ncitizenship.\nWe have in our public schools men and women who can develop new ideas,\nnew methods, and new devices which may be of great value in classroom instruction.\nIt is to these people that we must look for instruction along pedagogical lines.\n\nThe state superintendent may dehver a lecture that may be like music to the ears,\ndeveloping a beauty and harmony in the teachers' souls, or he may give his auditors\npractical points in teaching, but all this, as far as the public is concerned, falls upon deaf\nears.\nis\n\nThe school world is stiU a remote and secluded spot.\n\nIf the state superintendent\n\nto awaken the pubUc conscience, he must address commercial clubs, chambers of com-\n\nmerce, boards of trade of the cities, and public gatherings of the rural and village people.\n\nHe should be the connecting link between the school world and the general public and\nbring them into close touch. He should call the attention of the public to the condition\nand needs of the schools, get its co-operation in working out some of our school problems,\nespecially the financial problems, and prepare the way to put into operation new ideas\nin education, which we have good reason to believe are sound.\n\nA gathering of business men does not care to hear much about Socrates, Comenius,\nor Montessori.\n\nThey want to know what can be done by them to bring results. They\nWhenever the state\n\nare ready to intrust the pedagogical knowledge to the teachers.\n\nsuperintendent addresses business men he should always have a message, definite, succinct,\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": "252", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n252\n\ndirect, and to the point.\n\nor platitudes.\n\n[Richmond\n\nBusiness men do not on such an occasion care for pleasantries\n\nWhen he has such an audience, he should feel that his message is worth\n\nas much to them as the value of their time is when employed in any other capacity.\n\nResidents of the cities should have impressed upon their minds what an intricate\ninstitution civilization really is, how impossible it is for civilized man to live alone, how\n\nhe must live in the midst of, and by the help of, others.\n\nA city located in a rich farming\n\ncountry may bum to ashes, but, like the Phoenix of old, she will rise again, a greater city.\n\nBut if by some transformation or cataclysm of mother earth the surrounding fields should\nbecome a desert, the city would soon become a collection of deserted walls of brick and\nstone.\n\nWhen the business men of the city see that increased wealth in the country\n\nstimulates better business conditions in the city, they will become interested in the wel-\n\nThis may be a selfish reason, but man\nmany cases, must be treated as such.\nWe have in Ohio the corn boys, the boys who raise one hundred bushels of corn to\n\nfare of the people and the schools of the country.\nis a selfish animal and, in\n\nThe prize winners have for the last two years\nThese prizes have been given in many instances\nby the generosity of business men from the cities merchants, bankers, newspaper men,\nand even school-teachers. This is doing much to stimulate interest among the young\npeople of the country in farm life and farm work. The state department of education\ncan interest many men and women from both city and country to such an extent that they\nmay gladly furnish the prize to be won by sonje industrious boy or girl on the farm. In\nmovements of this kind, what is most needed is leadership. The state superintendent\nthe acre while their dads raise thirty.\n\nbeen given free trips to Washington.\n\n—\n\nshould be the leader.\n\nThe state superintendent should familiarize himself with country life and country\nconditions.\n\nHe should mingle with the people of the country, so as to become acquainted\n\nwith their customs and traditions, their social life, their industrial life, and their religious\n\nHe should be able to see thru their eyes and hear thru their ears. He should be a\nWhen a man gets too big for his job he is in a\ndangerous position. When a state superintendent gets too big to get thru the door of\nlife.\n\nbig man but he should also be humble.\n\na little one-room schoolhouse, the value of his service is approaching an end, and he had\nbetter hunt another job.\n\nWhatever uplift is to come to the country people must grow out from within and not\nbe poured in from without.\n\nThe state superintendent has the great opportunity of meetThey do not consider whether he be from\n\ning the country people on conmion ground.\n\nthe city or from the country, but look upon him as the legal head of the school system,\n\nwhose business it is to advise with them and aid them in any problem that will pertain\nto their betterment.\n\nHe has every opportunity to gain their confidence by never hesitat-\n\ning to tell them the truth and plenty of it.\n\nBut this confidence will never be gained if\n\nthe state superintendent remains complacently in his ofl&ce, enjoying easy Ufe and occasionally addressing a teachers' meeting\n\nkindred subject.\n\nupon \"The Joy of Teaching\" or some other\nIf he has something to tell them they will\n\nHe must meet the people.\n\nThey delight to hear of the schools in the other parts of the state. They\nThey are interested\nin the teaching of agriculture, in high-school work, in domestic science, when they are\nbe interested.\n\nare interested in centralization and are pleased to hear it discussed.\n\nonce understood.\n\nThe state superintendent should have a program.\nnowhere and gets nowhere.\nligently.\n\nWithout it he is headed for\n\nPeople are ready to act if they feel that they can act intel-\n\nThey are ready to expend money if they can be assured that they will get\nThe state superintendent should make recommendations to the legisla-\n\nvalue received.\n\nture to give us such laws as are needed to keep our schools abreast with the times.\n\nIf\n\nthere are bad conditions, he should not hesitate to make that fact known to the people\n\nBy furnishing a good school program, he can in the course of a few years\ndo much to improve the social and industrial conditions of the rural communities without\nconcerned.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": "253", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOVERORGANIZATION OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n253\n\nHe must establish courses\n\nthe people being cognizant of how the change was wrought.\n\nof study that will prepare people for complete living; courses of study that are in harmony\n\nwith what should be the natural life of the community; courses of study which will lead\nto better farming, better business, and better life on the farm.\n\nBoards of education of rural districts are frequently in need of guidance.\n\nThe state\n\nsuperintendent should make his office a clearing-house or a distributing agency of all good\nideas found in the various parts of his state, so that all may receive the benefit.\n\nHe should\n\neducate delinquent boards of education to discharge their duties and give them the right\ninspiration to look at the school problems in behalf of the boys and girls and not in behalf\nof dollars and cents, nor of positions for their own sons and daughters or anybody else's\n\nsons and daughters.\n\nHe should teach them to trust their superintendent and teachers\n\nto buy the milk-tester and material for testing soils and seeds, rather than to be tricked\n\nHe should instil in them an extensive interest in boys and\nthan in intensive tax saving, an interest which will develop the physical\n\nby the smooth chart agent.\ngirls rather\n\nplant of the country school and course of study which will prepare for country life.\n\nIn most states the distribution of funds derived from taxation is not upon a just\nbasis.\n\nThe state superintendent can have no higher duty than to advocate that the state\n\nshould give greater support to the schools and throw less of the financial burden upon the\nlocality.\n\nMany localities have the exchequers of their treasuries filled with taxes from\n\npublic utilities such as railroads, pipe lines, and telegraph lines, while other localities do\n\nnot receive the benefit of any of these taxes.\nis\n\nThe money made by these public utilities\n\nnot produced alone where the tax is paid, but is a composite result of the business of\n\nthe entire state.\n\nEvery boy and girl in the United States should have the God-given right of an\nopportunity for an education.\n\nWhen the state bears the greater part of the burden,\n\nthe city schools will no longer be able to take away so many teachers from the country.\n\nWages of the country teachers will then more nearly equal those paid in the city. There\nwill be an inducement to young men and women to make teaching in the rural schools\ntheir life-work.\nOur rural schools will be taught by men and women trained in ruralschool work to the benefit of the rural schools and country life.\n\nHerein lies the great\n\nproblem before the state superintendent.\n\nDANGERS OF OVERORGANIZATION OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS\nPAYSON SMITH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, ME.\nIf a topic is presumed to suggest the exact position of the speaker, then mine should\n\nprobably be restated.\n\nI\n\nam not at all clear that any country schools I know are in\n\nimminent danger of overorganization.\n\nPerhaps the topic ought to read, \"The Place of\n\nOrganization at the Present Stage of Rural-School Progress.\"\n\nWhatever danger exists\n\ndoubtless lies in the tendency to place confidence in machinery or system as a producer\n\nOrganization of the kind that seeks to limit, that makes and enforces rules\nand regulations, that interferes, that fixes inflexible standards that sort of organization\nhas done harm in city schools but may be necessary there; it would do more harm to\nrural schools and it is not needed there. The kind of organization, however, that develops\nand helps to realize a program of advancement is peculiarly needed in rural education\nof results.\n\n—\n\njust now.\n\nIn speaking of the effects of organization, its advantages, and its dangers, one must\nconsider some phases of the reconstruction of rural schools.\nlittle confusion in the minds of\n\nThere is apparently not a\n\nmany as to the ends for which we ought to work and the\n\nmeans that would be hkely to operate to those ends.\n\nThe country school is having its\n\nday, and, like any other phase of education that happens for the time to be prominent,\nit suffers\n\nfrom the theories of the extremists.\n\nAfter its years of neglect it comes under\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": "254", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n254\n\nthe notice of the expert.\n\nIt is being investigated,\n\nit is\n\n[Richmond\n\nbeing surveyed, and so, we are\n\nafraid, it is straightway to be reported and then systematized and then\n\n—\n\nMany\n\nleft alone.\n\nof these expert friends come from a distance both professional and geographical, and it some-\n\ntimes appears the remedies they suggest are not practical ones.\n\nFor example, at a recent\n\nrural-life conference, the prophecy was made that within a decade our several thousand one-\n\nroom country schools will have been brought together into consolidated schools.\n\nIf the\n\nseer of this vision would attend the function of the discontinuance of one of these one-room\n\nschools down in our northeast corner and note the circumstances that attend its translation,\n\nhe might state his prophecy in more moderate terms. The fact is that the great majority\nof a generation of country school children must get their education in one-room country\nschools, and probably after consolidation has done its best we must still have a place for\nthe one-room school.\n\nOur plans for making that school a more efficient institution ought\n\nnot to wait upon the fulfilment of the prophecy. Again, only last week a gentleman was\nreported by the press as saying that university instructors ought to be the teachers of our\nrural elementary schools.\n\nWe wonder whether he has noted the salary schedules of\n\ncountry schools; or perhaps we wonder whether his is a naive suggestion for the improve-\n\nment of university instruction by elimination and substitution.\n\nStill\n\nagain there is at\n\npresent a pronoimced emphasis on agricultural aims in rural education.\nI know it is popular to say just now that the country school and agriculture are\n\ninseparably connected and that the welfare of the former depends on the extent to which\n\nwe are able to introduce the agricultural note as the dominant one in the work of the\nAt the risk of violating this fundamental tenet in the creed of many\nrural-school reformers, and speaking for rural elementary education, I must say that I\nbelieve we are radically wrong where we attempt to make any elementary school, whether\ncountry school.\n\nin city, village, or country, the sponsor for any special trade or occupational education.\n\nI must confess that I have seen few indications that those who are most vitally interested\nin rural schools desire them to be given over to scientific agriculture.\n\nStill less\n\nhave I\n\nseen any indication that elementary country schools are prepared to undertake or to\ndischarge such function.\n\nLeast of all does it appear that trade education, however\n\nimportant elsewhere in our scheme, has any business in common schools. What the\npeople who live close to the country school most desire and what they have a right to\nexpect is that it shall be a thoroly good common school, teaching in a thoro fashion the\nsubjects which are fundamental to the acquisition of other education. From this aim\nrural elementary education cannot be diverted without serious danger both to the edu-\n\ncational welfare of the himdreds of thousands of children who must look to it for their\n\nschool privileges and to the welfare of the industry of agriculture itself.\n\nTo promote the\n\ninterests of agriculture most effectively, we need not so much to have agricultural teaching\n\nas we do to make available to country youth common-school opportunities that will be\nso good that no farmer will have to remove from his farm home in order to educate his\nchildren.\n\nThis is not to deny the value as incentives of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs,\n\nschool gardens, and other means of making school life more interesting to country children\n\nand of opening their eyes more appreciatively to the surroundings in which they live.\n\nLet\n\nus not make the mistake, however, of putting the relatively unimportant device in the\nforeground and making it appear the aim or absorbing motive of the school.\n\nOne has some difficulty in speaking in moderation of those who are in a measure preventing the sane development of rural education by their advocacy of impossible theories.\nNot a little confusion exists in the minds of many country people as to the steps they\n\nought to take for the betterment of their school facilities. Rural education in each community and state stands in need of an avowed program of progress, a program that will\n\nThe\nThe country people who have been told\n\nrecognize in the first place existing deficiencies and will state attainable standards.\n\npeople need to be told the truth of their schools.\n\nso often that by its product the little red schoolhouse has proven its superiority over other\nschools are the conservative souls who are willing to keep it both little and red\n\n—or indeed\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": "255", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOVERORGANIZATION OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n255\n\nto let it go without paint altogether on the theory that its efficiency will increase in the\nratio of its humility.\n\nThe program must indicate in specific terms the needs that must\n\nbe met if the country school is to become as efficient in its place as other schools in their\nplaces.\n\nFor example, the one outstanding fact in the present rural-school situation is\n\nthat the funds available for its support are inadequate in much greater degree than in\n\nother schools.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe remedy for this or one remedy lies in the adoption of a more\nOne does not need to discuss at this late day the justice\n\ngeneral tax for school support.\n\nof the principles underlying this more general levy.\n\nIt was recognized when, for the sake\n\nof a better social state and a higher grade of citizenship, the first tax of any kind was\n\nlevied for public-school support.\n\nOnly those who hold that the district, township, or\n\ncounty limit is to mark the bounds of a people's responsibility for the state's welfare\nshould argue for an educational tax assessed and distributed within these respective lines.\n\nThe educational, and hence the civic, material, and social, welfare of all the people calls\nand property where they exist,\n\nfor the kind of a school levy which will assess wealth\n\ncreating a school fund for the education of children wherever they may live.\n\nAgain, and this depends on the first point, our program must consider the element\nof the teaching force.\n\nWe are told that about a hundred thousand persons began their\n\nOf these a httle more than one-fifth had received\nsome special training for their work. Of the remaining nearly eighty thousand practically\nAt once there is evident a cause of defiall went into the schools of the smaller places.\nciency in rural schools. It is as true of country schools as of any other that the school\nAll the rest of our educational paraphernalia exists for the\nis as good as its teacher.\nteaching experience this school year.\n\nbetterment of the teaching or to supplement it.\n\nMachinery, system, rules, regulations,\n\ncourses of study, outHnes, all of these are worse than useless when employed without due\nsense of proportion as related to the quality of the instructors for whose benefit they are\ninstituted.\n\nBut our program does not end there.\n\nSchool buildings and equipment in\n\nthe country lag generally far behind the standards that have been attained in towns and\ncities.\n\nWhile the teacher is indeed an important element of the school, we very well\n\nknow that children are educated by the influence of their surroundings.\n\nThe ill kept,\n\nand ventilated school buildings that are scattered across our\nland for the use of country children are the most obvious reproach to our American school\nsystem today. In my opinion the present condition is not so much due to the parsimony\nof country people as it is to the fact that those who have administered schools have been\nso absorbed in other phases of their work that they have not taken the time to formulate\na procedure for the correction of these defects. I have known difficulties of this sort to\nbe completely overcome within a very few years by superintendents who have taken the\ninsanitary, badly lighted\n\npains to lay before their constituencies the exact details as to the state of their school\nproperty, with accurate estimates of the cost of placing it in decent condition.\n\ncarry farther this analysis of a constructive program for rural education.\n\nI will not\n\nI have already\n\nindicated the extent to which it deals with matters that are regarded as commonplace.\n\nThey are commonplace and they indicate clearly enough that with respect to the basic\nconditions of school economy the country school is weak and must be made stronger, that\nthis institution needs just now, not so much the systematizing regulations that go with\na completed school system, as the development of some of the rather primary and essential\nconditions on which a school system must be based. As I see the matter in one of our\nstates, the demand of the hour is not for an excess of machinery to regulate and to enforce\nbut for the cultivation among the people of a stronger sentiment in behalf of rural education.\n\nAll the people\n\n—residents\n\n—^need to be told and often that\n\nof both city and country\n\nthe present depressed state of rural education is a menace both to country and to city,\nthat there is a more than local responsibility for the betterment of country schools. The\nproblem is a state-wide one. In Maine as well as in other states this wider responsibility\nIn that state last year the support of elementary education was\nis being recognized.\nborne to the extent of nearly two-thirds by a state-wide tax, and many poor towns secured\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": "256", "text": "a\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2S6\n\n[Richmond\n\nstate educational funds very far in excess of their total taxes paid to the state.\n\nThis\n\nindicates the measure in which wealthy centers are contributing to the support of education\nin the rural sections of the state.\n\nThe organization needed therefore for the benefit of rural education is the organization of constructive forces and especially of the force of public opinion upon which, in\n\nour country, educational progress must chiefly depend. With regard to its internal\nfor close organization, espeif it ever becomes so\naffairs, the rural school is not ready\n\n—\n\n—\n\ncially of the kind that would seek uniformity as an end, or that would superimpose upon\nall\n\nschools and communities requirements adapted only to a part of them.\n\nWe shall\n\nprobably agree that there may have been too much of that kind of organization even in\nWe have had, I repeat, too much faith in system as a yielder of results.\ncity schools.\n\nThere has certainly been in our centers of population, in connection with the fascinating\nproblems connected with rapid urban growth, a strong temptation to engage ourselves\nwith the construction and operation of machinery which would help us to classify,\nHappily, howreclassify, subclassify, and superclassify the interesting material at hand.\never, the day appears to have passed when there was in the ascendant the kind of superintendent who prided himself that his charts would tell what was doing at any stated\ntime, in all his numerous classrooms, and who indulged the proud boast that all his\nteachers worked under methods prescribed by him and followed minutely in every last\nThe revolt from oversupervision in city schools began none too early and has\ndetail.\nreached none too far. Yet one cannot successfully contradict those who will say that\nthis close supervision has yielded much of positive benefit to city schools.\n\nThey often\n\nconfuse the causes for the greater eflficiency of city schools in comparison with country\nschools, but, after making deductions for all the other reasons, there is still something that\n\nmust be said in favor of careful oversight. With these points of advantage in mind, it is\nnatural that these who have become interested in the improvement of the rural school\nshould seek to apply the same forces to it. The tendency is apparent. It is to be noted\nin the legislature of a state where there appear all kinds of measures whose authors\napparently believe that the deficiencies of teachers, of school equipment, and of local\nsentiment can in some way be overcome by legislation. It appears among the people\n\nwho not infrequently demand ofl&cial regulations to correct wrongs which it is already in\nIt is even to be found in the teaching force, usually\ntheir own power to make right.\nthought to be resentful of ofl&cial interference.\nThis constant and probably increasing demand for rules, restrictions, requirements,\n\nand arbitrary standards is an indication of the faith we have in organization. It would\nappear to be a general beUef that if someone from the outside could get hold of the situation then affairs on the inside could be at once made quite satisfactory. Yet this theory\naccords very little with that on which our American educational system has been based\nand by means of which it has grown. We who believe we know what is best for the\npeople's education may sometimes long for the power of an imperial bureau that we might\nsay what next shall be done and to enforce that thing in action. But we know that the\nmost representative thing about America is her public school. It has progressed with\nthe people. Its mistakes are their mistakes; its virtues are their virtues. Nowhere\ndoes a school system in this country keep very far away from the average of public\nopinion as related to public education. In our educational policy our people have been\nat once training their children and training themselves. I grant you by a system of\nbureaucratic or commission control we might make if it were to be permitted\nBut would it be real\nstriking showing of what would look like very great progress.\n\n—\n\nprogress ?\n\n—\n\nHas not our necessity of keeping the people close to our school procedure\n\nbeen the means of making the American schools, despite their obvious crudities, the\nmost vitally and soundly and permanently progressive? School reforms in America\nhave never come by edict or dictum. One cannot readily recall any permanent gain\nin education that did not rest first of all upon the previously won support of the people.\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": "257", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n257\n\nOur schools have improved by the process of experiment. No matter into what field\nyou may make inquiry you will find that this is true. In the training of teachers, one\nstate first set the example, later followed and perhaps improved by others. In the\nfurnishing of textbooks, one city demonstrates\nfinally to states, the efficiency of its plan.\n\nfirst\n\nto itself, then to other cities, and\n\nMedical inspection makes a beginning, but a\n\nquarter of a century passes before large areas respond to the call for more careful health\n\nToday industrial educatian is a vivid illustration of the way American eduIn every instance community support under\nwise local leadership is the prerequisite for each and every advance.\nThis process of progress by experiment continues. We like to beUeve that experiments are attempted more scientifically from year to year, that the pioneers are a little\nsurer of their ground; but however that may be, it is quite true that the things we are to\ndo next year and the year after to improve all our schools are being this year demonstrated\nby some courageous and enlightened school or community. This, of course, is only\nanother way of saying that educational progress depends on educational freedom. In\nrural education our country is to make its next great advance.\nWe are conscious of the\nneed, we are confident of the opportunity. In making this advance, there is place for\nan organization of forces that will arouse public opinion, that will prepare and dignify a\nteaching corps, that will help house and equip, that will focus and sustain interest. But\nwith this organization must go a spirit of freedom which will permit and encourage\npioneering individuals and pioneering communities to set up all the wise experiments\nregulations.\n\ncation adopts and assimilates any reform.\n\nthey will.\n\nINTERRELATION OF THE OFFICE OF STATE SUPERINTENDENT AND\nTHAT OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT\nFRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nSPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nI.\n\nThere are two large groups of interrelations existing between these two ofiicers in the\nThe first group may be characterized as the\nlegal interrelation and the second group as the professional interrelation.\nadministration of public-school systems.\n\n—\n\n^There is a more general condition upon which both of these\nIn some commonwealths the state superintendent and the county superintendents may be elected or appointed by the same power or authority. In such states, it\nis easy to see how the legal and professional relationships existing between state superintendent and county superintendent will be pecuUarly close and effective. The definitions and standards set by the superintendent of public instruction can easily be made\neffective as these county superintendents are the extension of his legal arms.\nIn other\ncommonwealths, where the state superintendent and county superintendents are elected\nby the people or where the state superintendent is appointed by one authority and the\ncoimty superintendents by another, we have the maximum of independence and variety,\nwhereas in the former case we would have the maximum of uniformity and the minimum of\n\nLegal interrelations.\n\ndepend.\n\nvariety.\n\nIt is impossible for me to discuss this subject except in the light of the situation\n\nwith which I am most familiar.\n\nIn Illinois, the state superintendent of public instruction\n\nand the county superintendents are elected by the people. Being elected by the people,\nthey cannot be removed except upon the gravest charges. The fact that they are elected\nby the people gives a sense of independence and security. In commonwealths where this\nrelationship obtains, it is necessary that many of the interrelations between state superin-\n\ntendent and county superintendent shall be defined definitely by law.\nFirst:\n\nA most important legal relationship which these officers bear to each other is\n\nin the collection of statistics.\n\nOne of the primary reasons for the estabUshment of the\n\noffices of county superintendent and state superintendent was the collection of data, and\n\ntheir classification and publication for taxpayers and lawmakers.\n\nIt is believed that the\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": "258", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n258\n\n[Richmond\n\ndemand for the collection and publication of such data is growing more imperative.\n\nIt is\n\nvery essential that the law should specifically state the powers of the state superintendent\nin calling upon county superintendents and of the county superintendent in calling upon\n\nboards of education and school oflScials for the data required by the superintendent of\npublic instruction. The law should set certain su£6cient penalties for neglect or failure\nto perform this important duty of collecting and furnishing required data.\n\nIn Illinois,\n\nthe state superintendent of public instruction is empowered to withhold the salary of\nthe county superintendent; the county superintendent is empowered to withhold the state\ndistributive fund; and, under the new certificating law, teachers are required to make out\n\ncertain statistical statements and any failure to do so is declared unprofessional conduct\n\nwhich may lead to the forfeiture of the certificate.\n\nEvery department of public instruc-\n\ntion should have a statistical department in which there is at least one person who gives\n\nthe major portion of his time in preparing the blanks, advising with county superintendents and school ofl&cers concerning the gathering of statistics, and in the working-out\nof definite, attractive forms in which to bring these data before the public and to the\n\nmembers of the legislature.\nSecond: Another interrelationship which should be defined by law is the co-operation\nof these two officers in the interpretation, construction, and administration of the school\n\nlaws.\n\nThe superintendent of public instruction should be made the legal adviser of\n\ncounty superintendents in such questions.\n\nWherever a legal question is of such impor-\n\ntance that the superintendent of public instruction desires the opinion of the attorneygeneral, he should secure such opinion.\n\nBut in 99 cases out of 100 or in 999 cases out of\n\n1,000, all legal questions can be answered directly by the superintendent of public instruction.\n\nEvery department of public instruction should have a legal department at the\n\nhead of which should be a man who is first of all a lawyer, who knows how to read the\nlaw and construe it, and who is familiar with court decisions. There should be legal\narrangements provided for making an appeal from the county superintendent in certain\nlegal questions to the superintendent of public instruction.\n\nThird:\n\nThe relationship between the state superintendent of pubUc instruction and\n\ncoimty superintendent with respect to the certification of teachers should be clearly\ndefined by law. Perhaps no other thing has led to greater misunderstanding and greater\nJust what are the proper\nfriction in some of our commonwealths than this interrelation.\nrelations to establish by law is a matter upon which we could not agree.\n\nDifferent states\n\nwould demand different sorts of arrangements. In Illinois, after many years of study and\nconsideration, a law has been enacted which seems to remove most of the sources of misunderstanding and annoyance and to establish certain fundamental and necessary relationships between state superintendent and county superintendent in the administration\nof this important matter. The law gives the state superintendent of public instruction the\n\npower to issue all state certificates upon certain conditions. It provides a state examining\nboard to have charge of making all questions and the examining of all papers which relate\nto county certificates. This board is made up of the superintendent of public instruction,\nwho is chairman, one person appointed by him, and three county superintendents who are\nnominated by the County Superintendents' Section of the State Teachers Association and\nappointed by the state superintendent. The kind, character, and validity of county certificates are established by law. It is believed that, under the control of this central board,\nconstituted as it is, there will be a greater degree of uniformity in qualifications of teachers\nand that some of the confusion and difficulty involved in the previous plan will be avoided.\nProfessional interrelations.—Under this head I\n\nwould place all those relationships\n\nwhich exist between state and county superintendents\n\nm their effort to supervise the\n\nschools of the state.\nFirst:\n\nThru publications.\n\nEvery state department should be authorized by law\n\nand the funds should be available for publishing freely all sorts of information and suggestions to coimty superintendents with regard to supervision and administration of all\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": "259", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nphases of public education.\n\n259\n\nThere should be a department of publicity or publication\n\nwith someone definitely responsible for the mechanical side of the work.\n\nIt is easy to\n\nbelieve that one of the most helpful relationships which a department of public instruction\n\nmay maintain with the county superintendents of the state is thru its publications.\nPerhaps one of the most helpful publications is a periodical which shall carry out each\n\nmonth to county superintendents and state superintendents data and information which,\nif\n\nplaced in circulars and in large reports, would reach the persons for whom they are\n\nintended too late or, having reached them, will not be in the form to attract immediate\nattention.\n\nA bill is now before Congress which seeks to give all departments of public\n\ninstruction a second-class postal rate for such periodical publications.\n\nThe state superintendent of public instruction has a\nand administration by holding annual\nconferences with the county superintendents. The conferences should be small so that\nthe freest, most informal discussion may be had upon all sorts of questions with which\nSecond: Thru conferences.\n\ngreat opportunity to promote wise supervision\n\nthey are mutually concerned.\n\nIn Illinois it has been the custom for seven years for the\n\nsuperintendent of public instruction to meet all of the county superintendents of the\n\nAs there are 102 county superintendents, it was thought\nAs there are five state normal schools, these\nfive conferences are held at the five state normal schools.\nThe program extends from one\nnoon until the next noon. The first afternoon is given over to a discussion of certain legal\nand administrative matters that are of present interest. The evening program is constate in an annual conference.\n\nwise to divide them into at least five groups.\n\ncerned with such questions as are of interest to the normal-school faculty, the county\nsuperintendent, and the state superintendent.\n\ntaught in the training department.\nover to their discussion.\n\nThe morning is spent in visiting classes\n\nAfter these classes have been visited, a time is given\n\nTo these conferences go the state superintendent of public in-\n\nstruction and as many of his ofl&ce force as are related to any point which will come up\nin the conference.\n\nIn a state where variety and independence are prominent, it is very\n\nessential that the state superintendent of public instruction thru his publications\n\nand\n\nthru conferences shall effect an organization to carry out certain standards and definitions\nof education.\n\nThird: Thru supervisors who go from the department of public instruction into the\nvarious counties and assist in certain specific forms of inspection and supervision.\n\nEvery\n\ndepartment of public instruction should be provided with expert supervisors of secondary\nand of rural-school education. The elementary schools, especially of the larger cities,\nhaving supervisors of their own, do not stand in so great need of assistance from the\ndepartment of public instruction. This line of interrelationship perhaps can be best\nillustrated by me by reference to what is being done by the rural-school supervisors.\nIllinois was the first state in the Union to distinctly recognize this sort of an ofl&cial in the\nIn December, 1906, a person was appointed as assistant superoffice of public instruction.\nintendent of public instruction who was to give his entire time to work with the county\nsuperintendents in helping to improve the quality of supervision and especially to improve\nthe standard of the one-room country schools. We have 10,632 such schools in Illinois,\nand, while there are many people who believe that they must soon give way to the consolidated school, it is not so apparent to some of us that the disappearance will be within\nour time. It would seem to us that we should make these one-room schools the very best\ninstruments of public instruction that we can.\n\nThis supervisor of rural schools prepared\nThese require-\n\ncertain minimum requirements for a standard one-room country school.\n\nments related to grounds, buildings, and aU the physical equipment, length of term, course\nof study, library, qualifications of teachers, etc.\nA diploma was devised and a label\nprovided. After a short time the results of the work showed that the undertaking was of\nthe very greatest value. Another supervisor was appointed. Up to the present time\nthese two supervisors have visited from five to six thousand of these one-room schools.\nOver sixteen hundred of them have met the standard requirements and have received\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": "260", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n26o\n\n[Richmond\n\nthe diploma and have had the label nailed upon their doors. For every one that has thus\nmet the requirements, at least four or five have met some one of the requirements set forth,\nbut were unable to meet all of the requirements. In very much the same way, the departments of public instruction must thru their supervisors of high schools go out into the\nvarious counties to advise with county superintendents with regard to the best methods\nand plans of tying the high school and the elementary school together in the most\nfruitful educational way, and of relating the high school to the community as every high\nschool should be related to the people whom it serves.\n\nOf course, there are many interrelations between the state superintendent and county\nsuperintendent which cannot be enumerated in this brief statement.\n\nI have attempted\n\nwhat seemed to me the most important legal and professional relationships which are\nestablished between these two important public-school oflBicers which help to promote the\ncause of public education.\n\nn.\n\nOLIVER J. MORELOCK, SUPERINTENDENT OF ESSEX COUNTY SCHOOLS, NEWARK, N.J.\nI shall assume, for the purposes of this discussion, that the typical status, powers,\n\nand duties of state superintendent and county superintendent are clear in our minds,\nand I shall assume also that reason and custom have established each of these offices as\n\nThe discussion then\nnarrows down to the fact and the method of the interrelation between these two offices,\nreally necessary for the effective administration of public education.\n\nand the questions before us are: Should there be close reciprocal relations between these\ntwo offices ? And, How can such relations be best assured and most effectively promoted ?\nIn order to give a purposeful answer to the first of these two questions, we should first\ndispose of a larger and deeper question, a question of which that of the vital interrelation\nbetween the offices of state and county superintendent is but a corollary: Namely, Shall\nthe administrative and supervisory power over public education, particularly in rural,\nvillage, and small city communities, be strongly centralized ?\nShall the state departments\nof education in the various states go outside of the traditional field of performance of per-\n\nfunctory duties prescribed by statute, and become great dynamic forces of educational\nactivity in their respective states, capable of commanding the respect of the most pro-\n\ngressive local communities and ready and able to compel the indifferent and backward\n\ncommunities to conform to prescribed minimum standards ? To anyone who has made\na study of the trend of school legislation, the tendency to enlarge the powers of state\ndepartments of education must be clearly apparent. To any observer of the changing\nattitude of the public toward the question of the centralization of authority in civil officials\nin general, it must be plain that the old distrust of a single executive with large and practically imchecked powers has given way before the realization that such distrust is really\n\ngroundless under present-day conditions.\n\nWe realize now that the important thing is not that executive and administrative\nauthorities should be checked by other authorities, but that by some effective device the\n\nsupreme authority should be held distinctly accountable to the people.\n\nThe appointive\n\nofficial can always be reached by holding his elective superior accountable for his acts.\nIf,\n\nthen, in the present stage of our national development and in our present com-\n\nplex social organization there is a strong preponderance of reason in favor of centralized\n\nauthority in the administration of civil matters in general, how much more does the argu-\n\nment hold true when applied to the administration and supervision of public education!\nGranted that to insure wise and effective administration and supervision of our publicschool system, particularly in rural, village, and small city districts, we need large intelligence coupled with large power, to whom should that power be delegated if not to the\nstate superintendent ?\n\nTo be clothed by the legislature with large authority is a neces-\n\nsary condition of his success in office; but efficient administrative agents thru whom he\n\nmay get into close contact with local conditions and local needs and thru whom he may\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": "261", "text": "STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n261\n\ngive personal attention and exercise personal influence and authority in the various school\ndistricts of the state are equally necessary.\n\nNow experience reveals to us two well-known types of such administrative agents\n\n—\n\nnamely, itinerant state inspectors without any local status,\nand allocated state inspectors who are held responsible for the supervision of particular\nEach of these types\ndistricts to which they have been assigned and in which they Uve.\nhas inherent advantages and disadvantages. In a well-balanced and completely organized state department both are necessary. In most of the states, we have the former type\nof an education department\n\nrepresented to a certain extent in the assistant state superintendents in charge of the\nvarious departments of the field of public education and explicitly represented in the\nso-called state education\n\ndepartment inspectors of New York state.\n\nThe latter type,\n\nthat of allocated state inspector, is best represented by the oflSce of county superintendent\nin the state of\n\nNew Jersey.\n\nIt is because of the fact that the county superintendency in\n\nother states seems to be increasing in importance and seems to be passing thru an impor-\n\ntant stage of evolution that the discussion of the interrelation between the office of state\n\nsuperintendent and that of county superintendent is a pertinent one.\n\nFor, excepting such\n\npersonal interrelations between the incumbents of these ofl5ces as a capable and enthusiastic state superintendent may succeed in cultivating by a labor of love, so to speak, the\n\ninterrelation between these offices in all of the states with the exception of one seems to\n\nthe writer to be conspicuous by its absence.\n\nIt is not\n\nmy purpose to enter into the reasons\n\nfor the absence of a close relation between these two offices.\n\nIt is sufficient to call atten-\n\ntion to the fact.\nIt is from the standpoint of the county superintendent as an allocated state inspector\n\nthat I propose to discuss the interrelation of state and county superintendencies.\n\nAt this point I shall cease to theorize for a time and confine myself to a brief description of a state system in which the county superintendent's office has undergone trans-\n\nformation to that of allocated state inspector.\n\nThat is, the transformation is complete\n\nso far as legislation can accomplish it, and is well under way so far as the mental attitude\nof the general public, of the school boards, and of the county superintendents themselves\nis\n\nconcerned.\n\nI refer to the state of New Jersey.\n\nWithout attempting to go into the\n\nhistory of its development, I shall point out what appeal to me as the significant characteristics of the ofiice of county superintendent in\n\nNew Jersey. To appreciate the status\n\nof the ofl&ce fully, however, it may be necessary to call to your attention the organization\nof the\n\nNew Jersey state department. The state commissioner of public instruction is\n\nappointed for a five-year term by the governor.\n\nThe governor also appoints a state\n\n—\n\nboard of education a lay board consisting of eight members appointed consecutively\nThis board formulates the necessary regulations for carrying\nfor a term of eight years.\nout the provisions of the school law in regard to school buildings and approves the rules\nand regulations formulated by the state board of examiners in regard to certification of\nteachers, etc., upon the advice and suggestion of the state commissioner.\n\nIt also appoints\n\nan inspector of school buildings and an inspector of school accounts, confirms the commissioner's appointments, and administers the state normal schools.\nThe commissioner\nis given power by law to withhold state aid from school districts that fail to conform to the\nrequirements fixed by law or by regulation of the state board. The commissioner appoints\nthe assistant state commissioners in charge of school law, secondary education, elementary\neducation, and vocational education.\nThe county superintendent is appointed by the state commissioner of education,\nwith the advice and consent of the state board, for a term of three years. He may be\nselected from any part of the state.\nHis salary is uniform for all the counties of the state,\nis fixed by statute at $3,000, and is payable by the state controller upon warrant of the\nstate commissioner.\nHe has an expense allowance of $350, the payment of which is\nmandatory upon the county collector, and he receives a sum not to exceed $600, appropriated by the county board of freeholders toward the salary of a clerical assistant. New\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": "262", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n262\n\n(Richmond\n\nJersey has a state system of teacher certification, and a state certificate is a legal sine\nqtM non of receiving teacher salary in all except a few of the larger city districts. The\nduty of enforcing the law and of carrying out the necessary administrative regulations\nof the state board of examiners in connection with teacher certification is laid upon the\ncounty superintendent. He is also held responsible for the enforcement of the building\n\ncode requirements within his county, for the enforcement of the attendance law, and for\nthe provision by boards of education of adequate medical inspection. On the other hand,\nhe still retains the traditional functions of supervisor of instruction in all the rural, village,\n\nand small city districts and of apportioner of state and county funds. This latter duty,\nhowever, is something more than the usual clerical procedure of the traditional county\nsuperintendent.\n\nA considerable portion of the state and county funds is apportioned upon\n\ncondition of the performance of certain acts and of conformity with certain requirements\n\nand standards set up by law and by the state department. It is for the county superintendent to determine whether or not these conditions have been met in given instances.\n\nHe has the statutory power and duty, with the approval of the state commissioner, of\nwithholding state and county funds for certain violations of the school law or for violaI think that you will see from this description of\nthe New Jersey county superintendency that the office is substantially what I have styled\n\ntions of regulations of the state board.\n\nit,\n\nnamely, that of an allocated state inspector.\n\nYou will doubtless have noted that the most significant fact of all is that the county\nsuperintendent in New Jersey is appointed by the state department and not as in other\nstates elected by the voters of the county, elected by the school board members of the\n\ncounty, or appointed by a county board. It is this fact more than any other that gives\na unique status to the New Jersey county superintendent. On the one hand, it distinctly\nidentifies him with the state department, and, on the other, it frees him from the hamper-\n\ning influences of local prejudices, local factional feuds, and local petty politics.\n\nGranted\n\nthat the county superintendent is a man of at least ordinary tact and granted also that\n\nhe understands his business, he can feel free to tell boards of education the exact truth\nand the whole truth in regard to conditions for which they are responsible. Not merely\ncan he feel free to do this, but he can do so with a confidence that if he has right on his\nside his course of action will have the approbation of his superiors in office, who are in\n\na position to size up the situation in the large, and with a confidence also that he has the\npower ultimately to accomplish the thing that ought to be accomplished. I do not wish\nto intimate that he should ignore local sentiment and local public opinion, but I do wish\nto emphasize the fact that he is in a position to weigh calmly the importance and value\nof such sentiment and such opinion and to make only such concessions as the good of the\n\nservice seems to dictate.\n\nIn a word, we have here a state-appointed, administrative\n\nschool official of safe tenure bent upon the duty of adapting a state- wide policy to a\nparticular county, and of reflecting the needs of education as he sees them in his county\nback upon the state policy, in contrast with the traditional locally elected county supervisor and examiner of short-term tenure attempting to work out the educational salvation of his county in splendid isolation and necessarily with one ear to the ground lest\nhe make a wreck of his own professional career.\n\n—\n\nBut to return to the specific topic under discussion.\n\nReal interrelation between the\n\noffices of state superintendent and county superintendent in\n\nin a number of ways.\n\nNew Jersey is made evident\n\nFirst, there are the frequent communications that are exchanged\n\nbetween the two offices in regard to the furtherance of the school building program which\nhas been inaugurated and which has for its object the strict enforcement of the state\nbuilding code in all new buildings and the elimination of\nditions in all old buildings.\n\nall\n\ninsanitary and imsafe con-\n\nThe state department and the county superintendent work\n\ntogether upon these problems, the state department relying upon the county superin-\n\ntendent for information as to where action is necessary and to what extent and when it is\nfeasible, and the county superintendent relying upon the department for expert inspection\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": "263", "text": "STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n263\n\nservice and for authority to enforce the action that has been decided upon.\n\nSecond,\n\nthere is a constant exchange of communications in regard to the certification of new\nteachers, the renewal and the conversion of the certificates of teachers in the service, and\n\nin regard to\n\nany modification of the rules and regulations governing certificates that\n\nfurther experience or changing conditions may seem to require.\n\nIn the third place, there\n\nare conferences between the individual county superintendents and the state commissioner\n\nor his representative in regard to special problems of the county superintendent, in con-\n\nnection with school consolidation, with pupil transportation, with the establishment of\nvocational departments or schools, and in connection with the creation of supervising\nprincipalships in the rural districts.\n\nIn the fourth place, are the circular letters from the\n\nstate commissioner calling attention to particular matters which the state department\n\nhas under consideration at the time, for definite information bearing on these matters and\nfor suggestions as to how they may be most wisely handled.\n\nIn the fifth place, during\n\nthe present year each county superintendent has been sending an informal monthly report\ngiving, in terse form, the significant things he has\n\nmonth.\n\ndone or attempted to do during the\n\nLast, and most important of aU, are the Trenton conferences of county super-\n\nintendents and state department ofl&cials presided over by the state commissioner.\n\nThese\n\nmeetings are held three or four times a year and the sessions usually occupy the better\npart of two days, including the evening of the first day.\n\nThe program of the meeting\n\nhas been sent to each county superintendent and includes for the most part only matters\nthat pertain to the live administrative problems that confront the state department and\n\nthe county superintendents.\n\nThe method of conducting these conferences is somewhat\n\nafter the manner of the \"experience meeting\" and they are in fact what the commissioner\n\nhimself has called them\n\n— clearing-houses of ideas and opinions from\n\nto the good of the service.\n\nI believe that\n\nall sources, relative\n\nmy somewhat varied experience in four different\n\nstates and in various parts of the public-school work, as well as the comparatively limited\n\ntime during which I have been identified with the New Jersey system, little more than\n\na year, gives some value to my personal reaction to these conferences.\nthat these meetings are far more helpful to\n\nI\n\nam free to say\n\nme in every way than any I have ever\n\nattended.\n\nI made some small study of the school inspection service of Germany and of England,\n\nand, as a result of that study, I have been profoundly impressed with the high character\nof the inspection service of these countries and the obvious benefits from it that accrue\n\nto the state schools, especially to the smaller and more isolated schools.\n\nNow all of us\n\nwho have had experience with the ofl&ce of county superintendent know how much of his\ntime is necessarily consumed with administrative work and how little actual supervision\nhe can give to any particular school. Nevertheless, we know too how necessary is supervision.\n\nIn the rural schools the county superintendent will always have to be held respon-\n\nsible for the supervision, in the last analysis.\n\nTo do it adequately he will have to have\n\nunder his supervision supervising principals in charge of a number of schools.\nvision alone cannot make schools eflScient.\n\nBut super-\n\nSuflScient salary must be paid by the local\n\npossible to retain high-grade teachers.\n\nConditions must be such as to make it\nTo accomplish such tasks effectively, a county\n\nsuperintendent must have authority.\n\nI do not see from what source he can obtain the\n\nboard to secure intelligent and trained teachers.\n\nnecessary authority that will leave him free from the dangers of petty retaliation unless\n\nhe obtain it from the state.\n\nIt is for this reason mainly that I look forward to increased\n\nauthority and increased dignity for the ofl&ce of county superintendent, and to its evolution into what, for want of a more American term, I have called the office of allocated\n\nWhen that time shall have come, the county superintendent will receive\nappointment from the state department, will derive his authority from the state\n\nstate inspector.\nhis\n\ndepartment, will be responsible in the last analysis to the state department alone, and the\ninterrelation between these two ofl&ces will be complete.\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": "264", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n264\n\n[Richmond\n\nROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS IN CITIES WITH A\nPOPULATION OF OVER 300,000\nTOPIC: THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL TO THE COMMUNITY IT SERVES\nA.\nJ.\n\nM. GWINN,\n\nITS SCHOLASTIC FUNCTION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LA.\n\nOne is in danger of being considered at least a bit old-fashioned, if not antiquated,\nif\n\nhe holds that scholarship should be a leading function of the school today.\n\nship, except possibly in the inaugural address of some college president,\nfallen into disrepute.\n\nScholar-\n\nseems to have\n\nWhy this seeming indifference to, and neglect of, scholarship?\n\nIn the first place, it is due to the reaction against the useless, impractical, and dearly\n\npurchased scholarship of the past. The value of knowledge for scholarship, in the past,\nseemed to vary inversely with its value in practical living, and directly with its difficulty\nof acquirement.\n\nThe pedantic coUege professor in his threadbare coat and with his\n\nvisionary and bookish notions, which he thanks God nobody can use, has become the\n\nsymbol of scholarship, while the college and high-school graduate, floundering and failing\nin practical affairs, is compared unfavorably with the self-made young man who has learned\nthe way of success in the hard school of experience.\nSecondly, we are, today, living in a practical, money-making age. Pragmatism, with\nits emphasis on results, seems to be the dominant philosophy, which philosophy, interpreted by the modern business man, means sales and contracts, dollars and cents. The\nbig thing today is the reward, the dollar, and it is paid for practice, and not for the theory\nand training behind the practice. This emphasis on, and the rewarding of, results has\ndeceived the less thoughtful into believing that practice is all-important and that theory\nand scholarship are useless.\nAgain, our abounding egotism and self-complacency, bolstered up by the knowledge\nof the marvelous material development made possible thru the no less wonderful inventions\nand discoveries of today, have almost caused us to believe that we are self-made and selfsufficient.\nOur egotism seems to have made some forget that our splendid triumphs\nare but the flowering of the toil-achieved experiences of other days.\nIn the fourth place, the development of democracy seems to have decreased the love\n\nThe scholarship of the past has always flourished as a child of the court\n\nof scholarship.\n\nand aristocracy.\n\nScholarship and pride of ancestry go hand in hand.\n\nthe man is esteemed for what he is and not for his ancestry.\nare despised.\nFinally,\n\nIn a democracy,\n\nAristocracy and all its kin\n\nSo, scholarship, in a democracy, may fall into disrepute.\n\nwe are in a great hurry today.\n\nWe must arrive and that quickly.\n\nThis\n\ndemand for speedy, even for instantaneous, results, coupled with our American delight\nin being buncoed, has made us easy victims to all get-education-quick schemes.\nFor these, and for other reasons which time forbids to mention, scholarship as a\nfunction of the school has become, for many, discredited and neglected and a halfforgotten tradition.\n\nA careful examination of the facts, however, clearly shows that\n\nscholarship as a function of the school is in no danger of being abandoned.\n\nThis examina-\n\ntion, nevertheless, reveals the fact that the conception of what scholarship is and how it\n\nacquired is undergoing serious modifications. The old divorced-from-practical-life,\nnarrow in content, and disciphnary conception of scholarship has passed. The fine\ngentleman of leisure as an ideal has made way for the toil-marked captain of industry\nor master of finance. With this changed ideal, the old notion that the work of the world\ncould be done by the untrained and ignorant has gone and now the work of the world\ndemands knowledge, superior skill, and training. In this way, has come the demand that\nis\n\nthe school and scholarship join themselves to vocation and practical living.\n\nThe field of\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": "265", "text": "SCHOLASTIC FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL\n\n265\n\nhuman experience has widened tremendously during the past century.\n\nWith the coming\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nof the sciences, Spencer raised the question concerning the relative worth of knowledge.\n\nMuch more do we need to raise that question today. The widening of the fields of human\nexperience has produced multiplicity of courses of study and wide election of subjects.\n\nScholarship is no longer bound to Latin, Greek, and mathematics, nor yet to any one or\nto all of the newer subjects.\n\nScholarship has lost its definiteness in content till now it is\n\nmore appropriate to speak of scholarships rather than of scholarship, for the scholarship\nWith President Eliot, we must\nof one scholar will be quite different from that of another.\nagree that scholarship cannot now imply a knowledge of everything, nor even a little\n\nknowledge of everything, but, rather, a general knowledge of some things and a real\nmastery of a small portion of the field of human experience. In the last place, the changed\nattitude toward, if not the complete breakdown of, the dogma of formal discipline has\ncontributed largely to the spread of scholarship to other than the traditional subjects.\nIt is difficult, therefore, to define scholarship in any very definite way.\n\nThere are,\n\nhowever, certain ways of looking at scholarship which may aid in reading meaning into\nthe term.\n\nIt may be viewed as dynamic and as static.\n\nScholarship, dynamic, works\n\nout toward others in social ways, yes, as vocation even into the economic field.\n\nScholar-\n\nship, viewed as static, implies the possession of certain knowledge which varies with the\n\nposition and nature of the individual and the surrounding social needs.\n\nIt also implies\n\ncertain attitudes of mind and ways of reacting due to the training in the school.\n\nThe\n\nmore homogeneous a country is, the greater the core of knowledge in common, the more\ndiversified, the smaller the core of common knowledge and the greater the marginal\ndifferences.\n.\n\nWhatever aim is set as the principal function of the school, all concede that school\neducation at first must devote much time and energy to the technique of human experience.\n\nThe child must be trained in the use of the processes thru which experience is\n\nacquired and be given possession of, and skill in using, the forms which society has invented\nfor the preservation\n\nand communication of its experience.\n\nThe technique of reading,\n\nwriting, mathematics, grammar, literature, geography, history, science, art, and industry\n\nmust be taught.\n\nThe emphasis on form quite naturally caused a neglect of content and\n\noften inappropriate and useless and even silly subject-matter formed the basis for lessons\n\non forms. Modern pedagogy has greatly improved the method of teaching this technique,\nand social demands have forced a practically useful content as the basis of form studies.\nIt has also been found that much of the technique can be acquired incidentally when the\naim, for the child at least, is content. The insistent demand today is for both useful\nand interesting subject-matter. The extent to which the demand for useful content has\ngone is well represented in the suggestion recently made by a prominent psychologist\nthat the first sentence in the first reader should be \"This is a toothbrush.\"\nPractically the same causes which dethroned Latin, Greek, and mathematics as the\nonly bearers of scholarship have robbed the three R's of some of their prestige as instruments of education and have brought rival subjects into the elementary curriculum. A\ngreat contest is going on here. The complexity of modern life has brought the advantage\nto the broader elementary course.\n\nThe demand for useful content has powerfully tended to localize subject-matter, for\nwhat is useful in Boston may be of little use in San Francisco, and the most valuable\nexperiences in Chicago may be positively hurtful in New Orleans. The makers of elementary textbooks can no longer hope to produce books that will find sale thruout the\ncountry. The elementary textbooks of the future either will be locally produced, or more\ngeneral texts will be used with local supplements. The community which a school serves\nis demanding that the elementary school should lead the child into its local heritage.\nAfter the school has given the child control of the elementary tools of human experience, its second great scholastic function is that of scholarship.\n\nAs stated before, there is\n\na strong movement in some quarters to decrease greatly, if not to eliminate, this function\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": "266", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n266\n\n[Richmond\n\nof the school and to plant vocational education immediately upon that of the grammar\n\nWe are now urged to have vocational education\nbegin at the early age of three, when the child should receive training in the vocation of\nschool, if not upon the primary school.\n\ncaring for its personal needs.\n\nThis is doubtless sound education, but vocational educa-\n\ntion in the sense of education directly aimed at preparing one for the occupation thru\n\nwhich he wiU earn his living should certainly be postponed to a much later age, for vocation tends to fix habits and produce immobility.\nThe capacities of the child, the economic\nand social position of the family, and the kind of work the community needs to have done\nwiU determine the beginning-point of vocational education.\n\nAll attempts to eliminate scholarship as a function of the school are doomed to fail.\n\nNo matter how broad one's personal experience may be the requirements of modern\nsociety demand knowledge far greater.\n\nA genius might succeed without the assistance\n\nof the past and help of others, but the great host of common mortals would fail and find\n\nthemselves no better off than their primitive ancestors guided by instincts.\n\nEach indi-\n\nvidual must be given that portion of human experience which wiU be of most service to\n\nhim in making a life and in earning a living.\n\nThe school must transmit this heritage to the\n\nchild if it serves the purpose for which it was created.\n\nThis heritage must be transmitted\n\nfor the following, briefly stated reasons:\n1. It is the great interpreter of the present and prophet of the future.\nAll right\nadjustments of the individual to his environment are conditioned on his having possession\n\nof it.\n2. It is the great conserving force in social progress.\nWithout it, the advances of\nthe radical element of society would be lost and future progress would become impossible.\nIt is like\n3. It saves the individual from being overthrown by temporary storms.\nballast to the ship that holds it steady when surface waves toss in fury.\nThe tango is\nnot going to wreck society.\nThe material conquests\n4. It is the foundation of all truly practical education.\nof the age took their rise in the fountains of science and higher mathematics.\nPresident\nWilson is a great living example of the value of scholarship in practical affairs.\n5. It prepares one to rightly use his hours of leisure and saves him from the dangers\nof his non-vocational hours.\nEmphasis on vocation has made some forget the shortened\nhours of labor and the need for education for man's non-working hours. The migration\ntoward the devil comes when man is not at work.\n6. It saves one from repeating the mistakes of others and enables him to profit by\ntheir successes.\nIt frees the individual immeasurably.\nOne can\n7. It makes one at home in the world and teaches the kinship of the race.\nwork most effectively and live most happily when he is at home.\n\nWhile yielding to the demand for practical education and to the pressure and popularity of vocational training, the school must hold aloft the banner of scholarship and\n\nculture and stand for the drill necessary to the learning of the technique of experience.\nYet not for the monotonous grind on mere form nor for the scholarship represented by the\ndry bones of the past, but for technique made interesting and profitable by rich content,\nand for the new scholarship which at once mingles the blue blood of ancestral aristocracy\n\nwith the red blood of horny-handed democracy.\n\nB,\n\nITS SOCIAL FUNCTION\n\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD, ADVISORY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO.\nI shall treat this subject under three types of\n\nmind for the sake of clearness and\n\ndifferentiation of educational engineering in a community.\nI.\n\nThe \"rushers\" and \"can't-waits\"\n\n—Each pair of lungs of\n\nthis class is now\n\non a\n\nplatform in person or by proxy, trying to get his opinions listened to on what public edu-\n\ndo for those in school, and also for\nsome seventy-five millions of people out of school. If each one of these would shut his\nmouth and not open it again until his contriving faculty has devised some scheme worth\ncation, fits, misfits, and unfits should undertake to\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": "267", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSOCIAL FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL\n\n267\n\nlistening to, the country at large would be an immense gainer thereby.\n\nThat would give\n\ntime for a breathing spell and to cast about and determine what could actually be done\nthat is worth doing.\n\nThe Americans have before them a terrible task to be disposed of\n\nin some fashion; so immense in itself, so swift and needful and impressive is the business,\n\nthat effective blows must be struck at once to prevent a collapse.\n\nWe are told that the\n\nlaws of the universe, of which the schoolhouse as a social center is not an exact transcript,\n\nneed amendments immediately and that something must be done to attract the\n\napplause of magazine writers and other purveyors of public intelligence.\nis:\n\nThe question\n\nShall we be ruled by wisdom and foresight, or by folly and hindsight ?\nVerily, a new epoch in modern civilization is hurled upon us, out of which we are\n\nvainly looking for a new order of stable intelhgence to be developed and placed approvingly\n\non the stage of human affairs.\n\nThis is a bread-of-life theory on this whirling ball.\n\naffirmed that this educational mill has a hopper wide enough, high enough,\n\nIt is\n\nand big\n\nenough to take in all the grists, human and otherwise, that can be garnered under the plea\nof present necessity and just legislation.\nWe hear vocal explosions which are volcanic,\nsulphuric, oily, insistent, acrobatic, and otherwise, and let us be thankful that the damage\nis no worse.\nI dare say many of these promoters are brave men after their sort, made,\nit must be confessed, mostly out of shoddy brain-stuff of which there is much evidence.\nLogically, their theory of the \"socialized schoolhouse\" and the concomitants thereof\nleads to a brewing and an overflow of poisonous waters that will submerge the ideal,\nhonest, spiritual life of the American nation.\nAltho it is an evidence of righteous living to affirm that honored age never had any\nshadow of a noble behef about the world or could have engaged in any profitable activity\nconnected with it prior to about 1914 a.d,, there are yet some solid rules of living, thinking,\nand acting in some homes; some notions that our fathers and mothers cherished that still\n\nSome people still believe that the spiritual\nshould originate the practical, and that it is a sad commentary when the practical of a low\n\npulsate in the blood of their descendants.\n\ncondition externally dominates the internal soul action\n\ngarment of the spiritual.\n\n—these are the\n\n—even the body as well as the\n\nBeautiful prize oxen, horses, hogs, dogs, mental and moral\n\nideals in that Utopia land we must bow down to and worship\nThe one who would cultivate his soul and think, even on a\nsecondary plane, is reduced to the sad necessity of finding God in a cow barn, a swill tub,\n\ndegenerates\n\nunder this cult or that.\n\nor a hencoop, in a cheap novelty performance, or in a round of giddy pleasure that surfeits and passes away, leaving dross in character as the national sediment to be capitalized.\n2.\n\nThe \"stand-stillers\"\n\n—^The \"under-do-its\" are never quite so ridiculous as the\n\nThey see clearly in a very circumscribed range what is actually occurring,\nand they stand firmly to the faith of \"what has been.\" They are not altogether a bad\n\"over-do-its.\"\n\nelement in a community.\n\nTheir mission is to keep the Pegasuses from slopping over\n\nwhen riding their hobby horses thru the air at public expense.\n\nThis social life that is\n\nflaunted to every breeeze, they fear, is becoming overorganized and getting top-heavy,\n\na sort of windbag bobbing up and down and around in the air.\n\nToo many organized functions for the healthy stability of even small communities,\nand the needless multiplication of entertainments, amusements, compulsory attendance\nat functions that deplete pocketbooks, bankrupt morals, paralyze intellectual activity,\nand turn life into a whirligig of silly pleasure, are the specters that the \"stand-stillers\"\nview with horror. All these amusements when sifted down to the bottom reveal a promoter whose patriotic ambition is to prociure money for some cause in which he is deeply\ninterested.\nHe sugar-coats it as a benevolent enterprise for the amusement, enlightenment,\nmoral and social betterment of tired, overworked, and careworn members of the community.\n\nThe organization needing assistance may be worthy, and, as this is the easist way of\nraising the revenue, the public is taxed to support it.\n\nThe \"stand-stillers\" see that the patient \"public-ox\" is being taxed enormously for\nwhat is most frequently poor stuff in any market.\n\nBeside this there is a heavy and con-\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": "268", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n268\n\n(Richmond\n\nstant drain on the slender resources of those who can ill afiford it, which oftentimes interferes with their regular work to such an extent as to create financial embarrassment of a\n\nserious nature.\n\nThe entertainments are projected too often upon the theory of competi-\n\ntion with the five- and ten-cent \"moving-picture shows.\"\n\nIt is the indiscriminate use\n\nof schoolhouses for regular \"show-business\" that the \"stand-stillers\" object to.\n\nThey\n\ndo not object to teachers' and parents' meetings, debates, declamatory contests, spelling\nmatches, and such like public gatherings at the schoolhouses as have always been in vogue\nin this country since the schoolhouse was first built at the crossroads in the unorganized\nschool district.\n\nThey favor discussions of big subjects but object to sticking picture\nThe \"stand-stillers\" look at flashy move-\n\ndiagrams on sex hygiene on every blackboard.\n\nments in a distrustful way, because they fail to see any strong indication of the development of either substantial mental or moral habits that will make national fiber. To\nthem it is a spineless and nerveless business that ends in the human scrap-heap, showing\nno efforts of how to trim either thought or action for definite plans of life.\n^There is perhaps no other nation on the earth whose level\n3. \"Both-way lookers.\"\nof general intelligence is higher than is ours, but the most superficial investigation in the\nmost enlightened communities will convince any patient observer that many gross and\nabsurd notions respecting many common but important subjects connected with human\nwelfare and intellectual and moral advancement are prevalent, and are not understood\n\n—\n\nexcept by very few persons.\nIt would be an interesting investigation if a competent commission in each center of\n\npopulation in this country would undertake to determine what percentage of the popu-\n\n—\n\n^how many of our people prosecute rational pursuits for their\nown sake and from a pure love of knowledge, independent of that specific information\nlation is really enlightened\n\nrequisite for practicing a vocation.\n\nAfter making all legitimate deductions from the mass\n\nin the aggregate, the great problem is that of the general diffusion of useful knowledge\n\namong all classes of people.\n\nThe higher and more humanitarian view then is that the\n\nintellectual and moral faculties of man should be directed to the pursuit of objects worthy\n\nof the dignity of an enhghtened manhood.\n\nmunity.\n\nHere is the great field for uplifting each com-\n\nA general uplift can be effected only thru a conviction of the importance of a\n\nbetter understanding of\n\ncommon and higher things.\n\nWhen these notions are deeply\n\nimpressed on the minds of the most intelligent and influential class of citizens in a com-\n\nmunity and move to action, then something valuable can be accomplished.\nSuch a diffusion of knowledge among the masses would dissipate many crude notions\nconcerning common things, would foster health and prevent accidents, would prepare\nmany for making proper and correct observations on the facts of the various sciences,\nwould place enjoyments on a high level, would inculcate a tendency to promote the comfort of society, would give enlarged views of the beautiful in art, literature, music, the\ndrama, and architecture; would make possible the general utility of knowledge in relation\nto man's moral, physical, and intellectual endowments, and a proper estimate of human\nIn addition to all these advantages, the way would\nlife and its possibilities and problems.\nbe opened for gathering and organizing information on all the larger world problems now\noccupying the attention of the most thoughtful and benevolent members of the human\nrace in all quarters of the globe.\n\nExcept in rare cases, the evening work at the schools should not be for the children\nin attendance at the day schools, but should be serious work for grown people, who seek\n\nenlightenment and entertainment rather than amusement in picture shows and vaudeville\n\nThose who go to such places are among the better informed\nand cultured people. Lectures on travel, science, Uterature, manufacturing, industries,\ntransportation, and other problems, properly illustrated, are the most beneficial to thoughtful people.\nPersons who can tell of journeys and experiences in foreign countries, or those\nwho are making, or have made, new contributions to any department of knowledge are\nperformances of a low quality.\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": "269", "text": "SHORTENING THE COURSE IN UPPER GRADES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nlistened to with profound respect.\n\n269\n\nLectures for the promotion and the advancement and\n\ndiffusion of knowledge are always most heartily welcomed.\n4.\n\nStory intellects.\n\n—There are one-story\n\nstory intellects with skylights.\n\nintellects,\n\ntwo-story intellects, and three-\n\nIn the writer's judgment, the plan that has been in\n\noperation in New York City for a quarter of a century, projected for the instruction and\nedification of men and women and young persons not attending the day schools, is based\non rational lines of high knowledge of a far-reaching character. In planning these meetings, the manager assumed that men and women are interested in getting larger views of\nmatters in general and desirous of taking more comprehensive surveys of the vast fields\nof nature's work, of inventions and discoveries in the interest of the industries, of becoming\nacquainted with the highest and best products of human institutions, the mixed and the\nhigher sciences, art, literature, laws, and forms of governmental methods of different\nnations, the transaction of business affairs, the manners and customs of different peoples,\nand of learning how communication is conducted between individuals and nations. The\nwriter pleads for these refining quaUties in thought and ethics that comport with the elevated ideals that our best men and women reverence. The social function of the school\nlies in these upper stories of thought and conduct with skylight openings above.\nThe demagog in all ages and in all countries has been a pestiferous trouble-maker,\nbecause of his interference in matters that he did not understand or failed to comprehend. Let great floods of light flow in on educational methods. The nation's children,\nyea, the nation itseK is involved in the issue. No parent would willingly, intellectually\nand morally pauperize his child. To avoid plunging the children into mental and moral\nanarchy is the real issue at stake. This is the dreadful story that history records. Let\n\nus not repeat it\n\n!\n\nSober-minded men and women in educational work should face the issue\n\nsquarely and look at it straight.\n5.\n\nThe worker that the world likes.\n\nHe is capable of planning ahead.\n\n—The orderly worker possesses an orderly mind.\n\nHe has acquired the qualities of neatness and system.\n\nSchools can be safely and sanely administered only thru a vigorous, resourceful, clearvisioned intelligence that knows the best and the right and has the courage to stand for\nthese things that are fundamental in life.\n\nThe teacher who knows how to get a high cul-\n\ntural and specific value out of each exact science is a great teacher, but rare is the teacher\n\nwho can drag knowledge from the realms of space and cause his pupils to pursue it with\na zeal that never falters.\n\nThere are rock foundations in education that are eternal.\nShall calm judgment give place to noise and\n\nShall we stand by these higher aims of life ?\nclatter?\n\nShall the boards of education conduct the socialized function of the schools,\n\nor shall this work be handed over and farmed out to the promoters of the John Law type ?\n\nROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS IN CITIES WITH A\nPOPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 300,000\nTOPIC: DIFFERENTIATION IN COURSE OF STUDY IN THE\nA.\n\nUPPER GRADES\nSHORTENING THE COURSE\n\nHERBERT S. WEET, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N.Y.\n\nMy experience in superintendency work, extending over a period of about two years,\nhas done little more than enable me to appreciate the significance of the problem under\ndiscussion.\nThe investigations of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education\n\nhave found substantial agreement among the school men of this country on two propositions.\n\nThe first is that we are doing many things in our elementary-school course that\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": "270", "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Richmond\n\nmight well be omitted and leaving imdone many things that should be done.\nis\n\nThe second\n\nthat thru inadequate methods we are taking far more time than we need to take for\n\naccomplishing those things which we are attempting.\n\nThose of us who are in the field of administration feel that there are certain needs\nwhich must be met by experts in educational theory. In the first place, we feel the need\nof agreement among these experts as to what may properly be eliminated from the present\nelementary course of study. In a certain course of study in arithmetic, for example, the\nproposal was made to eliminate the greater part of commission, taxes and insurance,\nstocks and bonds, and some other similar topics. This elimination was based on the\nbelief that these subjects had little utility knowledge value for the pupils and that they\nwere in no sense essential to desirable training. But no sooner were these eliminations\nproposed than reputable authorities declared this to be a shortsighted policy because these\nvery topics were the ones which gave to the child the socializing point of view of arithmetic.\nIn view of the pressure for elimination, we are constrained to ask to what extent our\nauthorities in education are agreed that the socializing value of any division of arithmetic\nb important enough to warrant its retention in the course of study. This socializing\nvalue is not a characteristic contribution of arithmetic. We might as well try to defend music on the ground that it affords an opportunity for training in concentration.\nThere are inspirational subjects in the course of study that do have as their characteristic feature this socializing function, while training for concentration is not a contribution of any subject per se but rather one of methods of teaching.\nUnquestionably\nthe child should get so far as possible the social significance of this phase of arithmetic.\nTo this end, however, it is by no means necessary that these shall be taught as arithmetical\nprocesses. This illustration represents a type need in elimination.\nIn the second place, we need guidance in the way of substitutions quite as much as\nwe do in the way of eliminations. The elementary school has established its activities\nfor the mental training of our children.\nWhatever modifications may be desirable as a\nresult of experience can be made in these activities with comparative ease.\nBut there are\nother activities that are rapidly coming to be regarded as essential and that are bound to\nfind their place in the elementary school.\nWe have made a good beginning in guarding\nthe physical welfare of our children, but it is only a beginning. This activity is bound to\ndemand more of our time as we increasingly appreciate its importance. In like manner,\nmoral instruction seems destined to become more of a conscious process than it has hitherto\nbeen, and sooner or later additional time must be assured for it. There are inherent\nmoral powers which develop as surely and quite as much in accordance with law as do\ncharacteristics of body and intellect.\nTheir manifestation in the child must be consciously\nobserved, their retardation diminished, and their development guided in accordance with\nthe laws of moral development. Nothing short of this wiU enable us to minister to the\nwhole child. Here again in the field of substitutions must we look for special help from the\nexpert in educational theory and practice.\nWe need, in the third place, to have these same authorities establish for us mileposts\non the journey and mileposts bearing inscriptions stating whither we are going and how\nfar we have gone.\nIt seems almost astonishing to think that subjects of this kind have for\na long time been discussed among the best educational bodies of this country and that our\npublic-school systems are still so woefully lacking in real standards of measurement. We\nare not agreed as to what knowledge we may reasonably expect of the child in any subject\nin any grade of our elementary-school course, and stiU less are we agreed as to what may\nbe regarded as a satisfactory working power. The man of the laboratory no sooner demonstrates his discovery in science than it is seized upon by every interested activity and\nappropriated at its full value.\n\nAnd the explanation is not difficult.\n\nthere is consequent agreement upon it.\n\nA scientific prin-\n\nThere is no appeal from it and\nWe are aware that the differences between the\n\nciple in chemical science, for example, is demonstrable.\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": "271", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSHORTENING THE COURSE IN UPPER GRADES\n\n271\n\nphysical sciences and the mental sciences are very great, but we feel the need in the field\nof education of that which carries with it the sanction of science.\n\nUnderlying this discussion today is the assumption that the elementary course in\neducation can be shortened for practically all the pupils in our elementary schools.\n\nIt is,\n\nHowever skeptical any one of us may be as to the\npossibilities in this direction, there is no doubt in our minds that we have scores of boys\nand girls in our schools who are gifted enough to do the work in far less than the allotted\nin reality, a shortening for the masses.\n\ntime.\n\nWe are too likely to content ourselves with the belief that the holding back of such\n\npupils is an inevitable concomitant of our mass teaching.\n\nThere is no defense for such an\n\nOn the quantitative side\n\nassumption to the extent to which we are likely to defend it.\n\nof our organization, we are gradually coming to realize that there is a limit to the number of\n\npupils that can be assigned to any one teacher if we are to expect efficient service.\n\nquantitative change manifests itself in the decreased size of our classes.\n\nThis\n\nBut there is a\n\nwhich vitally concerns the effectiveness of\nmass teaching. Other things being equal, such effectiveness will be determined by the\nextent to which the teacher is dealing with common elements. The organizing principle\nof our grades is too inclined to consider the actual accomplishments of pupils and to ignore\nto too great an extent the causes which lie back of those accomplishments. As a result,\nnatural ability, home environment, limitations in the physical organism, all of which are\nforces that determine the kind and rate of accomplishment, have not received their proper\nqualitative as well as a quantitative element\n\nconsideration in the organization of our city systems.\n\nThis has frequently led to a group-\n\ning together in a single room of the older pupil and the younger, the bright and the dull,\n\nthe worldly wise and the innocent, and others presenting similar incongruities. It is to\nremedy these conditions and thereby enable the school to serve far better all pupils con-\n\ncerned that the special classes are being organized so generally in our public-school systems.\n\nThese are common agreements among school men. At once we face the practical\nproblem of getting sufficient funds to give us adequate building room in which to make\nthese differentiations.\n\nA special class of subnormal children should not have more than\n\nfifteen pupils and it should have the best teacher available.\n\nIt thus costs us more than\n\ntwice as much to educate such a child as it does the normal child, special class work for the\npublic schools being extremely expensive.\n\nThe development is correspondingly slow, but\n\nit is in a direction the validity of which is far more easily appreciated and defended as a\n\nmeans of shortening the time of all pupils in the elementary schools than is the process\nof eUmination or differentiation in courses.\n\nSuch special classes of various kinds have,\n\nhowever, a vital contribution to the shortening of courses, or of accomplishing more within\nthe given time.\n\nIn the last analysis, however, the fundamental essential for all economy is the competently trained teacher.\n\npreparatory period.\n\nMore time must be given to this training, especially during the\n\nTo take the immature young woman from the high school, give her\n\ntwo short years of training, and then expect her to cope successfully with these problems\nis\n\nunreasonable.\n\nIn my own city we are supplementing this training by the sabbatical\n\nyear on half-pay, and by granting a double salary increase to any teacher who takes summer-school work in an approved institution.\n\nAs a result of this latter plan more than\n\nsixty of our teachers took such courses during the past summer.\nhalf of these studied at Teachers College, Columbia University.\n\nApproximately one-\n\nThis has proved a great\n\nstimulus, but our city will not have met its full duty until it provides suitable teachertraining facilities within its own borders and so places the opportunities for constant train-\n\ning easily within the reach of all.\n\nIn the training of our teachers, therefore, is another\n\nfactor which vitally affects the problem under discussion.\n\nThis again must be the imme-\n\ndiate problem of the administrator.\n\nOn the one hand the meeting of these fundamental needs challenges the best intelligence and the best co-operation of the school men of this country. On the other, they\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": "272", "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n272\n\n(Richmond\n\nmust be increasingly met if we are to make substantial progress in shortening our time without at least impairing our efficiency.\n\nFurthermore, I have faith tolaelieve that they will\n\nbe met and that our public schools, for which we need have no apology, will thereby contribute even more to the happiness of the individual and the welfare of the community.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nLloyd E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex. ^The course of study can be effectively shortened\n(i) by omitting the nonessential, vitalizing the essential, and by appealing more strongly\nto the understanding and to the initiative and less strongly to the memory; (2) by\norganizing city and town superintendents, supervisors, principals, county superintendents,\nand superior teachers to improve the teaching corps in work vital to schoolroom efficiency,\nand by the selection and promotion of teachers solely on merit; (3) by lengthening the\nschool day and the school year; (4) by requiring all superintendents and supervising principals to spend most of their time in critical, sympathetic, and helpful supervision.\n\nAll the reasons for a twelve months' salary that apply to other workers apply to teachers.\n\nSo few teachers of this country draw a salary for twelve months that one would sup-\n\npose that teachers did not need food, clothing, and shelter for the entire year, and that the\n\npowers of pupils for good or evil were dormant for a period ranging from two to six months\nin each year. The time must come when the pupil will be under the educative direction\nof the teacher for practically the entire year, pursuing a course of study so skilfully com-\n\nbining books, observation, industrial training, and play as not unduly to fatigue either\nteacher or pupil.\n\nOn account of the democratic spirit that pervades every department of human\nendeavor in the United States, and because of the difficulty of early determining the\nnatural aptitudes of pupils, differentiation should be introduced with great caution,\nespecially below the ninth year.\n\nI suggest the following line of semi- vocational work,\n\nwhich, if thoroly done, would go far toward obviating the apparent necessity for early\nvocational differentiation:\n\nthe systematic use,\n\nby girls, for industrial training, of the\n\nsewing, cooking, sanitary, and general household appliances of the home; also the use, by\n\nboys, for industrial education, of the vacant lots of cities and towns for vegetable gardening, fruit and tree culture.\n\nThere should also be given a training in minor repairing and\n\nin sanitation in the home, the school, and the community.\n\nB.\n\nSUBSTITUTION OF WORK OF VOCATIONAL OR PREVOCATIONAL\nCHARACTER IN THE UPPER GRADES\nI.\n\nWILLIAM A. GREESON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH.\n\nI shall take the liberty of discussing prevocational work first.\n\nIt is a fact, is it not,\n\nthat when the word \"prevocational\" is used in discussions connected with education,\n\nmost people think of industrial work or of some form of manufacturing ? The truth is\nthat all education, all schooling, all training is prevocational from the education of the\nsavage American Indian to the education given to young ladies in the most fashionable\nfinishing schools.\nThis is true now, always has been true, and always will be true. In\n\n—\n\nother words, either consciously or unconsciously the supposed future occupation of the\n\nyoung has, to some extent at least, determined the character of the education given to\nthem by their elders.\nIt may not be out of order, however, to discuss some phases of the education of\nchildren in the upper grades of fundamental importance to them whatever vocation it\nmay be their destiny to follow; also some differentiation in the course of study may appear\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": "273", "text": "—\nSuperintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL OR PREVOCATIONAL WORK\n\n273\n\nto be advisable, depending upon the sex, ability, inclination, and home environment of\n\nthe child.\n\nAU girls are potential homemakers. That is a short sentence, easily said, readily\nbelieved, and yet seldom used as a fact of fundamental importance in the education of\ngirls of any age.\n\nInstinctively every girl expects to become a homemaker, and most of\n\n—80 per cent probably—\n\nthem\n\nsuccess.\n\nwill become homemakers and mothers\n\nwith more or less\n\nThis instinct is a determining factor in the life of every girl and should be con-\n\nEvery girl, therefore, in the upper grades should\nhave courses of study founded on this instinct and adapted in method and content to the\nage and development of the girl courses in cooking, sanitation, hygiene, sewing, cutting\nand fitting of garments, art, design, house decoration, artistic ornamentation, etc. Here\nis a wealth of subject-matter of vital interest to the girl, truly educational in effect, and not\ndifficult to teach, provided always you have the right organization and administration of\nthe school and competent teachers who have some training and a modicum of commonsciously used in shaping her education.\n\n—\n\nsense.\n\nNot only ought some or all of these things to be taught in the schools but also they\nmust in some vital way be connected up with the home the actual home in which the\ngirl is living.\nThis may seem, and probably is, more difficult than the teaching of these\nthings in classes in the school. But it must be done if this education is to be effective\nand it can be done. The instruction given in the school must function in the home.\nAll boys, unless spoiled by bad training or by bad environment or by both, are\nambitious to earn a living. It is not necessary or desirable for them to choose a particular\nvocation. Let them think they know what they are going to do in life, talk with them\nabout what men do in the world, let them read the lives of great men in different occupations.\nFire their ambition to do something and to be something when they become\nmen. Boys of this age want to do something. Let them do some of the things that\nappeal to them and that have great educational value.\n\n—\n\nThis instinct for work, for motor-activity, is fundamental in the nature of every\nunspoiled boy and we should make use of it in his education.\n\nopportunity to work in wood and in metals.\n\nLet the boys have an\n\nGive instruction in carpentry, cabinet-\n\nmaking, wood-turning, forging, foundry work, and in freehand and instrumental drawing\nas a necessary part of all construction work in wood and in metals.\n\nWhatever is done should be done in a workmanlike manner, and the teaching should\nbe done by men who know from actual experience how to use the tools in a workmanlike\nOtherwise, the boy will have only contempt for the subject and for the teacher.\n\nway.\n\nPrinting is a thing of great educational value, always fascinating to the boy, and may\n\nhave a truly prevocational outlook if taught by a practical printer who knows how to teach\nas well as how to do all the things connected with the trade of printing.\n\nIn the upper grades of every school are found children who have not done well in\ntheir academic studies.\n\nOften the opportunity to do some of the things mentioned will\n\nprove to be a great intellectual awakening.\n\nWhen a boy or a girl finds that he or she excels\n\nin some of these activities, self-respect is restored and improvement in all respects is manifest.\nThe school is for the child and the child is more sacred than the course of study.\nThe organization of a school should be such that it is possible to let the boy spend one-\n\nhalf of his time in the drawing-room and the shop if he is getting the greatest good for\n\nThe girl should be permitted to spend half of her time in the kitchen and\nsewing-room if she is getting the greatest good for herself there.\n\nhimself there.\n\nIt goes without saying that things\n\nadvocated in\n\nschool organized on the one-teacher-one-room plan\n\nthis\n\nof\n\npaper cannot be done in a\n\norganization.\n\nDepartmental\n\norganization of the school is imperative and also promotion by subject rather than by\n\nThere is also implied a school of considerable size, with properly equipped shops\nand kitchens, rooms for drawing, printing, etc.\n\ngrade.\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": "274", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n274\n\n[Richmond\n\nWhat about substitution of vocational work in the upper grades ? If by that phrase\nmeant actual trade instruction in the upper grades, in my opinion, that kind of education belongs in a trade school and not in the upper grades of a public school. Who\nknows what trade a boy should follow ? What right has anyone to say to a boy in the\nupper grades, \"You ought to choose and to follow this particular trade\" ? Who has the\nknowledge or the wisdom necessary to determine these vital things ? Not the child, nor\nthe parent, and certainly not the teacher. This is a period of development, of growth, of\nformation of character and ideals, of education. This is not the time for the final decision\nis\n\nThe effort of all at this stage of the child's development should be to keep him in school, to prolong the period of growth and development,\nto form his ideals, and to give him an intelligent outlook on life.\nThe teaching of vocations, trade schools, ought to have a place in a system of public\neducation, and public trade schools will come, slowly perhaps, but they will surely become\na part of every well-developed public-school system. But such schools should have a\nwhich fixes the destiny of the child.\n\nseparate teaching faculty and should not admit pupils until they have completed the\n\nupper grades or until they are at least fourteen years of age.\n\nII.\n\nI. I.\n\nCAMMACK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO.\n\nThe papers and discussions of the past two days have indicated that it is unnecessary\nto devote further time to advocating the desirability of introducing vocational work in\n\nthe public schools.\n\nThis being granted it then becomes the duty of the school to provide\n\nsuch vocational, or rather prevocational, activities in the upper grades as will direct and\ninfluence development along the lines of greater social efi&ciency and as may assist in\n\ngiving the future men and women some useful information and help to bring them into\n\na proper' attitude toward the life which they will soon enter.\nThe problem is, then, one of \"ways and means\" and depends, or should depend,\nupon the specific conditions that must be met in each individual case. The kind of work\n\nand the method of handUng it should be made to fit the local needs. What is desirable\nin one city or town or rural district may be, and I think often is, wholly inappropriate\nfor another.\nIn fact, a single city of any considerable size usually requires several different kinds of work to fit the diverse social conditions and home life of its people.\nPerhaps I cannot illustrate my meaning better than to describe what we are trying\nA little less than two\nto do in the schools with which I have the honor to be connected.\nyears ago our shifting population permitted us to abandon one of our elementary schools,\nleaving us an excellent building of thirteen rooms in a central location easily reached from\nall parts of the city.\nWe equipped this building with shops and asked the principals of\nall the schools to invite the pupils in the upper grades who desired vocational work\nSixty\nsufl&cient in amount to employ halt their time in school to report at this building.\nreported the first day and the number reached 150 the first year. We were soon obUged\nto enlarge the equipment and employ additional teachers. At first both boys and girls\nwere admitted, but the necessity for additional shops for the boys was such that this\nyear the entire building is given to their work, while the girls are taken care of in one of\n\nThere are now more than 250 boys in attendance.\nThese boys are from eleven to seventeen years of age and from the upper elementary\ngrades. Many of them are overage and had lost standing in the classes in the schools\nfrom which they came. Many would have dropped out of school had this opportunity\nnot been given to them.\nBesides cabinet work and wood-turning, most of the building trades are taught.\nThe boys have already become so proficient as to be able to wire their building for electric\nlight to accommodate the evening school and to instal the plumbing.\nThey are conthe high-school buildings.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": "275", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL OR PREVOCATIONAL WORK\n\n275\n\nstructing much of the apparatus and miscellaneous furniture needed in the schools of\n\nour city.\n\nThey do practically all the printing needed by the board, except that which\n\nrequires machines we have not yet been able to instal.\n\nDuring the coming summer, we expect to construct four frame school buildings of\ntwo rooms each to accommodate the pupils in two districts where the growing population\nrequires the opening of additional schools. This work is possible from the fact that we\nhave as supervisor a teacher, a graduate of a state normal school, who served as superintendent in a town employing more than twenty teachers, and who for several years during\nthe summer vacations was a successful architect, contractor, and builder on his own\naccount. He is, therefore, able to conduct the work from the viewpoint of both the educator and the practical builder.\nIn addition to the work above mentioned we are trying to bring vocational opportunity more directly to pupils in different parts of the city by the establishment of prevocational work for the students in the sixth and seventh grades in three of the elementary\nschools. These pupils are given from one-quarter to one-half of their time daily for\nvocational work. The academic work is modified so that essentials only are provided\nand these essentials so modified as to take on an industrial character. The design is that\nthese schools shall be centers at which others living in the immediate vicinity may avail\nthemselves of the chances to modify their work while in the elementary grades.\nIn a school located some seventeen miles from the city, to which boys are sent by the\njuvenile court, we have established shops and machinery which permit, under the instruction provided, the boys from ten to sixteen years old to construct the buildings used for\nthe homes. The cottage plan is adopted, each cottage being large enough to accommodate\nfrom twenty to twenty-five boys, together with the man and woman who serve as master\nand matron, and in which, as far as possible, home life is provided.\nVocational education is further given to our children in the elementary grades thru\n\nDuring the past year, thirty-one such gardens were maintained,\nnot only during the period in which the schools were in session, but during the summer\nthe school gardens.\n\nvacation, and we were glad to note that 75 per cent of the pupils who did work during\n\nthe school year reported regularly during vacation time.\nis\n\nThe chief purpose of this work\n\nnot so much the school garden but the home gardens that result from the interest\n\nNever before had so many back yards and vacant lots\nAlready arrangements have been made by\nwhich, during the coming summer, fifty-five schools will have gardens.\nPerhaps the most far-reaching innovation designed to develop the practical vocational\nside of child life is the introduction of what has been termed the activities of the \"informal\nhour.\" Formerly, the daily sessions of our schools lasted from nine in the morning until\nawakened in the school garden.\n\nbeen cultivated as during the past season.\n\nfour in the afternoon.\n\nThe last hour produced less satisfactory results along the academic\n\nlines than any other part of the day.\n\nWe therefore devoted the hour from three to four\n\nto miscellaneous activities, designed to interest\nlines.\n\nand develop children along practical\n\nThe academic subjects necessary to the promotion of the children were placed\n\nearlier in the day, so that, in case parents desired to\n\nwithdraw their children at three\n\no'clock, they were permitted to do so without endangering regular promotion to higher\n\ngrades.\n\nThis \"informal hour\" is given to a great variety of school activities. The chief\npurpose is to direct the attention of the teaching body to the necessity of adapting the\nactivities of the school to the demands of child life.\n\nIt is really the children's hour and\n\nto a large extent it is bringing to the children those things which cultivate greater interest\n\nand develop in them a desire to participate in the activities presented.\nDuring this hour, also, teachers are giving individual instruction to those who in any\nway fall behind in any particular branch. The encouragement thus given and the personal\ninterest and sympathy of the teacher hold many in school who, otherwise, would lose\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": "276", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n276\n\ninterest and withdraw.\n\n[Richmond\n\nDuring this time, also, opportunity is offered to the more active\n\npupils who wish to proceed independently with various work.\n\nIn these activities large use is made of the recreational side of child life.\n\nThe rela-\n\ntion and duties of children in their association with each other are emphasized perhaps\n\nmore fully in their play than in any other school activity.\n\nWe are devoting consider-\n\nable attention to story-telling and are bringing to the children in this way much of the\n\nbest child literature.\n\nWe are also encouraging the dramatic talent, and pupils are taking\n\ngreat interest in developing along this line such gifts as enable\n\nthem to give entertain-\n\nments for each other and for their parents. Music is also emphasized. In the manualtraining shops and in domestic science much miscellaneous work is being given. Basket\nweaving, camp cooking, and other miscellaneous things are proving attractive. The\nstereopticon is being used for both slides and moving pictures.\nOne of the best features that has thus far been developed is the interest which has\nbeen created in the home. There have already been organized in our city more than\nfifty parent-teacher associations.\nThe mothers' meetings are held in the afternoon and\nthe fathers and mothers meet together in the evening. The result has been that the school\nand the home have been brought closer together than ever before and a greater co-operation\nis\n\nbeing manifested than we thought possible.\n\nMany of our principals are enthusiastic\n\nSome of them believe that it is the\nmost valuable hour of our school day. Teachers are studying child Ufe as never before,\nand their interest has caused teachers' classes to be organized in the afternoons and in the\nover the benefits derived from this \"informal hour.\"\n\nnight schools to prepare especiaUy for this line of work.\n\nDISCUSSION\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\nCertain tendencies in the reorganization of the work of the upper grades of our elementary\nschools are now evident in all urban communities in this country.\n\nIt seems to me that\n\nwhen present movements shall have been carried to the point of definite results, we shall\nhave a reorganized school system in urban communities that may roughly be described\nas follows:\n1.\n\nAll children between six and twelve years of age will be found in relatively small\n\nThe tendency will be to\nmake these school buildings small, rather than large, in the endeavor to have each school\nlocated close to the homes of its pupils. These schools wiU be staffed entirely by women\nteachers. There will be no principal, in the sense of a person who does no teaching. A\nschool buildings, located as near to their homes as practicable.\n\nhead teacher, exercising certain responsible functions of principal in administrative and\ndiscipUnary matters, will be found. Each school will have a playground, which playground will be in use not merely during the time school is in session, but at all other times,\nsince it will be located in close proximity to the homes of the children.\n2. For each fifty or sixty teachers in these primary schools, there will be found a primary supervisor, directly responsible to the superintendent of schools. This primary\nsupervisor will in most cases be a woman, who is a pedagogical expert in matters of methods\ncourse of study, etc., as these are involved in the education of children under twelve years\nof age. Thus it will be seen that the education of children of these ages will be turned\ncompletely over to women teachers.\n\nwhether in the seventh and eighth grades,\nThese schools will embrace not\nmerely classrooms, but workshops, laboratories, and the like. It will be assumed that\n3. All children over twelve years of age,\n\nor retarded, will be brought into large central schools.\n\nchildren can walk at least a mile to schools of this character, and may be transported\n\neven farther.\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": "277", "text": "Superintendence]\n\n4.\n\nVOCATIONAL OR PREVOCATIONAL WORK\n\n277\n\nIn the large school for children from twelve to fourteen years of age, which may\n\nbe here called the intermediate school, much of the teaching will be on a departmental\nbasis.\nCertainly all shop and practical arts teaching, and the commercial subjects, will\n\nbe departmentalized. At least half the teaching force for the boys will be men, selected\npartly with reference to their capacity to teach such subjects as arithmetic, history, and\nshop subjects, and partly with a view to the influence of their personality upon the pupils.\nThe school will be in charge of a principal, giving his entire time to organization, administration, and supervision.\n5.\n\nIn the intermediate school will be found considerable flexibility of courses.\n\nCer-\n\ntain subjects, such as English expression, literature, history, hygiene, and the like, will be\n\ntaken in common by all pupils, special classes being formed for those who are retarded.\nOther subjects, such as manual training, household arts, elementary commercial subjects,\npractical science, music, foreign languages, and mathematics, will be elective, it being\nrequired only that each pupil shall carry a substantial program of work.\n6. In every case, while retarded pupils will have special classes adjusted to their needs\nin such subjects as arithmetic and English, they will also be permitted to work with\n\nadvanced pupils in other subjects, such a shop studies, for which they may be qualified.\n7.\n\nThe intermediate school in many cases will be located adjacent to the high school.\n\nIn some cases it will occupy the same building, altho it is not expected that teachers in\nthe intermediate school will be college graduates, as will be necessarily the case with highschool teachers.\n\nAn ideal arrangement for many communities would be to have the high\n\nschool and intermediate school in proximity, so that, to\n\nsome extent, the same shop\n\nequipment and playgrounds could be used.\n\nLeonard P. Ayres, director^ Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, New\nYork, N.Y.\n\n—We need differentiated courses in our schools because our schools are\n\nwith differentiated children.\n\nfilled\n\nWe are just awakening to the significance of this condition.\n\nA few years ago educators began to discover the facts concerning the ages of the children\nin the different grades.\n\nThis brought to light the astonishing fact that there are children\n\nof almost every school age in every grade.\n\nIn every large school system we found that the\n\noldest children in the first grade were older than the youngest children in the eighth grade.\n\nA few years later we began to study the progress of children thru the grades and we\nfound similar extreme variations in every school system. In every city we found slow\nchildren in the first grade who had been in school longer than the brightest children in the\nIndeed it was often found that there were children in the lower grades who\nhad begun attending school before some of their classmates were bom.\nWith the growing mastery of measurements in education, attention now turned to the\nmeasurement of classroom products, and here again a similar situation was brought to\nlight.\nWhen we began to test children for their arithmetical ability, we found that the\nbest children in the second and third grades made better scores than the poorest ones in\nthe eighth grade. When attention turned to spelling, we found that the best children in\nthe second grade spelled correctly words on which the poorest of the eighth grade children\neighth grade.\n\nfailed.\n\nIn every branch in which reliable scales for measuring results have been developed\n\nthe same situation has been brought to light.\n\nIn handwriting the best children in the\nThe best drawing in\n\nlower grades do better work than the poorest in the upper grades.\n\nthe second and third grades is better than the poorest in the seventh and eighth.\n\nThe\n\nbrightest children in the third grade write better English compositions than the least\ngifted in the seventh and eighth grades.\n\nIn broad general terms this condition is a constant and universal one. It does not\napply merely to the rare and exceptional children. On the contrary, it maintains everywhere, among all children, in every subject, and in a relatively constant degree.\n\nEverywhere and in every subject we find about the same proportion of poor students, medium\nstudents, and superior students.\n\nThe reason why we have not realized this before is that\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": "278", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n278\nit is\n\n[Richmond\n\nonly recently that we have developed moderately accurate methods of measuring\n\nclassroom achievements.\n\nBut now, even with the crude scales and tests that have been\n\ndeveloped, these evidences of the universal and inherent natural differentiation among\nchildren are becoming ever-increasingly convincing.\n\nNor is this the only or perhaps the most important lesson taught thru the application\nWhenever we measure the attainments of\nchildren in more than one intellectual product and compare the results, we find that\nchildren who excel in one sort of ability strongly tend to excel in other sorts of achievement. The abilities which the human race considers desirable abilities generally accom-\n\nof scientific methods to educational problems.\n\npany each other in the same individuals. Nature has not decreed any law of human\ncompensation whereby the individuals who are strong in certain attributes are weak in\nothers, while those weak in some are strong in others.\nDisappointment and disillusionment await those educators who believe that children\nof marked ability in performing abstract book work will generally prove deficient in concrete shop work and that those who are deficient in abstract work will excel in shop work.\nSuch a compensatory law does not exist, for, in the long run, nature bestows her intellectual endowments upon her chosen favorites instead of scattering them impartially\n\namong aU.\nThese conditions mean that we need differentiated courses because we have differWe have them everywhere and in all subjects. Whenever we measure\neducational products we find three fundamentally significant conditions. The first is\nthat in every school system there is greater difference in classroom ability between\nentiated children.\n\ndifferent members of the same grade than there is between the abilities of the average\n\nchildren in the lowest and the average children in the highest grades.\n\nThe second sig-\n\nnificant fact is that everywhere in every sort of measurable ability we find fairly constant\n\nand definite proportions of bright, medium, and slow children. The third significant fact\nthat different sorts of intellectual abilities tend to accompany each other in the same\nindividuals. Nature has made no compensatory law of equality but has on the contrary\ndecreed a universal and inherent inequality whereby the well endowed in one sort of abiUty\nare apt to be well endowed in other sorts also.\nAll this means that if we are to give all the children the best and fullest sort of educational opportunity we must differentiate our courses so as to fit them to the needs and\nWe must locate our brightest children in groups\nabilities of the differentiated children.\nwith other bright children and give them work of sufl&cient thoroness and scope so that\n\nis\n\nthey may develop thru earnest application instead of deteriorating thru easy achievement.\n\nFor our children of average abilities, we must organize classes and courses that will give\nthem work within their power to accomplish but requiring their best efforts. For the\nslowest children, we must organize courses composed of essentials so simplified that in their\nmastery the children may acquire the habit of success instead of being trained in the habit of\nfailure.\nWe must differentiate our courses because our courses are made for our children,\n\nand our children are differentiated by nature.\n\nW. L. Ettinger, associate city superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.\n\n—In\n\ndis-\n\ncussing the question of prevocational work, Mr. Ettinger gave as his definition that pre-\n\nvocational work is trade preparatory work, plus academic work, plus vocational guidance.\n\nHe also sounded a note of warning in respect to the assumption that children in the same\nclass or grade are differently endowed because they respond unequally to the same test.\n\nIn other words, the slow child of the first-year grades may be more liberally endowed in\nthe upper grades, and, again, the pupil who seemed to be slow and backward in the\nelementary grades may do very good work in the high-school grades. Slowness and\nso-called dulness may be a condition of the mind at some particular time in a period\n\nmarked by physiologic and psychologic changes.\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": "279", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMEASURE OF SUPERINTENDENrS EFFICIENCY\n\n279\n\nJohn H. Haaren, associate city superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.\n\n—As\n\nthis round-table conference is an experience meeting, it will not be out of place to speak\n\nof some things in the line of vocational instruction, which the city of New York is doing.\n\nOur idea is to organize the prevocational work in the regular elementary schools, with\npupils of the seventh and eighth years of the school course.\n\nThese are to be tried for nine\n\nweeks at a time in several industrial courses, in order to ascertain any special aptitude.\nThree hours daily are to be devoted to industrial work and three hours daily to academic\nwork. The subjects so far introduced in the girls' school are sewing and dressmaking,\nmillinery, embroidery, novelty work, care of invalids, homemaking.\nThe course in the\nboys' school is to consist of metal work, woodwork, joinery, turning, and electrical work.\nIn the regular vocational schools, practically all of the industries mentioned in the course\nof this discussion are introduced, with the exception of bricklaying, painting, and plasterI\ning; instead, there is work in printing, including linotype and monotype operating.\nmight state here that there is the warmest interest in prevocational instruction in the\ncity of\n\nNew York at the present time.\n\nIt is receiving the heartiest encouragement of the\n\nHe has\n\nvery progressive president of the Board of Education, Thomas W. Churchill.\n\nconcerned himself not alone with this work, but with what may be considered a branch of\nit,\n\nthe continuation classes, which are being established in the mornings in department\n\nstores.\n\nIn these classes, the pupils are being taught the things necessary to increase their\n\neflOLciency,\n\nand, of course, their salaries, and to make them eligible for promotion to the\n\nnext higher step in the business.\n\nM. H. Stuart, principal. Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\n—\n\n^In\n\nthe\n\nreorganization of the school system whereby we introduce vocational courses into the\n\ngrammar and high school, it is of the greatest importance that teachers be selected who\nare masters of their field. Our teachers for this work wiU doubtless be selected in two\nways. We can take our good teachers who are of a practical inclination and send them\nto industrial schools and also to the industries, or we may go to the industries and select\ntradesmen who possess in our judgment the natural qualifications for teaching but who\nThese tradesmen may be sent to profesSince our school system is\nunder the control of school men, it seems easier for us to preserve the proper balance and\nestablish vocational courses by the second method.\nA school man can take a tradesman\nand train him day by day to the school point of view easier than he can take a school\nman and push him out into the industrial field to the point where he will command the\nrespect of the men who possess skill. In order that the vocational movement, there-\n\nlack the academic and professional training.\n\nsional schools and may thereby become vocational teachers.\n\nfore, may make its full contribution to our educational problem, I believe we should\nbe willing at the outset to tolerate in our faculty tradesmen with only a moderate degree\n\nof academic and professional training.\n\nROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS IN CITIES WITH A\nPOPULATION UNDER 25,000\nHOW SHALL THE SUPERINTENDENT MEASURE HIS OWN EFFICIENCY\nWILLIAM MCK. VANCE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DELAWARE, OHIO\nIn these days of scales and standards or norms, when there is a burning desire to\nreduce everything in the pedagogical universe to the fraction of something else, and then\nto hold it up to public view as a percentage, or a graph, or a segmented line, or a sectored\ncircle, or groups thereof, one device seems to have escaped the inventive diabolism of the\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": "280", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n28o\n\n[Richmond\n\nexperts, namely, a contrivance whereby the superintendent of schools may take his own\n\nmeasure, quickly, accurately, privately.\n\nOther people are constantly doing it for him,\n\nwith no nice scruples of accuracy or privacy, and they write his Mene Tekel Upharsin\n\nwholly regardless of the Ayers scale; they compose ''pro bono publico\" contributions for\nthe local press, unmindful of Hillegas and Thorndike, and they plot the superintendent's\n\ncurve of eflSciency with absolutely no reference to its co-ordinates.\n\nHow can he anticipate the inquisitorial methods\nHow shall he project himself out of himself so that,\n\nBut how is he to do this himself ?\nof some Holy Office of a Survey ?\n\nfrom some point of view sufficiently apart to give a proper perspective, he may look upon\nhimself and his work with imclouded vision and study both with the micrometric methods\nof the laboratory ?\n\nYou are conversant with the use of the Binet-Simon scale by which the inmates of\ninstitutions for the feeble-minded are tested and graded.\n\nmay grade only six years of age in average mental capacity.\n\nA pupil of twelve or fourteen\nSometimes the abnormality\n\nNow\nmy task nor my purpose to construct a scale of this sort which will reveal to the\n\nof a single trait exhibits great maturity; again certain functions may be normal.\nit is not\n\n—whether normal, sub-, or supernormal—whether\n\nsuperintendent his professional status\nbehind, abreast, or ahead of his times.\n\nBut it is my purpose to state a few fundamental\n\nqualities of the successful superintendent and a few features of his work which, all will\n\nagree, must characterize the equipment and output of any efficient man, and whose absence\n\nindicates partial or total failure.\nFirst,\n\nmanner.\n\nhe must come into his position with adequate preparation and in the right\n\nNo man can do effective work who lacks the training of two schools: the school\n\nwhether obtained in a fresh-water or a tide-water university, or in\nno university, and whether he have many, or few, or no degrees; and the school of sucNor can he do his best\ncessful experience in earlier and more elementary situations.\nwork in a field which he has entered in any surreptitious, haphazard, bargaining, or compromising manner. He deserves not to survive such a handicap. Sometimes a good\nman, by a combination of circumstances, the nature of which is beyond his ken, is placed\nHe may be as square as a die, but the hole in which he finds himself\nin a wrong position.\n\nof real scholarship,\n\nis\n\nrovmd or rhomboidal or irregularly polygonal, and the friction is dreadful.\n\nThe only\n\nthing to do is to get out and get fitted elsewhere; and such extrication and readjustment\n\nmay be accomplished with entire dignity and self-respect.\nThe second essential is that the superintendent's heart must be right.\n\nThe stetho-\n\nscope of conscience must show that it beats true to every high ideal and purpose and\npractice.\nOnly an incomplete success can be hoped for by the man who is careless of\n\neven the conventions of life; but he who despises the weightier matters of the law, however scrupulously he may tithe the mint, anise, and cumin of accepted social standards,\nis\n\ndoomed to certain failure.\n\nHonesty, truthfulness, sobriety, and personal purity are\n\nold-fashioned virtues, but they are the corner stones of every man's life who is built foursquare.\n\nThe breaking-down of any one of them throws the superstructure out of plumb\n\nand threatens ruin.\n\nHow supremely absurd it is for any school man to think that he can\n\ncheat a little, lie a little, drink a little, and break the seventh commandment a little\n\nI\n\n\"The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; but fools despise wisdom and\ninstruction.\"\n\nThird, the efficient superintendent is a man of ideals, and these ideals, it goes without\nNo enduring work can be modeled on lines that\n\nsaying, should be intrinsically worthy.\n\ndepart from the standards of art and beauty. He has a profound feeling for the best\nthere is in the educational world, and he has his antennae out like the wires of a Marconi\nstation to catch all messages that are attuned to this feeling.\n\nHe instinctively rejects\n\nthe unworthy in educational theory and practice, or, rather, they never touch him, for,\nto carry the figure a step farther, his soul, like the coherer of the Marconi instrimient, is\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": "281", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMEASURE OF SUPERINTENDENrS EFFICIENCY\n\nset to a higher note.\n\n281\n\nHe packs his life full of everything big and good and great. And\n\nso he reads the best books, hears the best music, sees the best pictures, visits the best\nschools, studies the best methods\n\nand programs, makes close and intimate friendships\n\nwith the best superintendents, is alert to the best in school architecture, school hygiene,\nschool ethics, school texts and literature\n\n—in short, he demands only the best of every-\n\nHe has his moments of satisfaction\nwhen he realizes that a cherished ideal has, thru his efforts, been wrought into the organic\nstructure of his schools, and he is disposed to measure his efi5ciency by the number of such\nideals thus incorporated; but, when the issue is otherwise, he has the bitter reflection\nof those who have loved and lost, and this is indeed \"sorrow's crown of sorrow.\"\nNothing contributes more to any department or phase of school work than a fine\nthing for the immortal work committed to his charge.\n\nideal finely worked out.\n\nFor example, \"order for order's sake\" was the slogan of disand the means to that end\n\nciplinarians of a certain type, now happily almost extinct,\n\nwere the rod, the dunce-stool, brutal sarcasm, and expulsion.\ninitiative, sullen subjection, or its antonym,\n\nRepression, fear, lack of\n\ndogged defiance, were the prominent char-\n\nNow, on the other hand, \"order for the sake of the school\nThis sets a powerful motive in the mind\nof the pupils as citizens of the school republic; it furnishes a consideration of values by\nacteristics of such a regime.\n\nas a community\" is altogether a finer ideal.\n\nthe pupils resulting in acts of judgment which almost invariably are on the side of good\nit tends to stimulate children to organize aU of the facts that have to do with\nconduct in its larger aspects, and thus contributes much to the morale of the child; and,\n\norder;\n\nlastly, instead of repression, and sullen subjection, or open defiance, the successful opera-\n\ntion of this ideal gives the entire school an abounding life in which the graces of initiative,\n\ncourage, and every other manly quality find fullest development.\n\n—the\nto see things\n—and the constructive imagination we\n\nThe superintendent of ideals has, of course, imagination\nin their higher and more subtle relations\n\nability\n\nis,\n\nall\n\nknow, one of the most practical things in life.\n\nThe poem hangs in the berry bush\nTill it catches the poet's eye;\n\nAnd all the street is a masquerade\n\nWhen Shakespeare marches by.\nFourth, our self-testing superintendent should be a man of affairs.\n\nBy this I mean\n\nnot only that he should know the details of the school plant and equipment, from pens\n\nand ink to plumbing fixtures and vacuum cleaners, but that he should be an expert in\nwarming, ventilating, school-seating, decorating, and landscape gardening. It would be\nwell also if he should possess more than a mere amateur's knowledge of the special departments of study over which supervisors and special teachers are usually placed music,\ndrawing, manual training, domestic science, and physical culture. In cities of less than\n25,000, he is frequently the purchasing agent of the board of education, and hence he must\nbe a compendium of school and office supplies. Catalogs, samples, and price-lists com-\n\n—\n\nprehensively filed are at his finger-tips.\n\nHe familiarizes himself with the quality of the\nHe inspects the school grounds, basements,\n\nmanufactured output of the various houses.\nfurnace and engine rooms, toilets\n\n—the entire realm of which the janitor\n\nventures a suggestion or a correction, if need be, to that potentate.\n\nis king,\n\nand even\n\nWhenever the need\n\nof a new school building arises, he sets forth the facts and needs to the board of education\n\nin fullest detail, with tentative plans based on a careful preliminary study.\n\nTo this end,\n\nhe is a close student of school architecture and has visited and inspected the latest notable\nexamples of this art in a radius of some hundreds of miles.\n\nThe physical well-being of the\n\nchildren is his constant care.\n\nIn his relations to the board of education the superintendent will scrupulously main-\n\nAs an educational expert and adviser,\nand as the executive officer of the board, he commonly receives all the respect that is his\n\ntain the best traditions and customs of his office.\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": "282", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n282\ndue.\n\n[Richmond\n\nmay reasonably conclude that something wrong—\n—possibly someone has thrown a monkey wrench into the school machinery.\n\nIf it is otherwise, he\n\nis\n\n^possibly\n\nwith himself\n\nIt is most desirable that a clear and definite understanding of the superintendent's func-\n\ntions be early established\nis possible.\n\nand always recognized.\n\nOtherwise no constructive program\n\nHe must have large Uberty in the initiating of educational measures, and his\n\nshould be the final word in the nomination and assignment of teachers, the promotion and\ntransfer of pupils, the choice of textbooks, the preparation of the courses of study, and the\n\nsupervision of the work.\n\nIf he cannot freely give his attention to the really big things\n\nof his calling, either he shrivels up into a perfunctory agent of the strong man or men on\nhis board, or he congeals into a frigid conservatism.\n\nA strong and inspiring personality\n\nis the best asset that any superintendent can have, and he ought not to tolerate influences\n\nor circumstances that tend to thwart its free and symmetrical development.\n\nAs a man of affairs, the superintendent will get to know the leaders of other communand social, and will use every proper\nmeans to enlist them in his propaganda for the schools. He need not \"talk shop\" to the\nity interests, professional, commercial, industrial,\n\npoint of boredom, but he will neglect no opportunity to secure the co-operation of\ncitizens of whatever class.\n\nall\n\nHence, he ought to be interested in folks, because he needs\n\ntheir help, if for no other reason.\n\nIdeals have only a speculative interest in the abstract.\n\nTo have real, usable value, they must be crystallized into the actualities of the present\nday and generation. If the ideals of the superintendent are to be something more than\nan iridescent dream, he must reduce them to the concrete. In this task he not only needs\nthe help of his board of education and the assistance of his teachers, but, in a special sense,\nhe needs the help of the community. His ability to bring things to pass is one of the tests\nof his efficiency. The superintendent's recommendations are not worth the cells of gray\nmatter used up in framing them, after he has received his cong6 from a hostile majority.\nIf, then, you accept my analysis and admit that to be efficient a superintendent must\nbe a man of adequate preparation, a man of high ideals, a man of affairs, and a man of\nwinning and masterful personality, the question still remains. How is any specific, indi-\n\n—\n\nvidual superintendent\n\n^you or I, for instance\n\n—to know that he\n\nis\n\nthat kind of a man ?\n\nHow can he see himself as he really is and as others see him ?\nObviously, the sane method is a rigid, impartial, scrutinizing self-examination; even\n\na merciless self-dissection, if that be necessary to the study of his vocational anatomy.\n\nWith \"himself the judge and jury and himself the prisoner at the bar,\" let him look\nLet him courageously\ncondemn or acquit himself of every fault which he observes in other superintendents.\nThen let' him fearlessly apply the measures of the highest standards and heroically note\nat himself with the disillusioned perspective of impersonaUty.\n\nhis deficiencies with a determination to correct them.\nIf he finds himself to be a man of earnest and searching thought, definite conviction,\nand profound feeling; if he has acquired skill from training, character from discipline,\nintelligence from observation and study, and culture from the assimilation of all these;\nif his work is free from agitation, restlessness, uncertainty, feverish intensity, and consuming haste, but full of dignity, resourcefulness, and repose not the repose of lethargy,\nbut the repose of quiet, calm, effective activity; if he never allows his brain to become\nentangled with his nerves; if he looks upon his daily program not as drudging toil, but as\nspontaneous, self-expressing, creative work fatiguing, to be sure, sometimes to the point\nof exhaustion, yet however perplexing and annoying, happily free from friction and\nirritation; if he preserves a just sense of proportion and a wise adjustment of the tasks,\nopportunities, and pleasures of the school; if he regards his pupils as future citizens of a\ngreat, progressive republic, and tries to make life to them sweet and sound and sane and\nserviceable; if he keeps himself free from an over-self-conscious and dictatorial manner;\nif he vitalizes with his own refreshing individuality the dull monotony of routine work;\nif, when political disturbances or other trying conditions arise, he can count upon the\nstaunch, unswerving loyalty of his corps of teachers; if his community looks confidently\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": "283", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTESTING GRADE TEACHERS FOR EFFICIENCY\n\n283\n\nto him for co-operating leadership in establishing and maintaining the best things in\ncivic life;\nlife his\n\nif,\n\nsince \"the truest teaching is living,\" he daily seeks to express in his personal\n\nnoblest ideals of character\n\n—\n\nif all\n\nthese foundation facts are firmly beneath his\n\nemerges from the flood of self-accusation, and if the searchlight of crossexamination reveals no dark corners of injustice and self-seeking, uncovers no lurking\n\nfeet when he\n\nnegligence and insincerity; then let him humbly and thankfully \"rejoice with exceeding\n\ngreat joy,\" for he is indeed a master workman whose labor will require for its adequate\ntesting and measuring a heaven and an eternity.\n\nTESTING GRADE TEACHERS FOR EFFICIENCY\nEDWIN D. PUSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DURHAM, N.C.\nEflicient teaching develops in the pupil seK-reliance, ability to reason, judgment, and\n\nThe proper tests of a teacher's efl&ciency, therefore, should be\n\nthe power of initiative.\n\napplied to the pupils rather than to the teacher.\n\nAs it requires considerable time, how-\n\never, to develop these qualities even in bright pupils, we cannot wait imtil the end of the\n\nelementary-school period to apply these tests.\n\nMuch harm may be done while we wait\n\nthe necessary time for these qualities to be developed if the pupils happen to be under an\ninefiicient teacher whose inefficiency is discovered too late.\n\nIt is necessary for us to have\nsome tests that we can apply, not when the pupil apphes for admission to the high school,\nbut at the end of each year, and frequently during the year, monthly, and perhaps oftener.\nAs many of the elements that are essential to good teaching are intangible and exist\nonly in the resourceful teacher who is allowed great freedom of action, we must not use\ntests that will, even indirectly, repress the teacher's initiative and personality.\nIn\ndeciding upon the tests that we are to use, we must be very broad in our view and never\nlose sight of the fact that we are dealing with human minds that in turn train other\nhuman minds. If we observe detail too closely our tests will be mechanical, with the\nresult that our teachers will become lifeless in their work.\nWe may overemphasize the\nsmaU things and altogether overlook the large and essential things. The school system\nthat rates its teachers on thirty or more points of merit, running somewhat as follows,\npunctuality of the teacher, disposition shown in following instructions, dress, tone of the\nvoice, temperature of the room, seating of pupils, preparation of outlines, method in\n\nassigning\n\nnew work, etc., may be able to rate every one of its teachers as \"excellent\"\n\nor \"very good\" yet not have an efficient teacher in any one of its schools.\n\nThe proof of a teacher's efficiency is to be found in the pupil whom the teacher advances\nfrom her room rather than in the teacher herself. If the pupil has gained the habit of\npunctuality, is weU behaved, seems to have some definiteness of purpose, knows how to\norganize his ideas, has developed a power of reason commensurate with his age, is selfreliant, and is not afraid to take the initiative, then his teacher has been efficient, and\nshould be given the highest rating irrespective of the mechanics of the method she has\nfollowed. If the pupil is lacking in any of these traits of character, there has been a weak\npoint somewhere in his training, and some one of his teachers has failed in her work.\nThe rating of teachers may become simplified and equitable if every school official\ncharged with their rating is provided in advance with a rating card specifying the commonly accepted tests that prove a teacher's efficiency. The teacher should know what\nthese tests are, so that she may ever have before her a guide showing what is supposed to\nconstitute good work.\n\nThe number of tests should be reduced to a minimum and might\n\nbe as follows:\n1.\n\nAttendance.\n\n2.\n\nDiscipline.\n\n3.\n\nTidiness of pupils and room.\n\n4. Interest of pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": "284", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n284\n5.\n\nKnowledge of pupils and of their environment.\n\n7.\n\nInterest in outside activities.\nAccuracy in keeping records and in making reports.\n\n8.\n\nTeaching ability.\n\n6.\n\n[Richmond\n\nWithout regular attendance on the part of the pupils good school work is impossible.\n\nThe standard in attendance for each teacher should be a percentage based on enrolment,\nas high as or higher than the average for all classes in the same grade or department.\n\nIn\n\na small system that is divided into primary, grammar, and intermediate departments, the\n\ndepartment may be made the basis rather than the grade. If the attendance under any\nteacher for any month falls below the average for that grade or department for that\nmonth, the teacher's attention should be called to it at once, and the cause of the poor\nattendance should be investigated. If the attendance is higher than the average the\nteacher should be given credit for it. The percentage should be based on the enrolment,\nfrom which a pupil's name should be removed only because of death or removal from the\nschool district. If this is done the teacher will be held responsible for all avoidable cases\nof elimination.\nIt is surprising how few absences a good teacher has, and how few children\nleave school while imder a good teacher.\nThe teacher who never brings an imruly pupil to the principal and who settles all\ncases of discipline in her own room is considered to be a good disciplinarian. The proof\nof this quality in a teacher, however, should be seen in the conduct of the pupils on the\nplaygrounds, on the street, and in other public places. The public is not as much concerned with what the pupil attempts to do under the restraining eye of the teacher as it is\nwith how he deports himseK when unrestrained. It is then that he shows his training.\n\nThe teacher who succeeds in implanting in the child a proper consideration for the rights\nand feelings of others is a better disciplinarian than the teacher who rules thru force and\nfear.\n\nIf pupils are allowed to come to school with imkempt hair and with unwashed faces\nand hands, if they are permitted to drop bits of waste paper, pencil shavings, bread crumbs\nor other remains of their lunch on the schoolroom floor or on the school grounds, or to put\nthem in their desks, as grown-up men and women they will not develop much civic pride.\nThe personal appearance of the pupils, the appearance of the schoolrooms and of the\nschool grounds is a fair test of teachers' value to the community.\n\nAny visitor to a schoolroom can tell in a very few minutes whether or not the pupils\nare interested in their work.\n\nThe principal, however, looks farther, to see if the teacher\n\nhas so aroused the children that they turn to other sources than their textbooks for\ninformation concerning the things about which they are studying, and to see if they are\nfinding practical applications in everyday life for the things they are being taught.\n\nThe\n\nteacher who stirs up such interest in her pupils probably possesses in herself all the elements\nof good teaching.\n\nTo get the best results the teacher not only must know something of the principles of\nchild study, but must have made a special study of the nature of each child under her\n\ncharge, must show a lively sympathy in all that interests him, and must know something\n\nabout his home life and environment. The teacher must know the child's parents, and\nmust know something of the training or lack of training he has had at home; otherwise\nshe will not know what to expect of him, nor will she know how to deal with him.\nFrom the very nature of her work the teacher ought to hold a position of leadership\nin the community.\n\nThe confinement of the classroom, however, has a tendency to cause\n\nTo overcome this a teacher\nought to take a lively interest in some outside activity. A school system increases its\nThe teacher, if a woman, can find\nefl5ciency as it lends itself to works of social service.\na field for telling work in some one of the departments of the average woman's club; if\na man, he can find a place where his services will be much appreciated on some one of the\na teacher to lead a life somewhat apart from that of others.\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": "285", "text": "TESTING GRADE TEACHERS FOR EFFICIENCY\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n285\n\ncommittees of the average chamber of commerce or business men's club. The teacher\nwho is interested in the things that tend to the improvement of the community can train\nthe children of the community in the duties of good citizenship much more effectively\n\nthan the teacher who is not so interested.\nIt is great help to the teacher to have access to the detailed record of each one of her\npupils for every year he has been in school.\n\nFrequently the pupil after leaving school\n\nFor administrative purposes the principal must be\nfurnished from time to time by the teacher with detailed reports about different phases of\nher work. Hence, one of the teacher's duties to the school system is to be accurate in\nkeeping records and in making reports.\nThe foregoing tests of a teacher's efficiency are aU easily measurable at frequent intervals and should be rated under a broad system of marking, such as excellent, very good,\ngood, fair, and poor. If a teacher's rating is more than \"good,\" she ought to be lold so;\nencouragement is a great stimulant, even to a teacher. If a teacher's rating falls below\n\nhas to refer to his school record.\n\n\"good,\" her deficiencies ought to be pointed out to her privately by the superintendent\nso that she may know how to strengthen her work.\n\nThe last test of a teacher's efficiency has to be measured in a different way.\n\nTeach-\n\ning ability is shown in the increase in the mental power of the pupil, and in his ability to\n\nput to practical use the things he has been taught. The real measure of teaching ability\nis shown by the results produced in the pupils by the teacher's year's work, and the problem of the principal and of the superintendent is to find some way of measuring these\nWhen we can say of a pupil who, at the beginning of his fourth year, can read\nresults.\neasy stories at sight with a fair degree of fluency and expression, who can spell correctly a\ncertain percentage of the words he finds in his reading-books, who knows the combinations\nof figures, and can use some of the multiplication tables\n\n—when we can say of\n\nthis pupil\n\njust how much better he should be able to read at the end of the year, how many more\n\nwords he should be able to spell, how much more thoroly he should know the multiplication\ntables, and what other processes in arithmetic he should have mastered, then we shall\nhave a definite standard for measuring this last and most important test of a teacher's\nefficiency.\n\nAs quickness and accuracy of work are the chief standards by which the world judges\nthe proficiency of those who leave the schools, so should quickness and accuracy of work\n\nbe the chief standards for measuring the proficiency of pupils in school and, indirectly,\nthe efficiency of their teachers in teaching. Simple tests can be prepared for each department of work in the school, something similar to the Courtis tests in arithmetic, on which\nthe pupils can be graded on the time required to complete the tests and on the accuracy\nWhen these tests are given at the beginning of the year they will give\nof their work.\na fair indication of the pupil's ability when he enters school. If the same tests are repeated\nat or near the end of the year, they should be completed in less time, and the work should\nbe more accurate than at the beginning of the year. Comparing the final results with\nthose obtained at the beginning of the year we can measure exactly the work done by the\nteacher during the year.\n\nThe tests to be effective do not have to be severe, nor do they have to cover all that\nThey are rather to show how quickly and how accurately the\n\nthe pupil has been taught.\n\npupil can apply what he knows.\n\neach grade.\n\nIt is not necessary to have a different set of tests for\n\nThe same tests can be given to several grades, provided they are given under\n\nthe same conditions, and the time element is taken into consideration in marking the\npapers.\n\nAn example of the working of these tests may be seen in the following: The same\ntest in arithmetic was given in October, 191 2, to an\n\nseventh grades.\ngrades.\n\nA section of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and\n\nIn May, 1913, the same test was again given the A section of the same\n\nThe average percentage of the work correctly done by the pupils of the sections\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": "286", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n286\n\ntested and the average time required to do the work were recorded.\nin\n\n[Richmond\n\nThe results obtained\n\nMay were compared with those obtained in October; they were as follows:\nOctober, igi2\nPercentage\nCorrect\n\nFourth grade\nFifth grade\nSixth grade\n\n^2\n46\nSO\n\nSeventh grade\n\nS3\n\nTime\n10 minutes\n8 minutes\n7 minutes\n6 minutes\n\nMay, 1913\nPercentage\nCorrect\n\nTime\n\n40\n\n9 minutes\n\nS3\nSI\n61\n\nfi\n\nTYlimif'PQ\n\n5 minutes\n\nA comparison of these results shows that there was a great difference in the teaching\nability of the four teachers of these sections.\nstill,\n\nThe fourth-grade section practically stood\n\nthe sixth did but little better, while the fifth and seventh made a marked improve-\n\nment.\n\nIt is interesting to know that the tests given in the other studies revealed about\n\nthe same ratio of improvement for the fifth and seventh grades, an additional proof that\nthese two grades had eflScient teachers.\n\nIt was hardly a coincidence that the rating given\n\nthese two teachers as a result of these tests was found to differ but little from the average\n\ngained by them during the first eight months of the year on the other seven points of\nmerit on which they had been rated.\n\nWith the Courtis tests in arithmetic and the Hillegas tests in English to serve as\nmodels, we can very easily make for ourselves a series of tests for each elementary-school\nsubject.\n\nIt will require some time and a great deal of care to make out the tests and to\n\ngive them, but the labor of making them out and giving them is well worth while.\n\nThe\n\nteacher working in the school where such tests are used knows exactly what is expected\nof her, she has a definite goal to reach, and she has an incentive to do her best work.\n\nShe\n\nknows that the rating she is to receive at the end of the year will be entirely of her own\nmaking. The principal or superintendent rates the teacher not on a hastily formed opinion,\nbut upon the actual results of her work.\nThe testing of teachers should be done by the school ofl&cer who comes into the most\nfrequent contact with the teaching staff, the principal, or, in small systems, the super-\n\nAn efl&ciency record of the teachers should be kept in every school; it should\nbe as faithfully kept as is the pupils' record, and should show from month to month the\nrating on those measurable things that are the characteristics of a good school, and should\nshow at the end of the year the result of the year's work measured by the development\nFrom this efficiency record the superintendent can make\nof the pupils in mental power.\nhis recommendations in reference to teachers; according to this record salaries can be\nregulated and promotions to higher positions can be made.\nintendent.\n\nHOW SECURE MORE EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION?\nREED B. TEITRICK, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA.\nThis is a day of experts.\n\nIn his book on The Principles of Scientific Management,\n\nFrederick W. Taylor shows how good methods under expert supervision enabled his men\nto increase their power to handle thirty-five tons of pig iron a day, per man, more than\n\nthey were able to handle by the rule-of-thumb method, without supervision. It has\nlong been known in the army that you can train men to take a thirty-inch step at the rate\nof one hundred and twenty steps to the minute by placing a commissioned oflBcer over\n\nevery five men to see that instructions are carried out.\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": "287", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW SECURE MORE EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION?\n\n287\n\nThere may be good teachers in a system of schools, and yet the system remain on a\nThe foundation of good schools is good teaching, strengthened and supported\nby wise supervision. The entire responsibility of supervision must be assumed by the\nprofessional head of the school system, the superintendent, altho he may delegate others\nlow plane.\n\nto assist.\n\nThe need for assistant supervisors in the larger cities is occasioned by the large areas\nand the great number of schools; in the smaller towns, the duties of the superintendent are\nso manifold that he can spend only a fraction of his time in supervision, and the need for\nadditional supervision becomes imperative. The superintendent must be the executive,\nas well as the professional head of the school system. While it is possible in larger cities\nto separate the mechanical work from the purely pedagogical, this procedure is not feasible\nin smaller school centers.\n\nClearly defined, among the superintendent's duties, other than direct supervision,\nare: (i) to give expert advice to the school board; (2) to select textbooks; (3) to construct\n\nthe course of study; (4) to aid in the selection and assignment of teachers; (5) to direct\nthe general educational poUcy of the community; (6) to be the court of last resort in\n\nextreme cases of discipline.\n\nIn addition to these duties, there are many chores, such as\n\nmaking statistical reports, distributing and recording supplies, etc., which should be delegated to a clerk.\n\nThus, in the small city, the superintendent has so little time left for\n\ndirect supervision that he must do his most effective work in directing supervision.\n\nThis\n\ndemands broad scholarship, proper professional spirit, a clear vision of his school conditions as they are and as they should be, and skill in management.\nThe first step toward more effective supervision in the small city is the conviction\nthat more supervision is needed. It is possible that some large city systems are oversupervised, so that the teachers are bewildered in trying to serve so many masters, and\nso that their own teaching genius is crushed out by minute and specific requirements laid\ndown and demanded by the ever-present critic.\nIn cities having from thirty-five to one hundred and twenty-five teachers, the superintendent and the high-school principal often do all the supervising that is done, except\nthat of the special subjects, drawing, music, manual training, physical culture, etc., which\nis done by the special teachers of these subjects.\nIf, in addition to the superintendent, the high-school principal, and the supervisors\nof special subjects, a ward principal should be put in charge of every twenty teachers, it\nwould give broader opportunities for unity in the work of the schools and more effective\nteaching. In most instances two adjacent buildings can be put under one supervising\nprincipal.\nThis combination will enable a city to employ one good supervisor at a commanding salary and yet save money on the cost of supervising two buildings by two\nprincipals.\n\nIn many cities increase in supervision\n\nmay mean greater expenditure of\n\nmoney, but in education there is nothing more extravagant than poor schools.\nA system of schools cannot progress far beyond the ideals of the superintendent, and\non the other hand a superintendent cannot build teachers and schools into his ideals\nwithout competent supervision.\nMore effective supervision not only depends upon having a sufficient number of\nsupervisors, but it is largely dependent upon the quality of supervision. The quahty of\nsupervision will be determined:\n\n(i)\n\nmethods employed in supervising;\n\nby the personal fitness of supervisors; (2) by the\nby the means employed to make supervision most\n\n(3)\n\neffective.\n\nThe supervisor must be more than an inspector and greater than a common critic.\nSupervision in an educational sense is broader than inspection and greater than criticism,\n\nTo be successful, he must be trained, not\nonly in theory, but by actual experience in teaching and in dealing with both children\nfor it should be stimulative and constructive.\n\nand adults.\n\nA man may be a natural supervisor, but he must make himself a professional\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": "288", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n288\n\n[Richmond\n\none by knowledge of principles, power to teach, and a comprehensive understanding of\nschool work in all of its phases. Altho in some directions his authority must be absolute\nand his judgments decisive, he should be, at all times, a sympathetic counselor and a\nco-operative manager. He must be broad enough in his vision to appreciate the general\nscheme of education and to hold before himself a bird's-eye view of the whole school\nsystem, but he must not be so visionary that he cannot be persistent and positive in carrying out every detail of daily school work. He must possess the courage to act according\nto his own convictions and to regard and protect the best interests of all. His work\ndemands good judgment based upon broad knowledge and wise reasoning. He must\ncultivate that patience bom of experience and service which is always the secret of true\nsuccess.\n\nThe quality of supervision depends also upon the methods employed. While the time\nspent by the supervisor in oflSce work and in collecting material for reports may be useful,\nyet it is the direct personal contact with teachers and pupils at work which makes supervision effective. His methods should be such as to command respect, to promote harmony,\nand to inspire to highest endeavor. The supervisor who visits a schoolroom merely to\ncriticize and to report weaknesses is likely to be looked upon with suspicion and welcomed\nonly as a spy. His methods should produce unity in school work rather than uniformity,\nfor unity promotes growth, while uniformity may mean lack of life.\nAltho each pupil\nshould have equal educational opportunities, these opportunities may not necessarily\n\nbe identical.\n\nOf the means the supervisor may employ to make his schools more efficient, the greatWhatever may be the system, the course of study,\nand the plan of procedure, success or failure must rest mostly upon the real workman the\nteacher.\nNo means for eliminating weak teaching and for providing for intelligent teachest is to increase effective teaching.\n\n—\n\ning, for fixing a responsibility for failure as well as for rewarding merit, should be over-\n\nlooked.\n\nSuggestions and supplementary work, school visiting, institutes, teachers' meetings,\n\nstudy classes, and personal conferences are some of the agencies which help the supervisor to build\n\ntraining school.\n\nup his teaching force.\n\nEvery system of schools should be a teacher-\n\nWhen the teacher cannot command the situation in discipline, teaching,\n\nor training, something should be done to stop the waste.\n\nThe supervisor must share the\n\nresponsibility, stimulate the highest teaching power, and protect the interests of the chil-\n\ndren.\n\nIt is also important that each teacher be allowed that independence of thought\n\nand freedom of initiative necessary to produce effective teaching.\n\nThe supervisor having a view of the whole can keep in touch with each pupil from\ngrade to grade and thus protect and direct his interests as a teacher has not opportunity\nto do.\n\nThe very bright pupils and the very slow pupils are more likely to get a square\n\ndeal under wise supervision.\n\nSkill in grading a school and wisdom in promoting pupils\n\nare the electric rails over which safe and rapid progress is made.\n\nAll qualified pupils\n\nin the grades should be promoted twice each year.\n\nPromotion by subject or the privilege\nof an imgraded school will save the time of the pupil, and the money of the taxpayer.\nA good supervisor will unify the work so that one department shall not rob another.\nSpecialization has a tendency to produce lopsided development. The competent supervisor, therefore, wiU use great tact and skill in correlating and supervising the work of\n\nspecial departments.\n\nThe same teacher who is barren of results without supervision often becomes a fruitful and satisfactory teacher when her course of study is interpreted by an experienced\n\n—\n\nsupervisor. In unsupervised schools, there are often at least two courses of study the\none outlined on paper and the teacher's interpretation of the course outlined. Devices\nand methods cannot take the place of constructive teaching toward positive ends and high\nideals.\n\nThe coiirse of study is not so much matter to be poured into the minds of children.\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": "289", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nP RE-DELINQUENT BOYS\n\nIt has to do with experience, interests, and knowledge.\n\n289\n\nA good course of study is the\n\ncombined work of an expert on the subjects, an expert in supervision, and the teacher.\nThe course of study can be no broader than the teacher. So it is of the utmost importance that teachers be given the feehng of freedom to exercise their own originality and\nindependence on the question of length of lessons, notebook work, home preparation,\nmethods of study, etc. This will tend to produce growing teachers, but the amount\nof time to be given to a subject, its relation to other subjects, and the general method\nof interpretation are the work of the supervisor.\n\nHe must take his full share of respon-\n\nsibility for results.\n\nSupervision should be effective in establishing wholesome public sentiment.\n\nThe\n\nhope of the future is in the school, but the hope of the school is in the mental attitude of\nthe conmiunity toward the school. When parents are interested in the welfare of the\nschool, children are eager to do well, and home work is done better and there is a spirit\nThere are those who say excellent things about the\nof co-operation that spells success.\nWise supervision not only\nschool, but who do not embody their convictions in action.\nwill enable the school board to know the current details of the work of the schools, but\n\nalso will enlist the patrons so that, while as individuals they may be weak, collectively\n\nthey will be strong in sustaining a good school sentiment. To suppose that children in\nthe schools will take a keen interest in their work, while patrons of the schools are indifferent, is to suppose the children to be wiser than the patrons.\n\nThe classroom teacher who is a beginner is so absorbed in the immediate work of her\nschool that she overlooks or undervalues community activities.\n\nOn the other hand, an\n\nexperienced teacher and a teacher of special subjects who plans for children, works with\nchildren, and lives among children finally loses contact with community interests. To\nmeet this condition there is but one remedy the special work of a good supervisor emphasizing points of contact with community life and preserving sympathetic relations between\nthe home and the school.\nBriefly stated, supervision may be made more effective: (i) by giving the superintendent more time for professional duties; (2) by providing an adequate number of supervisors; and (3) by improving the quahty of supervision.\n\n—\n\nPRE-DELINQUENT BOYS\nC. E.\n\nJOINER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MONMOUTH, ILL.\n\nMany of us have had the privilege of studying statistics regarding delinquent boys,\nmen, and women in reform schools, and in other penal institutions. These statistics are\nuseful, but not beneficial to the inmates of these institutions.\nWhy not make a study of\nthe so-called \"troublesome\" or \"pre-delinquent\" boys, and gather a body of facts for use\nin preventing these boys and their successors from becoming delinquents, thus keeping\nthem out of reform schools, jails, and penitentiaries ? The writer was appointed by the\nexecutive committee of the western section of the Illinois State Teachers Association\nto make a study and to report at their annual meeting. Blanks were sent to the superintendents of about fifteen schools of western Illinois, but only nine schools made a thoro\nstudy and a complete report. These reports may be summarized as in Table I.\nFrom the pulpit, the local and cosmopolitan press, and even from the magazines a torrent of criticism of the pubhc schools annually pours forth, some of it timely, helpful, and\nwise, and some of it quite otherwise.\nNow let us direct our attention to the home and to\nsociety and ask these institutions whether they are bearing their just portion of the burden\nof responsibility for the education, especially the moral and rehgious education, of our\nchildren.\nThe school has easily succeeded where it has a good entire home behind it,\nbut we must confess that the school is up against an almost impossible condition where\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": "290", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n290\n\n[Richmond\n\nit has behind it either indifferent, fractional, or bad homes.\nThe school, however, is\nexpected to succeed where the home has been broken down by divorce, intemperance,\n\nimmorality, or laxity.\n\nThe teacher is expected to govern well thirty children from good\n\nhomes along with ten or fifteen from broken-down or fractional homes, and the awful\njob is annually causing many conscientious teachers to realize that they must retire from\nthe schoolroom, or be retired by their shattered nervous system. Fathers and mothers\nunable to properly govern themselves or their three or four children expect a teacher to\ngovern fifty, and if she does not do so without friction they cast the blame wholly on the\nteacher.\n\n—\n\nI protest it is not only unfair but unjust\n\nit is even wicked and cruel to expect\n\nthese young teachers to control where men and women working together( ?) have failed,\n\nbut that is exactly what society expects of the teacher. If these statements are not plain\nto you, please let me refer you to the figures in Table I: 322 boys, or 13 per cent out of a\ntotal of 2,452, reported \"troublesome\" or \"pre-delinquent.\"\nA pre-dehnquent is one\nwhose conduct would indicate that he is in danger of becoming a delinquent later on,\nimless he changes his course. Of these 322 pre-delinquents, 188 have been kept out\nof school by their parents so much that they are older than the\n\nnormal age and hence\nhave become idle and troublesome; 24 are without mothers; 48 are without fathers; and\n22 of the parents are divorced, hence nearly 100 of them are from fractional homes.\nAgain, 50 of them have intemperate fathers; 75 have mothers who are slovenly housekeepers; and 23 of their parents are immoral; hence nearly 150 of them are from bad\nhomes. Again 103 have homes without religious influence; 191 have homes with loose\nhome government; and 167 are never sent to Sunday school.\n\nTABLE I\nReport of Certain Schools on \"Pre-delinquent Boys,\" That Is, on Boys Who\nGive Trouble in Discipline Frequently Enough to Be Called \"Troublesome\"\n\n—Monmouth, Canton, Kewanee, Keithsburg, Princeton, Galesburg, Galva, Quincy,\n\nCities\n\nand RushviUe\n\ni\nCO\n\n2\n\nf2§\n\n3\n\nGrades\n\n1\n\n^2\nH\n3\n\n4\n5\n\n6\n7\n\n8\n\n1\n\nz\n\n:?\n\n61\n\n54\n\n80\n86\n56\n36\n\n65\n57\n\n34\n39\n39\n35\n\n;z;\n\n562\n475\n414\n371\n283\n347\n\n76\n\nTotal.. 2,452 395\nPercent.\nIS\n\n64\n43\n39\n\n1\n3\n\ns\n\n.3\n\nW\n\nW\n\nf^\n\n8\n6\n\n10\n\n3\n\n9\n\nII\n\n3\n5\n\nSi\n\n1 Is\n\nli\n\nz\n\n7\n\n22\n25\n\n34\n\n14\n\n6\n\n20\n\n13\n\n^\n\n6\n8\n14\n10\n\n16\n21\n\n3\n\nM\n\nI\n\n10\n10\n\n75\n\n23\n\n103\n\n155\n\n191\n\n23\n\n7\n\n32\n\n48\n\n60\n\n7\n\nI\n\n6\n\nI\n\n7\n\n8\n\n3\n3\n\n2\n\n5\n\n3\n\n5\n\n3\n\n188\n\n24\n\n48\n\n22\n\n50\n\n58\n\n7i\n\n15\n\n7\n\nIS\n\n13\n\n38\n44\n36\n30\n\n24\n27\n22\n22\n\n4\n\n322\n\n26\n\nlb\n\n18\n25\n\nG\nto\n\n3|\n\n4\n\n•i\n\nii ^1\n\na\n\nM\n\n4\n6\n\n23\n18\n\n1\n!?\n\n^\n\n^\n\n12\nII\n12\n\n19\n29\n33\n\n25\n14\n\n22\n32\n35\n32\n20\n\n9\n\nH\n16\n\n34\n\n4\n8\n4\n\n22\n\n22\n26\n\nII\n\n83\n\n163\n\n163\n\n45\n\n25\n\n50\n\nSO\n\n14\n\n2\n\nOn the boys' personal-habit side, 83 belong to a \"gang\"; 163 use cigarettes; and 163\nare out late of evenings.\n\nconclusion\n\n—wherever there\n\nWhoever reads these figures carefully can come to but one\nis trouble in managing a boy at school, usually back of this\n\ntrouble is something wrong in the home.\n\nIt is clear then that the breaking-down of so\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": "291", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nPRE-DELINQUENT BOYS\n\n291\n\nmany American homes, and not weakness in school management, is the trouble. Society\nmust attend to delinquent homes, or it will always have more delinquent boys than it\ncan take care of. The state never can be a good mother or a good father but it can help\nto make good mothers and good fathers. It can prevent the breaking -down of the home\nby not granting divorces where young children are involved. It can cease breaking up\nhomes by forbidding forever the practice of selling Uquor to fathers and mothers and\ncigarettes to minors.\n\nThe home is still the greatest of all influences in education for good or for evil.\n\nThe\n\nschool is most wiUing to bear its just burden of responsibility for the conditions of society,\n\nbut we plead that reformers turn their attention for a Uttle while at least toward the home,\nin order to make it feel its responsibility, to the end that its products be\n\nthe school and for school education.\n\nfit\n\nsubjects for\n\nThe public seems to have practically forgotten\n\nthat there is such a thing as home education to prepare and supplement school education.\nIf this article shall serve to convince a few parents of the great truth that the home is\nstill,\n\nor in truth should be, the greatest of all educational agencies, then the purpose of\n\nthis investigation and of this paper shall have been accomplished.\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": "292", "text": ""}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": "293", "text": "THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nRICHMOND MEETING\nOFFICERS\n\n—Robert Aley, president, University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nVice-President—^James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction. .Raleigh, N.C.\n\nPresident\n\nSecretary\n\nJ.\n\n—^William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School\n\n.\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Evening, February 23, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order by President Robert J. Aley at 8: 00 p.m., in the\nauditorium of the Jefferson Hotel.\n\nThe general topic of the evening was \"Health Problems in the American Public\nSchools,\" which was considered under two heads: (i) \"Plans for Promoting Improvement\nin the Sanitation of Rural Schools\";\n\n(2)\n\n\"Supervision and Care of Personal Health of\n\nPupils in Rural Schools.\"\n\nThe following persons took part in the discussion: Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor\nof physical education, Colimibia University,\n\nNew York, N.Y.; James Y. Joyner, state\n\nR. W. Corwin, M.D., chairman,\nCommittee of American Medical Association, Pueblo, Colo.; W. H. Heck, professor of\n\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C;\n\neducation, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.;\n\nW. S. Rankin, secretary, State\n\nBoard of Health, Raleigh, N.C; Charles H. Keyes, president, Skidmore School of Arts,\nSaratoga Springs, N.Y.; Jacob A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio;\nD. B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C;\nElla Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, February 24, 1^14\nThe session was called to order at 9:30 a.m., in the auditorium of the Jefferson Hotel,\nwith President Aley in the chair.\n\n\"The Report of the Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools\n\n—\n\nand School Systems\n\n^A\n\nBrief Statement concerning the Purpose, Nature,\n\nand Con-\n\nduct of School Surveys\" was presented by George Drayton Strayer, professor of\neducational administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.,\nchairman.\n\nA discussion followed the reading of the report in which the following participated:\nFrank E. Spaulding, superintendent of Newton schools, Newtonville, Mass.; Ben Blewett,\nElliott, director,\nsuperintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.; E.\nH. Judd,\ncourse for the training of teachers, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nN. Kendall,\ndirector. School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.;\n\nC\n\n;\n\nC\n\nC\n\nstate conunissioner of education, Trenton, N.J.;\n\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state\n\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.; J. H. Van Sickle, superintendent\nof schools, Springfield, Mass.; John W. Cook, president, State Normal School, DeKalb,\n111.;\n\nC E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.; John W. Withers, presi-\n\ndent, Harris Teachers College, St. Louis, Mo.;\nof schools, San Antonio, Tex.\n\n293\n\nand L. E. Wolfe, former superintendent\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": "294", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n294\n\n[National\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Tuesday Afternoon, February 24, 1914\nPresident Aley called the meeting to order at 2:00 P.M., in the auditorium of the\nJefferson Hotel.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Public-School Survey\" C. S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho.\n\"The Method, Scope, and Value of the Survey in Relation to the Course of Study\"\nA. J. Kinnaman, dean, State Normal School, Bowling Green, Ky.\n\"The Method, Scope, and Value of the Survey in Relation to the Teaching Force\"\n\n—\n\nM. E. Pearson, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Kans.\nDiscussion: M. G. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAt this point began a discussion of the topic \"Sex Hygiene,\" under which papers\nwere presented as follows:\n\"Wanted A Twentieth-Century Ideal\"\n\n—\n\nent of schools, Brookl)ni, N.Y.\n\"Sex Hygiene ^What the Schools\nNormal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n—\n\n—Grace C. Strachan,\nsuperintendCan Do\" — Carroll G. Pearse, president. State\ndistrict\n\nDiscussion: J. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.; J. Stanley Brown,\n\nsuperintendent, Township High School, Joliet, 111.; and Thomas A. Mott, superintendent\nof schools, Seymour, Ind.\n\nThe death of A. C. Nelson, state superintendent of public instruction, Salt Lake\nCity, Utah, was noted and a committee appointed to prepare resolutions relating to the\n\nsame, which conunittee will report at the St. Paul meeting of the Council.\n\nWilliam B. Owen, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTOPIC:\n\nHEALTH PROBLEMS IN THE AMERICAN PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS\n\nTHOMAS D. WOOD, M.D., COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y., CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION\nOF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nThe Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National\nCouncil of Education and of the American Medical Association has made\n\nan exhaustive study of the problems of health and sanitation in rural\ncommunities. It has already decided at this meeting upon lines of action\nthat will bear early fruit.\n\nIt will issue in time for publication in the\n\nProceedings a clear-cut statement of the \"Minimum Sanitary Requirements\nfor Rural Schools.''\nStatistics\n\nshow that most physical defects are as prevalent, or more\n\nprevalent, among pupils in rural schools than among those who go to schools\n\nSchool buildings and grounds in cities and towns are in general\nmore attractive, more sanitary, and more adequate for the education of\nchildren than school buildings and grounds in the country. Many country\nschools are in schoolhouses and outhouses, not only dangerous to health,\nbut deadening to the finer sensibilities and degrading to the morals of the\nin the city.\n\npupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": "295", "text": "SANITARY REQUIREMENTS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nCouncai\n\n295\n\nThe country school should be as sanitary and as wholesome in all\nThe\n\nessential particulars as the best private dwelling in the community.\n\nexpense of the things which really affect the health of the pupil in school\nshould be estimated in terms of child life and efficiency and only for convenience reduced to dollar and cents.\n\nThe welfare of our country depends upon no factor more indispensable,\nThe rural school is the universal,\n\nmore vital, than the welfare of rural life.\n\nthe strategic, the incomparable agency for improving rural life.\n\nThese\n\ninfluences of the rural school affect not only methods of agriculture, but all\n\n—\n\nphases and standards of the lives of the people\n\n^physical, mental, social,\n\nand moral.\nIf the rural school is to\nefficient, it must\n\nbe considered fundamentally and passably\n\nbe sanitary enough to conserve all health values, and a\n\nsure and sufficient supervision of personal health of rural-school children\n\nmust be instituted and maintained.\nMedical inspection of pupils has been instituted in about four hundred\ncities of the country.\n\nNot one state in five provides even nominal medical\n\ninspection and health care for children in country schools.\n\nThe Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National\nCouncil of Education and of the American Medical Association is committed\n\nwith conviction and enthusiasm to promoting improvement of sanitation\nof rural schools\nis\n\nand care of health of country children.\n\nThe committee\n\nconsidering a plan for stimulating improvement of rural schools thru\n\nprizes to be\n\nawarded to states and communities which demonstrate the\n\ngreatest relative improvement in their own schools.\n\nMINIMUM SANITARY REQUIREMENTS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS\nThe following are the \"Minimum Sanitary Requirements for Rural\nSchools\" proposed by the Joint Committees on Health Problems in Education of the National Council of Education of the National Education\n\nAssociation and of the American Medical Association:\nIt is the desire and purpose of this committee to help establish a stand-\n\nard of fundamental health essentials in the rural school and its material\n\nequipment, so that attainment of this minimum standard may be demanded\nby educational authorities and by public opinion of every rural school\nthruout the country.\nPossession of the minimum sanitary requirements should be absolutely\n\nnecessary to the pride and self-respect of the community and to the sanction and approval of county, state,\nofficial\n\nand other supervising and interested\n\nor social agencies.\n\nNeglect of anything essential for health in construction, equipment,\n\nand care of the rural-school plant is at least an educational sin of omission\nand may reasonably be considered a social and civic crime or misdemeanor.\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": "296", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n296\n\n[National\n\nThe country school should be as sanitary and wholesome in all essential\nhome in the community. Further, it should be\n\nparticulars as the best\n\npleasing and attractive in appearance, in furnishings, and in surroundings,\nso that the community as a whole may be proud of it; so that the pupils\nand teacher may take pleasure in attending school and in caring for and\n\nimproving it.\n\nLOCATION AND SURROUNDINGS\n\nI.\n\nThe school should be located in as healthful a place as exists in the\ncommunity.\nNoise and all other objectionable factors should be eliminated from the\ninmiediate environment of the rural school.\nAccessibility.\n\n—Not more than two miles from the most distant home,\n\nif the children walk.\nif\n\nNot more than six miles from the most distant home,\n\nschool wagons are provided.\n\nDrainage.\n\n—School ground must be well drained and as dry as\n\nIf natural drainage is\n\npossible.\n\nnot adequate, artificial subsoil drainage should be\n\nprovided.\nSoil.\n\n—As every rural-school ground should have\n\ntrees, shrubs,\n\nand a\n\nreal garden or experimental farm, the soil of the school grounds should be\n\nand tillable. Rock and clay soil should always be avoided. If\nthe soil is muddy when wet, a good layer of sand and fine gravel should be\nfertile\n\nused to make the children's playground as useful as possible in all kinds of\nweather.\nSize of school grounds.\n\n—For the schoolhouse and playground, at\n\nleast\n\nthree acres are required.'\n\nPlayground is not a luxury but a necessity. A school without a playground is an educational deformity and presents a gross injustice to childhood.\n\n—\n\nArrangement of grounds. ^The school grounds should have trees, plants,\nand shrubs grouped with artistic effect but without interfering with the\nchildren's playground.\n\nn.\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nThe schoolhouse should be made as nearly fireproof as possible.\n\nDoors\n\nshould always open outward and the main door should have a covered\nentrance; a separate fuel room should be provided, also separate cloakrooms\nfor boys and for, girls.\n\nA basement or cellar, if provided, should be well ventilated and absolutely dry.\n\nThe one-teacher country school should contain, in addition to the classroom:\na)\n\nA small entrance hall, not less than 6 by 8 feet.\n\nhome, a garden, and an experimental farm), which are already in some progressive states accepted and established as educational essentials,\n<If the rural-school plan includes the additional features (a teacher's\n\nthen the school grounds should contain 8 to lo acres.\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": "297", "text": "SANITARY REQUIREMENTS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nCouDicl]\n\nb)\n\n297\n\nA small retiring-room, not less than 8 by 10 feet, to be used as an\n\nemergency room in case of illness or accident, for a teacher's conference\nroom, for school library, and for health inspection, a feature now being added\nto the work of the rural school.\nc) A small room, not less than 8 by 10 feet, for a workshop, for instruction in cooking, and for the preparation of refreshments when the school is\n\nused, as it should be, for social purposes.\n\nClassroom should not be less than 30 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 12 feet\nhigh.\n\nThis will provide space enough for a maximum of thirty pupils.\nin.\n\nVENTILATION AND HEATING\n\nThe schoolroom should always receive fresh air coming directly from\nout-of-doors in one of the following arrangements:\n\nThru wide open windows in mild weather.\nThru window-board ventilators under all other conditions, except\nwhen, with furnace or jacketed stove, special and adequate inlets and exits\na)\nb)\n\nfor air are provided.\n\nHeating.\n\n—Unless furnace or some other basement system of heating\n\ninstalled, at least\n\na properly jacketed stove is required.\n\nis\n\n(No unjacketed\n\nstove should be tolerated in any school.)\n\nThe jacketed stove should have a direct fresh air inlet about 12 inches\nsquare, opening thru the wall of the schoolhouse into the jacket against\n\nthe middle or hottest part of the stove.\n\nThe exit for foul air should be thru an opening at least 16 inches square\non the wall near the floor, on the same side of the room as the stove is\nlocated.\n\nA fireplace with flue adjoining the stove chimney makes a good exit\nfor bad air.'\n\nTemperature.\n\n—Every school should have a thermometer, and the\n\ntemperature in cold weather should be kept between 66° and 68° Fahrenheit.\nIV.\n\nLIGHTING\n\nThe schoolroom should receive an abundance of light, sufficient for\ndarkest days, with all parts of the room adequately illuminated.\n\nThe area of glass in windows should be from one-fifth to one-fourth of\nthe floor area.\n\nThe best arrangement, according to present ideas, is to have the light\ncome only from the left side of the pupils and from the long wall of the\nclassroom. Windows may be allowed on rear as well as on the left side.\nHigh windows not less than seven feet from the floor may be permitted\non the right side as an aid to cross-ventilation, but not for lighting.\n'The following arrangement for ventilating flue is required in one western state: A circular sheet sted\nsmoke flue, 8 inches in diameter, passing up in center of ventilatmg shaft (foul air exit) 20 inches square in\nthe clear.\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": "298", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n298\n\n[National\n\nThere should be no trees or shrubbery near the schoolhouse which will\ninterfere with the lighting of the classroom.\n\nThe school building should so face with reference to the windows that\nthe schoolroom will receive the direct sunlight at some time during the day.\n\nShades should be provided at tops and bottoms of windows with the\n\ndark shades at top, so that light may be properly controlled on bright days.\nSchoolroom colors.\n\n—The best colors for the schoolroom\n\nin relation to\n\nlighting are:\nCeiling: white or light cream.\n\n—green.\n\nWalls: light gray\n\nBlackboards: black.\nV.\n\nCLEANLINESS\n\nThe schoolhouse and surroundings should be kept as clean as a good\nhousekeeper keeps her home.\na)\n\nNo dry sweeping or dusting should be allowed.\n\nb) Floors\n\nand furniture should be cleaned with damp sweepers and\n\noily cloths.^\nc)\n\nScrubbing and airing are better than any form of fumigation.\nVI.\n\nDRINKING WATER\n\nDrinking water should be available for every pupil at any time of day\nwhich does not interfere with the school program.\nEvery rural school should have a sanitary drinking fountain located\njust inside or outside the schoolhouse entrance.\n\nDrinking water should come from a safe source.\n\nIts purity should be\n\ncertified by an examination by the state board of health or by some other\n\nequally reliable authority.\n\nA common drinking-cup is always dangerous and should never be\ntolerated.\n\nIndividual drinking-cups are theoretically, and, in some conditions,\n\nall\n\nright, but practical experience has proven that in schools, individual cups, to\n\nbe used more than once, are unsatisfactory and unhygienic.\nthey are not to be advocated or approved for any school.\nSufficient pressure for\n\nTherefore,\n\nrunning water for drinking fountain or other\n\nuses in the rural school may always be provided from any source without\nexcessive expense by a storage tank or by pressure tank with force pump.\n\nVn.\n\nWATER FOR WASHING\n\nChildren in all schools should have facilities for washing hands available\nat least:\na)\nb)\n*\n\nAlways after the use of the toilet.\nAlways before eating.\n\nSweeping compounds in moist-proof containers may be obtained in the markets.\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": "299", "text": "—\n\nSANITARY REQUIREMENTS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nCoundl]\n\nc)\n\n299\n\nFrequently after playing outdoors, writing on blackboard, or doing\n\nother forms of handwork connected with the school.\n\nIndividual clean towels should always be used.\n\nPaper towels are the cheapest and most practicable.\n\nThe common towel is as dangerous to health as the common drinkingcup.\n\nFURNITURE\n\nVni.\n\nSchool seats and desks should be hygienic in type and adjusted to the\nsize and needs of growing children.\n\nseparate\n\nSeats and desks should be individual\n\n—adjustable—clean.\n\nBooks and other materials of instruction should be not only sanitary\nbut attractive enough to stimulate a wholesome response from the pupils.\nIX.\n\nTOILETS AND PRIVIES\n\nToilets and privies should be sanitary in location, in construction, and\nin maintenance.\na) If\n\nwater carriage system for sewage is available, separate toilets\n\nboys and girls should be located in the schoolhouse with separate\nentrances on diifferent sides or corners of the school building.\n\nfor\n\nb) If there is\n\nno water carriage system, separate privies should be\n\nlocated at least fifty feet in the different directions from the schoolhouse,\n\nwith the entrances well screened.\nc)\n\nThe privy should be rainproof, well ventilated, and one of the\n\nfollowing types:\n1.\n\nDry earth closet.\n\n2.\n\nSeptic tank container.\n\n3.\n\nWith a water-tight vault or box.\n\nAll containers of excreta should be water-tight, thoroly screened against\ninsects, and easily emptied and cleaned at frequent intervals.\n\nNo cesspool should be used unless it is water-tight and easily emptied\nand cleaned.\nAll excreta should be either burned, buried, treated by subsoil drainage,\n\nreduced by septic tank treatment, or properly distributed on tilled land as\nfertilizer.\n\nX.\n\nALL SCHOOLHOUSES AND PRIVIES SHOULD BE THOROLY AND EFFECTIVELY\nSCREENED AGAINST FLIES AND MOSQUITOES\n\nXI.\n\nSCHOOLHOUSES AND OUTHOUSES SHOULD BE ABSOLUTELY FREE FROM\nDEFACING AND OBSCENE MARKS\n\nXII.\n\nBUILDINGS SHOULD BE KEPT IN GOOD REPAIR AND WITH WHOLE\n\nWINDOWS\n\nSTANDARDS\nProvision and equipment of adequate school plant depends on intelligence, interest, pride, and financial ability of community.\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": "300", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n300\n\n[National\n\nMaintenance of a clean and sanitary school plant depends on efficient\nhousekeeping and on interest and willing co-operation of pupils.\n\nNo community should be satisfied by the minimum requirements indicated in the foregoing, but every country school should be so attractive and\nwell equipped as to minister with some abundance of satisfaction to the\nphysical, mental, aesthetic, social, and moral well-being of those who provide\nit,\n\nwho own it, who use it, and who enjoy it.\nPRESENT CONDITIONS\n\nAmong the reasons which explain the present deplorable conditions of\nrural schoolhouses, the following are prominent:\na)\n\nLow architectural and sanitary standards in rural regions generally\n\nthruout the country.\nh)\n\nIgnorance regarding the physical, mental, social, and moral effects\n\nof unattractive and insanitary school buildings on the children and on the\n\ncommunity as a whole.\nc) False economy expressed by local school boards in failure to vote\nenough money to build and maintain suitable school buildings.\nd) Lack of supervision or assistance by the state which is usually necessary to maintain desirable standards.\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nHow shall the rural schools thruout this country be improved up to a\nreasonably satisfactory standard ?\nI.\n\nBy a popular campaign of education regarding the conditions desir-\n\nable and possible in the country school.\n\nSuch a campaign would profitably\n\ninclude many or most of the following:\na)\n\nThe United States Bureau of Education and state departments of\n\neducation should furnish plans and instructions for construction and equip-\n\nment of rural-school buildings.\nThe United States Bureau of Education in Washington is already\nsupplying on request valuable help of this kind, and a few state departments\nof education are demonstrating what may be done by supervision and sup-\n\nport which aid without controlling.\nh) State departments of education\n\nshould supply supervision of rural\n\nschools and should have power:\ni)\n2)\n\nTo condemn insanitary and wholly unsuitable buildings.\nTo give state aid to rural schools when the local authorities fulfil\n\ncertain desirable\nc)\n\nand reasonable conditions.\n\nIdeas and standards of school sanitation should be inculcated in\n\nminds of local school patrons and school authorities who control school\nfunds and who administer the affairs of the schools. Public lectures on\nhealth topics should be provided in the schoolhouse and elsewhere.\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": "301", "text": "SANITARY REQUIREMENTS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nCouncU]\n\nd) Effective school health courses should\n\n301\n\nbe introduced in normal\n\nschools and teachers' institutes.\n\nBetter education of rural-school teachers, county superintendents, and\nrural-school supervisors in the principles and practice of school hygiene and\n\nsanitation should be assured.\ne)\n\nInterest in,\n\nand enthusiasm for, the improvement and care of all\n\nfeatures of the school and its surroundings which affect health and happi-\n\nness should be inspired in the minds of rural-school pupils.\n\nOrganizations such as \"Pupils' Board of Health,\" \"Civic Leagues,\" or\n\"Health Militias\" may profitably be formed among pupils.\n/) Organizations like \"The Granges,\" women's clubs, county medical\nsocieties, and other groups so situated that they may further the cause of\nhealth and efficiency should co-operate with the rural school.\ng) Attractive but reliable health information should be furnished\nabundantly by the public press.\nII. Emulation and competition should be recognized and rewarded in\nways that will promote wholesomely and progressively the welfare of the\n\ncommunity as a whole.\n\nTEN SANITARY COMMANDMENTS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS\nIn every school which may be considered passably sanitary the following\nconditions shall obtain:\n1.\n\nHeating by at least a properly jacketed stove.\n\n(No unjacketed stove\n\nto be allowed.)\n\nVentilation by direct outdoor air inlets and by adequate and direct\nfoul air outlets.\n2.\n\nLighting from left side of room (or from left and rear) thru window\n\nspace at least one-fifth of floor space in area.\n3.\n\nCleanliness of school as good as in the home of a careful housekeeper.\n\nFurniture sanitary in kind, and easily and frequently cleaned. Seats\nand desks adjustable and hygienic in type.\n5. Drinking water from a pure source provided by a sanitary drinking\n4.\n\nfountain.\n6. Facilities for washing hands, and individual towels.\n7.\n\nToilets and privies sanitary in type and in care (with no cesspools\n\nunless water-tight) and no neglected privy boxes or vaults.\n8. Flies and mosquitoes excluded by thoro screening of schoolhouse and\n\ntoilets.\n\n9. Obscene and defacing marks absolutely absent from schoolhouse\nand privies.\n\n10.\n\nPlayground of adequate size for every rural school.\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": "302", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n302\n\n[National\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS\nOF EFFICIENCY IN SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS—\nA BRIEF STATEMENT CONCERNING THE PURPOSE,\nNATURE, AND CONDUCT OF SCHOOL SURVEYS\nGEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y., CHAIRMAN\n\nThe committee on standards and tests has spent a part of the time\navailable at each of the three meetings which it has held in considering the\n\nsubject of school surveys.\n\nIt is obvious that any consideration of the sub-\n\nject of standards or tests of eflBciency must involve some treatment of that\n\nform of inquiry now so commonly advocated by the critics of public education who hope to base a wise and economic reorganization of our school\nsystem upon a critical scientific examination of present practice. It is\nthe purpose of this brief statement to present the findings of the committee\nwith reference to the following questions: (i) What is a survey ? (2) When\nor under what conditions should a survey be undertaken ? (3) By whom\nshould a survey be made ? (4) What are the methods to be employed in\nan efficient survey ? (5) Under what conditions should reports of surveys\nbe issued?\nI.\n\n(6)\n\nWhat results may we expect from school surveys?\nA school survey may be defined as an inquiry\n\nWhat is a survey?\n\nconcerning public education which seeks to acquaint the public with all\nof the educational agencies supported in whole, or in part, by public moneys,\n\nwith respect to their organization, administration, supervision, cost, physical\n\nequipment, courses of study, teaching\n\nstaff,\n\nmethods\n\nof\n\nteaching,\n\nstudent body, and results as measured by the achievements of those who\nare being trained or have been trained therein.\n\nSuch an inquiry must,\n\nof necessity, reach conclusions in terms of the aim or purpose of education,\n\nand may not fail to relate present achievement of the school system to the\nsources of support now utilized or which may be made available.\n\nsurvey is not to be confused with a school investigation.\n\nA school\n\nCommon usage\n\nhas given to the term \"investigation\" a more or less invidious significance.\nIt suggests the assembling of evidence in proof of inefficiency of method,\n\nor of incompetence and negligence of individuals or institutions.\n\nIts stress\n\nupon failure and non-performance. Consequently its attitude is primarily\nnegative and its attention focused upon affairs of the past. Moreover,\nan investigation must work in the face of the hostility, or, at the best,\npassive resistance, of those whose activities are brought under scrutiny.\n\nis\n\nThe survey, on the other hand, seeks to cause the school system, as it\nactually exists and operates, to pass in complete review before the public.\n\nWhile of necessity taking account of the neglected responsibilities of individuals, the survey is concerned, first of all, with schools as institutions\n\nserving a definite public purpose.\n\nIts aim is, not to bring individuals to\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": "303", "text": "COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nCouncUl\n\n303\n\ntrial, but rather to define those conditions under which the organized insti-\n\ntutions of public education\n\npublic good.\n\nThe\n\nbecome most immediately effective for the\n\nsurvey involves the highest degree\n\nof\n\nco-operation\n\nbetween those on the inside and those on the outside of the school system. This difference between the school survey and the school investigation is more than a verbal distinction.\n\nIt involves a difference in motive\n\nthat predetermines both immediate scientific results and ultimate educational gain.\n2.\n\nWhen, or under what conditions, should a survey be undertaken?\n\ngeneral, in the large systems,\n\nit is\n\nIn\n\nbest for the superintendent's oj05ce to\n\nsecure from the board of education the necessary funds to maintain a bureau\nor department of special statistical information and special tests whereby\n\nthe efficiency of the school system may be reviewed at all times in a way\n\nwhich will add needed important data and conclusions to the reports and\nthe observations possible under the usual organization that\n\nnow exists.\n\nIn small systems, and in all systems on special occasions, this will not be\npossible.\n\nTherefore other measures must be adopted.\n\nWhen any special questions arise calling for expert knowledge which\ncannot be easily supplied by the superintendents or school officials, as, for\nexample, in the matter of architectural plans, in the matter of expert revisions of accounting system, and in cases where new and elaborate subjects\n\nare to be introduced into the curriculum, or when additions and revisions\nare undertaken, the community should be led to recognize the fact that it\nis\n\nwise to employ the services of specialists who can advise the superin-\n\ntendent's office and the board in these particular matters.\n\nWhen the superintendent or the lay members of the school administration feel uncertainty with regard to any phase of the school work, it should\n\nbe possible to employ the services of competent persons who can supple-\n\nment the regular observation of the schools and confirm or modify the recommendations that are under consideration.\n\nSuch persons, constituting a\nsurvey committee, should be recognized by the community as a temporary\nextension of the supervisory staff of the schools.\n\nIn special cases such\nsupplementary service can be resorted to as a means of deciding points which\nare under dispute.\n\nThus it is easily conceivable that the several members\n\nof the board of education would not agree with regard to the wisdom of\n\ncertain policies under consideration.\n\nThey should be brought to recognize\n\nthe value of advice from representatives of the educational profession\noutside the particular school system in question.\n\nThe community and the\n\neducational profession should recognize that consultation is not a reflection\n\nupon the efficiency of the superintendent, board of education, or members\nof the teaching staff,\n\nbut rather a recognition of the teaching profes-\n\nsion as a large and complex group, the members of which are capable of\n\nsupplementing each other, even where there is not absolute agreement on\n\nmethods of procedure.\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": "304", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n304\n\n[National\n\nTemporary additions to the school staff in the fashion above described\nare justified by the fact that schools continually are facing administrative\n\nemergencies for which it is not necessary to provide permanent additions\nto the\n\nstaff.\n\nFurthermore, these temporary situations very frequently\n\ncall for a broader view than can be supplied by a single supervisory officer.\n\nThe teaching profession itself needs the kind of opportunity which would\nbe furnished by such surveys to enlarge its own views and to try out many\nof the experiments which are necessary in order to secure the best adjust-\n\nment within the complicated school situation.\nThe superintendent very frequently needs the support of the general\neducational profession to make a community clearly aware of needs which\nhe sees, but which the community is slow to recognize. For example, he\nfrequently needs more funds than he can easily obtain without the cooperation of some outside advice. The superintendent ought to be able\nto call in such outside advice for the benefit of the community itself.\nFinally, the community may be in doubt as to the efficiency of its school\nofficers.\nWhen criticism has once become the fashion in a given conamunity,\nit is\n\nvery likely to undermine the efficiency of the school system, and the\n\nsuperintendent should welcome a survey which will either give him the\n\nsupport which he needs in dispelling the criticisms, or give the community\nthe suggestions which it needs in order to remedy the situation.\n3.\n\nBy whom should a survey he made? From the above discussion it\n\nwill be seen that a survey can be most advantageously undertaken by the\n\nschool officers.\n\nIf the citizens\n\nto be able to secure\n\nit\n\nwish to have a survey made, they ought\n\nthru their regular representatives on the board.\n\nGroups of citizens who cannot secure such action thru the board should be\nprovided with means of carrying out a survey and should\n\nfeel justified\n\nin adding temporarily to the supervisory staff a group of specialists com-\n\npetent to undertake a thorogoing inquiry.\n\nFurthermore, the superintend-\n\nent ought to be in position at any time to call in impartial professional\nadvisers in case he finds school interests seriously, jeopardized.\n\nWhether\n\nthe survey originates with the superintendent or with the boards or with\n\nan interested group of citizens, its purpose should be to protect and advance\nthe interests of the children and youth of the community by employing\nspecialists, whether within or without the system, competent to study\nscientifically the school system and able, by virtue of their experience as\neducators, to propose adequate and workable reforms.\nA school\n4. What are the methods to he employed in an efficient survey ?\nsurvey naturally will aim to deal with those phases of school organization\nwhich are capable of exact objective review. Thus the financial management of the schools should be taken up. The physical equipment of the\nschools should be examined. The attendance at schools, including the\nquestion of enforcement of the compulsory attendance law, can be definitely\ndetermined. The rate of promotion within the grade can be known defi-\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": "305", "text": "CouncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nnitely.\n\nThe number of children in a given classroom should be ascertained\n\n305\n\nas well as the provisions that are made for exceptional children, including\n\nThe method of training teachers, their qualifications, the\nmethods of their appointment, and the method of eliminating ineflScient\nteachers should be considered. The salaries of teachers and the rules\ndefectives.\n\ngoverning their tenure of\n\noffice;\n\nthe provisions that are\n\nmade for the\n\nimprovement of teachers during the period of their service; the organization and functions of the supervisory staff and the efficiency with which they\ncarry out their work, especially with reference to their conduct with the\n\nclassroom exercises;\n\nthe efficiency of instruction, including an examina-\n\ntion of the course of study; the methods of class instruction, including the\n\nvariations in these methods of class instruction\n\n;\n\nthe variations in these meth-\n\nods which are to be observed in the different parts of the system, and the\n\nmeasurement of the achievements of pupils in the subjects commonly taught,\nThere should also be made an examiall will be subject to careful review.\nnation of the provisions which exist within the system for recording such\ndata as are necessary for the proper study of educational problems, together\n\nwith recommendations concerning the use to be made of these facts.\n\nAny school inquiry should, so far as is practicable, observe, measure,\nand report the conditions of the community's political, industrial, social,\nand educational life which favor or interfere with the work of the schools.\nInvestigation should dwell upon the achievements of the school system,\nThe measure of the\nespecially noting the direction in which it is moving.\nefficiency of any school or system of schools must always be made in terms\nof the changes, developments, improvements, or growths in efficiency which\nhave taken place under a given administration or during a given period\nof years.\n5.\n\nUnder what conditions should\n\nreports of surveys be issued?\n\nAny\n\nreport concerning school conditions should be so planned and arranged as\n\nnot to mislead educational officers or the public concerning the general\n\nand special methods of any important feature of the work of the schools\nwithin its scope. For example: If the scope of the inquiry includes the\nwork of the department of physical education, and if the physical growth\nof pupils is below what should be expected, while the moral and social\natmosphere of the school playgrounds is admirable, the latter fact should\n\nbe made as clear as the former. In general, certain topics should be chosen\nfor measurement and report, and the result should be reported in the case\nof each topic without selection for purpose of the support of any interest\nwithin or without the school.\n\nThe report should be prepared as a document intended for the informaThe further use of the report should depend\nupon the agreement of these school officers and the specialists who are\nemployed by the board. No publicity should be given to the work of the\nsurvey during its progress without the consent of both parties. Upon\ntion -of the school officers.\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": "306", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3o6\n\n[National\n\ncompletion of the survey, publication involving alterations in the report\nshould depend upon the consent of the persons making the survey.\n6.\n\nWhat results may we expect from school surveys ?\n\nFrom school surveys\n\nhaving the scope indicated above and conducted by competent professional\nspecialists, we expect to derive more adequate appreciation of our pubHc-\n\nFrom\n\nschool systems with respect to both their successes and their failures.\n\nsuch surveys, we may hope for an accumulation of educational data from\n\nwhich\n\nscientific\n\nconclusions concerning the changes which should be\n\nbrought about in educational practice may be derived.\n\nWhen surveys in-\n\nvolve the men of highest scientific attainment and of sound professional\n\njudgments, we shall get recommendations which,\n\nif\n\nfollowed, will\n\nmake\n\nfor the increased efl&ciency of public education.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrank E. Spatjlding, superintendent of Newton schools, Newtonville, Mass.\nMeasurements of administrative efl5ciency that are at once mathematically and scienaccurate and also of any considerable practical value have yet to be achieved.\nWhile we wait on such perfect measurements, however, we may render our profession\nincalculable service thru measurements that are practically reliable, usable, and useful;\nsuch measurements are already at hand.\nIn making measurements that possess these characteristics of practical reliability,\nusability, and usefulness, no other unit of measure can compare, either in significance or in\ntifically\n\nthe extent of its applicability, with the dollar.\n\nHow much—^how many definite units\n\nof anything, material or immaterial, does one dollar buy or produce;\n\nor,\n\nwhat is the\n\ncost of any definite unit or number of units of anything that the schools are trying to\n\nproduce?\n\nHow is each dollar of expenditure apportioned among the various things\n\nservices, plant, equipment, supplies\n\n—that are bought\n\n?\n\nSuch questions as these, directed\n\nwith discrimination, demand measurements that penetrate to the very heart of administrative eflficiency.\n\nThe number of significant measurements that may be made thru the application of\nsome monetary unit is almost without limit; and there is scarcely one of these measurements that is not as significant pedagogically as it is financially. To bring out this significance, financial and pedagogical, comparisons are essential; we must compare the\ncosts of similar achievements imder different conditions, in different school systems, in\ndifferent parts of the same school system, or in the same school system at different times\n\nand under different conditions.\nBut we may not rest with comparisons alone; these are valuable only as they lead to\ncritical analysis and constructive study of the effects of the different conditions under\ncomparison which result in different unit costs of production. It is the merit rather than\nthe defect of these measurements and comparisons of costs that they seldom offer at once\nthe basis for final conclusions;\n\nalmost invariably they stimulate further inquiry.\n\nspecial school survey that does not result in a continuous survey carried on\n\nA\n\nby those\n\nregularly in charge of the school system fails of the chief function that a survey should\nserve.\n\nC. N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J.\n\n—\n\n^This report has\n\nnot been presented to the committee. I alone am responsible for it.\nIn order to measure achievements in geography, it is necessary to know the ultimate\n\nends to be attained by a study of the subject.\n\nWe must know what we want to accom-\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": "307", "text": "CouncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nplish before undertaking to\n\nknow where we are going.\n\n307\n\nmeasure results. We cannot estimate progress unless we\nWe cannot measure unless we have something to measure.\n\nQualitative standards must precede quantitative ones.\n\nHave we such standards?\n\nHas\n\nany serious attempt been made to establish these standards as a necessary prerequisite\nto measuring efl&ciency ? There is little evidence that such an attempt has been made,\nat least so far as American schools are concerned. This is not merely my opinion, but\nThey\nit is also that of some of the foremost teachers of geography in the country.\ndeprecate the fact that it is ^o.\n\nGeography has received scant attention from the National Education Association\nIn the past ten years, not to exceed six or eight papers on all the various subjects pertaining to it, in both the elementary and secondary schools, have been presented.\n\nThe\n\nliterature on the subject for teachers may be found in the modest compass of not to exceed\nhalf a dozen books, some of which are of modest merit.\n\nThe points which in my judgment need emphasis are these:\n\n(i)\n\nWe lack collective\n\nor generally accepted standards of what should be accomplished; (2) No serious attempt\n\nhas been made to establish such standards;\n\n(3)\n\nSuch standards, however, are necessary\n\nbefore we can estimate efl&ciency with confidence.\n\nIn what way is it possible to establish such standards as preliminary to knowing what\nwe are to judge or measure? By what means are we to reach conclusions as to what\nshould be the essentials in a course of study in geography to which inquiring school\nsuperintendents and surveyors could look for guidance ?\n\nOne way would be this: A committee could be appointed by this Council to report\nupon standards or desirable accomplishments in geography. This committee could call\nto its assistance leading teachers of geography.\n\nIt could also secure the co-operation of\n\npsychologists to pass upon the adaptability of material to the age of children, an important\nconsideration.\n\nSuperintendents of schools should be represented on such a committee\n\nin order to prevent an overdose of the subject in a crowded curriculum.\n\nSuch a committee\n\ncould not be expected to settle all debatable questions.\n\nIt could, however, reach a con-\n\nsensus of opinion which would be of immense value.\n\nThe digested, well-thought-out\n\nreport of such a committee, presented to and adopted by this Coimcil, would carry great\n\nweight, and many persons would use it.\n\nIt would have more influence than the individualany one person, whoever he might be; it would be a help to many; it\nwould prevent much of the prevailing waste; it would be a piece of needed constructive\nwork which this Council might well undertake; it would do much to shape the geography\nteaching of the country. What body in this country is so fit to deal with this subject as\nistic opinion of\n\nthis Council ?\n\nI have been trying to gather what is the consensus of opinion from some conspicuous\n\nteachers of geography as to what should be the essential purpose in teaching geography,\n\nand in these I personally concur.\n1.\n\nSummarized there are four:\n\nWell-organized observation of geographical phenomena within the child's environ-\n\n—no textbooks here.\n\nment\n\nThe location of those facts and features, limited in number, which should be at\nThere are some persons who think this purpose\nhas been too much ignored of late years. Desirable as it may be to teach facts in geography in connection with problems set up by either teachers or pupils, desirable as it\n2.\n\nthe ready service of any intelligent person.\n\nmay be to provide motives for learning facts, yet if problems and motivation cannot be\nfurnished either by teachers or by children the facts nevertheless should be learned.\n\nThe\n\nsituation here is analogous to the facts of the multiplication table.\n3.\n\nPower to reason clearly from cause to effect\n\ncondition which has brought it about.\n\n—to look back of a given fact to the\n\nSuch questions may be stated as problems.\n\nHere\n\nare three:\n\nHow does it come about that Japan, a small nation, was able to defeat Russia in the\nlate war between those countries ?\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": "308", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3o8\n\n(National\n\nWhy is it that the German Empire, not half as old as the United States, with a population only two-thirds as great as our own, with only 200,000 square miles of territory in\ncontrast witii our 3,000,000, has a much larger foreign trade than the United States?\nSuggest an explanation of the fact that we have our winter when the earth is nearest\n\nthe sun.\n\nThese problems and similar ones have at least three values: (i) They stimulate\n(2) They cultivate initiative; (3) They have interest because they relate to\nsituations of the day, to the experiences of this generation, because they have a particular\nbearuig on everyday affairs of life. But they must be within the comprehension and\nthought;\n\nappreciation of the pupil.\n4.\n\nTraining and skill in the use of maps, translating the facts and conditions repreTraining in the use of textbooks, reference\n\nsented on maps in terms of the real world.\nbooks, atlases, etc.\n\nThe power to use a map or textbook with a definite purpose, to dis-\n\ncriminate and select with reference to that purpose.\n\nNot without debate would these four purposes here offered as basic principles be\naccepted, but they might afford a starting-place for discussion.\n\nWe must admit, if we are honest with ourselves, that the habit is too conmion of\nlooking on the printed page in geography with the receptive rather than the questioning\nattitude of mind; that pupils use words and expressions which they give and take glibly\n\nwithout asking what they mean; that geographical thought often begins and ends with\nthe hieroglyphics on the map; that too many teachers are unable to discriminate in the\nvast range of the subject between essentials and nonessentials; and that there is too much\n\nignorance of geography when pupils come to our normal schools.\n\nA professor in the department of geography in a leading state university says:\nmy\n\nhands\n\"From one hundred to three himdred graduates of high schools pass thru\nyearly.\nfrequently give these Freshmen in the university tests in the early part of\nthe college course. These tests in geography reveal how small a knowledge of geography\nhigh-school graduates possess. It is unbelievably small and could almost be called ignorance of geography, yet these are the same type of students who enter the normal schools\nto become teachers of geography.\"\n\nWe\n\nTurning to the reports of surveyors made in several cities, we find that either the\nsurveyors were convinced of the difficulty of making the survey in the absence of standards\n\nby which to measure or the subject was thought to be of little value. The subject is\ndismissed with but a few lines in each of these reports. The New York report of twentyHowever it must not be forgotten\nfive hundred pages devotes seven pages to geography.\nthat any survey cannot be expected to pass judgment upon everything that is done in a\nschool system.\n\nThe problem, then, is the setting-up of standards or courses of study by trained and\ninterested leaders in geography teaching, together with other leaders in education.\n\nOnly\n\nwhen this has been done will we be in a position to estimate with confidence and satisfaction the efficiency of geography teaching. Not until then are we likely to have more than\nindividualistic opinion as to the efficiency of the teaching of this subject, one of the im-\n\nportant subjects in the elementary course of study.\n\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state superintendent of public instruction,\nThe great work of the public schools today is to eliminate from the\ncurriculum all imnecessary matter and method and to make all instruction coimt in more\n\nIndianapolis, Ind.\n\n—\n\nspecific terms toward the educational progress of the pupil.\n\nThe possibility of applying\n\ndefinite tests and standards to measure school abilities in the various subjects taught is\n\njust beginning to find place in public-school systems.\n\nArithmetic, long holding a large\n\nplace on the daily program of the schoolroom, must show a better reason for its prominence\n\nthan the tacit assumption that it is both disciplinary and practical.\napplied uniform arithmetical tests\nJ. M. Rice started the movement in 1902 when he\nto over six thousand pupils in the elementary schools of seven cities with results showing\n\na variation of from 80 per cent to 25 per cent in averages for schools.\n\nDr. Rice concluded\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": "309", "text": "Councn]\n\nCOMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\n309\n\nfrom the array of facts before him that these variations were not due to causes commonly\nassigned, but arose from the need of proper standards and tests whereby teachers might\n\nascertain from time to time the actual progress of their schools\n\ncompared with other\n\nschools or with an average allotment in a number of schools.\n\nIn 1908, Cliff Winfield Stone compiled the results of his arithmetical tests put to\n\nabout six thousand pupils in twenty-six different school systems for the purpose of investigating the nature of the product of the first six years of arithmetic work and the relation\nbetween distinctive procedure in arithmetic work and the resulting abilities. Dr. Stone\n\nmakes the following interesting conclusions ( i) the study called arithmetic makes demand\non a plurality of abilities, for while ability in any fundamental except addition implies\nnearly the same ability in other fundamentals in both systems and individuals, yet\nability in any fundamental implies ability in reasoning in individuals to a less degree than\nability in any such subject as English implies ability in such a subject as geography; and\n(2) there is wide variability among systems and still gre ater variability among individuals\nwithin a system, while the variability among boys does not differ appreciably from that\n:\n\namong girls.\nIn 19 10, S. A. Courtis, following the work of Dr. Stone as a basis, determined standard\nscores in the fundamental abilities involved in work with whole numbers, thru ten thou-\n\nsand records collected from about seventy schools in ten states and England,\n\nIn 191 1, seventy-five thousand tests were used and Dr. Courtis established measurements of growth and determined the value of the comparative graph sheet. He is now\nworking on the determination of standard growth, control of individual variations, and\nthe determination of efficient methods.\n\nDr. Courtis has done the latest and possibly t he most complete work in the subject,\nand his tests and standards are becoming more and more widely used.\nIf the work is continued with the same scientific interest and insight with which it\nwas undertaken and has been followed to the present time, it promises to be only a few\nyears until a teacher in any grade in the schools will be able to know, rather than to infer,\nthe arithmetical status of his school as a whole and that of individual members, by the\nuse of imiversaUy recognized standards, and can therefore determine upon the most\nefficient methods, and know exactly where to put his time and energy to secure reasonable\nachievements in the subject such achievements as will satisfy social and commercial\n\n—\n\nneeds.\nL. E. Wolfe, former superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Tex.\n\n—^While listening\n\nto the able discussion, it occurred to me that it would facilitate the solution of this problem\n\nand the application of its solution if this committee would\nschools, educational\n\nofficially invite\n\nthe normal\n\ndepartments of state universities, state teachers' associations, and\n\nthe teaching corps in towns, cities, and counties to work, under the direction of this committee or independently, on this great problem.\n\nWhile the difficulty of solving this\nproblem is great, it is small compared with that of its application in the half-million\nschoolrooms of the United States. The assistance that this committee would derive from\nthe work of these educational bodies thruout the country, tho valuable, would be much\nless valuable than the preparation of the rank and file of the teachers of the country to\nreceive the solution and to apply it, because of their grappling with the problem. The\nlarger the percentage of the teachers of the country who can be induced to study this\nproblem the better. During my twenty-five years as town and city superintendent, I\nhave devoted several thousand happy and profitable hours in trying to work out with\nmy teaching corps a course of study suited to community needs and in trying to determine\nthe best methods of teaching this course of study and of testing the results of the teaching.\nIn order to give motive to this and similar work with teaching corps, credits should\nbe granted for the completion of portions of a course of study vitally related to schoolroom efficiency, and these credits should lead to higher certificates and, where practicable,\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": "310", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3IO\n\n[National\n\nto diplomas from normal schools and from the educational departments of state univerI know of no greater waste than the prevalent failure to organize the superintendents, supervisors, principals, and leading teachers of town, city, and county for the\nsities.\n\nsystematic professional improvement of the teaching corps.\n\nThe\n\nsuperintendents,\n\nsupervisors, and principals in towns, cities, and counties are often the equal of normal-\n\nschool faculties and are many times more nimierous.\n\nIt is a much more practical thing\n\nfor a superintendent to organize for the improvement of his teachers than to lament that\n\nso small a percentage of teachers are well trained.\n\nTHE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SURVEY\nC.\n\nS.\n\nMEEK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOISE, IDAHO\n\nApproximately five hundred millions of dollars are collected annually\n\nNew activities are each\nyear added to the curriculum which invariably increase the cost. The\nannual exaction will never grow less but will constantly increase. Thruout\nby taxation for the support of public education.\n\nthe country we are dangerously near the breaking-point in taxation.\nmargin of safety is in many communities already very narrow.\n\nThe\n\nThose who administer public schools direct the expenditure of vast\n\nLaymen may keep the books, audit the accounts, and see that the\nmoney is not stolen, but beyond this they have no protection. Taxpayers\nmay assail and scrutinize all other forms of public expenditure, but when\nthey approach the budget for public schools we say, \"This is sacred ground.\nYou are laymen. This is the field in which God has rendered educators\nsums.\n\nresponsible for power.\n\nAsk no questions.\n\nNo right rests with you save that of paying the bills.\n\nHands up and deliver.\" But those who pay the tribute\nare not content to ask no questions. They are proud of their schools and\nwill loyally support them.\nThey want to know that no part of the vast sums\nthey each year pay for the support of public education is wasted, but that\n^\n\nall of it is wisely and economically expended;\n\nthat all of it is yielding for their\n\nchildren the greatest possible return in terms of educational units.\n\nthe community can reassure them on this question ?\n\nWho in\n\nThe local educational\n\nexperts who have directed the expenditure of the funds allotted to public\n\nAre they likely to render a decision against themselves?\nStatesmen and even presidents burn with righteous indignation when ''my\n\neducation?\n\npolicies\" are assailed.\n\nIs\n\nit\n\nreasonable to expect that educators can or\n\nassume an impersonal and entirely judicious attitude under like circumstances ? In behalf of themselves who bear the burden, and of their\nchildren who will be benefited if schools are efficiently managed, or injured\nif they be inefficiently directed, patrons should seek disinterested judgment\nas to the state of their schools. They have a right to ask, and a duty to\ndemand, that their schools be examined by experts in education who have\nno interest in the local situation.\nwill\n\nSome school directors are opposed to the employment of a school-survey\ncommittee.\n\nOften this reluctance does not grow out of any distrust of their\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": "311", "text": "THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SURVEY\n\nCouncil]\n\n311\n\nown administrative policy or any fear that their own system will be disThey fear that an\n\ncredited if it be intelligently and fairly standardized.\n\ninvestigation will stimulate that spirit of unrest which is always present\n\nThey are mindful of some notable examples\nwhere reports of such committees have been followed by great disturbances.\nThe mistake made here is the assumption that the investigation is the cause\nof the trouble.\nIn every example of this nature that might be cited, the\ndestructive forces were already developed and thoroly organized before the\ncommittee was employed and put to work. The case had been tried and an\nadverse verdict rendered before the report of the committee had been pubwhether or not it be justified.\n\nlished.\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE POSSIBILITIES OF THE SCHOOL SURVEY\n\nWhy permit the school survey to be used so exclusively for destructive\neffect ?\nWhy permit those with grievances to employ the committee, direct\nthe activities, and accumulate the data ?\n\nThe custodian of public funds who\n\ntries to prevent an investigation of his books by his very attitude arouses\n\npublic distrust.\n\nIf, however, he is honest and efficient he urges an investi-\n\ngation because he knows that an inquiry will be for him not a menace but a\nvindication.\n\nIn the latter case, his very attitude inspires public confidence.\n\nThe directors of public-school activities who believe in the wisdom and\nefficiency of their administrative policy, who know definitely what they\nare striving for, who have effectively organized all the educational agencies\nat their disposal for the realization of their aims, and finally who know positively just what they have already accomplished and what in the immediate\n\n—\n\nfuture they may confidently hope to achieve\n\n^all these have nothing to\nFor them a movement to employ\na school-survey committee will be, not a calamity to be avoided, but a protection to be welcomed. They should not assume a merely passive attitude\ntoward the employment of such a committee but should urge an investigation.\nThe very fact that they have not been content to run things\nsmoothly but have insisted on getting somewhere means that they have\noccasioned some friction. They have, therefore, endured selfish and\nignorant abuse. Why should they not welcome some sympathetic commendation and criticism ?\nBut the survey as a balm to lacerated feeling is not sufficient justification.\nIt should be employed to educate the public to bear the burden of\nfurther constructive effort. The experience of Boise is an illustration of\nwhat I mean. Four years ago Commissioner Kendall, of New Jersey, was\ninvited to that city to examine the school and to report to the board of education such changes and enlargements as he deemed expedient. He recommended the introduction of a somewhat advanced and unusual system of\nindustrial education.\nHis report was adopted by the board, printed, and\nfreely distributed in the community.\nThe innovations were accepted by the\n\nfear from a school-inquiry committee.\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": "312", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n312\n\nINational\n\npatrons when indorsed by such a well-known educator much more confidently than would have been possible had the local superintendent been\ntheir unsupported sponsor.\n\nA year ago, Dr. Elliott, Dr. Judd, and Dr. Strayer visited the schools,\nThey\nOne of their\n\nstudied the situation, and submitted to the board a report on progress.\n\nmade some helpful criticisms and suggested some changes.\n\nrecommendations was that the eighth grade as an elementary-school proposition be eliminated and that junior high-school work be substituted.\n\nreconomendation was approved by the board.\n\nThat\n\nIn September last some\n\nchanges were made in accordance with the recommendation of the committee.\n\nA few patrons who had labored faithfully for a year on cube root,\n\npartial payments, true discount, the subtle distinctions of formal grammar,\n\nThey\nBut parent's meetings were\ncalled in the grade buildings, the reasons for the changes explained, and the\nexcitement immediately subsided. But the patrons would not have been\nso easily reassured had the school authorities not been supported by the\netc.,\n\ndid not intend that their education should be discredited.\n\nimmediately became active and eruptive.\n\nthree eminent educators.\n\nAs a protection to competent school administrators, as an effective\ndevice to convince the public that the enormous sums the schools are each\n\nyear exacting are being wisely and economically expended and are yielding\n\ncommensurate returns in educational units, and as a means of educating\nthe patrons to an appreciation of the newer phases and modem trend of\neducation, the work of a school-inquiry committee is invaluable. Why then\nnot use such a committee for constructive ends ?\nBoards of education at stated intervals employ expert accountants to\nconvince the public that all money collected by them is expended for the\npurchase of specific services, plants, and equipment, and that no part of it\nThis\nis wrongly appropriated by themselves, their agents, or employees.\nact is selfish in that its purpose is to protect themselves and to reassure the\npublic.\nBut they have a higher duty toward the children whose interests\nare in their charge. Boards of education know whether they are honest and\nalert in their management of the public funds.\n\nThe report of the expert\n\naccountant cannot add to their assurance of duty well performed. But\nthey do not know that the services, plants, equipment, and supplies pur-\n\nchased by them are yielding the best possible returns in terms of education.\nIf boards of education think it wise and expedient to employ a financial\nexpert to check up their own management of public funds, how can they\n\nevade the duty to have educational experts check up the educational management of their own employed agents ?\n\nEFFECT OF THE SCHOOL SURVEY ON THE TEACHER\nPublic schools are being assailed today more vigorously, even viciously,\n\nthan ever before.\n\nBecause of these attacks, supervisors, principals, and\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": "313", "text": "THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SURVEY\n\nCouncil]\n\n313\n\nteachers find the task of keeping up their faith and enthusiasm a difficult\none.\n\nA college professor writing in the Nation recently said:\n\nYear by year industrial education is crowding out culture. The pupils are noisy,\nWhen they go to college they must first be cured of twelve years of\npetting before they can be equipped with a profession and a decent sense of values.\nhappy, and empty.\n\nWe must bear this sort of abuse because we have too much industrial\neducation.\n\nBecause we do not train children for vocations in life the\n\nNational Manufacturers' Association in one of its latest reports says:\nThere are about two million boys and girls between fourteen and eighteen in the\nThis marks our conmion\nschool as so hopelessly, wickedly inefl&cient and damaging as to call for instant and treUnited States out of school and, for the most part, at work.\n\nmendous consideration and readjustment.\n\nNo matter what attitude we assume toward reforms and innovations,\nwe are damned if we do and we are damned if we don't. But we must keep\nour minds clear and our hearts courageous. The supervising force must\nknow what they want and how to get it. The entire teaching force must\nunderstand the aims and ideals of the system, believe in them profoundly,\n\nand work intensely and spontaneously for their realization. The most potent\nagency for the realization of this happy situation is a report of a competent\nand fair school-inquiry committee which shall set forth clearly what phases\nof administration, curriculum, and instruction are to be eliminated, what\nto be emphasized, and what to be added. After such a report has been\nsubmitted to all the teachers, thoroly studied, and freely discussed, every\nmember of the force will approach his own assigned task with renewed faith,\nforce, and enthusiasm.\nWilliam C. Bagley, who visited Boise after the report of the committee\nwas published, said in School and Home Education:\nAt a time when so many people are trying to believe that nothing in the educational\nsituation is good, a report of this kind has, at any rate, the virtues that inhere in contrast.\n\nWe cannot believe that the teachers and supervisors of Boise are working any less strenuously because their efforts have been commended.\n\nIt might be urged that they will rest\n\ncontent with their laurels, but we have personal evidence that they are working on toward\nfurther improvements that the report suggests.\n\nI am sure this comment of Dr. Bagley's is true.\n\nEvery member of the\n\nteaching force is working more earnestly and effectively than ever before.\n\nWhere before there was some skepticism, there is now more faith.\n\nWhere\n\nbefore, in some phases of the work, we were struggling toward vaguely con-\n\nceived ends,\nis\n\nwe are now laboring with more clarified vision.\n\nNowhere\n\nthere any evidence of self-complacency and self-satisfaction.\n\nAny local situation under investigation should be standardized by what\nis best in both educational theory and practice.\n\nThere should be, therefore,\nupon the committee of inquiry, research scholars in educational administration, who know thoroly the aims and the results of many systems of education, who are able to measure accurately the mental power of the various\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": "314", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n314\n\n[National\n\ngroups and ages of children, who will take care of their varying needs, and\n\nwho can also accurately calculate the personal efficiency of teachers.\n\nThe\n\nprofessor of educational administration can bring into the deliberations\nof the\n\ncommittee\n\nscientific\n\nmethods\n\nof\n\ndetermining with quantitative\n\nprecision what the present situation really is and what changes should be\n\nwrought.\n\nBut the efficiency of a system of education should not be measured from\nthe viewpoint merely of what is ideal and desirable.\n\nDue consideration\n\nmust be given to local influences which shall determine what in a particular\nsituation is practicable and attainable. The practical school administrator\nshould, therefore, be represented on any school-inquiry committee because\nonly he knows how easy is the problem of discovering faults and suggesting\nremedies and how infinitely more difficult is the task of eliminating defects\nand changing helpful suggestions into constructive realities.\nWell-known research scholars from the field of educational administration and public-school administrators who have had extended and successful experience should also be assembled when any school system is to be\ninvestigated.\nBut they should all come immediately from their own life\nlabor.\nThey will thus bring to their joint deliberations all the ideals and\nenthusiasms of their different fields of professional service. Their only\nmotive will then be to do a distinctive piece of work and to make their\nreport an educational contribution.\n\nThey should then disorganize and\n\nleave the next job to another group.\nI mean by this that the investigation of systems of public schools should\n\nnever fall into bureaus organized for that purpose and conducted by this\nsection or\n\nby any other organization.\n\nA bureau for surveying school\n\nsystems means inevitably the employment of experts who shall make a living\nat the business.\n\nIt will thus become a matter of formalism and ritualism.\n\nThe paid employees will cease to have immediate contact with either educational research or educational administration.\nThey would soon approach a\nspecial field, not with the unselfish enthusiasm to do a distinctive piece of\n\nwork, but like the bell in the fable of the fox and the grapes, bent on making\n\nsuch a noise as to insure some more jobs.\n\nTHE METHOD, SCOPE, AND VALUE OF THE SURVEY IN\nRELATION TO THE COURSE OF STUDY\nA. J.\n\nKINNAMAN, DEAN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, BOWLING GREEN, KY.\n\nThe school survey, from the standpoint of the course of study, concerns itself with two groups of school subjects: the traditional or funda-\n\nmental group supposed to vary comparatively little in time, matter, and\nmethod thruout the country; and another group varying much more,\nprobably thru the deflecting influence of local teachers and local com-\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": "315", "text": "THE SURVEY AND THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\nCouncU]\n\nmunities.\n\n315\n\nThese two groups of studies require widely different considera-\n\ntion in any genuine survey of a course of study.\n\nAgain, the course of study\n\nsurvey is confronted with, and made more complex and difficult thru, the\nfact that the course of study must be laid out to subserve the best interests\n\n—that small but important group\n\nof two widely different groups of children\n\nwho hold fast to the end of the higher course, and that very large group\nwho drop out along the journey. Again, the course-of-study survey\naddresses itself, naturally, to the problems of administering the course of\n\nstudy and to methods of teaching.\n\nAt least these three avenues of investi-\n\ngation confront and help to complicate the problems of those who attempt\nto survey a course of study.\n\nThis traditional group is fundamental and appears in all courses of\nstudy.\n\nIt is essentially the same in\n\nLocal conditions affect it but little.\n\nMassachusetts, Michigan, and Mississippi.\n\nAll pupils in all grade schools\n\nare expected to master all of them and do it in essentially the same manner.\n\nAn examination of many courses reveals a large measure of uniformity\nin these subjects, in the proportional time given to each, in the subject-\n\nmatter selected from each, and in the methods recommended for each.\n\nWith these subjects when standards or norms exist the survey of any course\nhas only to determine how near they come to conforming to the semiconventional standards set up, to point out the deficiencies in the selection\nof work, in the time devoted to each, and in the methods employed, and to\n\nrecommend the devices for overcoming these deficiencies.\n\nOf course every\n\nschool man understands that all good courses of study are dynamic and not\nstatic.\n\nBut during the time that any regime prevails with this class of\n\nsubjects the survey may be very simple and need not go far beyond the four\nwalls of the schoolroom and the two lids of the published course of study.\n\nThe more variable group of studies, such as nature study, agriculture,\ndomestic economy, vocational training, the content of some of the formal\n\nmakes heavier demands on the survey and is vastly more\nfrom the standpoint of the survey. This group of subjects\n\nstudies, etc.,\n\nsignificant\n\nfeels greatly the deflecting influence of local, social, and industrial demands.\n\nSince communities have their distinctive stages of development and bents\nof interest (industrial and otherwise), these varying subjects get themselves\n\ninto widely different twists of relation with each other in different courses\nof study.\nSome courses omit all of them; others insert from one to all.\nIn some courses they are regular studies while in others they are taught\n\nincidentally or in an attenuated form by correlation.\n\nSo far as this group is\nconcerned a school survey confined to schoolrooms and to course-of-study\n\nmanuals only is of little value.\nIf the course of study is to meau most in a community, it must adjust itself to the best interests of\n\nthat community.\n\nThe course-of-study survey\n\nthen must come after, or at least co-operate with, a genuine community sur-\n\n—of\n\nvey or a thoro knowledge of the community\n\nits illiteracy, reading habits,\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": "316", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3i6\n\n[National\n\n—I\n\norganizations, hygienic conditions, industries, moral and religious life, etc.\n\nWith these results and with a survey of the course of study itself before\nthose making the survey, they should be able to make rational and helpful\nenough to divine the proper higher\nTrying\nto make recommendations to a community about these varying subjects\nin the course of study, without a knowledge of the community status and\nits proper goal for development, is as futile as an attempt to make out a\nbill of lumber for a building without knowing whether it is to be a barn\nsuggestions, providing they are wise\n\nideals toward which that particular community should be going.\n\nor a house.\n\nRelating these two surveys as suggested is given greater significance\n\nthru the fact that the large body of children who drop out from the school\n\nThese move about\nThe course of study should adjust this class of pupils especially\nto the best interests of that community.\nThe survey should help to reveal\nthe status of the community to itself and should help it to dream dreams of\n\nearly become fixed factors in their native communities.\n\nbut little.\n\ngreater things, and the course of study should be so devised as to provide\n\na way for the youngsters that they may come to live these dreams.\n\nThe survey will gain immensely in value if the community in a broad\nsense can become interested in the survey and desire it to be made.\n\nsentiment should be created before the survey is ordered.\na survey should be held by the people generally.\n\nThat\n\nThe desire for\n\nThis desire should spring;;\n\nfrom the hearts of more people than the superintendent and the school\nboard.\n\nIt is the community that is to do the developing.\n\nto be interested and improved.\n\nonly improving the means.\n\n// is the object\n\nImproving the course of study is at best\n\nThe course of study is not the end.\n\nserious survey should ever be imposed upon a people.\n\nNo\n\nGenerally people\n\nare not more anxious to be surveyed than the American Indian was to be\ndiscovered, and the results may be quite as fatal.\n\nthe survey\n\nsometimes had that effect.\nsurveyed.\n\nComing from without,\n\nmay offend and defeat its very purpose.\n\nIt certainly has\n\nThe people must be induced to want to be\n\nIn a democracy such as ours you must honor the spirit of the\n\ndemocracy.\nI fear that some of the surveys have stressed the survey to the neglect\nof making it effective so far as the course of study is concerned.\n\nA banker\n\nhaving listened to a lengthy explanation of an admirable survey,\nasked: *' What's the good of it all? What are you all going to do about\n\nfriend,\n\nHis questions were vital. We survey and then throw up our hands\nand call out our observations of terrible conditions, of the amounts paid\n\nit ? \"\n\nfor units of instruction, of poor untrained teachers who fail to carry out\n\nour ideas, and then we neglect the pedagogy of inducing the good people\nto profit from our wonderful discoveries. I fear sometimes that in this\nbusiness of surveying we may be in danger of staging a new play under the\ntitle of\n\n\"Much Ado and Nothing about It.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": "317", "text": "WANTED—A TWENTIETH-CENTURY IDEAL\n\nCouncil]\n\n317\n\nIn conclusion, I believe that a survey of a course of study is a different\nproblem from that of establishing norms or standards in subjects such as\ngeography; I believe that a survey of a course of study should always be\nmade in conjunction with a social and industrial survey of the community\nthat the course of study is to serve; that the community should not be so\nlarge that its diverse interests predominate over its common interests; that\n\nmost consideration should be given to those studies which vary most in\ndifferent communities; that the survey should come after the public has\nbeen duly prepared for it; that a survey without community co-operation\nloses much of its educational value; that more effort should be put forth\nto induce the public to rise up and profit from the survey; that the\nsurvey should first be made by trained experts who have had a real school\nexperience in a setting not too remote from the community surveyed,\nassuring thus a proper comprehension of the community's vital problems;\nand that it should be continued indefinitely by local teachers, superintendents, and other officers.\n\nTOPIC:\nA,\n\nSEX HYGIENE\n\nWANTED—A TWENTIETH-CENTURY IDEAL\n\nGRACE C. STRACHAN, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BROOKLYN, N.Y.\n\nMy first strong conviction on this subject is that no superintendent or\nboard of superintendents or board of education has any right to add to the\ncurriculum of any public school talks or lessons or lectures on the more\nintimate phases of sex hygiene without the approval of the taxpayers supporting such school.\n\nMy second strong conviction is that no lecture should be delivered to\npupils, which, if written or printed and sent thru the mails to the parents of\n\nthose pupils, would cause the arrest of the sender.\n\nMy reasons for these convictions are: (i) pupils are forced by law to\nattend these schools;\n\n(2)\n\nthe schools are erected and maintained, and the\n\nteachers and superintendents are paid, by the taxpayers.\n\nAnother strong conviction of mine is that the dangers and the evils\nresulting from class- or group-teaching of this subject are greater than those\n\nresulting from no teaching of it.\n\nNow I do not claim that ignorance is synonymous with innocence; but\nI do deny that knowledge is purity.\n\nSome of the most vicious among both\n\nsexes know all that there is to be known both as to human relations and as\nto the physical dangers often resulting therefrom;\n\nyet they use their\n\nknowledge, not to the end of living purer lives themselves or leading others\nto live purer lives, but simply to save themselves from certain undesired\n\nAnd some of the purest lives are lived by those\nwho know nothing either of such relations or of the mental and physical\n\nresults of impure living.\n\ndecay resulting therefrom\n\n;\n\nbut who, knowing only that certain things are\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": "318", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3i8\n\n[National\n\nwrong, have suflSLcient will power and sufficient loyalty to an ideal to do\nthe right and avoid the wrong.\n\nAnd here let me say that such will to do right must be our hope,\nrather than the fear of contracting the loathsome diseases, the whole\nhistory and nature of which some extremists would have us spread before\n\nMiss Blake, referring to this, pointed out that seven murders\n\nour children.\n\noccurred among the spectators of the last public hanging on Holbom Hill.\n\nWhat then shall be our \"twentieth-century ideal\" and how shall we\nattain it ?\n\nOur ideal should be a young man and a young woman equally pure in\neach preserving and revering the body always as the\ntemple of the future race, and each determined that no fault of his or hers\nshall mar or lessen the usefulness of the body, mind, or soul of the child\nwho may be born of him or her.\n\n—\n\nbody, mind, and soul\n\nHow attain this ideal ?\nIn babyhood and childhood, parents, teachers, and preachers should\nteach purity and modesty of thought, word, and act without sounding the\n\ndepths of all it may mean.\n\nParents should encourage their children to\n\ngive them their fullest confidence.\n\nWhen troubled or doubtful in special\n\ncases, they should consult a physician.\n\nTeachers should watch zealously\n\nand, when any child's actions or appearance seem to demand special consideration, should consult with the principal and the parents.\n\nWhere it is\n\nevident that the parents cannot be depended on for the assistance needed,\n\n—home or school—or the school nurse may be called on.\n\nthe physician\n\nBut this instruction and this advice should always be given \"one by one.\"\nFor Mary Brown may have a very bad, depraved mind, and be guilty of\nvery bad practices, but she will be very careful not to let all the girls and the\nboys in her school know how bad she is. She may by watching and waiting\nselect one here and there to drag into her net; but let her sit in a room with\nthree hundred others and listen with them to a talk on these hidden subjects, and the barriers are at once washed way, the guardians of reserve and\nmodesty are routed, and she feels free to discuss and to instruct in her own\nI believe there is no greater danger threatening the\nmodesty and the sanctity of the home than the man or the woman who\n\ndangerous way.\n\nadvocates teaching all the intimate facts of human relations to little children\n\nand young boys and girls \"just as they would teach arithmetic.\"\n\nB,\n\nSEX HYGIENE—WHAT THE SCHOOLS CAN DO\n\nCARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nhave the feeling that the term which stands at the head of the\nannouncement for this discussion is quite generally misunderstood and\nmisused. I suspect that \"sex hygiene\" quite often means sex physiology.\nI\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": "319", "text": "SEX HYGIENE— WHAT THE SCHOOLS CAN DO\n\nCouncil]\n\n319\n\nas the term is used in our common speech, and while this distinction may\n\nnot be important, I shall, in what I have to say, assume that \"sex physiology and hygiene\" is now the thing meant.\nPersonally I have little doubt that the best way for the schools to teach\n\n—for\n\nthis subject is not to teach it at all, but for it to be taught elsewhere\n\nthe most part by the parents in the homes;\n\nif not in this\n\nphysician, or by the teacher in the church, or\n\nway, then by the\n\nSunday school.\n\nNone of\n\nthese are constrained by the limitations which hedge about the teachers in the\n\npublic schools.\n\nBut it is only too true that in a multitude of cases neither\n\nthe parents at home, nor the physician, nor the teachers in the church school\neither interest themselves in this vital matter, or, if interested, know how\n\nto determine what is proper instruction or to give it in a proper and beneficial\n\nmanner.\n\nAnd so, as in so many other matters concerning the edu-\n\ncation of children, there is the demand that in this, too, the public schools\nshall serve the state.\nIf any adequate instruction is to be given in the home, some instruction\n\nin subject-matter and in methods of approach must be made available for\n\nparents.\n\nThere is as much need for this instruction and as much hope of\n\nbenefit from it as there was and still is of necessity and hope of improvement\n\nfrom instruction to farmers in methods of seed selection and cultivation, and\nanimal husbandry, and dairying.\n\nThe lectures and classes for parents\n\nwhich some communities have organized have shown at least one practical\nmethod of dealing with this situation, and doubtless other cities and\nneighborhoods will take up the matter and develop classes for parents and\nother practical plans for arousing a sense of responsibility for, and a fit\n\nknowledge to permit, wise presentation of the topic to the young people\nof their families.\n\nIn considering what, if anything, can be done at the school and considering, naturally, the primary grades first, the problem is made easier by\n\nthe fact that little children naturally have little interest or curiosity concerning the subject; and there is no occasion for the teacher to call it to\ntheir attention.\nOnly those small children who have been perverted or\nhave lived under abnormal conditions have information or habits likely to\ncause trouble, and in the sweet atmosphere of a well-conducted and super-\n\nvised school there is every tendency for even these Httle unfortunates to\n\nbecome normal and wholesome. The largest opportunity here lies in the\nsetting of ideals and the formation of desirable habits; in teaching care to\navoid the localities where the toilet rooms of the other sex are placed; a\ncourteous ignoring of those schoolroom accidents to the clothing of other\npupils;\n\na chivalrous care by both boys and girls for those children who\n\nare weaker\n\nand have\n\nless\n\n—\n\nability to care for themselves\n\nall\n\nthese\n\nlie\n\nWithout lecturing or\npreaching or scolding or moralizing, the teacher need give only a caution,\na shake of the head, a suggestion, and the thing is done. There is little\neasily within the scope of the teacher's influence.\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": "320", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n320\n\n[National\n\nneed for explanations; suggestion as to the right thing is here the great\npower, not discussion of, or enlargement upon, or warning against, the\nincorrect thing.\n\nIn grammar grades more children are *'wise\"; but to talk to pupils of\nthis\n\ngrade about these matters in any general or promiscuous way is to\n\nemulate the example of the farmer and his wife who went to town leaving\nthe children at home but giving as a parting injunction that the youngsters should not put beans in their noses.\n\nThe juvenile members of the\n\nhousehold had never thought of such a possibility before, but when the\nparents returned at night they found the nasal passages of their offspring well stuffed with those useful vegetables.\n\nSome\n\nchildren bring\n\nthis contagion to the school, and it may be necessary for the teacher or the\n\nhead of the school to talk plainly and seriously with individuals; but this\nis a fever which needs to be cooled by absence of the fuel that feeds its fire\nof suggestive thoughts, and beyond some laying-down of rules of conduct\nfor these individuals, with such suggestion of reasons and consequences as\nindividual cases may require, the remedy is to fill the mind with other\nthoughts and suggest new ideals and worthy achievements to those members\nof the school who come with minds already tainted.\nIn these, as in previous grades, the behavior side is the important one.\nCareful supervision and suitable arrangement of schoolhouses and grounds\nwill make it easy to see that worthy speech and plays and associations fill\nthe time of pupils outside the classroom. Mental and social and physical\nactivities and discussions and exercises and games that incite to clean\nspeech and clean thoughts are the best prophylactic. A boy who is helping\nhis mother at home, or young people of this age who are at a well-supervised\nschool playground or social center, will never be arrested for stealing from\nthe corner grocer, or involved in one of those nameless and shameless situations sometimes discovered among groups of boys or girls or of boys and\nThe teacher who cares and\ngirls who have developed secret \"hangouts.\"\nof\nthe\nfiner\nsense\nvalues\ncan\ndo\nmuch\ndevelop in grammar-grade\nhas\na\nto\nwho\nchivalrous\nattitude\nspeech\ntoward girls, and in the\nof\nand\nbehavior\nboys a\ngirls that quality of reserve in certain directions which fine women retain.\nAnd this is true even if the parents were born in peasants' cottages in\nEurope. There has been many an honorable and courtly knight of Bohemia\nor of Poland, and many a high-souled and gracious princess of Italy or\nRoumania. There seldom lacks something to appeal to or to kindle enthusiasm and high ideals. These matters of ideaJs and conduct are particularly\nimportant in the grammar grades because of the large numbers who close\n\nAmong other points of\nmay be discussed, perhaps, conduct upon the streets, at the\n\ntheir education without entering the high school.\n\nbehavior\n\nmoving-picture shows, in automobile riding.\n\nIt is not necessary to go into\n\nthe things which often happen to girls who accept luncheons or other favors\n\nfrom men they meet on the street, or who go to moving-picture shows with\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": "321", "text": "CouncUl\n\nSEX HYGIENE—WHAT THE SCHOOLS CAN DO\n\n321\n\nStrangers or with young men their mothers or their own sense of propriety\nwould not approve, or who go riding in a similar manner, and especially to\nthose who ask men who pass in automobiles on the street to take them\nriding; but the rules which good women who wish to be thought well of\nset for themsleves in these matters can be made plain, and good influence\nmay be exercised upon the lives of many girls who really wish to be right\n\nand who have no one at home to teach them these things. And while the\ndangers to boys are of different sort, much may be done to give them standards of conduct in their associations with girls, both with their schoolmates\nand acquaintances and with girls who are strangers.\nWhen pupils enter the high school, there is seldom much need for\nanatomical or biological facts, tho suitably written books may very well be\nat hand to which to refer students who are found to need such instruction.\nBut the gymnasium instructor or the athletic coach, either of whom\nshould be qualified for this duty, and for whose opinion on matters relating\nto bodily vigor the boys are likely to have much respect, has a great field.\nBoys get from each other, from older men, sometimes, sad to say, from\ntheir fathers, much misinformation; but these boys can learn from the men\nat the high school that continence for men is possible, as it is for women.\nAthletes of mature years in training for an important event are not permitted this dissipation or any other. Boys can learn that continence not\nonly is possible for young men but is a benefit to them, both in the present\nand for the future. They can learn that practically every man of loose life\nbecomes infected with at least one of two loathsome diseases; that many\n\ntimes these prove incurable; that neither of these diseases is a light matter,\n\nbut is fraught with grave dangers, both to the man and to his family.\n\nThe\n\nboy can be taught that his body is given to him as a trust: first, that he may\nbe as happy and useful and effective an individual as possible; second, that\nhe may pass on to his descendants good health and clean blood. He can\nsafely be told that thousands of children are today walking in blindness\n\nbecause of the sexual immorality of their fathers; and that a large proportion of those wives who go to our hospitals for serious and mutilating surgical operations are sent there as the result of those same loathsome diseases\n\ncontracted from loose-living husbands.\n\nThe teacher of physiology or the gymnasium instructor or the coach\nfor the girls can, whenever necessary, teach\n\nthem the things every young\n\nwoman should know as to her physical being and health; and is there any\nreason why the girl should not learn the importance of clean blood and\nfreedom from infection on the part of her possible future husband and her\nright to demand that he come to her with a clean bill of health?\n\nGirls\n\ncan learn here, too, the importance of vigorous vital organs and strong\nmuscles, especially the importance of strength in those great muscles of the\n\ntrunk and abdomen which have so vital a duty in future possible maternity.\nIt may not be out of place for them to know the dreadfully large number of\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": "322", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n322\n\n[National\n\nwomen who fail in their great hour and too often sink into hopeless invalidism because of the impotency of these great muscles.\n\nBoys of high -school age, if we except the pasty-faced cigarette consumers\nsometimes found in our towns, are generally bursting with life and vitality\nand feel within them the pushing of those impulses which lead \"them to\nseek the society of girls, and, lacking acquired self-control, they are often\ntoo free in their conduct and speech.\n\nBut while they have this trouble of\n\ntoo great steam pressure with an unregulated \"governor,\" they have also\n\nthe capacity for high enthusiasms, and this is the time to put up to the\nboy the importance of avoiding temptations, the ideals of chivalry in his\nassociation with girls, the fineness of treating every girl as he would wish\nanother fellow to treat his sister or the girl who may some day be his wife.\nHigh-school girls have in them the same surging forces as their brothers,\nand they, too, lack balance and control. They may learn here the importance of restraint and the necessity for reserve in speech and manner; they\n\ncan probably learn here better than elsewhere, if their mothers have not\nalready taught them, the reasons for, and the importance of, those conventions which our society has established for the regulation of the asso-\n\nmen and women, and especially that of young men and young\nwomen; and the importance of avoiding those situations which often make\ngreat strain, sometimes a breaking strain, upon their self-control.\nIn the colleges the matter can be taken up in a scientific way. It is\nciation of\n\nto be assumed that the conduct side has been disposed of before this time.\n\nYoung men and young women, in separate classes, can go into the biological,\nAll these offer many\nThe economic waste in money and in health\n\nthe eugenic, the sociological, and economic side.\n\nproblems for serious study.\n\nand in the increase of pauperism and crime, the practical remedies in marriage laws, the question of suppression as against the segregation or regulation of the social evil,\n\nand many others.\n\nThe recent volume by Dr.\n\nFlexner might very well furnish material for a profitable seminary study.\nIt\n\nis\n\nincreasingly important that these underlying principles be studied,\n\nfor more and more these questions will come up for legislative action;\n\nand\n\nmen, and women also, for they will soon be voters, must understand these\nquestions and be able to vote wisely. But so far as the elementary schools\nare concerned, the question is chiefly one of conduct and habit; and the\nduty of those schools is to co-operate with, and reinforce, the teachings\nof the home, so as to secure the adherence of our boys and girls to worthy\nideals and to crystallize conduct into habits based on those ideals.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ.\n\nW. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.\n\n— am opposed to the direct\n^I\n\nteaching of sex hygiene in the public schools for several reasons.\nI.\n\nThe subject is not suited to class instruction for boys and giris of grammar or\nThe subject is so intimate and personal that the teaching should be\n\nhigh-school grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": "323", "text": "SEX HYGIENE—WHAT THE SCHOOLS CAN DO\n\nCouncil]\n\n323\n\ngiven to the individual by father or mother or some other person who is near and dear.\n\nThis knowledge should be imparted at a time when it is most needed and in a manner\nwhich will be most effective. The fact that many parents neglect or are unable to give\nThere should\nthis instruction is no reason why the school should undertake the work.\nbe a general understanding to the effect that the school cannot and should not be expected\nParents have duties and responsibilities\nto do all that needs to be done for children.\nwhich cannot be delegated to others, and, in my opinion, this is one of them.\n2.\n\nThe teaching of this subject to groups of children inevitably leads to morbidity.\n\nIf the child is given the proper instruction in regard to sex in the proper way, he regards\n\nthe knowledge he receives as something sacred.\n\nBut the mind should not dwell on it,\n\nbe regarded as a fit theme for general conversation. The sense of\nmodesty and shame should be developed which is so important to the morals of children\nneither should\n\nit\n\nas well as adults.\n3.\n\nPublic sentiment does not and probably will not sanction the direct teaching of\n\nsex hygiene in the schools.\n\nSo far as I have been able to find out, in no community, either\n\nin this country or abroad, has the direct teaching of sex hygiene met with public favor.\n\nOn the contrary, numerous instances have been published where the attempt to teach it\nThe general result usually has been antagonism between the\ncommunity and the school, the setting of tongues to wagging, and the stirring-up of\ntrouble in general. To such an extent is the public mind wrought up over this subject\nin some states that bills have been introduced in the legislature prohibiting the teaching\nhas been unsuccessful.\n\nof sex hygiene.\n\nWhat seems to be the sanest and best scheme of sex instruction for the public schools\nmay properly be called a scheme of indirect instruction. The atmosphere of the school\nis\n\nPurity and cleanliness are stressed. The spirit of chivalry is\nThe will is strengthened. The instinct of shame is guarded. Motor activities\n\nclean and wholesome.\n\ndeveloped.\n\nsuch as manual training and vocational occupations are carried on.\n\nStrong and abiding\nworth while are aroused. Courses are given in the high schools in\nbotany dealing with flowers and fertilization, followed later with courses in biology dealing\nwith the reproduction of lower forms of animal life. Such instruction paves the way to\nthe proper understanding of sex, and such training develops purity and wholesome living.\nSuch instruction and training I most heartily approve, and I believe it wiU meet public\napprobation also.\n\ninterest in things\n\nJ.\n\nStanley Brown, superintendent, Township High School, Joliet, HI.\n\n—I am glad\n\nto confess that I do not know the content of this subject, but in time I am confident\n\nthat some capable organization of men will determine its content.\n\nI shall therefore not\n\ndiscuss the subject sex hygiene but I shall talk about the subject.\n\nThe history of the\n\nintroduction of every new subject into the curriculvun recounts a bitter struggle.\n\nTwo\n\ngenerations ago when a proposition was made to put into the public schools of a great\nstate the subject of physiology and to put into the equipment for such work a manikin,\n\nthe opposition expressed by large numbers of teachers, by many boards of education, and\n\nby the clergy at large was marked and persistent. When an attempt was made to introduce into the curriculum music, drawing, American history, and later manual training,\nprinting, bookbinding, and the like, the opposition which greeted such effort was nothing\nless than tremendous.\n\nBut today there is scarcely anyone who in a great convention\n\ndares stand up and declare that any one of these subjects mentioned has no rightful place\n\nThe opposition has disappeared because the subjects themselves have\nshown that they are their own greatest defense. The history of these various subjects\n\nin the curriculum.\n\nin the effort to find their place in the curriculum is a fair indication of the path which\nsex hygiene must travel. Ten years hence, conventions of this kind will wonder why\nanyone was ever so foolish as to oppose the proper study of sex hygiene. One might\nthink that the only meaning attached to this subject is wrapped up in the nature of The\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": "324", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n324\n\n[National\n\nAny such conception is so shriveled\nTraffic, The Lure, The Fight, Damaged Goods, etc.\nand unjust as to make it seem ridiculous to an intelligent audience. We have heard from\nthis platform that our concern is with the mental, moral, and physical child.\nWe have\nheard and applauded the statement that we send the whole boy and the whole giri to\nschool.\nSex hygiene certainly concerns the highest welfare of the whole boy and the\nwhole girl.\n\nIt is unfair to suppose that this subject shall be completely taught in a part\n\nof one grade.\n\nLike our mathematics, it must be taught in small measure in four or five\n\ndifferent grades beginning with the fifth or sixth and extending thru the ninth or tenth\n\nor farther.\n\nIn so doing, the knowledge accumulated is so gradual and its necessity so\n\napparent that the spasmodic and mediaeval opposition now expressing itself wiU entirely\ndisappear.\n\nLet us hope that the conservative aggressive and progressive spirit shall make\n\nfor this important subject the same kind of defense which has attended similar efforts in\n\nthe past.\n\nThomas A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Seymour, Ind.\n\n—^The race reproduces\n\nshow conclusively that more than one-third of the\nchildren in this country fail to reach a healthy maturity. Every student of child life\nand every agency of education must recognize these facts and the importance of the\nsubject of sex hygiene or, better, race hygiene. Our instruction in race hygiene must\nconsist of much more than a knowledge of hygiene and the laws of biology.\nIt must\nseek to develop in children a spirit of altruism and an idealism in the realm of parenthood\nand child life. A true reverence for motherhood and a deep love for little children will\ndo more to inspire noble, pure living among our youth than the fear of the ravages of\ndisease which foUow in the wake of immoral social practices.\nIt is something for the child to know at the right time some of the important facts\nrelating to his development into manhood; it is something for the child to know the chief\ndangers that confront him during the unfolding of his sexual powers; but this movement\nin the schools must mean more than this.\nThe problem includes the development of\nright attitudes of mind, of high ideals and ethical standards of life, of respect for the social\nstandards and conventions of society, of an appreciation of the sanctity of the home, the\nsacredness of motherhood, and the love of little child en. Everything in the school\nitself\n\nevery fifty years.\n\nStatistics\n\ncurriculum that leads in this direction is a part of the teaching of race hygiene.\n\nPhysiology and hygiene are required subjects in most schools.\nsixth, the boys should be separated from the girls.\n\npreferably a father.\n\nIn grades above the\n\nThe boys should have a male teacher,\n\nThe girls should have a woman teacher.\n\nIn our city, the boys'\n\nclasses are taught by a man of high ideals, a teacher of fine experience, a father of boys.\n\nThe teacher of the girls' classes in physiology is a college-trained woman, a woman of\ndignity, and with a rich experience as a teacher.\nIn these classes, nothing need be held\nback which the students should know. The real questions of the laws of reproduction\nthe schools should leave to the home. But such knowledge of sex hygiene as the pupils\nshould know may be taught by the teacher as the occasion demands.\nMost high schools have departments of biology. In these the principle of biparental\nreproduction is taught as a law pertaining to all life. In the department of home economics, in the grades, and in the high school, when teaching cooking, sewing, homefurnishing, and the beautifying of the home, we are building in the minds of the pupils\nhigher ideals of home life, and along with this growth of ideals of the home will come\nhigher ideals of the purity of the home and the importance of healthy children in the\nhome. In the art departments of our schools where the first aim is to develop an appreciation of, and love for, the beautiful, as well as to give the pupils the power to reproduce\nthe beautiful in their own lives, every phase of moral purity has a support. In historic\nart the favorite theme thru the ages has been the sacredness of motherhood. The\nMadonna in art stands as a silent teacher of purity as well as of the holiness of motherhood and the sacredness of child life. Thruout the realm of English literature, no theme\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": "325", "text": "SECRETARTS MINUTES\n\nCouncU]\n\nis more emphasized than the purity of the home,\n\nlove for little children.\n\n325\n\nthe sacredness of motherhood, and the\n\nThe teacher of literature has an opportunity which has never\n\nbeen measured to develop in the student a lofty idealism and a spirit of altruism in the\nrealm of home life and of child life. The school must have as one of its aims the creating,\nin the coming generations, of the highest ideals of home life and of parenthood, and where\nit can do so it should be able to aid the\n\nhome in giving that knowledge which will safeguard\n\nthe health of the child at every point.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nST. PAUL MEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident\n\n—Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine\n\nVice-President—James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction.\n\nSecretary —^W. B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School\n\nOrono, Me.\n.\n\n.Raleigh, N.C\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Saturday Afternoon, July 4, 1914\nRobert J. Aley, president, University of Maine, Orono, Me., called the meeting to\norder at 2:00 p.m., in the Y.W.C.A. Hall.\n\nThe first topic under consideration at this session was \" Co-operating Forces for the\nImprovement of Rural-School Conditions,\" which was discussed by the following persons:\nA. H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal.;\nMargaret E. Schallenberger, commissioner of elementary schools, Department of Public\nInstruction, Sacramento, Cal.; C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction,\nMadison, Wis.; Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state superintendent of pubhc instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.; and David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C.\n\nThis was followed by a discussion of \"Superintendent Problems,\" in which the folJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.;\n\nlowing persons took part:\n\nLloyd E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.; Walter R. Siders, superintendent of schools, Pocatello,\nIdaho; John MacDonald, editor, Western School Journal, Topeka, Kans.; Edwin S.\nMonroe, superintendent of schools, Muskogee, Okla.; and David Felmley, president,\nIllinois State Normal University, Normal, 111.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Saturday Evening, July 4, 19 14\nThe meeting was called to order at 8:00 p.m., with President Aley in the chair.\nPresident Aley then gave the presidential address.\n\nJames M. Greenwood, advisory superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo., read\na paper entitled \"History and Achievement of the National Council of Education.\"\nJohn W. Cook, president. State Normal School, DeKalb, 111., read a paper on \"Some\nPositive Educational Gains in the Last Decade.\"\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Monday Forenoon, July 6, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 00 a.m.\nThe first topic to be discussed was \"Harmonizing Vocational and Cultural Education.\" The following members took part in the discussion: Josephine C. Preston, state\n:\n\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.; William J. Kerr, president,\nOregon Agricultural College, CorvaUis, Ore.; Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": "326", "text": "7\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n326\n\n(National\n\nTeachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa; G. W. A. Luckey, dean, Graduate School of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.; James W. Crabtree, president. State\nNormal School, River Falls, Wis.; and John W. Cook, president, State Normal School,\n\nDeKalb, 111.\n\n\"Economy of Time in Education\" was then discussed by Frank Strong, chancellor.\nUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.;\n\nHarry B. Wilson, superintendent of schools,\n\nTopeka, Kans.; Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield,\nHI.; L. D. Harvey, president. Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.; and E. E. Scribner,\nsuperintendent of schools, Ishpeming, Mich.\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 19 14\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:00 a.m.\nThe following report was then presented and unanimously adopted:\nWe, your conmiittee appointed to draft resolutions relating to the death of A. C.\nNelson, state superintendent of public instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah, beg leave to\nreport the following resolutions:\nResolved, That we deplore the loss of our friend and colaborer, A. C. Nelson, for many\nyears participating actively in the deUberations of this Council and in the business of the\nNational Education Association.\nResolved, That we tender to his bereaved family our heartfelt sympathy and condolence.\nResolved, That we bear testimony to the eflSciency and the very high character of his\nwork as an educational leader and official head of the public schools of his state.\nResolved, That we adniire the spirit which characterized all his public services and\nimpelled him to support with enthusiastic and unselfish devotion every national movement for the improvement of school education and the perfecting of school systems.\nResolved, That we who knew him appreciate deeply the uniform good fellowship\nshown in his dealings with people in all the varied duties of his active official and professional career.\n\nResolved, That we here make record of our admiration for his broad-minded, tolerant,\nwhole-hearted Americanism, his very high quaUties of manhood, his sterling integrity,\nand irreproachable character.\nResolved, That we, the members of the National Council of Education of the National\nEducation Association, cherish his memory as that of an ideal colaborer and a friend\nwhom it was always a delight to meet and to know.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJohn R. Kirk, Chairman\nNathan C. Schaeffer\n\nWilliam J. Kerr\n\nWalter R. Siders\nCommiUee\n\nThe following report of the Committee on Membership was unanimously adopted:\nWilliam B. Owen, Chicago, 111., Secretary\nTerm expires 1917\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz., Executive Committee\nTerm expires 191\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C., Committee on Membership\nTerm expires 1917\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., Committee on Membership\n\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore., Committee on Membership\n\nMEMBERS\nTerms to Expire\n\nin 1920\n\nWilliam M. Davidson, Pittsburgh, Pa., to succeed himself.\n\nM. G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa., to succeed himself.\nP. P. Claxton, Washington, D.C., to succeed himself.\nHarlan Updegraff, Philadelphia, Pa., to succeed himself.\n\nOliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111., to succeed himself.\n\nTerm expires 191\nTerm expires 1916\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": "327", "text": "IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\nCouncil]\n\n327\n\nKatherine D. Blake, New York, N.Y., to succeed herself.\n\nMrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., to succeed herself.\n\nFrank Strong, Lawrence, Kans., to succeed himself.\nC. P. Gary, Madison, Wis., to succeed himself.\n\nHomer H. Seerley, Gedar Falls, Iowa, to succeed himself.\nWilliam B. Owen, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTOPIC: CO-OPERATING FORCES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\nI.\n\nARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN, SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA COUNCIL OF\nEDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nBefore putting this paper in final form, a letter was addressed to many\n\nThe question was\n\" What is the most-needed improvement in rural education today ? \"\n\nleaders in rural-school education thruout the country.\n\nasked\n\n:\n\nReplies came from state, county, and city superintendents, normal-school\npresidents, professors of agriculture, special students of rural problems, and\n\nteachers in rural schools.\n\nThese replies are interesting and instructive\n\nin the highest degree.\n\nSUMMARY OF NEEDED IMPROVEMENTS\nIn the enumeration of the most-needed improvements,\n\nwe find the\n\ngreatest number of replies place better, closer, and more expert rural-school\n\nsupervision at the head of the list.\n\nThis, in a number of instances, implies\n\nthe necessity for rural-school supervisors.\n\nBetter- trained teachers comes\n\nnext in order and shares honors with consolidation of districts and centralization of schools.\n\nmoney.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nFollowing in the list, we have the necessity for more\n\nimplied in many of the replies and stated specifically\n\nin a large number.\n\nAs education is a matter of state concern, it is felt that\n\nthe state and wealthy city should see to it that the rural district is not\n\nThe next mostneeded improvement is thought to be the modification of the course of\ndisadvantaged in lack of funds for educational purposes.\n\nstudy the better to meet the needs of the rural community.\n\nFarm mathe-\n\nmatics, applied chemistry and physics, industrial education, home economics\nfor girls, and agriculture are elements of this modified course.\n\nThen fol-\n\nlows the necessity for making the school the social center of the community,\n\nwith opportunities for social and literary betterment, and the discussion\nof problems having to do with the improvement of industrial, commercial,\n\neconomic, and health conditions.\n\ntorium is advocated by some.\nplaygrounds,\n\nplots\n\nfor\n\nIn this connection, a community audi-\n\nBetter salaries for teachers, large attractive\n\nexperimental\n\nagriculture,\n\nmore modern school\n\nbuildings, improved water supply and sanitary conditions, the appointive\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": "328", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n328\n\nrather than the elective county superintendent\n\n[National\n\n— these appear to be held\n\nMore extensive and improved school equipments,\nwith particular reference to the teaching of industrial and home economic\nof equal importance.\n\nsubjects and agriculture, special normal-school courses for the training of\nrural teachers, abolition of the district system, and the substitution therefor\nof the county unit,\n\nanother.\n\nand a home for the rural-school teacher balance one\n\nClosing the list of needed improvements, we find better salaries\n\nfor county superintendents, open-air schools, endowments for rural schools,\n\nelimination of the county board of education, the introduction of vocational\n\nwork, enforcement of attendance laws, more permanent tenure for the\n\ncounty superintendent, increased salaries for supervisors, and good roads.\n\nTHE VITAL ISSUES\nAll issues as suggested in the replies are important.\n\nAfter an intensive\n\nstudy of rural-school conditions, extending over a period of years, I am led\nto the conclusion, however, individual differences and details aside, but with\n\ngeneral application the country over, that the three forces which should\n\ncome first in order of importance are as follows: (i) the abolition of the\ndistrict system and the introduction of the county unit of administration;\n(2)\n\nthe elective county superintendent to give place to the appointive\n\nand (3) special normal-school courses adequately to prepare teachers\nThese suggested changes, revolutionary perhaps,\nare even more urgently needed than more money or consolidation and cenFor when we have\ntralization of schools, important as these matters are.\nsecured the county unit in administration, have provided for an appointive\ncounty superintendent, and offered training that fits the teacher specifically\nfor service in the rural school, we have gone a long way toward solving all\noflicer;\n\nfor rural-school positions.\n\nthe other problems.\n\nTHE COUNTY UNIT\nIt is needless to show here how the district system arose, how it served\n\nand why in this age it is antiquated and inadequate. Those\nwho know schools and have studied administrative problems need not be\nits day well,\n\ntold of the lost motion, the crossing of wires, the ignorance, the neglect, the\n\nThe wonder is that\nthem to be. Time\nfind\nwe\nour rural schools are as effective for results as\nhad any education\nhas\nand again no member of a board of district trustees\nOne of these\nanywhere.\nlittle\nin the schools of this country and mighty\ncompetent\nconsidered\nmight\nbe\nmen if a resident today of his native land\nlack of telling results incident to the district system.\n\nto discuss the shortcomings of the school system, serve upon a school board,\n\nor assist in selecting the one to preside over the destinies of the local insti-\n\ntution of learning.\n\nBut transplanted to a foreign soil, where the temper and\n\ntendencies of the people are vastly different from those of his own land,\nwhere social, industrial, and economic conditions vary as greatly as do\ntraining and temperament, a stranger to our ideas and ideals, with only\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": "329", "text": "CouncU]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\n329\n\npartial understanding of our laws and a crude hold upon our language\n\n—\n\nsuch is the man who, many times, serves against his will upon a local board\nof school trustees. And this man, well meaning and honest, is fully as well\nqualified to fill the position as are his fellows in the neighborhood.\n\nBut not alone the foreign born and foreign schooled are serving in such\npositions.\n\nIn many instances, desire for political preferment, or ambition,\nMen absolutely without knowledge of the requirements\n\nleads to election.\n\nof teachers, or the meaning or make-up of the course of study, are expected\n\nto select the teacher, direct the expenditure of funds, and pass upon the kind\n\nand character of school buildings and equipment.\nAs a partial remedy for this condition comes the county unit plan.\nThere should be one central board of education for the county, which, in\nconjunction with the county superintendent and his associates, should\nThis board should\nselect teachers, as do the city board and superintendent.\nhave charge of the finances of the county. It should be composed of not\nmore than five members. Not geography, nor political or church affiliation,\nnor sex should play a part in their selection. They may be elected by the\npeople at large or may serve by appointment. The service should be for\nlong terms subject to recall.\n\nTheir only compensation should be for travel-\n\ning or other expenses, incident to two or three meetings annually.\n\nThe raising of standards, the equalizing of opportunities, the economical\nexpenditure of funds, and the securing of more competent teachers will be\n\nbrought about thru the introduction of the county unit.\n\nBut the benefits\n\nto be derived from the county plan of organization are contingent in no\n\nsmall degree upon the elimination of the elective superintendent.\n\nThe\n\nconsideration of the county unit plan leads naturally to the second of the\n\nimportant forces that will make for the improvement of rural schools,\nnamely, the appointive superintendent.\n\nTHE APPOINTIVE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nThe county superintendent should be appointed by the county board.\nThis indeed should be the chief function of that body. His salary should\nAs in the case of the city superintendent, he may be\nUnder the\nstate.\nelective system, the worst kind of politics is practiced.\nIn some states,\nno adequate educational qualification is demanded, and the man who\ncould by no possibility serve the county as assessor, or collector, or highschool principal is placed upon the tail end of his ticket that some political\ndebt may be paid. In some states where this is not the case, the county\n\nbe fixed by them.\n\nbrought from another county or even from another\n\nsuperintendent is forced to give much of his time during the last year of\nhis administration to building anew the fences that he must always keep\nin repair when he should be devoting his energies to the conduct of the\nschools.\n\nHe is ofttimes hampered as much as he is assisted by paid profes-\n\nsional or non-professional boards, who divide with\n\nhim the responsibility,\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": "330", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n33^\n\n[National\n\nthereby detracting from the serviceableness of the school system. He\nsometunes works with no assistant whatever, and in any case has never\nsufficient help to secure\n\nsalary received\n\nquate.\n\nfollow-up measures in school supervision. The\nby the average county superintendent is pitiably inade-\n\nWere it not for wife or daughter who frequently acts as assistant,\n\nwhere one is allowed, the salary would be barely sufficient to keep the wolf\nfrom the door. There is scarcely a state in the Union where the low salaries of\n\ncounty superintendents are not a disgrace.\n\nThe appointive superintendent should be an expert, by temperament\nand training qualffied for his work. He should be paid a salary commensurate to the position.\n\nHe should nominate for appointment all teachers\n\nof the county, and such nomination should be confirmed or rejected by the\n\nHe should assign all teachers to their respective schools, and changes\nHe should pass upon schoolhouse\nconstruction thruout the county. He should nominate, and there should\nwork under his direction, rural-school supervisors, men and women thoroly\nboard.\n\nin assignment should be made by him.\n\ntrained in the needs of the rural community and in the art of teaching.\n\nIn small or sparsely settled counties, the money now paid the professional board members should be applied upon the salary of a trained supervisor to act with the superintendent.\n\nWe are learning that supervision,\n\nleadership, follow-up work in the field count for more than trying to direct\n\nthe battle from a roll-top desk and upholstered chair. No one should be\nchosen as superintendent or supervisor whose credentials do not entitle\n\nthe holder to teach in any rural, grade, or high school in the state. This\nmeans thoro professional and academic training.\nThe county should be districted and supervisors should be appointed in\nsuch numbers as to guarantee a visit to each school of a half -day at least\n\nevery four weeks. These rural-school supervisors should hold conferences\nwith the men and women of the neighborhood; they should be able to discuss intelligently, with the teacher, the strengthening of the course of study\n\nand the work of each individual student in the school, and to take up with\nthe farmer in the field matters relating to crop improvement, the handling\nof crops, farm management, transportation, marketing, and the like.\n\nThey\n\nshould be able as well to discuss sanitary measures, rural economics, and\n\nproblems of the home.\nAuthority should thus be centered in the county superintendent.\n\nBy\n\nholding those in authority for results, and by placing a lay board between\n\nthe rural districts and the superintendent's office, effort may be expected\n\nUnder such system, there would be less favoritism\nshown in the appointment of a teacher to a given district on account of\nto result in efficiency.\n\nher residence there, or her relationship to a school trustee or prominent\ncitizen,\n\nwithout regard to her qualifications for the particular school.\n\nIndeed, we should expect as efficient work and as satisfactory results as\n\nwe find in the city.\n\nApproach is thus made to the third important factor.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": "331", "text": "IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\nCouncil]\n\n331\n\nTRAINING THE RURAL TEACHER\nIt is not to be wondered at that so many authorities on rural-school\n\neducation place the proper training of teachers as the most vital force\n\nWith the county unit preand the county superintendent an appointive officer, the next\n\nnecessary for the betterment of conditions.\nvailing,\n\nstep\n\nin progress\n\nschools.\n\nis\n\nto train\n\nthe teacher for specific service in rural\n\nCourses in our normal schools at present are calculated to meet\n\nThe country school is the teachers'\n\nthe needs of urban communities.\n\nexperiment station, and many young girls begin their work in the country.\n\nEvery normal school, with the exception of city training schools, should\nspecial courses for rural-school teachers.\nWhether an institution\noffers two years of professional training following high-school graduation,\nor four years' work based on an elementary course, it is necessary to\noffer practical work covering the subjects of the rural-school curriculum.\noffer\n\nMethod without subject-matter\n\nis\n\nuseless.\n\nOn\n\nthe pedagogical side,\n\nconsideration should be given the vital problems of education\n\n—school and\n\nclassroom management, advances being made, needed reforms, and the\ntendencies of human nature and their relation to the art of teaching.\n\nThis course for rural-school teachers should comprehend a first-hand\n\nknowledge of country-life conditions, the problems to be faced in housing,\nhealth, sanitation, water supply, the planning and reconstructing of houses,\nthe laying-out of grounds, and labor-saving in the home.\n\nIt should con-\n\nsider ways and means of taking social situations where they are and ele-\n\nvating them to where they should be.\n\nIt should train the teacher in\n\nthe organization and conduct of meetings, in making and carrying out\nliterary programs, in utilizing music and the motion picture in the school\n\nand home.\n\nThe machinery of county organization should be handled and\n\npolitical and civic problems given prominence.\n\nThere should be courses dealing with farm mathematics and accounting,\nrural mechanics, the fundamentals of domestic and agricultural chemistry,\n\napplied biology, problems of lighting, heating, and ventilating, and proper\nseating in schoolrooms.\n\nThe use of books, papers, and magazines in the\n\nschool and home should have a prominent place in the course, and, as well,\n\nthe profitable employment of the leisure hour, including games, sports, and\ncontests.\n\nHistory, geography, literature, reading, oral English and expres-\n\nsion, debating, industrial work for boys, home economics for girls, and the\n\nfundamental subjects should be stripped of their varnish and veneer, and\nemphasis placed upon those phases that find application in the world of\n\nmen and things.\n\nSuch work alone is cultural whether offered in country\n\nor city.\n\nThese normal-school courses must be offered by men and women of\nexperience, who are real teachers, not mere theorists.\n\nshould be drawn largely from the country.\n\nThe class of students\nWith adequate salary and\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": "332", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n332\n\n[National\n\nworking under satisfactory conditions, teachers will cease to look over\ninto the promised land of the skyscraper and the billboard.\nlasting\n\nIt is the ever-\n\nchange of teachers in the country schools that impedes progress.\n\nThis affects adversely the continuance of pupils in the school and sends\n\nthem away to the city. There is too much \" back-to-the-farm \" bosh talked,\nand too little \"stay on the farm\" practiced.\nEXPERIENCED TEACHERS TO THE COUNTRY\nInexperienced teachers are frequently forced to the country, not because\n\nthey so desire, or have knowledge of rural conditions or kinship of interest\nwith life in the open, but because the city will accept as teachers only those\nwith training and experience.\n\nRural authorities have not yet developed\n\nthe backbone or common-sense necessary to cope with this situation.\nis the experienced teacher, not the novitiate,\n\nIt\n\nwho should go to the country.\n\nExperience should be acquired in towns and cities where there are principals\nand superintendents and supervisors and fellow-teachers to direct and\nencourage and criticize. There is no rhyme or reason, lack of money\naside, in compelling young teachers to gain their experience by main\nstrength and awkwardness at the expense of the country boys and girls\nupon whom they practice. Until teachers have special training for work\nin rural schools, the authorities should insist upon experienced teachers\nand should pay a wage such as to secure to the country the very best.\nNothing will help to bring this about as will the county unit and the appointive superintendent.\n\nMoney necessary, you say!\n\nYes, indeed!\n\nTo carry out the plan as\n\nmore money must be secured. How to get more money is the\nproblem to which we must address ourselves. But money alone never yet\noutlined,\n\nproduced efficiency in education.\n\nWe need legislation, organization, super-\n\nvision, the centering of responsibility, trained teachers,\n\nof common-sense.\n\nand a modicum\n\nThese forces in co-operation will improve rural-school\n\nconditions.\n\nn. 'MARGARET\n\nE.\n\nSCHALLENBERGER,\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CAL.\nIt\n\nis\n\nnot surprising that we have neglected about three-fifths of our\nwe busied ourselves\n\nschool population during the last fifty years, while\nintensively with the other two-fifths.\n\nImmigration, steady and in increas-\n\ning numbers, segregated in the urban communities, demanded and received\nimmediate attention; but, after all, it is rather startling when we come at\nlast to look into the situation to find how little we actually know of the life\n\nof our rural people.\n\nWe have had our ideas on rural conditions, but a mass\n\nof poetry has woven itself into them, and, thus modified, we have held them\nfor years as little less than sacred.\n\nIndeed, even in a discussion like this,\n\nwhere we are encouraged to speak our minds freely, it is with a feeling of\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": "333", "text": "CouncU]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\n333\n\napprehension that one dares timidly to suggest that in the moss of the old\n\noaken bucket that rose from the well there undoubtedly lay lurking the\ngerms of typhoid fever. A sort of \"touch-me-if-you-dare\" attitude of\nmind is immediately roused at the mere mention of the little brown schoolhouse, no matter how cheerless and insanitary its quarters may have been,\nhow barren or uncomfortable its furnishings, or how debasing its deface-\n\nments.\nLiving independently with means of subsistence at hand, shut off for\nyears from the larger centers by geographical and weather conditions, our\nrural people have during the last fifty years fallen behind the standards of\n\nthe cities, which, during the same period, have constantly risen. Even in a\nnew state like that of California, where state aid from the first was given to\nthe humblest district school, one has only to spend a day visiting the oneroom rural schools of any county to become convinced that there is a great\ndifference between their conditions and those of the city schools, and that\nit is\n\na difference that need no longer exist.\n\nRailroads, good roads, auto-\n\nmobiles, telegraph, telephone, and postal service have connected the rural\n\npopulation to the urban world, and many a Columbus from the cities has\n\ngone forth exploring and has discovered strange conditions, surprising\nconditions.\n\nWhat the rural people have missed are forces, insistent forces, coThe cities have felt them, have been in them and of\n\noperating forces.\n\nthem, and the school as an institution has had its part in the general uplift\nof urban life.\n\nBy means of suggestion, by means of experiment, by means\n\nof criticism pro and con from other forces, working toward the same end,\n\nand by its co-operation with these forces, it has completely changed its\nstandards and its ideals.\n\nThe city school, just as the immigration bureau,\n\nor the board of health, or the church, or the pure food commission, seeks to\n\nhelp the children, and, thru the children, their parents, to live healthily, to\n\nplay freely and rightly, to work manfully and happily, to appreciate heartily,\nto serve loyally.\n\nThe\n\ncity\n\nschool\n\nis\n\naided,\n\nand its own activities are\n\nstrengthened, by object-lessons from the other forces:\n\ne.g., the immigration\n\ncommission sends a competent woman to help and instruct the newly\nto show her where and how to buy her food most\nhow to furnish her home and care for it; to point out what\n\narrived immigrant;\n\neconomically;\n\nopportunities are open to her thru public libraries, public clinics, recreation\nparks, settlement activities,\n\nand the public schools.\n\nNot only have the\n\nrural communities been deprived of the right sort of rural schools, but all\n\nthese co-operating forces have been lacking.\n\nTwo lines of procedure then present themselves for the rural school:\n\n(i)\n\ninternal change and readjustment of its own ideals, standards, and methods\nof work, and the putting in operation of certain special forces in accordance\n\ntherewith; (2) suggestion to rural communities to avail themselves of various\nforces found helpful in urban communities and to co-operate with them or\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": "334", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n334\n\nwith similar forces.\nseparate.\n\n[National\n\nThese two lines of approach cannot always be kept\n\nIndeed, the big emphasis should always be placed upon co-\n\noperation of the various forces, whether they be distinctly school bred or not.\nIt is these forces which the rural school must seek and find and foster and\n\nattach, if it ever is to be truly effective.\nTwo of these internal changes\nhave already been dealt with: the county unit system of administration,\nand the training of the rural teacher.\nIn addition to training for her work, however, the rural teacher, like the\ncity teacher, needs training in her work.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\npassing strange that we\n\nshould imagine we are getting the best service from a teacher when we put\nher as far away from public opinion and expert supervision as possible.\n\nEven a very good teacher does not know enough to fulfil all her task when\nShe needs a special kind of knowledge, which must be brought\nto her, just as she must be provided with special kinds of textbooks and teachthus isolated.\n\ning equipment.\n\nShe needs a knowledge of the people of the various comEvery teacher ought to be shown how to make a survey of her\ndistrict, of its industries, its religions, its amusements, its living conditions,\nits faults, its virtues, its ideals, its limitations, its possibilities.\nThere is a\ncertain personality about a community that must be understood, and to\nattain this understanding even trained teachers must have leadership and\nsupervision.\nThe modern teacher teaches children, not subjects. She must\nknow how these children live at home before she can set before them the\nideals which she wishes them to project.\nThe school today is judged by\nits ability to change the conditions of home life.\nCities and city teachers\nhave long had this point of view. In rural communities it is far from being\nattained.\nEven if we centralize our system of rural education, making\nthe county the unit, we must have helpful, encouraging, inspiring supervisors of the rural teacher.\nThe lazy and indifferent teacher needs the\nmunities.\n\nspur of supervision; the mediocre teacher can often be transformed into the\ngood one; while the good and excellent teachers should be given the praise\nand recognition they have so well deserved. Indeed, it is foolish to expect\nthe best service without it.\n\nThese supervisorships ought to be filled by\n\nmen and women who are well-educated and experienced in teaching, having\nhad special preparation therefor.\n\nThe salaries should be sufficiently remu-\n\nnerative to attract excellent teachers and to make them feel they can afford,\n\nwhen they have not already had such preparation, to give a year or two\nin a university to the study of school supervision, psychology, sociology,\n\nand other co-operative\ncreate, thruout\n\nforces.\n\nOur\n\nselves, a desire for the schools to\n\nimportance, for\n\nfirst\n\nprocedure then must be to\n\nthe rural communities and\n\namong the\n\nbe supervised.\n\nThis\n\nteachers theinfirst\n\nstep\n\nis\n\nof\n\nwhen a want is sufficiently felt, an effort is sure to be\n\nmade to fill it.\nThe district supervisor is the great servant of democracy; he ought to\nbe a great soul.\n\nHe will change the attitude of the rural child.\n\nHe will\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": "335", "text": "CouncUl\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\n335\n\nmake him proud of his home, not because of its limitations, but because of\nits beauty and restfulness and because of its interesting undeveloped possi-\n\nHe will make him proud of being country born, not because he\nmay therefore feel free to be rude and uncouth, but because of special\nprivileges thereby obtained and special opportunities thereby offered.\nHe\nbilities.\n\nwill, in short, help him to be a real part of the great outside world.\n\nAnother internal change, which we ought to encourage, is the conUnion high schools are common\nand popular in California. There are about two hundred and fifty union\nhigh schools. The union, or consolidated, grammar and primary schools\nare only slowly gaining favor. In many mountain districts, consolidation\nsolidated, or centralized, or union school.\n\nis almost impossible;\n\nsolidation has\n\ndistances are too far and roads too bad.\n\nWhere conCounty\n\nfound favor, the results have been gratifying.\n\nsuperintendents generally heartily approve of the movement, but most of\n\nthem are not inclined to push it too strongly.\n\nIndeed, under our present\n\nsystem of district trustees, it is not always easy for them to push the\n\nmovement at all.\n\nIf\n\none could only get all of the people of all of the\n\ndistricts concerned to unite upon the slogan\n\n\"The children first,\" union\n\nschools would multiply more rapidly.\n\nBut whether we build big schoolhouses or small, we ought to build them\nEverywhere we are sadly in need of school architecture. A good\nmany consolidated schools may be comfortable, sanitary, and convenient,\nbut they are very ugly. A good many fairly good-looking schools on the\noutside are very unhygienic and inconvenient inside. Widespread ignoright.\n\nrance exists regarding cross lights, air space, ventilation, lavatories, color\nof walls, and height and texture of blackboards; while gymnasium rooms,\n\nluncheon rooms, manual-training departments, experimental laboratories,\n\nMost\netc., are often unheard-of luxuries.\nknow nothing of rural-school conditions. Space is wasted;\nmaterial is wasted; money is wasted. We have some information but we\nneed much more. With us in the Far West, there is a strong tendency to\nbuild better schools, and in some of the counties we have very fine rural\nreading-rooms, sewing-rooms,\narchitects\n\nbuildings;\nseriousness.\n\nbut, on the whole, the matter is not regarded with sufficient\n\nWhen we have a county unit system, with its body of district\n\nsupervisors well established, the importance of using, very carefully, the\n\ngoodly sum which we hope will be forthcoming for our new rural schoolhouses will be much more emphasized.\nings is a very serious matter.\n\nThe erection of rural-school build-\n\nThree-fifths of our school population ought\n\nto be in them for about six hours per day.\n\nThe school building itself, tho\n\nfrom its very appearance to the noisiest\nsort of anarchy.\nWe certainly need an improved style of architecture as a\nco-operating force. Given the right school building, equipment is almost\nsure to follow: Ideals again and standards! When is a schoolroom well\n\nreally silent, is often conducive\n\nfurnished ?\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": "336", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n336\n\nIn rural-school decoration we have made a bare beginning.\n\n[National\n\nPictures,\n\nalmost without exception, are hung too high, often are badly chosen,\n\nmany times are covered with dust, cobwebs, and flyspecks;\n\nplants,\n\npresent, are growing in tin cans; flowers are arranged (?) in bottles\n\nif\n\nand\n\npreserving jars; and, over and over again, decorations when once placed are\n\nplaced to stay.\n\nNo sense of the eternal fitness of things prompts teachers\n\nor children or any member of the community to remove Christmas decorations before Valentine's Day or Valentine's Day decorations before Thanks-\n\nAgain we need knowledge and more knowledge and yet more.\nIn California, we thought we had an ideal system.\nFrom the beginning of its\ngiving Day.\n\nAn all-powerful factor in the rural school may be the library.\n\nexistence, the rural-school library has had its special fund, consequently,\n\nas would happen very naturally, there are some excellent rural libraries in\nCalifornia and some almost worthless ones.\n\nIn the old days, either the\n\nteacher or the trustees purchased the books until all the money appropriated\n\nToday, however, no book may be bought unless\nupon a list made by the county board of education, so purchases\nare now more rational; and lately a new law permits any library in the\ntherefor had been spent.\n\nit be found\n\ncounty, including the district-school libraries, to affiliate with the county\nlibrary\n\nwhere there is one.\n\nAbout half the counties of California have\nThe books of an\n\ncounty libraries, and the number is rapidly growing.\naffiliating library are\n\nturned over to the county librarian, who takes com-\n\nplete charge of them, mending and fumigating, if necessary destroying, and\n\nThe rural school may have practically any or\nThe teacher sends in her request to this central disMoreover,\ntributor, and is supplied by parcel post or express, charges paid.\ncontinually distributing.\nall\n\nif\n\nbooks it needs.\n\nthe books asked for are not to be found in the county library, the state\n\nlibrary has been meeting the demands.\n\nThis we are finding one of the most\n\neffective co-operating forces for the rural school.\n\nThe state and county\n\nlibraries are for the benefit of the people and the rural-school children are\n\nthus formally recognized as a part of the people.\n\nThru the school, too,\n\nthe adult population are granted the same privilege and are supplied almost\n\nwithout exception with any books requested.\n\nThe extension of this method\n\nof circulation of materials for school purposes, illustrative material for\n\ngeography lessons, etc., is being attempted in a few counties with very\nand J. L. Gillis, state librarian, is contemplating the\n\npleasing results,\n\ncirculation of musical records for use upon the Victor, Edison, and Columbia\n\nmachines.\n\nIf this project is successful it will mean that, in the near future,\n\nany school district which will purchase a machine may be allowed to use\nNo better method could be devised\nlarge numbers of the very best records.\nfor bringing high-grade music into the rural communities, and no better\nmethod could be thought of for giving the country-bred boy and girl appreciation of the world's best musical artists. Is there any reason why grand\nopera shotdd be whistled in the crowded streets and noisy market place only ?\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": "337", "text": "IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\nCouncU]\n\n337\n\nIt would sound well in the rustling corn fields and up and down the mountain\ntrails.\n\nPerhaps the fact that rural-school children are comparatively unacquainted with moving pictures is not wholly to be regretted, but it is nevertheless true that, properly controlled, they contain large educational possibilities.\n\nOur state librarian has in view also, thru the county library, the\nConsolidated schools and\n\nintroduction of educational moving-picture films.\n\nunion high schools in rural communities often have sufficient space for the\nnecessary equipment.\n\nAgain, as in the case of musical records, it is planned\n\nto permit these schools to borrow the films whenever they wish to do so.\n\nTime forbids discussion of the wonderful possibilities of the playground,\nof parent-teacher associations, of dramatic and musical clubs, of debating\nclubs, of scientific investigations, of the use of the school for community\n\nand of hundreds of other legitimate school and community\ntouched upon directly connected with the schools, yet reaching out from them into the great world\nbeyond, are more than enough to point out the trend of the movement. It\nis bound to grow and to gain in strength and speed.\nAs for forces outside the school but related to it, they are manifold.\nEvery farmers' club, every good-roads organization, every improvement\nclub, every glee club, every reading circle, every women's society, any\nforce that means education should be fostered by the school.\nIt never\nknows when it may need that force in its business, the business of training\ngatherings,\n\nactivities, but these examples of forces already\n\npeople for right living.\n\nThe United States maintains a Red Cross Nursing\nSome day each state will have\n\nService, with Miss Jane Delano at its head.\n\na branch, and some other day a progressive rural-school community will\n\nbe maintaining a visiting nurse, and a visiting nurse well established in the\n\ncommunity would be a great help in planning the new sanitary school\nbuilding which is to be erected.\nIt is the co-operation of various forces, rather\n\nthan the independent\n\nactivity of any one force, that is going to bring about improvement for the\nrural school.\n\nIn depriving the rural schools of the better educated teachers, we have\nmade rural communities satisfied with low ideals of what the world has to\ngive in art, in literature, and in music, and we have failed to give them any\ntrue appreciation of the value of their own setting in life. The yellow\nprimrose to them is the yellow primrose, and it is nothing more. The man\n\nOur rural people have\nThru the co-operation of these various forces, we shall\nJust as our various and better means of communication\n\nborn blind does not see black, he sees nothing.\nbeen born blind.\ngive them vision.\n\nhave brought us close together, so they have given ingress to various\nand better educational forces, which, rightly directed, will mean for\nrural communities\n\nan entirely different concept of life.\n\nThe rural school\n\nshould be the conserver and director of all the other forces.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": "338", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n338\nin.\n\nC. P.\n\n[National\n\nGARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nThe plan suggested by the first speaker as to the central board of education seems unsatisfactory for the reason that no board that meets only\n\ntwo or three times annually as proposed can even approximately understand the conditions or needs of the schools of a county. In order to be\neffective, the members would be obliged to devote much of their time to\nthe schools to the end that they might become familiar with the actual\nconditions in each district, the efficiency of the teachers, and with the\nfinancial and economic condition of the farmer in every part of the county.\nBy \"forces\" the speaker seems to mean his proposed county board, the\nappointed county superintendent, and the schools for giving special normal\n\"Co-operation\" means the working together of these forces.\ncourses.\nLater he mentions legislation, organization, supervision, the centering of\nauthority, and trained teachers as the forces that will improve rural schools.\n\nThe speaker seems to forget the people themselves and would tie his faith\nto a system external to the locality immediately concerned.\nIt seems to me the speaker has too little faith in the people whose\nchildren, or whose neighbors' children, are to be educated, and too much\n\nin centralized authority.\n\nThere are three possible methods of procedure\n\nin improving country schools.\n\nThe first is to have the state, or county,\n\ntake the initiative and force improvement on localities; the second is to\n\nhave the localities govern their own educational affairs and trust to their\ngood sense in bringing about progress; the third is a combination of these\ntwo forces in a helpful, co-operative way. The state may and probably\nmust take the initiative and plan the campaign, using all available agencies,\nbut carrying on this campaign with the people in order that the people\nthemselves may get behind the movement, and thus make the movement\nfor progress their own.\nA fine and complete organization, while well\nenough in itself and desirable, is not the most vital thing. Organization\nmust have the breath of life in it. The attempt to force good schools on\nthe people from outside will never work successfully except here and there\nin isolated cases in which the community is distinctly behind its neighbors\nin educational progress. The co-operation of an intelligent community, a\ncommunity that feels its own responsibility, is the thing to be wished.\nThis spells campaigns of enlightenment among the people themselves as\nto what a good school is, the value of a good school, and the means of\nsecuring a good school.\nTaking away from local communities the right to manage their schools\nand employ teachers will deprive the rural schools of the only incentive\nfor keeping alive the community interest in its local school.\n\nIt is unwise\n\nfor a democratic form of government to remove the control of its institu-\n\ntions too far from the people.\n\nAs a remedy, I would keep the district system,\n\nconsolidating wherever possible, but would have only one member instead\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": "339", "text": "IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\nCouncil]\n\n339\n\nmember to be elected annually. I would also\nmake the county the taxing unit for the purpose of raising the teachers'\nsalaries.\nBy so doing it would do away with financial inequality between\nthe large and the small districts. The money necessary for paying the\nteachers' salaries may be determined by a committee of the county board\nof supervisors with a minimum and maximum for teachers in the several\ngrades of schools fixed by law. I would have the people in the local districts elect one member who should have a voice with the chairman of the\nof a board of three, this\n\ncounty committee in selecting the teachers for the school, while the people\nin the local community should have power to tax themselves for building\n\nthe school and providing equipment and fuel.\nIt is highly probable that the establishment of special normal-school\n\ncourses in schools primarily designed to fit teachers for city positions will\n\nnot prove satisfactory when it comes to the training of country teachers for\nthe following reasons:\n1. Young men and women will not attend such a school at a distance\nfrom their homes at their own expense in order to go into the rural schools\n\nwith the low salaries and all the unsatisfactory living conditions existing\nin many places in the country.\n2.\n\nAgain such a course will rarely be on a par with the other courses\n\nin the larger normal schools, at least in the estimation of the teachers and\n\nthe other pupils in the normal school.\nIt would\n\nseem to me better to have training courses for teachers in\n\nsmall county training schools and in the high schools of the county,\n\nwhich, by the way, are the colleges and normal schools of the\npeople.\n\ncommon\n\nSuch courses should be fully and adequately supervised by state\n\nauthorities.\n\nThe county superintendent under present conditions works under a very\nserious handicap in that he has little, if any, assistance.\n\nHe stands in need\n\nnumerous helpers if his work is to be thoroly eflacient. It would no\ndoubt be a great aid to have special teachers employed by the county\n\nof\n\nboard of supervisors or by the county board of education who should\nassist the\n\ncounty superintendent in the inspecting and in training the\n\nteachers in the rural schools.\n\nThese supervisors should have\n\nspecial\n\nqualifications on such subjects as English, mathematics, nature study, and\n\nindustrial studies.\n\nTheir salaries should be graduated according to experi-\n\nence and success.\n\nThe forces that should co-operate are:\n\nthe people themselves;\n\nthe\n\nteacher; the county superintendent and his assistants; the training schools\nfor teachers;\n\nand the state department of education.\n\nThe last named, as\n\nbefore stated, should take the initiative, at least if the initiative is not taken\n\nby others closer to the situation, and exert its influence with each of the\nother four factors mentioned.\nwill\n\nIf there is a county board of education, it\n\nbe of such influence as the good sense, knowledge, and initiative of\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": "340", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n340\n\n[National\n\nthe members make possible.\nI am not, however, an enthusiast for the\ncounty board. We certainly need not expect to see the educational\nmillennium ushered in when we get the county board.\n\nIV.\n\nADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT OP\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nSome of the prominent and immediate forces acting for the improvement of the rural schools are those presented in Miss Schallenberger's\npaper, each one of which is effective in itself, but more powerful as it is\nbrought into relation to the others and made a co-operative agent in the\ngeneral advancement of the school.\n\nBut the greatest community service that can result from these agencies\nis that of arousing in the people an appreciation of the value of co-operation\n\nin all lines.\n\nThe great need of rural communities today is an understand-\n\ning and appreciation, on the part of the citizens, of the spirit of dependence\n\none on another and the value of voluntary association for material as well\nas mental and spiritual advancement.\nIt is not so easy for the farmer, living an isolated life that has developed\nin him the spirit of independence and individual initiative, to unite with\nhis neighbors for the betterment of all as it is for the city dweller, who realizes the truth that community uplift is necessarily individual uplift.\n\nHere\n\nvoluntary unions for the common good follow as a natural sequence; but\nthe inhabitants of a rural district learn the lesson of co-operation more\nslowly, and, no matter what the strength of the individual teacher and the\n\nperfection of the various agencies directly connected with the school, a per-\n\nmanent impress of the longest effect can come only from the co-operation\nof patrons for the general community good as well as for the good of the\nschool.\n\nAn authority on rural affairs has said recently that rural progress can\nnever come until at least three needs are met:\n\n(i)\n\nfarmers must get more\n\nthan forty or fifty cents for every dollar's worth of produce they market;\n(2) better help must be procured for farm work and the help must be better\n\nhoused; and (3) rural credit must be obtained that will enable the young\n\nmen to borrow on long time at low interest rates.\n\nThese things can be\n\nbrought about only thru the co-operation of farmers, and with them will\n\ncome prosperity, which always means better schools. I repeat, therefore,\nthat the greatest good that can come to the schools, thru the co-operation of\nthose agents directly allied with it, will result when these co-operate in such\na way as to educate the community in the lessons of mutual helpfulness\nthru which, alone, betterment of all institutions will come.\n\nOf the various administrative forces touched upon in Mr. Chamberlain's\npaper, I shall discuss, at his suggestion, the one of county superintendent.\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": "341", "text": "CouncUl\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\n341\n\nWhere the county is the unit of administration, the great importance\nof competent county superintendents, with proper qualifications, adequate\nsalaries, and definite powers and duties, cannot be gainsaid.\n\nThe speaker suggests that in order to secure competency, adequate\nsalaries,\n\nproper powers and duties, and qualifications, the county super-\n\nintendent should be chosen by an elected or appointed county board of\n\neducation consisting of five members.\n\nBut by whom this county board of education shall be elected or apAt the present time\nthere are almost as many methods for choosing county boards as there\n\npointed becomes at once the all-important question.\nare states maintaining such boards.\n\nIn one state the appointment is made\n\nby the governor, in another by the state superintendent, in a third by the\nIn one\nstate legislators, and in a fourth by the state board of education.\nstate, the county court appoints the county board, and in another this duty\nis intrusted to the grand juries.\n\nOccasionally a state trusts the people with\n\nthe election of this body, and, perhaps, after all, this is the safest plan, for\n\nthe answer which the vote of an enlightened populace gives to an important\nquestion is usually a safe one.\nI am somewhat more optimistic about the status of the county super-\n\nChamberlain, for, in recent years, some marked\nimprovements have been made. In one-third of the states having county\nsuperintendents, the term is not less than four years, and in two-thirds of\nthe states some qualifications are required, the minimum, to be sure, not\nextending beyond those of a voter, but the maximum demanding teaching\nexperience, license qualifications, and graduation from a standard college\nor normal school.\nThe remuneration, too, has been advanced and changed\nfrom uncertain income on sales of lands or amounts of funds expended to\nintendent than Mr.\n\na definite salary.\n\nThe powers and duties of a county superintendent need definition more\nThe county superintendent can render his most efficient service when he works in co-operation with all other administrative\nofficers, with his duties definitely understood.\nThe state department of\nthan enlargement.\n\npublic instruction, the state board of education, the trustees\n\nand school\n\nboards, and the county superintendent are the chief school administrative\nforces in the state.\n\nThe co-operation of these forces in the administration\n\nof school affairs will lead rapidly to the\n\nimprovement of the machinery\n\nconnected with the rural school and all contributing agencies.\nRepresentatives of these forces should meet frequently to determine\nupon the best measures to be undertaken for the betterment of the rural\nschools.\nState agricultural colleges and normal schools should have representatives at these councils, and the specific work and duties of each should\nbe defined. By this means economy of time and energy will be secured,\nsince there will be neither interference nor overlapping of work and there\nwill be union in a common great cause.\nThese forces must co-operate to\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": "342", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n342\n\n[National\n\nadminister the affairs of rural schools as such and not to pattern them after\ncity schools.\n\nThis democracy needs the rural product\na rural school\n\n—to\n\n—\n\n^boys\n\nand girls educated in\nproblems, and the\n\nassist in the solution of its great\n\nrural school will be improved and made more potent to the extent that the\n\nvarious co-operative forces act together and not independently for the\nimprovement, not of the school alone, but of the entire rural-community\nlife.\n\nV.\n\nDAVID\n\nB.\n\nJOHNSON, PRESIDENT, WINTHROP NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL\nCOLLEGE, ROCK HILL, S.C.\n\nI believe that the normal school is, or should be, one of the strongest\nand most effective of the forces for the betterment of rural-school condition's.\n\nIt should train teachers for rural schools as well as for other schools.\n\nThe efficient country school is the most vital educational need today\nThe whole rural problem, which is probably\nof this whole country of ours.\nour most vital problem, is \"practically the problem of the country school.\"\n\nThe farms are being abandoned by the owners and agricultural progress\nand production are failing to keep pace with growth in population and with\nprogress in other directions mainly because the country school has failed\n\nand is failing to relate its work to the life of the rural community.\n\nThe\n\nstartling exodus from the rural districts to the cities all over our country\nis generally\n\nattributed to the lack of proper educational and social condi-\n\ntions in the country which the properly organized and conducted school\n\nmight have supplied.\nIt is the patriotic duty then of all good citizens everywhere and of all\n\neducational agencies, especially of the normal school maintained by the\nstate for the betterment of the schools by properly preparing teachers for\n\nthem, to do everything possible to make country schools efficient.\n\nBut\n\nbefore being able to work intelligently and effectively for efficient country\nschools,\n\nwe must know what\n\nconstitutes an\n\nefficient\n\ncountry school\n\ntoday.\n\nThe efficient country school which is to improve agricultural conditions\nand to keep good citizens on the farms and make good citizens on the farms\nmust relate its work to the community life of the people served by it; must\neducate the children for country life instead of away from it; must teach,\ntherefore, agriculture; must relate universal elements of education to\ncountry community needs; must train the children for their future work\nin the home, on the farm, and in the social life around them; must be a\n\"community center of education, instructing both children and adults\nin terms of country life and pointing the way to community prosperity and\nwelfare\"; and must concern itself with the business and social life of the\npeople, promoting helpful and profitable co-operation and neighborliness.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": "343", "text": "IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL-SCHOOL CONDITIONS\n\nCouncil]\n\n343\n\nSomeone has called the lack of sociability in the country, the tendency of\nthe countryman to live to himself, country individualism\n\n— \"the tubercu-\n\nlosis of American farm life.\"\n\nThe efficient country school cannot neglect the health, the recreation,\nor the social ideals of the people.\n\nIt must be housed in a properly con-\n\nstructed school building, with good light and ventilation and school furniture and equipment and sanitary closets. The grounds should be ample\nand properly laid off for all kinds of recreation. There should be gardens\nin connection with the school to be worked by the pupils, and the school\nshould encourage the pupils to work small gardens at their homes and should\nsupervise them. We are now trying, as an experiment in our state, small\ndemonstration farms in connection with a limited number of country schools\nin each county.\n\nThe efficient country school must interest its pupils and their parents\nin the boys' clubs and the girls' canning and poultry clubs.\n\nThe redirected course of study needed for the efficient country school\nmust be determined by the needs of the community as shown by a social\nand economic survey of the community. You cannot ''hitch up education\nto life\" without knowing what that life is 'the prevailing aspirations of\nthe community, \"its economic and social resources and possibilities, its deficiencies and needs.\"\nAfter all is said and done, however, there can be no efficient country\nschool without an efficient teacher. The requirements of an efficient country\nschool determine the kind of training which the normal school must give\n\n—\n\nto prepare the efficient teacher for such a school.\n\nThe efficient country\n\nschool-teacher means a teacher trained specially for teaching in the right\n\nway a country school\nefficient teacher for\n\n—one who\n\nis\n\nin\n\nsympathy with rural life.\n\nThe\n\nthe country school must be not only a good teacher\n\nof subject-matter, \"giving instruction in terms of the local environment\n\nbut also a good community leader.\n\nShe must be able to\nUnder her leadership there\nwill be road improvement, good farmers' clubs and institutes, and countryschool progress. She must be imbued with the spirit of civic service. I\nbelieve that permanency of position and adequate salaries will soon follow\nof the child,\"\n\nstimulate local campaigns for rural progress.\n\nsuch service.\n\nMany of the normal schools have recognized the need of special training for country teachers and have provided for it, and it is to be hoped that\nall will\n\nsoon do so.\n\nAt Winthrop College we require all of our normal\n\nstudents to take agriculture, which we have been teaching for eighteen\nyears, and to make and work school gardens;\n\nand we require our Seniors\nwhere school gardens are\n\nto observe and practice in the training school,\n\nworked by\n\nchildren.\n\nWe give two courses for country teachers—the\n\nrural-life educational course of four years and a one-year course for teachers\nstill in the field.\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": "344", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n344\n\n(National\n\nIt may be of interest in this discussion and may prove suggestive for\nme to make some mention of some of the things our normal college has\ntried to do for the rural schools.\nOther normal schools may have done more\n\nand better work.\nWe have at our normal college an experimental rural school designed\nto work out a course of study specially adapted to the needs of the children of the country without regard to any traditional course of study.\nAll precedents have been ignored. The thought always in mind is to\ntrain the farm children, brought in from the country in a wagon, for their\nwork and life in the country home, on the farm, and in the social life of the\ncountry. All of the activities of the school are based upon work in the garden and have grown out of such work. We have a practice home where our\nSeniors are given practice in housekeeping, gardening, poultry-raising, etc.\n\nThe State Rural School Improvement Association of South Carolina\nwas organized among the Seniors of our normal college in 1902. A College\nRural School Improvement Association takes charge each year of a country\nschool in the county in which we are located. We have a farm of 144 acres\nwhich serves not only to supply the college with fresh vegetables, beef,\npoultry and eggs, butter and milk, etc., but also to give our students\ninstruction in dairying, poultry-raising, farming, and gardening.\nThe Conference for Education in the South, held at Louisville, Ky.,\n\n\"How to Organize and Build up Country\nand consisted of demonstrations, exhibits, and conferences. Our\nstate normal college demonstrated at that conference the model rural\nschool and the model rural home.\n\nlast April, was devoted to showing\n\nLife,\"\n\nTOPIC:\nI.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nJOHN W. CARR, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BAYONNE, N.J.\n\nOwing to the brevity of tune at my disposal, I shall limit the presentation to a few problems of the city superintendent without attempting to\ndiscuss any one of them in a thoro manner.\n\nOne of the marked tendencies in our educational readjustment is the\ngiving of greater power and authority to state and city superintendents,\n\nthereby making it possible for the schools to be administered by professional\nexperts.\nAlong with the bestowal of power has also come the fixing of\nresponsibility.\n\nAmong the notable examples are the reorganization of the\n\nstate departments of New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Ohio, and\n\nthe city systems of St. Louis, Boston, Louisville, and Pittsburgh.\n\nA few\n\nyears ago. Chamberlain found that the authority of the city superintendent\nwas increasing in forty-five out of fifty cities investigated, and in only two\ncities\n\nThe authority of the city superin-\n\nwas his authority decreasmg.\n\ntendent was increasing along several\ndetermining the budget;\n\nselection,\n\nlines:\n\nfixing\n\nappointment of associates;\nsalaries, and removal of\n\nof\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": "345", "text": "SUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nCouncil!\n\nteachers;\n\nchoosing of textbooks;\n\n345\n\narranging the course of study;\n\ndeter-\n\nmining the location of school sites, and the character and equipment of\nschool buildings.\n\n\"In all legislative and executive functions,\" says Cham-\n\n\"the power of the superintendent seems to be increasing.\"\nis particularly true in cities having small boards of education.\nberlain,\n\nThis\n\nBut the office of city superintendent is not universally recognized to\nbe one of great importance, neither do all superintendents exercise great\npower in the administration of the schools. In some places the city\nsuperintendent is regarded as a mere clerk of the board, while in others he\nis\n\nalmost an autocrat.\n\nBetween these two extremes, there are all degrees\n\nof authority exercised, differing according to the laws of different states,\n\ncharters of different cities, rules of different boards,\n\nand especially the\n\npersonality of the superintendent and the personnel of the boards of education.\n\nThe real problem is, \"What power should be vested in the city\n\nsuperintendent in order that school administration may be most efficient?\"\n\nA general survey of the whole field is necessary in order even to approximate\nan authoritative answer.\nThe source of power of the city superintendent differs greatly in different\ncities and often in the same city at different times.\nOur city schools are a\npart of our democratic institutions, and, in their development, their administration has been intrusted to boards of education\nrepresentatives of the\npeople.\nHistorically, boards of education or school committees antedate\n\n—\n\ncity superintendents.\n\nThe laws of many states give school boards the\n\nauthority to appoint city superintendents and to prescribe their duties, but\n\ndo not make it compulsory for them to do so.\n\nUnder such circumstances,\n\nin theory the superintendent exercises such power as the board chooses to\n\ngive him, but, in reality, he generally exercises power in proportion to his\n\npersonal force and professional fitness.\n\nWhere the superintendent is really\n\nand members of boards of education are competent, honest, and\nreasonable, the plan works well.\nBut the plan failed in many places for\nvarious reasons, which cannot be discussed here, but which should be\nefficient,\n\nthoroly investigated.\n\nThe result is that in certain places the superintend-\n\nent has certain powers given him by law, which he may exercise regardless\nof the board of education.\n\nFor example, in Ohio the city superintendent\nThe new code\nof Chicago gives the city superintendent power to initiate, subject to conappoints teachers subject to the confirmation of the board.\n\nfirmation of the board, matters of textbooks, courses of study, appointment,\ntransfer,\n\nand promotion of teachers, and some other matters.\n\nThe code\n\nprovides that it requires a two-thirds vote of the board to carry any such\n\nmatter without the superintendent's recommendation.\nachieved under different systems;\n\nSuccess has been\n\nlikewise serious difficulties\n\nhave been\n\nThe real problem is, \"Shall the state or the board of education confer the power exercised by the superintendent, or should part be\ngranted by law and others conferred by the board ? \"\nencountered.\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": "346", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n346\n\n(National\n\nBut whatever may be the powers of the superintendent and from\nwhatever source these powers are bestowed, yet all really efficient super-\n\nmany duties—some administrative, others\n—which are of great importance to the schools. In order to\n\nintendents perform\nprofessional\n\nstrictly\n\nperform these duties properly, he must have exceptional personal qualifications and professional attainments of a high order.\n\nHe must be a man of\n\naffairs capable of advising the board on matters of budgets, expenditures,\n\nschool buildings, equipment, supplies, and the like.\n\nHe must possess a\n\nknowledge of school law and parliamentary usage and be able to advise\nwisely and understand the proper methods of administration.\n\nHe must\n\npossess tact, insight, patience, persistence, and sound judgment, which will\n\nenable him to deal with members of the school board, principals, teachers,\npupils, representatives of business houses, and the public in general effect-\n\nively and so as to arouse the fewest antagonisms, promote harmony, and\n\nsecure the best results.\n\nHe must understand educational principles and be\nHe must\n\nable not only to employ them himself but to lead others to do so.\n\nbe familiar with other city-school systems as well as his own, must understand the strength and weakness of his own system, and must know how to\nremedy defects without destroying the parts that are good. He must know\nhis community and be able to adapt the course of study to local conditions.\nHe must be a real supervisor of teachers, capable of correcting, inspiring,\nand helping. He must have at least a general knowledge of statistical\nmeasurements and scientific management and be able to apply these\nintelligently and effectively to classroom activities as well as to statistical\nand financial matters. The really efficient superintendent must know and\ndo much more than is suggested above. A problem of prime importance\nis, \"How can a sufficient number of persons be obtained to superintend the\ncity schools, and how can the inefficient be kept out of such an important\nposition as that of city superintendent ? \"\n\nI shall not attempt the solution\n\nof so important a problem, but will venture two suggestions:\n1. That a strictly professional training of at least four years be required\nby law in order that an applicant may be eligible for consideration for the\n\nposition of city superintendent.\n\nThis course should be in addition to a\n\nminimum entrance requirement such as is now the case for the training of\nlawyers and physicians.\n\nThis course should be followed by a thoro exami-\n\nnation by state authorities.\n2.\n\nThat from two to four years of practical experience, as either teacher\n\nor principal or both, under efficient supervision, be a further requirement.\n\nThis would insure a minimum of actual experience, which is so necessary\nto the successful superintendent, and allow time for the maturing of his\npowers.\n\nBut you say such a law would disqualify many who are now successful\ncity superintendents, and, besides, there would not be a sufficient number\n\nof trained persons to superintend the schools.\n\nMy answer\n\nis,\n\nthat I would\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": "347", "text": "SUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nCouncil]\n\n347\n\nnot make such a law retroactive, but would set a definite time in the future\nwhen it would become effective. Some states may not be ready for such\n\na law but I believe that many are ready, and that the setting of such a\nstandard would do much toward making teaching a real profession.\n\nIt\n\ncertainly would stimulate the educational departments of our colleges and\nuniversities.\n\n—\n\nBut who is to choose the city superintendent ? the people at a popular\nsome central state authority, or is there\nIf I am correctly informed, in only two\nstill some other and better way ?\ncities\nBuffalo and San Francisco is the superintendent chosen by popular\nvote, which goes to show that this method has never appealed to many\nelection, the board of education,\n\n—\n\n—\n\nAmerican cities.\n\nIt is open to so many grave objections that it may safely\n\nbe dismissed as not the best way to choose a city superintendent. The\nmost common way is for the local board of education to choose the city\nsuperintendent. This has not always proved to be a satisfactory method\nbut with certain modifications is perhaps as good a method as has yet been\ndevised.\nSome have advocated the appointment by the state superintendent or by the state board of education or by some other board or\ncommission.\npeople that\n\nThis would remove the appointing power so far from the\nit\n\nis\n\nhardly worthy of serious consideration.\n\nSo while the\n\nselection of a city superintendent by the local board of education may not\n\nalways be the best method, yet it is doubtful if any better method has been\ndevised. The chief objections to this method are that members do not\nhave wide enough acquaintance with school men, or are sometimes influenced by politics, religion, or something else which frequently causes them\nto make a poor choice. Perhaps the greatest handicap to the local board\nin making a wise choice is the fact that the members are not capable of\n\njudging of the strictly professional qualifications of the persons under consideration, but make the selection on account of personal appearance and\n\nother non-professional qualities.\n\nIf\n\na strictly professional training were\n\nrequired of all applicants, such as suggested above, there would be less likeli-\n\nhood of boards choosing poorly trained persons. The average board that\nreally wanted to choose a good superintendent would have but little difficulty in doing so, provided it was not compelled to limit the choice to local\napplicants and was able and willing to pay sufficient salary to secure a\ncompetent person.\n\nThe problem of tenure for the city superintendent is an important one,\nand apparently but little progress is being made toward its solution. Some\nthink that conditions are really becoming worse.\n\n\"Of the 4,620 cities and towns of the United States having a population\nof 1,000 or more,\" says Bruce editorially in the last number of the School\n\nBoard Journal, \"at least 900 will change superintendents during the coming\n\nsummer vacation.\"\n\nThis means that practically one-fifth of the urban\n\nschools of the country will change administrative heads during this summer.\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": "348", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n348\n\n[National\n\nCertainly school supervision in cities and towns can never be placed on\neither a sound business or professional basis so long as changes of superin-\n\ntendents are so frequent. What are the causes of so many changes and\nwhy is the tenure of superintendents so insecure? Of course there are\nmany reasons for the insecurity of tenure; some of them are good reasons,\nbut many of them are trivial and unworthy reasons.\n\nThere is small inducement for a person to prepare thoroly for the position of city superintendent if his tenure is insecure, and he is likely to lose\nhis position for the most trivial reasons, or for no valid reasons at all but\n\nsimply at the behest of some petty politician, or on account of some disgruntled member or members of a school board.\n\nEducators and many other thoughtful persons are giving serious consideration to the solution of this difficult problem and many suggestions\n\nare made.\n\nDraper once said, \"The superintendent should be as secure in\n\nhis position as the members of the Supreme Court of the United States in\ntheirs.\"\n\nCary indorses this statement but adds: \"He should be secure,\n\nhowever, only when he is efficient.\"\n\nState Superintendent Morrison, of\n\nNew Hampshire, says: \"From the standpoint of the conduct of the schools,\nthe annual election of the superintendent is a thoroly vicious proceeding.\n\nTenure during competency and good behavior is the thing.\"\n\nSuperintend-\n\nent Poland, of Newark, believes in long tenure, but prefers that it should\n\nbe at the \"pleasure of the board.\"\n\nHe likes this plan because it puts the\n\nboard as well as the superintendent on trial\n\n—the board must justify\n\nitself\n\nto the conamunity in case of its removal of an efficient superintendent, and\n\nthe superintendent must justify to the board his right to be retained.\nPersonally, I believe that the first or trial term of a city superintendent\n\nshould be long enough to enable him to study his problem, formulate plans,\n\nput them into operation, and then have time to demonstrate whether or\nnot the results are satisfactory. After the initial term, he should have\ndefinite fixed terms of from four to seven years each, or should be employed\n\nduring efficiency and good behavior.\n\nHis removal should be only for cause,\n\nafter a statement of the reasons has been furnished to him and he has been\n\ngiven an opportunity to be heard.\n\nSuch a tenure would give the superin-\n\ntendent such a standing in the community as would command respect, and\n\nwould enable him to devote his time and energies to his professional duties.\nThere are other important problems relative to the office of city superintendent, some of which I shall enumerate but not attempt to discuss.\nThere is the problem of the proper relation of the superintendent to the\nboard of education. Friction between superintendent and the board is a\nfrequent cause of trouble; harmony and co-operation usually spell success.\nThere is the problem of effective supervision of principals and teachers so\nas to secure \"teamwork\" in carrying out a definite policy with intelligence\n.and enthusiasm.\n\nThere is the problem of choosing textbooks so as to\n\nsecure the best for the schools without truckling to publishing houses or\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": "349", "text": "SUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nCouncU]\n\nengaging in warfare with them.\n\n349\n\nThere is the problem of informing the\n\npublic of what is going on in the schools, and of educating the people so\n\nthat they will appreciate the best in education and will be willing to support\n\nthe schools financially and otherwise.\n\nThere is the problem of a profes-\n\nsional code of ethics, which will set forth the proper relation of one superin-\n\ntendent to another, and of the superintendent to principals, teachers, and\nthe public in general.\n\nIndeed, so many and so important are the problems relative to the\nschool superintendents\n\n—\n\nstate, city, county,\n\nthis great Association should make a thoro\n\nand district\n\n—that I believe\n\nstudy of these problems thru\n\na committee of its members and prepare and submit a report, setting\nforth the best practices in different parts of the country, with definite\n\nrecommendations as to the best method of solving each problem considered.\n\nII.\n\nLLOYD E. WOLFE, FORMER SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nSAN ANTONIO, TEX.\n\nIn this paper I shall attempt to offer constructive solutions to some of\nthe greatest school problems that have confronted\n\nme during the last\n\ntwenty-five years as superintendent of town and city school systems.\n\nThese problems are:\nFirst, the selection of teachers on merit.\n\nNo superintendent can con-\n\nand intelligently state to his board that a teacher recommended by him is the best available applicant for the salary if he has\nconfined his search to the applicants who have voluntarily applied and his\ntests to an examination of the applicants' diplomas, certificates, and testimonials. He should, by circular and thru the press, reach the teachers\nwithin reasonable radius, stating that all vacancies would be filled absolutely\nupon merit, and that, during a four weeks' vacation school for teachers,\nall applicants would be required daily to develop, chiefly by question and\nscientiously\n\nanswer, assigned portions of the course of study, teach classes of pupils\n\nunder the supervision of a critic teacher, and pass a written examination\n\nWhen, at the close\nrecommended to the board, they\n\non the course of study, including the special subjects.\nof the vacation school, applicants are\n\nhave the indorsement, not of the superintendent alone, but of all the superhave taken part as instructors. The teachers\nwhom I have selected in this way have never ranked below excellent.\nGraduates of the city training school should not be recommended for\n\nvisors and principals who\n\npositions unless they are as strong as the applicants attending the vacation school.\n\nThis will prevent dangerous inbreeding and put the training\n\nschool on its mettle.\n\nRelated to the selection of teachers on merit is the promotion of teachers on merit.\n\nI believe that, in attempting to promote teachers on merit,\n\nwe must more and more take into consideration, not only the teachers*\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": "350", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n35©\n\n[National\n\nscholarship and teaching ability as judged from our observance of recitations, but measured results in subject-matter and character-building.\n\nThe\n\npercentage of pupils promoted by a given teacher is not a reliable index of\nresults, for the teacher in practice is the main factor in determining promo-\n\ntion.\n\nIf a teacher is not critical in her instruction, she will not be critical\n\nin her examination of manuscripts and her estimate of the pupil's fitness for\n\npromotion.\n\nA remedy lies in more oral testing and more grading of manu-\n\nscripts by the supervising force.\n\nMy second problem is the professional growth of teachers in the employ\nof the board.\ntional\n\nIn normal schools, city training schools, and the educa-\n\ndepartment of colleges and\n\nuniversities,\n\nlarge\n\nsums are being\n\nexpended in training a small percentage of the teachers needed. At the\nsame time, in the cities and towns of this country there is a great army of\nable superintendents, principals, and superior teachers who are not being\nused to one-tenth their capacity in the professional improvement of the\nteachers in service. Few cities and towns lay out a definite course of study\nfor their teachers and give credit for its completion.\n\nThe teachers having\n\nno definite course of study to complete quite generally begrudge the time\ngiven to teachers' meetings. No one would be foolish enough to attempt\nto hold the interest of pupils and secure adequate growth without definite\nrequirements and corresponding credits. Why should we kill time in our\nteachers' meetings in aimless discussion, when the work should be as definite\nand critical as that of the normal school ? It is also high time that it be\nuniversally recognized that teachers cannot be lectured or entertained into\nscholarship or professional power.\n\nThe completion of the course of study\n\nshould lead to a higher certificate, higher salary, or possibly to credits on a\ncertificate or\n\nThe work should be along\nThe time given in the recent\n\ndiploma from a normal school.\n\nlines that are vital to the daily recitation.\n\npast and even now to that kind of psychology and pedagogy which cannot\n\nbe used by the teacher should be devoted to securing a critical knowledge\nof subject-matter in its relation to past and current thought and achieve-\n\nment and to the experiences of the child.\nOnly a small percentage of our towns and smaller cities have regular\nIn the cities and towns with no training schools,\na very difficult problem is to give a practical, inexpensive training in the\n\ncity training schools.\n\ncourse of study to the graduates of secondary schools who desire to prepare\nfor substitute work.\n\nThe most satisfactory solution of this problem that\n\nI have found is to organize my supervisors and principals who have most\n\ntime at their disposal to instruct these young people at their respective\nThis practical training by instruc-\n\nbuildings a week at a time in succession.\n\ntors who are in daily contact with actual school work has, after many years'\ntrial, succeeded beyond my expectation, in the improvement of both the\nmembers of the training class and the principals and supervisors giving\nthe instruction. This comparatively inexpensive training class also makes\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": "351", "text": "—\nSUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nCouncil]\n\nit\n\npossible to select substitute teachers on merit.\n\n351\n\nLikewise, the vacation\n\nschool for the testing of applicants gives instruction to members of the\ntraining class and to inexperienced and weak teachers, and uses retarded\n\npupils for practice teaching.\n\nAfter mature deliberation I am satisfied that the best combined solution of testing applicants, improving teachers in service,\n\nand instructing\n\nretarded and exceptionally bright pupils is a four to six weeks' vacation\nschool for pupils conducted by the most efiicient teachers in the schools,\n\nand a vacation school for teachers attended by all the teachers who are\nneither instructing in the vacation school for pupils nor attending a first-\n\n—^provided that, on the recommendation of\n\nclass summer school for credits\n\na physician, a teacher may be excused from all vacation work, forfeiting\nthe salary for the time excused.\n\nMy next problem is effective supervision.\n\nAs Moses lifted up the\n\nserpent in the wilderness, so should there be lifted up in every schoolroom\nin the land, as the great pedagogic goal, the stimulating, finished recitation\n\nnot the memorizing of general abstract statements about the recitation\nfrom some book on pedagogy, but a flesh-and-blood recitation constructed\npedagogically upon a given body of subject-matter. Hundreds of times\nduring the last quarter of a century have I interrupted applicants in their\nglib recitals of general statements on pedagogy to ask for the development\nof a given portion of subject-matter, only to find them floundering like a\n\nvessel without\n\ncompass or rudder.\n\nWhile the teacher must keep a few\n\ngreat principles in view, he will acquire skill in constructing recitations by\n\nconstructing them under constant, critical, helpful supervision.\n\nLikewise,\n\nthe organization of samples of subject-matter for recitation should constitute at least half the examination for county and state certificates.\n\nThere\n\nis no greater stimulus to the teachers of a system of schools than the knowl-\n\nedge that each member of the supervising corps is studying every part of\nthe course of study, and devoting practically all his time to critical, helpful\n\nschoolroom supervision. My solution of this problem of supervision has\nbeen to prevail upon my board of education to require the superintendent,\nassistant superintendent, supervisors, and principals to devote all available\n\ntime at their disposal to observing complete recitations, and to report to\nthe board the complete recitations observed, giving subject and teacher's\n\nOne of the great enemies of efficient school work is the office\nMuch time is wasted by superintendents and principals on clerical work and on refractory pupils who\nshould be put under special teachers or in special schools. Thru failure\n\nrank in each.\n\nprincipal and the office superintendent.\n\nto limit\n\nand systematize the telephone calls within a school system, the\n\nprincipal may be kept answering the telephone much of the time.\n\nOne of\n\nthe most difficult things I ever undertook was to get principals and other\nsupervisors to make a critical study of the curriculum\nefficiently.\n\nand to supervise\n\nThis would be easier if most of the professional improvement\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": "352", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n352\n\n[National\n\nwork among teachers were centered upon the recitation and the course of\nstudy.\n\nMy next problem is the course of study.\n\nThe best solution I have\n\nfound for this problem is to organize my supervisors, principals, and superior\nclass teachers to co-operate with me in modifying the course of study, from\ntime to time, in accordance with the social-needs theory, always taking\ncare to revise cautiously and to make certain that the teachers can handle\n\nThe more the super-\n\none revision well before attempting a further revision.\n\nvising and teaching force can have to do with the revision of the course\nof study the more practical the course will be and the greater will be the\n\nprobability that the course will be successfully carried out.\n\nBut I must pass to what I consider the two most urgent and far-reaching\nThe first of these is the substitution of a\nmany-book course of study for the present few-book course— at least six\ntimes as many books as now, embodying such rich detail as will result in\na maximum of social efl&ciency and a permanent taste for thoughtful books.\nInstead of our one-volume United States history, a stimulating book on\nreforms in the course of study.\n\neach period of American history.\n\nIn place of our one-volume physiology,\n\na number of entertaining, thought-provoking, and social-service-provoking\nbooks dealing vitally with hygiene, sanitation, children's diseases, etc. In\n\ngeography, ample reading matter richly illustrating the definition, \" Geography deals with the earth as the home of man.\" In arithmetic, instead\nof abstract\n\nproblems divorced from their concrete setting, several books\n\ngiving concrete transactions out of which the problems arise.\n\nOur fundamental educational aim,\n\nas related to the printed page,\n\nis to give pupils such a taste for solid reading that they will continue their\n\neducation, thru the reading of good books, during life.\ntice, it is rare to find a pupil who, during life, reads\n\nand continuation of his school course.\n\nHowever, in prac-\n\nmuch in amplification\n\nTherefore, notwithstanding our\n\nincreasing outlay for education, the chief interest among our rising generation is the exciting and sensational in fiction, the theater, the picture show,\nand the newspaper. The theater, the press, and the novel are commercial\nenterprises, and will improve only as pupils leaving the public schools\nhave a taste for something better. The rational way to form this desired\nlife-habit is for the pupil to read in school, as it is desired he shall read in\n\nnot two or three pages at a lesson to be memorized, but twenty-five\nThis many-book course would so kindle the interest of\nthe pupil that more of the essential facts would remain with him, and he\n\nlife,\n\npages or more.\n\nwould be a greater power for home and community betterment.\nThe second of the two great reforms in the course of study is: the training of boys in cities, towns, and villages, in habits of industry and thrift\nthru the making of minor repairs in the home and the school, and the use\nof back yards, vacant lots, and suburban tracts for vegetable, berry, fruit,\nand tree culture; the training of girls in habits of industry and thrift thru\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": "353", "text": "I\n\nSUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nCoundl]\n\n353\n\nthe systematic use of the cooking, sewing, millinery, sanitary and general\n\nhousehold plants in the home; the training of both boys and girls thru\nthe study and extermination of disease-carrying insects, and thru beautification and sanitation in the home, the school, and the community.\n\nThis\n\nfield of industrial education is in no sense open to the objection of stratifica-\n\ntion;\n\nit yields a valuable commercial product, continues thru the dangerous\n\nvacation of idleness and dissipation, and uses ready-made industrial material\nthat can be had for the asking.\n\nIs it fair to the already heavy-burdened\n\ntaxpayer for educators to be organizing campaigns for expensive industrial\nplants when no determined, systematic efforts have been made to use the\nfree plants in the home and in the community ?\n\nWith two thousand boys\n\ngardening at Memphis, Tenn., I demonstrated that four hundred dollars'\n\nworth of vegetables could be raised on an acre. Among the happiest hours\nof my life have been those I spent from 7 30 to 9 00 a.m. with groups of\nboys in school gardening. The universal adoption and perfecting of this\nindustrial policy would add at least a hundred million dollars annually\n:\n\n:\n\nto the wealth of our cities, towns, and villages and would be invaluable in\n\ncharacter-building.\n\nThe school, the home, the pulpit, the press, and the\n\nplatform should unite in creating that sentiment which will make a boy as\n\nproud of earning and saving as of making a home run or a touchdown,\nand a girl prize excellence in domestic duties as much as she now prizes\nleadership in books or in society. Altho educational expenditure has practically doubled during the last decade, our enlarged jails and penitentiaries\nare full, and criminal costs, divorces, suicides, and calls for charity are on\nthe increase. To me it seems criminal for us who are looked to for educational leadership to be indifferent onlookers while four million adolescent\nboys and girls in cities, town^, and villages are growing up in comparative\nindustrial helplessness, idleness, and thriftlessness.\nThe failure to put the doctrine of this article into general practice costs\nthe people of the United States enormous sums annually. This loss is\nchargeable to the lack of educational vision, to lack of courage, to selfish-\n\nand to civic obtuseness on the part of superintendents and board\nmembers, and to the widespread indifference and lack of information on\nthe part of the people. A nation-wide movement on the part of this Council\nand the National Education Association, persisted in for years, would go\nfar toward giving educational vision, courage, devotion, and civic insight\nto superintendents, board members, and the people. Our schools and\nmunicipal, state, and national governments can be run even approximately\nfor all the people only thru keeping the people thoroly informed and\n\nness,\n\nalert.\n\nFinally, cannot this Council\n\nand the National Education Association\n\ntake prompt constructive steps to organize\n\nall\n\nthe educational agencies\n\nand instrumentalities in this country for the reasonably early solution of\nproblems that go to the very foundation of popular education and national\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": "354", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n354\nprosperity?\n\n[National\n\nI should like to see our Secretary authorized to labor syste-\n\nmatically to induce the county and city school systems, the state educational\n\ndepartments, normal schools, and educational departments in colleges and\nuniversities, to co-operate in a nation-wide movement to solve vital\n\nand\n\npressing problems agreed upon by the Council and the National Education\nAssociation.\n\nIt should be his further duty, thru a representative of each\n\nstate teachers' association, systematically to educate people, thru the press,\n\nupon the great problems whose solution was being sought.\nThere are probably few school systems in this country where the interests of the children are not being, to a greater or less extent, sacrificed to\n\nsome selfish interest. While we shall probably always have spineless superintendents whose paramount object is holding their positions, and weak or\nselfish board members who will sacrifice public interests to private and\npersonal interests, an enlightened and aroused public sentiment must ever\nbe our chief reliance to reduce these evils to a minimum. The leading\neducators of this country are primarily responsible for the character of\n\nDuring recent\nmost civilized nations of the world, millions of human\nbeings have been deprived of liberty and life for appropriating small amounts\nIf thru self-interest, want of courage, or want of\nof another's property.\nvision, we cause a loss to these twenty million children many times greater\nthe education the twenty million children shall receive.\n\ncenturies, in the\n\nthan the sum total of all these centuries of petty thieving, may it not be\nless tolerable for\n\nus in the Day of Judgment than for this army of petty\n\nthieves whom human courts have punished ?\n\nm.\n\nWALTER R. SIDERS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, POCATELLO, IDAHO\n\nTo teach a man to live with his fellows has been the problem in all ages.\nThe home trains according to the ideals of the parents. Some agency is\nneeded to socialize and nationalize the people. The history of education\nshows most people establishing schools as an instrument of the state to train\n\nboys and girls to their own peculiar national ideals. Our present school\nsystem has inherited many things from previous generations which train\nfor the ideals of an age and for a citizenship no longer existent.\nThe superintendent's largest problem is to bring the school system to\nmeet the demands of this age. The aim of education is social. Its purpose\nis to fit an individual to be a useful citizen,\n\nconforming to the standards of\n\nthe world and of society. Modern education demands more than intelIt requires, among other things, physical training; moral,\nlectual training.\nethical, and religious training;\n\ncivic training; social training;\n\nand empha-\n\neach may earn his livelihood and not be a\nburden to others, at the same time preserving a just balance between\nsizes vocational training that\n\nvocational and cultural work.\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": "355", "text": "SUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nCouncil]\n\nIf there\n\n355\n\nwere no schools, what sort of an agency would the state be\n\ncompelled to create to train its young people for future citizenship ?\n\nThe\n\ncurriculum would be found in the training necessary to give that special\n\nknowledge, that culture, that vocational training, and whatever else this\nage expects to find in its citizens.\n\nThe teachers would be found among\n\nthose persons fitted by nature and by training to prepare young people\n\nThese teachers would come from the trades\nand the industries as well as from the professions. The organization would\nbe whatever would bring the teacher into contact with the pupil in such a\nway that the desired ends might be reached with a minimum of friction,\nwith a minimum loss of time, and with the elimination of all unnecessary\nwaste. Such an organization, to be effective, would be held where the instruction might best be imparted, in the field, the forest, the mine, the\nfactory, etc., and in the schoolroom for abstractions.\nIf we were able to disregard absolutely the traditions and inherited\nintuitions and plan a new school for new needs, we should have an ideal\nplan to set in parallel with our present scheme of things; we should be\nable to determine what there is in our present curriculum, in our present\nteachers, and in our present organization which is adequate to our needs\nand usable; and we should find what may be abandoned as no longer\nsuited to this present time. Were such an adjustment made today, it\nwould need readjustment tomorrow. As Dewey has observed: \"The\nfor present-day citizenship.\n\nschool is but a phase of the social movement of the race.\"\n\nThe world will\nmove on; the schools must keep pace.\nThe above-outlined, never-ending problem brings the superintendent\nface to face with his greatest problem, which is himself.\nTo keep his school\na live, modern, efficient citizenship factory demands that he have all knowledge, all wisdom, all art, all morals, all ethics, all of everything, in order\n\nthat he may bring to the school a full understanding of life and of all that\nlife means, that he\n\nmay be sympathetically fitted for the appreciation of all\n\nThe demands of the situation are impossible\nThey are possible in the accumulated wisdom, experiences,\nand foresight of all educators. These things can be brought to pass by a\nmore liberal exchange of educational ideas. The school man shall be not\n\nnatures and of all ambitions.\nto any one man.\n\nonly more of a student, but more of a writer and speaker.\n\nAnother problem, the solution of which would add materially to the\nsuperintendent's success, is how to be recognized as a man of affairs, as a\n\nman among men, as a man whose opinions are as worth while as those of\nother men.\n\nThe lawyer speaks as one vested with authority;\n\nis supposed to give utterance to the certitudes of science;\n\nthe doctor\n\nand the business\n\nman to speak with unfailing accuracy, because he is accustomed to the\nand discounts. The amount of public support\n\nprecision of percentages\n\nwhich can be brought to the schools is often the measure of its success.\nIf the school\n\nman seems unreal and unlike the rest of mankind, it is his\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": "356", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3S6\n\n[National\n\nproblem to be seen more often in the forum and in the market place to\nlearn if he may there find an answer to this problem.\nWith all of his problems a school superintendent needs to be much of a\nman, conquering himself that he may lead others. His stock of patience\nmust be inexhaustible. But patience is a virtue and not a problem. This\nleads me to believe that the work of the teacher is much like that of the\nFishing, you know, is an act of faith performed before a large\n\nfisherman.\n\nbody of water. And teaching? Teaching is an act of faith performed\nbefore a body of growing people, performed in the hope that there is something there to take hold of what is offered.\n\nIV.\n\nJOHN MACDONALD, EDITOR, \"WESTERN SCHOOL JOURNAL,\" TOPEKA., KANS.\n\nThe superintendent and his problems in eight hundred words!\n\nWho\n\nis sufficient for these things ?\n\nSuperintendent Wolfe in three thousand words has done his best\n\nunder the five headings he has selected. It may be assumed that he\nhas in view only superintendents who have the qualifications the apostle\nPaul prescribes for bishops.\n\nThat is to say, the superintendent must\n\nbe blameless, vigilant, sober, of good behavior, apt to teach, not greedy\nof filthy lucre, not covetous, having a good report of them which are\nwithout.\n\nIf\n\nhe has not these apostolic requirements in some visible\n\ndegree, his solution of problems\n\nis\n\nnot likely to accelerate the progress\n\nof the race.\n\nIn the selection of teachers Mr. Wolfe would not limit himself to volHe would go out as in the scriptural parable, into the\nhighways, for teachers of worth. The superintendent should take more\nuntary applicants.\n\nlatitude and longitude than the political party of our\n\nday which says to\n\n\"This is our candidate, made so by his own volition; vote\n\"But,\"\nfor him and the country is safe, otherwise it will be forever lost.\"\nventures the voter, \" can we not look around and perhaps find others even\nmuch more worthy than this nominee ? \" \"No remarks from you, brother\n\nits adherents:\n\nor sister, this do and thou shalt live.\"\n\nThen, too, the superintendent, searching for the divinely fit, will disregard the clamor of parents and friends that to the graduates of the local\nhigh schools belong the spoils. What serious damage is done by the inbreeding process in education cannot be computed here; time is so brief, and our\neight hundred words are vanishing as if on wings.\n\nMr. Wolfe has, in his discoursing of training schools, the promotion of\nteachers, the course of study, and school gardening, preached sound doctrine,\nand I well know he is not a mere theorist. He has successfuly carried out\nwherever he has had opportunities all the plans and policies he has this\nafternoon so ably set forth, and so he speaks from experience and with\nauthority.\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": "357", "text": "—\nCouncU]\n\nSUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\n357\n\nBut how, it may be asked here in passing, can any superintendent solve\nproblems if he follows every will o' the wisp that glimmers in the marshes\nand every distracting call from the wild which may strike his ears ?\n\nHave you ever made a list of the movements for the regeneration of\nour schools which have come and gone say in the last forty years ?\n\nDo\n\nyou remember the \"Quincy system\" ? It made as much noise in its day\nas the Montessori method does in ours. Superintendents, teachers, and\nother \"learned seigniors\" from every state in the Union, and from many\nother lands, made pilgrimages to Quincy as to a Mecca. At national\nand state meetings papers were read on the system or method and the discussions were fast and sometimes even furious. In several gatherings of\nyoung persons in training for teaching, I, this year, asked the question:\n\"What was the Quincy method?\" and there came but silence in response,\nand not a great deal of that.\nThe system, like many others that you and I could name, had its day\nand ceased to be. When the inspiring personality of that great-hearted\nman. Colonel Parker, passed, Quincy disappeared from the map. The\ngood imbedded in the colonel's methods has remained with us, and that is\ntrue of many plans which are preached to teachers as educational gospel,\nwhich must be followed or disaster and even destruction must follow. So,\nwhile it is not always wise to refer to every new message preached from the\n\nhousetop as a fad, fancy, or fake, it is sane for a superintendent with problems in front of him urgently demanding solution to \"prove all things\" and\n\nHe will also prayerfully ponder the\nwords of another apostle: \"Beloved, believe not every spirit, but try the\nspirits whether they are of God; because many false prophets are gone out\nto hold fast only \" that which is good.\"\n\ninto the world.\"\n\nThese also \"have their day and cease to be.\"\nSo the divinely gifted supervisor and none other is fit for the work\nwhile refusing to follow the devious ways of every passing wind, will not\nfail to keep his auditory nerves attuned to the heavenly harmonies, and he\nwill welcome with joy every new light upon his problems.\nBut in front of\nfalse prophets and spirits he will courageously stand \"four-square to all\nthe winds that blow.\" His vitality and energy are to be conserved for the\nduties which must be done. He will add cautiously and sanely whatever\nit may be found profitable to extract from the new, but he will give earnest\nheed to the scriptural injunction: \"Remove not the ancient landmark,\nwhich thy fathers have set.\"\nThe eight-hundred- word deadline is on the near horizon; the president\nlooks intently at the gavel and at the speaker, in sorrow, however, more\nthan in anger.\nThe speaker is by no means certain that he has in these remarks con-\n\n—\n\ntributed anything \"profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for\ninstruction in righteousness,\" but he is certain that the Bible truths inserted\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": "358", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n358\n\n[National\n\nhere and there will illuminate the path and strengthen the heart of every\n\nsuperintendent in the solving of any problems.\n\nThe speaker now, doubtless greatly to your relief, will take his form\nfrom off your floor.\nV.\n\nEDWIN S. MONROE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MUSKOGEE, OKLA.\n\nThis paper followed the lines of the Report of the Committee on Tests\nand Standards of EflSciency in Schools and School Systems before the\nNational Council of Education at its Salt Lake City meeting in 19 13.\nThis report will be found in the Proceedings of that meeting.\n\nVI.\n\nDAVID FELMLEY, PRESIDENT, ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY,\n\nNORMAL, ILL.\n\nThe general problem of the superintendent is to organize and direct his\nschool system in such a way as to turn out efficient citizens for the common-\n\nwealth, citizens equipped with the knowledge and skill, the interest, the\nsocial virtues, the culture, and the spirit of altruism vital to efficient living.\n\nWhen the large problem is analyzed into its elements there appear at least\nten important problems to which the modern city superintendent must\ngive attention.\n\nIn these I do not include the method of choosing the\n\nsuperintendent or his tenure of office, both of which are problems for boards\nof education and not involved in the functions of the superintendent.\n\nHis problems are problems connected with the administration of the\nschools; they are problems that are shared with the board, which he serves\n\nas expert adviser and executor.\n\nHis first problem is to manage his board. I do not use this phrase in\nany invidious or disrespectful sense. A good superintendent will not let\nthings drift; he will formulate policies and devise plans for carrying them\nHe must give to these plans such coherence, definiteness, and persuaout.\nsiveness that he will win the confidence of the board, and their hearty\nacceptance of his guidance and leadership.\nHis second problem is the problem of revenue for the schools. While\nhere the board, as direct representatives of the people, must levy the taxes,\nsuperintendents are expected to mark out the annual budget and must\nsometimes themselves carry the needs of the schools to city councils and\nstate legislatures.\n\nHis third problem is the course of study, the series of experiences thru\nwhich children are to gain their social efficiency. Our courses of study\neverywhere are a patchwork composed of traditional elements long established, often obsolete, and new elements designed to meet the needs of the\ntwentieth century. Periodically we revise our courses, lopping off some of\nthe old and giving a larger place to the new. Few superintendents, if they\nhad the knowledge and the courage, could put into effect a real up-to-date\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": "359", "text": "—\nSUPERINTENDENT PROBLEMS\n\nCouncfl]\n\n359\n\nThe problem\n\ncourse because of the conservatism of parents and the public.\n\nof the superintendent is then to eliminate the old, to ring in the new, to\n\nblend them into a consistent, organic whole.\n\nNot only must he modernize\n\nthe course but he must in some way adapt it to the needs of boys.\n\nIn\n\nevery school system the over-age pupils are mostly boys, the slow pupils\nare mostly boys, the pupils who drop out by hundreds after the sixth grade\nare chiefly boys. They say the girls are smarter, more docile and tractable.\nThe fact is our schools are feminine institutions taught by women filled\n\nwith the ideas and sentiments that women especially cherish and appreciate.\n\nThe boy has his rights; the course of instruction should be adjusted to his\nneeds.\n\nIn this reconstruction of the course of study there is danger that\n\nwe shall be guided by the actual present knowledge of so-called successful\nmen. At Springfield, 111., eleven prominent citizens, politicians, business\nmen, and professional men, recently took a seventh-grade examination.\n\nThey didn't average 30 per cent in spelling, arithmetic, geography, and\nThis experience raises the question: \"What is success?\" Are\nwe to take our Jim Hills and our Rockefellers as the t5^e a, type for a few\nhistory.\n\nof\n\nwhom the world has room—or some type of efficient and wholesome\n\nliving that may be attained by the millions?\n\nThe course must contain\n\ncultural elements that add to the joy of living, that give breadth of view\n\nand sympathy and other elements that serve to explain and rationalize the\npractical knowledge upon which men build business success.\n\nAlong with the course of study is the question of the textbooks that must\ngive it content.\n\nShall the superintendent and his teachers be permitted to\n\nmake the selection unhampered by the activities of the publishers ?\nThe fourth problem is really a part of the third but of such magnitude as\n\n—\n\nto deserve separate consideration, the problem of vocational education\n\nits\n\ncontent, its organization, its co-ordination with outside work in home and\n\nshop and store.\n\nThe fifth problem is the effective organization of the parents, the business men, the churches, and social organizations to co-operate with the\nschool in its work.\n\n—how to select\n\nThe sixth problem is the school plant\n\nsites\n\nand plan\n\nbuildings, laboratories, shops, gymnasia, playgrounds that shall be con-\n\nvenient, hygienic, altogether suited to their function, and then to secure\n\nthese with proper equipment.\n\nThe seventh problem is the question of attendance.\nappoint truant\nparents.\n\nofficers,\n\njuvenile courts pass\n\nSchool boards\n\nupon the delinquencies of\n\nYet it is safe to say that nine-tenths of these officers are so indo-\n\nlent or so indulgent as to be of little service to the schools.\n\nThe superinWhen we\n\ntendent must have the courage to grapple with this question.\n\ninvestigate individual cases we find that the chief cause of the retardation\n\nthat cripples the efficiency of our schools is not poor health, poor teaching,\nor congenital dulness.\n\nIt is irregular attendance.\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": "360", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n36o\n\nThe eighth problem is the selection of teachers.\n\n[National\n\nEven if the members\n\nof the board will keep their hands off and will employ no one unless recom-\n\nmended by the superintendent, and will further refrain from suggesting\ngood candidates to the superintendent, there is still the pressure from\nIn the absence of\n\nchurch and politician, and all sorts of interested friends.\n\nthis pressure, there are the further facts that there is not in the country\n\ntoday a sufficient supply of competent teachers, and that no reliable method\nhas yet been found for distinguishing the competent from the incompetent\nin advance of actual service.\n\nThe ninth problem is the organization of a supervisory and office force\nthat shall, like the nerves and brain in the human body, collect and register\nneedful intelligence of the working of every part of the educational body\n\nand shall stimulate and energize every languid organ.\nThe tenth problem, most important in many respects, and unique in\nthat all school boards are here willing to give the superintendent free rein,\nis\n\nthe problem of improving teachers in service.\n\nPoor teaching is to be found in every system.\n\nWithout undertaking\n\nto enumerate all its varieties, it may be said generally that teachers talk\n\ntoo much, that their teaching consists too largely of the assignment and\n\nhearing of lessons, that they question so as to cause the child to remember\n\nThey do not know how to conduct\nThey give little thought to the function of each branch\n\nrather than to cause him to think.\ndrills effectively.\n\nof study, and to the educational values to be derived from it.\n\nThe superintendent may, by friendly visits and private consultation,\ndo much to correct particular faults. He may, thru teachers' meetings and\ninstitutes and the discussion of model lessons, point the way to the cor-\n\nHe may organize a reading circle for the reading\nof professional books; he may arrange for his teachers to visit other schools,\nrection of common errors.\n\nprovided they have previously discussed the points to be observed and go\n\nequipped with a sort of formula of observation.\n\nBut all of these are more or less unsatisfactory for the reason that they\ndo not develop in the teacher a permanent and comprehensive plan for proWe are all social\nfessional improvement nor supply a sustaining motive.\nFew of us will\nrecognition\nour\nefforts.\nsocial\nfor\ndirect\nbeings and crave\npursue a systematic course of study unless in school with the comradeship\n\nand rivalry of other students and the recognition afforded by grades,\ncredits, and diplomas.\nThe summer schools at the state normal schools and other institutions in which the regular courses are taught are today the most effective\nagency for the professional growth of teachers. Six thousand Missouri\nteachers, five thousand in Illinois and in Iowa, and proportionate numbers in other states are now in the summer schools.\nshall\n\nadd\n\nWhen to this we\n\nextension courses during the winter months, conducted from\n\nthe normal schools and receiving due credit, teachers will be stimulated\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": "361", "text": "—\nPRESIDENrS ADDRESS\n\nCouncil]\n\n361\n\nto better work by their new insights and by the constant suggestion of\nmore rational procedure.\nIt has been said in this Council that five years of experience marks the\nsummit of the teacher's power, that after that period the losses thru the\nhardening of routine, the loss of freshness and enthusiasm, more than\nbalance the gains from added maturity and knowledge. To avoid the\ndeadening effects of routine the teacher must continue a learner; the\n\nschool or university with its opportunity, its guidance, its companionship,\nits\n\nstimulation may be almost as effective in the professional growth of\n\nteachers as in the elementary education of childhood.\n\nThere are still other problems for the modern city superintendent\nthe problem of keeping in touch with the individual pupil, the problem of\nthe wider use of the school plant for civic and social and educational purposes, and still others that may occur to you; yet I believe that all or most\nof these may be fairly included under the ten heads already discussed.\n\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\nROBERT J. ALEY, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MAINE, ORONO, ME.\nI take this,\n\nmy first opportunity, to thank the members of the Council\n\nfor the very great honor conferred upon me in choosing\nofficer.\n\nme as the presiding\n\nOne year ago when I was elected, I was elated with the honor, now\n\nI realize it is a position of service, calling for very hard work.\n\nI shall not\n\nshirk the work, but will try to measure up to the responsibilities and duties\nof the position.\n\nDuring the past year I have had the very generous support\n\nof the members of the Council.\n\nI feel sure of like support in the future.\n\nIt has been the custom of the Council to require its president to deliver\n\na brief address at the first annual meeting of his term of office.\n\nIt is because\n\nof that custom that I appear upon the program at this time.\n\nThe Council has a number of important committees at work upon subThe Conamittee on Rural Schools has\nmade preliminary reports, is still at work, and will present to the Council\njects of educational importance.\n\nat\n\nsome later meeting the results of its study.\n\nWe are encouraged to\n\nbelieve that this committee will give to the public a report of inestimable\nvalue.\n\nThe Committee on Health Problems is making commendable prog-\n\nress.\n\nThis conmiittee already has the support and co-operation of the\n\nAmerican Medical Association. It now seems very probable that many\nstate and city boards of health will also help in investigations and publicity\ncampaigns. Already a number of special reports have been issued by the\ncommittee. Other reports of far-reaching importance are in process of\npreparation. The Committee on Economy of Time, with allied committees of other organizations, has done some important foundation work.\n\nAt this meeting of the Council discussions of the published reports will occur.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": "362", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n362\n\n[National\n\nIt is hoped that upon the splendid foundation already laid we may be able\nto build a definite structure of value.\n\nSaving of time and the better using\n\nof time are topics of perpetual interest.\n\nIn this present age of great activity in educational work, it is dangerous\nto select topics\n\nand predict their value to the future.\n\nHowever,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nnecessary that selections and predictions be made or progress will cease.\n\nIn the hope that this body may continue to lead in educational work, I\ndesire to suggest certain problems.\n\nIt seems to be rather generally believed by the colleges of the country\n\nthat the young men and women who enter from the secondary schools do so\n\nwithout sufficient definiteness of purpose, and also without the ability to\nhold themselves continuously to assigned tasks.\n\nTo state it another way,\n\nthe indictment of the college against the secondary school is that the latter,\nin its response to modern demands, allows the student to spread his energy\n\nover so many subjects that he fails to learn how to concentrate his mind\n\nupon anything. The secondary school will not go back to the old curriculum that was once so satisfactory to the college; namely, the study of Latin,\nGreek, and mathematics. The enlarged secondary curriculum is with us as\na permanent possession. It is not yet doing for the boys and girls what it\nought to do. The problem worthy of our best effort is how the modern\nsecondary school can give to its pupils more definiteness of purpose and\ngreater power of concentration.\nAn almost fundamental difficulty in all governmental and administrative\naffairs is the credulity of the people dealt with.\nCareful and competent\nEuropean critics regard American credulity as one of our great weaknesses.\nIt is possible, however, that we are no greater sinners in this respect than\n\nHowever that may be, it is certainly true that\nmany of our troubles, whether in the little neighborhood, the school, the\nthe people of other nations.\n\nchurch, the municipality, the state, or the nation, are traceable to our\nwillingness to believe, without proper evidence, practically everything we\nhear.\n\nThe school from the nature and age of those coming under its influ-\n\nence is in a better position than any other institution to destroy credulity\n\nand replace it by faith based upon real evidence. This has not been generHere and there a school succeeds in impressing upon its students\nthe need of knowledge as a precedent to judgment and action. The great\nmajority of people, however, decide and act long before they have any\nally done.\n\nadequate basis for doing either. Many troubles besides those of business\nare psychological. No good method has yet been devised to counteract\nthis almost universal tendency to believe without evidence.\n\nThe determina-\n\ntion of principles and methods that could be used in reducing credulity is a\n\nworthy job for the best among us.\nIt is realized by all thinking men that progress in the sciences and arts,\nin government, in morals, even in civilization itself, rests upon obedience\n\nto fundamental laws.\n\nThe very generosity of nature in our country has\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": "363", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nCouncil]\n\n363\n\nmade us careless in searching for law and certainly very careless in our\nobedience to law. In a most improvident way we have used and are using\nour natural resources without regard to the ultimate effect upon our future.\n\nThe principles of democracy have been taught so carelessly that as a people\nwe are lawless. If we are to continue as a free people and are to meet our\nphysical necessities, it is quite evident that we can do so only if we come to\nknow fundamental laws better and form the habit of obedience to them. A\ngreat problem in agriculture today is the problem of finding out the law of\n\nplant and\n\nsoil,\n\nbut the greatest problem is to induce those engaged in\nenough in the law when found to apply it in\n\nagriculture to have faith\n\nactual practice.\n\nWhat is true in agriculture is true in every other industry,\n\naltho in many other industries the conservatism of those engaged is not so\n\nmarked.\n\nThat there are fundamental laws that ought to guide in govern-\n\nment, behavior, social relations, and civilization is believed by our best\nstudents of these subjects.\nif\n\nIt would be of very great value to us as a people\n\nwe could know these laws, have them taught in the schools, and fix in the\n\nyouth the habit of obeying them. How to create a faith in law is a problem\nthat must be solved, or the rate of progress will be retarded.\nThe school as an institution can do more than any other to prevent distorted vision and to give good perspective. Nothing is more destructive\nof good than the inability to see things in their right proportions.\nOur\ncourts of justice are kept busy annulling laws that have been placed upon\nour statute books without any regard to their proper relation to other\nlaws or to fundamental principles of right. Business enterprises fail\nbecause those directing them have not adjusted them properly to other\nThis principle is true everywhere. Life at its best is a process\nthings.\nof\n\nadjustment so that all its activities may occur in right proportions.\n\nThe wrecked theories with which educational history is strewn are signs\nthat these theories were advanced by men who failed to see clearly. The\nNational Council of Education ought to stand, and I know will stand, for\na proper evaluation of all educational matter, and will work to bring the\n\nwhole into proper relations.\nI have tried to present the following problems:\n1.\n\nHow may the secondary school give more definiteness of purpose\n\nand train for greater concentration ?\n\nHow may credulity be reduced ?\nHow may faith in law be increased ?\n4. How may individual perspective be improved ?\n2.\n\n3.\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": "364", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n364\n\n[National\n\nHISTORY AND ACHIEVEMENT OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL\nOF EDUCATION\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD, ADVISORY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nKANSAS CITY, MO.\nIn a paper limited to three thousand words, my remarks will be restricted\nto two phases of the Council's work: (a) a short sketch of its history; (b) its\nspirit or inner life.\n\nA complete history of its proceedings would make a\n\nvolume of more than a thousand pages.\nI.\n\nTHE HISTORY\n\nIt was said of Diderot by one of his conte nporaries that he always\nhad ideas fermenting in his busy brain, but none hatched. This remark\nis not applicable to the man who, thirty-five years ago, wrote and printed\nan editorial in the columns of the National Journal of Edttcation, in the issue\n\nof July 24, 1879, suggesting the organization of a National Council of\n\nEducation in this country.\n\nThomas W. Bicknell in this article set forth\n\nvarious reasons for the formation of such an educational congress in which\n\nhe outlined a rough draft of a constitution of such a representative body,\nholding annual or biennial meetings, at which should be discussed questions\ninvolving the principles and philosophy of education, and sustaining\n\nadvisory relations to state and national systems of education.\n\nIn subsequent issues of the Journal, editorials appeared setting forth\n\nmore fully the scope of the proposed council and soliciting the opinions of\nAmerican educators. Articles also appeared from distinguished correspondents in different sections of the country, indorsing the movement\n\nand offering suggestions as to the plan, scope, and relation of the different\nDuring the following\nfields of education and methods of organization.\nautumn, several state associations adopted resolutions urging the establishment of such a Council. The movement was ably indorsed by many\nleading educators in all parts of the country, including such notable men\n\nEmerson E. White, of Ohio; William\nSamuel Eliot, of Boston; John Hancock and\n\nas William T. Harris, of St. Louis;\n\nT. Phelps, of Minnesota;\nA.\n\nJ. Rickoff, of\n\nOhio; William E. Sheldon, of Boston; B. G. Northrop,\n\nJames P. Wickersham, of Pennsylvania, and many others.\nSuch a deep and widespread interest had been awakened in the subject\nthat Mr. Bicknell was invited to read a paper before the superintendent's\nsection of the National Education Association to be held in Washington,\nof Connecticut;\n\nD.C., February, 1880.\n\nThe Proceedings of the meeting state that the\n\npaper read by Mr. Bicknell was not furnished for publication. In the\nexpectation that the paper would be available, no notes were taken at the\ntime.\n\nThe writer of this paper, however, defined and explained what he\n\nunderstood by a National Couhcil of Education and suggested reasons\nHe did not go much into details, nor commit himself\nfor its organization.\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": "365", "text": "HISTORY OF NATIONAL COUNCIL\n\nCouncil]\n\n365\n\nas to the number or qualifications of members; how they should be chosen\n\nand by whom; compensation for their services, and if so, how much, or by\nor whether their acts should be regarded as advisory or\nmandatory; or what should be the exact scope of their powers and duties.\nBut he argued in a general way in favor of establishing some national\nauthority to which the great body of educators might appeal as a court\nof last resort a body competent to formulate principles and courses\nThis paper closed with a resolution\nof study, and to give safe counsel.\nintended to draw out an expression of opinion from the department as to the\nadvisability of constituting such an advisory body.\nAt the conclusion of Mr. Bicknell's address. Superintendent H. S.\nTarbell, of Indianapolis, moved as an amendment that the Department of\nSuperintendence be charged with the duties of the proposed Council.\nFollowing this a lengthy and interesting discussion took place in which\nseveral gentlemen participated.\nThe object of the National Council of Education is better set forth in the\n\"Preamble to the Constitution\" than in any other published statement; it\n\nwhom paid;\n\n—\n\nis thus expressed:\n\nThe National Council shall have for its object the consideration and discussion\neducational questions of general interest and public importance, and the presentation,\n\nthru printed reports, of the substance of discussions and the conclusions formulated.\n\nIt\n\nand\nfor this purpose it shall be the aim of the council, in conducting its discussions, to define and\nstate with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration,\nand, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or\nview, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject. It\nshall be the duty of the council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest\nstatement of grounds for the same. It shall further require from the chairmen of its\ncommittees the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the committees.\nIt shall invite the freest discussion of the reports of its committees, and whenever such\nshall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions;\n\nreports are not so amended as to embody the new suggestions developed by such discussion, any member making such suggestions or objections\n\nmay put in writing his view and\n\nthe grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council.\nIt shall prepare, thru its president, with the aid of the chairman of the several committees,\n\nan annual report to the National Association setting forth the questions considered by the\nCouncil during the previous year, and placing before the Association, in succinct form,\nthe work accompUshed. It shall embody in this report a survey of those educational\ntopics which seem to call for any action on the part of the Association.\nThe Council shall\nappoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of\neducation, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such\nspecial topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public.\n\nThe membership was soon increased from fifty-one to sixty members,\nand at the Cleveland meeting in 1908, thru an amendment formally introduced by Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse, it was increased to one hundred\nand twenty members, the method of electing members remaining unchanged.\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": "366", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n366\n\n[National\n\nIt was never the intention of those who organized the Council that it\n\nshould become a large public body, but that it should consist of a limited\n\nnumber of earnest men and women interested in the consideration and\ninvestigation of the most fundamental questions in education, and who\nwould conduct research work either individually or thru special committees,\nand report the same to the Council.\nFrom the organization of the Council in 1880, there was virtually a\ncessation of effort until the meeting of the National Education Association\n\nheld at Saratoga in July, 1882, when Thomas W. Bicknell submitted a\n\npaper on the National Council of Education in which he reviewed the steps\nleading up to the organization and the opinions of those who had partici-\n\npated in the discussion of the subject at the Washington meeting in February, 1880.\n\nIt does not appear that this contribution elicited any discussion.\n\nNo report was made in 1883, but .at the Madison meeting in 1884 the\nCouncil had an elaborate program.\n\nAt this session twelve standing com-\n\nmittees were appointed, each committee having a special department of\n\neducational work assigned which would provide for careful investigations\n\nand reports on all phases of education. Nine of these standing committees\nwere composed of five members each and three of three members each.\n\nFrom this date to the present time, full reports may be found in the\nvolumes of the Proceedings of the National Education Association.\nn.\n\nTHE SPIRIT OR INNER LIFE\n\nThere have been but few conventions in this country governed by the\nsame singleness of spirit as the National Council. The first one was when\nthe delegates from the different states in 1787 met to amend the Articles of\nConfederation, but instead framed a new Constitution for the United\nStates.\n\nDuring the secret deliberations of that convention, copious notes\n\nwere made from day to day by different members, which have since been\npublished, and from these individual opinions we have, instead of a colorless\nconstitution, the innermost thoughts of the men who framed that instrument, and from the various opinions expressed in the Madison Papers and\nother notes we are much better prepared, not only to understand, but to\ninterpret, the palladium of our liberties.\n\nIn a certain sense, this is true of\nFor years sessions were con-\n\nthe proceedings of the National Council.\n\nducted in a small room.\n\nWhen the chairman of a committee submitted a\n\nreport, a printed abstract containing all essential points was handed to each\n\nmember and frequently to visitors.\n\nThe chairman took his seat near\n\nthe presiding oflScer, and the members questioned him on the thesis submitted, which he defended or it was defended by members of the committee.\nOne member was selected to report the discussion, and at the next session the\n\nreport of the discussion was read, which became a part of the printed\n\nThe opinions expressed by this body of educated men and\nwomen for the past thirty-four years constitute the most valuable contribu-\n\nproceedings.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": "367", "text": "HISTORY OF NATIONAL COUNCIL\n\nCouncU]\n\ntion to educational literature that our country has yet produced.\n\n367\n\nThe\n\nmembership of the Council of that period boasts the names of men and\nwomen of very high scholarly and practical attainments, corresponding\nsomewhat to the membership of the Institute of France, but a more open\ncorporation.\n\nThe National Council has centered its energies not so much\n\non the development of great departments of learning, but more particularly\non those subjects connected with the leading questions of the theory and\npractice of instruction, based on the safest philosophy drawn from the\nlaws of nature and of mind, and confirmed by the experiences of the leading\nnations of the world. Particular emphasis has been placed on the physical,\nintellectual, and moral welfare of children and much wisdom displayed in\nworking out a sound financial system of collecting and disbursing public\nrevenue for physical equipment and sound instruction.\nIt was never the intention to formulate programs to be followed blindly,\nas decretals issued by some superior authority, but to present opinions leading to broad generalizations. Two essential ideas entered at the beginning\nof the organization, tho not definitely stated, that have exerted a controlling\ninfluence perhaps the most elegant and most authoritative known, and\npossessing a validity that gives more than the binding force of law properly\nexpressed under the words \"urbanity and exactitude.\" Yet no member\nhas ever asserted that he came forward, however strong his thesis, with the\ngift of prophecy which none dare dispute.\nIt cannot be affirmed in the\nyears past that there has been a sudden or brilliant outburst of educational\ngenius bubbling up from this body and startling the educational world for a\nseason, but much solid and enduring work has been done in maturing wholesome thought, destined to shape the welfare of our national life. It has\nnot been the home of any particular school or philosophical system, but it\nhas opened its doors wide to men and women of talent from every school of\nthought, doctrine, or method. It has commanded the most brilliant, most\npolished, and the keenest pens and tongues in the profession, but at no\ntime have these been employed for ignoble purposes. The decorum in\ndebate has not been surpassed even in the Senate of the United States.\nThe men and women were keenly sensitive to the elevated character of the\nwork in which they were the recognized participants, in an age of great\nintellectual alertness which touched all angles of society.\nThey toiled\nunremittingly in the work intrusted to their guardianship, believing that a\nmore general diffusion of sound educational ideas among the teachers of the\ncountry would form a philosophic basis for legislative enactments, and a\nwell-modulated system of practice for the preservation of our institutions.\nThey felt themselves to be not only the torch-bearers, but the illuminators\nof the science of human development for our type of western civilization.\nThese men and women stood as the very highest expression of the soul of\nhonor and professional courtesy and detested every species of trickery and\n\n—\n\n—\n\nself-seeking notoriety.\n\nThey believed in the endless progress of the human\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": "368", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n368\n\nrace, yet fully recognizing the material\n\n[National\n\nand mechanical tendencies of the\n\nThey placed the achievements of the spirit in the domain of scientific discovery and invention next to those lofty heights attained by liberally trained minds.\nThey stood on the loftiest eminence and viewed the\ntimes.\n\noncoming generations of this country with all that solicitude that the\nmother feels for her child as it goes forth on the journey of life. The character of work done by these supreme master-builders and the solidity of the\nstructure upon which it rests, whether in the fields of original educational\nresearch, on philosophic grounds, scientific utility, classic beauties, profound study of the great institutions underlying our civilization, or in\nthe departments of finance and administration, are well known. They\nplaced for our instruction and stimulation some of the grandest life-\n\nby the human mind. Herein lies the superiority\nmen and women who organized the Council and\nshaped its policies for a third of a century. They worked for the cause\n\nideals ever conceived\n\nof that noble band of\n\n.\n\n»f\n\nhumanity, with no sense of pecuniary remuneration, but from the pure\n\nn\\t that comes to those who have tasted the pleasure of laborious study\nin the service of mankind.\nIt is not claimed that the Council represented all the different phases of\n\ntalent embodied in the nation, but it represented, and still represents, the\n\nsanest and safest educational thought in the American nation of the past\n\nand present age.\n\nThe members have always been selected on account of\n\ntheir achievements along certain lines, or because of their general grasp\n\nof the entire educational situation, thus setting a public example of dis-\n\ntinguished devotion to a great cause on account of special fitness.\n\nAs I call up from memory's chamber the earnest faces of that generation\nof men and women who once sat in this organization and shaped its policies,\n\nand as I have gone over their contributions to the educational literature\nof our common country, I regard this vast storehouse of knowledge and\nwisdom as one of the most precious inheritances that can be found in any\nlanguage. For the encouragement of sound learning, based on a broad and\nself-sustaining culture, reinforced by a keen practical insight into human\nmotives and experiences as they have been developed under different forms\nof government and permeated by the highest conceptions of duty, no other\nsimilar group of men and women in America have wielded a deeper or more\nlasting influence in molding educational thinking for the highest ends of\nintellectual and spiritual development.\n\nThe noble simplicity of this group\n\nwas their crowning glory. They represented pre-eminently the power of\ndeeds and the power of thoughts, and as torch-bearers they have passed on\nto others a mightier domain of real achievements in all the spheres of philosophy, ethics, culture, and the duties of practical and political life, a\nhigher code of living for all conditions of society, than had ever been done\nbefore or imitated since. Thru them we stand linked to a past that we wish\nnot to change.\n\nTheir splendid powers we appreciate.\n\nTheir purity of\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": "369", "text": "EDUCATIONAL GAINS IN THE LAST DECADE\n\nCouncil]\n\nmotives we revere, and the great lesson\ntic and mechanical age\n\n369\n\n— devotion to duty, in a materialis-\n\n—may become shattered and displaced, yet one of the\n\nbrightest and cleanest pages in American history is that of the achievements\n\nand aims of the founders of the National Council of Education.\n\nThe\n\nthoughts of these circle about us as the gentle breezes of springtime.\n\nTheir\n\ninfluence hovers over us as the steady light that comes to us from the fixed\nstars in the firmament.\n\nCalmly and serenely these devoted men and women\n\nperformed a perpetual service to the consecrated ideas of their lives.\n\nTheir\n\nobject was the exaltation of humanity thru the spirit.\n\nSOME POSITIVE EDUCATIONAL GAINS IN THE LAST DECADE\nJOHN W. COOK, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DEKALB, ILL.\nIn what I say I shall submit little of statistical information.\n\nSuch\n\ninformation, and from reliable sources, underlies every statement, however, and may be taken for granted.\n\nThe dominant keynote of the time is \"conservation.\" The public\nmind is awakening to the folly of the deplorable waste that has characterized so much of our American life. But the lesson that our industrial enterprises have learned in the hard school of competition is beginning to approve\nitself to\n\nthe public mind in the management of national, state, and com-\n\nmunity affairs. The idea of following effort and investment to their outcome and of estimating results in the light of their cost has been very slow\nto find its way into the schools.\nBut the movement is on and the economic\nspecialist is beginning to scrutinize our educational machinery.\n\nIn consequence there are some positive educational gains and their achievement is\nwithin the last decade for the main part.\n\nThere is a disposition to obtain a just estimate of the value of the\neducation which our children are receiving as measured in terms of life\n1.\n\nefficiency.\n\nThus far the results that have appeared in the inventory are\n\nunsatisfactory.\n\nThere is an impression in many minds, amounting to a\n\nconviction, that the enterprise as a whole is not well managed and that,\nin the language of the street,\n\nwe are losing money.\n\nTo succeed in the\n\narousing of a sensible critical attitude is a positive gain.\n2.\n\nThere is a clear and positive educational gain in the deepening con-\n\nviction that the public welfare is tied up by an irresistible logic with the\n\noutcome of the schools.\n3.\n\nAn opinion is slowly but surely gaining ground in the minds of men\n\nof affairs that, as we are to compete in the modern struggle for a good rank\n\namong the nations that have strong central governments instead of conwe can no longer afford to rely entirely upon local\ninitiative, local enterprise, local willingness for taxation.\nWe must have\nfederacies of states,\n\nlarger resources, greater unity of plan, vastly increased intelligence in a\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": "370", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n370\n\n[National\n\nspecialized leadership, a far wider scope for the school, and a national interest and national aid.\n~\n\n4.\n\nMen are recognizing it as an exhibition of exalted patriotism to\n\nestablish great foundations where the highest order of talent and scholar-\n\nship may devote itself to the solution of educational problems.\n\nMore and\nmore members of the national Congress are giving themselves to a study of\nthe educational situation and are projecting legislation that, if wisely worked\nIt is a safe prophecy that\nout, will have the most far-reaching results.\nwithin a few years Congress will co-operate with the states in providing a\nspecific system of instruction that will greatly modify existing\n\nagriculture and others of the industrial arts.\n\nsystems of\n\nThe wealth of the nation is\n\nto be immensely increased thru the assistance of the school.\n5. What I have attempted to say in this series of propositions may be\nsummed up in the statement that the principle of conservation is being\n\nextended to the supreme resources of a people\n\n—the potential\n\npossibilities\n\nthat lie in undeveloped human capacity.\n\nNow that education is coming to be regarded as the main reliance of\nour civilization, we are beginning to look ^t it as a business proposition and\nare, therefore, taking account of stock.\n\nWe are to be greatly disillusioned\n\nwithin the near future as to our boasted superiority in educational affairs.\n\nTo be more specific:\n1. The schools will not educate the children of the people unless the\nchildren of the people attend them.\n\nIt was long ago\n\ndemonstrated that\n\nreliance could not safely be placed upon the parent for securing the daily\n\nCompulsory attendance laws seemed to conflict\nDoubtfully and timidly\nSlowly but surely public opinion has\nlegislation felt its way in the matter.\ndropped into line and the principle is firmly established as a practical working proposition. Within recent years the age limit has been raised, additional states have enacted compulsory laws, and, with the exception of a\nattendance of the child.\n\nwith the genius of our democratic institutions.\n\nfew of the southern states, the country presents a solid front in the\nrequirement that the children must meet the school long enough and\ncontinuously enough to acquire the rudiments of an English education.\n\nThe child labor laws have reinforced the compulsory attendance laws\nby raising the age of employment, and, at the same time, at least in\nsome of the states, conditioning the employment of children upon their\neducational qualifications.\n2.\n\nNot satisfied with the education of the normal child, our humani-\n\ntarian impulses interest us deeply in the attempt to ameliorate the condi-\n\ntion of defectives, so far as they are capable of improvement.\n\nIs it another\n\nexhibition of the operation of the principle of conservation that we are\n\nendeavoring to save from the human scrap-heap even the vestige of possible\nintelligence that may be acquired by those to whom has been denied the\npriceless boon of reason ?\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": "371", "text": "EDUCATIONAL GAINS IN THE LAST DECADE\n\nCouncil]\n\n371\n\n3. Of a piece with this movement is the resolute effort to contrive some\nmethod of keeping the stragglers along with the main column. There is\na positive educational gain in the investigation of the causes of the marked\nfalling out of line exhibited in many communities and in the earnest\nendeavor to reduce it to a minimum.\n\nAllied to this endeavor is the remarkable growth in the effort to\n\n4.\n\nconserve the physical health of the young by expert medical examinations,\nto put the environing conditions into conformity with the last word that\nscientific sanitation\n\nhas to say, and to scrutinize with untiring zeal the\n\ncondition of every child as he moves thru the successive grades of the public\nschool.\n\nIn no other field has there been so great advance as in the vocational\n\n5.\n\ntraining movement.\n\nWe have been slow to attempt to fit the young for\n\nspecific callings in the public school.\n\nThe prepossession of our engaging\n\ntheory of individualism has stood in the way.\n\nThere is not one of us whose\n\nhair is touched with white who cannot remember how diligently we argued\nfor manual training from the disciplinary point of view or from the doctrine\n\nof interest or from the attitude of the sense realist.\n\non far and fast and we are no longer afraid.\n\nBut now we are stepping\n\nWe are practically accepting\n\nSpencer's theory of the unity of the practical and the liberal.\n\nThere is slight space for detail, yet I must be permitted to dwell for a\n\nmoment upon one of the most significant of these positive gains. As life\nbegins in the home and takes its coloring from the home in the early years\nof childhood, so it remains in the home as its permanent abiding-place.\nThe young leave the homes of their parents only to re-enter homes of their\nown. That the new home is to be the product of scientific skill superadded\nto all the promptings of affection is one of the most inspiring of modern\n\nachievements.\n\nThe elevation of the household drudge into the trained\n\nspecialist whose work aligns her with the chemist in his laboratory, with\n\nthe physician in his rounds of mercy, with all of the ministers of health,\n\nwith the frugal conservers of resources, in brief, with all of those scientific\n\nworkers of the time whose oflSce is the promotion of humarrwelfare is enough\nto signalize an age.\n\nAkin to this positive educational gain is the growth in agricultural education.\n\nThe land area is definitely limited.\n\nPopulation steadily increases.\n\nWhen the arable land finally is occupied, the increase in production will be\nin proportion to the increase in fertility of the existing soils.\n\nTo conserve\n\nthe producing energy of the land and thus to create a permanent agriculture\nis\n\na primary duty.\n\nThe statistics indicate a quadrupling of students of\nThis new and fundamental science\n\nagriculture within the last ten years.\n\nis not only one of the most utilitarian in its sweep, but, because of the variety\n\nof interests involved and the number of contributing sciences, it is also one\n\nof the most valuable and cultural.\n\ntions respecting its richer\n\nWho will venture to make any predic-\n\ndevelopment within the next ten years?\n\nLet\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": "372", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n372\n\n(National\n\ninstruction in this subject typify the similar widening of the curriculum in\n\nother vocational subjects.\n\nAny discussion of the vocational trend of the school would be imperfect if it neglected to consider the ejfforts at vocational guidance.\nis old but the effort to systematize\n\nThe idea\n\nthis guiding influence so that it may pro-\n\nceed far more wisely and thus more efficiently is new.\n\nThe establishing of\n\nthe Boston Vocation Bureau in 1909 is an additional evidence of the solici-\n\ntude that society experiences respecting the welfare of the young. The\nadvance of teachers as to the selection of occupations should be of material\nhelp.\n\nAs a preparation for giving such advice, a careful survey of the situaIt was very illuminating and empha-\n\nuation was made in New York City.\n\nsized the idea that actual knowledge of conditions is immensely better than\n\nany amount of theory based upon mere opinion.\n\nIt further developed the\n\nfact that it is not so much vocational guidance as vocational training that is\n\nmost needed.\n\nA positive gain, however, lies in the extension of the assist-\n\nance that social organizations are undertaking in the welfare of the child\nafter he leaves the school.\n\nHe must not be lost sight of, society is beginHe is\n\nning to say, until he is established upon a self-supporting basis.\n\nand protection of agencies maintained by public\nwhere parental assistance is lacking, until that duty has been\n\nentitled to the advice\n\ntaxation,\n\ndischarged.\n\nIn the same spirit the continuation school is being extended in its scope.\n\nThe evening school is an old friend.\n\nIt began its beneficent work more\nBut the modern continuation school does not limit\nits function to evening schools.\nThe plan of interrupting daily work by\n\nthan a generation ago.\n\nschool attendance instead of trying to teach pupils wearied with toil is a\nradically different proposition.\n\nThe curious will find the subject exhaust-\n\nively discussed in Arthur J. Jones's Bidletin No. i prepared for the Bureau\nof Education in 1907.\n\nAnother positive educational gain on the same line is the interest which\nthe railroads have manifested in the further education of men in their employ.\nBulletin No. 10, 1909, by J. Shirley Eaton, gives a comprehensive presentation of what has been done.\n\nThe significant growth of the public high school is a matter of such\nThe secondary school, as it\n\nobvious importance as to demand attention.\n\nappears in America in the public high school, has certain characteristics that\ngive it a peculiar individuality.\n\nIt has been called \"the peoples' college\"\n\nand it Tichly merits the designation. It has had its struggle for existence\nbut its day of triumph is at hand. It is one of the richest manifestations\nof the progressive democratizing of education.\nIt is free; it furnishes an\neducation quite as liberal as that afforded by the early colleges; it is sensitive to the needs of the people and answers to its environment; it is especially open to the invasion of the modern scientific idea; it is escaping from\nthe bondage of university control and is developing a life of its own; the\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": "373", "text": "EDUCATIONAL GAINS IN THE LAST DECADE\n\nCouncU]\n\n373\n\nuniversity is increasingly inclined to acknowledge its autonomy and to con-\n\nsent to an equating of values;\n\nit is also increasingly popular, as is indicated\n\nespecially by the growth of the township high school in several of the west-\n\nem states, where a large unit of taxation thereby becomes possible and\nwhere rural communities are able to avail themselves of superior educational\nfacilities.\n\nIt is an old saying that \"as the teacher so is the school.\"\n\nAs we must\n\nlook at last for positive educational gains into the classrooms where the\nactual work of instruction is going on, so the critical question now must\nbe, \"What of the growth of a professional teaching class ?\"\nIt is clearly manifest that the normal school has made its case.\n\nOn\n\nevery hand there is abundant evidence that the unprepared candidate for\nteaching is rapidly going to the rear.\n\nThis is demonstrated by the marked\n\nincrease in the number of state normal schools,\n\nby the large additions\n\nto appropriations for their support, by a most gratifying gain in the char-\n\nacter of their buildings and equipment, by the increased salaries paid their\nteachers, and especially by the higher qualifications required for admission.\n\nEqually convincing are the great popularity of teachers' colleges, the growth\nof\n\ncounty normal schools, and the utilization of the high school for peda-\n\ngogical ends.\n\nThe latter movement is not for the purpose of substituting\n\nan inferior preparation for that which the normal school can give, but to\npopularize still more generously the idea of trained teachers and to start\nyoung people who desire to become teachers on the road to adequate preparation.\nTo this are to be added the fuller recognition of normal schools in\nthe granting of certificates on the part of certain of the states that have\nbeen sad laggards in this respect and the addition of professional requirements as a prerequisite for teaching. The fight has been prolonged thru\nwearying years in some parts of the country and has but recently come to\na triumphant conclusion.\n\nAnother and most significant advance in the recognition of a permanent\nteaching class is the development of the teachers' pension.\n\nAt the begin-\n\nning of the present century there was no provision in this country that was\n\nbacked by state appropriations.\n\nCertain enterprising localities had secured\n\nthe passage of laws enabling teachers to provide pensions by voluntary\ncontributions thru a long period of time.\n\nThe movement is at last on foot\n\nto substitute for this clumsy method the providing of a fund by public\ntaxation.\n\nThe people are becoming familiar with an idea that met with\n\nthe most resolute opposition when first proposed.\nsions are on the way.\n\nState systems of pen-\n\nTheir coming is but a matter of time.\n\nThe most brilliant of educational gains in th^ history of education has\nThe disposition\n\nbeen realized since the beginning of the present century.\n\nof the rich to put their wealth at work in the accumulation of useful knowl-\n\nedge and in the advancement in other ways of educational interests marks\n\nan epoch in the history of mankind.\n\nThe story of recent foundations and\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": "374", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n374\n\nfunds sounds like a story out of The Arabian Nights.\n\n[National\n\nThe Carnegie Insti-\n\ntution of Washington with its twenty- two-million-dollar endowment;\n\nthe\n\nCarnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching with its fifteenmillion-dollar\n\nendowment;\n\nmillions and more;\nmillions;\n\nthe General Education Board with\n\nits\n\nfifty\n\nthe Russell Sage Foundation with its comfortable ten\n\nthe Anna T. Jeanes gift for the improvement of rural schools for\n\nnegroes, with its million-dollar fund;\n\nthe numerous other gifts from gen-\n\n—\n\nerous givers to promote the usefulness of existing institutions\n\nall\n\ncom-\n\ndecade of the century more than two\n\nbined aggregating in the\n\nfirst\n\nhundred millions of dollars\n\n—unite to proclaim the advent of the \"age of\n\ngold\" in educational equipment.\nefforts to picture the gain to\n\nThe imagination is bewildered in its\n\nmankind by this outpouring of donations.\n\nThey have made a new profession possible, the profession of boundless\nresearch.\nThey have advanced by decades and perhaps by centuries vast\nmovements whose sole purpose is the uplift of the masses of mankind. They\nhave set in motion stimulating and achieving enterprises that will change\nthe complexion and spirit of civilization.\n\nAdd to them such promotional\n\nagencies as the Cecil Rhodes scholarships and the age exhibits a scene of\nintellectual activity unanticipated by the vision of the most enthusiastic seer.\n\nI submit, in addition to the foregoing, the following condensed state-\n\nments of educational progress. As would be expected, the most notable\nchanges have taken place in that part of the country where education has\nhad its most difficult problems. Within ten years the following progress\niias taken place in the South:\n\nThe length of the school term has increased about a month.\nThe number of high schools has more than doubled.\n3. The number of high-school teachers has increased about 150 per cent.\n4. The number of students in the high schools has increased by nearly the same\n1.\n\n2.\n\npercentage.\n\nThese are matters in which there will be no falljng-off.\nThere has been a notable gain in the education of the Negro, the lead\nestablished by Booker T. Washington being increasingly followed.\nEducation among the disappearing wards of the nation has also taken\nforward steps, the most notable being the movement to merge the Indian\nschools into the state school systems, the organized effort to follow the\n\npupils after they have left the schools in order to prevent their relapse into\ntribal conditions,\n\nand such practical conservation of health conditions as\n\nwill protect them in a far greater degree than ever before from the destruc-\n\ntive effects of those diseases to which they are most sensitive.\n\nThe task of\n\nimproving sanitary conditions among them and of advancing in all possible\n\nways their physical welfare is demanded by all considerations of humanity\nand is making those positive gains which warrant its mention here.\nGreat improvement has come to rural schools by a system of standardization which has greatly stimulated communities to adopt modern\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": "375", "text": "VOCATIONAL AND CULTURAL EDUCATION\n\nCouncill\n\n375\n\nsystems of heating and ventilation, to seek expert advice in the construction\nof buildings, to decorate interiors, to care for school grounds, to provide\n\nNothing else, however,\n\nschool gardens, and to employ superior teachers.\n\ncompares in effectiveness for the advancement of rural education with the\nconsolidated school, which has made notable gains within recent years.\nMay we not count among the most promising of modern movements\nthe thorogoing surveys that are\n\nnow in progress ?\n\nThe New York City\n\nexperiment was an epoch-making event, whatever partisans may think as\n\nThe Ohio volume showing the results of the commission's\n\nto its outcome.\n\ninvestigations\n\nis\n\na notable addition to educational literature, as are the\n\nAt last we are really to know\nwhat is going on in the schools, as seen by those who are appointed to conreports of similar commissions elsewhere.\n\nduct the investigations.\n\nOpinion is to give way to actual knowledge.\n\nAltho I have pressed hard upon the space limits allotted me, if I have\nnot already surpassed them, I must be permitted to raise one pertinent\nquestion: ''Is the moral tone of the nation advancing with the increasing\nintellectual and vocational capacity of our people ? \"\n\nLife is greatly height-\n\nThe automobile is not an unfit type of modem living in its\nmultiform aspects. Are those of us who plead for a slower pace, for a reening its speed.\n\nturn to something of old-fashioned frugality, for a conscience in all matters\npublic and private, for a lessened regard for wealth and an increased regard\n\nand good repute\n\n— are we only pathetic survivals of an\n\nage that is gone never to return ?\n\nMay we not hope that in the scientific\n\nfor simple living\n\nsurveys that are now having their day in the public eye we shall find an\n\nencouraging answer to my question as to the tendency of the age ?\n\nTOPIC: HARMONIZING VOCATIONAL AND CULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\nI.\n\nJOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nOLYMPIA, WASH.\n\nThe twentieth century is demanding a new ideal in education.\n\nIt is\n\nsetting forth the new ideal as equal opportunity for each and every child in\n\nour land.\n\nA grave responsibility is resting iipon us as a nation to show\n\nthat ethically democracy is not an idle dream.\n\nThe twentieth century\n\nfinds our great American people realizing that the public school is the hope\nof progress.\n\nA feeling of confidence is manifested in the possibilities of the\n\nwider use of the school plant to the extent that laymen are looking to it to\ncure all of the social, industrial, intellectual, and physical ills.\n\nThe leading\n\nstudents of political, social, educational, economical, and other public prob-\n\nlems are alive to the tremendous importance of the undeveloped resources in\nthe wider uses of the public-school plant.\n\ncannot exist without social knowledge.\n\nIntelligent social adjustment\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": "376", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n376\n\n[National\n\nIn the transition that has been taking place in our constantly modified\ncourses of study, we have been forced to listen to criticism of each change.\n\nThe conservative element, otherwise known as earnest advocates of socalled cultural education, decry the encroachment of the practical upon the\n\nThey urge that twentieth-century education fails to discipline,\n\ncultural.\n\nWe\n\nto train the faculties, to give accuracy, power of judgment, and reason.\n\ngive a smattering of everything, a thoro mastery of nothing.\n\nThe doctrine\n\nof formal discipline or of general mental training still offers chief support\nto these critics in their claim for supreme value of classical and mathematical\nstudies.\n\nThe well-trained, cultured, thoroly capable product of the old-\n\ntime school often, in fact too many times, judges others by himself and\n\nup to the\n\nideals of the old\n\nclassical school that present-day education is failing.\n\nHe sees no other\n\nconcludes because others\n\nfail\n\nto measure\n\nway to educate the citizen and takes no lesson from the fact that thousands\nof our boys and girls in every part of the United States are dropping out\nof school annually at the compulsory age limit and others after the eighth\n\ngrade or during the first years of high-school work.\n\nThe conservatives claim\n\n—the\n\nthat their ideal in education is the only way to develop the whole man\n\nmodel citizen.\n\nOn the other hand the business and industrial world claims that our\nschools do not connect with life, that they educate away from the farm, the\n\nshop, the trades, thus leading to an overcrowding of the learned professions\n\nand causing the ranks of our workmen to be filled with the ignorant and the\nuntrained.\n\nThe progressive educators urge (in their effort to give a voca-\n\ntional coloring to our school work) that \"vocational education is an educa-\n\nproblem of large social and economic importance.\" Education if\neffectively solved will add enormously to the economic productiveness of a\ntional\n\nadd greatly to the number of independent, selfsupporting families; it will add to the average income of the wage-earner\nand wage-worker; it will add to the number of exchangeable commodities\nIt will tend directly to the enrichment of the\nin the community as a whole.\nlife of the individual and to the enrichment of the life of the community;\nnot only in a moral and social and political sense, all of which are highly\ndesirable, but, also, in a material, monetary sense, which is not in this\ncase by any means to be despised. These earnest advocates of vocational\nguidance and vocational education point out the small number graduating\nfrom our high schools and the large number of untrained who join the army\n\ncommunity;\n\nit\n\nwill\n\nThey say that the old-time classical school\nhas not met the needs of the large majority of the boys and girls who are\nof the working class each year.\n\nleaving our schools long before they should.\n\nWe are here this morning facing the facts in the case, having fully\nawakened to the force of the criticism from both the progressives and the\nconservatives.\n\nMany of us value highly the old-time scholarly product of\n\nthe classical school, who stood apart as a superior because he knew books\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": "377", "text": "VOCATIONAL AND CULTURAL EDUCATION\n\n377\n\neven tho he may have known nothing of men and of life.\n\nWe value the\n\nCoundl]\n\nBut America stands\nfor equal opportunity.\nWe are not providing equal opportunity when we\nprovide an education which attracts or is possible to only the 28 per cent and\nleaves the 72 per cent with nothing. We do not desire to take away from the\ntrained type of mind of the so-called cultural school.\n\n28 per cent the classical education which they want, but we do need to give\nthe 72 per cent the education and training which will fit them for life and its\n\nwork.\n\nThe twentieth century is demanding that we develop individuality and\nthat we develop thinkers, citizens\nwho can adjust and adapt and apply themselves to conditions as they exist.\nThe success of the twentieth-century education will lie in the strength of the\nefficiency, not in the few but in the many\n\n—\n\nintelligent purpose it develops in the boy and the girl to do the work of the\n\nworld efficiently.\n\nWe want to take our young people in our respective\n\nstates and guide them in learning life in an effective way by making use\nof their talents, tastes, desires, and needs in order that, when finally they\n\nleave the structure provided for their education and training, they shall be\nable to take their places in the world's work as citizens and to perform\ntheir parts in a way that is economically worth while.\n\nVocational education must be so conducted as to contribute to the\nmaking of the citizen as well as to the making of the worker. Vocational\neducation is not in conflict with liberal education but is a supplement to it,\n\nand may be expected to reinforce it. The social studies, history, economics,\nand civics, are the best links of cultural and vocational education. All students in the schools must become citizens no matter what their occupation\nmay be, and the supplying of definite training in citizenship focuses the\nattention of students upon the common life which they must lead in the\nstate.\n\nIf in addition to the so-called cultural education of the\n\nfew we\n\neducate the many, thru vocational education, we have given to the world\n\nan educated and\n\nefficient citizenship\n\nand we have produced harmony\n\nbecause each will have been guided to his place or work in our Maker's\ngreat plan of life.\n\nMany of our present sticklers for culture would be too cultured to take\nthe stand they do\n\nif\n\nthey understood the original meaning.\n\nOriginally\n\nculture was the ability to get the most selfish enjoyment out of leisure.\n\nTrue culture is coming to mean the ability to enjoy good literature, to\ns)mipathetically take part in real life, and to know the past's best achievements. Vocational work is cultural then, because:\nI\nIt gives the pupils a purpose early in life.\nThis purpose has an organizing, systematizing power over the mind, which makes up for mental\n.\n\nstrength, discipline, or culture.\n\nEven tho the child prepares for farming\n\nand later decides he has a call to preach or wants to become a lawyer, he\nwill have a mental vigor that will pull him upward more effectively than if he\nhad been drifting or mentally loafing his high-school and college days away.\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": "378", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n378\n2.\n\n[National\n\nPutting the vocational question up to the child early leads him to\n\nserious thought regarding his gifts and his desires.\n\nSelf-knowledge is one of\n\nthe poet's three requisites for a life of sovereign power.\n3.\n\nThe mind is clearest and most vigorous after periods of purposeful\n\nTherefore, pupils will grasp ideas from books and lectures\nand retain them with better mental appetite if they spend part of their\n\nphysical labor.\n\ntime in vocational work.\n\nMixing vocational and informational work creates greater respect for\nHence, the shop-worker will not feel that he must throw books\naside as not for him just because he has chosen a life work of manual labor.\nTherefore, he will grow in culture and influence all his life. For if the hands\nare skilled, the heart is trained; and if the heart is right, there is no limit\n4.\n\neach.\n\nto the possibilities for public service in the individual.\n\nMuch of the world's best accomplishments has been for practical\nNo one has so accurate a knowledge of a piece of real work as one\nwho has tried it for himself. Hence the practical work of life may furnish\n5.\n\nutility.\n\nsome of the most essential elements of true culture.\n\nWe are not responding to the call of the twentieth century unless we\neducate all of the children of all of the people in citizenship and character.\n\nn.\n\nHOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE\n\nTEACHERS COLLEGE,\n\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nWhat should constitute an effective, well-balanced education for an\nAmerican citizen is a proper question for discussion in such a constructive\neducational organization as this Council. Naturally, there must be much\ndifference of opinion among those interested in such a problem because\nthere has been much difference in training and in experience of the persons\nwho confer, and hence there must be much difference in the kind of judg-\n\nment possessed and in the definite conclusions reached.\nThe alleged conflict between so-called vocational and so-called cultural\neducation should be considered more one of adjustment and of interpretation than one of controversy and debate. Much of the supposed contention that is inferred is more imaginary in character than real in substance; it is a struggle more for the recognition of greater ideals and more\nremarkable accomplishments than for supremacy of authority in management or in control. Every generation must seek to improve and to perfect\nthe education of the youth of its time, in accordance with the actual needs\n\nand with the existing standards recognized, because, as civilization advances\nand expands, education and training must be modified and reorganized.\nThe harmonizing of the different schools of thought that have held sway\nin the history of civilization and the adoption of the more permanent contributions that they have all made to the education and to the training of\nmankind for efficiency, adaptability, and happiness are therefore the main\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": "379", "text": "CouncU]\n\nVOCATIONAL AND CULTURAL EDUCATION\n\n379\n\ntasks assigned all those who seek to keep education as represented by the\nschools and by society in happy co-operation with the popular demand.\n\nThe terms \"vocational education\" and \"cultural education\" have\nmeant different things in different ages and among different peoples because\nthey always represent in language relative distinctions rather than absolute\ndistinctions.\nWhat was practical and practicable in any century was\n\ndependent upon many conditions and individual actual requirements.\nHence all vocational education in the nineteenth century was essentially\na different undertaking from vocational education as needed in the twentieth\ncentury. It was but a few years ago when the sciences and the classics\nwere supposed to be real contestants for place and power in the education\n\nand the training of the young.\n\nThen it was that the sciences representing\n\nthe latest thought in the practical trend of educational endeavor were urged\nconsistently as more than a fair substitute for the older scholarship repre-\n\nsented by the classics.\n\nIn a very similar way the modern languages were\n\naccepted and approved as a reasonable and a permanent substitute for the\n\nwork accorded the ancient languages because they were deemed more suitable for the practical preparation of certain actual classes of students who\n\nwere in the secondary and higher educational institutions.\nThe results that followed all these expansions in the newer knowledges\nthat were deemed worth the while to study by the past generation did not\n\nprove destructive either to the standards or to the quality of effective\nscholarship.\n\nIt is well known that every increase in opportunity had the\n\nsingle effect of multiplying the students who decided to be partakers of the\n\nscholarship and the training of the institutions of learning because of the\n\nmodern lines of study and investigation.\nEnlargements of opportunity also came, by the founding of special\neducational institutions, to give training for special service. This move-\n\nliberality afforded by the more\n\nment became necessary because it was impossible to do all that civilization\ndemanded in the general educational organization that first appeared.\nHence there came the state normal schools, the state agricultural colleges,\nthe institutes for industrial and practical education, the manual training\nhigh schools, the technical high schools, the commercial high schools, and\nthe many other vocational schools.\n\nAll of these have found a place in\n\npopular favor, all of these are genuine evidences of progress, all of these are\n\nhaving a large part in developing the true enlightenment of the race, and\ntheir coming, while vocational in spirit, has not militated in the least against\n\nthe accepted cultural education of the former days.\n\nThe theory of universal\n\neducation has become the accepted policy of all true democratic peoples.\n\nThey insist that education should be so varied in type and so expansive in\nadaptability that there is an actual place for everybody in the system of\n\npopular education for the training of men and women for life.\n\nThere can be then no limitations by law or by custom to the work that\nshould be done to place the youth of the land on the shoulders of the race\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": "380", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n380\n\nin mental power and in\n\nabundant service.\n\n[National\n\nThe movement toward voca-\n\ntional education is not of temporary character or of uncertain direction.\ncarries with it the welfare and the success of the masses.\nfor the ills of society.\n\nIt\n\nIt is not a panacea\n\nIt is not an absolute substitute for, or an adopted\n\nequivalent of, the education of the past.\nto annihilate culture and taste.\n\nIt does not seek to eliminate or\n\nIt is no enemy of the great province held\n\nby the education of the older days. It does not claim to be more valuable\nor to be more necessary than such education. It simply urges that the\nmany be considered and remembered without forgetting the benefits and\nthe ideals of the few.\n\nThese undertakings are not mistakes, they are not\n\nerrors of judgment, they are not unwise and unreasonable notions of training; they are full of reality, of sincerity, and of efficiency, and they should\nbe welcomed as factors in making a more complete people in a more complete\ncivilization.\n\nIn coming to these conclusions, it is necessary to say that men and\nwomen are everything and that systems and plans are nothing; the personalities must be conserved, the machinery may be disregarded.\nHumanity\nso large in its promise, so varied in its outcome, so remarkable in its\ndevelopment, and so recent in its everyday undertakings that the education\n\nis\n\nand the training of today are but a suggestion of what the next generation\nshall be called upon to undertake and to accomplish.\n\nin.\n\nG. W. A. LUCKEY, DEAN, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY\n\nOF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEBR.\nStudents of education are well aware of the ferment and disturbing\nconditions thru which we are passing.\n\nOur educational system is changing\n\n—old elements dying, new elements entering. This\ntainty have never been more pronounced.\ncondition.\n\nrestlessness and uncer-\n\nBut on the whole it is a healthy\n^\n\nAs is well known, the system of education under which we are working\nwas planned primarily for European conditions, where class distinction is\nan essential element of social life. Our forefathers did not create a new\nschool system but established one after European models. Their first\nthought, in higher education, was training for the ministry and later for\npublic and official life. It was a training of the head and not of the hand\nclass education of doubtful value.\nYears later when education became\nmore general the same system was accepted as fundamental for all.\nIt is this system of education borrowed from bureaucratic Europe that\nis breaking up, and out of it must come a new educational system created\nfor, and fitted to, the needs of a true democracy.\nNo democracy can long\nlive and thrive whose children are fed continually on the ideals that tend\nto produce class distinctions and autocratic rule. An essential of true\ndemocracy is individual freedom. The family that is at the bottom today\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": "381", "text": "—\nVOCATIONAL AND CULTURAL EDUCATION\n\nCouncil]\n\n381\n____\n\nk\n\nmay be at the top tomorrow and vice versa.\nis one of the strongest instincts of the\n\nThis desire for larger freedom\n\nhuman soul.\n\nIt begins with youth\nand continues thruout life. It is the principal cause of the social unrest\nand when rightly nourished furnishes the best and truest products of civilization.\nEducation should not thwart it, but should stimulate and use it\n\nto the highest ends of citizenship.\n\nWe have been slow in constructing an educational system of our own\none representing the interests of a true democracy, adapted to our needs\n\nand susceptible of future progress. The scientific spirit which is producing\nsuch marked changes in agriculture, industry, social life, and even political\nlife is just beginning to be felt in education and the teaching process.\nTo understand and truly direct the growth of a plant or an animal, one\nmust become familiar with its life history. This is more true when applied\nto the education and development of the individual.\nHow seldom is such\nproficiency reached even in our best teachers!\n\nleading the blind.\nit is\n\na canker at the root.\n\nstandards of measurement.\ndone.\n\nToo often it is the blind\n\nWe misjudge the yellow leaves as a need for water when\nTo build truly we must discover and use right\nThis is no child's play, but it can and will be\n\nWe are too prone to accept the ideas and methods of the leaders\n\nof the past without digesting them and without realizing that we live in a\ndifferent age and under far different conditions.\n\nMuch of the history of\n\nthe past has been proved false but since it has shaped experience it needs\nto be known and rightly interpreted in order to understand the individual\nof today.\n\nThe history of education when properly studied acquaints us\n\nwith racial evolution, while the study of the child furnishes an excellent\ncorrective and gives us knowledge of individual development.\n\nThe ideals\n\nand methods of the past, tho true, are valuable only when worked over and\nadapted to the conditions of the present. To illustrate, the more commonly\naccepted definition of liberal education today is that given by Aristotle over\n\ntwo thousand years ago when slave and serf, mechanic and tradesman were\nnot considered a part of the educational system.\n\nAgain, education is not\n\ninfrequently defined as the acquisition of knowledge or the training of the\nintellect, especially that part of the intellect known as the memory.\n\nevident we must enlarge our views.\ntional\n\nand cultural education?\n\nIt is\n\nHow then are we to harmonize voca-\n\nIn the first place we must work out a\n\ncomplete system of education fitted at every stage to meet the wants of the\nnatural and inherent development of the individual.\n\nEducation will be\n\nconceived as the process which enables the individual to acquire, understand,\nappreciate, and use his social inheritance, including also the product of such\nexperience.\n\nIn directing the child thru the richness of his social inheritance\n\nthe teacher should not overlook the physical inheritance and natural\ncapacities.\n\nThe education will be richer and more dynamic if the teacher\n\nobserves the natural order of growth and feeds an instinct when it is ripe.\n\nEducation as well as culture is an acquired product and both must be\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": "382", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n382\n\nlearned anew by each generation.\n\n[National\n\nIn a democracy every child falls heir to\n\nthe best in the social environment and should be encouraged to enrich his\nlife to\n\nthe extent of his time and capacity.\n\nWe will differ in our definition of culture, but, for the present, I shall\nconsider it as that training of mind and body which enables one to see,\nappreciate, and use the best things that have been thought, said, and per-\n\nformed in the world's history.\n\nSuch a definition limits the degree of culture\n\nonly to the capacity, opportunity, and ambition of the individual.\nis\n\nCulture\n\nnot a veneer, not something added on but something worked in.\n\nIt is\n\ndynamic, a growth and development from within, an insight and appreciaIt may result from any or all activity that is worth\nEvery essential occupation and calling has both a practical and a\ncultural value. These cannot be separated without injury to the character\nand efficiency of the individual. The hand, the head, and the heart of\nevery individual need developing, and the education is more effective when\nthe three processes are made mutually interactive. Anything short of this\nis incomplete and unworthy of the educational system of a democracy.\nThere cannot be two separate common-school systems in a republic, nor\n\ntion of the best things.\n\nwhile.\n\ncan a democratic state consistently support separate class schools.\nviduals differ but slightly in physical inheritance.\n\ndue to social inheritance and education.\n\nIndi-\n\nThe difference we see is\n\nBut in a democracy there should\n\nbe the opportunity of the free movement of the members, especially when\nthe aspirations are toward higher levels. The children of the professional\nclass need the poise, certainty, and strength that come from the training\n\nof the hand, as the children of the industrial class\n\nneed the perspective,\n\ninsight, and appreciation that come from the cultivation of the mind.\n\nWho\n\nknows but that in the next generation they shall have changed places and\nbe the stronger for the change ?\nTo harmonize and make use of the vocational and cultural elements in\neducation,\n\nwe must recast our public-school system, adapting it to the\n\nnatural development of the individual, and give place to both ideas.\n\nProbably slowly, but I think surely, we shall reduce the time of the elementary-school course to six years, which coupled with the first two years\nof the high school will be, in the main, common to all.\n\nAt this point in the\nTho\n\ncourse the common education will be broken up into many paths.\n\neven in elementary education, while the subject-matter will be largely the\nsame for all, the opportunity will always be present for developing individual differences.\n\nTime will not permit me to give in full my thought.\n\nBut in brief we\n\nmust bring the individual into right relations with his physical and social\ninheritance.\n\nTo do this we must organize our teaching to make proper\n\nuse of the three important stages of education:\n\n(i) informal;\n\n(2)\n\nformal;\n\n(3) a broader, richer, and more dynamic informal, or education thru con-\n\nstructive activity which in general\n\nis\n\nvocational and in the truest sense\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": "383", "text": "VOCATIONAL AND CULTURAL EDUCATION\n\nCouncU]\n\ncultural.\n\nThru the various processes\n\n383\n\nof informal education the\n\nchild\n\nbecomes acquainted with the simple social activities which man has found\nessential to his highest comfort.\nThese activities may be imparted thru\nthe home, but they can be made richer if imparted thru the school. They\ngive in a large measure common-sense, accurate judgment, and solidity of\ncharacter.\n\nStated briefly these activities are:\n\ngardening, care of body,\n\ncooking, cleaning, sewing, weaving, knitting, molding, modeling; constructive work with leaves, paper, cloth, leather, wood, metal; observation trips,\n\ncare of animals, slight individual responsibility, acting or dramatizing,\nstory-telling, playing, drawing, painting, singing, etc.\n\nThese are the sub-\n\njects that lie at the foundation of civilization and of individual development.\n\nThey are learned thru direct contact, thru imitation, and thru suggestion.\nIt is here the child learns to do by doing, to share by sharing, to speak by\nspeaking. It is an exceedingly important part of every child's education\nwhich humanistic education tends to neglect and industrial education tends\nto narrow to but one or few lines.\nThe school of the future must make\n\nuse of this rich field either before or along with the formal education.\n\nWith the beginning of language and records came a new era in the\nprocess of education necessitating the learning of characters and forms in\n\nwhich the thought is clothed. Before one can read or write, he must know\nthe symbols used and the effect of their combination in producing thought.\nEvery subject of study has thus its formal side which must be learned\nbefore its content can be acquired. This period represents formal education\nand in most cases covers the entire school life. Its method should not\ndiffer materially from that of informal education, tho it is far more complex\nand needs more careful organization. Formal education puts the individual\ninto command of the tools or instruments of thought, as informal education\n\ngives command of those of industry.\n\nHoeing and chopping, as reading,\nand drawing, are not ends in themselves but only the means to\nmore remote ends. Too often the work of formal education is made an\nend in itself and the rich social inheritance which lies beyond is never\n\nwriting,\n\nreached or seen.\nIf the continuity between informal and formal education has not been\n\nbroken, and if formal education has continued the natural processes of\nlearning to do by doing, to read by reading, to write by writing, to draw\nby drawing, etc., the individual will enter upon the third stage of education\n\nthru constructive activity with a richness, and hunger, and interest which\nwill\n\nmean the acquisition of most if not all the best things in his social\n\nMan's culture must come thru his work and can come in no\nand should continue to grow from\nbirth to death. We can harmonize vocational and cultural education by\ninheritance.\n\nother way.\n\nIt should be cumulative\n\ncombination, at least thru the period of elementary education.\n\nGive a\n\nlarger place in the public school to the vocational, and, thru the best in\n\nsuch activity, a deeper meaning to the cultural.\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": "384", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n384\n\n[National\n\nJAMES W. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nRIVER FALLS, WIS.\n\nIV.\n\nI am requested to discuss the question of harmonizing the vocational\nFirst of all, permit me to ask whether the vocational and\n\nand cultural.\n\ncultural are not really the best of friends\n\nwhen left to themselves and\n\nwhether the lack of harmony is not entirely in the minds of the people who\nassume to attach more importance to the value of one than to the value of\nthe other.\n\nMay it not be stated as a fact that the vocational is also culYet some people do not know that to be true.\n\ntural in a high degree ?\nit not a fact\n\nIs\n\nalso that the cultural has its value in the practical as well as\n\nin the theoretical?\n\nStill\n\nsome people do not fully appreciate that fact.\n\nThe vocational and cultural overlap and intermingle. There is no inherent\nopposition of the one to the other. The people who talk about these subjects are the ones who quarrel and fight.\nPart of this lack of harmony in the views of the people naturally grows\nout of the fights between the men who work and the men for whom they work.\nJust as long as the laborer looks with suspicion upon the business dealings\nand views of his employer, that long will he look with suspicion upon the\neducational notions of his employer and that long will he fail to approve of\nthe cultural studies.\n\nJust as long as the more favored class looks upon\n\nlabor as menial or upon vocational training as inferior to other forms of\n\nmental attainment, that long will there be a lack of harmony between the\nteachers and friends of the vocational studies and the teachers and friends\nof the cultural studies.\n\nThe college has been a handicap to the movement of harmonizing the\nvocational and cultural.\n\nIt looked with favor\n\nupon the advisability of\n\nhaving professional studies in the college but it was unwilling at first that\nvocational studies should even be placed in the high school. It only reluctantly consented to allow vocational studies to count on college-entrance\n\nrequirements.\n\nAs a rule, the few college men who broke thru the walls of\n\ntradition early,\n\nand who espoused the cause of the vocational, held the\n\nview that these vocational studies were important only in preparing men for\n\nThey attached little, if any, importance to their disciThe people, not the college, put vocational studies in the\n\nearning a living.\nplinary value.\n\ngrades and in the high schools; and the people and not the college forced\n\nand universities to offer some of these vocational lines of work\nIs it not true also that the people and not the college, at the\nattach equal importance to the vocational and cultural subtime,\npresent\ncolleges\n\nthemselves.\n\njects, as a part of a well-rounded education ?\n\nThis college discrimination\n\nagainst the vocational is only further evidence of the hold that tradition\n\nhas on our highest institutions. Tradition is the leading cause of practically\nall of the differences in opinion of educators as to the value of all newer\nstudies.\n\nTradition is a force with which ordinary educators are not able\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": "385", "text": "VOCATIONAL AND CULTURAL EDUCATION\n\nCouncil]\n\nto cope.\nthings.\n\nIt is dictatorial and headstrong.\n\nIt kicks\n\n385\n\non recognizing new\n\nIt loves ancient history, the ancient languages, ancient philosophy,\n\nand mathematics.\nagriculture.\n\nIt has no use for manual training, domestic science, or\n\nIt lives in the past.\n\nIt does no present thinking.\n\nIt gets\n\nhold of some good people and fills them with fear that the vocational is\n\ndangerous to higher education and an enemy to human happiness.\nhostile manner of meeting opposition stirs people to anger.\n\nIts\n\nIt is the one\n\nthing which above every other prevents educators from getting along well\n\nwith each other.\n\nDo you question the fact that this time vocational studies are here to\nstay?\n\nTwenty years ago, people forced manual training and domestic\n\nscience into the schools, thinking in so doing they were getting vocational\ntraining into their courses of study.\n\nLet us see what happened.\n\nBefore\n\naccepting manual training and domestic science, tradition systematized\n\nthem, devitalized them, squeezed out of them\n\nall\n\nthe truly vocational.\n\nThis time the people make more certain by forcing vocational studies into\nthe courses under the name \"vocational training.\"\n\nThey are also forcing\n\nthe vocational element back into manual training and domestic science.\n\nThe people are, therefore, harmonizing the vocational and cultural, a thing\nwhich tradition and the Carnegie Foundation would hardly permit us\nteachers to do under present plans of survey and standardization.\n\nv.\n\nJOHN W. COOK, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DEKALB, ILL.\n\nThere seems to be a disposition to wander away from the central idea\nIt is unwise to attempt to wipe out the distinction\nbetween the cultural and the practical in education. Such a distinction\nmust have existed in the mind of the president, or he would not have\nsuggested the topic. The cultural is characterized by certain broad and\nuniversal features, the practical on the other hand is characterized by\nparticularity, rather than by universality.\nThe former tends to unite men;\nthe latter, to separate them.\nIt goes without saying that there must be two features at least as marks\nof a stable nation which is at the same time a growing nation.\nIn the first\nplace, there must be a uniting principle which makes for harmony.\nIn the\nsecond place, there must be an active principle of diversity, or otherwise\nthere would be no richness to the civilization or development under the\nform of healthful growth. A cultural element will make for unity because\nof its universality.\nA practical element will make for richness and effectunder discussion.\n\niveness because of its particularity.\n\nThere is only one way then in which these two elements can be harmonized and that is by having them both present. Every individual,\ntherefore, should be sure to encounter a cultural element in his education in\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": "386", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n386\n\n[National\n\norder that he may be united to his fellow-men by a common bond; likewise,\n\nevery individual should receive a practical education in order that he may\nfind his place as a useful and contributing factor in the complex of our civilization.\n\nThe latter element analyzes him out into a special calling, the\n\nformer element reunites him to his fellows.\n\nIt will tend to save him from\n\n— the losing of himself thru\n\nthe greatest peril which besets our modern life\n\nselfishness and thru devotion to a single element and thru the consequent\nloss of that large-minded patriotism which should forever make him keep\n\nin view the conunon welfare.\n\nTOPIC:\nI.\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nFRANK STRONG, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS.\nIt is time now to set ourselves to the task of determining what best\n\nmay be done in regard to the problem of economy of time in education.\nThat a good beginning has been made must be evident to all who have read\nthe report of the Committee of the National Council of Education on\nEconomy of Time in Education. My own judgment is, from a reading\nof the report, that the question has been handled with wisdom and with a\nlack of exaggeration and destructive criticism that is unusual in considering a problem toward which a committee must take a critical attitude.\nThere is a refreshing lack of the antagonistic element which often creates\ndoubt and uneasiness at the very outset.\nThe conclusions of the whole matter as given on pages i8 and 19 of the\nreport are well stated. The first, namely that the period of general education should be shortened at least two years, is the crux of the whole problem. If that can be done without seriously weakening the American schools\nas they now stand, the matter is far along toward a settlement.\n\nMy own\n\nexperience agrees with what I understand to be the mind of the committee,\n\nthat the problem must be attacked thru a process of elimination in the\n\nelementary school and the readaptation of elementary and secondary education.\n\nTo this should be added the readaptation of the American college\n\nso that the first two years of the college course may be of the same general\n\ncharacter as the secondary school and the last two years of university grade.\n\nThis seems logical and reasonable, but the real question is, \"Will it work\nThere are many things, therefore, to be considered and\nin practice?\"\nthere is much to be gained by sitting down to count the cost of such a\n\nchange.\n\nWhere does the real trouble lie ?\n\nIs it in the waste of time, or is it in the\n\nlack of thoro work, or is it in both ?\n\nSurely we do not now get any better\n\nresults or any more mature preparation than we need for entrance to uni-\n\nversity or professional work.\n\nBut it probably may be said with truth that\n\nit is an advantage of itself to eliminate waste,\n\nwork.\n\nfor waste leads to desultory\n\nThen it is true that several classes of pupils are to be considered.\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": "387", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncU]\n\n387\n\nThat this elimination would be an advantage to the great mass who go into\ntrades and business and do not finish the course, whether in the high school\nor the college, there can be little doubt. Yet they are not the only persons\nwho deserve consideration, for after all a system of education must be\njudged to a considerable degree by its highest output and by the quality of\nleadership that\n\nit\n\ndevelops.\n\nTherefore, those\n\nwho persevere thru the\n\npreparatory training and enter graduate work and the professional schools\n\nmust have\n\nlarge consideration.\n\nIf,\n\ntherefore,\n\nthis\n\nchange were made\n\nwithout any compensatory gain in thoroness and the development of power,\n\nwe might find ourselves worse off than we are now.\nWhile it is true that the nominal age for completing the secondary course\nin European schools is the same as at our high-school graduation, it is prob-\n\nably impossible in the United States for students to pass directly from the\n\nsecondary school into the university for graduate or professional work.\n\nIt\n\nwas not so long ago that students did pass from the high school into the professional school.\nIt is true no longer in standard institutions, with a few\nexceptions. The change has been caused by two things: First, the training\nof the elementary and high schools proved an insufficient basis for real professional work.\nSecond, the students leaving high school proved to be too\nimmature to profit most by strictly professional work. For that reason a\nfew professional schools have required a full college course prior to entrance\nto the professional school, while the majority require two years of college\nwork as a preparation for professional work. But even now our young\npeople at twenty are not as capable of undertaking professional work as we\ncould desire. Here we have to reckon with the rigid and increasing requirements set up by professional schools themselves. We have to reckon again\nwith the rigid requirements of standardizing agencies whose demands compel\nprofessional schools to a rigid enforcement of exacting rules. Are professional schools to continue to increase without limit their requirements\nfor entrance, and are standardizing agencies to continue to increase without\n\nlimit their requirements for the recognition and crediting of professional\n\nschools ?\n\nIf so, attempts to solve the problem of economy of time in edu-\n\ncation on the basis proposed are likely to prove futile.\nIt has never been true in America, so far as I know, that students might\n\nenter real university work, or in other words what we call graduate work,\n\nfrom the high school, and that does not enter into the present discussion\nwith relation to the secondary schools.\n\nIf the age of twenty is to be the\n\npoint at which entrance to professional or graduate work should be placed,\nthe situation for many colleges and universities will not be changed so far\nas the professional schools are concerned, for the reason that many of them\n\nalready require two years of college work as a basis for professional work.\nIt would alter the situation, however, as to graduate work, for the reason\n\nthat at the present time all institutions, so far as I know, found it upon four\n\nyears of college work.\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": "388", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n388\n\n[National\n\nThe relation of the degree of doctor of philosophy to the scheme proposed by the committee is, therefore, perhaps worth consideration.\n\nUnder\n\nthe present system the student graduates from college at about twenty-two\nIf he goes into a graduate school for his Doctor's degree he\n\nyears of age.\n\nperhaps receives it at about twenty-five years of age.\n\nUnder the scheme\n\nproposed, as I understand it, he would arrive at the end of his graduate\nperiod at about twenty-four years of age, a difference of one year.\n\nFor\n\npurely graduate training of a severe character some considerable maturity\nof mind is necessary.\n\nWhat effect the difference of one year in age would\n\nhave in this respect only experience would tell, but it is safe to say that the\nloss of time would have to be compensated by an appreciable increase in the\nmental grasp and severity of training of the student.\nAs to the college, many universities have already begun the reorganization recommended by the committee. The division line at the end of\nthe Sophomore year has long been recognized, and the first two years of the\ncollege have been administered as belonging to the secondary group.\n\nMost\n\nof this work is required and large election is not allowed until the end of the\nfirst two years.\n\nIn addition, a considerable part of the professional work is\n\nbased upon this same arrangement. In the institution with which I am most\nfamiliar, admission to the school of medicine and the school of education\nis conditioned upon the completion of the Sophomore year in the college of\nliberal arts.\n\nAdmission to the school of law is conditioned upon the com-\n\npletion of one year of the college and soon will be upon the completion of\n\ntwo years.\n\nThe reorganization of certain courses in the school of engineer-\n\ning also practically requires one year of college work, and soon, I hope, all\nprofessional work will be based upon two years of college work.\n\nThe diffi-\n\nculty does not arise in the college, therefore, in connection with students\nwho at the end of the Sophomore year branch off into their various vocational or professional lines.\n\nIt arises in connection with those who pursue\n\ntwo years more of general training. The difficulty with the American\ncollege of late years has been precisely here, that the general training seemed\nto hang upon nothing and to lead to nothing. So far as our experience in\nthe University of Kansas is concerned this has been largely obviated by the\nfact that now most students in the college of liberal arts have some definite\naim in view, even if they do not enter organized professional schools. In\nother words, they begin the systematic study of journalism, which is a part\nof the college of liberal arts, or they are training themselves for a general\n\nbusiness career, or they are going into some form of social or economic\nservice, or they enter courses in domestic science, all these courses being\n\norganized on the basis of two years of college work. In other words, the\nclass, fairly numerous in past years, looking for a general training with\n\nnothing specific in view is becoming less and less.\nThis question is also largely a financial question.\nteachers and smaller number of pupils per teacher.\n\nIt involves better\n\nIt involves an increase\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": "389", "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\n389\n\nin the school budget and the standardizing of the requirements of the school\nfor laboratories, libraries, and machine shops.\n\nSuch a change will have to\n\ndeal with the immense inertia residing in a system once solidified and will\n\nhave to cope with the undoubted fact that in many towns and cities school\nexpenditures are already high. It will have to deal with the taxpayer and\nthe uninformed citizen who are so hard to convince that education is the\ngreatest business that a community or a state can engage in, that in education false economy is the greatest extravagance and true liberality the\nhighest economy.\n\nBut the greatest difficulty in the way perhaps is the present mental\nOur whole Ameri-\n\nattitude of the student and of the American home itself.\n\ncan life discourages accuracy, attention to detail, subjection to discipline,\n\nand readiness to undertake drudgery.\nculty in the whole problem.\n\nHere, to my mind, is the real diffi-\n\nIf the years now given to formal study were\n\nfilled with a rigorous discipline, if they led to real intellectual mastery and\n\nsound mental training, the time given might not be too much, but the truth\nthat these fruits do not grow always upon our educational tree. If,\ntherefore, we cut down the time and do not improve our work, we may be\nno better ofi^ than we are at present. But if our students can be subjected\nto rigorous discipline and trained to obedience and to high mental endeavor,\n\nis\n\nwe shall have made a real gain.\nI agree most heartily with the opinion of the committee in relation to\n\nvocational education.\n\nIn this connection there are at least two things that ought by all means\nto be considered.\n\nIn the first place, any arrangement of American education\n\nthat shall lead to stratification of our population by which one class is turned\nperforce in one direction and another in another would be a national calam-\n\nNo such stratification as has occurred in Germany could be tolerated\nNo teacher or administrator must ever have the authority to\nsay to one boy that he may go on into the high school and prepare for col-\n\nity.\n\nin America.\n\nlege and issue with all that the college or university can give him, and to\n\nanother boy that he must go into a trade school and issue as a hand laborer.\n\nThere must be absolute freedom for the choice of the individual and the\nroad must be open from the kindergarten to the university for every boy\nor girl who has any aspirations for the highest training. Then again, if we\nare to deal with this great multitude in our schools in an adequate fashion,\nvocational guidance must go with vocational training. There must be\nadequate supervision; there must be adequate suggestion and guidance by\nwhich boys and girls may be made acquainted with the different trades,\nindustries, and professions and given some adequate insight into the purposes and requirements of each, so that they may have not coercion but\nassistance in arriving at the task in life that each desires to perform.\n\nThat there must be great difficulties attending so tremendous a task\nThe committee\n\nas that of reorganizing a system of education is evident.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": "390", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n390\n\n[National\n\nhas attacked the problem with candor and good judgment and put us well\non the road toward a thoro discussion and a final adjustment of one of the\ngreatest questions confronting American education.\n\nn.\n\nHARRY B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA, KANS.\n\nIt is perfectly evident that time may be economized in public education\n\neither by doing more work in the time now consumed or by doing approxi-\n\nmately the same amount of work in less time.\nbe accomplished in both ways.\n\nDoubtless economies will\n\nIn the following discussion, I wish briefly\n\nto consider three sources of waste and therefore three possible avenues of\n\neconomy.\nIn the first place, a large amount of waste results from attempting\nto train children of\n\nall\n\ntypes of ability in the same classes.\n\nProfessor\n\nThorndike wisely says:\nSpecialization of schools\n\nis\n\nneeded, not only to fit pupils for special professions,\n\narts, trades, and the like, but also to fit the schools to original differences in the pupils.\n\nSpecialization of instruction for different pupils within one class\n\nis\n\nneeded as well as\n\nspecialization of the curriculum for different classes.\n\nIt is a well-known fact, however, that until within the last decade the\n\nexistence of these widely deviating children was either unknown or ignored.\n\nConsequently no special provision was made for their education.\n\nIndeed,\n\nspecial provision for their adequate training is yet the exception rather than\n\nthe rule except in a few of our leading school systems.\n\nThe number of these children in any typical school and the consequent\nresulting problem are scarcely appreciated by those who have not made\n\nthem subjects of special study. In Bulletin No. 461 of the Bureau of\nEducation on \"Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools,\"\na discussion of this subject may be found.\nUnfortunately, there are no experimental data which measure quantitatively the gains which are possible thru segregating the children requiring\nspecial classes for adequate treatment.\n\nCommon-sense, however, makes\n\nit evident that each class profits from the separation\n\nwhen such is possible.\n\nWhile no survey has shown that the normal children do the work expected\nby the course of study in less time, the studies of retardation and elimination, in those systems where adequate provision is made for special classes\nof children, indicate that there is less slow progress, less over-ageness, and\nless elimination.\n\nThis is what we should expect to find.\n\nWith the special\n\nclasses of children assigned to another teacher, the teacher of the average\n\nnormal children is left free to devote her time and energy to seeing that each\nmember of the class realizes his opportunity and succeeds in his work, thus\nearning promotion. Abundant evidence might be cited showing the gains\nto the special classes, whereas mentally deficient and subnormal children\nmake almost no progress when assigned to classes with normal children.\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": "391", "text": "CouncU]\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\n391\n\nUpon assignment to a special class, small in number, taught by an expert\nteacher, they immediately begin to show what is readily recognized as rapid\n\ndevelopment for them along the lines in which they can do work.\n\nIn fact,\n\nmany children who have been considered hopelessly deficient have developed under individual instruction to a plane where it seemed wise to return\nthem to a regular class for normal children. The rapid progress which\ngifted children make by being separated from the average normal children\nis remarkable indeed.\nThe survey of the Baltimore schools showed that the\ngifted children were expected to cover four semesters of seventh- and\neighth-grade work in three semesters, thus saving one-fourth of their time.\nIt is evident that the principle\n\nwhich should be recognized in every\n\nschool system is that of providing for each type of child in such a way that\n\nmay realize the largest development possible in the least amount\nWith this in mind, the classes of children in every system must be\ncarefully sought out by the supervisors, and provision for the adequate\ntreatment of each class must be made. As the children advance in age and\nin their progress thru the school, these groups must continue to be studied\nand recast as the development of the individual members shows it to be\nnecessary. In the promotion of children likewise, we must make sure that\nthe good of each individual child is carefully considered and served. In\nmaking promotions, the main question should not be to what extent\na child measures up alongside an absolute passing standard. The matter of\ngreatest importance is not what a child knows of what he has learned, but\nIt is not a question of what instruction he has had\nit is what he can do.\nbut of what he needs most for his development in the matter of opportunities and instruction.\nIn the second place, a large amount of waste results because of the fact\nall children\n\nof time.\n\nthat the course of study contains much obsolete matter.\n\nThis subject-\n\nmatter functions neither in interest on the part of the children at the time of\nlearning nor in service to society after they have left the schools.\n\nAbun-\n\ndant evidence that this material does not interest the children may be had\n\nby any thoughtful visitor who will spend a day in visiting any classes, parThe evidences of interest are alertticularly in grades above the second.\nness, keenness, anxiety, and thoughtful questions on the part of the children,\nthe proposal of additional things to be done and of additional ways of doing.\nThese evidences are absent when the children are asked to work upon\nsubject-matter which is lacking in value and significance for them. Rather\ntheir chief characteristics\n\nunder these circumstances are sitting, looking,\n\nlistening, and answering when pumped.\n\nThat this obsolete subject-matter\n\ndoes not function in service to society is becoming increasingly evident from\n\nLeonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation,\nwas probably the first investigator to employ methods for testing in any\nrecent investigations.\n\nadequate, careful way the social value of the content of the course of\nstudy.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": "392", "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIf the Committee on Economy of Time in Education from the\nDepartment of Superintendence, together with its co-operating investi-\n\ngators, find it possible to reconmiend to the next meeting of the department\n\nso much of the content as should be retained in each of the various subjects\nof study in the elementary schools, in the interest of equipping the output\nof those schools with the knowledge essential to social efficiency, a distinct\n\nadvance will have been made. If it is able to add to the present content\nimportant and significant material which is now omitted, another gain will\nhave been made. Undoubtedly, the thing most needed by the schools to\nrender them attractive to children is a socially significant content in the\ncourse of study.\n\nAs a result of its establishment will come those economies\n\nin time which are desirable, as well as pleasure and enthusiasm on the part\nof the children in the pursuit of their work.\n\nIn the third place, great waste results from the failure of teachers to\nemploy a technic in teaching which is appropriate to the subject-matter\nunder study and to the results desired in the children. The first large\nsource of this waste arises from the fact that children are not trained in\nproper habits of study. They do not acquire from grade to grade and from\nyear to year effective methods of working and pursuing the tasks which are\nNor will children employ these methods except occasionset before them.\nteachers consciously strive to have them do so.\naccident\nuntil\nally by\nmay safely be placed upon the example of the\nreliance\nmuch\nNot as\nprocedure\nas should be possible. Not only are the\nown\nlogical\nteacher's\ntrained that they employ the factors in\nteachers\nnot\nso\nvast majority of\nand presentation of the work\norganization,\nin\nthe\nmastery,\nlogical study\nbut, what is even worse, their procedure does not require\nand\nmastery on the part of their children. Rather, it requires\nthinking\nreciting\nand reproducing the work of previous class exercises or the\nmerely\n\nthey teach;\n\nthought, often the very words, of the textbook.\n\nA recent investigation of\n\npublic school 188B, in Manhattan, by the Bureau of Municipal Research,\n\nshowed that in eighteen stenographically reported recitations, the teachers\nwere doing the thinking and the talking rather than the class. As a result,\nthey used 18,933 words while the pupils used but 5,675 words. In their\nrecitations, these pupils\n\ngave 420 one-word responses, 208 one-sentence\nThere were 622\n\nresponses, 96 phrase responses, and 20 extended repHes.\n\n\"what,\" \"when,\" and \"where\" questions and but 138 \"how\" and \"why\"\nquestions.\n\nMiss Earhart's investigation of the ability of the children to employ\nthe factors in logical study led her to the conclusion that when children are\nnot properly trained to study there is \"great waste in studying.\" In her\ntest to determine what the children did in studying, nearly one-fifth of the\n\nnumber tested showed that they did not know what to do either by doing\nnothing at all or by doing something not required. In the test to see if\nchildren knew what to do to find the answer to a question, a very high per-\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": "393", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncU]\n\n393\n\n•centage of the children expressed their ideas so indefinitely that the mean-\n\ning could not be determined.\n\nThe greatest difficulty experienced by the\n\npupils was in trying to find the most important thing in the lesson and give\n\nreasons for considering it the most important.\n\nThe second large source of waste which arises from employing poor\nteaching technic results from the failure of teachers to see clearly the results\n\nwhich are desirable and possible from the study of any given subjectmatter or from the pursuit of any series of exercises or activities and to\nemploy a teaching procedure which is adapted to secure the desired mastery\nof the subject-matter and the results sought in the children.\n\nWe wish the\n\nchildren to come from the schools equipped with certain specific habits,\nideas, facts and principles, ideals, standards, tastes and prejudices, attitudes\n\nand perspectives.\n\nThe subject-matter of instruction, together with the\n\nresulting experiences and exercises, should be sufficient to equip the children\n\nwith such a body of the aforesaid results as are essential to social efficiency.\nCertain phases of the course of study should be so taught that they result\nin specific habits.\n\nOther phases will be primarily valuable in equipping\n\nthe individual with ideas, facts, and principles, or knowledge.\n\nOther phases\n\nof subject-matter and experiences will be valuable in the development of\nideals, standards,\n\nand tastes.\n\nNot only does the subject-matter which is\n\nadapted to acco nplish a given end vary, but the technic of presenting the\nsubject-matter that it may secure the result desired varies with the end\nsought.\n\nThe teacher must be trained to employ the technic which is adapted to\nsecure a desired result.\n\nSpecffic habits in writing, spelling, reading,\n\nand\n\narithmetic result primarily from the employment of the drill exercise in\nteaching.\n\nThe drill lesson, however, will not accomplish the results sought\n\nunless the essentials in good drill teaching characterize the work as it moves\n\nforward.\n\nA good drill teacher sees that the child knows what he is about to\n\nmaster, and,\n\nif\n\npossible, has him enthusiastic to accomplish its mastery.\n\nSecondly, she has him repeat the thing to be mastered with the maximum\nof attention, gradually increasing the lapses of time when she recurs to it\n\nso well fixed that no errors appear and his responses are immediate\nand automatic. This tj^e of lesson is suitable for use in the mastery of\nthose skills and activities and facts which should become automatic.\ntill it is\n\nIf the result desired in the class is the discovery of a principle or rule,\n\nor the formulation of a definition, generalization, or concept, the type of\nlesson which good teaching will\n\nemploy is the inductive lesson, in which\n\nthe children first see clearly a problem vital to them for solution.\n\nFollow-\n\ning this, the data pertaining to the solution of the problem are noted.\n\nThe\n\ndata are then compared with the aim of noting the like elements, that the\n\ncommon truth or principle which they suggest may be seen.\n\nFollowing\n\nthis comes the statement of the principle or rule or the formulation of the\n\ndefinition or generalization.\n\nThe teacher should employ the inductive\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": "394", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n394\n\n[National\n\nlesson when she is teaching children for the first time how to solve problems\nin addition of fractions.\n\ninductively.\n\nThey arrive at the method to be employed\n\nAfter a principle or method has once been mastered, the\n\nfuture experience of the children will show them it has many applications.\n\nThe application of the principle or general truth to the interpretation\nand understanding of data and situations to which it is applicable brings\ninto use in teaching the deductive lesson. If the children should meet the\nquestion, in the study of the geography of Utah, as to why the desert region\nlying between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles is not thickly populated,\nthey would be able to answer it from the knowledge which they have gained\nin their study of geography of the influence of climate in determining the\npopulation and industries of a region. It should not be necessary to work\nout inductively the solution of their problem.\n\nIt is sufiicient to apply the\n\nknowledge which they already possess to the interpretation of the condition\nfrom the standpoint of civilization which they find in this region.\n\nThere is much material, particularly in literature, history, and music,\nwhich the children do not need to master thoroly in view of the results\ndesired in them. Indeed, its thoro mastery is beyond them. Yet much of\nthis material may possess certain values which are necessary in accomplishing the results desired in children at a given stage of their develop-\n\nThese ideas may be brought to the children by presenting the mateFor example, the change from haughtiness in the knight in the \"Vision of Sir Launfal\" to an attitude of humility\nand charity may be brought to a third- or fourth-grade class by an artistic\n\nment.\n\nrial thru the appreciation lesson.\n\nteacher thru the presentation by reading and telling of this story.\n\nWhat\n\nthey require is an appreciation of the significance of this wonderful story.\n\nThe tool for securing these results is the appreciation lesson.\n\nMany selec-\n\ntions in music, of which the children should feel the uplift, may be brought\n\nto them thru the appreciation lesson long before it is possible to teach the\n\nMany critical and interesting periods in history\nmay likewise be taught to the children thru the appreciation lesson, that\nthey may lend atmosphere to those aspects of the work which the children\nsame selections thoroly.\n\nIn a corresponding way, the appreciation lesson may render service in the teaching of geography and other\nare attempting to master thoroly.\n\nsciences.\n\n—\n\nThese tools of the teacher the drill, the inductive, the deductive, and\nthe appreciation lessons—with which she secures the desired results in the\nchildren, when properly employed on right subject-matter, are not interchangeable. One may not be used effectively and economically in place\nof the other any more than a saw may be used when an auger is the tool\nrequired. To proceed, lacking in the knowledge of the available tools and\nof the suitability of each to accomplish its ends is to blunder and stumble\n\nand accomplish less than should be, and therefore to waste both energy and\ntime.\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": "395", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncil!\n\n395\n\nThe third large source of waste resulting from poor teaching is due to\nthe lack of adequate motivation of the work and activities of the children.\n\nAdequate motives should underlie and permeate all of the work and activities of the school.\nis\n\nThis assumes, of course, that only such subject-matter\n\nprovided by the course of study as is significant and meaningful to the\n\nchildren because (i)\n\nit\n\nanswers questions which naturally arise in their\n\nexperience, (2) it solves problems which they naturally meet in the course\nof their development, (3) it supplies needs which they have felt in the pro-\n\ncess of their normal development.\n\nThe school's work and activities are not\n\nadequately motivated for the children so long as foreign, non-significant\nmaterial is so prominent in the course of study as at present.\n\nWhen the\n\nchildren are occupied with significant material, they are alert and aggressive\nfor its mastery because it is rendering service to them which is just as real\n\nas winning a successful case in court is to the practicing attorney.\n\nAdequate\n\nmotives render easy of direction the whole problem of study and experi-\n\nmentation on the part of the children.\n\nThey also make it easy for large\n\nstrides to be taken in the class exercises.\n\nAdequate motives render it easy\n\nto accomplish more work and thoro mastery in less time.\n\nTheir absence\n\nmeans a dull class, lacking in enthusiasm, and consequent slow progress and\nloss of time.\n\nThe responsibility for the adjustments which are essential to accomplishing the improvements in the schools which will eliminate the waste\n\nabove set forth rests with the supervisory force. Not one cent of additional\nexpense need be imposed upon any school system for the improvement of\nits course of study or the technic of teaching employed in its schools.\n\nadditional expense\n\nSome\n\nmay be necessary if the needs of the subnormal and\n\nfeeble-minded children are to be adequately met.\n\nThere are ways, how-\n\never, well known to all of you, of serving their needs relatively well without\n\ngreat additional expense.\n\nThe gifted and talented children may be very\n\nsatisfactorily cared for, even in the same school, with the average normal\n\nchildren by providing additional significant work which they may pursue.\nThe supervisory officers in every system must face squarely the burden of\nthis responsibility.\n\nThere is no defense for supervision at heavy expense\n\nunless its provision insures rational, hygienic work in the schools and also\n\nmore work of better quality or the same amount of work of better quality\nin less time.\n\nIII.\n\nFRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nSPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nA railroad official has recently given us a new figure of speech.\n\nIn\n\nconsidering the reconnmiendations of the government for increasing the\nefficiency\n\nand service of our railroad systems he replied:\n\nunscramble eggs?\"\n\n\"How can you\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": "396", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n39^\n\n[National\n\nOf course, you cannot answer an argument with a figure of speech,\nyet it is sometimes true that such a figure directs attention to the very\nheart of the difficulty involved in the proposal.\n\nEvery proposition to\n\nchange the form of our present system of public education to insure a greater\n\neconomy of time brings us face to face with this difficulty of unscrambling\n\nWe have presented to us a condition representing one\nhundred years of experimentation, some of it intelligent and some of it\nscrambled eggs.\n\nOur school system did not spring full-fledged and efficient from the\nIt came into existence more after the manner\nof Topsy \"just growed.\" The condition is a badly mixed one. It is\nblind.\n\nbrain of an educational Job.\n\n—\n\nnot an easy matter to separate the tares from the wheat.\nI agree, however, with the committee in its efforts to reconstruct the\nsystem along the lines of greater efficiency and economy in time. There\n\nare two general methods proposed for effecting these changes. One deals\nmainly with the larger readjustments and reorganizations a more economic\n\n—\n\narrangement of elementary, secondary, and higher education.\n\nThe other\n\nhas to do with working economies in the smaller units which compose the\nsystem.\n\nGabriel Tarde, in his great book. The\n\nLaws\n\nof Imagination,\n\nsays that the most effective way of reforming any social institution is to\nIf we modify these primal elements we\nhave made permanent progress. Any permanent improvement in the\npublic-school system must rest upon a change in the primary elements of\n\nbegin with its primary elements.\n\nthat system.\n\nThe first one of these primal elements is the recitation. While the\nterm has different interpretations under different systems, its meaning is\nAnything that this committee can propose for effecting\na greater economy of time and energy in the recitation will promote the\n\nwell understood.\n\nWhat can be done\nHow can we rid\nit of the intellectual dandling and pedagogical inflations?\nHow can we\nmake the connection between the child's mind and the point in question\ngeneral cause of economy of time in the school system.\n\nto stop the waste in passing to and from a recitation ?\n\nmore direct and complete ?\n\nA second primary element is the teacher. No lasting economy in time\nwill be effected until our teachers are prepared to organize these units of\n\ninstruction in an economic way.\n\nthan thru any other source.\nin a\n\nMore time is wasted thru poor teaching\n\nIf this committee, thru its labors, can assist\n\ndemand for a more thoro preparation of teachers for their work, a\n\nbetter equipment for effective, direct teaching, it will have worked one of\n\nthe greatest economies in time.\n\nThe last primary element which I shall mention is that of the supervisor\nor superintendent.\n\nWhat a vast waste of time occurs annually thruout\n\nour public-school system because the separate parts are not wrought into a\nliving organic unity!\n\nFor instance, the time required in developing the\n\nhabit of rapid, silent reading and good oral reading can be greatly reduced\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": "397", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncUl\n\nif\n\n397\n\nthe supervisor or superintendent knows how to articulate the work of\n\nthe teachers in the various grades.\n\nToo often the work of one teacher\n\ncounteracts or interferes with the work of the teacher of the lower grade.\nIf,\n\nhowever, a definite line of work is planned by a supervisor or superin-\n\ntendent and all the teachers concentrate their efforts upon this plan, a great\n\neconomy results, not only in time, but in the expenditure of energy and in\nthe results accomplished.\n\nLet us stand strongly for expert supervisors\n\nand superintendents as great time-savers.\n\nIV.\n\nL. D.\n\nHARVEY, PRESIDENT, STOUT INSTITUTE, MENOMONIE, WIS.\n\nIt is apparent that the Committee on Economy of Time in Education\n\nhas in its report held quite closely to what it states as its primary idea,\nthat of dealing with the educational problem for those who cover the whole\n\nperiod of either general or special education.\n\nSince at least 90 per cent\n\nof the young people of this country do not complete \" the whole period of\n\ngeneral or special education in their entire extent,\"\n\nit\n\nappears that this\n\nreport deals \"primarily\" with the reorganization of our educational system\nin the interests of less than one-tenth of the school population.\n\nI do not mean by this that the report ignores the nine-tenths, but that\nits emphasis is put upon the necessities or apparent necessities of the smaller\n\nfraction.\n\nIt must be apparent that the proposed modification of the entire\n\nschool system, primarily in the interest of one- tenth of the school popula-\n\nmust secondarily at least consider, and consider very seriously, the\nupon the remaining nine-tenths of the school\npopulation, and, to justify the reorganization, it must clearly be apparent\nto those who are to bring it about, as well as to those affected by it, that it\nwould be of advantage to the nine-tenths as well as to the one-tenth.\nThe recommendations of the committee based upon its conclusions\nthat at least two years' ime could be saved in our educational scheme of\nwork clearly imply that we have been demanding more work of students\ntion,\n\neffect of this modification\n\nthan is necessary for completing a general or special education which a\nschool should give; or that we have been demanding work not contributing\nto these ends;\n\nor that our modes of administering the work have been\n\nfaulty; or that there has been a combination of some or all of these defects.\n\nI believe the report of the committee in its entirety warrants the conclusion that the committee's view is that there has been such a combination\nof these three defects, a conclusion with which I agree most heartily.\n\nAssuming that these three defects exist, the practical question is, \" What\nmust be done to remedy them?\" We must first ascertain what work has\nbeen demanded either n the cultural field of general education or in the\ntechnical field of special education, which, tho hav ng educational value,\nhas less of such value than the experience of life during the period required\nfor this work would have for the individual.\n\nSecond, we must determine\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": "398", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n398\n\n[National\n\nwhat work has been demanded that has practically no value in developing\nefficiency either in the general or special education of the individual.\n\nThird,\n\nwe must determine what is essential in the organization of what may\nfinally be deemed necessary in order of presentation and what modifications\n\nshall be necessary in methods of instruction in order to produce the best\n\nresults with the greatest economy of time and effort.\noff\n\nTo arbitrarily cut\n\nthe last two years of the existing elementary course is certainly no\n\nsolution of the problem.\n\nThe attempt to crowd into the first six years of\n\nschool life all of the work now attempted in eight years is an absurdity.\n\nNo one will deny that much valuable work is now required in the last two\nyears of the elementary course even tho a portion of it might very properly\n\nbe eliminated, and I think those people who have had most to do with the\nteaching of elementary pupils will agree that for a majority of the pupils\n\nsome of the work now required in the seventh and eighth grades cannot\nUnder the proposed scheme, if\nthis work is to be given at all, it must find a place in the first two years of\nthe proposed six-year secondary school. The existing high-school work\ncannot be pushed down into the seventh and eighth grades and allowed to\ncrowd out the valuable features of that work as now offered. In other\n\nprofitably be given to sixth-grade pupils.\n\nwords, the proposed six-year secondary school cannot begin where the\npresent four-year secondary school begins;\n\nit\n\nmust begin where the sixth-\n\ngrade work as reorganized ends and must carry the essentials o\" the present\nseventh- and\n\neighth-grade work with material modifications of the existing\n\nhigh-school courses of study.\n\nThese modifications will necessitate material\n\nmodifications of present college-entrance requirements and necessarily\nof college courses themselves, and such modifications will necessitate similar\n\nmodifications of university-entrance requirements and possibly further\n\nmodifications of requirements for completion of these courses.\n\nAs already indicated these modifications must be along the line of the\nthree defects previously noted.\n\nThe whole problem, then, seems to resolve itself into the applying\nof the principles of scientific management to the organization and adminis-\n\ntration of the school system.\n\nThe development\n\nof\n\nour school system\n\nup to the present time affords a striking illustration of the failure to apply\nthe principles of scientific management. In productive industry these\nprinciples demand a very definite knowledge of exactly what is necessary\nan elimination of every nonfor the most economic results in production\nessential, either in material or in process, and the introduction of the most\nApplying these\ndirect and effective processes in doing what is to be done.\nprinciples to the organization of an educational system, we must begin with\nthe elementary school and seek to determine what that school can do for\nits pupils in the way of instruction and training that will make them most\neffective in their succeeding work whether in school or in life, in the way of\nknowledge, of power in thought and action, and of character. These are\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": "399", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nCouacU]\n\n399\n\ngeneralities to be lightly dismissed.\nThe expert in\nmanagement spends months in investigating and experimenting\nto determine exactly what motions, what order of these motions, and what\nperiods of rest are necessary to carry a ton of pig iron, pig by pig, one hundred feet in the least time with the greatest economy of effort on the part\nof the workman.\nIt will take more than some months to determine and\n\nno mere glittering\nscientific\n\nformulate the information which the pupil in the elementary school needs\n\nand which is to be acquired thru study of the different subjects in the curriculum. It will take more time to determine and formulated the kind, the\namount, and the order of training to develop power in thought and action\nalways with reference to the capabilities of the pupil.\n\nIt will take no less\n\ntime to determine and formulate what is essential in the development of\ncharacter and what\n\nmust be done to secure that development.\n\nIt will\n\ntake more time than we have yet used to determine the best methods of\ninstruction and training in these various fields.\n\nThe same line of procedure\n\nwill be necessary in dealing with the secondary schools, with every subject\n\nthat finds a place in the course of study.\n\nThe same necessity exists for\n\nsimilar work with the course of study of the college, the university, and the\nspecial school.\n\nWe shall never get any adequate reorganization of any\n\nphase of our system of education until we attack the problem from this\nangle.\n\nThis means that the individual to be taught and his needs become\n\nthe central point of consideration.\n\nWhat does not contribute to these\n\nneeds must be eliminated both in matter and in method.\n\nThis means\n\nquality rather than quantity and quality as related to the needs of the indi-\n\nvidual to be educated.\n\nThe quantitative idea has been the dominant\n\none in the development of our system up to the present time.\n\nIt has\nbeen a question of how much and how long rather than what value and\n\nhow quickly.\nHow many teachers of algebra have any definite idea or have ever\ngiven any thought to the question of what the study of algebra does for\nthe pupil in ministering to his real needs for his future work ?\n\nHow many\n\nsuperintendents and principals have ever considered that the needs of the\nhigh-school student studying algebra who intends to take the college course\nare different from those of the high-school student studying algebra who\n\nexpects to leave school before or at the end of his high-school course ?\n\nHow\n\nmany have ever studied the relative values of algebra and other subjects\nfor either of these two classes of students ?\nHow many teachers of geometry\nhave ever determined how much knowledge of arithmetic and how much\nskill in arithmetic and what knowledge of algebra and what skill in its use\n\nare necessary in order to master the\n\nwork in geometry?\n\nHow many\n\nteachers of trigonometry have ever thought how little of algebra or geometry is essential for a working knowledge of trigonometry?\n\nIn a similar\n\nway we might go thru every other subject taught in the secondary schools,\nelementary schools, and higher institutions, asking the same questions,\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": "400", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n400\n\n[National\n\nand the answers to these questions if correctly given would throw a flood\nof light upon the whole problem.\nI realize thoroly well that the demand for a determination of the rela-\n\ntive educational values of different items of knowledge for the pupil at any\n\ngiven time and for a determination of the kind, amount, and character of\ntraining best adapted to the needs of the pupil at every stage of his develop-\n\nment is a most difficult one.\nis\n\nI have no doubt that many will say that it\n\nimpossible to make these determinations accurately, but if it be impos-\n\nsible to make them with perfect accuracy that does not relieve from the\n\nmake them with the greatest accuracy possible. There is\nno other safe basis upon which to build an educational system. Every\nintelligent effort in this direction will accomplish something and will make\nthe next step easier. Failure to enter upon an intelligent effort and connecessity to\n\ntinue it will make the present bad condition worse.\n\nThe recommendations of the committee, if carried into effect, not only\ntime for the individual who completes a college or\n\nwill save two years of\n\nuniversity course, but also should give better edticational results and save\nin time all along the line, for the great majority of pupils who do not com-\n\nplete a college course.\n\nWe must not forget that we have no national system of education\nand no central authority either national or state upon which we may\ndepend to carry out the reconamendations of the committee. To carry\nthese recommendations into effect I believe that the following requirements\nmust be met:\n1. A reorganization of the courses of study all along the line from the\nelementary to the professional school.\nSuperintendents and principals with better training than they now\nhave for the work of organization and administration from the professional\n2.\n\nviewpoint.\n3.\n\nMen in sympathy with the idea of securing greater economy of time\n\nand effort in education thru the work of the schools.\n4. Men with initiative and possessing analytical power, imbued with\nthe earnest desire to adjust educational activities to the needs of the pupils;\nmen who will subordinate system to these needs rather than develop system\n\nwith little regard for the pupils.\n5.\n\nMen willing and intelligent enough to study the existing system to\n\ndetermine its faults and when they have discovered those faults courageous\nenough to apply the remedy and tactful and forceful enough to secure a\npublic sentiment in their locality that will insure the success of the remedy.\n6. Men who are less concerned with holding their jobs than they are\n\nwith doing the jobs so well that the job will hold them; men who can realize\nthat the best man is not the one who can hold his job but the one who puts\nso much intelligence, conscience, and enthusiasm into his job that he can\nsecure a better one.\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": "401", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncil!\n\n401\n\nMen who know thoroly well what constitutes good teaching in every\n\n7.\n\nstage of the work under their direction and who possess the professional\ninsight necessary to enable them to continue the training of the teachers\n\nwho are working under their supervision.\n8. Men in the secondary schools who will be less concerned with collegeentrance requirements and the commendation of college authorities than\n\nwith the requirements of the majority of the people being taught and\ntrained and the commendation of these young people and their parents.\n\nMore thoughtful, better-trained teachers all along the line, even in\n\n9.\n\nthe colleges, the universities, and the special schools, and as a corollary\nbetter training schools for teachers of the elementary schools, and better\n\norganized and manned departments of education in our universities and\nother institutions where teachers are prepared for work in advance of the\n\nelementary schools.\n10. Successful experiment in single systems and individual schools\nand institutions, and systematic and conscientious effort for an awakened\nand enlightened public interest in the accomplishment of what is proposed.\n11.\n\nRecognition of the fact that conditions vary so widely in different\n\ncommunities that every community cannot undertake to adopt the proposed\n\nscheme in its entirety.\nV.\n\nE. E.\n\nSCRIBNER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ISHPEMING, MICH.\n\nThis is a period in the history of our wonderful country when it is popular to \"knock\"\n\n—a time when the speaker or writer who discredits present\n\nconditions secures an attentive hearing.\n\nTo me the most consoling feature\n\nof this critical age is the fact that the most active critics are those who have\n\nthe least practical knowledge of that which they so vigorously criticize.\nThose who attack business and criticize business methods are not those\nwho give their time and risk their money in a commercial enterprise, but\ntheorists who endeavor to make a living by advocating methods of business\nprocedure which sound plausible and which seem to the uninformed to be\ncorrect solutions of the problems which perplex those in charge of the commercial and economic enterprises of our country and those who are directing\nour social and political institutions.\n\nThe public-school system has received its full share of this unwholeSome writers go so far as to state that\n\nsome attack.\n\nthere is genuine cause for distrust of the entire system of public education\n\n—that there\n\nis\n\napparent and imperative need of reconstruction and readjustment; that something should\n\nbe done in the way of inauguration of a system of public education which would really\neducate our boys and girls for successful careers in the lives they are to lead.\n\nThat quotation reads well and the author of it shows powers of expression, acquired under the present system of public education, that make his\n\ncharge seem plausible, but we cannot help noticing that he fails to state\nor even suggest the particular work said boys and girls are to do in living out\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": "402", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n402\n\nWhy?\n\n\"the lives they are to lead.\"\nreason that no one knows.\n\n[National\n\nBecause he cannot, for the simple\n\nIf the parent\n\ncould send with the child, the\n\nday he enters school, a statement which would give the teacher the child's\nmental caliber or even an intimation of the place in the world's work for\nwhich he is best fitted by temperament and native ability, the problem of\neducating the child for that place would be comparatively easy of solution,\nfor then the children could be grouped and classified in the same manner\nthat material things are grouped and classified in a commercial industry.\nTake the mining of iron ore as an illustration. Chemical analysis of the\nore enables the producer to grade it so that its value in the market and the\nparticular use in the iron world for which it is best adapted are almost\nexactly determined. Trade conditions regulate the quantity of the various\ngrades which it is wise to mine, and organization and careful management\ndetermine the efficiency of the labor employed to mine and market the ore\nat a profit. Economy is the watchword, and ordinary bookkeeping enables\nthe company to determine the efficiency of its operations and its financial\nBut how different is the business of the public school!\nstatus at any time.\nThere is no analysis which will determine the value of the individual pupil it\nis to work upon, nor is there any fixed system of bookkeeping which will enable\nanyone to determine the efficiency of the work as it is done day by day.\n\nThe schools are given the indefinite task of educating the children of\nthe masses, not each for a definite work or an unchangeable place in society,\n\nbut for some position in life, unknown to the parents, to the teachers, or\neven to the students themselves.\ncompelled,\n\nIt follows, therefore, that the school is\n\nby its peculiar position and the cosmopolitan nature of the\n\nmaterial that comes to it, to endeavor to develop or educate in a general\n\nway the whole child, hoping that he may be prepared by such education to\nfit\n\ninto a place in\n\nlife\n\nwhere he will work and be happy and contented.\n\nExperience had taught us that whatever the field of human activity, suc-\n\n—that unrest comes to\n\ncess brings contentment and failure brings unrest\n\nall\n\nwhen success is so indifferent that living conditions are hard.\nThe efficiency of our school work cannot justly be compared with that of\nGermany or any other European country because social and political conditions there are very different from those in this country.\n\nFirst, a democracy\n\nshould not attempt to build society by education but thru society should\n\nattempt to build the individual.\n\nWe hold that the state is strong in the pro-\n\nportion in which every individual is free, large, and independent.\n\nEuropean\n\nThey have, without\nquestion, deeper scholars in greater number than we have. They have\ncountries have a better educated upper class than we.\n\ninstitutions\n\ncompared with which ours are puny.\n\nWhy ?\n\nBecause they\n\nare educating the top while we are educating society from the bottom to the\ntop.\n\nWe are not attempting to lift favored classes higher. We are not\nWe are attempting to put\n\nattempting to give to those who already have.\n\nour hands under the foundations of human life and lift everybody up\n\n—the\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": "403", "text": "ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncil]\n\n403\n\nforeign born with the native born, the son of the doctor or lawyer or scholar\nside by side with the son of the miner or the son of the common laborer.\n\nThat is a much slower process but it builds up the intelligent citizenship\nwhich alone can insure the perpetuity of our democracy. American\neducation should aim first to reveal to the pupils the condition of their\nprosperity and the civilization of the age.\n\nThe immediate course of all\n\nprosperity and the stimulant to all advancement is industry.\n\nEconomic\n\naims, economic pursuits, and economic achievements occupy the attention\n\nThru industry in these fields all of us, directly or\nand shelter, and thru success in them\nattain that happiness and cheerfulness of mind which tend to develop the\nnoblest part of our nature; or because of failure some become discontented,\nmorose, and too often a vicious menace to society. Training for economic\nindustry should be the watchword of every teacher, the aim of every\nof most of our people.\n\nindirectly, acquire food, raiment,\n\nschool system.\n\nThat we can economize in time there is little question of doubt.\n\nI\n\nbelieve that the greatest waste in time and effort which can be charged to\n\neducation today comes from want of organization on the part of school\nauthorities.\n\nThe entire system is loose.\n\nThere should be a strong, power-\n\nful national educational bureau holding a portfolio in the President's cabinet.\n\nThis bureau should be given the power by Congress to direct the educational\n\nand advanced. The departments of education of the several states should be required to work in\n\nforces of the nation, elementary, secondary,\n\nharmony with the national bureau.\n\nThey should give their attention, first,\n\nto establishing uniform standards to determine the qualifications of teachers, school superintendents, and members of\n\nschool boards, having in mind\n\nthe importance of securing permanency of employment or administration to\nthose who attain that standard.\n\nNo business can attain the highest produc-\n\ntive efficiency by often changing its management and reorganizing, but under\n\npresent conditions we all know that change and reorganization are the rule\nrather than the exception in the business of education in the United States.\n\nWith permanency of employment secured to the educator and administrator of educational forces, they would attack the problem of education\n\nwith the ambition that every conscientious worker employs in his\n\nlife\n\nwork; that is, a determination to make each year's success a little better\nthan the last.\n\nI have said that there is no analysis which will determine the\n\nvalue of the individual pupil.\n\nI wish to modify that statement by saying\n\nthat I believe that co-operation on the part of the teacher and the parent,\nafter the pupil has been a few years at school, should enable them to deter-\n\nmine, in a general way at least, the kind of work for which the child is by\n\nnature fitted.\n\nSome believe that psychology has now reached the practical\n\npoint where its principles can be consulted for the purpose of guiding a\n\nyouth to the vocation for which he is best fitted by natural endowment.\nIf that is true much time\n\ncan be saved by adding to the faculty of every\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": "404", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n404\n\n[National\n\nschool system an expert psychologist who would classify the school material\n\naccording to the capabilities of the pupils.\nis wasted in trying to\n\nthe professions.\n\nWe all know that much time\n\nteach boys, whom nature endowed for the trades for\n\nAgain there is a great waste in spending months if not\n\nyears in the elementary school in teaching subject-matter which has little\nif\n\nany disciplinary value and which could be learned in a few days if the\n\npupils were more mature.\n\nBut however much we may theorize upon and debate the educational\nproblem, hoping to decide upon some plan whereby some of the youth of\n\nour land may acquire the tools of education and enter the factories and\nshops and become efficient workmen and loyal, intelligent citizens, while\nothers become trained for the professions or administrative responsibilities,\n\nand others go on to become the scholars and leaders of intellectual thought,\nthe paramount educational problem still remains that the ideal school\nshould develop the young to their highest possibilities.\nWlien the student has determined upon his life ambition, it will be easy\nto save time. Then he will be amenable to instruction and inexorable\nThe school can teach him to be quick, ready, resourceful,\nin self-discipline.\nand self-reliant. He must learn to endure hardship, both to spurt and\nto stand a long heavy strain as circumstances require, putting every ounce\nof energy into his job and learning to combine individual initiative with\nthe habit of co-operation, thus subordinating personal ambition to the common good. All these qualities can be secured by proper training, tho, as all\nyoung people are variously endowed with natural gifts, some will make\ngreater successes than others, but all who acquire thru education those elements of character will succeed in their life work.\nSaving of two years of time in securing general or advanced education\nin the schools of the United States without loss in preparation would mean\nthe saving of a great fortune each year to the taxpayers and those who liberally contribute to the educational facilities of the nation and would add two\nyears to the working period of every student thus educated. I do not\nbelieve it can be done by renaming the grades so that the high school will\noccupy six years, but I believe it can be done, as I have said, thru organization of the school forces, which would insure permanency in school administration and superintendency and higher standards of scholarships and professional training on the part of the teaching force.\n\nBut notwithstanding the attack the American educational system has\nhad to meet in recent years, I wish to say in conclusion that I consider that\nthe schools have a wonderful record. *' By their fruits ye shall know them.\"\nWhat a school system is, is to be determined by the kind of men and women\nit produces, and I unhesitatingly defy the whole world in time past and time\npresent to show so vast a proportion of citizens so well off, so contented, so\n\nremunerated by their toil, as is to be found in the United States of America\ntoday.\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": "405", "text": "\\\n\nDEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident—CATSEVimE J. Tracy, Ethical Culture School\nVice-President ^Lucy T. Ellis, director, Phoenix Kindergarten\n\n—\n\nSecretary—\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nPhoenix, Ariz.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, July 7, 1914\nThe Kindergarten Department held its first session in the Central Presbyterian\nChurch, and was called to order at 9:00 a.m. by the president of the department,\nCatherine J. Tracy, of the Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Readjustment of the Kindergarten and Primary Grades to Conform to the\nSame General Principles\" Philander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of educa-\n\n—\n\ntion, Washington, D.C.\n\n\"Adaptation of the Work of the Kindergarten to the Needs of Individual Children\"\ndirector. National Association for the Study and\nEducation of Exceptional Children, Plainfield, N.J.\n\n—M. P. E. Groszmann, educational\n\nAfter the program came a discussion which was participated in by the following*\nLucy T. Ellis, director. Phoenix Kindergarten, Phoenix, Ariz.; Joseph S. Gaylord, professor of psychology and pedagogy, State Normal School, Winona, Minn.; Anna I.\nJenkins, director of Roosevelt Kindergartens, Pasadena, Cal.; and M. P. E. Groszmann,\neducational director. National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional\nChildren, Plainfield, N.J.\n\nThe following persons were appointed as a committee to nominate officers for the\nensuing year:\n\nMrs. A, O. Ware, president, Training School, South Bend, Ind.\n\nAnna I. Jenkins, director of Roosevelt Kindergartens, Pasadena, Cal.\nMyra M. Winchester, educational director. National Kindergarten Association, and\nspecial collaborator, Kindergarten Division,\n\nBureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 1914\nThe department met in the Auditorium at 2:30 p.m., and was called to order by\nPresident Tracy.\n\nThe program announced as the first speaker Luella A. Palmer, assistant director of\nkindergartens, public schools, New York, N.Y., but owing to the absence of Miss Palmer,\n\nher paper on \"Problems versus Subject-Matter as a Basis for Kindergarten Curricula\"\n\nwas read by Miss Tracy.\n\nThe following songs, all with the exception of the \"Moon Song\" suitable for kindergarten children, were then presented by Ida C. Knapp, formerly supervisor of kinder-\n\ngarten music, Detroit, Mich.:\n\n\"The Shepherd's Idyl,\" \"Swinging Song,\" \"Boating Song,\" \"Bob White,\" \"The\nScreech Owl,\" \"The Robin,\" \"Blacksmith Song,\" \"Lullaby,\" and the \"Moon Song.\"\nMyra M. Winchester, educational director, National Kindergarten Association,\nand special collaborator, Kindergarten Division, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C,\nspoke on \"What the United States Bureau of Education Is Doing for the Kindergarten.\"\nDiscussion: Margaret E. Schallenberger, commissioner of elementary schools,\nSacramento, Cal., and Mrs. A, O. Ware, president. Training School, South Bend, Ind.\n405\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": "406", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4o6\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nFor President Anna M. Stovall, supervisor and normal instructor, Golden Gate\n\n—\n\nKindergarten Association, San Francisco, Cal.\nFor Vice-President Myra M. Winchester, educational director. National Kindergarten Association, and special collaborator. Kindergarten Division, Bureau of Education,\n\n—\n\nWashmgton, D.C.\n\nThe committee recommended that the power to appoint a secretary for the department be given to the incoming president.\nThe report was xmanimously accepted.\nWinifred Ohr, Secretary pro tempore\n\nTmRD SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July id, 1914\nThe department met in joint session with the Departments of Special and Elementary\nEducation in the Auditorium, and was called to order at 9 00 a.m.\n:\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n\"Standardizing the Work in the Kindergarten and Elementary Schools\" Georgia\nAlexander, supervising principal of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"A Practical Experiment with Backward Children\" John W. Carr, superintendent\n(For this paper, see Department of Special Education.)\nof schools, Bayonne, N.J.\n\"Reading and Arithmetic as Tests of Mental Ability\" Clara Schmitt, Child-Study\nDepartment, public schools, Chicago, 111. (For this paper, see Department of Special\nEducation.)\n\"The Montessori Message True Education the Basis of a New Civilization\"\nLouise Dixon Boyle, New York, N.Y. In the absence of the writer, this paper was read\nby the secretary of the department.\nW. E. Taylor, Secretary\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nADAPTATION OF THE WORK OF THE KINDERGARTEN TO\nTHE NEEDS OF INDIVIDUAL CHILDREN\nMAXIMILIAN P. E. GROSZMANN, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY AND EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL\nCHILDREN, PLAINFIELD, N.J.\nIs the great educational reform about which we have been talking for\n\nyears a happy reality in our schools ?\n\nI fear it is not, and we have been\n\nslow in carrying our theory into practice, imprisoned as our thoughts and\nhabits have been by the fetters of tradition.\n\nmany failures;\n\nOur schools still produce too\n\ntoo many children fall behind or leave school before they\n\nhave received the training they need; too many drift into idleness, shiftlessness and even delinquency, who might have become useful citizens. So\nthere must still be too much uniformity.\nIn fact, the slogan of uniformity has assumed a new guise. We are\nnow talking about \"standardization,\" even of the mental tests by which\nwe measure the efficiency of a class, or a school, or an individual child. As\nif we could approach any two children in exactly the same way, or as if\nthe conditions of any two classes or schools were exactly alike!\nWhen the kindergarten was first introduced into this country, it was\njustly hailed with enthusiasm as a new gospel of freedom from scholastic\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": "407", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN AND INDIVIDUAL CHILDREN\n\nnarrowness and pedantry.\nchild development.\n\n407\n\nIt gave a new outlook upon the possibilities of\n\nIt took advantage of those valuable formative years\n\nwhich had been neglected by the traditional school in which education was\nIt led the educator back to\n\nheld to be synonymous with book learning.\n\nsome realities in child life.\n\nAnd it recognized the symbolic stage in the\n\ndevelopment of the child mind.\nIt is hardly necessary to enter here into a discussion of the history of the\n\nkindergarten\n\nmovement in this country.\n\ndwell upon the criticisms hurled against it.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nequally unnecessary to\n\nBut two great mistakes which\n\nhave been made must be discussed here: The one is that in the general\nkindergarten practice the original Froebel Gifts and Occupations and\nGames and Songs have been adhered to without modification, in a stereotyped form, and with the exclusion of everything that might have enriched\nand broadened the life of the kindergarten children. Thus there was a\nrelative paucity and one-sidedness of educational material which left many\na child of that age unprovided for and unappealed to. For the newer\nappreciation of genetic psychology has taught us that the child is a much\nmore complex being than was known at the time of Froebel and that the\nlaws of the development of the individual cannot be understood without\na knowledge of race psychology and biology.\nAgain, the rigidity of general practice makes itself felt in the tendency\ntoward uniformity. Group work is the rule; individual work, the exception.\n\nAll children in the same group are supposed to do the same thing\n\npractically in the same way at the same time.\n\nIndividual differences in\n\nexecution, which, of course, cannot be avoided, are as far as possible dis-\n\ncouraged so that a uniform standard of perfection may be attained.\n\nThe children march and sing at the same time, they dance and play in\na prescribed and imitating fashion when the program requires it;\n\nthey\n\nweave and model and draw and lay sticks and build at the same time in\na formal way and following conventional, traditional patterns.\nIt has been, in a measure, a misfortune for the kindergarten that\n\nhas succeeded so well in this country.\n\nit\n\nIn its own native home it has never\n\nbeen fully recognized in the public-school system, and private initiative,\nadapting itself to local and special needs, kept the kindergarten idea freer\nfrom formalism than was possible here. As soon as the kindergarten\nbecame a feature of public-school education, in the American system, it\n\npartook of the faults characteristic of that system.\n\nIt ceased to be a kinder-\n\nand became a classroom arrangement. It imprisoned the children\nindoors and became a matter of chairs and tables and order and discipline\nand quiet and co-ordination. However, the young child is repeating, in\n\ngarten\n\nhis life instincts, his games, his experiments with the world about him, the\n\nexperience of early race history.\n\nHe wants to play on the floor, not to sit\n\norderly, for any length of time, on a chair; he wants to play in a sand heap,\n\nnot on a sand table; he wants to be dirty, not neat; he wants to play\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": "408", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4o8\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nwith water, and wade, and throw, and climb, and drop things, and playhide-and-seek, and use a stick, and do all sorts of primitive things.\n\nThe\n\nchild who easily conforms to the routine of an orderly kindergarten is either\n\nabnormal or subdued.\nAgain, the young child is not naturally a social being. He is individualistic, just as his remote ancestors were who saw in every other\nindividual a competitor. True, this independence must be converted into\na realization of the social conscience. But this is a growth which cannot be\nforced, or else it will be an artificial thing, and the child so constricted will\nharbor an everlasting resentment against a social order which curtails his\nfreedom. No wonder that we have so little community spirit among our\ngrown-up population. The time comes naturally when the child, seeking\ncompanionship for the projection of his own personality into other lives\nand enlarging his own personality by making others a part of his own\nemotional and mental being, will socialize himself. Then the rights and\nprivileges of community life, as well as the duties and functions involved\n\nin it, will enter into his consciousness.\nIt is here where the so-called Montessori methods have hit the kinder-\n\ngarten hard.\n\nThese methods and suggestions are by no means original,\n\nhaving been used for a long time in a progressive reconstruction of school\n\nThey have characterized our work for the\nhad been formulated long before we\nIt is, however, interesting to note how the American\n\nand kindergarten systems.\n\nexceptional child in particular and\n\nheard of Montessori.\n\npublic, as soon as a foreign voice\n\nwas raised in iconoclastic enthusiasm,\n\ninamediately clamored for the recognition of principles which it had so long\n\nconsidered with distrust.\n\nNow, all of a sudden, teachers discover that it\nmuch greater individual\n\nis really possible to have a group of children under\n\nfreedom than had been thought feasible.\nthe teacher is first of all an observer.\n\nIn the light of these principles\nShe studies the situation and acts\n\naccordingly; she does not approach the child with a preconceived idea of\n\nShe realizes that obedience is a sacrifice of self on the part of the\nbe made more readily when the child not\nknows for that is impossible at that stage but feds the necessity for it,\nthru the confidence his educational leader and his comrades inspire in him.\nsystem.\n\nchild, a\n\nsacrifice that will\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThis is certainly the manner in which a normally vigorous child in the home\nis\n\neducated.\n\nForce and punishment, fear, and even an artificially stimu-\n\nlated desire to please will never develop a child's best, innermost faculties.\n\nHe may become a conformer, a pattern, a hypocrite, a coward, a prig, an\n\"average\" child, but never a character.\n\nThe Montessori movement suggests another thought.\n\nIt represents\n\nan effort at educational reform largely adapted to the children of Italy.\n\nSome of the singular omissions observable in the system, some of its surprising features, yea, even the very extremes to which it goes in the matter\nof freedom, must have their cause and origin in the conditions under which\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": "409", "text": "Department]\n\nit\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN AND INDIVIDUAL CHILDREN\n\nwas developed.\n\n409\n\nIt is not, strictly speaking, an international system, at\n\nif it may be so considered in some of its general\nThese conditions are racial and historical. For this very\nreason it cannot be merely copied in America; just as little could the Binet\nscale of intelligence, \"made in France,\" be applied to American children\nwithout many modifications, some of them being adjusted even to the\n\nleast not in its details,\n\nprinciples.\n\nchildren of a certain locality.\n\nIt is not possible to enter here into a dis-\n\ncussion of these conditions; suffice it to say that here is a field of fruitful\n\nstudy and discovery.\n\nBut what we may learn from these facts is this:\n\nIn applying any educational system or method we must consider racial\n\nThere is a difference in racial atmosphere and attitude, life\neven in cultural development. What\nappeals to one race will not appeal to another. In our country, with its\nmixture of raw material cast upon our shores from different countries, it is\nabsurd to think that kindergarten practice can be the same in the Italian\ndifferences.\n\nhabits and emotional response,\n\nsections as in the ghettos, in the Polish districts as in those inhabited by\nfamilies of\n\nAnd where, in any individual\n\nGerman or American lineage.\n\nkindergarten, there is a conglomeration of racial types, the work will have\nto be carefully differentiated to\n\nmeet the needs of native instincts and\n\nideals.\n\nFurther, even within the racial groups, there are different culture\n\nTo quote from a previous paper of mine:\nWe have the condition of geographical isolation, as is the case with our \"contemporary\n\nlevels.\n\nancestors\" in the mountainous backyards of Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, and the\n\nCarolinas\nThese fragments and relics of bygone times have been left untouched\nby the progress of civilization above and about them. They represent to this day mediaeval and even primitive life conditions and instincts. The great modern improvement in\nthe means of travel and the new migration of peoples have begun to mix these various\nlayers of human material together to some extent, and to distribute them all over the\nworld, without essentially changing them at once into modem elements of culture.\n\nTo all these elements the kindergarten holds out its hands and says:\n\"Let us live with your children!\"\n\nMust, then, its work not be adapted to\n\ntheir special needs ?\n\nIt is almost superfluous to add that further adjustments of the daily\n\nroutine must be made to suit the needs of individual t3^es of mind.\n\nDo\n\nnot say that the young child does not present such a variety of problems.\n\nQuite the contrary: It is essential to make distinctions at the early age so\nas to start the child right on his career.\ndifferences,\n\nI admit that the finer individual\n\nsuch as represent an accumulation of family traits, imitations\n\nof environmental conditions,\n\nand\n\nspecial\n\nendowments and preferences,\n\nmanifest themselves fully only at the period of adolescence.\n\nYet, even in\n\nthe baby, difference of type is clearly recognizable.\n\nThere is, first, the difference in physical and mental growth rate.\nall\n\nNot\n\nchildren of three or four can wear garments of the regulation size or\n\nreact\n\nupon stimuli in a uniform manner.\n\nTheir sense perceptions and\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": "410", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4IO\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nshow wide differences; their motor co-ordination, their\nand constructive ability will vary within wide\nlimits.\nTheir endurance, their concentration, their ability to learn from\nerrors will show a multitude of differences. They will progress with a very\ngreat diversity of speed. Some will still need the large gifts and to work\nin their occupations on a large scale when others will have proceeded to be\nable to cope with rather minute adjustments. Some will still be satisfied\nwith the symbol when others will want realities. There are similar differences in the older ages. Age is a very relative thing. The condition of a\nchild at any given chronological age is determined by a number of growth\nreactions will\n\nbalance, their imitative\n\nfactors, physiological, psychological, mental.\n\nFurther, there are distinct differences in mental attitude and aptitude.\n\nSome children are born individualists, born leaders; others are naturally\nconformists and want to be led. There is the child who is afraid of nothing;\nand the other who shrinks from publicity and competition. There is the\none who is always original and inventive and who hates to merely imitate;\nothers have no spark of originality and depend absolutely\n\nand patterns.\nothers ?\n\nupon models\n\nShould you not consider these differences, among many\n\nYou will surely not say that it is one of the first duties of the\n\nkindergarten to curb the forward child, to check the impulse of leadership,\nto mold the heretic thought and non-conformist method into the form of\n\nconventionality.\n\nThe history of the race is so full of bloody struggles\n\nagainst orthodoxy of all kinds that we should guard against the stifling of\n\nNot oppression, but wise guidance,\nsouls in the beginning of their growth.\non the basis of a real understanding and appreciation of underlying motives\nand conditions, is what is needed. It is only too often the bright child, the\nchild of initiative, that is made the victim of the leveling efforts of the\n\nschool and kindergarten, so that his career is hazarded from the first.\n\nSo\n\nfew of us have the faculty, or the patience, to enter into the intentions of\nlittle\n\nchildren.\n\nTheir actions are often gravely misunderstood, their\n\nmotives unappreciated, their minds and morals undervalued, their emotions misrepresented.\n\nA gulf will then open between the teacher, or parent,\n\nand this budding soul, a gulf difficult of bridging; and the young heart will\nshut itself in, and the young mind will be warped.\n\nTo illustrate, I will refer to a very common practice.\n\nThe kindergarten\n\nteacher will draw houses, tables, cats, and other things on the blackboard\nor show these forms in the way of stick-laying; or develop sequences with\n\nthe building gifts, illustrating steps, bridges, and other structures; or punch\nholes in sewing-cards for the sewing-out of conventional and life forms,\netc.;\n\nand the children are expected to imitate these things in the regula-\n\ntion way.\n\nThis presupposes that they see the things represented in the\n\nsame symbolical form the teacher sees them, which form is intended to\ncontain all the essential features of the objects thus delineated. But a\nstudy of the spontaneous drawings and structures of children shows that\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": "411", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN AND INDIVIDUAL CHILDREN\n\n411\n\nChildren do not see things in the regulation way. To\nthis is a mistake.\nthem, features quite different from what the teacher thinks should be\n\nshown in the reproduction seem essential.\n\nThe blackboard forms of houses, cats, etc., are nothing but pictographs, picture-writing, hieroglyphics, as it were, symbols of the real things,\n\nand the child uses them as such.\nis\n\nIn the ordinary practice, whenever he\n\nasked to draw, or lay with sticks, or build with blocks, or what not, a\n\ncertain object first so presented, he will always reproduce the original\n\nsymbol without any freedom of deviation, or any attempt to express what\nmind. Thus, a conventional method is introduced which\n\nis really in his\n\ncounteracts the natural instinct of the child to represent things in his own\n\nway.\n\nThe ordinary exercises perpetuate this conventionalization.\n\nIndi-\n\nvidual attitudes and visions are entirely lost sight of, and much opportunity is lost to study and understand what is really in the child's mind or\n\nwhere his aptitude lies.\nImitation is said to be one of the fundamental instincts of the child\nat early stages.\n\nTrue enough;\n\nbut imitation rightly understood.\n\nAs\n\nsaid before, there ar6 children who can do little more than imitate; but they\n\nmust not set the pace for all.\n\nAs soon as the teacher leads the child into\nShe must always first appeal\nto the child's own method and merely assist him in expressing himself. In\n\nstereotyped form she is on the wrong track.\n\nthis connection, I am, as often, reminded of the paradoxical saying of the\nlate Dr. Harris:\n\n\"Of course, the teacher must be an example; but she must\n\ntake care that none follows it.\"\n\nIn other words, while she should be an\n\ninspiration to the child to find the right path, she must never be a pattern\nafter which he molds his own individuality.\nIt may be of interest to quote here from a report of the kindergartner\nof Herbart Hall, our institute for atypical children, the contrasting cases of\n\ntwo boys.\n\nA is older than M and of an entirely different type of mind, altho\n\nboth were very backward when they came and are really beyond kindergarten age, so called.\n\nA showed in his Gift work a preference for small material, dull colors (always chose\nthe brown tablets instead of the red and blue and yellow), and accurate details in construction.\n\nHis natural diffidence called for an encouraging method.\n\nfree play, then combined it with imitation and suggestion.\n\nI used at first the\n\nToward the end of the year\n\nhe had acquired confidence in his own powers, and, in response to any given suggestion,\n\nwould bravely choose his own material to carry out an idea.\nIn many cases the suggestions came from his little school-fellow, M. This child\nhas a powerful imagination and at the same time a marked tendency to utilize the things\nhe can get hold of. Once, while building with the Sixth Gift Garge size), he found that\n\nwas so tall that it could not pass under a four-block high bridge. He then\nbrought two loads of boxes (8) from the cupboard and made a fine bridge. When A saw\n\nhis train\n\nM\n\nwhat\ndid, he took the cover of a cardboard box and improved his house.\nAs a rule, A would spend the full Gift period in making and perfecting one construction, while\nwould build ten different things, in a careless, rapid way. A's perseverance in his work is quite remarkable. One day he tried to build a castle with the\n\nM\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": "412", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n412\n\ntablets of the Seventh Gift.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nAs the task seemed too hard he tried to make a tunnel.\n\nWhen told that the tablets were not intended for that purpose he begged to be allowed to\nAnd altho he spent thirty minutes in trying (the tunnel came down twelve times),\n\ntry.\n\nhe finally succeeded in showing me a smooth, carefully finished tunnel about ten inches\nlong.\n\nExamples might be multiplied.\n\nAnd I wish to have it understood that\n\nI believe in the possibility of all these things in a real kindergarten.\n\nAll\n\nthe Gifts and Occupations, all the Games and Songs, and all the traditions\n\nhave their legitimate place. But the kindergarten is more than all that.\nIt is a principle and around that principle we may assemble a multitude of\nmeans and methods among which we may discriminate for the sake of\nreaching the individual child.\n\nA kindergarten should have the wide scope of a well-regulated home\nin which each child may live his own life\n\nand share the life of his fellows.\nThere should be presiding over it a motherly spirit of large sympathies and\nof fine discriminative power, with large resources as to self-adjustments to\n\nThere must be the atmosphere of freedom and\nThere must be readiness of a true interpretation of all\nmanifestations of the budding infantile minds. There must be open-air\nwork, in a garden, in a yard, with sand piles, flower beds, climbing-ladders,\nswings, and puddles. The room of the kindergarten must be a paradise\nof toys and activities.\nAdd the workbench, and the multitude of really\neducational toys and occupations which are so abundant nowadays, to the\ntraditional gifts of the kindergarten.\nBreak up the monotony and the\nroutine of the orthodox program and introduce the child into a world of\nreal life.\nThere are numberless songs and games that can be safely adopted\ninto the system. Let the children express their own feelings in free rhythm,\nin dance, and song.\nDo not tarry over the songs of the shoemaker, blacksmith, and carpenter, but take the children to the workshops to see the\nmen at work. Take them on excursions to the country instead of merely\nsinging and talking about the farmer and sowing and reaping and thrashing.\nLet them have miniature garden-farms and shops of their own, with real\ntools and spades and wheelbarrows and work that will give their growing\nbodies exercise such as mere calisthenics will never provide. There should\nbe more virility in the kindergarten, not merely girlish notions of butterDo not for a moment forget that\nflies and dandelions and chickadees.\neven very little boys are real boys after all. Then there will soon be a\never-changing situations.\n\nencouragement.\n\nwonderful activity and bustle, and the individual aptitudes will manifest\n\n—use, not\n\nthemselves for you to observe and study and make use of\n\nfor the\n\nindividual child alone, but for the child community which will profit by\nthis sharing.\n\nAnd the sharing will react in a socializing way upon the indi-\n\nBreak up the lockstep in the kindergarten and set the example for\nour elementary and high schools, so that they also may set the child free and\n\nvidual.\n\ngive the different types opportunity to grow unfettered but wisely guided.\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": "413", "text": "Department]\n\nBUREAU OF EDUCATION AND THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n413\n\nAfter all, we can do our best only when we can act in our own way and\n\nbe ourselves.\n\nThen we shall also appreciate other selves and enter into\nA community built up by enfranchised indi-\n\ngenuine altruistic relations.\n\nviduals who care not for convention, nor tradition, nor precedent, nor\nfashion;\n\nwhose judgment is not affected by fear nor false ambition; who\n\nstrive for the best that is in them and feel sure of an appreciation of their\n\nmotives will be the strongest on earth.\n\nWHAT THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION IS\nDOING FOR THE KINDERGARTEN\nMYRA M. WINCHESTER, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL KINDERGARTEN\nASSOCIATION, AND SPECIAL COLLABORATOR, KINDERGARTEN DIVISION,\nBUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C.\nThe Bureau of Education has always had a warm interest in the\nToday that interest has developed\n\nkindergarten as a form of education.\n\ninto a definite effort in behalf of kindergarten progress in the United\nStates.\n\nThe statutory function of the Bureau of Education is to \"collect and\ndiffuse\" educational information, to the end that educational systems in\n\nthe several states and territories may benefit.\n\nA legal prescription of this\n\nsort means little or nothing unless vitalized by a policy.\nIn the case of\nthe Bureau of Education and the kindergarten division within the Bureau\n\nthat policy is one of simple service\n\nand by which it was created.\n\n—the desire to serve the public for which\n\nThe Bureau belongs to the public, and unless\n\nit serves the public it is not fulfilling its function.\n\nIn pursuance of this function and this policy of service, the Bureau\nhas compiled and published much-needed statistics of kindergartens;\n\nit\n\nhas furnished information gathered in this and other investigations to the\n\nthousands of school officials who have sought aid; and it has supplemented\nthe bare information at hand, wherever possible, with that constructive\nsuggestion which is the justification for statistical work of any kind.\n\nThru-\n\nout this task of compilation and distribution, the Bureau has endeavored\n\nsympathy for kindergartners and the kindergarten that makes information welcome and advice eagerly sought.\nWhatever their wont elsewhere, in kindergarten work statistics have a\nhabit of soaring above the commonplace of tabulation and totalization.\nThe life is in them. The inquiry blank ceases to be a mere tool in the\nto maintain that intimate\n\nmechanics of investigation.\n\nFor one\n\nit\n\nsymbolizes the aspiration of a\n\nstruggling kindergartner; for another it is a spur to better things, a stimulus\nto higher standards; or again, in the aggregate, it seems to reveal the\nromance of the race as out of the sifting, sifting, sifting of the dead forms\ncomes the living image of higher and nobler ideals in education.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": "414", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n414\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nNor does the Bureau judge of kindergartens only thru the meager\nThe information thus gained is constantly\nchecked up and supplemented by direct communication with real teachers\nin real schools; by constant conferences with those to whom the problems\nrecord of the questionnaure.\n\nof the kindergarten are everyday practical things that must be solved, not\n\nmerely theorized about; by frequent attendance at educational meetings\nto hear kindergarten questions discussed, not merely by the friends of the\nkindergarten, but by those who have as yet failed to know its power or\nwould seek to replace it with some newer claimant for the task of teaching\nyoung children.\nNo one who does not see the work from day to day can realize the\n\nvaried opportunities that come to spread the tidings of the kindergarten;\nto help in special cases, here, there, and everywhere; to make kindergartens\n\ngrow where none grew before.\n\nOne state's law becomes another's inspira-\n\na simple answer to a simple question starts a chain of kindergarten\ninterest little dreamed of by the inquirer or by the person who phrased the\ntion;\n\nreply; lists of books, handed on from one worker to another, find new soil\n\nand make a new growth of the Froebelian spirit. Frank, unprejudiced\ncomparisons of kindergarten work with Montessori and other methods;\nthe problem of the two-session kindergarten; the reorganization of trainingschool courses\n\n—to furnish accurate information and enlightened opinion\n\non such points as these is to stimulate interest in kindergarten education\nin a hundred new channels and advance the cause accordingly.\nWhat are the methods by which the Bureau gets its information out to\nthose that need it most ? First of all, there is the Bulletin series, originated\nin 1907. Bulletin No. 6 of the 1914 series was devoted solely to kindergartens\n\n—a statement of present conditions,\n\nstatistics,\n\nopinions of school\n\nsuperintendents, and contributions from the meeting of the International\n\nKindergarten Union.\n\nThis is the forerunner of a line of bulletins to be\n\nissued on kindergarten work.\n\nBy means of these bulletins school oflSicials\n\neverywhere will have their attention directed to the problems and possibilities of the kindergarten.\n\nThe annual report of the Commissioner of Education contains a chapter\non kindergarten progress, and copies of this are also reprinted separately\nA number of shorter leaflets will soon be issued;\nfor pamphlet distribution.\nand, in order to reach all kindergarten teachers, a special series of kindergarten letters will be prepared, to be mailed at regular intervals to kindergartners,\n\nschool\n\nsuperintendents,\n\neditors of school journals, and others.\n\nuniversity\n\nprofessors\n\nof\n\neducation,\n\nAn address list of individual kinder-\n\ngartners is being prepared for this purpose.\n\nits\n\nSome of the most valuable work the Bureau does, however, is not thru\nThe highest school officials\n\nprinted material, but by correspondence.\n\nare constantly writing for information not readily available in printed\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": "415", "text": "Department]\n\nform.\n\nKINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY WORK\n\n415\n\nThe kindergarten division receives a large number of such inquiries\n\nfrom most important sources, and the information given in reply frequently\nforms the basis of a new state, county, or city policy in education. This\ninformation is invariably impartial; it is furnished to both sides, without\nfear or favor, in a local discussion;\n\nand it is frequently the deciding point\n\nin a controversy.\n\nThe whole question of the application of the material printed and\nfurnished by the Bureau is a fundamental one.\n\nIf the work of compilation\n\nhas been worth while, the actual publication is only the beginning of a\nlong career of usefulness.\n\nIn the case of a bulletin on kindergartens, for\n\nexample, the ultimate value depends on the use to which it is put; it depends\n\non the recipient.\n\nThe wide-awake kindergartner, school superintendent,\n\ninterested citizen, or whoever he may be, will find that he can institute\nfruitful\n\ncomparisons between his\n\nown community and others similarly\n\nsituated; between his own state and other states; between his own newly\n\nHe can see how his\nown community measures up; he can make plans and start a campaign\naroused ideals and the conditions he finds around him.\n\non a basis of fact and experience; he will be able to utilize the information\nfurnished him by the government in the way it was intended to be used\nas a guide to local educational development.\n\nA word as to the Bureau's plans for kindergarten work during the comA careful study of the two hundred kindergarten training schools\n\ning year.\n\nwill be completed and published.\n\nAnother bulletin will take up the funda-\n\nmental problem of the integration of kindergarten and primary grades.\n\nA briefer bulletin or leaflet will give practical advice on the equipment\nnecessary for starting a kindergarten.\n\nThe series of periodical letters will\n\nkeep individual kindergartners en rapport with current problems and\nexperiments.\n\nyear\n\nTwo other studies will be under way before the close of the\n\n—an analysis of the supervision problem in the kindergarten and a\n\ngeneral survey of\n\nall\n\nforms of education for children below the normal\n\nschool age.\n\nSTANDARDIZING THE WORK IN THE KINDERGARTEN AND\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nGEORGIA ALEXANDER, SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOLS,\nINDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nThe first epoch-making book on standardizing of education, Laggards\nin Our Schools, by Leonard P. Ayres was copyrighted in June 1909.\nis not to be wondered that in five years\n\nIt\n\nwe have not wholly found our way,\n\nand it will doubtless be many a \"five years\" before there is any settled\nagreement as to what is standard education. But we must confess that\nwe have known for a long, long time that children do not get what they\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": "416", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4l6\n\nshould and could get from the common schools.\n\n(Kindergarten\n\nIt is to our shame that\n\nthese efforts to better education by more scientific methods were not made\n\nby teachers engaged in the practical everyday school work. There seem\nto me two reasons for this. First, we consider ourselves as mere teachers\nor instructors and do not realize that we are also citizens with a responsiThe second\nbility which no one else in the country is so capable of bearing.\nreason why teachers have not been leaders in this work is that the daily\nroutine of the schoolroom crowds out, as it should not, the study of the\n\ntheory of teaching.\n\nThe effort to standardize public education is appearing in three forms,\nmutually interdependent: surveying school systems as wholes; standardizing the physical conditions under which children work; and, last, testing\nthe various mental attainments of pupils under existing conditions, with a\n\nview to establishing an average of what is being accomplished in the best\nschools of the country. Let us look briefly at these in turn.\nSince 1910, twelve\n\ncities,\n\naccording to a report\n\nby Superintendent\n\nJames H. Van Sickle, have ordered thru their boards of education a public\nsurvey of the work of their local schools. The public has the right to\ndemand an accounting of the money it is spending as well as an appreciation\nSuch surveys will\nof the value of the training we are giving future citizens.\nthe\npublic and serve\neducate\nwill\nboth\nThey\nbeneficial.\nbe\non the whole\nmen who have\npolicies.\nThe\nprogressive\nofficials\nto\nto stimulate school\nleaders\nof education\nare\namong\nthe\nmade\nalready\nsurveys\nhelped on these\ntheir\nBut\nin\nefforts.\nand\nhonest\nearnest\nhave\nbeen\nThey\nin the country.\nan examination of the personnel of these committees betrays a weakness\nthat invalidates much that they have to say about the instruction in the\nvarious cities. Of the twenty-four men listed by Superintendent Van\nSickle, eight are city superintendents and fifteen are educational psycholoThe twenty-fourth man I have not been able to trace. The theorists\ngists.\noutnumber the practical men two to one. Again, of the eight city superintendents, how many have ever taught a primary class, or could ? It is the\nexceptional superintendent who did not arrive at his position by way of the\nprincipalship of a high school. Most superintendents make no claim to be\nexperts in kindergarten or primary instruction, and yet 60 per cent of all the\npupils in school are in these grades.\n\nIf practical school men know so little\n\nabout this department of public education,\n\nwhat about the educational\n\npsychologists ?\nIt happened in one week this spring that I saw two first-grade classes\n\nworking under as nearly similar conditions as might be found. Children\nThey were, without\nin both classes came from homes of cultured people.\nchildren\nin both classes\nSeveral\nexception, healthy and well developed.\n\nhad attended kindergarten. Their school work had been a joy. Both\nteachers were experienced and skilled in management. Class A read at\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": "417", "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY WORK\n\n417\n\nsight a lesson from the last pages of a second reader and made an impromptu\n\ndramatization of it.\n\nThey had read one other second reader.\n\nClass\n\nB\n\ndid not yet know all of the sounds of the letters and had finished two primers\nonly.\n\nClass A could write interesting original stories two pages in length,\n\nin fair penmanship and other mechanics.\n\nClass B could not make all the\n\nClass A could subtract without pencil 47 from 91 and have\n\nletters in script.\n\nClass B had had no number work except\nsome work in indefinite measuring. In short, Class A had more than\ndoubled the work of Class B in three subjects, during the eight months of\nschool.\nI visited Class B in company with a professor of psychology, one of\nthe ablest and most sincere men in the country, who had with him a class\nDuring the later discus\"of university students about to go out as teachers.\nsion of the lesson that we had observed there was no mention of the progress\nwhich the children had made since September, and the teacher received only\nthe warmest praise for her work. This professor takes classes year after\nyear to observe the work, of this same teacher, and as he has no data as\nto rate of progress because he sees no other teacher at work he is not aware\nof her serious defect.\nNot knowing that the children are comparatively\n\nthe correct result in thirty seconds.\n\nbehind, he cannot of course seek the cause.\n\nThe eye of the trained super-\n\nvisor would immediately detect what is familiarly known as \"show work.\"\n\nYet so important is this subject of progress that the National Education\nAssociation three years ago appointed a Committee on Economy of Time\nin Education.\nThis committee reported in February last that at least two\nyears can be saved in the time now given to elementary instruction.\n\nThe\n\ngreat trouble in all our work, trite as the remark may seem, is that theory\n\nand practice go separate roads.\n\nIf I have carried you with me,\n\nmay we not\n\nconclude then, in regard to these surveys, that, before any adequate\n\njudgment can be passed upon the instruction the schools of the country\nare offering, the board of examiners must include not only city superintendents who know about administration and educational psychologists\nwho know about aims, but also experts who know what elementary instruction ought to be ? And the last will be chosen from the women teachers\n\nwho are handling the practical problem.\nIn regard to the movement to improve the physical conditions of\nchildren, there\n\nis\n\nlittle\n\nbut praise to be said for the medical profession\n\nat whose instance medical inspection has been installed.\n\nOur greatest\n\nneed here is due to the lack of legislation to enforce the proper care of\nchildren after the trouble\n\nis\n\ndiagnosed.\n\nUntil the school nurse has a\n\nvote, she will not be popular with a health board under political domination as\n\nmost\n\nof our boards\n\nare.\n\nYou and\n\nI\n\nknow enough half-blind\n\nchildren to make a great City of Darkness, purely because their parents,\nafter being told that the children\n\nbuy them.\n\nneed spectacles, are too indifferent to\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": "418", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4l8\n\nI must not close this part of\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nmy paper without a word as to what we, as\nsome ways the\nOur rooms are too\n\nteachers, are not doing for the health of the children, in\n\ngreatest indictment that can be brought against us.\n\nis vicious.\nTheory and practice not together again!\nBecause of this we are losing 50 per cent of the mental efficiency of the\n\nhot and the air\n\nThe only complaint one really hears against the children who\nhave come from the kindergarten is that the first-grade teachers have\ntrouble in getting a child who is used to moving about in a schoolroom to\n\nchildren.\n\ncompose his little limbs in rigidity by the hour.\n\nWith the help of the\n\nkindergarten and the reduction in the size of classes, and the open-air\n\nand the books on hygiene, and ourselves, perhaps we may make\nsome advance.\nAs to standardizing classroom instruction, the theorists have had the\ncourage to make the start. Whatever criticism follows is therefore not to\nbe construed as an attempt to minimize the value of the pioneer. The\nschool\n\nfailures are due to the fact that the pure theorist in education, working as he\n\ndoes in isolation, works only with mind as intellect\n\n—a thing that never\n\nEven tho he calls to his aid persons engaged in actual schoolroom\npractice, yet his judgment remains faulty, for no one can wholly make his\nown the experience of another. The same is true in the medical world; the\npure laboratory man never directly affects practice. The great saviors,\nsuch as Koch and Pasteur, as heads of great hospitals where thousands of\ncases were handled yearly, kept theory in practice and thus made it of true\nexists.\n\nservice.\n\nPerhaps from the better known tests I can give you some examples\nof this total ignoring of the child's mind as emotion and will.\n\nOne of the requirements in the Binet test is to ask the subject to tell\nwhat he would do should he miss a train. There is but one way to give\nthat test and have the entire mental response, and that is to have the subject\nAnother requirement is to ask the subject to say as many\nwords as possible in three minutes. A boy in one of our defective schools\nCollege professors and others trained to logical\nsaid over two hundred.\nthinking have broken down at one hundred. Words to them are dynamic,\nwhich, when properly grouped, propel ideas. The mind, therefore, develops\na hotbox when reciting disconnected words and stops entirely. The test\nmiss a train.\n\nthus puts the premiimi on the illogical.\n\nThe tests in penmanship by Ayers and Thorndike are interesting and\nmake a scale by which copybook penmanship may be rated. But alas,\na child's penmanship in his copybook is far better than his penmanship on\nother occasions. So any scale that measures penmanship in which there is\n\nno emotional stress or purpose is of little help to us. What we need is someone to supply our pupil an incentive so stirring that we may get in the school\nIn other words, there is\nhis real penmanship to measure and improve.\nlittle use in testing results that are as artificial as school penmanship is.\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": "419", "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY WORK\n\n419\n\nThe same criticism may be applied to the tests given in Buckingham's\nmonograph on spelling.\nI find on examining the compositions offered by Hillegas that he does\nnot appreciate this necessity for life any more than the other men mentioned.\nIn my opinion not one of the ten samples given in his scale of measurement\n(and only six of these were really written by young people) has any actual\ninvention in it.\n\nThe literary merit of the sentence construction, together\n\nwith the mechanics of writing, form the basis of the grading.\nI must not close without saying that the Courtis tests in arithmetic are\nserving a very useful purpose in measuring what is being accomplished in\n\nthat subject under present conditions.\n\nBut that is not setting a standard.\n\nWhat we wish to know is, given ideal conditions. What might a class attain\nin the light of our present knowledge ?\nIf state and federal governments build model farmhouses, why are they\n\nnot creating model schools ?\n\nThe need for these is infinitely greater.\n\nIn\n\nmy opinion, it is because we have not yet demonstrated what public education\nshould be.\n\nThe theory of which we hear so much at teachers' gatherings is\n\na thing not yet in practice in any one school nor indeed in any dozen schools.\nI grant that the wisdom of Minerva would be dragged in the dust had she\nto teach school in conditions under which many teachers work.\n\nneed, therefore, is for the practical demonstration.\n\nquickly recognize what we are doing.\n\nThe crying\nThen the public will\n\nMontessori, within three years, is\n\nable to get her very defective system taken over by the Swiss government\n\nmerely because she showed some practical results.\n\nMr. Wirt's plan for vo-\n\ncational work in connection with the industries of the city of Gary has\n\nattracted attention that is nation wide.\n\nBenjamin Franklin says that \"sensible people will give a bucket of\nwater to a dry pump that they may afterward get from it all that they\n\nhave occasion for.\" I have this proposal to make:\nThe permanent fund of the National Education Association, according\nto the last report of the Treasurer, amounts to $186,602 50.\n.\n\nI propose that\n\nwe show faith in ourselves in the hope of establishing a larger public faith\nby using this money to establish twelve demonstration schools in the various\nwhich should seek to show in practice the best\nThese schools should be known as the Demonstration Schools of the National Education Association and should work under a\nlarge committee whose chairman should be the United States Commissioner\nof Education.\nThe members of the committee should represent all classes\nof educational workers, and half of them should be experienced women\nteachers. The plan would ideally include kindergarten, elementary, and\nhigh schools. Each kind of community, both manufacturing and agricultural, should have its special curriculum.\nFor this last Dr. Claxton\nhas already outlined the model farm school in his report for 1913. Of course\n$186,000 will not finance the project. It is but the bucket of water that\nsections of the country\n\nthought in education.\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": "420", "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nwe give to the dry pump.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThere is not a community under the stars and\n\nstripes that would not rise to the opportunity to give ail the money needed to\n\nhave such a school for its very own. Let me close with a quotation from\nProfessor John Dewey taken from the Educational Situution: \"The American people believe in education above all else, and, when the educators have\ncome to some agreement as to what education is, the community will not be\nslow in placing at their disposal the equipment and resources necessary\nto make their ideal a reality.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": "421", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—M. E. Pearson, superintendent of schools\nKansas City, Kana.\nVice-President —\nRiver\nWis.\nW. Crabtree, president, State Normal School\n—\nSecretary ^Frances Jenkins, supervisor of elementary grades, public schools\nDecatur,\nPresident\n\nFalls,\n\nJ.\n\n111.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\n' The Department of Elementary Education met in the Central Presbyterian Church,\nand was called to order at 9:00 a.m.\nThe following program was presented:\nTopic: \"The Individual Child and His Individual Needs: The School Life of the\n\nChild\":\n\n— W. Searson, professor the English language,\n\"\n-Protection by the School\" —Elizabeth Hall, assistant superintendent of\nschools, Minneapolis, Minn.\nService thru the School\"—Neil C. Macdonald, state inspector\n\"Preparation\na) \"Self-Expression in the School\"\n\nof\n\n^J.\n\nKansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans.\nb)\n\nSelf\n\nfor\nc)\nof consolidated, graded, and rural schools, VaUey City, N.Dak.\n\nSECOND SESSION—tThursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914\nThe department was called to order at 9 00 a.m. in the Central Presbyterian Church\n:\n\nand the following program presented:\nTopic: \"The Individual Child and His Individual Needs: The Home Life of the\nChild\":\na) \"Self-Expression\n\nin\n\nSociety\"\n\n—\n\n^Julia\n\nCompany, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nF. Walker,\n\nmanager. Educator-Journal\n\n—\n\n^Margaret E. Schallenberger,\nb) \" Self-Protection thru Knowledge and Habit\"\ncommissioner of elementary schools, Department of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Cal.\nEdward J. Ward, Chief, Bureau of Civic and\nc) \"Constructive Civic Agencies\"\nSocial-Center Development, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\n—\n\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following names:\n\n—\n\nFor President Margaret E. Schallenberger, commissioner of elementary schools,\nDepartment of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Cal.\nFor Vice-President Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state superintendent of public\n\n—\n\ninstruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\nFor Secretary Mary E. Foster, superintendent of Cass\n\n—\n\nCounty\n\nSchools, Platts-\n\nmouth, Nebr.\n\nThe following resolution was passed:\nWhereas, In the early history of the public schools as places for the instruction of\nchildren, there was trial of unpaid and voluntary service in teaching, but very quickly\nit came to be seen that for this use of these buildings to become general, systematic, and\ncontinuous, there must be definite authorization and remuneration of the work of teaching\n\nand\n\nWhereas, The recent rapid developments of the use of schoolhouses by adults and\nolder youths for civic, social, and recreational activities have demonstrated the parallel\nfact that for these uses to become general, systematic, and continuous, there must be\ndefinite authorization and remuneration of the school principal or other person who serves\nas civic secretary and director of recreation in each district, be it\nResolved, That arrangements be made for the definite authorization and remuneration of the school principal or other responsible appointee of the school board for service\n421\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": "422", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n42 2\n\n(Elementary\n\nas civic secretary and director of all noncompulsory uses of the public-school properties\nwhich may be approved by the community.\nFrances Jenkins, Secretary\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July id, 1914\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in joint session with the Departments of Special and Kindergarten Education, and was called to order in the Auditorium\nat 9:00 A.M.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Standardizing the Work in the Kindergarten and Elementary Schools\" Georgia\n\n—\n\nAlexander, supervising principal of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. (For this paper, see\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education.)\n\"A Practical Experiment with Backward Children\" ^John W. Carr, superintendent\n(For this paper, see Department of Special Education.)\nof schools, Bayonne, N.J.\n\"Reading and Arithmetic as Tests of Mental Ability\" Clara Schmitt, ChildStudy Department, public schools, Chicago, HI. (For this paper, see Department of\nSpecial Education.)\n\"The Montessori Message ^True Education the Basis of a New Civilization\"\nLouise Dixon Boyle, New York, N.Y. In the absence of the writer, this paper was read\nby the secretary of the department.\nW. E. Taylor, Secretary\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE INDIVIDUAL CHILD AND HIS INDIVIDUAL\nNEEDS: THE SCHOOL LIFE OF THE CHILD\n\nTOPIC:\n\nA.\nJ.\n\nSELF-EXPRESSION IN THE SCHOOL\n\nW. SEARSON, PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, KANSAS STATE\nAGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KANS.\nExpression, in its largest meaning, is the only final evidence of life and\n\nThe self-expression of the child is the child's\nown life in process of fulfilment. If, therefore, we would deal with the child\nas sensibly as the scientist deals with the grasshopper, we must know the\nIt is not enough that we know the story of his\nlife history of the child.\nthe only means of growth.\n\nphysical development or the processes of unfoldment of his psychic life.\n\nWe must know the character of the environment he is to enter; we must\nhave an intelligent conception of the great world of men and women in\nwhich, under guidance, he must be prepared to do his part.\nIn this man's-world, two words have been of paramount social significance \"conservation\" and \"efliciency.\" In the life of the child as in\nthat of society, there is a word fraught with far larger meaning than that of\neither conservation or efficiency a word which is an exponent raising every\nindividual to a higher power the word \" adjustment.\" The seers in education and life have come to see that, if the school is to do its share, all self-\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nexpression of the child in school\n\nmust finally culminate in the rational\n\nadjustment of the adult to the conditions to be met in all his social relationships. Potentially, the school is government, church, family, and workshop.\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": "423", "text": "SELF-EXPRESSION IN THE SCHOOL\n\nDepartment]\n\n423\n\nThe larger business of the school is to take the child as he is and to develop\nhim by directing his powers of self-expression until he is fitted to adjust\nhimself readily and properly to all the changing conditions of life.\n\nWhen the child enters school, he is a veritable bundle of spontaneous\nFull of life and joy, he revels in imagined freedom. He is an\n\nreactions.\n\nautocrat in the world of his imagination until stubbed toes and bee-stings,\nor parental guidance and restraint, teach him there is a world of law in which\n\nhe can work, in which he can play, and in which he may win praise or blame.\nWith these elemental work instincts and play instincts and with the desire\nto win approval, he comes serious-minded to the school.\n\nOnce he enters the school, compulsory attendance laws and truancy\n\nA prescribed course of study, dealing with matter\nA teacher tells\n\nlaws force him to attend.\n\nlargely foreign to his dreams and reactions, awaits him.\n\nhim where to sit, what to do, and how to do it, and plans and patterns all\nhis conduct.\n\nHe is entertained, lectured to, questioned, inspired, and, in\n\nthe moment of his greatest enthusiasms, he is examined by tests which\nleast of all reveal his\n\npower to react.\n\nHe is made conscious of failure,\n\nbecomes discouraged, negligent, and finally drops out of school to do less\narduous child labor on the farm or in the mill or factory. Miss Jean M.\nJordan, state factory inspector for Louisiana, at the annual meeting of the\nNational Child Labor Conference, said: \"The most potent reason, in my\nopinion, why the children are in the factory is our school system.*'\n\nA study of genetic psychology has given the educational world a foredream of true adjustment.\nthe man in miniature.\n\n''The child is father of the man\"; he is truly\n\nIn the world of the grown child, no compulsory\n\nattendance laws will force him to join the threshing gang or attend the\nbarbecue.\n\nHe is free to choose his own occupation.\n\nConditions compel\n\nhim to get on with his employer. He receives pay for his services or\nbears the brunt of his own negligence. After work hours he seeks whatever\nrecreation he desires. At every stage of work and recreation he is challenged\nnaturally to act on his own initiative. He must adjust himself rightly and\nquickly to each new situation, else another person will take his chance.\nNo reward or punishment could hold him so steadily to his task as does the\n*\n\nconsciousness that, if he fail, a hundred other men stand ready to carry\non the work. At every turn, the world of industry offers perpetual motivation and challenges in a normal worker the highest possible development\nof initiative.\n\nSimilarly, the school world should offer the child every incen-\n\ntive to develop those forms of self-expression which will enable him to react\n\nproperly in active life.\n\nIt is estimated that more than 80 per cent of the\n\nstrictly vocational training of the\n\ncountry is offered in private schools,\n\nand that practically all those who drop out of the elementary schools\neither enter homes or the industries or pursue their education further in\nsome type of vocational school. Business colleges, trade schools, private\nnormal schools, apprentice schools, private boarding-schools, academies,\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": "424", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n424\n\n[Elementary\n\nschools of dramatics and oratory, private manual-training schools, military\nschools, and a thousand and one special schools for boys and for girls have\nall\n\nbeen the beneficiaries of a delinquent public-school system.\n\nSuch\n\nresults could not obtain were the public schools encouraging the type of\n\nself-expression which makes for the proper adjustment of the individual to\nhis work and to all other social responsibilities.\n\nHow, then, can our public schools encourage that self-expression of the\nchild\n\nwhich makes for true social adjustment in the man?\n\nIn general,\n\nthe school must be organized and conducted on the fundamental principle\nthat the child is self-acting, and that he himself, by his own reactions, must\nbecome moral and religious, an upright citizen, an honest, capable worker,\na true servant of his country and of his kind. False school standards must\ngive way to true life standards. Artificial school methods must be replaced\nby the methods of nature and life.\nTo this end, the dominant interest and industries of a community must\nhave a leading place in the course of study. All our present-day studies,\nwhen first admitted into the course of study, were purely vocational.\nRhetoric and dramatics were admitted to develop orators and actors; music\nand dancing, to train the chorus and entertainers; Latin, to train priests\nand scholars; geometry, to train navigators; and penmanship, to train\nscribes and amanuenses.\nThe entire history of education is dominated\nby the vocational idea. The proper introduction into our public schools\nof agriculture, homemaking, business training, and trade information and\npractice will diminish the tendency of boys to run away from \"doing\"\nsimple \"sums\" in order to plow corn, join the threshing gang, or drive a\n\ndray wagon.\n\nNecessary corollaries of the enriched course of study are:\n\ntrue vocational guidance, which leads the child to an intelligent choice\nrecreational guidance, not merely supervised play; and\ncommon-sense sanitation applied concretely in community life. A study\nof the sources of milk supply and of the consequences of using impure milk,\na study of the disastrous results springing from infected water supplies,\nand a study of the means of preventing contagion will cause the child to\nrespond with interest and enthusiasm, for these things are worthy the consideration of the strongest men.\n\"Swat the fly\" is a majestic recognition\nof his life work;\n\nof the principle of self-expression as applied to sanitation.\n\nMoreover, our school standards must be squared with life standards.\n\nWhen a child fails to solve a problem in arithmetic and is given half-credit\nfor trying, he knows he has become an object of charity, and all incentive\n\nfor proper self-expression in that field is removed.\n\nIf he is assigned twenty\n\nwords in spelling, he knows he deserves nothing if he does not spell all the\nwords correctly. He is working on contract and not by the piece. He\nknows that no messenger boy receives half the pay if he carries the message\nonly half-way to its destination.\n\nOn the other hand, the child does not\n\nwant to be measured by the impossible.\n\nGrading his writing on the\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": "425", "text": "Department]\n\nSELF-EXPRESSION IN THE SCHOOL\n\n425\n\nstandard of a stereotyped copy and hinting that his conduct should square\nwith that of the hero of the story of the hatchet and the cherry tree are\nequally unjust and depressing.\n\nNeither can he be inspired to do his best\n\nwriting by having his paragraphs measured according to the standards of\n\nAddison, the Bible, or even a Hillegas scale.\n\nThe world asks: \"Can he\n\ndo the work?\" or, \"Does he get the results intended?\"\nasks either more or less,\n\nit\n\nWhen the school\n\ndrives him— still red-blooded and unafraid\n\nto face life tests; for in meeting the tests of\n\nlife his highest powers of self-\n\nexpression are called into action.\n\nAgain, the methods of nature and school methods are widely different.\nNature permits the child to see, to investigate, and to discover things for\nhimself.\nShe makes of him a problem discoverer. School compels him to\nbe a problem solver. The problem discoverer is self-acting, self -developing,\nand supremely happy; the mere problem solver is a slave without hope.\nSpecifically, the teacher should play the accompaniment and not sing\nthe solo. The child must be wisely guided to practice self-expression. A\nteacher in the fifth grade once placed the following code on the board the\nmorning of the first day of school:\n\nRules\n1.\n\nScraping shoes on floor\n\nStay in\n\n2.\n\nWhispering\n\nStay in 15 minutes\n\n5 minutes\n\n3.\n\nTalking out loud\n\nStay in 10 minutes\n\n4.\n\nDropping books\n\n5.\n\nKicking or cufl&ng\n\nStay in 5 minutes\nStay in 20 minutes\n\n6.\n\nMarking desk\n\nStay in 20 minutes\n\n7.\n\nTurning in seat\n\nStay in 10 minutes\n\nFor many days she wondered why her pupils violated every rule before\nthe first intermission.\n\nNot only school discipline proper, but every subject well taught, offers\nThe\n\nthe pupil limitless opportunity to grow by means of self-expression.\n\nchild's growth is permanent and rapid if haply he discover the relationship\n\nbetween history, arithmetic, geography, language, and the world life he\n\nmust live.\n\nOf all the subjects in the curriculum, language alone offers the\nIn the home, on the playground,\nin the recitation, or at study, language is an ever-present necessity.\nLanguage is mind embodied, just as is a painting, a piece of statuary, a skyscraper, or an aeroplane.\nTo write well and to speak well are, therefore,\nsupreme credentials.\nIf the language work of the elementary school were carried on in such\na manner as to encourage spontaneous self-expression, the average child\nwould be, not a mere clam, but an even more responsive being than he was\nuniversal means of perfect adjustment.\n\nhis first school day.\n\nIn the formal work of the elementary grades, there are three fundamental steps in the development of the pupil's language, each of which, to\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": "426", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n426\n\n[Elementary\n\nbe effective, must be supplemented by the child's self-expression.\nthe teacher must tell to the child good stories.\n\nFirst,\n\nThese stories must be the\n\nbest in the folk-tales, fables, myths, and legends of the race.\n\nHowever\n\nexquisitely they are told, the stories lose their effectiveness in awakening\ninitiative and in developing the power of expression, unless they are repro-\n\nduced by the child.\n\nStory-telling and story-reproduction are the founda-\n\ntion of all subsequent language and reading development.\n\nIn a primary\n\nroom recently a gifted story-teller was asked: \"Why don't you have the\nchildren tell you the stories ?\" She replied: \"They can't tell stories well.\n\nThey have all they can do to listen.\"\n\nLater teachers who despair of ever\n\nteaching these poor creatures formal reading, oral language, and penmanship will wonder how little living things ever came to be sewed up so tightly.\nSelf-expression\n\nis\n\nthe law of growth and this law must be permitted to\n\noperate from the first.\n\nFollowing story-telling and story-reproduction are memorizing and\nIf he\n\nhave the child who memorizes a selection\nmemorizes the selection accurately and speaks\n\nit well, he has laid within\n\nhim the foundation upon which oral and written\n\ndeclamation.\n\nIt is usual to\n\nspeak his \"piece.\"\n\ncomposition is naturally constructed.\n\nThe child who can reproduce good\n\nstories, or who can recite selections from memory, will naturally desire to\n\nwrite from fact or from imagination.\n\nThe third step is dramatization.\n\nIn dramatization, the child does not,\nHe merely\n\nas many suppose, really live the character he impersonates.\ngets the truth impressed from another angle\n\nby means of vital motor\n\nThe mere fact of acting a part does not imply self-expression.\nSelf-expression comes only when the truth discovered sinks into the soul\n\nexperience.\n\nand becomes embodied in life and practice.\n\nThere is no other foundation\n\nfor the development, either of composition as creative art or of the appre-\n\nciation of good literature, comparable to that laid in the dramatization\nwhich finds its self-expression in embodied truth. Here, too, is the foundation of reading with appreciation, of interpretative reading and literature,\nand of the cultivation of good taste and fine discrimination. In all language\ntraining, it is clear that not what the teacher does, but what the child does\n\nin response to suggestion, is the final measure of adjustment.\n\nNeither enriched courses of study nor improved methods can avail,\nunless the child is kept self-acting, daily exercising his powers of discrimination, and habitually making right choices.\n\nture, the best-planned\n\nin\n\nThe richest course in agricul-\n\nwork in homemaking, and even the finest courses\n\nmanual training are powerless to educate the child, save as the child\n\nresponds to such instruction under the spell of genuine enthusiasm awakened\n\nby the conviction that these exercises contribute toward the fulfilment of\nhis highest dreams.\n\nMany a child has turned out, in the shops, a perfect\nMany\n\npiece of work, which was merely the self-expression of the teacher.\n\na child has been apparently perfect in conduct, when his conduct was the\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": "427", "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION FOR SERVICE THRU SCHOOL\n\nself-expression, not of himself, but of the teacher.\n\n427\n\nHow the child naturally\n\nreacts is seldom determined by how he is made to react at home or at school,\n\nbut how he habitually reacts, thru right suggestion, in all his daily relationships.\n\nAdjustment in all social relationships is the keynote of true education.\nRational self-expression encouraged in the humblest school tasks and lived\nin the whole daily life of the child is the only effective means by which the\n\nschools can get the answer to society's problem in terms of the child's life\nraised to a higher power.\n\nB.\n\nNEIL\n\nC.\n\nPREPARATION FOR SERVICE THRU THE SCHOOL\nMACDONALD, STATE INSPECTOR OF CONSOLIDATED, GRADED, AND\nRURAL SCHOOLS, VALLEY CITY, N.DAK.\n\nIt is, first, the primary duty and high privilege of the American common\nschool, that is, the elementary school as represented by the first eight grades,\n\nto prepare the youth for service as honorable\n\nand upright citizens, and,\n\nsecondly, it is the secondary duty of this school to prepare the youth for\nservice wherein they shall earn a good living in an honest way and spend\nit in a wise manner.\n\nIn this connection let it be definitely understood that\n\nit is the duty of this\n\ncommon school to teach the youth that all useful labor\n\nis\n\nhonorable and that all unnecessary idleness is dishonorable.\n\nLet it be\n\nfirmly impressed upon the mind of the youth that enforced idleness is a\n\nmisfortune, that voluntary idleness is a crime, and that useful toil is a\n\nBut let us not forget it is not the chief duty\nto\nprovide\na system of vocational education. Skilled\nschool\nconamon\nof this\nwill\nhave, but not at the expense of a boy's\nhave\nand\nwe\nwe\nmust\nworkmen\nacquire\nin\nyouth while in this school good ideas\nopportunity\nto\ngirl's\nor a\nregarding\nfree\ngovernment\nand its responsibilities. These\nideals\nhigh\nand\nthru\nthe\nhigh\nschools,\nwill\ncome\ntrade\nand continuation schools,\nworkmen\nexperience\nin\nthe\nfield\nactual\nof\nindustry,\nbut whatever else\ncolleges, and\nwe do we cannot afford to turn this common school into a mere apprentice\nshop for any occupation or profession. To do so can only mean national\ndecay and dishonor.\nOf course, this common school, as has been said, can furnish high ideals\nand create wholesome interests in useful toil, and it can also provide for an\nintroductory system of vocational adjustment wherein some of the wholesome vocational interests of the pupils may be directed into proper channels.\nBut no system of vocational education in its entirety that may seem to\nserve some of the countries of Europe having monarchical systems of\ngovernment can ever promote the welfare of the individual or community\nin democratic America, and any attempt to superimpose here such a system\nshould be repelled with abhorrence as to tally^un- American.\nsacred right and a high duty.\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": "428", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n428\n\n[Elementary\n\nAnd again let it be made plain that the first and chief purpose of this\ncommon school is to prepare for righteous citizenship wherein the youth\nshall be so trained that they shall appreciate highly and participate intel-\n\ncommon governmental activities. This has been\nfrom the foundation of the government the principal function and chief end\n\nligently in the various\n\nof this common school.\nIn reading over that excellent bulletin by the\nbureau of education, entitled Expressions on Education^ in which forty-five\n\nleading American statesmen and publicists are quoted, it will be found that\n\nthe consensus of opinion therein expressed is that the system of education\nin\n\na republic\n\nis\n\nthe primary purpose of training for citizenship.\n\nfor\n\nWoodrow Wilson is quoted as follows:\nWithout popular education, moreover, no government which rests upon popular\nThe people must be schooled in the knowledge and, if possible,\nin the virtues upon which the maintenance and success of free institutions depend.\naction can long endure.\n\nThe majority of the school children of the country never receive any\nThus\n\nscholastic training beyond that furnished by this common school.\nit is\n\nvitally important that lofty ideals of civic righteousness be installed\n\nin the young minds of these future citizens in those days when the most\nlasting and deepest impressions can be made.\n\nIn training for citizenship\n\nin the common school, it is primarily a matter of teaching the appreciation\n\nof ideals, their creation, and their necessity.\n\nor long advance where there\n\nis\n\nno vision.\n\nNo nation can long endure\nPermit me to quote these\n\nbeautiful lines written by the soldier-statesman, Carl Schurz:\nIdeals are like stars;\n\nyou will not succeed in touching them with your hands, but,\n\nlike the seafaring man on the desert of waters, you choose them as your guides, and, fol-\n\nlowing them, you reach your destiny.\n\nThe principal ideals to be taught should be those concerned with\nequality, fraternity, liberty, union, preparation,\n\nand service or industry.\n\nIn equality the ideal is equality of opportunity and equality before the\nlaw. In fraternity the ideal is of the brotherhood of man, looking for-\n\nward to the time when righteous peace shall prevail between labor and\ncapital and among the nations of the earth. In liberty the ideal is liberty\nIn union the ideal is not only a united\nof speech and freedom of press.\nnation, but a union of labor and capital working together, not for the\ngreatest good to the greatest number, but for the greatest good for all the\n\npeople.\n\nIn preparation the ideal is one coming to his daily work with\n\nthe best training possible.\n\nIn industry or service the ideal is useful work\n\nfor all and all at work.\n\nHow prepare for this service ? From what has been said it has been\ngleaned, I hope, that this common school is not only the storehouse but\nit is the power\n\nhouse wherein are created ideals of civic conduct that shall\n\ncarry forward the Republic to a new plane of civilization.\nis.\n\nThe question\n\nHow shall it be done ? The answer is. As it is being done in a hundred\n\nthousand schools thruout the Union.\n\nThe chief agencies in the creation of\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": "429", "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION FOR SERVICE THRU SCHOOL\n\n429\n\nthese ideals are well-trained teachers, modern courses of study, and adequate\n\ncompulsory school attendance laws.\n\nThe chief factor in the success of this common school, and any school\nThis calls for a teacher who is\n\nfor that matter, is a well-trained teacher.\n\nat least a normal-school graduate, possessing good health and high ideals\nof conduct.\n\nTo be sure, the majority of teachers in the common rural\n\"God\n\nschools are not even high-school graduates, and well may we pray:\n\nBut even in this field there is a change for the better,\nand colleges are awakening to the great\nopportunity to supply this field. The consolidated school is the institution in the rural field that is doing the most to encourage the preparation of\nsave the Republic.\"\n\nfor normal schools, high schools,\n\nthese better-trained teachers to prepare the youth for a life of larger service\nin the civic-social field.\n\nLet us again be reminded, however, that the well-\n\ntrained teacher is the one who holds the key to the situation.\n\nThe course of study has been enriched in many quarters by the addition\nof music and drawing, domestic science and art, manual training, and ele-\n\nmentary agriculture.\n\nThis is well, and particularly so when the emphasis\n\nis laid upon music and agriculture, both of which contain\n\nso much of valu-\n\nable material out of which to fashion noble ideals of civic conduct.\n\nimportant feature of the enriched course of study\norganized play.\n\nis\n\nAnother\n\nthe provision for\n\nThis is first to preserve health and, secondly, to teach the\n\nlessons of loyalty and co-operation.\n\nThere should be in every school some\n\nprovision to satisfy the play activities in youth, and, in passing, it may be\nsaid that there is no group so much in need of the benefits of organized\n\nplay as the country children.\n\nBut it must be remembered that the civic ideals to which I have referred\nmust come largely from a careful study of\ncivics and history, reading and literature 'provided these subjects are well\ntaught by well-qualified teachers. Around these subjects must be built\nin the preceding paragraphs\n\n—\n\nthat edifice, the temple of righteous citizenship, not made with hands but\neternal in the minds and lives of boys and girls.\n\nIf this is not done in the\n\ncommon school, for very many it will never be done.\nIn order to preserve to the youth his sacred right to hours of wholesome\nplay and years of valuable study, adequate compulsory attendance laws\nshould be rigidly enforced to make sure that every boy and every girl shall\nreceive a common-school diploma before attaining the sixteenth year.\n\nThese laws should be so formulated and so administered that the sweatshops\nof the farm and the sweatshops of the city will be forever eliminated from\n\nIn some states the sweatshops of the farm\nharm than the sweatshops of the city. There never\n\nthe child life of the Republic.\nare doing greater\n\nhave been and there never will be any high ideals of civic virtue and integrity\nunder such adverse conditions wherein less than 20 per cent of the country\nboys complete this common school.\n\nThe preparation for service herein\n\nrequired is an ideal to be realized wherein there shall be no child labor\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": "430", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n430\n\nrElementary\n\nthruout the length and breadth of the land for any child until at least\nthis common school is completed or the sixteenth year is attained.\n\nLet us remember that this is an age of machinery; that we live in an\nThis being true, it behooves us, as guardians\nof the youth committed to our care, to see to it as never before that we do\nall within our power to prepare these children for a life of genuine service\nage intensely materialistic.\n\nin the field of civic rights and duties.\n\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE INDIVIDUAL CHILD AND HIS INDIVIDUAL\nNEEDS: THE HOME LIFE OF THE CHILD\nA,\n\nSELF-EXPRESSION IN SOCIETY\n\nJULIA FRIED WALKER, MANAGER, THE EDUCATOR-JOURNAL COMPANY,\nINDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nWhen Kate Douglas Wiggin's book. Children's Rights, appeared, many\npersons were shocked.\n\nParents of the puritanical type could not believe\n\nthat such a book should have a place in the library of good parents and good\n\nThey asserted that the children had their rights, American chilThen came individualism, and now it is self-expression.\nThis term is equally misunderstood. Some parents who wish to be right\nup to date, who see in the term a loophole thru which they may escape the\ntedious and exacting duties of parenthood, who are ignorant, and who take\nthe term to mean that children are to be turned loose without self-restraint,\n\nteachers.\n\ndren had anyway.\n\nare advocating, to its disadvantage, the idea of self-expression.\n\nThose who really know and who advocate the idea of self-expression\nin society are not the ones who ignore all the laws of men and angels, but\n\nthey are the ones in whom have been awakened a feeling of interdependence\n\nwhich invigorates the disposition to deviate from the type only in those\ncases where the rights of others are not affected, or where deviation is not\nsimply the result of a desire to draw attention to one's self.\nDr. Harris said:\nFirst, that of resistance to the influences\nSelf-expression can take two directions.\ndemands of a social whole. This development makes for disobedience at school,\nmakes a criminal in society, and converts a career into a zero by attracting against it the\n\nor\n\norganized forces of the community.\nSecondly, the development of self-expression may take the normal direction of mastering the motives and purposes of the social whole and growing into a leader of some one\nof its manifold interests.\n\nSelf-expression anywhere depends upon two things:\n\nfirst, clear\n\nthinking done in sincerity of purpose; second, opportunity under natural conditions for\nfree expression.\n\nClear thinking comes from attaining skill of hand and from attaining\n\nthru letters a knowledge of science and philosophy, which are social aggregates of observation and reflection; a knowledge of history, which shows\n\nthe nature and behavior of social organization, especially of the state and\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": "431", "text": "SELF-EXPRESSION IN SOCIETY\n\nDepartment]\n\n431\n\nchurch and civil society; and an acquaintance with literature, which reveals\nthe depth of emotion and feeling and shows how feelings become conscious\n\nthoughts and actions, literature in this respect being the study which gives\n\na knowledge of human nature.\nBefore the school gets the child, there has been laid the groundwork for\nthinking.\n\nhome.\n\nWhether it is straight clear thinking or not depends upon the\n\nTo develop this much-desired asset, the child in the home must\n\nhave an opportunity for self-expression under guidance; to some extent\nthis is conscious guidance, but largely it is by imitative effort.\nIn the beginning of this discussion, it was stated that self-expression\nallows a deviation from the type in those cases where the rights of others\nare not affected, and it was just shown that this first effort at self-expression\nshould be made under guidance. Therefore, when obedience becomes not\nsecond nature but primary nature to the individual, then we are sure that\nthe rights of others will not be affected. A child can come into obedience\nonly under intelligent guidance.\n\nYou know that if the child came to school with the right training in\nobedience much of the so-called discipline and formality would disappear.\n\nOften we hear such expressions as this:\n\n\"She is so gracious, so unselfish,\"\nand we call her a person of charming personality. This personality is\nlargely the result of the desire to not interfere unpleasantly with the rights\nof others.\n\nToo many times the pupil has to be shown that the teacher means what\nshe says, because at home sometimes he has to obey, and sometimes when\n\n—in\n\nhe has not obeyed he has been made much of\n\nfact,\n\nhe has furnished\n\namusement to his parents by his disobedience. When he advances a step\nsocially, therefore, he does not know just what is expected of him.\nThe\nchild must be taught to obey, not because someone wishes to be in authority,\nbut in order that the rights of others may not be unpleasantly affected.\nTherefore, one of the hardest tasks, and one that has the greatest influence\n\non the normal form of self-expression, is that of obedience.\n\nWe need not\n\nargue further the necessity of it; rather let us find some way by which we\n\ncan impress the parent with the value to the child of obedience and teach\nthe parent how to guide the child into obedience.\n\nIn the home society, the child is to be taught to reverence the great\nworld in which the will of others prevails; the world in which the child can\n\nmake a place for himself, but must also learn that every place occupied by\nhimself has its limit.\nIt is necessary, for example, that small children accustom themselves\nto good behavior at the table, and if, every time an act of naughtiness is\nis immediately taken away, he will soon learn that\nwhosoever is disagreeable to others must remain alone.\n\nrepeated, the child\n\nWe do not mean by obedience that a child should be ordered about in\na disagreeable way, but we are begging that he be trained in a consistent\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": "432", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n432\n\n[Elementary\n\nway, so that he may, all thru his social life, understand his independence\n\nand freedom, and that these come largely thru his conduct which in no\n\nway interferes with the rights of others.\nAnother valuable asset which must be gained under conscious guidance\nis\n\nthe habit of steady work and the love for it.\n\nThis is primarily the\n\nproduct of home training.\n\nThere is nothing that delights the teacher more than to see a child\ncome into the schoolroom and begin to work at something in a businesslike way.\nSome will say that the delight comes because the teacher is\nrelieved of the burden of setting the task, relieved of the responsibility\nof watching the child to see that\nis\n\nhe behaves.\n\nNot at all.\n\nThe reason\n\nthat she takes pleasure in seeing a characteristic in the child that she\n\nknows is going to place him many paces ahead of his fellows. When\nyou have been at the business for twenty years, taking the children out\nof the home and starting them on their way, it is so easy to know\nwhether the child has had any guidance at home. Parents should know\nthat when such training falls to the lot of the teacher it comes a little late\nfor their child.\n\nWhen the child has a direct share in the work of the adult, in the real\nlabors of the family or the community, then he will come to school with the\n\nhabit of work, and because of this there will be given to his life unity,\ncharacter, and strength.\n\nEvery child, if he is to express himself normally\n\nin society, must be assigned to real home occupations, tasks must be done\n\nconsciously, given work arranged for week days and holidays without oversight; in every case where the child can he must help himself.\n\nA mother told me that when her children were little they were always\nunder foot, always in the way about the work, trying to help, but now that\nthey have gotten to the place where they know something and have strength\n\nenough to help they do not want to do anything. Her complaint is all\ntoo common, and she with other parents must be taught that the desire\non the part of young children to help with the work is very important.\nFroebel recognized the universal desire of childhood to be of help in the\nwork going on around it, a rare tendency for co-operation with its fellows,\nand he repeatedly warned parents and teachers against discouraging,\nrebuffing, or checking the very important instinct.\n\nCreativeness alone is\n\na great power, but co-operative creativeness is a much higher ideal.\n\nThe school has realized that the home has neglected to give its children\npower of knowing how to work and of loving to work. As\nevidence of this recognition, we need only to turn to the effort that is being\nthis great\n\nput forth to teach the manual and domestic arts in schools.\n\nIn teaching\n\nthese arts, the school frequently does so at the expense of the child's normal\nself-expression, because, when the spectacular enters in, then the deviation\n\noften is a desire to draw attention to one's self, and that is negative selfexpression.\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": "433", "text": "SELF-EXPRESSION IN SOCIETY\n\nDepartment]\n\n433\n\nTwo years ago, the Indiana legislature passed what is called the vocational law, and since that time we have been struggling to find out just what\nthis means and have been making an honest effort to teach agriculture and\n\nthe manual and domestic arts.\n\nEven with the greatest care upon the part\n\nof those who administer this law, much spectacular work has been given.\n\nIn many schools the children have gained skill, they have gotten certain\nvaluable habits, the things which they have made have been unusual, yet\nthere is a question whether development in this work has been such as to\n\nMany schools have exhibited\nThese gates have been displayed upon every\noccasion, pictures have been taken and published, boys have stood by,\nrealizing that a red farm gate makes a good show in an exhibit.\nBut when\nyou follow these boys upon their fathers' farms, the gates drag and are\nunpainted. Now when we have solved the problem and have given the\nright training along with this work, these boys will not be content to exhibit\na red gate until a beautiful one swings in every place where it is needed upon\neach one's father's farm. And so with the girl who bakes bread at school\nand when company comes, but refuses to do so when there is no chance for\nmake for the right sort of self-expression.\nfine big red\n\nfarm gates.\n\nattracting attention to herself by so doing.\n\nObedience and work\n\n—two words that are unpopular, words which have\n\na harsh, unfriendly sound, words which the young resent and which many\nof you think are directly in opposition to freedom, yet these are the two\n\nelements which the home lets escape to the school; but they must be built\ninto a young child's\n\nlife if\n\nhe is to express himself in society normally.\n\nThru work, literary, artistic, or constructive, we are always able to see the\nindividual; the most personal inner life of the worker is shown in his work.\nThe habit of obedience and work is given to the child under guidance, but\nhis self-expression will be a result largely of the imitative effort which he\n\nputs forth.\nI asked a mother who has had a wonderful experience in study, in travel,\n\nand as a teacher to give me her idea of self-expression.\nover her head and said:\n\nShe put her hand\n\nThere is no such thing as self-expression. My two boys imitate everything which they\nsee their father do or hear him say.\nWe have let go of all the books and most of our\ntheories and are trying to be good examples before our children, because of the law of\nimitation.\n\nThe law of imitation is not so well understood in many homes;\nfore, if we believe, as Dr. Harris tells us, that self-expression\n\ndirections, and, further,\n\nif\n\nthere-\n\nmay take two\n\nthe child is to receive much of his guidance\n\nthru an imitative effort, it is somebody's business to have the home under-\n\nstand the law of imitation equally as well as does the school.\n\nWe are plainly admonished on every hand to shape environment so as\nto contribute best toward ideal results.\n\nBecause children are such imitators\n\nof one another, they are unconsciously securing some sort of education.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": "434", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n434\n\n(Elementary\n\ngreat educational question is how to select wisely copy that is worthy of\nimitation.\n\nCare must be exercised to exclude undesirable companions,\nAn old proverb\n\nthose with either physical, mental, or normal defects.\nsays: \"If you live with a lame man you learn to halt.\"\n\nParents should be\n\nalmost as deeply concerned about educating their neighbors' children\nproperly as they are about their own, for in the widest sense an individual\n\ncannot be educated properly without suitable environment. It is at once\nevident that a force so potent in shaping thought and action, whether we\nwill or not, should be considered in regulation of thought and conduct.\n\nThru imitation the child is to absorb many of the most valuable lessons\nAll the elements that go to make up what we term \"bearing,\"\n\nof life.\n\n\"personality,\" \"self-expression\" are largely products of imitation.\n\nTo\n\nsome extent one's character is determined imitatively by the company one\nkeeps. It is frequently true that ideals of life and conduct are imitative\nAttitudes toward\nreflections more than particular intellectual acquisitions.\nlife and its various problems are taken thru inoculation when the reasons\nthereof are not at all apparent.\n\nWhat the child imitates, he is trying to\n\nunderstand, and a very large portion of the knowledge that a child has when\n\nhe enters school he has gained thru imitation, and much of his first work\nwhich he does in school is imitation. How can we bring the parents to\nunderstand that their money, their position, their power amount to very\nlittle in\n\nthe education of their child compared to their conduct, their atti-\n\ntude, and their expression ?\n\nEvery act of theirs has its influence upon their\n\nchild as well as upon themselves.\n\nI have tried to show in this paper that the basis on which rests normal\nself-expression,\n\nmeaning by that the power to master the motives and\n\npurposes of the social whole so that one may grow into a leader of some of\nits manifold interests, comes thru the conscious guidance of the parents and\nthe imitative effort of the child.\n\nThe home, which Pestalozzi regarded as the most valuable adjunct to\nthe education of the children, and which is the society in which the child\nexpresses himself first, must take up again all of the valuable old things\n\nwhich it has let slip out to the school. It must take up a thousand new\nthings before the child will be able to express himself in society normally.\nThe co-operation of the home with the school is necessary, each with a keen\nappreciation of the other, the home taking into account the necessity of\ngiving the child certain training before he is able to do much for himself,\nbelieving in the necessity of an appreciation of the great law of obedience,\n\ntaking advantage of the wonderful instinct of co-operative helpfulness with\nwhich the child has been endowed, and having an understanding of its\nWhen this comes to\nresponsibility because of the great law of imitation.\npass, homes will be maintained where souls as well as bodies may be nourished, from which will come children endowed with the power of normal\nself-expression in society.\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": "435", "text": "Department]\n\nB.\n\nSELF-PROTECTION THRU KNOWLEDGE AND HABIT\n\n435\n\nSELF-PROTECTION THRU KNOWLEDGE AND HABIT\n\nMARGARET E. SCHALLENBERGER, COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS,\nDEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CAL.\nEvery child born into the world has marked out for him in his physical\nmake-up the boundaries of his activities. Given the conditions of his\nHe is\nexistence, no power on earth could have stretched the boundaries.\nfinished.\nThe\nmistakes\nand\nfaults\nis.\nis\nsuccesses,\nthe\nand\nwhat he\nIt\nof\nand\nstrength\nof\ncenturies\nancestors\nhave\nfound\nvirtues, the weakness\nexpression in him.\n\nAnd yet, notwithstanding this finality, which outlines\nHe is what he is thru\n\nthe area of his activities, he is largely a potentiality.\n\nheredity; but he becomes what he will be thru environment.\n\nPossibilities,\n\nlatent, undeveloped, are present waiting for means of expression, needing\n\ndirection.\n\nDifferences in adult methods of direction of children during the\n\nperiod of childhood result in differences for them of their own human lives.\n\nBlind leadership means wrong judgments, lost opportunities, wasted efforts,\n\ndead ambitions, unexplored areas. Each of us is what he is, conditioned\nby heredity and environment, but not what he might have been if perfectly\ndirected in childhood.\n\nFrom these facts, it follows logically that one of the most important\nfunctions of environment\n\nis\n\nthe keeping alive of beneficial possibilities.\n\nIn other words, environment should tend thruout the whole period of existence to keep the human race young.\nPhysical and social conditions are tremendously important. The\ntwo chief factors in a child's environment are the home and the school.\nWe all know how, little by little, the great responsibility has been thrown\nupon the school, how its ideals have been changed and its standards raised,\nuntil now, even when the school finds itself well placed in cultured communities, it has always a message to send to the home; for, at the last, the school's\nefficiency is always judged by its ability to project its ideals, its standards,\nits\n\nmethods of thought and action into the home.\n\nIndeed, this very dis-\n\ncussion at this very time and place of what the home ought to do for the\nindividual child\n\nand his individual needs is a concrete illustration of the\nIn outlining, therefore, what self-protection thru\n\ntrend of the movement.\n\nknowledge and habit the home should give to the child, the writer is not\nunmindful of the fact that very few homes are able to give him any of this\nprotection, and that the school must continue to take its part in teaching\n\nthe home its privilege and\n\nits\n\ndoing a better work\n\ncan show the\n\nif\n\nit\n\nThe school will be\nhome how to assume certain\n\nduty in this respect.\n\nresponsibilities than if it attempts to carry the child independently of the\n\nhome. With all its own demonstrated capacity, the school ought never to\nminimize the importance of the good home as its ablest co-worker. In its\nattempt to improve home conditions, it will not be held wholly responsible\nhowever. Its responsibility will be shared with the immigration commission\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": "436", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n436\n\n[Elementary\n\nsocial settlement organizations, boards of health, and numerous other civic,\n\nsanitary, and ethical societies aiming to help people\n\ntoward right living.\nWhile enormous emphasis should be placed upon the education of the young,\nyet not all adults have lost all their youthful possibilities; some are still teachable, and the homes themselves need present and future help in order that the\nlives of children\n\nmay be more speedily and more advantageously affected.\n\nThe healthy body as a living organism is full of beneficial possibilities.\nNo human being can afford to lose any of them. Clearly it is incumbent\nupon the home to give the child as soon as he is able to care for himself\nand that age is younger than was formerly supposed command over his\nown body. He should have knowledge of the different parts of his body and\nconcrete lessons in their care. The preservation of the healthy body merely\n\n—\n\nfor the sake of the enjoyment it brings to the possessor is a sufficient reason,\nif\n\nthere were no other, for giving the children early knowledge concerning\n\nit.\n\nThe first knowledge, therefore, that is essential for the child, if he is to\n\nhold his own in a world artificially conditioned, is a knowledge that will\nenable him to protect himself from the ills that flesh is heir to.\n\nIn the\n\nhome he should have his first lessons about the care of his body, and this\nknowledge the home should continue to give in more and more detail as\nthe child grows from infancy thru youth to manhood.\nIf the schools in the large are the teachers of the home in the subject of\n\nchild hygiene, one feels like asking, \"Should the blind lead the blind ?\" for,\n\nno matter how much time and thought have been put upon it, only here and\nthere are the schools making even a bare beginning. One has only to read\nsome of the more recent books on child hygiene, e.g., Lewis M. Terman's\nbook, The Hygiene of the School Child, to become deeply impressed with this\ntruth.\nIt will be a long time before we can hope to depend very much on the\nhome to do its part, manifestly its part, in the care and culture of the child\nwith relation to his own body. Dr. Terman states and proves that \"popular\nnotions regarding personal hygiene are little better than a seething welter\nof ignorance and superstition, not all of which is confined to those who are\n\nconfessedly uneducated.\"\n\nThe home offers special facilities for this very teaching; it can be made\na better laboratory than the school; and it can begin its treatment and its\nteaching at a much earlier period of life than the school.\n\nWith the school\n\npushing this responsibility upon the home, helping her as she herself gains\nknowledge, and with\n\nall\n\nthe other above-mentioned co-operating forces\n\nacting with her, the home will in time give the child, as soon as he is able\nto understand them, definite, clear-cut, simple laws of hygiene.\n\nSome homes\n\nare doing this now; they will tend to do it more emphatically; the movement\nwill spread; and some day our people will be wiser.\n\nWe might run thru the\n\nwhole gamut of self-protecting health knowledge, outlining a course in child\nhygiene for the home as definite as and far more practical than can easily\nbe'concretely applied in any school course of the same nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": "437", "text": "Department]\n\nSELF-PROTECTION THRU KNOWLEDGE AND HABIT\n\nIt goes without saying that the home\n\nis\n\n437\n\nthe place for self-protective\n\nknowledge to be given boys and girls regarding the difficult, much-discussed\nsubject, sex hygiene.\nAgain the home needs wisdom. Whether or not\nthe schools should give this knowledge and how and when and where is not\nthe topic under discussion. It is true beyond all question, however, that\n\nhomes in general could render, and some day will render, to society invaluable service in giving self-protection thru this knowledge to the youth of the\npeople.\nSelf-protection that will strengthen the moral life must come largely\n\n—using these words\n\nthru the affections or feelings\n\nknowledge is not sufficient.\n\n—mere\n\nin a technical sense\n\nIn fact, mere knowledge is never sufficient.\n\n\"Socratic\" philosophy to the contrary notwithstanding, all knowledge to\n\nbe effective must have expression in motor response, and all the knowledge\nin the world regarding personal hygiene will serve no protective purpose\n\nwhatsoever unless it has frequently and regularly and attentively been\nacted upon.\n\nIf the\n\nmoral life is to be strengthened and the child self-\n\nand\nKnowledge of what is right and what is wrong must continually be taught, and\nfortunate is the child in whose home right living is the rule, where daily\n\nprotected,\n\nthe\n\nchild\n\npossibilities\n\nfor\n\nhate and disgust\n\nand\n\nfear\n\nanger ought to be kept very much alive, but carefully directed.\n\nexamples of generosity, sympathy, truth, justice, honesty, courage, patience,\naccuracy, promptness, cheerfulness, obedience, and loyalty find expression.\n\nOn the other hand, strong feelings of hate must be attached to lying and\nstealing and cheating; of anger to cruelty and cowardice; of disgust to vul-\n\ngarity and filthiness.\n\nThe school will, of course, work along the same lines,\n\nbut the home offers many opportunities never found in the school and they\nare opportunities of a different nature.\n\nMuch of the question of right conduct might be summed up in the\nwords \"right habits.\"\n\nIf,\n\nhowever, \"popular notions concerning child\n\nhygiene are little better than a seething welter of ignorance and superstition,\" what shall we say of popular notions concerning child psychology ?\n\nPopular notions concerning child psychology are, for the most part, a hodgepodge of various philosophic theories that, when put in practice, do not\n\ncome true.\nSome day popular notions will be right and true. Habit is a product\nof environment.\nThe child comes into the world provided with instincts,\nbut his habits are formed during his life. A large number of them that have\nbeen found from experience to be distinctly useful ought to be learned in\nthe home very early and made automatic.\nness,\n\nAmong them are order, neat-\n\npersonal cleanliness, obedience to authority, numerous forms of\n\ncourtesy, promptness, responsibility, carefulness, truthfulness, dispatch,\ntable manners, and best ways of doing things in\n\nand around the home.\n\nThe home having opportunity to understand intimately the individual\nchild and his individual needs is fitted, so far as conditions are concerned,\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": "438", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n438\n\n[Elementary\n\nto be the ideal teacher of a goodly number of useful habits with which\n\nthe child could protect himself all thru child life, nor would he lose them\n\nprobably ever, and here again the home is none too wise.\n\nSome day\n\nmay it not be too long deferred—the average man will know a few\nfundamental facts about the working of his own mind and that of his\nchild.\nIt seems such a logical statement that it must be true.\nWhen the\n\nhome has learned a little about mind, school children will have more and\nbetter habits.\n\nA child entering school with a stock of fairly well-formed,\n\ngood habits is furnished with a protection worth more to him than was the\ncoat of mail to the mediaeval soldier. Secure in his own lines of action, he\nis invulnerable both to direct temptation and to indirect suggestion.\nA\nsmall boy, so carefully trained at home to protect himself from suggestions\nof stronger minds that he had formed a habit of resistance, entered school\none day and inamediately was subjected to temptation. A new situation\npresented itself. Because of his training and this habit, he was equal to\nthe occasion and proudly reported to his mother in the evening these\nfacts: \"That big boy with the black eyes said to me in class today, 'Hi\nthere, mister!' but I gived him a look and he leaved me alone!\"\nEven the\nsimple habit of being able to take care of his own small possessions would\nprotect the child from many a heartache and much loss of his own and other\npeople's time. Homes have little appreciation of the extreme value to the\nchild of this training or of how difficult\n\nit is\n\nto teach the child thus to\n\nprotect himself when he enters the school handicapped by bad habits from\n\na home in which he will have little chance to be helped in breaking them\n\nand forming right ones.\nThere are three rules of habit formation all parents should know:\n(i) The centering of consciousness upon the act being performed;\n(2)\nRepeating the act with attention; (3) Allowing no exception to occur until\nthe performance has become habitual.\nHabit-forming begets habit-forming.\n\nIt is easy to teach the formation\n\nof additional good habits to a child who has already on hand a stock of\n\ngood habits; and a child, as he grows older, can be taught how these acquired\nautomatic reactions are effective, how they save his time and his strength\n\nby protecting him from disturbing attempts to form new judgments upon\nold situations.\n\nIf the habit is formed in early childhood of truth-telling,\n\nwho can estimate the protection it gives by settling hundreds of mental\narguments pro and con in regard to almost identical situations ?\nThe child can be led to be interested in the formation of habits, in their\nactual mechanics, and is greatly impressed when he discovers that the rules\nwork. If he has some knowledge regarding the formation of habits and in\naddition has his ambition deeply roused toward the reaching of some distant goal, he will greatly enjoy the outlining of methods of procedure in\n\nhabit formation that will lead to the desired end.\n\nHabit-forming is as\n\ninteresting to older children as playing a game, and no game is so valuable.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": "439", "text": "CONSTRUCTIVE CIVIC AGENCIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n439\n\nAnd the home can, if it will, give the child the protection of a certain sort\nof self-knowledge, a knowledge that will lead him to think independently.\n\nToo many good men and women are drawn into the whirls of various big\nConfronted by a new situation they seem to have no\nor little movements.\nability to adjust themselves to it and are carried along by the movement\nas if they had no power of resistance. The home, because the child is\npresent from the beginning, has every opportunity to encourage him to\ntest his judgments, but not to follow them always, because they are not\nripe.\n\nA certain responsibility can quite early be suggested regarding the\n\npossession of an opinion, upon what it is based, and whether or not it is\nvaluable.\n\nLittle by little he can be taught to realize that he must think,\n\nthat thinking is a function of the mind, and that\n\nif\n\nhe learns to think\n\nfor himself he is protected from the mastery of other minds.\n\nThe laws of suggestion are of great protection. Mind is very open to\nThe child who knows this understands why he cannot play\n\nsuggestion.\n\nwith his mind.\n\nBoys and girls are interested in these facts because of their\nProtected by this knowledge the books they read\n\npersonal application.\n\nbecome all important, as well as the friends they form, the music they\nFear should not be\nThere are certain dangerous actions that fear should inhibit.\nIt is absolutely certain that if older children had more definite knowledge\nhear, the pictures they see, the jokes they laugh at.\n\neliminated.\n\ngiven them concerning the tendencies of their minds they would be afraid\nto place them under conditions so unfavorable as to detract from their use-\n\nfulness now and forever.\n\nSome day the homes will give this knowledge.\nMeantime it is comforting to reflect that many forces are co-operating\ntoward that end, and that foremost among them is the common school.\n\nC.\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE CIVIC AGENCIES\n\nEDWARD J. WARD, CHIEF, BUREAU OF CIVIC AND SOCIAL-CENTER DEVELOPMENT, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS.\nIn the early history of the public schools as neighborhood houses for\nthe instruction of children, there was trial of unpaid and volunteer service\n\nBut very quickly it came to be seen that, for this use of these\nbecome general, systematic, and continuous, there must be\ndefinite authorization and remuneration of teachers. The parallel fact that\nfor civic, social, and recreational use of these buildings by adults and older\nyouth to become general, systematic, and continuous there must be definite\nauthorization and remuneration of the person who serves as civic secretary\nand director of recreation in each district has been fairly and fully demonstrated by the experience of Wisconsin in its beginning to make full use of\nits equipment of community buildings, as indeed it has been demonstrated\nin other parts of the United States where a similar beginning has been made.\nin teaching.\n\nbuildings to\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": "440", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n440\n\n[ElemenUry\n\nWISCONSIN LAW SATISFACTORY IN ITS DEFINITE PROVISION OF THE COMMUNITY PLACE FOR CIVIC ASSEMBLY\n\nThree years ago the law was passed in Wisconsin by which school boards\nare directed to make provision for the free, gratuitous, and convenient use\nof public-school buildings for periodical meetings of the citizens in each\ndistrict where the deliberative organization of the voting body of the district is affected and where a request is made by such community organiza-\n\ntion for the use of the building.\n\nThis mandatory section of the law is\n\nfollowed by a permissive section in which school boards are authorized to\n\nmake provision without charge for other community uses of public-school\nbuildings and grounds.\n\nThis permissive section of the statute has amounted\n\nto very little in bringing about the full community use of the public-school\nplants. The reason why school boards have not taken advantage of this\nlaw permitting them to make provision for other uses of the school plants\nthan those of citizenship deliberation is the same reason that explains why\n\nthe use of this public property for organized presentation and discussion\n\nThis law makes no provision for\n\nof public questions has been sporadic.\n\nthe appointment and remuneration of a person in each district who shall\n\nbe responsible for the work of organizing and directing the community\n\nand school boards are properly hesitant\nabout having the public property under their charge opened for use without\n\nuses of the public-school plant;\n\nOn account of this cautious attitude on the part of\none Wisconsin school board which refused to provide for the public use of a\n\nresponsible direction.\n\nschool gymnasium upon the request of citizens who desired this provision,\n\nthe legislature at the session of 191 2-13 amended the law to read:\n\nWhere the citizens of any community are organized into a non-partisan, non-sectarian,\nnon-exclusive association for the presentation and discussion of public questions or for the\n\npromotion of public health by giving instruction in any topic relating thereto or in physical\nculture and hygiene or by the practicing of physical exercises and the presentation and\ndiscussion of topics relating thereto, the school board or other body having charge of the\n\nschoolhouses or other public properties which are capable of being used as meeting-places\nfor such organization, when not being used for their prime purpose, shall provide, free of\n\ncharge, light, heat, and janitor service where necessary and shall make such other provisions as may be necessary for the free and convenient use of such building or grounds,\n\nby such organization for weekly, biweekly, or monthly gatherings at such times as the\ncitizens' organization shall request or designate.\n\nAll such gatherings shall be free to the\n\npublic.\n\nThis legislation, in its main feature of directing school boards to make provision for the use of public-school buildings as public forums for the presen-\n\ntation\n\nand discussion of public questions wherever the citizenship of a\n\ndistrict is organized as one all-inclusive deliberative body, has been amply\n\njustified in\n\ntwo important respects.\n\nIt has\n\nbeen largely responsible for\n\ndoing away with the old practice of turning over the public-school buildings\nfor use under private, partisan, and sectarian auspices which, in times past,\n\nled to more or less confusion and misuse of these buildings.\n\nAnd, wherever\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": "441", "text": "CONSTRUCTIVE CIVIC AGENCIES\n\nDepartment!\n\n441\n\nadvantage has been taken of this provision for the use of the community\nbuilding as headquarters of civic deliberation, this use of the building has\n\nproved not only feasible but altogether beneficial.\nPROVISION MERELY OF PLACE FOR CIVIC ASSEMBLY INSUFFICIENT\n\nIn the three years that this law has been in operation in Wisconsin, there\nhas not been a single case of disorder or injury to property in the use of the\npublic schoolhouses as headquarters of civic deliberation where the body\n\nusing the building has been a genuine community organization such as this\n\nlaw contemplates.\n\nBut notwithstanding the unanimous indorsement of\n\nthe movement for citizenship organization for deliberation by national and\nstate leaders of every opinion and affiliation in public affairs, and the earnest\n\nindorsement of the plan by educators everywhere, and notwithstanding\nthe fact that, in their work of promoting social-center development, the\nstate department of public instruction and the university extension division\nhave had the co-operation of individuals and societies thruout the state,\n\nactual social-center development has begun in not more than three hundred\ndistricts in\n\nWisconsin;\n\nand, in the districts where a beginning has been\n\nmade but where no authorization and definite remuneration of district secretarial service has been provided, the development has not only not gone\n\non to include the organization of the young people for training in self-\n\ngovernment and the provision of wholesome recreational opportunities, but\nthe conomunity assembling of adult citizens for deliberation upon public questions has generally begun to languish after a time, and, in many cases, when\n\nthe limit of volunteer willingness (usually of the school principal) to perform\npublic service for nothing has been reached, the community civic assembling\n\nhas been abandoned.\n\nA very different record is shown in those communities where civic\nsecretarial service is made responsible by being definitely remunerated.\n\nREMUNERATION OF\n\nCIVIC SECRETARIAL SERVICE GUARANTEES GENERAL,\nSYSTEMATIC, AND CONTINUOUS SOCIAL-CENTER DEVELOPMENT\n\nIn those Wisconsin communities where provision has been made of\nsecretarial service for the assembling of adult citizens and of direction for\n\nthe use of the schoolhouses and grounds by youth for civic training and for\nrecreation,\n\nand where the responsibility for this work has been definitely\n\nplaced by being remunerated as public service\n\n—\n\nthere, social-center develop-\n\nment has proved continuous and increasingly beneficial.\nIn Milwaukee, for example, where the beginning of systematic socialcenter development\n\nmade three years ago thru the co-operation of the\n\nuniversity extension division was followed by the administrative organization of the work of district secretaries and recreation directors on a basis\nof definite remuneration, and where Harold O. Berg was engaged to super-\n\nvise the work for the city, the development has been steady and continuous\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": "442", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n442\n\n[Elementary\n\nuntil that city now has eight buildings, open an average of five nights each\nweek, with a total attendance of 320,000 for the past season, and during this\n\nsummer will have nineteen out-of-door centers of organized and directed\nrecreation.\n\nVOLUNTEER SERVICE THOROLY TRIED\nThe necessity of responsible and remunerated secretarial service for\nsystematic social-center development that includes adequate provision for\nthe training in self-government and the wholesome recreation of youth is\nabsolute.\n\nThe necessity of definitely remunerated secretarial service for the\n\nuse of the schoolhouse as headquarters of regular and systematic deliberation on the part of citizens is no less real.\n\nAs a result of a plan suggested by the state superintendent, we may tell\njust about how much less than general, systematic, and continuous efficiency\nin organized civic deliberation may be expected so long as no provision is\n\nmade for the recognition and remuneration of the school principal or other\nresponsible person for work as civic secretary.\n\nAt the request of the state\n\nsuperintendent, a letter was sent to more than eight hundred school principals thruout the state, which read in part as follows:\n\nYou may remember that last season a list of questions was sent to each of the Wisconsin school principals asking for definite information upon the wider uses being made\nof the schoolhouses, and asking for the school principal's frank opinion upon the social-\n\ncenter project and suggestions for its realization. The response to that questionnaire\nshows that in the past two years there has been an increase of nearly 100 per cent in the\nuse of Wisconsin school buildings for every phase of social-center development ^pollingplace, civic discussion center, lecture hall, library, and recreation house.\nThe final query in that questionnaire was this: \"What do you suggest as the best\n\n—\n\nmethod of developing the social center ? \"\nFrom the answers you would suppose that most of the school principals were\nYankees, for most of the answers were not answers at all, but were simply handing the\nquestion back and asking the framer to answer it.\nAll right, we will do our best; but our suggestions as to method and program will\nbe useless, even tho they be carefully prepared, except as you recognize that we, and\nindeed the whole state department of education here at Madison and the whole university\nextension division, as they co-operate in this, are seeking simply to aid and assist you in\nthis work for the community.\nInclosed with this letter is a brief outline of this season's suggested program. As\nyou will see, it is made up of four series, the first night in each month being given to a topic\nof local, the second to a topic of state, the third to a topic of national, interest, and the\nfourth night taking on a recreational or social character.\nIf you are willing to try to have this plan, or part of it, realized in your community,\nfill out the inclosed card and return it.\nWe shall then send you suggestions as to how to\nbegin, a suggested constitution, and special suggestions for October, and then shall supply\nyou, before the beginning of each succeeding month, suggestions as to speakers and\nmaterial for making that month's meetings interesting and successful.\nIn addition to this general furnishing of material, we shall, of course, be glad to aid\nyou in every way possible in meeting the peculiar problems of your situation by bringing\nto you the experience of other districts.\nIn your service for the community,\n(Signed)\n\nEdward J. Ward, Adviser\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": "443", "text": "CONSTRUCTIVE CIVIC AGENCIES\n\nDepartment]\n\nONE-rOURTH PROMISE\n\n443\n\n—ONE-SIXTEENTH FULFIL\n\nIn response to this letter, notwithstanding the practically unanimous\napproval of the social-center idea by school men and women, and notwithstanding the fact that the program, which was suggested, included the constitutional amendments on which Wisconsin people are to vote at the coming\nelection, but two hundred cards were returned.\n\nTwo hundred responded\n\nto this call for volunteers to undertake, without remuneration for it, impor-\n\ntant but difficult public service.\n\nThis was about one-fourth of those to\n\nwhom the opportunity was presented. Two hundred said they would underThey meant to do what they promised; and they tried to\nBut only about fifty achieved any real success. That is to say, about\none-sixteenth of the whole number to whom the opportunity to perform\npublic service without remuneration was presented actually rendered the\ntake the work.\n\ndo it.\n\nservice.\n\nWhy? The head of the bureau of social-center development in the\nextension division sought the answer by asking that question, not only by\n\nbut in visits to more than thirty towns. And, while there were\nminor\nother\nexplanations, the answer appeared to lie in practically every\nletter,\n\ncase, largely if not entirely, in the fact that the secretarial service of the\n\nschool principal was not recognized as actually and officially belonging to\nhis function as a public servant.\n\nFor the sake, not only of the money, but primarily for the support of\nthe school principal in efficiently rendering this service upon which effective\n\ncommunity organization depends, it is necessary that this work of civic secretaryship be definitely recognized as public service and remunerated as\nsuch.\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": "444", "text": ""}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": "445", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—Oliver Westcott, principal, Waller High School\nVice-President — M. Allen, principal of high school\nSecretary—\nC. Roberts, principal of high school\nPresident\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nS.\n\nWichita, Kans.\n\nI.\n\nEverett, Wash.\n\n^E.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, July 7, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order in the Auditorium at 9:00 a.m. by President\nOliver S. Westcott.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, the president appointed Charles H. Perrine, assistant\nprincipal, Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, 111., secretary pro tempore.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n\"President's Address ^The Old and the New\" Oliver S. Westcott, principal.\nWaller High School, Chicago, 111.\n\"Bishop Grundtvig and the People's High Schools\" ^Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111.\n\"The Value of History of Art as a Study in Secondary Schools\" Mary S.\n\n—\n\nMac Murphy, Deny, N.H.\nJohn D. Shoop, assistant superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., not being present\nto give his paper on \"The Utility of Parent-Teacher Organizations in Connection with\n\nSecondary Schools,\" it was read by William H. Campbell, principal of D. S. Wentworth\nSchool, Chicago, 111.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order in the Auditorium at 9:00 a.m. with President\nWestcott in the chair.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Progress of Industrial Education in Cleveland, Ohio\" ^R. L. Short, principal.\nWest Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\"Some Things Worth While in Industrial Education in Secondary Schools\" ^E. G.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nAllen, head of the mechanical department, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich.\nDiscussion: M. H. Stuart, principal. Manual Training High School, Indianapolis,\nInd., and Frank H. Ball, director of industrial education, public schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\nThe following ojQ&cers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\n—\n\nFor President George E. Marshall, principal of high school, Davenport, Iowa.\nFor Vice-President ^Emma J. Breck, head of English department, high school,\nOakland, Cal.\nFor Secretary\n\n—\n\n—Claude P. Briggs, principal of high school, Rockford,\n\n111.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July 10, 1914\nThe department met in joint session in the Madison School with the Department\nof Vocational Education and Practical Arts and the Department of Science Instruction\n\nand was called to order at 9 30 a.m.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Adjustment of the High-School Curriculum to Modem Needs\"\nFrancis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n:\n\n445\n\n—^John H,\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": "446", "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n—\n\n\"The Tendencies and General Status of Courses in General Science\" ^William H.\nTimbie, head of department of applied science, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass., and\nFred D. Barber, professor of physical science, State Normal University, Normal, 111.\n(For these papers, see Department of Science Instruction.)\n\"Applied Science Its Relationship to Shop Work and the Rest of the Curriculum\n^Adelbert H. Morrison, head of science departin an Up-to-Date Technical High School\"\nment, Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass. (For this paper, see Department of\n\n—\n\n—\n\nScience Instruction.)\nDiscussion: P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington,\nD.C. (For this discussion, see Department of Science Instruction.)\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July io, 1914\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of School Patrons and\nwas called to order at 2:30 p.m., in the Auditorium.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Responsibility of School Patrons in Regard to the Teaching of Sex Hygiene\"\nWilliam B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\n\"The Responsibility of the Teacher with Regard to the Teaching of Sex Hygiene\"\nRalph E. Blount, instructor in physiology, Waller High School, Chicago, 111.\n\n—\n\n\"Some Experiments in Sex Education\" ^James E. Peabody, head of department of\nbiology, Morris High School, New York, N.Y.\nCharles H. Perrine, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nTHE OLD AND THE NEW\nOLIVER S. WESTCOTT, PRINCIPAL, WALLER HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL.\nIn the presence of an audience representative of the Secondary Depart-\n\nment of the National Education Association one would naturally be inclined\nto preserve a respectful silence, but the custom, not to say the absolute\n\nrequirement, of the organization, that its President shall give an opening\naddress, prevents his following his natural inclination.\n\nWhen unwittingly one has been thrust into a position like the present\none, it must be that the agents in the performance had the idea that the\n\nperson thus projected into conspicuity had a message pining for deliverance.\nIt has therefore been\n\nmy preliminary task to endeavor to ascertain what\n\ncould have been the expectation of these agents.\n\nAs I naturally belong in\n\nthe rank of what are now called reactionaries, being a product as it were\nof a former generation,\n\nit\n\nmay have been anticipated that my message\n\nwould be in line of a going back to the \"good old days\" about which hangs\na halo before the eyes of most persons who have passed the meridian of life.\nIt may have been suspected that I might not be altogether in sympathy with\nthe trend of the greater portion of the present work in the secondary schools.\nSuch a surmise would not be far wide of the truth. The new fields of educational activity which have to do only with the possibility of a human\nbeing's acquiring a competency after a reasonable length of time spent in\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": "447", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n447\n\nhis particular department of the world's work could hardly expect to receive\n\nmy complete allegiance.\nThe establishment and the expansion of the secondary-school system\nas the lineal descendant of the academy of a century or so ago were necessities born of the needs of the children of the Republic.\n\nThe curriculum of\n\nthe academy was largely, almost entirely, composed of material deemed\nnecessary for the induction of its pupils to the college.\n\nWith the growth\n\nof the nation, such a curriculum was found inadequate to meet the demands\n\nof our social, our political, our professional\n\nbeen extended.\n\nlife.\n\nCourses of study have\n\nPublic schools have largely superseded the former academy\n\nuntil the latter has at present but a comparatively feeble existence, tho it\n\nhas in some sections managed to outlive, as some say, its usefulness.\nall shall no doubt soon be ready to bid it an affectionate farewell.\n\nWe\n\nBut we\n\nshould not forget that it was once a power and an exceedingly beneficent\none.\n\nTo it, either directly or indirectly, we owe a debt which can hardly\n\nIts faith in culture as a preliminary to a useful and\nif\nlife,\nto\nhappy\nnot\na financially successful one, deserves the fullest coma\nmendation. The student's ambition was not for a report indicating by\nfigures that he was regarded as excellent or superior.\nThat is a modern\npersonal\nsatisfaction\nin\nthe\nambition. His was a\naccomplishment of a task,\nmany times self-assigned, the result of which was a broadening of the intellect and an increase of mental power, at once recognized, at once cherished.\n\nbe overestimated.\n\nIt will be impossible to discuss, perhaps hardly possible to enumerate\n\nor even discover, all the elements of the category which make up the absolute needs of the present hour.\n\nTwo or three decades ago every new thing\n\nintroduced into the public schools was a fad.\nculture was a fad;\n\nMusic was a fad; physical\n\ncooking was a fad; sewing was a fad; manual training\n\nwas a fad. All these things and many more once -called fads have evidently\ncome to stay. Athletics and household arts will no doubt maintain their\npresent supremacy for a long time to come.\nOur program for the present meeting has been arranged so as not to\nignore any of the more recently developed phases of education. We shall\nhave the modern schools of the other continent discussed and advocated\nby their well-known expositor; we shall give the much-abused subject of\nsex hygiene a prominent position; physiology as regards high-school adoles-\n\ncents will thus have consideration;\ntion will not be overlooked.\n\nand the neglected subject of art instruc-\n\nIn a word, the effort has been made to bring\n\nforward what is being done in various sections of the country, rather than\nto make prominent the theories of anyone who is looking forward to\n\nan\n\nimpossible Utopia as regards the secondary schools of the nation.\nAll these things should we do, but we should not leave undone certain\n\nother things.\n\nWith all the mass of educational material now in operation,\n\nit is perhaps\n\nnot unreasonable to inquire whether we are not in danger of\n\ngiving too slight consideration to things of equal or even greater importance.\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": "448", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n448\n\n[Secondary\n\nWith the influx on every hand of every conceivable topic of interest into\nthe curriculum of the secondary schools can we expect anything but intellectual dissipation?\n\nThe old simple curriculum of Latin, Greek, and\n\nmathematics, while from our present standpoint apparently sadly limited in\nextent, nevertheless did by its various suggestions insure constant research\nin various directions.\n\nThere was thus induced an intellectual broadening\n\nwhich was far wider in scope than what we always get from a modern\ncurriculum with so much material ready to hand. College graduates sometimes assert that they have forgotten all their Greek and Latin and lament\nthat they did not have modern manual training or something of the sort\non which to have spent the time they assume to have wasted on these\nIf they had had such opportunities, many an excellent professional\nstudies.\nman, be he lawyer, clergyman, physician, or teacher, might have become\nbut an indifferent carpenter or machinist or other artisan.\nFor one I am reactionary enough to be sorry that Greek has so nearly\nIt has sometimes been asserted\nlost its foothold in our scheme of education.\nthat a modern language French, German, or Spanish if properly presented, would produce equally satisfactory results. The experiment has\n\n—\n\n—\n\noften been tried, but the experimenter himself has hardly dared to claim\nfor his\n\nwork a pronounced\n\nsuccess.\n\nIn the autobiography of\n\nMcClure, recently published in his well-known magazine, he\n\nS.\n\nS.\n\nmakes the\n\nstatement that he regards the old-fashioned classical course, in which Greek\n\nwas obligatory, as \"the soundest preparation a young man can have and\nthat Greek was the most important of his studies.\" This statement from\nso well-known a successful business man is certainly worth noting.\nFor the student who wishes to know his own English from an etymological standpoint, and its proper and authorized pronunciation, without\nconstant reference to a dictionary, the time spent on Latin is far from being\nwasted. Students in science thus equipped would never be justly amenable\nto the criticism of Sir James W. Barrie, who is reported to have said that\n\" the man of science appears to be the only man in the world who has something to say and he is the only man who does not know how to say it.\"\nIt is strange that modern influences are so strong that advice\n\nis\n\nnot\n\ninfrequent that even a normal-school graduate shall be turned out without\n\nany foreign language and with mathematics limited to elementary algebra.\nAnd he is alleged to be well equipped for teaching English and matheThis is even depriving his future pupils of the influence for general\nculture always engendered by the potency of an ever-present example.\n\nmatics.\n\nAnd what an unspeakable loss to the teacher! Not only is his sphere of\nusefulness immeasurably contracted but his own satisfaction in life is curtailed, especially after\n\nthe close of his teachmg career.\n\nTalleyrand con-\n\ndemned to an idle and useless old age the man who in his youth had failed\nto learn to play whist.\n\nWhen so trifling a thing could point so strong a\n\nmoral, what may not one say of the superannuated teacher who knows no\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": "449", "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\n449\n\nforeign language, no Latin, no mathematics but the most elementary and\n\nyet must continue to live ?\n\nFar better than to limit the scope for the teacher's energies would it\nbe to follow the motto of the old Roman philosopher who said:\n\nhumani me alienum puto.\"\n\n\"Nihil\n\nThus should the modern aspirant for a high\n\nplace in the profession of teaching say emphatically, \"Nothing of the\nworld's knowledge do I deem it wise of me to disregard as unimportant or\nuseless to me as an efficient teacher.\"\n\nWhy indeed should the state take into consideration the question of\neducating the individual ?\n\nDoubtless reasons might be found in that it is\n\ndesirable for each person to be able to earn his own living and so not become\n\na charge to the community.\n\nIn this land of alleged equality it may be\n\nincumbent on the state to see that each individual has a good opportunity\nIt is further desirable that\nof becoming at least the equal of his fellows.\nhe shall become a useful citizen in bringing up his family properly, in being\nable to administer satisfactorily any office to which he may be called, and,\nin general, to be of special service to other members of the community with\nwhom he may be brought in contact. There is, however, another not\naltogether unimportant reason why each person should demand such edu-\n\ncation as a personal right.\n\nHe should be fitted to enjoy his own life to the\n\nfullest extent, and in particular that part of it which remains after he has\n\nretired from active business pursuits.\n\nThe question hence naturally arises whether the modern trend toward\nvocational instruction and vocational guidance does for the coming Ameri-\n\ncan all that the state should be bound to do.\n\nHe may be well equipped\n\nto perform satisfactorily some special line of work, but in what way shall\nIf he has not in school become\nimbued with a spirit of laudable curiosity with regard to things outside of\nhis immediate line of work, the school has not done its duty by him.\nIt is\na great pity that some modern writer has felt justified in saying that the\npresent semi-illiteracy among business men must be tolerated, since the\nbusiness is carried on successfully, notwithstanding evident limitations\neven as to accurate English, and the end thus obtained must justify the\nmeans. It is not fair to our young people to provide for them school\ncourses with absolutely no broadening cultural studies. It is not fair to\nsend out into the world the boy or the girl equipped for only one thing. It\nshould be declared the duty of the state to provide something which would\nlead to a fuller conception of life and its duties. In the words of Dr.\nKlopper, the secretary of the Northern Child Labor Committee, \"We are\nin danger of jumping from the academic extreme to the vocational extreme\nand of forgetting that the real purpose of education is the development and\nthe discipline of the intellectual and the moral faculties.\"\n\nhe occupy his hours of freedom from labor ?\n\nMany times during the half-century last past the right of the secondary\nschools to exist, supported at public expense, was under discussion.\n\nOnly\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": "450", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n450\n\n[Secondary\n\nby the most vigorous efforts on the part of its supporters did the secondary\nschool succeed in maintaining this right. Even at the present time, there\nare to be found those who maintain that schools supported at public expense\n\nshould have their work limited to the three R's, supplemented possibly by\na trifle of United States history.\n\nIt is not altogether strange that there\n\nmany such people.\n\nThe old education, limited almost entirely to\nGreek, Latin, and mathematics, did not commend itself to the shrewd,\nare\n\nhard-headed business man, whose opportunities in youth had been few.\n\nAnd yet it needs not the repetition of names in a long list of American worthies\nto assure us that the so-called one-sided education was far from being a\nfailure.\n\nThe orators of our legislative halls for the last one hundred years\n\nbuilt well upon what now is regarded as a marvelously narrow foundation.\n\nTheir forensic abilities were easily supplemented by methods of acquiring\nfamiliarity with whatever might be needed in handling important matters\nin forum or in court.\n\nWho shall venture to say that the limited curriculum\n\nwas inferior to the broader one of today which possibly induces a scattering\nof energy and breeds a personal weakness hard to overcome ?\nIn the academy of five or six decades ago the distractions were comparatively few. If a student were ambitious and had leisure, it was permitted him as a favor to enter another class in Latin and so shorten his time\nHe was exceedingly fortunate in not\nin completing the usual curriculum.\nbeing enticed away from his intellectual work by any one of the protean\nforms of modern alleged physical culture. School spirit was then promoted\nby scholarship, by an ambitious and commendable scholastic rivalry, not,\nas now, by an absurd howling on a school campus or an equally foolish\nrah! rah! rah! in or around school buildings where peace and quiet should\nprevail.\n\nThe persistent students of those days are the men of the present\n\ngeneration.\n\nIf they are inadequate to the tasks facing them, be they politi-\n\ncal, social,\n\neconomical, or what not, then let the blame attach to the mis-\n\nThe lawyers, the doctors, the clergy, the\nteachers of the present seem to be as well equipped as the fledglings who\nare preparing to take their places. Our legislators seem to be active as yet,\nand I suspect that Woodrow Wilson has not lost his affection for the old\ndirected energies of their youth.\n\nregimen of his studious youth.\n\nA recurrence to the old education at least in part might today be accomplished with the possible disadvantage of the student's being relieved of the\n\nattendant alleged drudgery.\n\nAt my elbow stand two editions of the Iliad.\n\nOne is by Professor Felton and is the one largely in use sixty or more years\nago.\n\nThere are four brief notes on the first ten lines.\n\nProfessor Sterritt.\n\nOn\n\nThe other is by\n\nthe first ten lines there are forty-three notes involv-\n\ning mythology, geography, history, and the peculiarities of Homeric Greek.\n\nIn using the Felton, fortunate was the boy who could acquire a copy of\nCrusius' Homeric lexicon.\n\nNow the Sterritt edition of the Iliad contains\n\nnot only the voluminous notes aforesaid, but a full vocabulary and a digest\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": "451", "text": "Department]\n\nBISHOP GRUNDTVIG AND PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nof the dialect of Homer covering fifty-three octavo pages.\n\n451\n\nSuch a book\n\nthree score years ago would have been looked at askance by the teacher of\n\nthose days as possibly more deleterious to the discipline deemed necessary\nto accurate scholarship than the tabooed Anthon's edition of the Latin\n\nSuch an edition of the Iliad makes the study of Greek absolutely\nBut we can hardly expect to resuscitate Greek in our secondary\nschools.\nMore's the pity! Let us hope that modern ideas will not also\ndrive out the Latin. We need it for culture, if not for inunediate returns\nin money.\nEmerson's remark is often quoted: \"The man whose eyes are\nnailed, not on the nature of his act, but on the wages, whether it be money,\nclassics.\n\nenticing.\n\nor\n\noffice,\n\nor fame,\n\nis\n\nalmost equally low.\"\n\nLet us give the so-called\n\n''almighty dollar\" at most but secondary influence in regulating our edu-\n\nLet us not fail to remember that a time comes when\n\ncational curriculum.\n\nman lays aside his vocation by reason of inefficiency on account of age, and\nthat during the remainder of his life it will be well for him to have resources\nof his\n\nown for comfort and happiness in his declining years.\n\nFootball,\n\nbaseball, even reminiscences of business success will not altogether answer\n\nthe purpose, but a familiarity with the science and the literature of the\nworld, in whatever language written, will give\n\nhim a field in which to\n\nbrowse with the greatest satisfaction for the longest old age that can possibly\nbe vouchsafed to him.\n\nBISHOP GRUNDTVIG AND THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS\nEDWIN G. COOLEY, CHICAGO, ILL.\nAt the middle of the last century, Denmark had reached perhaps the\nPolitically, she had been defeated by\nEngland and Germany; economically, she was near bankruptcy; her commerce had declined; the old Viking culture seemed to have disappeared and\nto have been forgotten by the people themselves; the national language\nhad been displaced by bad German among the educated classes; while the\nspeech of the country folk was dissolving into a group of dialects without\n\nlow-water m^rk of her history.\n\nstandard or stability.\n\nA Danish prime minister even proposed to substi-\n\ntute German as the written language of the country.\n\nAt this critical hour of need arose the great man. Bishop Grimdtvig.\n\nA bishop, a scholar, the representative of the aristocracy and of the intellectual\n\nand the spiritual life, he saw clearly that a great awakening was\n\nnecessary to save the country and its people from stagnation and decay.\n\nHe had made a life work of the old national ballads, and he hoped to replace\nthe humanistic education of his time, which was utterly foreign to the lives\nof the people, by a revival of the old Northern culture as it flourished after\n\nthe exploits of Viking days and to build upon this, as a basis, an active and\ncreative national life.\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": "452", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n452\n\n[Secondary\n\nAs early as 1832, he raised the question of the need of a liberal education\nfor the great mass of the people, as a counterpoise to college education.\n\nAs\n\na scholar, he believed in college education; but he felt that it tended away\n\nfrom the cultivation of the life of the spirit into mere book learning.\n\nHe\n\nrealized that research was essential to keep any education from becoming\nsuperficial polish; but the education that he wished to be given to the\nwhole people he felt must be much more than a mere preparation for college.\n\nIt must be independent, self-contained, a \"real spiritual power,\" he says,\n\n\"thru which the life of the present may establish its absolutely necessary\n\n—rights which the learned so often misunderstand.\" And the very\n\nrights\n\ncenter from which the school\n\nwork should branch out in all directions,\nwhich should assemble and organize all educational activities, must be the\nfatherland itself.\nIt is interesting to see\n\nhow his threefold experience as churchman,\n\nscholar, and educator appears in the theory that he then developed.\n\nHe\n\n\"young manhood and young womanhood is the formative\ntime of the spiritual nature, when great hopes and visions come into being\nand foreshadow the mature life, when the soul reaches out for the cloak\nthat fits it.\" With Rousseau he was anxious to preserve the rights of\nchildhood from the demands of mature life. He emphasized the need of\nphysical development during the years between fourteen and eighteen, the\nhobbledehoy period; and held that school for every boy and girl during\nthese years should mean physical activity tempering the body and the\nsensual nature by actual work and by free exercise in all kinds of sport.\nHe set the eighteenth year as the time when ideals can best be established, when the steps can be built up which young people will go to \" the\nwork of life as if going to a feast.\"\nbelieved that\n\n—\n\nFor this stage of development, then, he proposed specially organized\nschools which should put real poetry into the\n\nlife\n\nof the\n\nyoung people,\n\nshould keep them from straying after false ideals, should control the desires\n\nwhich so easily overflow the banks of reason, and should give them a real\nfoundation for helping themselves and others.\n\nTo this end, his idea was to\n\ntake them out of the industrial world for a short time, keep them largely\n\naway from vocational activity, not to emphasize book learning and lessons by\nrote, but to awaken their power of idealization and to broaden their mental\nand spiritual outlook, at the same time giving them the groundwork necessary for success in all vocations, whether the work should be done with\nink and paper, with plow, needle, hammer, or anvil. The bishop sarcastically deprecated the idea of\n\n\"producing mere professors, public officials,\n\nor candidates for the poorhouse.\"\nto be at once general and practical.\n\nIn other words, this new education was\n\nHe says further:\n\nThe chief aim is to teach young people to understand noble, active, human life with\nOur national culture must rest upon the enlightenment of all classes,\n\nits.wonderful laws.\n\nand if education is organized as if everyone were to be an official or a gentleman of leisure,\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": "453", "text": "Department]\n\nBISHOP GRUNDTVIG AND PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nthe entire people will die of hunger.\n\n453\n\nIt is not a question of what will be serviceable for\n\nthe officials or leisure class but for those who will be neither the one nor the other.\n\nOur\n\naim must be to provide a liberal education which will make the whole people fit for their\nwork and happy in their situation.\n\nThe high schools established on this theory admit only pupils of eighteen\nyears or more, who have usually chosen a vocation and know something\nof it.\n\nThey aim to make each one return to his work with greater interest\n\nin it and with a clearer perception of the social and economic conditions\n\nsurrounding it, with a thoro knowledge of what has been accomplished by\nthe Danish people in the past, and with a desire to take part in their future\nachievements. Further, they aim \" to fill up the gap between the educated\n\nand the uneducated; to bridge the boundless abyss which the hierarchy,\nthe aristocracy, and the Latin schools have built between almost the entire\n\npeople upon the one side and a handful of the so-called educated and\nenlightened upon the other.\"\n\nGrimdtvig, who himself had written more than thirty-eight thousand\npages of printed matter, was emphatic against mere book learning.\n\nHe\n\n\"I love books, for they form a bridge that connects me with\nthe past; I hate books, for they set up a wall between me and the\npresent.\" Therefore he wished these schools, not merely to give needful information, but to train the emotions and the will, not by means\nHe\nof books but by word of mouth as he calls it, \"the living word.\"\nwas at once the preacher and the lover of old ballads which are handed\ndown orally from generation to generation. He knew that the common\npeople, unused to the printed page, learn what they learn by oral transmission, and, during the few months they are in attendance at these high\nsaid:\n\n—\n\nschools, the only strong appeal that\n\nis\n\npossible to them is thru the living\n\nword.\n\nAs this idea is the very foundation of Grundtvig's pedagogy, it will\nIn explaining the effect of the \"living word\"\n\nperhaps bear elaboration.\n\nas passed on from master to pupils, he says:\nI am convinced that it not only expresses this or that fact, but in its earnestness gives\nsomething that may be called inspiration; that in the breast of each human being there\nslumbers a higher hfe power, which, unless we stubbornly close our ears, when it finds\n\nadequate expression in words carries us along with it. This higher kind of speech, these\nwinged words, I have learned to know and admire and to wish for myself, and thru\nthis I\n\nwas carried back to faith in the living power of the invisible, in the spirit and\nindeed, that has a stronger and higher reaUty\n\nspiritual world as something that is real;\n\nthan those things that we see with our eyes.\n\nThe first condition of teaching, then, in these schools, is that there\nshould be a direct, an immediate appeal from the teacher to the pupil;\nthat the teacher's words should be neither technical nor oratorical but\n\nshould have in them \"a deep undercurrent of feeling that penetrates the\nheart and rivets the attention.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": "454", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n454\n\n[Secondary\n\nOn this theory, examinations are unnecessary and have never been\nintroduced.\n\nAlfred Povlsen, the director of one of the largest of these\n\nschools, says:\n\nThey are not established to lead directly to better pay, more profits, or better positions as such.\n\nThere must not be any advantage gained from attending such a school\n\nexcept that which can be neither weighed nor measured, and on which no pecuniary\nestimate can be placed.\n\nNo other profit must be derived from this instruction than the\n\nincrease in inner worth which all good learning gives.\n\nThe instruction given may be divided into:\nand history;\n\nliterature,\n\na few other subjects.\nexception, not the rule.\n\n(i)\n\nDanish language,\n(3) science and\n\n(2) physical culture and singing;\n\nPractical work, vocational training proper,\n\nis\n\nthe\n\nPerhaps 65 per cent of the time is given to the\n\nDanish language, literature, and history, with all the emphasis upon the\nmethod of teaching and the personality of the teacher, rather than upon\n''The aim is not to learn this or that, much or little,\nthe subject-matter.\nbut to prepare for the teaching of life.\" If the schools of any country can\nreally do this, the problem of vocational education will be greatly simplified.\n\nIn the study of the mother-tongue, the aim is to get free and natural\nexpression.\nrhetoric;\n\nThe pupils are not tormented with formal grammar and\n\nbut the masterpieces of Danish literature are used *'to awaken\n\nthe spiritual life and to create ideals\" in a race that, as Grundtvig said,\n\n\"had been brooding in stupid materialism.\"\n\nFrom the time of Grundtvig, song has been much used in teaching the\nThe old bishop said, in a letter written in 1841:\n\nmother-tongue.\n\nAmong the teachers of a high school there ought to be at least one who is master\nof the mother- tongue, not only as it is found in books, but as it lives in the nation;\n\nat\n\nleast one who knows and loves the history of our fatherland and is able to picture it vividly\n\nin words; at least one who knows and loves our national songs in their old form as well\n\nas in the new, and is able to lead the choir himself; at least one who has seen much of\n\nour fatherland and knows the nation, its trades, and resources; and, finally, one learned\nin the law is to be desired, one who can give the youth a true and vivid apprehension of\n\nour fatherland's constitution and laws as they were formerly and as they are now.\n\nHe also claimed:\nDenmark would be ten times happier if the beautiful Danish songs, which were then\nonly on paper and never sung except on state occasions, echoed in all our school halls and\n\nresounded in fields and forests. These songs constitute a connecting link between the\nyouth and the glorified spirit of the people as expressed in their literature. It is only\nthe lack of this necessary link which causes the people to become more lifeless, dull,\nsurly, and without hope, while their literature overflows with life and the fulness of\nglorious recollections of the past and illuminating anticipations of the future.\n\nIn these schools singing is more than a subject or an art; it has become\nan atmosphere, a feeling, an interest that embraces everything else in the\nhigh-school teaching and is inseparable from it.\n\nThe pupils sing one or\n\ntwo songs before each lecture and very often afterward.\n\nWhen I expressed\n\nsurprise at the large amount of time given to singing these national songs.\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": "455", "text": "Department]\n\nBISHOP GRUNDTVIG AND PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS\n\n455\n\nI was told that they brought a unison of spirit that was conducive to good\n\nwork.\n\nThe greatest stress, however, is laid upon history as a character-forming\nstudy. The theory is that the race reveals itself in the words and deeds of\nindividuals; all human wisdom is fundamentally historical, and knowledge\nof the past is the only way of understanding the present and of making\njudicious plans for the future.\n\nAs history is cumulative experience\n\n—an\n\nexperience of which no individual, conditioned as he is by time and place\n\nand circumstance, can compass more than a minute portion, even in the\nlongest life and as young people themselves are totally lacking in all such\n\n—\n\nexperience, it is history that can best supply their deficiency in this respect.\n\nA Danish writer says:\nInstruction in history is vital when it causes life to be felt, consciously or subconsciously, as a stream rising in the remote past and rushing to the sea of eternity.\n\nin this stream;\n\nits waters\n\nWe are\n\nare all about us so that we feel ourselves a part of it and are\n\nborne up by it, in joy and sorrow, even to eternity.\n\nIn this instruction are included the old legends of the people which\nrelate the\n\nmost noteworthy events in the history of the fatherland.\n\nAs\n\nGrundtvig says:\nThe depth of the love of a people for the fatherland can be measured by the living\nstream of their recollections of their fathers and their glory.\n\nIt would be foolish and a\n\nbetrayal of faith to substitute for these treasures a critical investigation of history with\n\nboys who do not know what an investigation means.\n\nHistory, then, in every form, the history of the world as well as of\n\nDenmark, the history of religion and of civilization, is the controlling study\nin these high schools, and when the pupUs are familiar with the past the\nteacher discusses in a popular way current conditions and problems in\nsociety, the state, the church, or the school.\n\nHollmann sums up the theory as follows: (i) history is the center of\nand (2) in teaching history, it is the vivid spoken word that\n\nall education;\n\nis all-important.\n\nSuch instruction must necessarily be given thru lectures, not thru textAs Mr. Bredzdorff of the Roskilde People's High School says:\n\nbooks.\n\nThe historical lecture has become the very pulse of the high schools. Here, past,\nThe countless generations are not discon-\n\npresent, and future make one living whole.\n\nnected fragments drifting and vanishing in the stream of time.\n\nNo, generations follow\n\nthe course of generations, and unite us in one great communion of the people, those in\n\nthe graves living still in that spiritual beat of the waves as they move forward thru\nthe ages.\n\nGrundtvig held also that the high schools should give some attention\nto the statistics of the country, its constitution, and its legislative\n\nadministrative, national\n\nand communal,\n\norganizations.\n\nand\n\nHe wished the\n\norganization of the state to be presented in the right light, but he did not\n\nwish these schools to be involved in politics. He did not wish them to\nbecome a battleground of political opinions, but he hoped the youth would\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": "456", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4S6\n\n[Secondary\n\nreceive there enough understanding of political affairs to be able to form\n\nopinions for themselves and not fall helplessly into the hands of the political\n\nThey should be instructed as to the meaning of legislation, and\nmade clear to them that legislation is not an arbitrary matter\nbut an emanation of the people's will. The schools must be intensely\nagitator.\n\nit should be\n\nDanish.\n\nGrundtvig did not believe in the cosmopolitan: he might walk\n\nerect upon two legs and have a nose in the middle of his face, but he could\n\nhave no soul. Each nationality, he said, like kinds of wood, had its own\ngrain; and the cosmopolitan was mere sawdust. Hence, an understanding and love of the fatherland must be the very core of the work\nin history.\n\nSome attention is paid also to the economic life of Denmark, altho no\nattempt is made to teach economics scientifically. The idea of combining\ntechnical, agricultural, and industrial training with the work of these schools\nhas often been suggested. About thirty-five of them (out of eighty) have\nsome agricultural instruction, but most of them have kept to their original\nbasis of a liberal education.\n\nPupils are urged to put in a winter at a people's\n\nhigh school before entering a winter agricultural school.\n\nOn the monument\n\nto J. C. LaCour, who founded the agricultural winter school at Lyngby, is\n\nfovmd the following inscription:\nThe Danish agricultural school is the daughter of the Danish people's high school,\nand must, like these, build upon the foundation of the faith and life of the people.\n\nGrundtvig's idea was to have near each high school a well-conducted\nagricultural plant and shops in which the pupils might see practical work;\n\nbut he did not believe in introducing technical instruction into the schools\nthemselves. His purpose was, in connection with the lecture work, to provide opportunities for direct acquaintance with many features of economic\nlife.\n\nSo thoroly does the historical method dominate all teaching that even\nscience is presented largely as connected with the investigations of great\nmen. For instance, a lesson in electricity might turn on the work of\nFranklin; in botany, on that of Linnaeus. Naturally, this lends an immediate human interest to the subject.\n\nIt may be noted that this movement\n\ntoward connecting science with history has begun in other lands and that\nseveral books have been written to encourage this type of instruction in\n\nAmerican schools.\nIn my own observations I was impressed with the freedom and naturalness in the relations between teachers and pupils. I saw no machinery for\ndiscipline.\n\nThe students seemed happy and at the same time intensely\n\nwas impressed by the tone of earnestness of the teacher's\nIn one case, in Roskilde,\nlecture and the attention given by the students.\nof the teacher's\nsentences\nopening\nthe\nI almost sprang from my seat at\nMarseillaise,\nlike\nthe\nor\ntrumpet,\nof\na\naddress. His call was like the sound\n\ninterested.\n\nI\n\nwhich is not music but a battle cry.\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": "457", "text": "Department]\n\nBISHOP GRUNDTVIG AND PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS\n\n457\n\nIn the g5annasium at Askov, the students preceded their hour of exercise by marching\n\nabout the hall and singing a hymn to the Danish flag;\nI have never\n\nafter the exercise, followed another march and another song.\n\nseen anything of the kind outside of Denmark.\n\nand my heart in my throat.\n\nI found\n\nmy hands clenched\n\nI felt that I understood a little of the Viking\n\nspirit.\n\nThe teacher asked me whether I had seen the monuments at Skibelund,\nand added that they were a part of the patriotic education of the students\nAt this same school the principal told me of a conference of\nof Askov.\nrepresentatives of the churches of Denmark to be held at Askov that very\nday, to discuss the question of the separation of church and state. I saw\nthem drive in, about seventy or eighty men, from the little railway station\ntwo miles away. What impressed me most was the fact that this important\nconference was held, not in Copenhagen, but in a little country high school,\ntwo miles from nowhere. It showed that the schools are an integral part\nof the social life of Denmark, when they are considered to furnish the proper\natmosphere for settling so momentous a question.\nThe next morning I set out in the rain for the monuments at Skibelund.\nThey were on the edge of a little bluff looking down over the German fron-\n\nOn the west end was a national amphitheater, with raised banks of\nand a pulpit in the center, near one end. This amphitheater would\nseat three thousand people. Around the amphitheater were a series of\nmonuments of prominent Danes no soldiers, but teachers of the people's\nhigh schools, prominent men in the co-operative movement, writers, and\nso on. Over the edge of the bluff, near the frontier, was a little schoolhouse, where the children of Danish parentage, in Schleswig, come in winter\nto study the Danish language and sing the Danish songs.\nA little farther along the bluff was a granite monument of a female\nfigure, personifying the Danish language and literature, with busts of two\nfamous Danish poets by her side. Her arms were stretched out to her\nbrothers in Schleswig. Still farther along the bluff was the battle monument. It was a huge granite triangular block, representing the old Norse\nbattle formation.\nKing Magnus was at the fighting angle, his warriors with\ntier.\n\nturf,\n\n—\n\nAbove, cut in the granite,\nwere the three ravens of Odin and three bells, the bells of the old cathedral\n\ntheir battle axes forming the sides of the triangle.\n\nof Trondhjem in Norway, hundreds of miles away, which the soldiers heard\n\ncheering them on to victory over the heathen Wends.\n\nOn the back of the\n\nmonument was a spirited inscription, expressing the hope that Denmark\nwould again come to her own as against the Prussians (the descendants\nof the\n\nschools\n\nheathen Wends).\nof\n\nTo this place come students from all the high\n\nScandinavia to hear patriotic speeches and sing patriotic\n\nsongs.\n\nAltogether there are about eighty of these high schools, with about\nten thousand students, nearly all from the country.\n\nThe usual time of\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": "458", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n458\n\n[Secondary\n\nattendance is one winter. It is estimated that more than 30 per cent of the\nyoung men in rural districts have been pupils; and of these many have\nbeen encouraged to go on to the winter agricultural schools. The schools\nare in session from November to May for boys, and during the summer for\ngirls.\nThe course of instruction is much the same for both, and many of\nthe teachers are employed for both terms. The students live in the school,\nbut the charges are low. Board and lodging and tuition cost about $9.45\nin winter and $8 64 in summer.\nDeserving poor students get government\nassistance; and each school itself receives about $810 a year from the\ngovernment. Teachers and students take at least one meal a day together.\n.\n\nThis living in common is held to be one of the important parts of the school\nprogram, as it is believed that it has developed the capacity shown by the\n\nDanish people in later life for working together in business affairs.\n\nIt is\n\ncertainly true that the Danes lead the world in co-operative farming.\n\nThe teachers are not required to pass an examination, but are appointed\nby the director of the school. The school itself is almost always his private\nproperty or belongs to a high-school association; and the state, on account\nof the smallness of its contributions to support, exercises a very limited\n\nsupervision.\n\nUnder these conditions of freedom, fully half of the schools\n\nquickly go to pieces; but those that continue are very much alive.\n\nOnly\n\npersons with a special gift for the peculiar kind of teaching required and\n\ngood executive ability can hope to succeed.\nWhat have these schools done for Denmark ?\nMadsen, sums up the benefits as follows:\nThe advantages are both material and intellectual.\n\nA German leader, Dr.\n\nFirst, the school has been an\n\nexceedingly important factor in the economic life of the country.\n\nOnly an enlightened\nand active class of farmers could pass so quickly and so completely from one branch of\nproduction to another as the farmers of Denmark did in the eighty's.\n\nAt this time, in\n\norder to avoid a crisis, at one stroke they passed from the production of wheat to the\n\nproduction of butter and raising of cattle, and introduced organizations of co-operating\n\nThe high schools have exercised a great influence in\nmaking this possible, and many believe that without their instruction it could not have\ncreameries and slaughterhouses.\n\nbeen brought about.\n\nThe people's high schools have always striven to develop and perfect\nThey encourage and assist agricultural schools connected with them. Some of these\n\ngardening and farming, the principal industries of Denmark.\n\nschools for the small farmer give instruction on every phase of agricultural\nor rural life that will be of benefit to the country people.\nfive days to six months are given in them at small expense.\n\nCourses of from\nFinally, some\n\nof these schools undertake to provide technical instruction for country\n\nmechanics.\n\nIn all these movements the people's high schools contribute\n\na stimulus and support.\n\nIn all these schools the same general method of\n\ninstruction is employed, and if you ask a Dane which is the most important\n\nvocational school in\n\nDenmark he will say, \"The people's high school,\"\n\naltho they do not give vocational instruction per se at all.\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": "459", "text": "Department!\n\nBISHOP GRUNDTVIG AND PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS\n\n459\n\nThe principal thing, however, that these schools have contributed is\nthe new spirit which has been awakened in the Denmark farmer.\nspirit\n\nThis\n\nthey seek to sustain thru the founding of high-school associations,\n\nhigh-school homes, lecture associations, auditorium halls, and gymnasiums\n\nThe Danish peasants have been called the best\namong the Danish\nfarmers is disappearing more and more, and not only among the peasants,\nin the surrounding parish.\n\ninformed in the world.\n\nDistinction of class or rank\n\nbut generally in Denmark, there is not so deep a gap between educated and\nuneducated as in many other countries. The suspicious reserve, which in\n\nmany places is so characteristic of the peasants, is no longer characteristic\nof the Danish peasants;\n\nthey are on the whole open, skilful, and active.\n\n\"But the most important thing,\"\n\nas Alfred Povlsen says, \"is the\n\ninfluence upon the religious and moral feeling of the population.\"\n\nOne of\n\nthe most vigorous opponents of the school has said:\n\nWe must admit that immorality disappears where the people's high school exists.\nIn social circles where the high school has acquired influence one finds neither drinking\nnor gambling nor the other forms of immorality. Still one must not believe that among\nthe pupils a puritanical severity rules.\n\nThey love dancing, sport, play, and all other\n\nrecreations.\n\nIn consequence of the entire awakening and inspiriting influence of the\nhigh school, one finds a much happier, more intimate, finer, and more\nconscious family life.\nFinally, Dr. Norregard states:\n\nWhile the general cultural tendencies have encouraged a dislike for bodily work, and\nwhere they have gained power they have destroyed both the inherent love of work and\nthe modesty inherent in it; on the contrary, it is an uncontested fact that, where the\ngreatest enlightenment of the people's high school has taken root, that tendency is not\nonly abating, but love of work and respect for manual labor have been raised. No work\nwhich ought to be done is too small for the man who has been trained in the people's\nhigh school.\n\n\" Grundtvig is a monumental figure in the Danish cultural and spiritual\nlife,\"\n\nsays Madsen.\n\n\"No one has left behind him such deep and broad\n\ntraces of Danish life as he;\n\nand the life of no other Dane has borne such\n\nrich fruit and is still so living among the people as that of Grundtvig.\"\n\nThe schools of Grundtvig have shown the value of liberal education as\na factor in the vocational life of a country.\n\nThese people's high schools\n\nhave never loomed large in the life of the towns or cities of Denmark,\nSweden, and Norway, but they have transformed the country life. In\nDenmark, alone of the civilized world, the city is not gaining on the country.\nThis is the triumph of the people's high schools. The Danes have made\ntheir own the Danish poetry and history, and have acquired a love for the\nfatherland and mother-tongue, as well as a joyous idea of Christianity, and\non the whole the point of view which we call \" cultural.\" The people's high\nschools are a moral and religious achievement almost without parallel in\n\nmodern times.\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": "460", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n46o\n\n[Secondary\n\nTHE VALUE OF HISTORY OF ART AS A STUDY IN\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\nMARY STUART MACMTJRPHY, DERRY, N.H.\nOne of many years' experience in the work of this Association said,\nupon learning the subject of the paper to be presented by me, \"You are\nunfortunate in the subject assigned you.\n\nIt is very unpopular.\"\nThis remark increases my desire to present this subject. We cannot\n\nalways speak upon popular topics.\n\nSuch condition would relegate to the\nshadow of oblivion many subjects that should be brought before this\nbody of learned men and women, discussed, and their educational fitness\nconsidered. What has been unpopular may become popular after proper\nand careful analysis.\nThat we may not be in the condition of the two knights approaching\n\nthe two-sided shield respectively gold and silver, let us agree in the definition of a fine art.\n\nThe old Greek saying that a fine art is beauty plus religion has not\nbeen excelled.\n\nRuskin's statement that a fine art is one which appeals to\n\nthe highest faculties of the mind and whose primary object\n\nis\n\npleasure is, perhaps, more explicit but in sentiment the same.\n\nAccepting\n\nto give\n\nboth, I hold the fine art worthy of study.\nIt is no longer questioned that history is an important matter to be\n\npursued in our secondary schools.\n\nThen the objection to the study of history\n\nof art lies in undervaluing the effect of this particular branch of history.\n\n^X^e I hold that the benefits of this study to the pupils of our high schools\nare many, I shall present the three most important:\n\n(i) cultivation of\n\nimagination;\n\n(3)\n\n(2) assistance in the study of biography;\n\na powerful aid\n\nin morality.\n\nImagination, God's greatest gift to man, the creative faculty without\nwhich the great poets, painters, sculptors, musicians, and architects could\n\nhave produced no results, the faculty which gilds for us the rough places\nin life and carries us safely across many \"sloughs of despond!\"\nMrs. Welby says:\nThe twilight hours like birds flew by,\nAs lightly and as free,\n\nTen thousand stars were in the sky\nTen thousand in the sea.\nFor every wave with dimpled cheek\nThat leaped into the air\n\nHad caught a star in its embrace\nAnd held it trembUng there.\n\nCan the beauty of this stanza be questioned in comparison with the plain\nstatement that it >^as nearly night and time passed rapidly while there\nwere many stars in the sky reflected in the sea?\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": "461", "text": "HISTORY OF ART IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n461\n\nAll may not possess great creative ability, but to have sufficient passive\n\nimagination to comprehend the creations of those having active imagination is a necessity to the student of art and literature.\n\nIn this practical\n\nage, in which the tendency is to regard as unimportant every production\n\nthat is not to be measured by its money value, is there not great danger of\ntraining our young people in a very narrow way ?\n\nimportance.\n\nScience is of very great\n\nThe natural sciences offer many fascinating inducements\n\nAlong with this material education, it is of inestimable\nworth that we should give to these boys and girls intrusted to our training\n\nfor research work.\n\na love of the beautiful.\n\nWe should, as teachers, give them the power to see\nNo study is of greater assistance\n\nthe beauty and religion in everything.\n\nalong this line than history of art.\n\nWe wish an all-round education.\n\nIt\n\n\"Nature abhors a vacuum\" is a trite old\nsaying but a mighty truth. Train the imagination. Fill the mind of the\nboy with beautiful images and there will be no room for degrading combinations. The most trying school age is, you will agree, that of the\nsecondary-school period. I have found this study exceedingly helpful in\n\nis\n\nneeded tremendously now.\n\nleading pupils to learn their own powers of creation.\n\nAs a general help in society, a knowledge of the works of great artists has\nits usefulness.\n\nIt is not pleasing to find yourself mistaking, in conversation,\n\nBotticelli for a kind of wine as did the multimillionaire of Chicago, or for\n\na sort of Italian cheese as did the distinguished divine.\n\nTo create in the mind of the pupil an appreciation of works of art is\ndesirable, in that it assists him to select the best, to give correct criticism\n\nwhen necessary, to understand a mistake made in ignorance by past collectors.\n\nIn the study of Greek art, the scholar must master the myth, must understand that the mythopoeic age was the age of the infancy of the Hellenes.\n\nThe myths give him the character of the people.\nif\n\nRabbi Hirsch says that\n\nauthentic history or the myths must be given up, let authentic history\n\ngo.\n\nIt is\n\nsomewhat surprising how rapidly the well-trained, high-school\n\npupil will grasp the subjective meaning of the Greek myth, the legend of\n\nZeus, the all-wise, all-loving father;\n\nthe foam of the sea.\n\nof the creation of\n\nAphrodite from\n\nA right training enables him to see, even in this\n\nmaterial age, the beautiful image expressed in the myth, to find the germ\nof truth which is always there.\n\nNo biography is of more interest to members of a class in history than\nTo arouse the curiosity respecting the life of a man\nwho has not been a great warrior, to lead the young to know that a Phidias,\nan Angelo, a Raphael has done as much for civilization as an Alexander\nthat of a great artist.\n\nor a Napoleon is lifting the pupil to a higher plane of thought.\n\nThe moral effect of this study is acknowledged by all instructors of the\nWorks of art about us we know have a powerful influence. They\n\nyoung.\n\nare the silent teachers in a schoolroom.\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": "462", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n462\n\n[Secondary\n\nI can add no thought better than that offered at the luncheon of the\nart department of the Federation of Women's Clubs, June 13, 19 14:\n\n\"We\n\nwant an art gallery with exhibitions of works of art in every high school\nin America, to bring the presence of\n\nbeauty into the education of the\n\nchildren, and to serve as an art center for the community.\"\n\nTEE PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN\nCLEVELAND, OHIO\nR. L.\n\nSHORT, PRINCIPAL, WEST TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO\n\nA prominent educator has said,\n\n*'\n\nEducation is the ability one has of\n\nmaking profitable use of his leisure time.\" Those who enter the field of\nindustrial education must add to this a second phase and hold that industrial education must develop one's ability to make profitable use of both\nhis business time and his leisure time.\nTen years ago men of large interests in Cleveland's affairs began the agitation for education for efficiency\nalong vocational lines.\n\nConstant agitation of the subject culminated six\n\nyears ago in launching in this school system the Technical High School,\n\nand one year later the High School of Commerce. Remember that at that\ntime industrial education was practically unknown Massachusetts, Wisconsin, New York, and other states had not yet passed their laws covering\nsuch training. Cleveland was pioneering, and it costs work, blood, and\nmoney to pioneer in education. As initiated at that time, the course of\nstudy and the work done was largely amplified manual training. One could\nnot foresee demands for more than this, neither could authorities dare more.\nWe were feeling our way toward better training. In the Technical High\nSchool, we had a magnificent plant with essentially a manual-training equipment. We worked pupils and teachers longer hours than was customary.\nEach pupil received a minimimi of 33 hours of instruction per week as against\nthe 20 or 22 in academic schools. Teachers were on duty from 8: 10 a.m.\nuntil 3 30 P.M. with 45 minutes for lunch. They taught from 6 to 8 periods\na day instead of 5 or 6. We taught 15 hours of shop, 15 hours of book work,\n3 hours of gymnasium. The pupils studied science, mathematics, English,\nturning, cabinet-making, pattern-making, foundry, forge, machine shop,\n\n—\n\n:\n\n,\n\ndrafting, printing, applied art, sewing, cooking, millinery.\nthis\n\nThe growth in\n\nt3^e of education has been marvelous and the changes in method,\n\ncurricula, and results\n\nhave kept pace with the growth. Despite the fact\nCommerce is handicapped by an old discarded\nbuilding and lack of room and equipment, results in that branch of vocaPerhaps a glimpse of what is now\ntional work are just as astounding.\nbeing done at West Technical High School will give you the best view of\nthe situation. East Technical High School, planned for 1,000 pupils, had\nthat the High School of\n\n700 pupils the first year, 1,300 pupils the third year, and before we could\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": "463", "text": "INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN CLEVELAND\n\nDepartment]\n\nget relieved\n\nby West Tech had\n\nfactory type of building.\n\n1,600 pupils.\n\n463\n\nWest Tech is a plain,\n\nIt is practically all glass so that maximum light-\n\nThe customary ventilation for public buildings is 30 feet\nThis building has 54 feet per pupil. The artificial\nlighting system laid out by the National Lamp Association is adequate\nand right. The 4 acres of floor in the corridors and 98 rooms of the buildSanitary conditions are right. The cost ?\ning are vacuum cleaned daily.\nTwo- thirds of a million. This includes 12 acres of ground, an out-door\ning is possible.\n\nper minute per pupil.\n\ngymnasium, a concrete grand stand, a 120-foot greenhouse, an out-door\nstudy hall, $100,000 worth of equipment, and a fireproof building. So\nmuch for the plant. Now for the school and its activities.\nThe boy coming in from the grades goes to the drafting-room and at\nthe end of a month begins the working drawings for his shop work. And\nwhat does he design ? Not tabourets and bopkracks, but patterns tools\nthat are to be cast, and parts of machines. In the shops, from the first\nday he is making wood patterns. This procedure has many marked\nadvantages: It is easier for the beginner to work in soft woods than in\nhard. The work must be to within 1/32'' of accuracy. There is added\ninterest in making a pattern for something that is to be cast in metal and\nbecome a part of a tool, or a gas engine perhaps. Pattern-making has\n\n—\n\nearning power, cabinet-making has not.\n\nThe cost for materials is small in\n\npattern work. ,The only reason we teach cabinet-making is to teach the\n\nboy to make joints. A simple table is about as ambitious as we get. We\nmake most of our own furniture. Each boy makes a piece for himself, a\npiece for the school, and then as many pieces as he wants to sell.\nFrom the pattern shop the pupil goes to the foundry where he learns\nfrom actual experience why his pattern is right or wrong.\n\nWe were told\n\nwe could not teach pattern and foundry work to first-year boys.\nHowever that may be. West Tech has not bought a pattern or a casting in\n\nthat\n\ntwo years, and the first-year boys keep the machine shops supplied with\ngood castings for both day and night classes. Boys in chemistry analyze\nthe castings from each heat. Using as much scrap as we do, our mixture\nis always changing.\nThe boys charge the cupola and figure the amount\nof each material.\n\nAs in cabinet work, our forging is a means to an end.\nteach the heat treatment of iron and steel\n\n—eighteen weeks in\n\nWe simply\nall.\n\nWhile\n\nforging, the boy is studying the chemistry of iron and steel in his chemistry\n\nlaboratory.\n\nThe forging done is all practical, tools and machine parts, and\n\nthe same teacher takes these boys to the machine shop to machine up and\n\nuse what has been made.\n\nA pupil should not be taught to work with a poor tool. Only a skilled\nmechanic may work thus handicapped. For this reason our tools in the\nmachine shop are the best obtainable. Repair work is an essential feature\nof the work.\n\nTo this end people are invited to send in all kinds of broken\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": "464", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n464\n\ntools and machines.\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe first-year fellows make drawings, patterns, and\n\ncastings, and the third-year boys do the machining and assembling.\n\nElectricity must not be neglected.\nTherefore the boy is placed under\nan electrical engineer to study electric construction, house wiring, telephone\n\nwork, motor, generator, and battery building.\n\nThe city code is our wiring\n\ntext.\n\nThe printing trade attracts some.\n\nIn our evening classes we have had\n\nas many as seventy-five apprentices working at school four nights a week.\n\nYou may wonder whether this type of school with its varied activities\nis\n\nWe are a new school, two years old,\n\nof interest to the general public.\n\nwith 600 of our 700 pupils in the Freshman and Sophomore years, yet in\n\nJanuary we opened the school to inspection by the public. Admission was by\nticket and there were 6,000 people who went thru the school in one evening.\n\nOn a nice evening in June this year. East Tech had 10,000 visitors.\nDo not think that in these higher industrial schools general education\nneglected.\nEvery pupil gets 15 hours a week in science, mathematics,\nand English. -Dr. Garnett of the London technical work says: \"We have\nno right to use public money to make machine minders.\" A machine\nminder without education is tied to his machine. This does away with\ndrudgery of theme work. The topics chosen are usually on some phase of\nshop work under way at the time. In English work, we insist on the pupil\nwriting on a subject with which he is acquainted and which interests him.\nIn the art rooms, pupils design their clothing, do interior decorating,\ndevelop designs for posters, calendars, book plates, Christmas cards.\nLarge orders are filled for such trade work as this. After a girl has designed\na garment in the art room, she goes to the sewing-room and cuts, fits, and\nmakes the garment. Few women know much of fabrics, their cost, what\nthey are made of, for what they are suitable. Because of this lack of knowledge, we give every girl lessons in textiles. She examines the goods under\n\nis\n\na microscope, studies the weave, material, width, range of prices.\n\nThe girl learns to cook, not only to cook from recipe for a few people\nWith the cooking is given household chemistry.\nThe restaurant is rim in connection with the cooking-school and only\n\nbut to cook in quantity also.\n\none outside person is employed.\n\nAll the rest of the work is done by the\n\n— 12 to 15 loaves of bread are made at one time, also 28 to 30\n\npupils\n\nand 12 to 15 cakes.\n\npies,\n\nThese girls cooked and served a turkey dinner to 200\n\nguests at our annual football dinner.\n\nWe do\nWe are interested in all\n\nOur aim in athletics is to get every boy and girl into the game.\nnot care for interscholastic championship teams.\nthe boys and all the girls.\n\nLast year we had 58 basket-ball teams and played\n\nfrom four to eight games daily from 3:30 to 6:00 p.m.\n\ngym belongs to the night-school people.\n\nAfter 6: 00 p.m. the\n\nWe believe in clean athletics and\n\nin a heavy scholarship and conduct requirement for all participants.\n\nin our room games the scholarship requirement is rigidly adhered to.\n\nEven\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": "465", "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\n465\n\nWe believe in the great outdoors for study, play, and work. And our\npupils share this belief.\n\nEven in our small school, where only 100 are\n\neligible for agriculture, 15 have elected to be farmers.\n\nFor orchard labora-\n\nwe rely on the near-by farmer, and now have contracts for the care\nof about 1,000 trees.\nThe farmer bears the expense for materials and\ntories,\n\ntransportation and pays the boys 25 cents per hour for their work.\n\nAnd we wonder what this education costs and whether it pays.\n\nThe\n\nacademic school costs about $88 per boy for all charges and covers a mini-\n\nmum of 22 hours per week of class instruction.\n\nThe technical charge is\n\n$139 for 33 hours a week of class instruction.\n\nSo that the cost per hour\n\nis\n\nnearly the same in the two types of schools.\n\ncost, does it pay ?\n\nBut no matter what the\n\nIt pays if it saves more pupils to the schools, if it makes\n\nfor better citizenship, if it gives a group of pupils greater earning power.\n\nThis table tells the Cleveland story:\n\nEnrolment in the Several Classes of High Schools from 1906 to 19 13\nAcademic\n\nJune, 1906\nJune, 1907\nJune, 1908\nJune, 1909\nJune, 1910\nJune, 191\nJune, 191\nJune, 19 13\n\n4,938\n5,059\n4,989\n4,787\n4,436\n5,293\n5,326\n5,511\n\nTechnical\n\nCommerce\n\n729\n1,103\n1,366\n1,780\n\n2,06s\n\n48s\n464\n752\n84s\n\nThis year the technical schools have enrolled 2,371.\n\nClaim has been made that this diiOferentiation creates class distinction.\n\nMaybe it does.\n\nWhat of it ?\n\nmen, mechanics, laborers?\nschool-teacher?\n\nDoes anyone deny that we have professional\n\nWhy is a man a lawyer? A machinist? A\n\nBecause he so chooses.\n\nAnd if he chooses to become a\n\npattern-maker why not give him opportunity to become the best of his\nIn Cleveland, a boy has absolutely free choice in his type of high\n\nkind ?\n\nhe may also transfer to another school at the end of any term.\nYou may think the eighth-grade boy does not know what he wants to do.\nschool;\n\nBut he does know.\n\nOnly i per cent take advantage of the transfer privilege.\n\nSOME THINGS WORTH WHILE IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nIN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nE.\n\nG.\n\nALLEN, HEAD OF THE MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT, CASS TECHNICAL\nHIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH.\n\nIf we examine carefully the criticisms made against the public schools,\nwe will sinmier them down to the statement that the graduates find it\ndifficult to adjust themselves to the everyday conditions of industrial and\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": "466", "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ncommercial life.\n\nThese criticisms apply as much to the college graduate\n\n[Secondary\n\nas to the graduates of the high and elementary schools.\n\nFor years we have been studying all sorts of social, economic, and\nindustrial conditions, in an attempt to make education practical.\ntraining,\n\nManual\n\ntrade schools, part-time schools, continuation work, and the\n\nreorganization of the school grades have played and will play an important\n\nBut if it is true that in general the\nsubjects\nwhich they have studied, is\nknow\nuse\nthe\nstudents do not\nhow to\ncriticisms\nand insist that those who\nit not well for us to ask about these\nspecific cases of failure ?\nwant\nand\ngive\nmake them define clearly what they\nThis must be done so that those of us who are working along the lines of\npart in this attempted readjustment.\n\neducational adjustment may have a foundation for the reconstruction of\n\nour subject-matter.\n\nFor the sake of making our discussion definite, let us consider the\ncriticisms which come back to us about the use of mathematics in workshop and laboratory, as well as those from the commercial fields.\nOn investigation, we find that ordinarily^ the criticism hinges around\nthe fact that the students do not handle readily the most elementary facts\nin mathematics.\n\nCommon and decimal fractions, proportions, measure-\n\nment of angles, the use of formulae, the solution of triangles, etc., are\napparently vague and far-away subjects.\n\nThe chief draftsman for a large automobile factory in the city of Detroit\nrecently said that in the drafting-room he found that, if he asked a recent\n\ngraduate to compute the dimensions of a piece of machinery which involved\nthe addition of mixed numbers, a statement of proportion, the measure-\n\nment of angles, or the use of formulae, there were always serious haggling\nand loss of time, with frequent errors.\nThe writer has many times had similar experiences with the use of\nmathematics in the school workshop; for example, in ordering a bill of\n\nlumber a boy will order a board 6/8 of an inch thick. When told to reduce\nthe fraction to lowest terms, the boy seems flustrated, and it is often necessary to write the fraction on the blackboard and draw his mind back to the\nmathematical fact which he well knows but does not recognize when he\nstumbles upon it unexpectedly.\n\nAll of us have no doubt observed that if\n\na student is attempting to solve a problem in geometry and comes to a\nplace in the process of the solution where the elements of the problem resolve\nthemselves into an algebraic equation, instead of proceeding immediately\n\non the familiar ground of algebra, he will almost invariably attempt to\nDo we not all think\nverify all succeeding steps from the geometric figure.\nin terms of arithmetic and algebra and geometry and trigonometry rather\nthan in general terms ?\n\nMathematically speaking, it is literally true that in our attempt to be\npedagogical and psychological we have factored mathematics and are\nteaching each factor as a subject by itself.\n\nWhy is it necessary for us to\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": "467", "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\n467\n\nteach two years of algebra before we know the definition of an angle or how\nto handle ordinary geometric facts which occur simultaneously with the\n\nalgebra ?\n\nTry as we may, we cannot find an industry or an applied science\n\nwhere mathematics stands out in definite factors as we teach it in the\n\nDo we not find in this fact sufficient reason for the inability of the\nOn the other hand, we\n\nschool.\n\nstudent to recognize fundamental elements?\n\ncannot cast aside all mathematical sequence and merely proceed with the\nsolution of problems.\n\nFor a number of years, books of shop problems and applied mathematics have been coming into the market every few months; these books\n\nhave in general gone too far to the other extreme and have ignored all\nmathematical sequence. This, again, causes confusion on the part of the\nstudent, because of introducing problems before he is ready for them.\n\nOur\n\nobject must be, then, to formulate a sequence of mathematics and applied\n\nproblems, so as to develop the subject in a rational way.\n\nThe following lantern slides will, to some extent, give an idea of the\noutline of mathematics as it\n\nis\n\nbeing taught at the Cass Technical High\n\nSchool and in several high schools of similar type.\n\nA series of textbooks has been published recently, which have in general\nA large amount of\n\nbeen followed in carrying out this course of study.\n\nsupplementary material has, however, been introduced, in order to meet\nour own particular problem.\n\nIncidentally, the writer believes that this\n\nsupplementary work, in all courses, is one of the most worthwhile features\nof reorganized education at the present time.\n\nMathematics I\nFIRST TEN WEEKS\n1.\n\nSolution of simple equations.\n\n2.\n\nEvaluation of algebraic expressions.\n\n3.\n\nAngles.\na)\n\nThe use of the protractor.\n\nb)\n\nDefinitions and equations involving supplementary, complementary, vertical\n\nangles, and the angles of a triangle.\n4.\n\nPositive and negative numbers.\n\nBy this arrangement of mathematics, we have in no way disarranged\nthe mathematical sequence,\n\nand have paralleled the work in mechanical\n\ndrawing and the shops.\n\nThe knowledge of angles which the student has gained in the mathematics department makes it possible for those teaching mechanical drawing\nto omit geometric drawing\n\nand devote themselves entirely to their own\n\nsubject.\n\nMathematics I\nSECOND TEN WEEKS\n1.\n\nAddition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.\n\n2.\n\n3.\n\nEvaluation of formulae.\nLever problems.\n\n4.\n\nGraphing data.\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": "468", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n468\n\nProblems similar to the following are given under this group:\n1. The area of a triangle is expressed with a formula A — \\ha.\n\n[Secondary\n\nFind A, if 6 = 82i?.D.\n\nand a = 7.7812.1).\n2.\n\nIf .4 = 5, 6 = 3, c=io, w=4.\nFind the time of vibration of a pendulum 8 feet long. T=frL/G.\n\nEvaluate 2a&+4ic— sew.'\n\nWhere ir=*^\nand G=32.\n4. Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 5', 12', and 13' if A=s{s—a) {s—h)\n3.\n\nis-c).\n\nThe sides are a, 6, and c.\n\ns\n\n=\n\n—\n2\n\n5.\n\nA wheelbarrow is loaded with 45 bricks, averaging 6 pounds each. What force\n\nwill be required to lift the load, if the wheel is 4^ feet from the end of the handles and\n\n2 feet from the center of the load ?\n\nAdded to the work indicated in the problems shown above, from two\nto three weeks at the close of the semester are devoted to proportions.\n\nMathematics II\nFIRST TEN WEEKS\n\nProblems involving one unknown quantity.\n2. Simple fractional equations.\n1.\n\n3.\n\nProportions.\n\n1.\n\nIf gunpowder were composed of 4 parts by weight of saltpeter, 2 parts of sulphur,\n\nProblems\n\nand 3 parts of charcoal, how many pounds of each would there be in 200 pounds of gunpowder ?\n2.\n\nWhat percentage of evaporation is necessary to change a 6 per cent solution to\n\nan 8 per cent solution ?\n3. A motor running at 875 R.P.M. has a loj\" driving pulley.\nsize of the lineshaft pulley if it is driven at 180 R.P.M. ?\nLet x= diameter of lineshaft pulley.\n\nJL-=-^\n\nWhat must be the\n\n(The speeds of two belted pulleys are inversely proportional to\n\ntheir\n\n180\n\nlof\n\ndiameters.)\n\n21\n\n360\n\n360^= 18,375.\njd\n\n= 51\n\n:\n\nthe.required size.\n\nMathematics II\nSECOND TEN WEEKS\n1.\n2.\n\n3.\n\nThe equations involving two unknown quantities.\nGraphing equations.\nLever problems.\n\n4. Parallel line construction and problems.\n5.\n\nSimple geometrical construction.\nProblems\n\nThe diagonal of a square is 12\". Find its perimeter.\nFind its area.\n2. The side of an equilateral triangle is 10 inches.\nFind its area.\n3. The side of a regular hexagon is a.\n1.\n\nThis arrangement of problems and mathematical facts not only establishes fundamental facts of mathematics, but gives the information which\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": "469", "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nis required\n\nby mechanics in all building and metal trades and lays a founda-\n\ntion for the mathematics of the science courses.\n\n469\n\nIf at the end of the first\n\nyear of school a student is compelled to drop out, he will find that he is\n\nprepared to handle quickly and intelligently all the ordinary problems of\nthe machine shop, the plumbing shop, sheet metal work, and the building\n\nThis is a decided advantage even aside from the fact that the\nmathematics parallels his school work.\ntrades.\n\nAt the beginning of the second year, the student in the technical high\n\nThe instructor in the chemical labo-\n\nschool begins his work in chemistry.\n\nratory assumes that the student can handle proportions.\n\nIf\n\nhe cannot,\n\nthen the student is sent to the mathematical department to obtain the\nrequired information.\n\nRelieved, as they are, from the necessity of teach-\n\ning mathematics with the chemistry, considerable more work can be done\nin the laboratories.\n\nThe writer well remembers his own laboratory instruct-\n\nors who complained that they could not teach physics to any advantage\n\nbecause they were compelled to teach the subject of mathematics.\n\nMathematics HE\nFIRST TEN WEEKS\n1.\n\nProblems involving three unknown quantities.\n\n2.\n\nFractions.\n\n3.\n\nFactoring and its applications.\n\n4.\n\nQuadratic equations and their graphs.\n\nMathematics III\nSECOND TEN WEEKS\n1.\n\nRadicals.\n\n2.\n\nSquare root.\n\n3.\n\nApplications of square root.\n\n4.\n\nDimensions and areas of polygons.\n\nMathematics IV\n\nTWENTY weeks\n1.\n\nCongruency of rectilinear figures and circles.\n\n2.\n\nRatio, proportion, similar triangles.\n\n3.\n\nThe trigonometry of the right triangle.\n\nNatural function.\n\nMathematics V\n\nTWENTY WEEKS\nMeasurements of angles.\nAreas of polygons.\n\nSimilarity\n\nand proportionality in circles.\n\nRegular polygons and circles.\n\nMathematics VI\n\nTWENTY WEEKS\nSolid geometry, plane trigonometry, logarithms.\nI.\n\nLateral area, total area, and volume of:\na) Prisms.\nh)\n\nPyramids.\n\nc)\n\nCones.\n\nd)\n\nFrustums of pyramids and cones.\n\nProblems involving:\n\nInequalities.\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": "470", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n470\n2.\n\n(Secondary\n\nAreas of:\na) Lunes.\nb)\n\nZones.\n\nc)\n\nSpherical triangles.\n\nd) Spherical polygons.\n3.\n\nVolumes of:\na) Spherical wedges.\n\n4.\n\nb)\n\nSpherical pyramids.\n\nc)\n\nSpherical segments.\n\nAreas and volumes of spheres.\n\nTHE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER WITH REGARD TO\nTHE TEACHING OF SEX HYGIENE\nRALPH E. BLOUNT, INSTRUCTOR IN PHYSIOLOGY, WALLER HIGH SCHOOL,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nEvery day the newspapers thrust before us tragedies whose plots turn\non sex life. When we stop to think, we know that these tragedies are only\na small fraction of the sad scenes with identical plots that are enacted\non the stage of life with only private spectators. People young and old\nhave need enough of guidance in matters of sex. The need has long been\nrecognized. The effort to meet it is comparatively new and very inadequate. In fact, I know of no place where there is systematic, well-organized\nmeans of conveying the information and awakening the moral earnestness\nneeded to bring mankind to a wholesome, happy sex life.\nThe home has its part in this work, and the school has its part. Neither\ncan take the place of the other. The fact is that parents and churches\nhave always reserved this function to themselves and have never performed it, and there is no hope that during the next generation at least they\nwill adequately meet the need.\nTherefore the school must undertake the\nwork, not to the exclusion of the parent, but filling in the blank left by the\nnegligent parent, and supplementing the training given by the careful father\nand mother.\nThe recent revelations of the magnitude and the horrors of the trajfic\nwhich caters to the sex passion, and the discoveries of the prevalence of\nvenereal diseases and their deep, race-destroying effect, have driven into\nour minds as nothing before ever did the urgency of action to save the life\n\n—\n\nof the race.\n\nThe danger which menaces the youth does not appeal to the parent\nThe parent, even if he knows how widespread\nthe evil is, how inimical to every youth, says to himself: ''Yet many\n\nas it does to the teacher.\n\nescape.\n\nMy son, my daughter will be one of these.\"\n\nThis fatuous hope\n\nmollifies the feeling of urgency, and the parent lets the matter go.\n\nThe impelling force that drives the teacher to action is the terror of\ndisease and vice that threatens to destroy the children mider his care.\n\nBut\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": "471", "text": "THE TEACHER AND SEX HYGIENE\n\nDepartment]\n\n471\n\nthe cry of warning against this evil is only a portion of his task.\nteacher\n\nmust\n\nmatters of sex\n\nestablish in his pupils the right attitude of\n\nThe\n\nmind toward\n\n—respectful but not prudish, candid but not flippant. He\n\nmust give to them all the information that their natural curiosity or the\nneeds of their life demand. He must hold before them the ideals of a clean\nand wholesome relation between boys and girls, young men and young\nwomen. He must present the ideals so skilfully that the pupils will accept\nthem as controlling motives in their lives. He must repress the uncouth\nfamiliarities that mark the conduct of ill-bred boys and girls and explain\nto them the deep respect that lies at the foundation of more courteous\nbehavior. He must teach his pupils that the reproductive function involves\nthe most sacred duty to the whole human race present and future, that it\nshould be used to produce only vigorous children, and that he whose condition precludes such has no right to children.\n\nThis is the duty laid upon us. As I go on to outline the method by\nwhich the work is to be done, you will see that the parent, even he who is\nwise and skilful, is inadequate to the full task, and the ordinary parent is\n\nhardly able to make a beginning.\n\nStill less is the need met\n\nby two or three\n\nunder strained conditions, by a physician who is not a\ntho even this is better than nothing at all.\n\nlectures, given\n\nteacher\n\n—\n\nThe first principle of our school work in relation to sex is that it be not\nEverywhere it should fit naturally with the other\nwork as a part that goes to make a perfect whole. For example, in history\nand geography the marriage customs and family life are discussed in connection with other customs. In biology and nature study the reproductive\nmethods, egg-laying, care of young, etc., are given their place; and in\nregard to mankind the physiology and hygiene of the process of reproduction are part of the study of the human body and should come right\n\nlugged in obtrusively.\n\nalong with other classwork.\n\nAnother principle is that sex must not be made too prominent.\n\nThe\n\nprevailing policy of avoiding all reference to sex calls attention unpleasantly\n\nIn the teacher's mind the subject will have to be unduly\nprominent for the present, because he is not accustomed to it and will have\nto the omission.\n\nto make special preparation for it.\n\nBut to the pupil, to whom all the facts\n\nof his lesson are discoveries, the\n\nwonders of reproduction come with the\n\nsame ease and simplicity as the other wonders of an interesting world.\nAll thru the lower grades facts relating to reproduction and precepts\nfor conduct in sex matters come up incidentally.\nThe opportunities must\nbe carefully utilized, not avoided.\n\nSex is so much in evidence all thru life\n\nthat there are plenty of occasions for its study without specially setting the\n\nPlease note that, altho intercourse between a male and a female is\na sine qua non in most reproduction, this act plays but a small part in the\n\nstage.\n\ndrama of the renewal of life, at least in the mind of the uncorrupted child.\n\nAnd if we recognize the relation simply and then pass on to other parts of\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": "472", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n472\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe story, we help to keep it in the subordinate position we desire it to\n\noccupy.\n\nIn the teacher's mind there are two distinct aims in this elementary\nwork.\nject\n\nOne is to bring the child to the right feeling with regard to the sub-\n\n—frank, clean, interested, reverent. The other\n\nis\n\nto teach the main\n\nfacts about reproduction, including the social relations that depend on sex.\n\nThe method will be by utilizing the opportunities that arise incidentally\nin any lessons, but especially in nature study, using live plants and animals\n\nas illustrative material, and treating reproduction as only one of the phases\nof the whole life.\n\nIn about the seventh or eighth grade, or in both, there should be definite\ninstruction in sex hygiene in the physiology class.\n\nIn earlier years the per-\n\nsonal application should be made only to those whose practice needs correcting, and then it should be done in private.\n\nAbout the only practical\n\nprecept required by the younger children is: \"Let your sex organs alone.\"\n\nBut when boys and girls approach puberty, sex life assumes a new phas§.\nThey want to know, and have a right to know, about things that hardly\ninterest normal younger children.\n\nIt is better to explain the chief points\n\nof human sex physiology and hygiene just before puberty rather than just\nafter.\n\nDuring the first two or three years of puberty the child is more\n\nsensitive about sex matters than at any other time of life.\n\nYou conserve\n\nthis natural modesty and give it a wholesome direction by giving the neces-\n\nsary lessons before\n\nit\n\ncomes.\n\nMoreover, your lessons are needed as a\n\npractical guide for the child, and it is better to forestall a mistake than to\n\nremedy it.\nJust what these lessons should be we are not yet prepared to say with\nany great assurance. Our experience has not been sufficiently extensive.\nIt would seem, however, that the following ground should be covered:\nHow eggs and sperms are produced, their conjugation and the resulting\ninheritance of qualities from both parents equally, the development of the\nembryo, birth, the importance of breast nursing, venereal diseases, the\nvarious ways in which these are communicated and how they may be\navoided, practical care of the sex organs, menses, night emissions.\n\nThe conduct side of the subject is even more important than the physioIt goes almost without saying that we should insist on the law\nof chastity, one standard for both boys and girls, and that we should use\n\nlogical.\n\nevery art to bring them to accept this law as a guiding principle in their\nlives.\nWith this must go the practice of pure thoughts and clean words.\nIt is a great thing to establish this foundation, but this is only the beginning\n\nI would not have our boys and girls assume the circumspect demeanor of grown-ups. Their hoydenish ways are normal and\nwholesome. But there are many uncouth practices common that are not\nconsonant with the most refined conduct between the sexes. Boys must\nbe taught to exercise a radical self-restraint in every relation to girls. So\n\nof conduct training.\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": "473", "text": "THE TEACHER AND SEX HYGIENE\n\nDepartment]\n\n473\n\nmany of them think that they are within the law if they stop short of\nfornication.\n\nThey must learn to permit themselves no actions that lower\n\ntheir respect for themselves or their reverence for girls.\n\nAnd girls must be\n\ntaught that, altho a free camaraderie with boys is desirable, a jolly fellowship in work and in play, there must never be permitted the least encroachment on their reserve, the least suggestion of indelicacy or of familiarity of\nperson.\n\nThese lessons of sex physiology, hygiene, and conduct, which appeal\nso personally to the pupils, will be given mostly and perhaps entirely to\n\nAltho a man might give\n\nclasses in which the boys and girls are separate.\n\nthe lessons to the girls, it would be at some violence to their innate reserve.\n\nAltho a woman might, and in the absence of a man should, give the lessons\nto the boys, a man could do it with more freedom.\n\nWhat I have said about the work in the seventh and eighth grades makes\nit unnecessary to dwell long on the instruction in the first two years of high\n\nThe lessons on sex in the elementary grades were incidental.\nThey made no attempt at completeness or at organizing the facts into a\nconsistent and significant whole. The hygienic precepts were such as the\nschool.\n\nchild needed immediately for his personal guidance.\n\nIn the high school the\n\nmore developed mind of the older child requires a more systematic treatment of the subject. The study of physiology or of biology has made the\nchild familiar with the general principles of life.\nReproduction must be\nexplained in terms of this knowledge.\n\nAll thru biology reproduction is\n\ntaught in its evolutionary aspects, and the pupil sees the simple processes\nof the lower forms of life replaced step by step by the more complicated and\nmore efficient forms which prevail in the higher animals, with the cul-\n\nmination of the whole in the mammal;\nwith the other studies of life\n\nall this,\n\nremember, in connection\n\n—food-getting, devices for respiration, pro-\n\ntection from enemies, etc., so that no imdue prominence is given to repro-\n\nduction.\n\nThe physiology class, after having studied the other activities of the\nbody, quite without any fuss or question, proceeds to study human reproduction.\n\nAnd with this study goes a discussion, as thoro as the age of the\n\npupils permits, of the social dangers and duties that pertain to this function;\n\nand also there is made an appeal to the boys and girls, by all they regard\nmost holy, to live the life that will keep them pure souls in sound bodies\nand bring happiness to those they love.\nBoys and girls change rapidly during their high-school life. During\ntwo or three adolescent years they grow entirely out of their childish way\nof looking at sex matters.\nThe subject takes on a personal aspect. They\nbegin to feel the stirring of the tender passion. Courtship and marriage\nseem very near to them. They are beginning to take the weight of the\nworld on their shoulders. No problems are too big for them to tackle, no\ncrusade too great for their chivalry.\n\nThe instruction that is sufficient in\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": "474", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n474\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe first and second years is entirely inadequate in the fourth.\n\nThe boys\n\nand girls just before graduation need to go over once more the subject of\nsex life.\n\nThis time it will be mainly from the standpoint of personal and\n\nsocial needs and duties.\n\nwell\n\ndone there\n\nwill\n\nbe\n\nIf the work earlier in the high-school course was\nlittle\n\nto\n\nadd\n\nto the physiology\n\nand hygiene,\n\nbut there will be much of practical value to add for those who are going\ninto the world to share in its burdens\n\nand privileges, to marry and rear\n\nfamilies.\n\nI cannot here lay out a systematic scheme for these lessons.\n\nmerely suggest some of the topics.\n\nI shall\n\nFrom the voter's standpoint, there is\n\nthe alliance between vice and politics; there is the policy of tolerance and\n\nattempted regulation versus a strong campaign for extermination; there is\nthe question of what legal methods are most efficient, and what to do with\noffenders.\n\nFrom the hygienic standpoint there are questions of reporting\nof forcing into hospitals those who need hospital care;\n\ninfectious cases;\n\nand of how to protect the innocent from germs of venereal disease.\nsidered morally, how can the debauchery of youth be stopped ?\n\nCon-\n\nHow can\n\ngirls, unwilling victims, be saved from the spoiler ?\n\nThe questions relating to the personal life of law-abiding young men and\nyoung women are of even more immediate interest, are less discussed, and\nless understood.\nIt is not enough that a young man in love should be\nwarned to observe the seventh commandment. Both he and the young\nwoman should understand the difference between affection and passion.\nThey should be taught how to cultivate a maximum of the former with a\nminimum of the latter. We have a few rules of conduct that young people\npick up in some way or other and observe with more or less care in public,\nbut most of our youth are woefully ignorant of what conduct is wise. They\nhave no rationally established principles that will lead them to act wisely\nin the particular situations that arise any day.\nAnd how are they to learn\nthe principles if we do not teach them ?\nThe number of divorces and the greater number of unhappy marriages\nbear out the statement that in nothing do we need the help of wise teachers\nmore than in the matter of choosing a life mate. It is unlikely that a\nteacher will be asked to advise concerning individuals, but the controlling\nprinciples in the matter should be established by rational discussion.\n\nNow, I have never followed completely the scheme I have just sketched.\nBut I have repeatedly given the main parts, and, from the vantage ground\nof experience, I can see wherein my work has been incomplete, and what\nis wanted to round it out to a perfect whole.\n\nSo I have sketched the whole,\n\nnot merely the part we have done.\n\nNo one can measure the full effect of any instruction; yet the evidence\nwe get by honestly seeking the truth in this matter is so overwhelmingly\nfavorable that everyone, so far as I can learn, who knows the facts is convinced. Our experience, nearly five years, is not so extended as we could\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": "475", "text": "SOME EXPERIMENTS IN SEX EDUCATION\n\nDepartment]\n\nwish, yet it is worth reams of a priori argument.\n\n475\n\nLet me state a few plain\n\nfacts that no one can controvert about the way the lessons are received.\n\nThe parents in overwhelming numbers favor the work. About i to 3\nper cent ask to have their children excused. The children, with scarcely\nan exception, catch the clean spirit in which the lessons are given. They\nlisten eagerly,\n\nask pertinent questions, and show no tendency to distort\n\nlewdly any of the teachings.\n\nNow as to the results! Many unsolicited letters are received from the\nparents testifying to the good effects of the lessons.\n\nThe only ones who\n\nhave made derogatory criticisms are those whose children did not attend\nthe lessons. No pupil has been known to express regret for having had the\ninstruction.\n\nMany have volunteered expressions of gratitude.\n\nWhen\n\ngiven an opportunity to state their opinions in unsigned letters, the opinions\n\nThe moral tone of the school has\nOne mother who has the confidence of her son called the\n\nwere without exception favorable.\nimproved.\n\nimprovement a revolution. Instead of stimulating conversation on sex\nmatters, the lessons have had the opposite effect as might be expected\nwhen all questions are fully answered and curiosity is allayed. When one\nsophisticated boy was asked whether the instruction had any effect on the\n\n—\n\nnasty stories sometimes told, he replied:\n\n''It has\n\nshut 'em all up.\"\n\nHow\n\ncould the boys find any tang of humor in what the teacher discussed with\nscientific\n\ncandor ?\n\nWe think we notice a more frank and cordial relation\n\nbetween teacher and pupil as a result of these lessons, which the pupils see\n\nThe teachers who have seen most of this work\nand are deepest in the confidences of their pupils are most heartily in its\nfavor.\nSeveral of them have been converted from an opposing stand.\nI know of no one familiar with the results who thinks the work harmful.\nWhen you see in the life about us the terrible results that have come from\nthe policy of silence, how can you doubt that scientific instruction coupled\nwith a strong presentation of moral ideals will bring a more wholesome life\nto the boys and girls ? When you see the outcome in the schools that have\nventured in this new field of service, how can you hesitate to join the\nworkers and bring a like blessing to the youth in your school ?\nclearly are for their good.\n\nSOME EXPERIMENTS IN SEX EDUCATION\nJAMES E. PEABODY, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, MORRIS HIGH\nSCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y.\nLast autumn, while conducting a conference of Massachusetts superintendents, principals, and teachers of biology, the speaker outlined the\n\nfollowing series of propositions relative to sex instruction.\n\nThese were sub-\n\nmitted to Charles W. Eliot, president of the American Federation for Sex\n\nHygiene, and were modified in accordance with his constructive suggestions.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": "476", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n476\n\n[Secondary\n\nThese are the propositions:\nThe normal child seeks to know the source of his being and naturally questions\n\n1.\n\nhis father or mother.\n\nThe average parent either silences all questions relating to these topics or shuffles\n\n2.\n\nin his answers.\n\nSeldom does the child get any satisfaction from this source.\n\nThe child, therefore, turns to other sources of information, and two unfortimate\nresults follow.\nFirst, much of the information he gets is untrue; and, secondly, the\n3.\n\nparent loses a great opportunity to keep in s)anpathetic touch with some of the most vital\n\nproblems of his child.\n\nThere are two reasons, at least, for this \"conspiracy of silence\" on the part of\n\n4.\n\nthe parent:\n\nfirst, his ignorance of the significance of the essential facts of the reproductive\n\nprocess, and, secondly, his incapacity to expound this subject, largely because he has no\n\nwholesome and scientific vocabulary in which to express himself.\n5. Both these needs of the parent of tomorrow should be supplied in courses in\nbiology which treat of the function of reproduction as a universal and beneficent process\nof all living things. And we might add that biology is the only subject in which these\nfacts can be presented in a normal way.\n6. Not only does the child need to know in dean and wholesome terms the essential\nfacts of reproduction, but even more thru the stormy days of youth does he need parental\ncounsel.\nIt is during this period that self-abuse becomes very prevalent.\nAt this time\nthe mother should give wise counsel to the daughter relative to the periodic physiological\nexperiences that are to occur. The father, too, should prepare the boy for the experiences\nof seminal emissions which frequently frighten the youth and drive him to the quack\ndoctor. The boy should be taught that these experiences, unless they occur several\ntimes a week, are perfectly normal and cause no harm. The youth, too, should be\nimpressed with the fact that health and virility are in no way impaired by lack of sexual\nintercourse.\n\nThe fearful prevalence of syphilis and gonorrhea is becoming an increasing peril\nGonorrhea is said by eminent physicians to be a\nfrequent cause of sterility in marriage and to be the direct cause of many operations\namong married women. Most of the cases of blindness of the newborn are due to this\n7.\n\nto our civilization, especially in cities.\n\ndisease.\nOf syphilis and its attendant woes too black a picture cannot be painted. Even\namong the picked young men who enter college, sexual immorality with its constant\ndanger of infection is surprisingly common. Yet the average parent gives absolutely no\n\nwarning of these perils to either son or daughtet.\n8. It is therefore evident that in every community the teacher, the physician, and\nthe clergy should do all in their power to arouse the parents of today to some sense of\ntheir responsibility in these matters. This may be done by talks with individual parents,\n\nby small conferences of interested fathers or mothers, and by a distribution among\nparents of carefully selected books or pamphlets in which the facts are presented in a\nthoro, wholesome fashion.\n\nIn the judgment of the speaker, who has taught biology in the high schools for\n\n9.\n\nover twenty years, it is entirely practicable and wise to present in biological courses the\nexplanation of the reproductive processes of plants and of animals even as high as the\nbirds,\n\nand the average boy or girl will be able to apply the facts and principles thus\n\nacquired to the reproduction of human beings.\n10.\n\nSex hygiene, however, is an entirely different matter.\n\nIt involves discussion of\n\nthe personal problems of girls and boys, problems which most of them have not discussed\neven with parents or the family physician. And it is this aspect of sex education which\n\nwe as teachers hesitate to enter upon in the classroom, at least until a somewhat clearer\ntrail has been blazed for us.\n\nYet it is this very kind of practical instruction that is sorely\n\nneeded by our boys and girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": "477", "text": "Department]\n\nSOME EXPERIMENTS IN SEX EDUCATION\n\n477\n\nIn the first place it may be pertinent to ask why it should be expected that the\naverage teacher, especially one who is young and unmarried, should be any better fitted\nto give this instruction to boys and girls than are the parents. And even tho the teacher\n\nmay have received adequate instruction in sex hygiene, the problem of presenting th«\nneeded information is most diflScult.\nIn New York City over 46 per cent of the high-school pupils are taught in classes\nwhere boys and girls recite together, and in the smaller cities and towns of the country\nmixed classes are almost universal. But, urge the advocates of sex hygiene, we should\nseparate the two sexes and then give the necessary instruction.\n\nIf much definite teaching\n\nof the subject is to be given in the public schools, this separation must of course be made,\n\nbut experience has shown that when one part of a division has been isolated for special\ninstruction, unfortunate self-consciousness seems to be the inevitable result.\nII. That the subject may be taught in such a way as to influence the life of our boys\nand girls the instruction must be given by men and women who have high ideals. It was\nEmerson, was it not, who said, \"What you are speaks so loud that I cannot hear what\nyou say\" ? It is useless and worse, then, for a frivolous mother, or immoral father, or a\ncharacterless teacher to attempt to enter this field of sacred duty. For to be successful\nhere mere knowledge is not enough. Who knows more of the great facts relative to the\ntransmission of life than does a doctor? But do we go to the medical school for high\nEven the churches, alas, are not always free from sin in these matters.\nideals of virtue ?\nThe problem, I repeat, can be faced successfully only when parents, pastors, and pedagogs co-operate wholeheartedly in this great movement.\n\nI shall take for granted that the majority of\n\nmy hearers agree to these\n\neleven propositions that I have outlined, and shall not, therefore, take time\nto defend them.\n\nInstead, may I first ask your attention while I give some\n\naccount of the method of sex instruction we have followed with the children\nin our own home ?\n\nLater, I should like to discuss some of the work in the\n\nbiology classes in the Morris High School and some of the conferences that\n\nhave been held with groups of our older boys and girls outside of school\nhours.\n\nIn our own family we first met the problem of sex education before the\nchildren were five years old.\n\nFortunately, when they were reaching this\n\nquestioning age, we were spending the summer on a New Hampshire farm\n\nwhen the dog, Fido, had her litter of puppies. The eager interrogations of\nthe children were answered frankly and as fully as seemed necessary, and\ntheir natural curiosity was satisfied.\nAfter their return to the city, on\nlearning of the birth of a little child in a neighboring apartment, they said,\nin the most matter-of-fact way, \"Oh, yes, just like Fido!\"\ntial facts of maternity had\n\nand so the essen-\n\nevidently become suflSiciently clear to the little\n\npeople.\n\nSoon, however, came the insistent questions relating to fatherhood, and\nthese interrogations were answered for the eight-year-olds by an interesting\nagricultural experiment that we carried on all unwittingly.\n\nWe had built\n\nour home in a suburban community where there is ample space for the\n\nThe small boy wished to do a bit of gardening\non his own account, and so he secured from the United States Bureau of\nAgriculture, at Washington, some choice popcorn which he planted, hoed,\n\ntypical commuter's garden.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": "478", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n478\n\n[Secondary\n\nand tended in his own corner of the house plot. Not far away his father\nsowed the sweet corn needed by the family. When the autumn came and\nthe two crops were gathered, there was an astonishing mix-up of kernels;\nfor we found sweet-pop-corn and pop-sweet-corn, and seemingly all possible\nintermediate stages.\n\nThe material needed for teaching the boy the significance of the paternal\nfunction was now right at hand, and the boy and his father spent a Sunday\n\nmorning\n\nin interpreting the experiments.\n\nPollen was shown under the\n\nmicroscope, and the processes of cross pollination and of fertilization of\n\negg cells were discussed in a simple fashion.\n\nThe sex relations in the poultry\n\nyard were referred to, and the necessity of male birds to insure fertile eggs\n\nwas made clear.\n\nThe attention of the boy was then called to the charac-\n\nteristics of eyes, hair, and complexion which he himself had inherited from\n\neach of his parents and grandparents, and emphasis was laid upon the\n\nmust be kept\nfor\nthe\nfunction\nfor\nwhich\nthey\nsacred\nwere\nintended.\nLater\nand\nclean\nemissions\npossible\nseminal\nand\nthe\ndangers\nof\nsensual\ncounsel\nas\nto\ncame the\nfact that the organs set apart for the transmission of life\n\nindulgence even in unclean reading, pictures, or thoughts.\n\nThe response\n\nof the boy has been only what any father who has kept his boy as a boon\n\ncompanion ought to expect, and no greater reward could be sought or\nreceived than his oft-repeated exclamation: \"My father and I are pretty\ngood friends.\"\nIn a similar way the daughter was prepared by her mother for the\nphysiological experience of menstruation.\n\nWhen it came and the brother\n\nwas told its significance, a far more chivalrous care of his sister became\nevident in his conduct. All of this is perhaps so simple and commonplace\nan experience in many of your homes that you may think it not worth the\ntelling.\n\nBut if the experiences with our children convince even one of my\n\ndoubting hearers that the parent who would have and hold the confidence\nof his child must cast aside the \"policy of silence,\" then the last few minutes\nwill not have been spent in vain.\n\nShall we turn now to a consideration of the aspects of sex education that\n\nmay well be presented in the school ?\n\nIn this 'discussion I shall confine\n\nmyself to the high-school period, for I have had only a limited experience in\ngiving biological instruction either in the elementary school or in the\ncollege.\n\nIn the New York City schools, biology is required thruout the first\nyear of the high school, and just as much time in the curriculum (namely,\nfive periods per week) is assigned to this subject as is given to English,\n\nmathematics, or a foreign language.\n\nA similar time allotment is becoming\n\nmore and more the rule thruout New York state.\n\nIn outlining the course\n\nin elementary biology, our committee of teachers has constantly aimed to\n\nbring into the foreground the relations of biology to human welfare.\n\nHence,\n\nwe are spending relatively little time in teaching these young people com-\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": "479", "text": "SOME EXPERIMENTS IN SEX EDUCATION\n\nDepartment]\n\n479\n\nparative morphology, microscopic anatomy, and theories of evolution.\n\nInstead\n\nwe emphasize\n\nthe functions of\n\ndigestion, assimilation, respiration,\n\nall\n\n—food-getting,\n—and we devote a\n\nliving things\n\nand reproduction\n\nlarge amount of time to the economic importance of plants and animals, to\n\nthe necessity of tree preservation, insect extermination, bird protection, to\nthe hygiene of the teeth and skin, to healthful diet, eflScient ventilation,\n\nprevention of disease, and to hygienic habits of study.\n\nThat our students\n\non the whole are thoroly interested in this subject is evidenced by the fact\nthat when over three hundred of those in the first part of the second year\n\nwere asked which of their four first-year subjects they enjoyed most, the\n\nanswer of 53 per cent was \"biology.\"\n\nOnly 34 per cent, however, stated\n\nthat biology was their easiest subject.\n\nWe have just introduced a new elective of five periods a week for our\nthird- and fourth-year students which is devoted to comparative physiology,\n\npersonal hygiene, home and city sanitation.\n\nIn our own school there are\n\nseven divisions of students, over 160 boys and girls,\n\nwho are following\n\nand here we have abundant opportunities to be of service in\nthe training of those who are to be the teachers and homemakers of\ntomorrow in the wide applications of biology to human welfare.\nSuch is the field that has opened up to us biology teachers. And in\npresenting the subject we believe we are helping our boys and girls to answer\nsome of the deepest questions of their lives namely, those that concern\n\nthis course,\n\n—\n\nthe perpetuation of life.\n\nIn the plant study we lay a broad foundation for\n\nthe study of reproduction and introduce terms like sperm cell, egg cell,\nfertilization,\n\nand embryo, which later are employed in considering the\n\nreproductive processes of insects, fishes, frogs, and birds.\n\nIn the elective courses we can carry on this work more in detail, and\n\neven in mixed classes our students discuss in scientific terms, and apparently\nwithout any self-consciousness, the function of reproduction in all groups\nof animals including the mammals.\n\nIn this connection we emphasize the\n\ndeep meaning of the home as a prime factor in evolution, the importance\n\nand the tremendous significance of heredity\nNo part of this study makes a deeper\nimpression than does the contrast between the heritage in the Jonathan\nEdwards and the so-called Kallikak family. Many have been the expresof right choices in marriage,\n\nboth to the individual and to society.\n\nsions of appreciation for this frank presentation of human problems that\n\nhave come to us from our most thoughtful boys and girls.\n\nBut classroom instruction specific even as this does not touch the real\nheart of the sex problem of the adolescent boy; and some of us, remembering the experiences of our own boyhood, have long felt that we ought to\n\ngo much farther with some of the boys whom we had come to know rather\nintimately.\n\nFor the past ten years I have been in charge of the school\n\nprinting squad, and another of our biology teachers, Mr. Mann, has been\n\ncoach of the most successful high-school gun squad in the United States.\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": "480", "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nHere we have a group of fifty to sixty picked boys who know and trust us.\nLast year we divided these boys into groups of eight to fifteen each, and\ninvited them to meet us in one of the laboratories after school hours.\n\nThere\n\nwe reviewed the whole process of reproduction from the lowest organisms\nup thru the flowering plants and the lower vertebrates to man; we told\nthem the meaning of menstruation and of seminal emissions; we warned\nthem of the dangers of sensual indulgence and of the perils of venereal\ndisease; but thniout all our discussions we emphasized the splendid calls\nto chivalry in the treatment of the opposite sex, and the rewards that are\nopen to those who live clean, manly lives.\nThe boys in these conferences have always responded in the finest kind\nIn not a few cases they have told us of their terrors on reading\nof fashion.\n\nquack advertisements, and of their feeling of relief on learning that occasional seminal emissions are only normal experiences.\n\nSeveral of them have\n\nfrankly told us of their fights against self-abuse, of their temporary defeats,\n\nand of the victories they have won.\n\nIf any of you know of a business that\n\npays greater dividends on the investment than that of helping a tempted\nboy to make a man of himself I should like to hear of such an opening.\nUntil I hear of such a job, I shall stick with supreme satisfaction to the\none I now hold. In all this work we are most fortunate in having the\nhearty support and sympathy of Principal Denbigh, of City Superintendent\n\nMaxwell, of Dr. Bardwell, and of others of their associates.\n\nWe men teachers could, of course, do nothing outside the classroom to\ninstruct the girls in these matters, and none of our women teachers thought\n\nthemselves prepared to do this.\n\nThe girls need this personal counsel per-\n\nhaps even more than do the boys, and several of those who were taking the\nadvanced biology asked that further instruction be given. We were most\nfortunate in being able to secure the assistance of Miss Nellie M. Smith,\nwho, as perhaps you know, has written one of the sanest and most wholesome books for girls that has yet appeared The Three Gifts of Life. We\ntold our senior girls that Miss Smith would give her first lecture at 2:45\nin one of the study halls.\n\nSeventy-five girls appeared and for two and a\n\nhalf hours listened to Miss Smith and plied her with questions.\n\nAnd, if\ntheir\nshining\nthey\nleft\nthe\nbuilding,\neyes\nas\nyou\nseen\nwould\nhave\nyou could\nthe\nproblem\nof\nsex\ninstruction\nthat\nwas\nsolved\nconvinced\nso\nbecome\nhave\nthe\nlecture,\nconcerned.\nAt\nsecond\ngirls\ncrowded\nwere\ngirls\nfar as these\n175\ninto the study hall and so eager were those who had missed the first lecture to hear it that they persuaded Miss Smith to come again the next week.\nMiss Smith, knowing my deep interest in the subject, kindly allowed\nme to look over the eighty or more written questions that were handed in.\nMost of them showed real hunger for wholesome information to counteract\nthe misinformation they had received. We count ourselves most fortunate\nin securing Miss Smith's promise to continue this work next year and we\nplan to have conference hours when the girls can consult her as to their\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": "481", "text": "Department]\n\nREORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\nindividual problems.\n\n481\n\nCan you see any possible danger in this movement ?\n\nWe urge our boys and girls to talk over freely with their parents what they\nhave heard, but not to discuss these matters with their schoolmates of\neither sex.\n\nThe whole problem of sex instruction is so tremendous in a great city\nlike\n\nNew York, Chicago, Minneapolis, or St. Paul, that any work the\n\nindividual may do seems likely to be lost in the great shuffle.\n\nIn spite of\n\nthe crying need of widespread sex education, however, I am still in doubt\nas to the efficacy of lectures given by outside physicians or other physiological experts to large groups of students.\n\nThis method, as you know,\n\nwas tried out in Chicago and abandoned.\n\nThe problem is so vital and\n\npersonal that it needs the individual touch and counsel of those whom\n\nstudents already know and trust.\n\nFor most of the plays dealing with the sex problem I have absolutely\nno use, and many of the moving-picture films are probably even more\ndangerous. I have never seen but one of the latter and only two of the\nformer, for why, pray, should we seek to get nutrition or enjoyment from\nsewage ? Let me commend to you, however, either Damaged Goods or The\nBlindness of Virtue.\nI am optimistic enough to believe that at least the next generation of\n\nteachers and parents will be trained to deal with the problem far more\nintelligently and courageously than have we.\n\nTo this end we need to curb\n\nthe reckless agitator for compulsory sex education, to give sane and whole-\n\nsome courses dealing with this problem in all normal schools, colleges, and\ntheological seminaries, to lead our children in the public schools to appreciate something of the far-reaching importance of the process of reproduction, and, above all, to seek in every way to arouse in parents a feeling of\n\nthe deep responsibility to these children and to society which they have\nassumed in bringing their children into being.\n\nCOMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF\nSECONDARY EDUCATION\nMINUTES\nRICHMOND MEETING\nAt the Richmond meeting of the Department of Superintendence the Commission\non the Reorganization of Secondary Education held four sessions as follows:\nWednesday Afternoon, February 25, 19 14. ^The following topics were discussed:\n\"Kow May the Commission Become a Clearing-House for the Results of Successful\nExperiments in High-School Teaching thruout the Country?\" \"Is Such a ClearingHouse Needed?\" \"What Kind of Syllabus Is Helpful When Any High-School Subject\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": "482", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n482\n\nFrank L. Boyden principal, high school, Deer-\n\nIs Undergoing Important Changes?\"\nfield,\n\nMass., then spoke on\n\n(Secondary\n\n\"A Curriculum of Social and Recreational Activities in a\n\nRural High School.\"\n\nThursday Forenoon, February\n\n26,\n\n1914.\n\n—William Orr, deputy commissioner of\n\neducation, Boston, Mass., discussed \"The Aims of the High School in Terms of Social\nUtilities.\"\n\nThis was followed by a paper by Charles H. Johnston, professor of second-\n\nary education. University of Illinois, Urbana, 111., entitled \"Proposals for Terminology.\"\n\nThursday Afternoon, February 26, 19 14.\n\n—^The following program was given: \"How\n\nShould the Time Devoted to Social Studies in the High School Be Divided among\nCommunity Civics, Survey of Vocations, Economics, and History?\" Thomas Jesse\n\n—\n\nJones, specialist in United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.;\n\n\"What Are\n\nthe Claims of Biology to a Place in the Education of Every High-School Boy and Girl?\"\n\n—^James E. Peabody, department of biology, Morris High School, New York, N.Y.;\n\"Credit Courses in Music and School Credit for Private Instruction\" —Will Earhart,\ndirector of music, public schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFriday Forenoon, February\n1914. —^The following program was given: \"The\nUse of English Literature in Moral Education\" —Henry Neumann, Ethical Culture\n27,\n\nSchool, New York, N.Y.; \"Health Education and the Bearing of Physiological Age upon\n\nthe High-School Curriculum\"\n\n—^James H. McCurdy, International Y.M.C.A. Training\n\nSchool, Springfield, Mass.\n\nMINUTES\nST. PAUL MEETING\n\nWednesday Forenoon, July 8, 19 14.\n\n—^The following program was presented: \"Prob-\n\nlems Confronting the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education\"\nClarence D. Kingsley, chairman of the Commission, and high-school inspector, Massachusetts Board of Education, Boston, Mass.; \"Report of the Committee on Modem\nLanguages\" Frederick S. Hemry, Tome School, Port Deposit, Md.; \"Report of the\nConmiittee on Music\" Osbourne McConathy, director, public school music department,\nSchool of Music, Northwestern University, Evanston, lU.; \"Report of the Committee\n\n—\n\non Agriculture\"\n\n—\n\n—A. V. Storm, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn., chairman.\n—\n—\n\nWednesday Afternoon, July 8, 1914. ^The following program was given: \"Report\nThomas Jesse Jones, specialist in the United States\nof the Committee on Social Studies\"\nBureau of Education, Washington, D.C., chairman; \"Report of the Committee on EngE. H. K. McComb, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind.\nThursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914. The Commission met in joint session with the\nDepartment of Science Instruction and the \"Report of the Subcommittee on Biology\"\nwas presented by James E. Peabody, head of department of biology, Morris High School,\n\nlish\"\n\n—\n\n—\n\nNew York, N.Y., chairman.\n\n—\n\nThursday Afternoon, July 9, 1914. The following program was presented: \"Report\nFrank M. Leavitt, professor of industrial education,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111., chairman. Discussion: Wilson H. Henderson,\ndirector of industrial education, Hammond, Ind.; \"Report of the Committee on Household Arts\" Lilla Frick, supervisor of domestic science, Minneapolis, Minn.\nPreliminary reports of the various committees of this Commission were published\nby the United States Bureau of Education, as Bulletin No. 41, igij, entitled \"The Re-\n\nof the Committee on Manual Arts\"\n\n—\n\n—\n\norganization of Secondary Education.\"\n\nFurther reports of these committees\n\nwill\n\npublished by the United States Bureau of Education.\n\nClarence D. Kingsley, Chairman\n\nbe\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": "483", "text": "Department]\n\nREORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\n483\n\nPROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\nCLARENCE D. KINGSLEY, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMISSION, AND HIGH-SCHOOL\nINSPECTOR, MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS.\nThis Commission grew out of the attempt made several years ago\nto help bring about a satisfactory articulation of high school and college.\n\nSuch an articulation is now in sight, because of the recognition of the\nprinciple that secondary education should be planned with greater refer-\n\nence to the normal mental processes of youth from fourteen to eighteen\nyears of age.\n\nIt is\n\nnow believed that various high-school curriculums\n\nplanned carefully in accordance with the psychology of adolescence and\nguided by the aims furnished by a sound social economy will offer the best\npossible foundation for advanced general or vocational education conducted\n\nby college or technical school.\n\nThis Commission, therefore, is now con-\n\nfronted with problems arising in the attempt to\n\nwork out well-planned\n\nhigh-school curriculums.\n\nTo accomplish this purpose the Commission contains ten subjectcommittees, each of which is to formulate the aims in that subject and to\nsuggest appropriate methods and materials to be used in the accomplish-\n\nment of these aims.\n\nThe Commission also contains a committee on the\n\narticulation of high school and college,\n\nwhich will present to the colleges\n\na statement of the findings of the subject-committees, to the end that\ncollege-entrance credits may be secured for those courses which best meet\n\nthe needs of high-school pupils.\n\nThe Commission also contains a review-\n\ning committee which will attempt to formulate the general aims of secondary\n\neducation and in the light of these aims will criticize the work of the various\n\ncommittees. This morning reports will be presented by committees on\nmodern languages, music, and agriculture; this afternoon, on social studies\nand English; tomorrow afternoon, on manual training and household\nThe committee on science and four of its subcommittees will report\narts.\ntomorrow in meetings of the Department of Science Instruction, the subcommittee on biology reporting in the morning, and the committee on\nscience and the subcommittees on general science, chemistry, and geography\nreporting in the afternoon.\n\nEach committee, in formulating the aims which should prevail in its\nsubject, has attempted to make these aims specific and to express them in\n\nterms of the effect to be produced upon the boy or girl either in the power\nto execute or in the ability to appreciate rather than in terms of subject-\n\nmatter to be mastered.\n\nThis change in aims was recognized a year and a\n\nhalf ago as the guiding principle of the Commission.\n\nStated briefly, the\n\nCommission is to think in terms of boys and girls rather than in terms of\nsubject-matter. Thus, subject-matter becomes the means to the end rather\nthan the end itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": "484", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n484\n\nISecondary\n\nBy specific aims we mean aims such as the following:\nIn English, the ability to write a concise business letter dealing with a\ndefinite business situation;\n\nthe ability to write an interesting friendly\nand the development of a background of insight\nmaking possible the appropriation of the message of an author.\nIn history, the appreciation of the development of the rights of the\nletter to fit any occasion;\n\nindividual as achieved by the Anglo-Saxon.\n\nIn biology, the realization of the importance of the various food elements\nin sustaining plant, animal,\n\nand human life.\n\nIn civics, a point of view that will lead to co-operation with the local\ncharity organization society.\n\nIn household arts, the knowledge and skill that will lead the woman\nto spend the family income wisely.\nSpecific aims such as these, thus stated, suggest appropriate methods\n\nto be used and assist in the selection of subject-matter, or, at least, open\n\nthe way for profitable discussions regarding methods and subject-matter.\nAffecting the\n\nwork of all the committees, there are certain general\n\nproblems with which the Commission as a whole must deal, such as the\nfollowing:\n\nThe terminology of secondary education\nThe construction of a general curriculum and vocational curriculums\n3. The articulation of general and vocational education\n4. The extension of secondary education downward to youth of twelve years of age\n1.\n\n2.\n\n5.\n\nConcentration in the work of the individual pupil\n\n6.\n\nSpontaneous activities to develop appreciation\n\n7.\n\nThe needs of smaller high schools\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\nThe lack of adequate terminology is one of the hindrances to the\nsolution of problems in secondary education.\n\nConfusion is seen in the\n\ncurrent use of such a common term as \"course of study.\"\n\nThis term is\n\nused in at least three distinct senses, for two of which it is proposed that\nother terms be substituted.\n\nIt is used to cover the entire offering of a\n\ngiven school, for which it is proposed that the term \"program\" be substituted.\n\nIt is used to include all the studies pursued by a certain group of\n\npupils such as the \"commercial course,\" for which it is proposed that the\nterm \" curriculum \" be substituted. It is also used for the work in a certain\nsubject, like Latin for instance, to be pursued by a group of pupils in not\n\nmore than one year.\n\nThe last named is the meaning to which it is proposed\n\nthat this term henceforth be limited.\n\nThe difficulty in framing definitions is seen in the case of \"high school\"\nowing to the following questions which arise:\ninclude private institutions or only\n(2)\n\nShould\n\nit\n\ninclude trade schools?\n\nthose\n(3)\n\n(i)\n\nShould the definition\n\nsupported by the public?\n\nShould an institution\n\ning a course of less than four years be called a high school ?\n\noffer-\n\n(4) If the\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": "485", "text": "REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\nDepartmcntl\n\nelementary-school course is restricted to six years,\n\n485\n\nhow many years of\n\ninstruction must a school offer beyond this course in order to be called a\n\nhigh school ?\n\n(5)\n\nWherever the California plan of extending the instruc-\n\ntion of the so-called high school up to the junior year of the college be\n\nadopted, should the definition of high school be so framed as to make it\npossible to include this advanced instruction ?\nIt is important that the terminology of secondary education should be\n\nformulated by those who are interested primarily in secondary education,\n\nbut before final action is taken conferences should be held with those engaged\nin formulating the terminology of other forms of education.\n\nIt is hoped\n\nthat Commissioner Claxton will take the initiative in bringing about such\n\nan agreement.\n\nTHE GENERAL CURRICULUM AND VOCATIONAL CURRICULUMS\n\nHave we not reached the stage in secondary education when we should\nplan a general curriculum and vocational curriculums to meet the needs\nof various groups of pupils instead of simply outlining independent\n\nunrelated courses in various subjects?\ngeneral curriculum\n\nIs it not\n\nand\n\nnow desirable that the\n\nshould contain such practical subjects as manual\n\ncommercial geography, and agricultural science,\nand that these courses should be regarded as a part of general education\nand be distinguished from more technical courses which are definitely\norganized to develop efficiency in a clearly recognized and sharply defined\nvocation ? If such a distinction is desirable, by what term may the more\ngeneral courses be designated? \"Practical arts\" has been suggested and\ntraining, household arts,\n\nis\n\nnow used in certain parts of the country for this purpose.\nWith the understanding that the general curriculum\n\nwill\n\ninclude\n\ncourses in practical arts, such as manual training and household arts, is\nit not true that the majority of pupils\n\nup to the age of sixteen will and should\n\nmajority of pupils under sixteen\nhave not yet made such choice of a definite vocation as to justify them in\ntransferring from the general to a vocational curriculum, then the planning\nof the general curriculum becomes a matter of great importance in secondary\n\npursue the general curriculum?\n\neducation.\n\nIf the\n\nThis curriculum should furnish those conamon elements of\n\neducation that are needed by all members of society whatever may be their\nchoice of vocation;\n\nit\n\nshould help the pupil choose his vocation wisely;\n\nand it should provide electives whereby each pupil may secure elements\nof culture along the line of his special aptitude and ability.\nThe general curriculum of the future will, therefore, differ widely from\nthe traditional college curriculum.\n\nThe place occupied by each of the high-\n\nschool subjects in this curriculum will depend largely on the degree to which\n\nthose familiar with that subject demonstrate its value in reaching the ends\nof general education.\n\nThe present tendency seems to be to give greater\n\nplace to English literature, English composition, both written\n\nand oral,\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": "486", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n486\n\n[Secondary\n\nsocialized history, economics, community civics, general science, elementary\n\nbiology, agricultural science, and household arts.\n\nIn planning the work in each subject in the general curriculum, it is\nimportant that the pupil who takes only one year in the subject shall\nsecure definite and tangible values;\n\nthat the pupil taking two years shall\n\nspend those years to the utmost advantage and at the same time lay a\nsatisfactory foundation for the work that\n\nschool courses, especially\n\nmay follow.\n\nHeretofore high-\n\nwhen planned with reference to admission to\n\ncollege, have been conspicuous for their deferred values, altho it has been\n\nwell recognized that only a small proportion of pupils\n\nwho have taken\n\nthese courses have continued their work to the point where those deferred\n\nvalues could be realized.\n\nIn organizing vocational curriculums, such as vocational agricultural,\ncommercial, industrial, and homemaking curriculums, innumerable prob-\n\nlems arise.\n\nCan the Commission assist in the solution of some of these\n\nproblems at least in so far as such solution may be applicable to all parts\nof the country ?\n\nTHE ARTICULATION OF GENERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nWith the increasing attention devoted to definite vocational education\nand the recognition of practical arts as a part of general education, many\nproblems arise regarding the articulation of general and vocational education,\n\n(i)\n\nShould the individual be encouraged to complete his general\n\neducation before commencing his vocational education, or should plans\n\nbe worked out whereby these two forms of education will be successfully\n(2) To what extent can and\n\npursued simultaneously by the individual?\n\nshould practical arts as a part of general education contribute broadly\nto the vocational efficiency of the individual?\n\n(3)\n\nShould vocational\n\nguidance be regarded as a part of general education and how may it be\n\nconducted so as to succeed in its purpose ?\n\nTHE EXTENSION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\nThe traditional plan of devoting eight years to elementary education\nis\n\nOn the one hand, if the committees fail\n\nrapidly becoming obsolete.\n\nto take this fact into consideration their reports will be defective where\n\nthe elementary-school course has been shortened;\n\non the other hand, if\n\nthe committees assume the shortened school course, their reports will be\ndefective where eighth-grade system persists.\n\nConsequently\n\nit\n\nwill\n\nbe\n\nnecessary for each committee in preparing its report to indicate how its\n\nrecommendations may be adjusted so as to meet the needs of schools under\nboth plans.\n\nCONCENTRATION IN THE WORK OF THE INDIVIDUAL PUPIL\n\nThe Commission should also make a study of the degree of concentration that should exist in pupils\n\n'\n\nprograms.\n\nAt the present time, there is\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": "487", "text": "Department]\n\nREORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\nwide variation in practice.\n\n487\n\nMany schools are organized on the four-\n\nsubject plan; that is, the pupil of average ability concentrates his attention\n\nupon four subjects in a given year, each subject being conducted by means\nof daily exercises, part of which may be double laboratory or shop periods.\nIn other school systems, five subjects are carried simultaneously, part or\nall of\n\nthese subjects having fewer than five exercises per week.\n\nIn still\n\nother systems, especially in some of the larger cities, the energy of the pupil\nis\n\ndivided among more than five subjects.\n\nIt is important that a\n\nstudy\n\nshould be made of the comparative results of these different plans.\n\nSPONTANEOUS ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP APPRECIATION\n\nA problem in the solution of which, as yet, we have very little experience\nto guide us consists in determining the place that should be given to spon-\n\ntaneous activities designed to develop appreciation of music, art, and literature.\n\nIn one school every girl is required to belong to one of several clubs,\n\nthese clubs meeting for an hour at three o'clock four days a week.\n\nEach\n\nclub is under the direction of a teacher who allows the girls freedom in the\n\nwhich appeal to their interests.\n\nselection of activities\n\nplan\n\nis\n\nadopted, there\n\nis\n\nUnless some such\n\ndanger either that work designed to develop\n\nappreciation will be neglected or that it will be conducted so formally as\nto fail in the accomplishment of its purpose.\n\nIt is desirable that various\n\nexperiments should be made in the solution of this problem and that the\nresults should be carefully collected and evaluated.\n\nTHE NEEDS OF SMALLER HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nThe needs of smaller high schools should receive special consideration\nby this Commission.\n\nIt has too frequently\n\nhappened in the past that\n\nreports of national committees have been written with the resources of the\nlarger high schools in mind, because the\n\nwere drawn largely from these schools.\n\nmembers of these committees\n\nThis has been due to the fact that\n\ncapable teachers who\nordinarily find their\n\ncommence their work in the smaller high schools\nway to the larger high schools, leaving the former\n\nschools largely in the hands of inexperienced or less capable teachers.\n\nFor\n\nthis very reason the smaller high schools are in need of greater assistance\n\nthan the larger high schools.\n\nIn addition to the inexperience of the teachers,\n\nthe smaller high schools often have to conduct their work with meager\n\nequipment, and consequently committees in outlining courses should bear\nthis limitation in mind.\n\nIn the smaller high schools, it frequently happens\n\nthat certain subjects, such as physics and chemistry, should be offered in\nalternate years,\n\nand consequently committees should indicate how these\n\ncourses may be conducted so that the work in one course will not necessarily\n\nbe dependent on the work in the other.\n\nThe efficiency of any teacher is seriously jeopardized when such teacher\nis\n\nrequired to offer instruction in too many subjects.\n\nConsequently in a\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": "488", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n488\n\n[Secondary\n\nsmall high school with only two, three, or four teachers, it is a matter of\n\nfundamental importance that the courses to be taught should be carefully\nselected and that those selected should be so organized as to meet the needs\nof as many pupils as possible.\n\nHence the Conomission should devote much\n\nattention to the organization of courses each of which will meet the needs\nof many pupils.\n\nCONFERENCE OF HIGH-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nThursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914.\n\n—In connection with the\n\nSt. Paul meeting, P. P.\n\nClaxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C., called a Confer-\n\nence of High-School Principals.\n\nAbout two himdred principals and others interested\n\nin secondary education were present.\n\nCommissioner Claxton stated that he called the meeting because he desired to place'\nbefore the high-school principals and others directly interested in secondary education\n\nthe plans that he is formulating to make the United States Bureau of Education of greater\n\nvalue to the secondary schools of the United States.\n\nHe stated that he desired to have\n\nin the Bureau a division on secondary schools to be headed by an assistant commissioner\nof education.\n\nHis belief is that such a division could act as a clearing-house for the\n\nsecondary schools of the country, and that a conunittee of high-school principals could be\nof great assistance in arousing pubhc opinion favorable to the necessary appropriation\n\nand by indicating the service which such a division could render.\nCommissioner Claxton suggested that the meeting organize itself by appointing a\nchairman and secretary so that his proposition might receive formal consideration.\nSchool, JoUet, III. was thereJ. Stanley Brown, superintendent. Township High\n\nupon nominated and elected chairman.\n\nClarence D. Kingsley, high-school inspector,\n\nMassachusetts Board of Education, Boston, Mass., was nominated and elected secretary.\nA motion was made that the chairman and the United States commissioner of education should select a committee of seven to work along the lines indicated by the commissioner.\n\nAfter discussion regarding the size of the committee, an amendment was made\n\nto the original motion that the committee of seven include the chairman and secretary\nof the meeting.\n\nThe original motion as thus amended was carried.\n\nCommissioner Claxton then stated that the idea of calling this meeting occurred to\nhim after receiving requests that the Bureau of Education issue a special series of circular\nletters dealing with secondary education.\n\nIn order to obtain the opinion of the meeting as to the value of such a series of circular letters, Commissioner Claxton asked for an expression of opinion.\n\nAn informal vote\n\nindicated the unanimous opinion that such a series of letters would be valuable. He also\nasked whether those present would be willing to send news items for such circular letters.\n\nAn informal vote indicated willingness to co-operate.\nIt\n\nwas suggested that the committee to be appointed meet at Cincinnati at the\n\ntime of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence.\n\nClarence D. Kingsley, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": "489", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nLaramie, Wyo.\n—C. A. Duniway, president, University of Wyoming\nVice-President—Elles C Sabin,\nMilwaukee-Downer College\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n—Nathaniel Butucr, professor education, University Chicago. .Chicago,\n\nPresident\n\npresident,\n\nSecretary\n\nof\n\nof\n\n.\n\n.\n\n111.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, Jxtly 8, 19 14\nThe department met in the Y.M.C.A. Hall at 2:30 p.m. and was called to order by\nPresident Duniway.\n\nThe secretary of the department being absent, the chair appointed George E. Fellows,\npresident, James Millikin University, Decatur, HI., secretary pro tempore.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\n—\n\n\"Religious Education in Universities\" Frank Strong, chancellor. University of\nKansas, Lawrence, Kans.\n\"The Media of Religious Impression in College\" ^J. Forsyth Crawford, professor\nof philosophy, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.\n\n—\n\nDiscussion:\n\nOhio;\n\nWilliam O. Thompson, president, Ohio State University, Columbus,\n\nWiUiam J. Kerr, president, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.;\n\nJ.\n\nW.\n\nCochran, of the Presbyterian Board of Education; Professor Brigham, Concordia College,\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.; Professor F. P. Ramsey, University of Omaha, Omaha, Nebr.; Professor Wallace, Macalester College, St. Paul, Minn.; John Ford, of the Colored Y.M.C.A.,\nLouisville, Ky.; Henry F. Cope, general secretary. Religious Education Association,\nChicago,\n\n111.;\n\nA. Gideon, professor of\n\nmodem languages. University of Wyoming,\n\nLaramie, Wyo., and others.\n\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\n—^Livingston Farrand, president. University of Colorado, Boulder,\nFor Vice-President—Melvin A. Brannon, president, University of Idaho, Moscow,\nFor President\n\nColo.\n\nIdaho.\n\nFor Secretary—John E. Rouse, head of the School of Education, James Millikin\nUniversity, Decatur, lU.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nGeorge E. Fellows, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nRELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITIES\nFRANK STRONG, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS.\n\nThe late Justice Brewer said that Christianity was part and parcel of\nHe meant by this and other like statements\nthat historic Christianity was the basis upon which we have built our\n\nthe English common law.\n\n489\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": "490", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n490\n\ncivilization, that it governs our whole life.\n\n[Higher\n\nGovernor Baldwin, of Connect-\n\nicut, also said some time ago in the American Historical Review that democ-\n\nracy was introduced into Europe by a man named Paul, meaning that the\nintroduction of the Christian religion into Europe by Paul was the basis\n\nupon which the growth of democracy has taken place. To see that this is\ntrue in general we have but to consider carefully the great economic and\npolitical crises thru which our civilization has passed.\nWhen one considers\nsuch a tremendous change as the Reformation, he finds that the political,\neconomic, and religious elements are so intermixed that they cannot be\n\nTo use other illustrations as remarkable as the first, the\nPuritan Revolution, the growth of millenarian sects in England, and the\nseparated.\n\ndevelopment of the democratic idea in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries show the same thing.\nIf this is all true, our civilization is on the whole a Christian civilization.\nIn fact, we are accustomed to think of Christendom as meaning western\n\nEurope and America. If there were a radical change, our civilization would\nbecome something other than a Christian civilization. It would take on\nanother aspect, guided by different forces, conforming to different standards,\nupheld by different ideals. Christianity and civilization in some sense\nwould have to part company and the historic religion of which we are a\npart would cease to be the great stream which carries along with it the elements of our racial and national life. Undoubtedly we are unwilling to\nhave this change take place. We are opposed to this separation.\nNow schools and colleges have for many centuries been the instrument\nfor handing down to coming generations the accumulated experiences of\nthe past. They have been the vehicle for carrying into the future the\ngreat achievements of the centuries. This tremendous engine which we\ncall\n\nthe school is a determining factor as to whether or not succeeding\n\ngenerations absorb and make their own the fundamental ideals and moral\n\nand religious achievements of the past.\nin large measure\n\nThis in turn is going to determine\nwhether or not historic Christianity is in the future to\n\naffect profoundly and guide our civilization.\n\nIt is going to make a differ-\n\nence to us whether or not the schools are themselves the exponents of a\nChristian civilization.\n\nEducation was for many centuries almost wholly in the hands of the\nchurch.\n\nThe development of democracy, however, as a matter of political\n\ntheory and practice inevitably took the control of education out of the\n\nhands of the church.\n\nMost of us cannot reasonably complain about this,\nwhich we belong, the independent religious\n\nfor the religious bodies to\n\nbodies so largely represented in America at the present time, were in the\n\nseventeenth century directly instrumental in the development of democratic ideas in England which brought about the separation of church and\n\nstate in America and handed over the control of the schools to the state.\n\nWe must remember that while the New England colleges were established\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": "491", "text": "Department]\n\nRELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITIES\n\n491\n\nfor the purpose of training ministers of the gospel, not only Harvard and\n\nYale, but also Columbia and others were in a sense state institutions, being\neither founded or during their early existence in part supported by public\n\ntaxation laid on the freeholders of the community.\n\nThe state or the com-\n\nmonwealth, therefore, very early in our history had a direct relation to\neducation, and in these latter days all education is gravitating largely into\n\nthe hands of the community or the state.\n\nThat church colleges or those on private foundation, almost all of which\nhave had at one time or another important church connections, should consider religious training a part of their work is altogether to be expected;\nbut that state institutions of higher learning should concern themselves\ndirectly, if informally, with the religious training of their students has not\n\nThat denominational institutions do their\nwork in this regard with any greater thoroness and success than statesupported institutions I do not believe. At any rate they do not have the\nsame difficulties to deal with as do state-supported institutions, and the\ndifficult question in regard to religious training in colleges and universities\narises largely in connection with those supported by the state.\nThe moral and religious life of a state university, while just as sound\nso easily found acceptance.\n\nas that in other institutions, is necessarily different.\nis a public institution.\n\nThe state university\n\nIt cannot stand, therefore, as the solicitor for any\n\nreligious sect or religious belief.\n\nOver twenty different religious sects and\n\ndenominations, running the whole gamut of religious thinking, are represented at the university with which I am most familiar. Each must stand\nupon its own foundation, justify itself in its surroundings, and make its\nown way by its own fruits. That is the condition in the world at large.\nThat is the condition of true religious growth, for freedom is absolutely\nnecessary for real religious development. While it is true that the religious\n\nelements of a state university are very diverse, it nevertheless remains true\nthat the overwhelming mass of its student body comes from Christian\nhomes and is affiliated with the religious bodies that have from the beginning made up the great mass of historic Christianity. The institution is,\ntherefore, in fact strongly Christian, and its freedom leads to the most\n\nvaluable kind of religious life on the part of those representing the great\nreligious denominations of our time, while, at the same time, other religious\n\nfaiths find the same congenial atmosphere for the development of the best\n\nside of their\n\nlife,\n\nthe combined result being greater tolerance, greater\n\ngenerosity and co-operation, and a sounder religious life on the part of all.\n\nThere are many methods of religious education in state institutions.\nIt has often been asked what is the ideal method of dealing with this prob-\n\nlem.\n\nIn answer I would say there is no ideal method.\n\nway in which this can be done to the exclusion of others.\nfor all sincere attempts to solve this problem.\n\nthe college Christian associations.\n\nThere is no single\nThere is a place\n\nIn the first place there are\n\nThis has been regarded by some as the\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": "492", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n492\n\n[Higher\n\nexclusive method by which this problem should be solved. I believe that\nexperience has shown that this is not an exclusive method altho a very\n\nimportant one.\n\nThen there are the Bible chairs, semi-formal educational\n\ninstitutions erected contiguous to state universities to give the religious\n\ninstruction barred by law from the state institutions.\n\nMy own opinion is\n\nthat this method has not proved to be wholly successful in experience.\n\nTo\n\nestablish Bible chairs means to set up in a community a separate and someit is to be regretted, a rival institution of the local church.\nThe\nchurch and the Bible chair do not always agree. The leader of the Bible\n\ntimes,\n\nmore advanced in his thought than the\ndenomination that he represents will support. Friction results, a change\nchair proves sometimes to be\n\nis made,\n\nand the operation is all gone over again.\n\nThen there is the method of establishing a real denominational college\ncontiguous to the state university, which, however, confines itself largely\nto subjects that the state institution does not or cannot give, leaving the\nscientific and literary work largely to the state institution.\n\nThis method\nhas been seldom used and it would seem to be thoroly worth trying. But\nthe local jealousies of denominations and of denominational colleges, the\nimwillingness to maintain but a part of an institution, have prevented this\n\nmethod's being tried out as it deserves.\n\nApparently it ought to be advan-\n\ntageous for the denomination and the denominational college, for it would\ngreatly lessen the enormous burden that now falls upon many denominations for the support of small and inadequate colleges.\nIt would provide\na much higher grade of instruction and scientific and literary training for\n\nstudents in denominational colleges, and, what is of no small importance,\nit\n\nwould by its contiguity and influence help to maintain the religious\n\nstatus and the religious life of the state institution.\n\nThen there is a mixed method by which a combination of theological\nschool and denominational college is established contiguous to a state university, leaving nearly all of the collegiate work to the state institution, and\n\ngiving the theological training along with the collegiate training of the\nstudents.\n\nThis also has very evident advantages, and it would seem likely\n\nthat the Bible chairs may develop themselves into theological institutions.\n\nSuch a combination would seem to me to be extremely desirable, since the\ncannot found a theological school. But a theological\nschool is a professional school as truly as a school of medicine or of law,\nwith as high standards and as great historical justification. Why would\nit not be well for denominations now supporting Bible chairs in connection\nwith a state imiversity to unite for the development of a real theological\nstate, of course,\n\ninstitution that shall be a true professional school of the university, not\n\norganically connected with it, to be sure, yet in spirit\n\nand in life a real\n\npart of the institution altho supported by the denomination ?\n\nThen there is the method of university pastors established in the university communities separate from the local church.\n\nHere, again, the\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": "493", "text": "RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITIES\n\nDepartment!\n\ndifficulty\n\nmay at once be imagined.\n\n493\n\nIt often proves difficult in a small\n\nconstituency for the two agencies to work well together and there are signs\nthat this may not prove a permanent method.\n\nThe last method that I shall speak of is that of the university pastor\nappointed by the consent of, and attached to, the local church and under\n\nThis seems to me to be on the whole the most advantageous\nmethod of dealing with the problem. In my opinion, it is a problem that\ninvolves the religious bodies most largely represented in the state institution.\nThese bodies themselves must look after the spiritual interests of\ntheir own people.\nThey are in all conscience and honor bound to do it, and\nthey are forced to do it or lose their hold on the most enterprising and vigorous of their young people. With all of its mistakes and weaknesses, the\nchurch after all has proved to be enormously powerful and long lived. It\nis the most efficient instrument, and in fact it is the only efficient instrument,\nits control.\n\nfor the development of the religious life among men.\n\nIt seems to me there-\n\nfore that any method that is to secure good results in connection with uni-\n\nversity students\n\nmust be based upon\n\nthis old, powerful,\n\nand tenacious\n\ninstitution, and that the solution of a large part of this problem lies with\n\nthe local church with the co-operation and support of the organized denomi-\n\nnation as a whole.\n\nThis plan in an organized form is under way in several\n\nof the most powerful religious bodies in our country.\n\nThe operation of these religious forces in our education tends strongly\nThe college man longs for unity in the Christian\nchurch. He is grieved and disturbed by divisions in Christendom. He\nlooks with ardor for the time when there may be, not uniformity but real\nunity, when the substance of Christian faith may be common property and\nthe basis for a common life. Therefore, he is not strongly denominational.\ntoward Christian unity.\n\nWe must expect that the rising generation will look less and less upon the\nimportance of denominational divisions.\n\nThe whole tendency of our edu-\n\ncation, going as it is into the hands of the state, is throwing together into one\n\ngreat body the Christian young men and women wHo resort to our universities.\n\nThey are necessarily trained to a high degree of co-operation, unity,\n\nand tolerance. Not only is this true of state universities but it is true in\nthe main of all universities and colleges. In a very real sense there are, with\nfew exceptions, no denominational colleges left in our country. Most of our\ncolleges called denominational, while in truth soundly Christian, are no\nlonger bound by denominational tests. Therefore the whole trend of\nmodern education in America is almost certain to further weaken denominational lines and to assist powerfully the movement toward Christian unity.\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": "494", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n494\n\n[Higher\n\nTHE MEDIA OF RELIGIOUS IMPRESSION IN COLLEGE\nJ.\n\nFORSYTH CRAWFORD, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY, BELOIT COLLEGE,\nBELOIT, WIS.\nCollege students receive religious impressions thru various media, of\n\nwhich some are avowedly religious, while others have as their primary\nend some object not thought of as directly religious. The former include\nthe chapel and other services of the college, the work of Christian associations, religious instruction in the classroom\n\ninfluence of churches in the community.\n\nif\n\nsuch is given, and the\n\nAmong the latter are classroom\n\ninstruction in other departments, the reading of the student,\n\nand the\n\ninfluence of companions.\n\nThe worth of these media can be measured only by the impressions\nactually received by the student.\n\nThis is never determined solely by the\n\ncharacter of the media themselves.\n\nThe impression which one interested\n\nin the religious life of the college supposes to\ndifferent from that actually received.\n\nbe received is often wholly\n\nThe very same chapel service, for\n\nexample, may under some conditions produce a wholesome religious impres-\n\nBehind\nall these media, which may with skill be made useful instruments, but\n\nsion and under other conditions produce revulsion or contempt.\n\nare never the primary impressive force, lies the religious spirit of the mem-\n\nbers of the faculty.\n\nIt is this fundamentally that determines the kind of\n\nreligious impression made by these various media.\n\nOur greatest mistake is to forget that these are media.\nconstitute the religious force that molds the student;\n\nthru which that force operates.\n\nThey do not\n\nthey are the media\n\nThey are important, of course.\n\nIt is\n\nimperative that they be not wasted or abused, but be used with utmost\nskill.\n\nBut, in the end, the actual religious effect of them all goes back\n\nalmost solely to the spirit of the teachers.\n\nIt is impossible to evade this.\n\nThere is no substitute for it. Questions of religious organization, worship,\nand instruction in college are vital in their place, but they are simply irrelevant until this primary responsibility has been frankly and adequately\nmet. This responsibility rests both upon college teachers as individuals\nand upon the college policy as a whole.\nThe personality of the college teacher, if it is to be a religious force,\nMere\nrequires a peculiar combination of earnestness and intelligence.\nreligious zeal, without an appreciation of changed religious viewpoints\nand of the precise problems students must face, renders a college teacher\ndangerous.\nstudent.\n\nFanaticism in the teacher will quickly destroy religion in the\n\nBut is not the college losing its opportunity unless, on the other\n\nhand, its teachers are intensely earnest in doing their utmost to secure a\nreligious experience in students and the wholesome development of their\nreligious life ?\n\nIt may, I think, be assumed in this discussion that some type\n\nof religion belongs properly to our civilization.\n\nBut, if so, the leaders of our\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": "495", "text": "RELIGIOUS IMPRESSION IN COLLEGE\n\n495\n\ncollege youth are surely concerned with such a religion.\n\nThey are bound\n\nDepartment]\n\nto enter into it with conviction as a vital experience and to reproduce it\n\ngenuinely in their students.\n\nIf he possess vital religious life and enthusiastic\n\nreligious purpose, the college teacher cannot fail to exert religious power.\n\nA faculty of such teachers cannot fail to create the best media thru which\nto fashion religiously the leaders of the new generation.\nInstitutional policy also bears a responsibility.\n\nIf this\n\nfundamental\n\nissue of religious education in the college is to be met, three things must\n\nbe done.\n\nFirst,\n\nequipment for college work must be such as to produce\n\nteachers of this type.\n\nThe postgraduate study by which men are quite\n\ngenerally prepared for college positions does not for the most part tend to\n\ndo this.\n\nExcellent as\n\nelsewhere.\n\nit\n\nis\n\nin so\n\nmany respects, it places the emphasis\n\nIt does not strongly tend to turn out men who love teaching\n\nfor the sake of teaching,\n\nwho understand students and grip them on the\n\nhigher side of life, and whose supreme ambition is to help to create religious\n\nmen and women.\n\nAs a matter of fact, candidates for college positions,\n\nunless they have already served in less technical teaching, or in the ministry,\n\nor in social service of some other kind, do not always show this interest or\n\npower.\n\nIs it not time to consider seriously the preparation\n\ncommonly\n\noffered for college teaching, and to ask if it cannot be better fitted to the\n\nneeds of college service in this vital respect?\n\nSecond, the selection of\n\nteachers should rest, in larger measure than is sometimes the case, upon\n\nsuch considerations.\n\nDoes not the requirement\n\ndegenerate sometimes into a shibboleth?\n\nof\n\na Doctor's degree\n\nScholarship, of course,\n\nmust\n\nbe maintained; but is scholarship of the prevalent Ph.D. type always the\nbest for the teacher of college undergraduates? Should not a religious\npersonality and a grip on men lie at the heart of his scholarship ?\nso, if\n\nSurely\n\nthe college has any function in molding a civilization with religion\n\nat its core.\n\nThird, there must be some way found more successfully to\n\nfoster and encourage these qualities in the college staff.\n\nLet the force of\n\nreligious impression in college be kept vital at its source.\n\nThen the media\n\nof religious impression will be used wisely and with effect.\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": "496", "text": ""}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": "497", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nRICHMOND MEETING\nOFFICERS\nPresident—J. G. Crabbe, president, State Normal School\nVice-President—V. S. Conn, president, State Normal School\nSecretary W. T. Carrington, president. State Normal School\n\n—\n\nRichmond, Ky.\nWayne, Nebr.\nSpringfield, Mo.\n\nFIRST SESSION ^Wednesday Afternoon, February 25, 19 14\nThe Department of Normal Schools met in the auditorium of the Jefferson Hotel,\nRichmond, Va., at 2:00 p.m. with President J. G. Crabbe in the chair.\nThe meeting was called to order by the president.\nDavid Felmley, president, State Normal University, Normal, 111., presented the\nfirst paper, on \"The Reorganization of the Normal-School Curriculum.\"\nThis was followed by two papers on \"The Preparation of Teachers and Supervisors\nfor the Industrial Branches and Other Special Lines,\" by Lawrence J. Corbly, president,\nMarshall College, Huntington, W.Va., and J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal\nSchool, River Falls, Wis.\n\nPapers were presented on the subject, \"Extension Work in Normal Schools,\" by\nEdward T. Mathes, principal. State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash., Harvey C.\nMinnich, dean, Ohio State Normal College, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, and Henry G.\nWilliams, dean. State Normal College, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, February 26, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 00 p.m. in the auditorium of the Jefferson Hotel,\n:\n\nwith President Crabbe in the chair.\n\nThe general topic for discussion was \"The Twentieth-Century Normal School.\"\nUnder this topic, the first paper presented was by John R. Kirk, president, State\nNormal School, Kirksville, Mo., entitled \"The Twentieth-Century Normal School.\"\nCarroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., then presented\na paper entitled \"The Twentieth-Century Normal School New Branches of Study, New\n\n—\n\nProblems, and New Ideals.\"\n\nA paper on \"The Preparation of Teachers for High Schools\" was given by Homer H.\nCedar Falls, Iowa.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"The Preparation of Teachers for Rural Schools\"\n\nSeerley, president, State Teachers College,\n\nby John J. Doyne, president, State Normal School, Conway, Ark.\nW. T. Carrington, president. State Normal School, Springfield, Mo., gave a paper\nentitled \"The Training School.\"\nA paper entitled \"Professional Experimentation and Investigation\" was given by\nJames M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J.\n\nW. T. Carrington, Secretary\n\n497\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": "498", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n498\n\n[Normal\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE REORGANIZATION OF THE NORMAL-SCHOOL\nCURRICULUM\nDAVID FELMLEY, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILL.\n\nThe normal schools of the several states were established for the sole\nThey are an integral\n\npurpose of training teachers for the common schools.\n\npart of the public-school system, and must develop with that system.\n\nOur normal schools now are in the stage of rebuilding\n\n—a rebuilding\n\npressed upon us by the rapid changes in the public schools.\n\nFifty years\n\nago the public schools taught little beyond the common branches.\n\nThe\n\ncurriculum of the normal schools contained these branches and some\ncourses in mental philosophy, school economy, and methods of teaching.\n\nAt this time secondary education in the East was to be had in the private\nin the West chiefly in the preparatory departments of the\ndenominational colleges. Both of these looked to the colleges for their\nacademy;\n\ninstructors.\n\nIn the decade after the war between the states, the greatest decade in\nour history in the founding of normal schools, the common schools in the\n\ntowns and cities of the West were rapidly adding ''other branches\" to their\nAlgebra and geometry, rhetoric, civil government, general his-\n\nprogram.\n\ntory, physics, and other natural sciences, sometimes foreign languages, were\n\n—at\n\nthus introduced\n\nfirst without any separate high-school\n\norganization to\n\nThe high schools were thus a gradual\noutgrowth of the common schools, and were everywhere held by the courts\na part of the common-school system. The normal schools of this section\ntake care of these higher studies.\n\naccordingly placed short courses in these subjects in their curriculums,\n\nalong with the common branches and courses in psychology and education.\nThe graduates of these normal schools found ready employment everywhere\nin the public schools, quite as often to instruct in these higher subjects as\n\nto teach in elementary grades.\n\nIn the East, the public high schools began rather as full-fledged institutions closely imitating the private academies which they largely displaced.\n\nFrom the beginning they sought college men and women as instructors.\nAccordingly, the normal schools of that section have usually continued as\n\nthey began, chiefly as girls' schools fronting the elementary school; while\nin most states of the West they have constantly enrolled a large number of\nyoung men destined to be high-school teachers, principals, and superintendents, and have provided a curriculum adapted to their needs.\nThe normal\nschools of forty years ago seem to have attached an exaggerated importance\nto method. They seem to have held the doctrine, not professedly but none\n\nthe less really, that if one were a teacher he could teach anything from the\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": "499", "text": "Department]\n\nREORGANIZING NORMAL-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\nmultiplication table to Hebrew.\n\nary importance\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\n499\n\nKnowledge of the subject was of second-\n\nprevious knowledge of the subject.\n\nThe value\n\nwas recognized somewhat, but the ideal was not\nthe learned scholar and specialist but the teacher, full of enthusiasm,\nresourceful in plying incentives, and skilled in the manipulation of methods\nand devices. The normal-school curriculum usually three years in\nlength was the same for all students, whether they were to teach in town\nor country, in primary grades, or in the high school.\nWith the development of public high schools with four-year courses,\nduring the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and the consequent influx\nof their graduates into the normal schools, these institutions gradually\nof extended scholarship\n\n—\n\n—\n\nadjusted themselves to the new conditions.\n\nFifteen years ago the curricu-\n\n—\n\nlum had generally assumed a standard form a two-year program containing studies in psychology, principles and methods of teaching, school\nmanagement, the philosophy and sometimes the history of education, abundant practice teaching, some music and drawing, with review courses in the\ncommon branches intended to organize the material and teach the special\nmethod of each. In the western schools there was still maintained, along\nwith this new curriculum, the older three-year or four-year course for nonhigh-school graduates. Since that date, vast changes have come about in\nthe programs of the common schools. Music and drawing have been\nextended from the larger cities into every village school;\n\nnature study,\n\nmanual training, the household arts, agricultural and industrial art, specific\neducation for business life, physical education, with definite school instruction and practice, all have obtained a permanent footing in our high schools\nand to a large extent in the elementary schools. Then, too, we have come\nto recognize that the equipment of the individual teacher is not to be found\nchiefly in the mastery of psychology or general method or of the general\nrules of class management, important as these things are; but that his\nchief resource is his comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the subjectmatter that he is to teach and an appreciation of its educational value.\nHence, in the high school and grammar grades is needed a richer scholar-\n\nship; in the lower grades a minute knowledge of all the arithmetic, geog-\n\nraphy, history, science, hygiene, poetry, stories, music, drawing, industrial\nart, sewing, plays and games to be used in these grades,\n\na comprehension\n\nof their educational purpose, and a copious stock of the devices essential to\nskilful teaching of these subjects.\n\nWe no longer assume that every teacher\n\ninstructed in general principles will have the wit to apply them successfully\nin any sort of position.\n\nWe have talked for some years of lengthening the\n\nstandard two-year normal-school curriculum to three or even to four years,\nso that all teachers may be fully equipped to meet these new demands.\nThis is, to my mind, wholly impracticable at the present time. Most of\n\nour teachers are young women who will not remain in the work longer than\nfive years.\n\nThey will leave to marry or to enter platform work, business\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": "500", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n5CX)\n\nlife,\n\n[Normal\n\nor other activities for which they have developed special taste and\n\naptitude.\n\nYoung men will continue to make teaching a stepping-stone to\n\nother callings.\n\nTwo years is as long a period of special professional prepa-\n\nration as we may justly require of people whose teaching career is likely\nto be so short.\nIt is not good economy on the part of the state to provide\nthem at this stage with instruction for a longer period. The normal schools\nshould provide additional advanced courses in summer schools, in extension\n\nwork, as well as in the regular school year for such experienced teachers as\n\nhave decided to prepare themselves for long service in the higher walks of\nthe profession, but should not require this work of the rank and file of\nnormal-school graduates. We must then meet these new demands by\ndijfferentiating our normal-school curricula according to the intended desti-\n\nnation of the teacher in training.\n\nIn discussing this reorganization there are three chief questions to be\nconsidered:\n1. What are the various kinds of school work for which teachers are to be prepared,\nand what subjects are to be included in due amount in the special curriculum leading to\n\neach of these destinations ?\n2.\n\nWhat is the character of the preparation that normal students have received\n\nbefore entering the normal school ?\n3.\n\nWhat is the length of time that society, with its present support of public\nmay decently demand of the normal student in the way of professional\n\neducation,\n\npreparation ?\n\nThe different kinds of teachers for which particular preparation should\nbe made now include in most of our states the following:\n1.\n\nTeachers of the kindergarten and the first two primary grades.\n\n2.\n\nTeachers of intermediate grades.\n\nTeachers of grammar grades, including departmental teachers in upper grades.\n4. High-school teachers of English and its expression, literature, mathematics,\n3.\n\nnatural science, history and the social sciences, and foreign languages.\n5.\n\nSpecial teachers of music, of art and design, of the household arts, of commercial\n\nbranches, of physical education, of agriculture, of manual training and the trades.\n6.\n\nTeachers for country schools.\n\n7.\n\nSuperintendents, principals, and supervisors.\n\nSpecial programs should be provided for all of these t)^es of teachers.\n\nEach program should contain the following elements:\n1. A knowledge of psychology and general principles and methods of teaching and\nmanagement based thereon, it being understood that all upper-grade teachers should\n\ninclude in their curricidum a special study of the psychology of adolescence.\n2.\n\nA thorogoing knowledge of the subject-matter, the special method and teaching\n\ndevices to be used within the particular fields in which the teacher is to work.\n3.\n\n—drawing,\n\nCertain school arts\n\n—in which\n\nsinging, reading, speaking\n\nall\n\nteachers\n\nshould be fairly proficient.\n4.\n\nStudies in political and social economy, in science, in history and Uterature that\n\nwill keep the student in touch with the world about him, will reveal in increasing measure\n\nthe (unction of the school in our civilization, and will nourish the deepening interest of\nteachers in the social problems of our time.\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": "501", "text": "Department]\n\nREORGANIZING NORMAL-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\n501\n\nWe should not forget that normal students are men and women who\nare to play a part, and a large part, in the world of men and women, and\ntheir normal-school preparation should not be bounded by the horizons of\ntheir childhood and youth.\n\nThe public kindergarten, outside a few of our larger cities and communities in which German influence has been strong, has not developed\nmuch strength as a feature of our school system. But the spirit of the\nkindergarten, its recognition of the doctrine of self-activity, of the play and\n\nthe social and constructive instincts in children, has profoundly affected\n\nthe primary schools, and every primary teacher should be permeated with\nthis spirit.\n\nAccordingly, a teacher of these grades should be familiar with\n\nkindergarten theory and practice, should be equipped with rote songs and\n\ngames and stories and folklore and children's poetry. She should know\nenough of the natural phenomena about her to be interested in it, to love\nplants and birds, and to be able to interpret nature to young children.\nShe should be skilled in the beginnings of industrial art and whatever else\nshould find a place in the life of the elementary school.\n\nFor the teachers of intermediate grades and for teachers of upper grades\nthere should be provided separate programs, with a common core of studies\nin education, hygiene, music and drawing, physical training, and English,\nbut separate practice teaching, and separate studies of the specific material\nin the various branches, peculiar to the grades in hand.\n\nSuch upper-grade\n\nteachers as show special strength in geography, history, mathematics, English,\n\nor other elementary-school branches should be afforded opportunity\n\nfor a long and thoro course in one or more of these as specialties, in order\n\nthat these teachers may equip themselves for departmental work.\n\nIn some states, it is assumed that the work of the normal school should\nstop at this point, and that the training of high-school teachers, special\nteachers, and supervisors should be turned over to other institutions.\n\nI do\n\nnot believe this to be wise educational policy, for the unity, harmony, and\nefficiency of the public-school system are not promoted by training supervisors, special teachers, and high-school teachers in one kind of institution\n\nand elementary teachers in another. The supervisors should be trained in\na professional atmosphere where the same ideals are set up, the same\nphilosophy expounded, the same principles and methods taught as are\ntaught to the teachers who are to work under their leadership. Highschool teachers should have a broad understanding of the needs of children,\nand of the principles, content, and method of elementary instruction. To\ntrain them in a separate school, with different standards and ideals, results\nin a serious break in spirit, in method, and in the character of work as the\nchild passes to the high school.\nThe special teachers will be more efficient\nif\n\nthey study their specialties in vital relation to the other branches of\n\nthe public-school curriculum.\n\nTeaching is a profession calling for a high\nThis spirit of\n\ndegree of devotion, patriotism, and altruistic endeavor.\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": "502", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n502\n\n[Normal\n\nconsecration is not easily developed in a school whose chief interests are\n\neconomic or industrial, or whose chief aim is mere personal culture.\n\nThe organization of the normal school, its program, its incidental culture\n\nand\n\nsocial\n\nlife,\n\nits\n\nclose personal relations\n\nbetween students and\n\nteachers, its modes of class instruction, which are sure to be imitated by\n\nthe young teacher, its less expensive appointments, the simpler and plainer\nstyle of living, its absence of social distinctions based upon wealth or mem-\n\nbership in exclusive societies\n\n—\n\nall of\n\nthese conditions tend to produce a\n\ntype of teacher that readily adjusts himself to high-school conditions.\n\nNot only will special teachers of music, art, domestic science, and other\nspecial branches prove more efficient when they study their specialties in\nvital relation to the other branches of the public-school curriculum,\n\nbut\n\nelementary teachers themselves should be trained in the same environment\nas the often better-paid high-school teachers and special teachers.\nvital to the dignity and self-respect of the elementary school.\n\ntraining begets exclusive educational castes.\n\nIt is\n\nThis separate\n\nOur schools are already suffer-\n\ning from the presence of this cleavage between the professional aristocracy\nof the high schools and the commonalty of the grades.\n\nFor these and other reasons that occur to every thoughtful student of\nthe normal-school problem, we believe that the normal-school system of\n\nevery state should provide somewhere for the training of high-school\n\nand supervisors. Where there is but a single\nnormal school, as in Indiana, Iowa, or North Carolina, the one school should\nprovide them all. In states where there has been developed one parent\nteachers, special teachers,\n\nschool or teachers' college with other tributary schools of smaller attend-\n\nance and resources, as in Kansas, Colorado, Michigan, and New York, the\nteachers' college may undertake the greater part of this higher work.\n\nIn\n\nstates containing several schools of approximately equal rank and strength,\n\nthe work may properly be distributed among them to the best advantage,\nas in Wisconsin.\n\nWherever the preparation of special teachers is undertaken, there must\nThe two-year programs that we are\n\nbe adequate equipment for this work.\n\nnow providing for high-school graduates preparing to enter these special\nfields\n\nmust necessarily devote somewhat more than half the time to the\nand method of the department; but it is to be\n\nspecial subject-matter\n\nexpected that the present strong demand for these teachers will soon be\nsatisfied,\n\nand that three-year and ultimately four-year programs of study\n\nwill be provided, which shall provide a generous amount of liberal culture\n\nalong with the special knowledge required of these teachers.\n\nEven with\n\nour present short programs, we should provide the same general courses in\nEnglish and in education as are taken by other normal-school students, and\nusually in the same classes.\n\nFor reasons already stated, I believe most of our normal schools are\ndestined to become teachers' colleges and to maintain four-year programs\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": "503", "text": "Department]\n\nREORGANIZING NORMAL-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\nbeyond the high school.\n\n503\n\nThey will continue to grant a normal-school\n\ndiploma for the completion of two-year programs in elementary or special\neducation, and teachers' college diplomas with degrees in education to\ngraduates of the full four-year program provided for high-school teachers\n\nand supervisors. In the junior college should be provided the courses in\nEnglish and expression, music and drawing, physiology and hygiene, and\nphysical training that nearly all high-school graduates need.\n\nWe should\n\ninclude here also work in psychology and principles and methods of teaching, in order to make these students early conscious of the problems of the\n\nnormal school.\n\nHalf of the time should be spent upon strong courses in\n\nspecial lines of high-school work.\n\nIn most of our states there are village\n\nhigh schools, unable to secure full college graduates as teachers, which for\n\nsome time to come will welcome young men and women from the junior\ncollege.\n\nPractice teaching should be provided in the second year for these\n\nstudents who expect to leave to teach at this stage.\n\nA junior college di-\n\nploma of the same rank as a normal-school diploma may properly be granted\nto such students.\n\nIn the senipr college are found at least four classes of students for whom\nappropriate courses must be provided:\n\nA group preparing to teach particular subjects in superior high\n\n1.\n\nschools.\n\nFor these must be provided two-year senior-college courses in\n\ntheir special lines, and appropriate courses in the problems of high-school\n\nadministration and teaching.\n2.\n\nA group of elementary teachers—normal-school graduates—who\n\ndesire to\n\nbecome supervisors, principals, or normal-school teachers.\n\nFor\n\nthese must be provided long courses in the history of education, in psy-\n\nchology and ethics, in school administration, with elective advanced courses\nin other subjects.\n3.\n\nA group of college graduates from other institutions that feel the\n\nneed of the special professional instruction, spirit, and life that the normal\nschool affords.\n4.\n\nIn most of our states the normal school must continue to make pro-\n\nvision for students who, in native capacity and sympathies, undoubtedly\n\npossess marked fitness for teaching, but who have been deprived of proper\n\neducational opportunities in their teens.\n\nSuch students are now too old\n\nto enter a high school to obtain their preliminary academic culture.\n\nThe\n\nnormal school must open its doors to these people and provide for them a\ngenerous academic culture.\n\nBecause of their maturity and the singleness\n\nof purpose with which these students pursue their studies, it is by no means\n\nnecessary to hold them for four years or the equivalent of a high-school\nit is best, for this type of people, to offer two programs\nFor such as are ready to spend several years at the normal\nschool, there should be provided a preparatory program equivalent to a\n\ncourse.\n\nI think\n\nof study.\n\nfour-year high-school course, but actually covered by three years of time.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": "504", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n504\n\n[Nonnal\n\nthis program to be completed before the student enters upon any of the\nstandard normal-school or teachers' college programs.\n\nFor such students of this type as may wish to begin to teach in the rural\nschools, there should be provided a two-year program of studies, including\n\na review of the common branches, studies in elementary agriculture and\nhousehold arts, music, elementary art, and primary methods, together with\nthe discussions of the problems of country life and of the organization,\nmanagement, and teaching of the country school. Beyond this should\nextend a supplementary program for such of these country-school teachers\nas will re-enter the normal school with a view to graduation.\nA thoroly organized and adequate training-school is essential to the\nefficiency of a normal school.\nThe elementary training-school should\n\nacconmiodate classes in every grade sufficient in number to give at least\ni8o hours of practice to each student, and opportunity for practice should\ninclude every sort of special work undertaken in the normal school.\n\nA\n\nkindergarten, a high school, and, in most cases, one or more convenient\nrural schools should\n\nbe included in the training-school system, and the\n\nbuildings and equipment and teaching should be of such quality as to make\n\nthe school truly a model school, for we cannot maintain the patronage and\n\nsupport of parents on any other basis.\n\nmust be remembered that in the first few months of teaching we\nthe way we prepare our lessons, our modes\nof assignment, of questioning, reacting upon the students' work, our entire\nIt\n\nacquire our teaching habits\n\n—\n\nsystem of classroom technic.\n\nThe question is. Shall students fall into\n\nhabits more or less unconsciously, or shall they consciously set up ideals of\npractice and be held to these ideals by close supervision\n\nand thorogoing\n\nsympathetic criticism ?\n\nWhere the training-school is closely connected with the normal school,\nwhere the normal-school departments write its course of study and give\ncontinuous attention to its work, where the normal-school instructors have\n\nthemselves had experience as public-school teachers and see the children\nbeyond the inchoate teachers on the benches before them, the trainingschool imparts to the work of the whole institution a vigor and vitality that\ncan be obtained in no other way.\nThe scheme presented in this paper is, I suspect, more comprehensive\n\nthan most normal schools are ready or willing, at present, to undertake;\nyet it does present what to the writer are the proper lines, not to say the\nnecessary lines, of development of the American normal school in the\n\ntwentieth century.\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": "505", "text": "PREPARATION FOR INDUSTRIAL BRANCHES\n\nDepartment!\n\n505\n\nTHE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS\nFOR THE INDUSTRIAL BRANCHES AND\nOTHER SPECIAL LINES\nLAWRENCE J. CORBLY, PRESIDENT, MARSHALL COLLEGE,\n\nI.\n\nHUNTINGTON, W.VA.\n\nThe bulwarks of defense behind which aristocracy intrenches itself,\nseeking to monopolize the culture, the education, and the comforts of\n\ncrumbling in face of progressive and aggressive\nWhatever the claims of the former— and it has its claims\nand will have them so long as democracy neglects the fundamentals of\n'the rapidity\nits creed—universal education and eflSiciency in the individual\nwith which these claims are being ignored in every quarter of the earth\nis matter for sober reflection to every serious-minded man, whether he\nbe democrat or aristocrat; for, unless the progress of democracy keep\npace with the requirements of its creed, instead of blindly insisting upon\nrights, privileges, and freedom as yet unearned in the school of severe\ntraining, discipline, and experience, there must essentially inhere in the\nvery fiber of our civilization something of the spirit of the mob. To the\nschools we must look for the adjustment, the conservation, and the direccivilization, are slowly\n\ndemocracy.\n\n—\n\ntion of the forces of\n\nlife\n\nto the requirements of social organization.\n\nA\n\nrestless and critical public is locating this responsibility with us as school\n\nmen and demanding that we meet it at once.\nThe basis for the assumption that the normal school must do at least\na part of the work of preparing teachers and supervisors for the industrial\nbranches and other special lines finds its first claim in the fact that the\n\natmosphere of the normal school is, first of all, an atmosphere conducive\nto the development of the teaching spirit.\n\nThe dominant tone of the\n\nfaculty and of the life of the school is that of the teacher.\n\nIndeed our\nworst fault, as I see it, is a tendency to overdo this very phase of normalschool work at the expense of the academic, if not of the liberal, spirit;\nfor the\n\nnormal school, of all schools, should have the broader and more\n\nliberal viewpoint upon all phases of human endeavor.\n\nIn such an atmosphere only can the industrial, the commercial, the\nprofessional, and the civic in education find the fullest expression of their\n\nrespective legitimate claims to public\n\nsympathy and support.\n\nOn the\n\nother hand, this incorporation into the sphere of normal-school life of these\n\nnew lines of effort in which the interests and energies of the masses of our\nfellow-men are daily becoming more absorbed, and which are becoming\nmore and more a vital feature of our civic and social life, cannot but greatly\nenlarge our field of usefulness to the public and secure for us that hold\n\nupon the sympathies of certain classes of public men who, as a rule, have\nalways turned a deaf ear to our appeals for better equipment and better\nsalaries.\n\nIn short, such a move cannot fail to bring the normal school\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": "506", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nSo6\n\n(Normal\n\ncloser to the purses of the public, as well as closer to their sympathies\n\nand we need a larger \"fund\" from both these sources.\nAs the problem addresses itself to the writer, our first step in the direction of this larger field of influence for the normal school was taken when\nwe included domestic science and agriculture in our courses. The results,\nso far as credence can be given to report, are that these steps were timely\nand well advised. We are finding ways to develop these new lines without\nserious difficulty.\n\nSo much for the claims of the normal school as the natural place for\ndoing this work and for the seeming feasibility of the scheme.\n\nBut what\n\nabout the method of procedure ?\nFirst of all, a small, willing, and aggressive conmiittee should be\nappointed by this section of the National Education Association at this\n\ntime, the duties of which committee would be something after the following:\n1. Take the matter up with the proper departments of the general\ngovernment at Washington and get viewpoints and suggestions from that\n\nsource.\n2.\n\nConsult several dependable sources of authority where experience\n\nhas been combined with theory along these lines.\n3.\n\nHave a personal conference with the National Society for the Promo-\n\ntion of Industrial Education.\n4.\n\nGet an expression of local opinion as to details from the heads of\n\nall our normal schools.\n5.\n\nMake a brief report of this work for suggestions at our July meeting,\n\nat which time the report, as modified by this department, should be put\ninto the hands of all our normal-school men to be adapted as they alone\n\ncan decide.\n6.\n\nThis committee should also prepare a tentative course of study for\n\neach new line of work contemplated, which courses should be submitted\nto the heads of the normal schools sometime before our July meeting that\nthey may have time to carefully examine it in advance with a view to\nintelligent discussion at that session.\n\nAs to details of a plan, or scheme, or system, for the preparation of\nteachers and supervisors for these special lines of work, I shall not venture\nfar a-sea in waters as yet but limitedly explored, but content myself and\n\ndisappoint my audience with but tentative suggestions on this score till\nfuller dependable data are at command.\n\n\"Preparation\" essentially involves, in a greater or lesser degree, the\nproblem of \"certification,\" as well as the problems of \"qualifications\"\n\nand \"training.\" But I shall confine myself to the last two.\nUnder each of these headings, it seems to me, we shall have to keep two\nclasses of teachers in view: namely, the vocational and the non- vocational;\nand, with most of us, limited as we are as yet in \"plant\" extension, technical\nequipment, etc., the non-vocational teacher and supervisor will perchance\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": "507", "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION FOR INDUSTRIAL BRANCHES\n\n507\n\nbe our chief dependence for at least a few years; therefore reference is\n\nmade in this connection especially to the non-vocational teacher.\n\nAmong his qualifications the following are leading and vital:\n1. That sympathetic touch with the life and problems of the layman\nwhich makes it possible for the teacher to utilize in his classes a large amount\nof subject-matter drawn from the field and the shop by intimate personal\n\nexperience therein.\n2.\n\nThat breadth of view and of culture that come from a certain degree\n\nof maturity, of study, of experience with men and women in their social\n\nand industrial capacities, and from exceptional personal equipment.\n3. That liberality of training for his particular work, which makes it\npossible for the teacher to grasp and to maintain the relative values and\nco-ordinate nature of himself and of his profession in a general scheme of\neducation. Here is where the average teacher, indeed the average man\nin any professional, industrial, or other capacity of specialization, falls\nseriously short.\n4.\n\nThat mastery of academic requirements for his work which cannot\n\nwell be assured without a lead of two years, at the very least, of preparation beyond the definite exactions of his classroom demands, and certainly\n\nnot short of a four-year high-school education.\n5.\n\nThat familiarity with the specialized subjects he is to teach, or\n\nsupervise the teaching of, and the best known methods of presenting them,\n\nwhich come from at least one year of special training in the fundamentals\nof teaching; better still, by far, as we see it, two years of work consisting of\n\nabout half and half each, of advanced academic work related to his specialty,\nand of theories, methods, principles, and the practical applications thereof.\n6. Finally, that combination of personal equipment, a genuine and\nnatural desire to teach, and a mind and body and personality peculiarly\nfitted for that high calling\nthe sine qua non of success measured in terms\n\n—\n\nof a maximum of results with a reasonable outlay of energy.\n\nUnder the special head of \"training\" for this work the following occur\nto me as of first consideration:\n\nThe nature of the work is such as to call for instruction and instructors\nThe instructor should be specially versed in the\n\nof a peculiar type.\n\nproblems of the industrial and trade schools, which essentially present\n\nmany new phases of applied psychology and pedagogy, indeed which have\nan atmosphere peculiarly their own, in that they must deal with a peculiar\nclass with its peculiar problems, so distinctly peculiar that only by intimate\n\nand constant touch with this class can one become a vital part of their\nthought and feeling. This training the instructor cannot well acquire\nwithout taking a practice and observation course in an industrial or trade\nschool, to which I have referred already.\nThis means, not simply ** playing\nthe student of assigned tasks,\" but studying the school as a whole as well\nas in detail, its organization, its administration in all its relations.\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": "508", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n5o8\n\n(Normal\n\nJust a moment to more specific detail and application of theory to\nconditions as they exist with most of us at present.\n\nWhat can we do now ?\n\nThis is the real question at issue concerning these new spheres of endeavor\n\nnormal school. How can we insert the \"entering wedge\" while\nworking for and waiting for more elaborate equipment ?\nfor the\n\nThe following seem to me safe beginnings:\n1.\n\nA capable man at the head of the manual-arts department can\n\nreadily combine under that general heading, in addition to the usual work\nin drawing, such\n\nnew lines as architecture, applied mechanical drawing,\n\ndrafting, house decoration, design, and construction.\n2.\n\nA thoroly capable \"school carpenter\" can supplement the work in\n\nthe manual-arts department with carpentry repairing, and, by co-operation\n\nwith a local contractor, can find work for the students in carpentry construction, such as house-building, etc.;\n\nand so, by co-operation with the\n\nlocal cabinet-maker, work in this line\n\ncan be put at the disposal of the\n\nPractical work under local architects can also be\nadded by like co-operative means.\n3. The need of a substantial printing plant elaborate enough to do\n\nstudents for practice.\n\npractically all the work of the school, including the various school publications,\n\nexamination papers, questionnaires, circulars, reports, and even a\n\npart or all of the school catalog has long since been felt by most of us.\n\nSuch a department under the management of a capable printer would\nappeal to the school authorities, to the school itself, and to the public.\n4.\n\nAs to other lines of shop work, with the aid of a good non-vocational\n\ninstructor who would cultivate co-operative work with local shops, additional special lines could be added.\n5.\n\nis\n\nripe\n\nAs to \"domestic science\" and \"domestic art,\" certainly the time\nwhen every normal school with dormitory facilities for practice\n\nwork should be offering, not simply shorter courses for practical experience\nfor the students, but full undergraduate courses for teachers of this science\n\nand art.\n6.\n\nAs for agriculture and related subjects, the \"school farm\" as the\n\npractice field, and the physics, the chemistry, the biology, and the other\nrelated departments to offer the necessary academic equipment, these\n\nnew lines of normal-school development are adjusting themselves with\ngratifying rapidity.\n\nCertain of the foregoing \"entering wedges\" into the life of these schools\n\nmay seem somewhat imaginary; but some of them we are testing already\nin the institution with which I am connected, others are to be begun next\nfall,\n\nand still others are in process of having details worked out with a\n\nview to their being incorporated into our courses later.\n\nThe school located\n\nin the village or small town may find the problem more difficult, owing to\n\nlimited opportunities for practice and observation in the shops of the\nvicinity;\n\nbut some of these additions to the normal-school courses will.\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": "509", "text": "Department!\n\nPREPARATION FOR INDUSTRIAL BRANCHES\n\n509\n\nfor the very reason that the school is thus located, appeal all the more\nforcefully to the school and to public opinion.\n\nIt will be noted that I have assumed that when we begin the preparation of teachers and supervisors for the new lines of work indicated in the\n\nsubject of this paper, we should begin with the non-vocational instructor;\n\nbut that we offer, at the outset if possible, more or less of opportunity\nfor practice work for the student; and that I have further assumed that\nthe vocational instructor with the real vocational department should be\nour aim at our earliest opportunity.\n\nII.\n\nJ.\n\nW. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS.\n\nWhy has the normal school been so slow in responding to the demand\nof the public schools for specially trained teachers and supervisors for the\n\nindustrial branches and other special lines ?\n\nPerhaps history may throw\n\nsome light on this question.\nThe normal school met with a misfortune early in life. It lost its\nfather in the death of Horace Mann. This loss came before the normal\nschool had proved by actual results what Horace Mann had proved so\nconclusively by argument. Harvard College had insistently opposed the\nnormal-school policy of Horace Mann. His unanswerable logic seemed\nThis feeling naturally\n\nonly to intensify the bitter feeling at Harvard.\n\ndeveloped into a fixed prejudice which spread to Yale and other colleges\nthruout the country and which is easily discovered even today in college\n\nThe normal school has, therefore, had a college handicap\nfrom the very first. Just how the college happened to take a stand against\nfaculties.\n\nthe normal schools and against professional training is not easily understood, for at that very time schools of law and medicine were being organ-\n\nized as departments of these institutions.\n\nThere is no doubt but that the\n\nopposition was honest opposition and no doubt when it became prejudice\n\nbut that it was honest prejudice.\n\nStill it is unfortunate that weak normal\n\nschools had this strong opposition at the time when the way was being\n\nblazed and\n\nwhen policies were being worked out.\n\nthoroly organized and strong.\n\nThe opposition was\n\nIt was not strong enough to do away with\n\nnormal schools entirely, but it was strong enough to prevent anything like\nadequate appropriations for their maintenance.\nIt is no wonder that growth was slow.\n\nLeading educators could not\n\nafford to accept positions in the new normal school at the salaries which\n\ncould be paid by them. The normal school was thus forced to prove itself\nwith inferior men and women in the faculty. Now and then some good\nthings were done and some steps in advance taken.\n\nBut progress was slow.\n\nThe first real impetus came when Superintendent W. T. Harris, of St.\nLouis, began taking teachers from the normal school for positions in his\npublic schools, in preference to men and women who had received their\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": "510", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n5IO\n\ntraining in colleges or universities.\n\n(Normal\n\nOswego and a few other schools came\n\nforward with new courses of study and with definite normal-school policies.\n\nThe college gave up its plan\nThe Oswego course\nthe\ntwo-year\nrequirement\nfor\nand\ngraduation\nstudy\nwere accepted by\nof\n\nThe awakening spread across the continent.\n\nof extermination and adopted the policy of limitation.\n\nthe college, not as standards to be improved upon in the light of experience,\n\nbut as maximum standards to mark the outside limit of the scope of the\nwork to be done by normal schools. The normal school was not of a\n\nThese limitations decided upon by the college\nTo have college recognition meant something to normal schools of that day. These courses of\nstudy and the time limits, therefore, became the traditionalized requirements for normal schools thruout the United States and remained almost\nidentically the same for a period of about three decades.\nThe time thus came when the normal school had to meet itself as well\nas the college as a foe to be conquered in order to take a step in advance in\nkeeping pace with the development of the public schools and colleges of\nthe country. The college not only insisted on the observance of these\naccepted standards but assumed the right of passing on the quality of\nthe work of the normal school and of dictating as to methods of teaching\nTho the university has recently recoghistory, English, and other subjects.\nmilitant\n\ndisposition.\n\nwere apparently accepted by the normal school.\n\nnized the independence of the public high school, the college still insists\nin holding at least a sort of protectorate over normal schools.\n\nThe college has been consistent in its position, for even tho the president\nand board of regents have forced departments of education, or teachers'\ncolleges, upon their faculties, college professors continue to throw many\nobstacles in the way of this unwelcome department for the professional\ntraining of teachers.\n\nIn fact, it seems quite impossible for the departments\n\nof education to get the necessary means and co-operation for developing a\n\npractice school and for giving practice teaching under expert supervision.\n\nIn other words, the majority of the college professors continue to question\n\nmore or less the wisdom of professional training whether done in the normal\nschool or in the university.\n\nThose who have\n\ntried to follow coUege guidance in normal-school\n\naffairs have met with embarrassing opposition.\n\nThe following are some of\n\nthe college suggestions and requirements:\n1.\n\nThe normal school does not lay sufficient emphasis on scholarship,\n\nbut it must not add college branches or courses, and, according to the\ncollege, it must, under no circumstances, extend the two-year time require-\n\nment for graduation.\n2. The normal school as seen by the college is entirely too impractical\nand theoretical, but it must not think of preparing teachers of manual\ntraining, domestic science, or agriculture because this work belongs exclusively to the technical schools of the college and university.\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": "511", "text": "Department]\n\n3.\n\nPREPARATION FOR INDUSTRIAL BRANCHES\n\n511\n\nAgain the normal school has become too much of a female seminary,\n\nyet it must not think of preparing for principalships or for high-school\npositions.\n\nThere is only one way to do away with college opposition and that is\nto go ahead preparing teachers for as many lines of service as can be done\nin an efficient manner and to let those in charge of the public schools and\n\nwho make use of the normal-school product pass judgment on the work.\nCollege opposition melts away as it goes up against the honest judgment of\nThere is an awakening\nits own graduates who are city superintendents.\namong normal schools at the present time. The impetus does not come\nfrom within.\n\nIt does not come from the college.\n\nIt comes, just as back in\n\nthe eighties, from the superintendents who prefer the normal-school graduate tho limited in scholarship to the college graduate who is limited in\nprofessional training.\n\nBut the superintendent wants the normal school to add to time requirements and to courses required so as to give scholarship with the professional\ntraining.\nSuperintendents also urge upon the college the wisdom of giving\nwork in observation and practice teaching to those seeking positions in the\npublic schools.\n\nEspecially is this true with reference to the position of the\n\nsuperintendent on the preparation of teachers of industrial subjects.\n\nThe\n\nnormal schools are responding to this demand of the public schools. There\nis hardly a normal school which is not doing some of this work or else\nplanning to begin doing it in the near future.\n\nSome are oiGFering only a\n\nfew special courses as electives. Some are organizing departments with\ncomplete courses of study for each phase of special work. All in all a\n\ngood start has been made.\nSince Wisconsin normal schools were among the first to lay emphasis\non preparing teachers for special lines of work, the department may be\ninterested in knowing what has been done in the Badger State. In the\nfirst place, the Wisconsin normal schools have had the same handicap\nand the same normal-school traditions to overcome that characterize\nconditions in other states. The same demand has been coming from the\npublic for the preparation of teachers of special subjects at our normal\nschool that has been made upon normal schools of other states. It is only\nfair to explain that the big step taken in Wisconsin was not on the initiative\nof the presidents, for quite likely the presidents would have been satisfied\nwith a few elementary courses along each of these special lines. But our\nschools are fortunate in having a board of regents composed of exceptional\nmen and women, and fortunate indeed in having as president of the board\na man of power and influence, a Horace Mann in his devotion to the normal\nschool, in his grasp of its problems, and in his vision for its future.\nTo him\nmore than to anyone else belongs the credit for placing this work on a substantial basis in our state.\nHis logic and his optimism prevailed over the\nuncertainty on the part of some of the presidents and regents.\n\nThe intense\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": "512", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n512\n\n[Normal\n\ninterest of our state superintendent gives a further impetus to the move-\n\nment.\nboard.\n\nthis, so-called departments had been established by the\nThe new policy required generous appropriations for equipment\n\nBefore\n\nand for teachers' salaries.\n\nIt pledged the board to stand for any outlay\n\nnecessary for placing the department or school on a successful and\nrespectable basis.\n\nThe plan was to establish a special department or school at each of the\neight normal schools as rapidly as funds would permit and then as necessary\nto add other special departments at each of the eight schools.\n\nThe school\n\nof manual arts was established at Oshkosh four years ago, and, at the same\n\ntime, the school of home economics and domestic economy was established\n\nEach of these special schools was provided with an\nequipment and a teaching force almost if not entirely equal to that of\nat Stevens Point.\n\nStout Institute, so well known thruout the nation for turning out efficient\nteachers of manual training and domestic science.\n\nThe school of educa-\n\ntional agriculture was next established at River Falls, next a conunercial\n\nschool at Whitewater, a school of art at Milwaukee, and a school of physical\ntraining at La Crosse.\n\nIt being observed that River Falls could not supply\n\nthe demand for teachers of agriculture, a second school of agriculture was\nestablished recently at Platteville.\n\nFor a similar reason a second com-\n\nmercial school will be opened at Superior next September.\nIt must be remembered that the director of each of these special schools\n\nreceives a very much larger salary than other members of the faculty and\n\nthat there is no discrimination between the salaries of teachers of special\nsubjects\n\nand other heads of departments.\n\nThe school of agriculture at\n\nRiver Falls in its second year adds 125 to the total enrolment of the school.\n\nOver half these men are high-school graduates.\nProviding the necessary equipment and paying good salaries attach\nimportance to the special school. At River Falls, the purposeful and\npractical work of the school of agriculture even now permeates the work\nof the entire normal school. It has agriculturized and industrialized more\nor less the work in arithmetic, in economics, and in other subjects, giving\npoint and purpose to all our work which we could hardly have secured in\nany other way. The same is true in other schools.\nA recent action of the board of regents, probably due to our experience\nin preparing teachers for special subjects, was to announce the policy of\nhaving courses of study arranged on a new basis. Instead of having the\nEnglish course, the scientific course, the Latin course, and the German\ncourse, we are required to prepare courses for the training of kindergarten\nteachers, courses for the training of primary teachers, courses for preparing\n\ngrammar-grade teachers, and courses for preparing high-school teachers,\nWe are instructed to add\n\nbesides the special courses previously referred to.\n\none year in time to the course preparing for high-school positions.\nfurther instructed to adapt courses to local conditions.\n\nWe are\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": "513", "text": "EXTENSION WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n513\n\nThis action on the part of the regents places heavy responsibility on the\npresidents of the normal schools, but it certainly gives an opportunity for\n\nthe normal schools of Wisconsin to do big things.\n\nAs our regents say:\n\n\"// is now up to the presidents to show what can be done, when both the money\n\nand authority are all in their own hands.\"\n\nEXTENSION WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\nI.\n\nEDWARD T. MATHES, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nBELLINGHAM, WASH.\n\nLet us begin with the statement that not fewer than four vital elements\nThese are the equipment, the teacher,\n\nenter into the work of education.\n\nthe child, and the parent.\n\nA nation, like an individual, usually confines\n\nand under this\nAmerican people during the past twenty years have given\nmost of their attention in educational matters to the improvement of school\nequipment and to the training of teachers. But what can be said of our\n\nits chief efforts\n\nto one or two lines of activity at a time,\n\nprinciple the\n\nefforts to assist the parents in the preparation of their children to get the\n\nvery best out of our educational system ?\n\nIt is true that we have made some\n\neffort to organize parents' associations, but this has usually been\n\ndone in\n\norder to put before the parent what we are doing in our school work and\n\nthus secure his interest to an extent that we may successfully appeal to\n\nhim again next year for more funds to buy more land, to build more buildings, to purchase more equipment, and to raise more salaries.\nAs a rule,\nthese organizations have not been formed primarily to give the parent direct\nand positive help in the training of his child so that the child may be better\n\nable to get out of the school all that the school has to give him.\nPersonally, I am interested in the extension movement, because it offers\n\nthe best avenue at present for assisting parents in this great work.\n\nA\n\nstudy of extension work as carried on in several of our representative normal\nschools indicates that these efforts may be classified under four heads:\n1.\n\nStudy by correspondence.\n\nThis line of work is offered in many\n\ninstitutions, and several widely different methods are used in conducting the\n\nInstruction is offered, in both academic and professional subjects,\nand students taking the work are preparing for all sorts of professions. The\n\nwork.\n\nState Teachers' College, at Greeley, Colo., offers a wide range of subjects\nin this form of work and has published a comprehensive bulletin outlining\n\nthis plan.\n2.\n\nCourses of lectures given on literary, historical, scientific, and semi-\n\nThese lectures are usually given for general cultural\nand entertainment purposes and are attended by all classes of people with\nno thought of securing credit toward graduation from some institution\n\nprofessional subjects.\n\nlater on.\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": "514", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n514\n\n[Normal\n\n3. Private study under more or less careful supervision and supplemented by weekly or biweekly recitations and lectures under a regularly\nemployed instructor or lecturer. The courses offered under this head\ncover a wide range of subjects, but they usually appeal to teachers and\nothers who plan later on to enter some institution and complete some\ncourse of study. It seems to the speaker that this form of extension\nwork is the most successful of any line attempted at the present time and\nis rendering excellent service to large numbers of teachers.\nThe state normal schools at Macomb, 111., and Kent, Ohio, seem to be leaders in this\n\nparticular field.\n4. The fourth type of extension work has set for its task the improvement of the parent. Just how this can best be accomplished has not yet\nbeen made clear in any literature that has come to hand, and the only real\nprogress made thus far has been in the organization of parents' clubs, and it\n\nappears, even here in many instances, that the real purpose of the organization is to inform the parent of what is being done in the school rather than\n\nto assist him in the training of his child so that he may get the best possible\nresults from the work.\n\nFurther, this movement can scarcely be called at\n\npresent a form of extension work, as many organizations of parents have\n\nno relation whatever to the work of any institution of learning. The movement may be expected to grow because it is the logical outgrowth of public\ninterest in all problems of health and hygiene and of civic and social\nreforms.\n\nIt is rational, because every thoughtful person must realize that\n\nthere is a most vital relation between the physical and mental development\nof a child.\n\nThe great interest, for a season, in physiological psychology at\n\nleast taught us that food, clothing, shelter, and rest are all vital factors in\n\nthe physical development of children, and this same school of psychologists\n\nhas given us scientific proof that there is a most vital relation between the\nblood and brain action; yet how few parents know the first principle of this\nrelation.\n\nIf ignorant, how can they rear children and provide them with\n\nproper food and shelter?\n\nIf children are improperly nourished,\n\nhow can\n\nthe parent expect to get even a fair degree of return upon his investment ?\n\nFrom the standpoint of the teacher, is it fair to hold her responsible for\nThese\nand other questions present themselves in relation to this problem, and\nthe conviction has for some time been clear in the mind of the speaker that\nThis conviction\nthis is the most important field today for extension work.\nis not based upon theory, but upon many personal interviews held with\nparents to secure their judgment regarding the most valuable work that\ncould be presented in extension lecture courses. It is not an easy task\nto outline a course of work along this line, and no one at present can say\njust what phases of the questions involved can be presented with the greatest\n\nsuccessful work if children are sent to her only 60 per cent efficient ?\n\nbut our limited experience leads us to suggest the following plan as\nworthy of consideration: First, there are at least four phases of the ques-\n\nprofit;\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": "515", "text": "Department!\n\nEXTENSION WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\ntion that may be covered in a course of lectures.\n\n515\n\nI prefer, however, to use\n\nThese phases are: (a) right physical\nconditions for growth; (b) development of habits of industry; (c) training\nin acceptance of responsibility; (d) cultivation of habits of accuracy and\nthe term \"a series of conferences.\"\n\nhonesty.\n\nIn order that the work may be definite and reach those for whom\nintended, it is wise to interest a few parents in a community who will\n\nassume responsibility for the formation of a group to take up the study.\n\nIt\n\nis well to require a definite number of parents to sign a roll to attend the\n\nwhole series, and it is sometimes advisable to limit the membership of the\nclass to parents only, excluding even the teachers of the community, so\nthat problems of discipline, social diversions, school lunches, and the like\n\nmay be discussed freely and impersonally. The conferences of an entire\nseries may be conducted by one instructor, but usually the work may, with\nprofit, be divided among three or four persons.\n\ngained by contact with different personalities.\n\nThere is always something\nThe work should be emi-\n\nnently practical and should include a discussion of such topics as elements\nof food and their effect upon physical growth, the need for fresh air during\nsleep, the influence of clothing\n\nupon the child's health and comfort, the\n\nrelation of the school lunch to order and discipline in the schoolroom, and\n\nthe vital relation of good blood to successful mental activity in all school\n\nwork.\n\nA most casual examination will reveal that many children enter\n\nschool with no training whatever in the acceptance and performance of\n\npersonal responsibility, and parents should be shown that valuable time\n\nmay be saved in school if their children have already been trained in these\nessentials.\nAny child who has been taught to share fully some part of the\ndaily duties in the home is, as a result, better equipped to assume definite\nresponsibility in his school work.\n\nThe child who is given a small regular\n\nallowance for spending money and is required to meet certain personal\nobligations from this allowance is learning valuable lessons in citizenship;\n\nyet how few parents today give their children intelligent training in the\nsharing of responsibility and in the right use of money.\n\nA case recently\n\ncame to our attention where the small son of a banker was practicing dishonest methods and using bold intimidation to secure the small articles\nwhich he wanted from the corner fruit stand, all because his father had\nvowed that his boy should not grow up a spendthrift. The ignorance of\nthe father was making a common thief of his son, and such a father is more\nin need of education just at the time than is the small son.\nBut the school\nsystem of today makes small provision for reaching such defects in the\ntraining of our children, and the extension field seems to offer the only\nopen door at the present time. Just how this door shall be opened in many\ncommunities must be left to the conditions surrounding the case, but it may\nbe added that it is an easy door to open in most instances and the field for\nreal service is unexcelled anywhere.\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": "516", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n5l6\nn.\n\n[Normal\n\nHARVEY C. MINNICH, DEAN, OHIO STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, MIAMI\nUNIVERSITY, OXFORD, OHIO\n\nInasmuch as extension work is at present largely a proposed phase of the\nfunction of the normal school or normal college in America and has not even\n\ncome into a general state of experimentation, the treatment of the subject is\nThis paper is based largely upon the experience and observation of the writer and will, therefore, lack many-sidedness.\nThe training of teachers for all the phases of education in a state is a\nstupendous state activity, and not many commonwealths are willing to prorather a de novo performance.\n\nvide facilities for a complete scheme for such preparation.\n\nIt would cost\nOhio about $2,000,000 annually to give all of her elementary teachers a\ntwo-year course beyond the high school. It would cost the students\n\n$2,000,000 more.\n\nIn view of this and the purpose of the state that her\n\ntraining-schools shall make the largest possible contributions to the\n\neffi-\n\nciency of the teaching force of the public schools of the state, there is a\n\nreasonable logic for the extension of professional instruction beyond the\n\nacademic walls of these schools.\n\nThe forms which this extramural instruc-\n\ntion may assume as it appears to me are:\nI.\n\nThe improvement of experienced teachers at work, which may be done\n\nin two ways:\n1.\n\nBy the organization of classes or centers in the various school com-\n\nmunities to which shall be given instruction in methods of teaching, thru\nlectures, seminars, and conferences.\n\nIn such instruction, the school prob-\n\nlems may be systematized and organized in harmony with the accepted\nprinciples of teaching, inasmuch as the general inefficiency of experienced\n\nteachers may be attributed mainly to an inability to organize the problems\nof instructions about the fundamental principle.\n\nIt may be of value also\n\nto give courses to these teachers on sources of material, lists of apparatus,\n\nand schoolroom equipment.\n2.\n\nBy conferences with groups of teachers in a system after one or two\n\ndays' visitation:\n\nA professor from the academic or professional department\n\nof the normal school visits a group of teachers for several days, and at the\nclose of the visitation holds a conference to suggest\n\nimprovements and\n\nchange in methods observed, and to suggest rearrangement in courses of\nstudy, sources of information, lists of equipment, etc.\n\nn. The normal schools may aid in the improvement of local schools\nand school systems as to organization and management:\n1.\n\nBy loan or donation of equipment, lantern slides, seed cabinets,\n\ndemonstration charts, etc.\n\nUsually when lantern slides or demonstration\n\ncharts are sent it is most advantageous to have a representative of the\n\nnormal school to give the demonstration lecture.\n2. By conferences with board of education and superintendent to\nmeasure the value of the various school activities, to establish standards\n\nof efficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": "517", "text": "EXTENSION WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n3.\n\n$17\n\nBy public addresses in the various localities to create sentiment for\n\nthe local authority.\n4.\n\nBy bulletins bearing upon the various needs of the school.\n\nIII.\n\nCourses of the normal school offered for credit on the diploma or\n\ndegree in various centers have a somewhat different aspect from the fore-\n\ngoing work.\n\nThe normal-college curriculum proceeds along a line of work\n\nwhich organizes the entire teaching potential of the student, giving data\nfor enrichment of knowledge by the various academic departments, emphasizing the principles of teaching considered of most worth by the education\n\nand practice-teaching department.\nprocess;\n\nit is\n\nIt is not a corrective but a constructive\n\nnot supplementary but comprehensive;\n\nbut it is the main proposition.\n\nit is\n\nnot a corollary\n\nCredit extension work is not a new field of\n\noperation for colleges and universities and has more or less well-established\n\nmethods.\n\nAs usually carried on in Ohio, it involves a group of twenty to\n\nforty students removed from the seat of the school and organized into a\nclass or center for the purpose of pursuing college work in absentia, a repre-\n\nsentative of the professorial staff of the school coming to the center or class\n\nonce a week or once in two weeks and giving lectures, assigning readings,\nholding conferences, quizzes, and- examinations, and at the end of a ten- to\ntwenty-trip course awarding credit to the class upon and in terms somewhat\n\ncomparable with those upon and in which the credit is awarded to resident\nstudents.\n\nAny extramural instruction upon such a unit of work should justify\nitself by\n1.\n\nof\n\nthe following tests:\n\nIn all courses of study in technical or professional schools sequence\n\nwork is very important.\n\nschools.\n\nThis sequence is quite notable in normal\n\nIt is not only difficult but almost impossible to plan the courses of\n\nThe\n\nsuch extramural classes to articulate with the residence program.\n\nresident students of the normal school spend from 35 to 50 per cent of their\n\ntime in the class, conference, and laboratory.\n\nIn extramural classes this\n\ntime of contact with professors and students would be\n\nmuch reduced.\n\nUsually no entrance requirements are made of such extramural classes and\nthe preparation of the members is too varied to make it possible to adapt\nthe instruction to the mental status of\n\nall\n\nthe members.\n\nAgain,\n\nif\n\nthe\n\nteacher is giving every dyne of her energy to her school, it may not be easy\nfor her to spare ten hours a week of hard work on college credit.\n\nIt may\n\nnot be easy for her to fill two intellectual jobs at the same time for one of\n\nwhich she receives full pay and for the other of which she saves expense.\nIt is questionable whether efficient life can be so doubled.\n2.\n\nIf the extension course is to bear directly upon the teaching skill of\n\nthe members of a class, it must impinge upon immediate teaching need.\n\nWHiere the strength of the teacher in such class is not levied upon in full by\nher daily tasks in her school, there may accrue to her from such a course some\nabiding knowledge which will function in her current schoolroom work.\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": "518", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nSi8\n\n[Normal\n\nTraining for skill in the technic of the school is made possible and easier\nby the academic and professional courses in a normal school, but the training\nitself is a matter of very close expert oversight and cannot be directed at\ntelephone or telegraph distances.\n3. While no definite evidences are available as to the effect produced\nupon college attendance by college extension courses, it is fair to assume that\n\nmany students pursuing these credit courses will continue their courses in\nresidence.\n4.\n\nIn the matter of expense\nIf\n\nless.\n\n— will cost the state more and the student\nit\n\nwe reckon 18,000 student hours the average year's work of a\n\nnormal-school professor, it will cost the state about ten cents per hour for\ninstruction in residence.\n\nReckoning on an average basis, it will cost the\n\nstate at the rate of twenty cents per student hour for extramural instruc-\n\nThese items vary with standards set and the size of classes, with\n\ntion.\n\nstandards as to the number of hours a professor should teach, and the\ndistance of centers from the college.\n\nIV. The normal-school graduate begins to teach at about twenty-one\nyears of age.\n\nHer theory and practice of teaching have done much to insure\n\nher teaching against gross error and waste.\n\nShe sustains herself from the\n\nbeginning and develops in efficiency rapidly, but if the influence of the\n\nnormal school could follow her in some way for a year or two she might\n\ncome to greater efficiency much earlier.\nThis follow-up work may be carried on in three ways:\nI. By visiting the graduates in their work and conferring with them\nupon the work at intermission and end of the day. This work should be\ncarried on in a spirit of co-operation and helpfulness. In most of our\nschools the educational training of the superintendent will be very different\nfrom that which the graduate of the normal school has received. The\nsuperintendent may have no way of connecting up with the graduate's world\nat all and in such cases a conference between them will often lead to an\n\n—\n\nappreciation of the outlook and work of the graduate teacher that the\n\nteacher herself could not have effected.\nit\n\nOften the trained teacher finds\n\nmuch easier to fall back upon the routine method of the public schools\n\nin which she was educated than to follow methods consistent with the principles and practices of her normal school.\n\nThe professor from the normal\n\nmay be able to aid the superintendent in appreciating the work\nof its graduates by establishing some common criteria or standards of\nschool\n\njudgment.\n\nIn judging the success of a graduate, the professor might use\n\nthe following basis:\na) Is the school a social unit?\n(2)\n\n(i)\n\nCo-operation among the pupils.\n\nCo-operation on the part of the pupils with the teacher.\nh)\n\nTo what degree are the pupils motivated in the class work ?\n\nc)\n\n.Do the pupils grasp the curriculum problems ?\n\nd)\n\nTo what extent do the pupils recognize relative values ?\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": "519", "text": "Department]\n\ne)\n\nEXTENSION WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\n519\n\nDo pupils observe order and sequence in their work ?\n\n/) Is there freedom of self-activity and initiative ?\ng) Is there a noticeable satisfaction and pride in the schoolroom achieve-\n\nment?\nh)\n\nWhat notable reactions in the school are due to the influence of the\n\ncommunity ?\ni)\n\nWhat notable reactions in the community are due to the influence of\n\nthe school ?\nj)\n\nClassroom technic: method, mechanics, thought work, control, etc.\n\nk) Result of conferences with superintendent and with teachers.\n2.\n\nBy the establishment of regions among the alumni— the alumni in\n\neach region to meet with representatives of the normal college to discuss\ndifficult problems met with in the schools.\nHere the younger graduates\nwould profit not only by the counsel of the normal-college professors but\nfrom the successful experience of those who have been longer in the\n\nwork.\n3. By an annual meeting of the entire alumni to be held at the seat of the\nnormal college, the program of which might be about as follows: demonstra-\n\ntion work shown in the practice schools in answer to requests; conferences\n\npresided over by professors and critic teachers;\n\nand a formal program of\n\naddresses by members of the faculty and representatives from other training\nschools.\n\nWhatever will contribute to improved teaching in the state is clearly\nwithin the province of the normal schools, and where greater efficiency of\nteaching in the total may be secured thru extramural instruction it is evi-\n\ndently the duty of the state schools to conduct such extension work.\n\nIII.\n\nHENRY G. WILLIAMS, DEAN, STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, OHIO UNIVERSITY,\nATHENS, OHIO\n\nThe subject before us today for discussion is one which appeals to me\nas a topic of vital interest to the rank and file of the teachers of this country.\n\nThere are in this country 485,000 teachers engaged in the public schools.\nIt is safe to say that of this number more than 50 per cent, or at least a\nquarter of a million, have never had any instruction which may be called\nprofessional.\n\nIt is hardly sufficient to provide only for the training of those\n\nteachers who are concerned hereafter to enter the profession, but we must\ngive opportunity at least to those who are ambitious for professional training\n\nand have not been paid salaries sufficient to enable them to save up money\nenough to obtain from two to four years of academic and professional training after having entered the profession. Even if these teachers had money\nenough to pay for this professional training, the risk they would be running\nin giving up fairly satisfactory positions for an uncertain location would\ndeter quite a good many of them from making the venture.\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": "520", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n520\n\n[Nonnal\n\nThere is another reason why teachers who are engaged in active service\nshould have the professional training carried to them.\n\nThey usually appre-\n\nciate it more than those who obtain their trainmg immediately following\n\nThey go from the lectures or lessons to school next\nday with a new element added to their ideal and a stronger determination\na high-school course.\n\nto apply in practice the principles they have learned relative to the science\n\nand art of teaching. The opportimity for immediate application is usually\nvery fruitful of good results. It has been my experience that teachers thus\nenrolled in professional subjects offered in extension courses are exceedingly\n\nappreciative of the opportunity and also of the value of the instruction\noffered.\n\nThere are still other reasons why the state should carry the college to the\nIn the first place, the state can render this service at less expense\nthan it can meet the requirements of regular instruction at the seat of the\nnormal school or college. The state can send one professor to a group of\nforty teachers with much less expense than forty teachers can come to that\nprofessor.\nOf course, I do not mean to say that there is no difference in\nteacher.\n\nthe value of the instruction offered or in the opportunities presented for\n\nclassroom discussion and library references.\n\nHowever, my plan for con-\n\nducting an extension course includes a circulating library based -upon the\ncourse presented by the university or normal-college lecturer.\n\nFor more than three years past, I have conducted extension courses in\nconnection with the State Normal College, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio,\nof which institution I chance to be the dean.\n\nDuring the past year, I have\n\nfound the traveling library a positive necessity in the conduct of extension\nwork.\n\nI offered five courses on four different subjects at three different\n\ncenters extending from October 8 until the present time, and it will require\n\na continuation of the work until the latter part of April before the courses\n\ncan be completed.\n\nTo prosecute this work satisfactorily, I made up travel-\n\ning libraries of fifty volimies each on the subject covered by the extension\n\ncourse or on related subjects, covering precisely the same references I would\ngive my classes in residence.\n\nThere was this difference: students in resi-\n\ndence had access to duplicate copies of the same book while students in the\nextension course had access to but one copy of each.\n\nHowever, the lectures\n\nwere two weeks apart, and I found very little inconvenience to the students\nin making assignments to the entire class in case they were all residents of\nthe same town.\n\nIn cases where members of the class came from distant\n\npoints in the country, and some of them drove fourteen miles to get to their\nclass, I\n\nwould assign specific references to each member of the class and\n\nrequire a more detailed oral report on the reading assigned and require the\n\nother members of the class to take notes on the reported reading.\nI found that these teachers greatly appreciated the opportunity to read\nfifty books on a related subject in education.\n\nIt was also an inspiration to\n\nthe superintendents and teachers who were not members of the extension\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": "521", "text": "Department]\n\nEXTENSION WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\n$21\n\nclass to be permitted to use these books whenever such use did not interfere with the work of the class.\n\nIn several instances, I am sure, the teach-\n\nencouraged to purchase books on educational subjects, and the\nwhole field of educational literature was thus opened up to them with many\ners were\n\nstartling revelations.\n\nJust at the time I was carrying on these extension\n\ncourses, many of the books we needed were not available from the university library.\n\nI therefore took about one hundred and fifty volumes from\n\nmy own private library and put them into circulation thru these little\ntraveling libraries for my extension classes. I have seen no reason yet to\nregret this trifling generosity on my part.\nThe most interesting thing about this experiment is the matter of disA number of the professors of the\n\ntance from the State Normal College.\n\ninstitution, including myself, had given extension courses in near-by towns\n\nwhich we could reach easily from the seat of the institution and from which\nwe frequently could return the same evening. I considered that that was\nhardly a fair test of the system. More than that, I contended that it was\nnot a square deal to the teachers of the state.\n\nI firmly believe not only in\n\nequality of educational opportunity to the children enrolled in the public\nschools, but in equality of opportunity to their teachers as well.\n\nIt seemed\n\nhardly fair that we should give so much of our time and attention and so\n\nmuch of the resources of the State Normal College to those teachers who\nchanced to live near the institution, when, at the same time, the institution\nwas being supported by taxes levied upon all the property of the state,\npersonal and real, no matter what its geographical location. I therefore\nreasoned that this university extension work in connection with the State\nNormal College should be given to those teachers farthest from the institution or farthest from any institution, for the reason that the attendance\nat any institution is more or less local and the educational opportunities\ndecrease in proportion to the square of the distance from the institution.\n\nMy thought, then, was to go to the most distant points in the territory\nwhich the State Normal College was supposed to serve. I selected Portsmouth, a city on the very outskirts of our district in southeastern Ohio.\nWhen I explained my plan to the teachers there assembled, a high-school\nfrom an adjoining county which was not in the southeastern\nthought the matter over after he went home and wrote me,\n\nprincipal\ndistrict\n\nsaying that they could secure a sujQ&cient number to organize an extension class at West Union.\nNow, West Union is the county seat of\nAdams County, a very hilly county with bad roads. It is the only county\n\nseat in Ohio not on a railroad and is fourteen miles from a railroad in each\nof three directions.\n\nI thought the problem of transportation would be an\n\nobstacle but decided to meet the class and see what they had to say about\nit.\n\nWhen I arrived at West Union, I found two classes instead of one and\n\nwas present. I found there\nassembled about forty of the most enthusiastic teachers in Adams County,\nnearly every superintendent in the county\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": "522", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n522\n\n[Normal\n\nand they insisted that the institution with which I was connected was just\nas much under obligations to them, if not a little more so, than to any other\ngroup of teachers in the state.\n\nI could not turn down their insistent appeal,\n\nso I organized two classes at West Union, one in school management and\n\nschool law for the rural and grade teachers, and one in school administration for superintendents\n\nand supervisors.\n\nThe classes at Portsmouth were in the science of education and in the\nelementary course of study.\n\nAll four classes started October 8, 1913, and\n\nI have met them regularly every two weeks up to this time.\n\nI find they do\nas thoro work as the students of any class I ever had enrolled in the uniI find them hungry for inspiration and for knowledge.\nI\nthem ambitious and determined to succeed. I find them the very\ncream of their communities with high professional ideals. The class at\nWest Union put the argument this way: The State Normal College at\nAthens owes us more because of our unfavorable situation, our distance from\nany institution, the poor salaries paid in the county, and the low standard\n\nversity halls.\nfind\n\nthat prevails in many communities because they are unable to keep the\nbest teachers.\n\nThey told me that their people were paying the same rate\n\nof tax to support the State Normal College as persons who live in the city\n\nof Athens, and that is true.\n\nI became thoroly convinced that extension work in connection with the\nnormal schools and teachers' colleges should spread itself out over the\nentire territory served by the institution with a possible exception that the\n\ncounty in which the school is located should not be given extension classes.\n\nWe charged these teachers only five dollars for a semester's course and\nwe gave them the same number of credit hours as we would if they had been\nin residence.\nlesson.\n\nI require from two hours to two and one-half hours for each\n\nI usually give a lecture of forty or fifty minutes, on which the\n\nmembers of the class take notes. The balance of the time is given to a\nquiz on the preceding lecture and to a discussion of the readings assigned.\nThe charge made was merely to cover the actual expenses of the course\ngiven, in the way of railroad fare, hotel bills, incidentals, and books that\nwere furnished at the expense of the instructor.\n\nI figured that the normal\n\ncollege can send lecturers to these extension centers for less expense per\ncollege hour than the state can give the same instruction for if tlie student\n\ncomes to the university. I was ambitious to prove that it could be done in\nthe most distant point in my district. I reasoned that if it could be done at\nany point on the circumference of my circle it could be done at any point\nwithin the circle. I was also ambitious to prove to the state legislature that\nnot only was it the duty of the state to offer instruction of this character,\nbut it was an opportunity for the state to get high-grade instruction at a\nminimimi of expense. My figures helped at least to convince the finance\nconmiittees of the legislature, and we were granted six thousand dollars for\nextension work for the coming year. The chairman of the finance com-\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": "523", "text": "EXTENSION WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n523\n\nmittee of the House told me a few days ago that we might just as well have\nhad ten thousand dollars if we had asked for it. This money will be used\nthe coming year exclusively for salaries and traveling expenses of two men\n\nwho will give their entire time to extension work.\nAs to the total amount of work students should be permitted to carry\nin any one year, I think it advisable to limit them to two courses a semester\n\nas a maximum.\nsemester.\n\nIn fact, we have seldom given more than one course each\n\nThis occasionally means three semester hours of credit for each\n\ncourse, ordinarily but\n\ntwo hours.\n\nI would also not permit any teacher\n\nto work out more than twenty semester hours in extension courses.\n\nIf she\n\nis taking the regular two-year course following graduation from high school,\n\nthis would make it necessary for her to carry at least one year of the work in\n\nresidence, which would be one-half of the course.\n\nIn case of high-school\n\nteachers, the credits would cover but one-sixth of the entire course.\n\nThe\n\nstudent needs to come in contact with the institution as a whole, with its\nstudent body, with its faculty members, with its libraries, with its laboratories,\n\nand especially with its school spirit.\n\nI would not deny a student\n\nthese special and very essential opportunities.\n\nTo give you some idea of the effort it required on the part of the instructor, I wish to say that I made 15 trips in which I gave about 40 actual\n\nhours of classroom service to each class.\n\nIt required railroad travel to the\n\nextent of 385 miles each trip or 5,775 miles for a series of 15 lectures.\n\nHow-\n\never, the most difficult part of the travel consisted of a trip of 14 miles from\n\nthe railroad station to West Union and at least 14 miles back!\nI was so tired that it seemed like 28 miles back.\nof travel in\n\nbuggy or automobile.\n\nSometimes\nThis required 320 miles\n\nWhen this is added to the distance\n\ntraveled by rail we have about 6,100 miles.\nI am thoroly convinced that\n\nmy experiment so far is successful.\n\nI hope\n\nto see the plan extended until every teacher in my state may have oppor-\n\ntunity for voluntary study in an extension course in which she shall have\ninstruction equal to the best in residence, with a traveling library that will\nafford her ample opportunity to do all the reading required and to permit\n\nher to do\n\nmuch voluntary reading.\n\nLack of opportunity for reading I\n\nhave found to be a difficulty with almost every student.\nAfter the courses were in progress for several weeks, the teachers of\nWinchester, also in Adams County, appealed to me to organize an extension class there.\nI did so, and enrolled the superintendent and 20 teachers\nin it.\nI enrolled 112 teachers in the five classes and 106 of them have continued faithful up to the present time.\n\nI think this is at least as large a per-\n\ncentage of those who continue in the courses as the average college class\n\nwould show, and I am altogether convinced that the experiment is one of\nthe most worthwhile in education today.\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": "524", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n524\n\n[Normal\n\nTHE TWENTIETH-CENTURY VORMAL SC300L\nJOHN R. KIRK, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KIRKSVILLE, MO.\n\nThe twentieth-century normal school covers four years in academic\nand pedagogic studies of college grade. It prepares grown men and women\nto be teachers in public schools of every grade and kind. It parallels\nthe law school, engineering school, divinity school, medical college, and other\nschools and colleges whose diplomas guarantee the holders to be qualified\nto enter their respective professions for permanent service. It is not a\npreparatory school for the purpose of feeding more powerful higher institutions.\nIts graduates do not need to be recast or relabeled by any other\ninstitution in order to give them professional standing.\nThey enter their\nprofessions able to think and act for themselves. They do not need the\nguidance of an overseer who happens to be skilled in the manipulation of\nmechanized curricula. They are able to stand on their own feet, go their\nown gait, do things on their own initiative, and take care of themselves.\nThe faculty of the twentieth-century normal school is made up of men\nand women, about half and half. They are vigorous, capable, and constructive teachers, as versatile and scholarly as the best of the college men.\nSome of them have traveled in foreign countries. They write some books.\nThey appear on many platforms and share in the best productive and\nconstructive thought in education. They are in no sense homogeneous, yet\nthey constitute a working democracy of great solidarity. They think\nwith full freedom and tolerate nothing which smacks of dictation from any\ncentralized power.\npolicy.\n\nThey share in shaping clearly defined educational\n\nTheir energies are dynamic and not static.\n\nThe twentieth-century normal school is a vocational institution. It\nIt is not much like a college, does not intend to become a\nIts work is not duplicated by colleges.\ncollege, never will be a college.\n\nis not a college.\n\nIt does not interfere with\n\nany exclusive function of any college, if any\n\ncollege has any such function.\n\nIt uses many college studies to give clear\n\nby teachers. It exemplifies teaching\nand cannot do. It has a better library,\nbetter laboratories, and better facilities on the whole for making studies\nIt has an exhilarating\nintelligible than typical colleges can possibly afford.\natmosphere and a high professional enthusiasm which daily characterize\ninsight into subject-matter needed\n\nas colleges have never done\n\nthe quick-moving men and women who constitute its students.\nThe twentieth-century normal school cannot safely be defined and\nregulated by university inspectors and committees.\n\nIt is a public utility,\n\nand, therefore, retains plasticity to meet substantial changes in public\nneeds. Its undeviating policy is to function in growing public service. Its\n\n—\n\nprogram is like the railway ticket \"for this day and train only.\"\nThe twentieth-century normal school does not get its ideals from foreign\nIt\nIt is not bound by the hypnotic hold of any tradition.\ncountries.\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": "525", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE TWENTIETH-CENTURY NORMAL SCHOOL\n\ncannot be standardized by any fixed and unchanging rules.\n\n525\nIt cannot\n\nbe stratified or devitalized or even sterilized. It reaches into whatever\nstudies may be necessary to make good teachers for the public schools.\n\nThe short-course normal school, prematurely and permanently cut off\nat the end of the second year above the high-school course, is not of the\n\npresent century and never can\n\nconmionplace.\npromise.\n\nlift\n\npublic-school education above the\n\nThe genuine normal school is not the product of com-\n\nIt is not a mill to grind out semiconscious teaching of automatons\n\nthru drilling and \" training\" in mechanized prescriptions and processes.\nis\n\nIt\n\nto quicken the wits of intending teachers, to intensify their knowledge,\n\nto stimulate constructive ingenuity, to give thru study some professional\nideals and thru action some technical skill.\n\nIt doesn't load consciousness\n\nwith a diet of predetermined and sterilized methods.\nhabit of looking into things.\n\nIt gives\n\nIt produces the\n\npower of personal initiative.\n\nIt\n\nenlarges the horizon and produces anxious, clear-minded, self-poised indi-\n\nviduals inclined to pry into subject-matter, find its relation to the mental\n\ncontent of those taught, and construct ways and means as necessities arise\n\nfrom ever-varying conditions.\nIn a period covering about four years, the twentieth-century normal\nschool enables intending teachers to discover themselves and learn what\n\nthey are good for. It does not classify its students in the Freshman year\nand then artificially and abnormally force one group into the mold of elementary teachers, another group into the mold of high-school teachers, and\nanother group into some other unnatural and preconceived mechanism. It\nadmits a vast variety of talented mortals. It differentiates them by natural\nprocesses and not by premature conventional classifications. It encourages them to select for themselves little by little the grade and kind of\nschool in which they by nature and cultivated capability and personal taste\n\nmay safely be allowed to teach.\nThe twentieth-century normal school is a working democracy. It has\nmany student activities, such as the Music Club, Fine Arts Club, Athletic\nClub, Political Equality Club, Rural Sociology Club, Latin Club, German\nClub, Browning Club, Shakespeare Club, Science Club, Dramatic Club,\nMathematics Club, Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., Student Publication Association,\nand numerous debating clubs and literary societies. Its representative\nstudents take charge of public schools with vim and definite purpose,\nbecause they have experience and skill in directing school activities. Their\ncharacteristic traits are alertness, versatility, initiative, and adjustability.\n\nWe hear that the university is free and self-determining.\n\nBut it is\n\nhuman agency is entirely free. Doubtless the\nuniversity is as free as any human institution can be. But the twentiethcentury normal school is equally free and equally self-determining. What\ndoes this mean ? It means that the university and the twentieth-century\ndoubtful whether any\n\nnormal school are free to keep constantly adjusting themselves and adapting\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": "526", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n526\n\n[Normal\n\nthemselves to the purposes and the needs of the communities by which\n\nthey are created and supported.\n\nThe normal school which serves the com-\n\nmimity effectively is not bounded by any high walls.\n\nIt is not so standard-\n\nized as to exclude all people below a certain limit and all people above a\ncertain stature.\n\nUniversities, colleges, and normal schools get a majority\n\nof all their students\n\nfrom a small radius.\n\nHence many well-distributed\n\nhigher professional schools are essential to universal education.\n\nThe twentieth-century normal school will always have some students\nboth above and below those years that parallel the four years' college course.\nHigh-school diplomas and Bachelor's degrees can never bound or limit\nthe twentieth-century normal school.\n\nFor a long time to come there will\n\nbe worthy men and women in considerable numbers, persons of maturity and\nlarge capability, who, in the exigencies of life, will not have high-school\ndiplomas, yet who will have the best of student habits and definite intentions,\n\nwho will desire to be for short periods and for long periods teachers in the\npublic schools, and who will be willing to make much sacrifice in their\nmature years in order to become well-qualified teachers.\n\nMany such people\n\nwill always be knocking for admission to the normal school.\n\nOthers pos-\n\nsessed of the Bachelor's degree from colleges and universities will be hanging\n\nabout and clinging to the twentieth-century normal school because of its\nrare pedagogical atmosphere.\n\nIn the matter of details, all normal schools will have a few things in\n\ncommon, but the normal school in the city and the one in the mining\nregion and the one in the agricultural region will all differ very much from\n\none another in their curricula and in their material agencies for instruction.\nPerhaps for some time to come a majority of the greater and stronger\n\nnormal schools will be adapting themselves to the needs of agricultural,\nhorticultural,\n\nand\n\nstock-raising\n\ncommunities.\n\nNormal\n\nschools\n\nof\n\nthis\n\ncharacter will have large tracts of land for farming, gardening, and pasturage.\n\nPerhaps they will not do much of what is called scientific investi-\n\ngation.\n\nTheir tracts will not be agricultural experiment stations.\n\nBut\n\nthey will exemplify a vast variety of principles and procedures that should\n\nbe brought within the observational and experimental knowledge of teachers\nIn this respect the normal school will co-operate with\nin such localities.\nthe state college of agriculture, in which there will be a more intensive\n\nstudy of agriculture, horticulture, and stock-raising, and, even for the\npurposes of producing teachers, the more highly intensive agricultural\nstudies will always be taken in the college of agriculture, while the phases\n\nembodying exemplification and illustration and the pedagogy of the subjects\nwill be found in the normal school.\nBut the high-grade normal school will never relegate Latin or German.\nIt will always have extensive and well-organized courses in English and\nin the teaching of English.\nIt will always have all forms of undergraduate\ncourses in history and geography, in mathematics and science, in household\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": "527", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE TWENTIETH-CENTURY NORMAL SCHOOL\n\narts, in fine arts, in\n\n527\n\nmanual arts, in sociology, in commercial studies, in\nIt will use all reasonable paraphernalia and\n\nmusic, in physical education.\nall\n\npracticable instrumentalities for exemplifying the endless varieties of\n\npedagogical phases of such studies.\n\nIt will utilize all available knowledge\n\nneeded by public-school teachers in the elementary schools and the high\nschools of the city, the town, the village, and the rural community.\n\nThe twentieth-century normal school is and always will be a part of\ncommunity life.\nin extent.\ntion,\n\nIt is a nucleus with radii from fifty to one hundred miles\n\nIt will always conduct intensive studies, rational experimenta-\n\nand never-ending but always varying demonstrations of pedagogical\nIt will always be among the leaders of productive pedagogical\n\nprocedures.\n\nthought in the world.\n\nTHE TWENTIETH-CENTURY NORMAL SCHOOL—NEW\nBRANCHES OF STUDY, NEW PROBLEMS, AND\n\nNEW IDEALS\nCARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nIt hardly seems fitting that I, so new a recruit in the normal-school\nfield,\n\nshould presume to speak on the work or the ideals of the normal\n\nA somewhat extended experience in receiving from the hands of\nmy present fellow-laborers in this portion of the educational vineyard, and\nschool.\n\nusing in the public schools the normal-school product, is perhaps the only\n\nexcuse I can offer for complying with the request of our chairman that I present this paper.\n\nThe times change and we are changed with them, says the proverb;\nand the changes in our national life changes in industry, in living conditions\nin our homes, in the demands the home makes upon the school, in the ideals\nof our society ^have produced conditions which have demanded and are now\ndemanding recognition from us who are charged with responsibility for\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntraining the teachers in our public schools.\n\nThe belief among our people that singing as an exercise cultivates and\ngives expression to the nobler emotions and sentiments, and as a science gives\n\nsome power to attack and master new musical compositions, some knowledge\nof the best music and musicians, and some judgment of good music as dis-\n\ntinguished from poor, has made it necessary that, in our public schools, we\nshall\n\nnot only teach singing, but shall give at least some knowledge of\n\nThere is a general recognition of the fact that\na knowledge of the art of drawing and the use of colors gives our young\n\nthe elements of vocal music.\n\npeople another avenue of self-expression,\n\nalmost another language in\nwhich to convey to others their thoughts and conceptions; gives them also\n\nmany times a knowledge and a skill having a commercial value; makes them\nable to select the garments which are becoming to them, and suitable furnishings and furniture and decorations for their homes;\n\nand not only renders\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": "528", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n528\n\n[Normal\n\nthem able to see more clearly and intelligently the things about them, but\nteaches them to enjoy better the beautiful things in nature and better to\nThese considerations have caused drawing\nand design, including work in clay and in the use of colors, to be included\nin public-school courses.\nAnd considerations equally forcible have caused\nthe inclusion of gymnastics, and of manual training, both that simple\nsort of manual training which deals with things which little children can\nmake with the use of that ancient hand tool, the needle, and also work\nwith wood at the bench for older boys, and practice in the art of cooking\nThe necessity for directing the play of children and young\nfor older girls.\npeople and of overseeing and assisting in their social recreations calls for\nteachers and supervisors of these things. And now come the continuation\nschools, which are to lead farther along the flowery path of knowledge\nthose boys and girls whom stern necessity or unwise haste to join the\nthrong of wage-earners has drawn out of the schools before their time.\nThese demand teachers of special preparation, a special attitude of mind,\nand special insight into the problems of these schools. Not to particularize as to other demands, all these which have been cited, and many others,\nrequire a supply of teachers, and the normal schools must be alert to understand, and promptly ready to meet, the demands which changed conditions\nappreciate the beautiful in art.\n\nare making upon them.\n\nOur ideals may be considered in two ways: The ideals we try to give\nour students who are to go out into this fine profession of the teacher; and\nthe ideals we shall set for our guidance in the orderings and accomplishment\nof our own work.\n\nThis profession of ours can never be pursued most suc-\n\ncessfully unless the teacher has that quality of altruism, that forgetfulness of\nself in the work, which\n\nwe recognize most clearly in the greatest teachers.\n\nThe teacher must live\n\n—must have shelter and clothing and food— food\n\nfor the body and for the higher life;\n\nbut having had due care for these in\n\nseeking a position and in fixing the details of the service and the pay— \"the\n\nwork's the thing.\"\n\nAnd if our schools are to do their best for our graduates,\n\nnot only shall we in some way give to them the knowledge and the skill in\narranging and presenting subject-matter, and the power to control and\n\nadminister a school, but we shall give them also an intellectual honesty\n\nand a fixed purpose to study individuals, so as to understand and be able\nto do the best for each, always considering first the pupil and his welfare,\nrather than the likes and dislikes or the comfort or the ease of the teacher.\n\nAnd for our normal schools, can they take, for the new day, a finer\nBy this is meant a service to the\nindividual young people who come to us for knowledge and for training and\nor a worthier ideal than that of service ?\nfor sentiments and ideals;\n\nservice to our student body as a whole so that\n\nall the arrangements of our institutions— the equipment and conditions of\n\nour buildings, the terms and details of our yearly calendar, the weekly and\ndaily hours of work, the conditions of entrance— shall serve those who may\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": "529", "text": "PREPARATION FOR HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHING\n\nDepartment]\n\n529\n\nbe able to profit by the advantages of the school; service to the state in\nshaping our plans and our methods of carrying these out, so that the\nneeds of the state for teachers of various kinds and degrees of qualification\n\nmay be best met.\n\nTHE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR HIGH SCHOOLS\nHOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE,\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\nThe point of view. —-What will be said by most educators on the preparation of high-school teachers depends very largely upon their individual point\nof view.\n\nThis has been notably manifested during the past decade, while\n\nthere has been an attempt to define the standards and determine the qualifications of high-school teachers.\n\nThe liberal arts college, being universally\n\ndistributed in the United States, has assumed that any other kind of preparation than the kind it affords is unthinkable and undesirable, assuming that\nit alone gives the special sort of scholarship that is essential for a high-school\n\nteacher.\n\nHence, most schools of education organized by universities are\n\nuniformly federated if not consolidated with the liberal arts colleges of these\ninstitutions.\n\nThis assumption has been fortified by the organization of\n\nseveral associations of colleges and secondary schools which have as their\n\nfunction the enforcing of this system.\n\nIt is conomonly asserted by them\n\nthat students of secondary schools must be taught by the graduates of these\n\nunited colleges if graduates are to be accepted later as fully accredited for\ncollege entrance.\n\nWhatever variation from this doctrine has been per-\n\nmitted has come from this agreement not being legal or enforceable, since\nstate universities have been liberal in the recognizing of high-school gradu-\n\nates in their own states when the teaching force in the high school does not\n\nabsolutely comply with this special single standard.\n\nFor this reason, gradu-\n\nates of technical institutions, of special schools of\n\nmany kinds, of state\n\nteachers' colleges, and even of state normal schools are employed by school\n\nboards without full regard for this co-operative system of accrediting and\naccepting high schools.\n\nAs a consequence, the college definition of stand-\n\nards as to high-school teacher preparation is not yet in the laws of the states,\n\nand the questions involved are still open for discussion.\n\nWho is a high-school teacher ? — It seems reasonable to recognize that the\ndefinition of what characteristics a high-school teacher should possess ought\n\nto depend entirely upon the type of high school under consideration.\n\nSince\n\nthere are many more village, rural, and small-town high schools than there\n\nare municipal high schools, the problem is not a single or a simple one.\n\nThe municipal high school can be a law unto itself. It can refuse to be\nlimited in any way as to function or management because it is justified in\nregarding its principal and its faculty as the equal if not the superior of many\ncollege presidents and college faculties.\n\nSuch faculties regard their work\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": "530", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n530\n\n[Normal\n\nas not subordinate in any sense of the word and they properly decline to\nto give any attention to the formal demands or the specific requirements of\n\nthese voluntary associations seeking to decide the province of high schools.\n\nBut for the great majority of the high schools found in all the states, there\nby necessity a different condition. They pay meager salaries, they main-\n\nis\n\ntain few courses of study, they experience frequent changes in their teaching\n\noccupy a restricted environment, and they grant a limited\nEven with these minor conditions they are becoming, because of\n\ncorps, they\nservice.\n\nnimibers, the principal source of student supply for institutions of higher\nlearning and are for that reason of acknowledged importance to those who\ndesire to dictate policies, control standards, approve courses of study, and\n\ndecide the preparation of the teachers.\n\nCollege-educated teachers are not\n\ncertain of success, as experience has shown, hence school boards find\n\nit\n\nnecessary to require experience and training as well as scholarship.\n\nThe normal-school product.\n\n— If normal schools are to be a factor in the\n\npreparation of high-school teachers, they must recognize the\n\nminimum\n\nstandards approved in the states where they are located and maintain a\ncourse of study and training that is superior to such qualifications.\n\nThey\n\ncan hardly claim to be fully capable unless they grant every opportunity\nthat education and training can give.\n\nThe students who come to normal\n\nschools do not know their possibilities and prospects professionally when\n\nThey need to find themselves, and many of\nthem will learn that they are better adapted to high-school teaching than\nto other kinds.\nThey should be allowed to differentiate and to prepare for\nthe right field of teaching. The students in such a school are of many types\nand their individualities deserve recognition. College graduates are just as\nvariable and as individualistic. Some of them could work with distinthey first begin their work.\n\nguished success in primary schools, others with equivalent capability in ele-\n\nmentary schools, others in high schools, and others in executive positions.\nThe normal school has the best atmosphere to give a teacher the largest\nopportunity, and its very organization and spirit give it a great chance for\na large service, if it has the means, the faculty, and the standards that the\nage demands.\nThe public school as an institution. The public schools are not dissected\nparts to be treated differently; they are an institution as a whole. They\ncannot be subdivided into divisions and conducted as if they require a\nThe unity of the work of a public school is\ndifferent attitude toward life.\nperiod of development in educational\npresent\nthe greatest need of the\nprogress. Teachers are not better or more useful because they occupy\n\n—\n\ndifferent places in the system.\n\nIt requires just as\n\nmuch talent, just as\n\nthoro preparation, just as competent manhood and womanhood to be an\n\nelementary teacher as it does to be a high-school teacher.\n\nIn fact, if there\n\nare any special difficulties and special needs that require superior gifts and\nsuperior mental development on the part of the teacher they are to be pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": "531", "text": "PREPARATION FOR HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHING\n\nDepartment!\n\n531\n\nThere needs, therefore, to be a higher valuaThey should not be considered inferior to\nthose of youth. Special premium should not be placed upon high-school\nteaching in any way whatsoever. Inferiority has no proper place anywhere\nin these mighty undertakings, and aristocracy has no rightful recognition in\na democracy.\nThe North Central states.—-For forty years there has been some form of\naccrediting secondary schools in the North Central states. The system of\nadmission by certificate has become universal and is highly approved as\nsuccessful and reliable.\nIn 1895, the North Central Association of Colleges\nand Secondary Schools was organized by the more prominent schools of\nboth classes, and an annual meeting is held in Chicago to consider problems\nand receive the report of the commission on accrediting collegiate and\nsecondary institutions. In 1914, there are approximately eight hundred\nhigh schools listed as accredited, and every state has a system of inspection.\nThere are, at the same time, hundreds of small high schools that are not\nregistered by this association because they are not large enough to become\nmembers or because they do not or cannot comply with the technical\nvided for in the earlier years.\n\ntion of the years of childhood.\n\nstandards required.\n\nThe graduates of these smaller high schools are usually\n\naccepted by the colleges in the states where they are located.\n\nMany well-\n\norganized and well-conducted colleges are not members of the North Central\nAssociation and hence are not compelled to enforce the regulations adopted.\n\nThis condition grants to these small colleges a source of patronage thru\nthese graduates that is very acceptable and gives them talent in student-\n\nand strength of promise that is not second to the fully accredited\n\nship\n\nA valuable report, including many tables of statistics, covering\n\ngraduate.\n\nthese eight hundred accredited high schools of the North Central states has\n\nbeen completed by Walter A. Jessup, of Iowa, and L. D. Coffman, of\nIllinois.\nThis report has been published by the National Society for the\n\nStudy of Education in the Thirteenth Yearbook, and is an enlightening contribution on the subject of the high schools of this part of the United States.\nIt was ascertained that a very large percentage of high-school teachers\n\nin these\n\nmost favored high schools were teachers of limited experience;\n\n13 per cent had one year, 20 per cent had two years, and 29 per cent had\n\nthree years of experience.\n\nthe larger\n\ncities,\n\nlarger districts.\n\nThe smaller cities were the practice schools for\n\nas their better teachers soon found employment in the\nIt is easy to infer that the non-accredited high schools in\n\nthese states were below this standard of experience as they pay smaller\nsalaries and have less favored conditions for permanent workers.\n\nThe North Central Association has always required that the high-school\nteachers in the accredited class should be college graduates or the equiva-\n\nThis report shows that one-fifth of the teachers in the eight hundred\nhigh schools are not college graduates, some cities having as many as fifty\nlent.\n\nteachers who are below the standard.\n\nOf the 7,095 teachers thus studied.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": "532", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n532\n\n[Normal\n\n1,040 were normal-school graduates only, 5,109 college graduates only, and\n\n946 college graduates after they were normal-school graduates. Of the\n7,095 persons thus classified, only 4,856 had degrees of any kind, indicating\nthat even the term \"college graduate\" did not have a uniform meaning\n\namong teachers.\nThe most important lessons of this able report are:\nStandards determined by definition are not uniformly applied in practice.\nThe problem of administering a system of schools varies in complexity according\nto the size of the community, the enrolment of the school, the size of the classes, the num1.\n\n2.\n\nber of the classes, and the character of the teacher.\n3.\n\nProfessionalization in teaching rests at present with the more experienced teachers\n\nin the largest places.\n\nWith these facts before us, it is evident that the last word is not yet\nsaid on the training of teachers for high schools, since the need exceeds the\n\nsupply and the development of the country at large precedes the endeavors\nof all the higher institutions of learning.\n\nTHE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS\nJ.\n\nJ.\n\nDOYNE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CONWAY, ARK.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\ngenerally conceded that education\n\nis\n\nbrought about by environment and association.\n\nthe result of influences\n\nBut little choice is given\n\nOutoutcome of the school life.\nIt is true that these agencies may so act upon the inner life of the child\nas to bring about a harmonious development of all its faculties; unfortunately the reverse is also true. Much, therefore, depends on the teacher:\nthe broader his outlook; the more thoroly he is aroused to the importance\nof his work; the more alert he is to his opportunities; and the more ready\nhe is to take advantage of the work he is doing, the more will his students\napproximate more nearly an ideal development in body, mind, and soul.\nPropagandists may advance theories, the course of study may be\nenriched a doubtful phrase much enthusiasm may, for the time, be\naroused, but the education that counts is that which best fits one for\nrelatively complete living in whatever position he may occupy.\nAt the basis of all successful teaching there must be a reasonable\ndegree of scholarship. That this scholarship for the teacher in the rural\nschool need not be so profound or so extended as is necessary for the\nto the child as to the character, quality, or extent of its education.\n\nside agencies are responsible largely for the\n\n—\n\n—\n\nteacher in schools of high grade may be admitted, but certainly it should\n\nbe every whit as thoro and as much at his command.\nit\n\nMore than this,\n\nshould be definite and fitted to the needs of the taught.\n\nThe great fault with many graduates of high schools and colleges who\nessay to teach in rural schools is that their education is top-heavy.\n\nWhile\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": "533", "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION FOR RURAL-SCHOOL TEACHING\n\n533\n\nthis is not the case with those teachers who have had simply a training in\n\nelementary courses in rural schools or poorly graded town schools, a serious\ntrouble confronts the latter also, in that they are unable to decide on courses\nof study that will meet the conditions under which they are to labor.\n\nA\n\nmeet problems of this sort and to handle them successfully\nis all-important.\nWhat subjects in the course of study shall be stressed\nand what parts of given subjects shall have special attention, considered\nfrom the needs and the environment of the rural-school pupil, should have\nspecial consideration.\nThe teacher in the rural school is expected to do\nthe work covered by a course of study issued by the state department\nof education or adopted by his board of trustees.\nToo frequently he has\nno voice in the making of this course of study and yet is held responsible\ntraining to\n\nfor its being carried out in his school.\n\nIn the main, these courses of study,\n\nas far as they include the elementary subjects, have merit.\n\nThey must\n\nbe taught, and it is important that the training of the teacher in these\nsubjects should be especially thoro and exact.\n\nThe ability to write cor-\n\nrectly an English sentence is worth more to him than to be able to translate\nindifferently an ode from Horace.\n\nIt is more to the point to be able to\n\ninterest a class in practical problems, such as finding the cost of fencing\n\na tract of land, than to be able to teach them to find the value of pi.\nis better that the teacher\n\nthan that he can readily name the seven wonders of the world.\nthat the teacher\n\nIt\n\nknow the geography and history of his own vicinity\nIt is better\n\nknow how to formulate and utilize a course of study\n\nadapted to the needs of his pupils than that he shall be able to give them\ninstruction so varied in its character that it shall educate them away from\ntheir environment.\n\nThe training of such teachers, then, must include a review of the\nmain essentials of the elementary branches; a study of the best methods\nof enlarging on the textbook content, or curtailing the same when expedient; the presentation of a general, and in some instances a special, plan\nfor using such illustrations and devices as shall fix the instruction in the\nminds of the pupils; and the stressing of the best methods to be employed\nin conducting the general work of the schoolroom.\nPeculiar problems confront the rural-school teacher.\n\nHe will find in\n\nthe rural community a degree of independence of thought and action on the\n\npart of the residents which is not to be observed in the centers of population;\n\na disinclination to abandon set customs and to adopt suggestions\n\nthat may have a tendency to change in any way their system of living;\n\na degree of contentment or resignation to conditions which it will be hard\nto overcome;\n\na seeming lack of time for the higher amenities of life when\n\nthe daily tasks have had their share of attention; a helpless attitude toward\nhardships, inconveniences, and deprivations, wrongly credited to destiny,\n\nwhich they make but little effort to improve; an absence of that perspective which would give them vistas of ideals which may, thru their efforts,\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": "534", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n534\n\n[Normal\n\nbe wrought out into the actual; an isolation which in many cases makes\nthe home a petty sovereignty; the existence of petty neighborhood jealousies\n\nand prejudices which have engendered factional strife such as prevents\nunity of sentiment for the common good.\nis\n\nSince the rural-school teacher\n\nto be a leader in molding sentiment and in planning and executing, in\n\nan effective way, needed reforms, his training should be such as shall\nacquaint him with social and economic problems related to rural life,\ndevelop his p>ower of initiative, call for the exercise of originality, strengthen\nhabits of self-reliance, encourage a spirit of helpfulness, and inspire an\n\nambition to be indeed a leader in school and community advancement.\n\nMuch of this applies to his work in the community, as it seems evident\nthat his success in the schoolroom will depend largely on the extent to\nwhich he identifies himself with the home and community life. Since his\n\npatrons are mainly of the farming class, his knowledge of agrarian conditions, restrictions, and possibilities of improvement should be continually\non the increase. Agriculture should, therefore, be a part of his curriculum,\nstudied from both the theoretical and practical standpoints. Opinions\nand generalizations such as he may form and express, gathered from cursory\n\nreadings, will not suffice.\n\nIt is not the\n\nman who has heard of things or\n\nhas read of things, but the man who has seen them and can do them, if\ncalled upon, who has the decided advantage.\n\nIt may not be advisable to introduce vocational studies into the country\n\nschools just now; for but few teachers are prepared to teach these subjects\nsuccessfully and yet do justice to the cultural subjects, when the character\nof the student body in the average country school is considered.\nis\n\nThere\n\ntoo great a variation in the extent of knowledge, there are too many\n\nclasses to be looked after,\n\nand too little time to be allotted, to allow for\n\nmuch work other than that embraced in a well-ordered course of study.\nBesides, the country lads and lassies already know, after a fashion, how to\nlook after the many things incident to rural life. What they especially\nneed is training in how to improve on their methods, and thus save time,\nexpense, and energy; how to conserve what nature has provided and to\nuse to the best advantage the materials and opportunities at hand.\nlife\n\nThus\n\npresents to the pupils a new aspect; broader fields of endeavor have\n\nbeen opened to them;\npossibilities\n\nan inspiring conception of their own power and\n\nhas been aroused; the desire to achieve has been awakened;\n\nand the erstwhile commonplace assimaes new and inviting phases.\n\nThese\n\nlessons must come from the practical vocational training received by the\nteacher, a training not necessarily extended in character, but certainly\n\none capable of adaptation to school and community needs. It need not\nbe confined to the pupils alone; but the patrons themselves may gradually\nbe won to the teacher's point of view and thus become willing to risk his\njudgment and direction. When he has secured this concession a broad\nfield of usefulness has opened to him.\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": "535", "text": "PREPARATION FOR RURAL-SCHOOL TEACHING\n\nDepartment]\n\n535\n\nThe study, therefore, of the economic life in rural communities becomes\nimportant in his training. The problems that are to be found in one such\ncommunity are, in the main, to be found in all, and preparation should be\nmade in advance for anticipating and solving them. The limits of this\npaper preclude even a passing reference to these conditions, but their\nexistence is patent to all students of rural life.\n\nIf the training-school for\n\nthe teacher is so fortunate as to have as an adjunct to its work a model\nrural school, under the direction of one who knows how to handle a school\nof this character, and the student-teacher is permitted to observe and to\n\nwork of this school under competent direction, he* is\nreceiving a degree of preparation for the work on which he must soon enter\nsuch as will prove invaluable to him. Along with this division of his work\nparticipate in the\n\nshould be given sane plans concerning the study of school architecture,\n\nschoolroom decoration, heating, ventilation, sanitation, and such other\nsubjects as will doubtless\n\ndemand his consideration and his best efforts\n\ntoward improvement when he shall assume charge of a rural school. As\nthese matters are controlled largely by the directors and patrons of the\ndistrict, it seems that the development of ability on the part of the teacher\n\nto present his views with convincing clearness and exactness should be a\n\nfeature of his training.\n\nThe mere studying of textbooks on these subjects\n\nor listening to lengthy dissertations from instructors will not suffice.\n\nIf\n\nthere be subjects of debate that should especially engage the time and\n\nattention of the teacher who is preparing to do rural-school work, it seems\n\nthat those above mentioned are peculiarly apt.\n\nThe training here secured\n\nshould develop a facility of expression and an extent of knowledge which\nwill prove a valuable asset to him in his talks with the individual patrons\n\nor in meetings held for the pleasure and profit of the masses.\n\nThus far consideration has been given mainly to the material, the\nreally extraneous features, of the teachers' work.\n\nThis has been done\n\nsince it is considered all-important, in order that successful teaching may\n\nbe done, that the surroundings be of such character as to place the child\nin the best possible attitude for receiving instruction.\n\nAdmiration for\n\nthe beautiful grows with association with that which is attractive; appreciation of the convenient is a natural sequence to the utilization of those\n\nthings which make for one's comfort and lighten one's tasks.\n\ndepends for\n\nits interest\n\nand keep alive its enthusiasm.\n\nits\n\nLove for the\n\ngrowth on the means employed to develop\n\nintellectual\n\nHe who would make disciples, however, must show forth in his life and\npractice the merits of those teachings he would inculcate.\n\nThus the train-\n\ning of the teacher of the rural school should have in it much that shall\n\ntend to soften his asperities, cultivate due familiarity with those simpler\ndevices that lessen the drudgery of home and vocational life, and create\n\na longing for those attributes that fittingly adorn and dignify the cultured\ncitizen.\n\nThus it may be said that the best sort of training in this respect\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": "536", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n536\n\n[Normal\n\nfor the rural teacher is that which appeals to the aesthetic, the utilitarian,\n\nand the idealistic in his nature.\n\nWhen this trinal development has taken\n\nplace, then he is in a position to urge the claims of these qualities on those\n\nwho may come within the limits of his influence.\nIf it be expected that the teacher in the urban school will look well to\n\nhis dress, his habits, his language, and his general bearing, how much more\n\nnecessary is it that the teacher in the rural districts shall be equally circumspect.\n\nWould it be amiss, then, to say that lessons in morals and manners\n\nmay not be out of place in his training ? While it is true that the virtues\nand characteristics of a gentleman may be largely inherited, training may\ndo much to develop, to modify, and to adapt them to social conditions. The\ndependence of the city upon the country has had much mention, and song\n\nand story have lent their aid to stress this relation; but the day is at hand\n\nwhen the dependence of the country on itself shall receive notice.\n\nWhen\n\nonce it awakens to a realization of its inherent worth and power of selfdevelopment, then the golden age of prosperous and contented country\nlife will have been ushered in.\n\nAgain, the entire training of the teacher for the rural school should be\ndirected toward a training for leadership.\n\nFor ages the continuous draft-\n\ning of the best brain and brawn of the country to the city has been a serious\n\nmenace to the welfare of the former. Talent is more readily recognized\nby the urbanite than by his more prosaic brother in the country. Inducements, often specious in their character, lure the youth from his peaceful,\ntho circumscribed, environments and invite him to enter the absorbing\nstruggle for place and prominence. He grows more and more dissatisfied\nwith the monotony of his life and goes unwillingly to his tasks, now become\na drudgery. He hears of the occasional successes that have been the\nfortune of those who have made the venture and longs to enter the lists,\nto engage in the contests, and to hear the plaudits that shall proclaim his\ntriumphs.\n\nAgainst these inroads on the best wealth of the country, the rural-school\nteacher must wage successful warfare.\n\n\"Back to the country\" need not\n\nbe his slogan; but \"stay with the country\" should be his appeal, and his\ntraining should be such as may enable him to gain audience, to convince\n\nwith his earnestness, to win adherents, and to start a crusade which shall\ntransform existing conditions and bring back the old-time peace and contentment,\n\nmodified\n\nby present-day advancements and improvements,\n\nwhich once marked in his simple state the dweller \"far from the madding\ncrowd.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": "537", "text": "PROFESSIONAL EXPERIMENTATION\n\nDepartment!\n\n537\n\nTHE TRAINING-SCHOOL\nW. T. CARRINGTON, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MO.\n\nWe prefer to call the normal-school laboratory in which methods and\nmanagement of schools are tried out the \"training-school\" rather than the\n\"practice school.\" As this school is operated in connection with the\nMissouri State Normal School of the Fourth District, it is perhaps more an\nobservation school than it is a practice school.\n\npreceded by a term's work in observation.\n\nAll practice teaching is\n\nThis consists in spending at\n\nday for twelve weeks with some one of the several\nThe main work consists in helping the teacher\nin managing the children, in taking care of the materials, in keeping them\nin place and ready for use, and in co-operating with the supervisor in making\ndefinite plans for all the work of the school.\nThis supervisor handles a\nsmall group of teachers, from six to eight, at one time. They make observation of the supervisor's teaching, and, from time to time, each in turn takes\ncharge of some class, and the others, including the supervisor, become the\ncritics.\nThis term of observation follows a careful study of general method\nand principles of teaching, and it, in turn, is followed by one term of practice\nleast two hours each\n\nsupervisors in the school.\n\nteaching.\n\nThis practice teaching consists in taking full charge of one class\n\nfor a quarter of a day during twelve weeks.\n\nWe have also a high-school department in our training-school.\n\nIt is\n\nhandled much the same way as each of the eight grades is handled, with\nthis exception: No one is given work to do in the high school who has not\nhad at least a term of observation in some grade. With young and inexperienced teachers, a term each of observation and of practice is required\nof those who would do practice work in the high school.\n\nThere is one definite policy which we have adopted in dealing with\nmature and experienced teachers. They are required to do both observation and practice work. The amount of each in every case is determined\nby the efficiency. We have found it impractical to require the same amount\nof every teacher.\n\nIt is believed that this method of handling individuals\n\nhas had the very best of results.\n\nNecessity drove us to experimenting in\n\nthis line, for our attendance has been much larger than\n\nour facilities for\n\nhandling.\n\nWe consider this training-school work the most important work of the\nnormal school and one of the most difficult problems to handle.\nPROFESSIONAL EXPERIMENTATION AND INVESTIGATION\nJAMES M. GREEN, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, N.J.\nProfessional experimentation and investigation in our department must\nbe considered from the viewpoint of the normal school. The normal school\nis\n\nnot essentially a place for original research or scientific investigation—\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": "538", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n538\nit is\n\n[Normal\n\nThe normal\n\nrather a place for selection, definition, and adaptation.\n\nschools have established themselves in the confidence of the country\n\nbecause of their direct and practical service in common education from\nthe beginning up.\n\nIt is\n\nknowledge that which\n\nis\n\ntheir\n\nfunction to select from the\n\npeculiarly essential\n\nto\n\nbody\n\nof\n\nthe people of their\n\nand adapt it to the various grades of development\nand youth. There is no service that is more important at\n\nrespective districts\nin childhood\n\nthe present time.\n\nWe are all anxious to do the best we can, and we mingle with the various\ndepartments of education seeking their views. It must be apparent to us\nall\n\nthat there is great indefiniteness in the use of terms.\n\nWe hear such\n\nexpressions as cultural and practical, industrial and vocational, economic\n\nand social, agricultural and mechanical, etc.\n\nHow seldom do we hear any-\n\none carefully define the meanings of these words!\n\nWe have incorporated\n\ninto our educational vocabulary categorical terms largely without giving\nto\n\nthem specific significance.\n\nIt would be interesting to investigate the\n\nconcepts suggested by these symbols in the various minds.\n\nWhat is the\n\nmeaning of literature or geography or history or science ?\nI recently took up a textbook in history for high schools and found that\n\nthe references it contained were so general and abbreviated that I was\n\nunable to reduce them to natural human activities.\n\nSurely there must be\nsome institution that devotes itself peculiarly to the principles that underly\nthe making of the curriculum. Let this, then, be the particular function\nof the normal school. There is perhaps no one of us who would confidently\nassert that he had found the correct curriculum.\nWe may, however,\ndeclare with some confidence our method of approach to a solution. He\nwho would build the curriculum must, so far as possible, free himself from\nall preconceived notions and look directly at the life around him and determine the best thing to be done under all the conditions.\nI know no easier definition of a good school than a school that determines the best thing to be done and the best way of doing it. Such a school\nwill realize that\n\na certain knowledge of geography is essential, that the\n\nchild must recognize certain earth forms, soil and climate conditions, pro-\n\nduction, trade,\n\nand transportation\n\nrelations,\n\nbut\n\nwill\n\nnot confuse this\n\nknowledge with indiscriminate current events as they appear in the morning newspapers. Such a school will distinguish between knowledge of\nEnglish and power in English; it will distinguish between the health laws\nand the political customs of a conununity; it will see the relation of art to\nindustry; of chemistry to domestic economy; of botany and zoology to\nagriculture, and of history to social organization.\n\nThe academic school treats distinctly of subject-matter;\n\nthe normal\n\nschool treats distinctly of the relations of subject-matter to life in its various\ngrades, general and special.\n\nOurs is the laboratory of relative values out\n\nof which must come the clearest definition of that which is fundamental,\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": "539", "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nDepartment]\n\n539\n\nelementary, and essential, and the best plans for its organization and estab-\n\nTo this end we should address ourselves and with this purpose\nwe can render an ever-increasing service.\n\nlishment.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nST. PAUL MEETING\n\nOFFICERS\n\n— G. Crabbe, president, State Normal School\nVice-President—U.\nConn, president. State Normal School\nSecretary—^W. T. Carrington, president, State Normal School\nPresident\n\n^J.\n\nS.\n\nRichmond, Ky.\nWayne, Netw.\nSpringfield, Mo.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 19 14\nThe first meeting of the Department of Normal Schools was held in the Central\nPresbyterian Church, and was called to order at 2:30 P.M. by President J. G. Crabbe.\n\nThe following program was carried out:\n\"The Practice School and the Work of the Heads of Departments in It\" ^John W.\nCook, president, State Normal School, DeKalb, 111.\nDiscussion: John A. H. Keith, president, State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.;\nW. T. Carrington, president, State Normal School, Springfield, Mo.\n\"How Can Normal Schools Best Help the Forward Movement in Rural Life?\"\nJ. W. Brister, president, State Normal School, Memphis, Tenn.\n\n—\n\nDiscussion: H. H. Seerley, president. State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\n\"Some New Demands on Normal Schools\" Philander P. Claxton, United States\ncommissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n\n—\n\nA discussion followed this paper in which many members took part.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:00 A.M., in the Central Presbyterian Church,\nwith President Crabbe in the chair.\n\nThe first paper, \"The Strength of the Normal Schools,\" was presented by David B.\nJohnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C.\nAlfred C. Thompson, principal. State Normal and Training School, Brockport, N.Y.,\ngave an address entitled \"Notable Shortcomings of State Normal Schools.\"\nIn the absence of George H. Black, president. State Normal School, Lewiston,\nIdaho, who was to present a paper on \"The High School's Share in the Training of\n\nTeachers,\" the subject was discussed by John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School,\nKirksville, Mo.\n\nThere was much discussion on all three subjects in which the following persons\nparticipated: J. F. Marsh, secretary. State Board of Regents of West Virginia, Charleston, W.Va.; U.S. Conn, president. State Normal School, Wajme, Nebr.; W. S. Dearmont,\npresident. State Normal School,\n\nCape Girardeau, Mo.; James O. Engleman, superin-\n\ntendent of schools, Decatur, 111.\n\nThe following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President D wight B. Waldo, president, State Normal School, Kalamazoo,\n\n—\n\nMich.\nFor Vice-President Thomas W. Butcher, president. State Normal School, Emporia,\nKans.\nFor Secretary ^Waite A. Shoemaker, president, State Normal School, St. Cloud,\nMinn.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": "540", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nS40\n\n[Normal\n\nOn the motion of President Brister, of Memphis, Tenn., a committee of three was\nappointed to confer with members of Congress touching national aid for the teaching of\nindustrial subjects in normal' schools.\n\nThe chairman appointed the following men to\n\nserve on the committee: H. H. Seerley, president, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls,\n\nJohn A. H. Keith, president. State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.;\nand J. W. Brister, president, State Normal School, Memphis, Tenn.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\nIn order that the normal schools of the country may be made more efl&cient in\norganization and more effective in training the various types of teachers and public-school\nspecialists demanded, we favor the further organization of normals into specialized\ndepartments so far as such organization increases the efficiency and influence of the school\nIowa, chairman;\n\nwithout destroying its unity.\nWe believe that the present close, sympathetic connection and co-operation between\nthe normal schools and the pubUc-school system should be continued to the end that\nthe normal school may continue to minister directly to the needs of the common schools\nand high schools of the land.\nWe favor well-organized extension service in connection with every normal school\nof the country in order to enable teachers now in the field to continue their education\nwhile earning a living wage, and in order to bring to the taxpayers directly at the smallest\npossible cost all forms of social service and community uplift.\nJust as we have affirmed our belief in sane vocational guidance and expert training\nof our workers, we now declare our conviction that the normal sdiools of the country\nshould do all within their power to introduce sane recreational guidance which will\nenable society to take proper care of its workers during the hours of necessary rest and\nrecreation.\n\nWe commend the present efforts of normal-school presidents and faculties to revise\nand adapt directly to teaching work and classroom needs the present courses in psychology,\npedagogy, and other so-called professional subjects; and we commend the effort of normal\nschools to resist undue standardization and to improve their courses of study in keeping\nwith new and pressing needs.\nWe favor the shaping of conditions in our normal schools to provide for the more\nextensive and more pointed and thoro preparation of teachers. Wherever possible, the\nnormal schools should be prepared to do three or four years of work above the high school\nand should continue to prepare teachers for the high schools as well as for tiie rural,\nvillage, graded, and city schools.\nWe believe that the practice of using one institution\nto prepare primary teachers, another to prepare grammar-grade teachers, and another\nto prepare high-school teachers enforces a premature, artificial, and unnatural classification, and one which is destructive to unity in education and wasteful as to the use of\npublic funds.\n\nIn harmony with the suggestions of our national commissioner of education, we\nfavor laws in every state requiring a fair degree of scholarship and a year or more of\nnormal training for the lowest grades of certificates; and we favor such laws and such\ndistribution of public fimds as will give the rural schools of our country teachers who are\nfavor the normal\nnot excelled in attainment and skiU by teachers of the city schools.\nschools continuing to train teachers for country schools and to stimulate and foster move-\n\nWe\n\nments for improving rural life.\nUnder the stimulus of national aid, the states have made important and valuable\ninvestigations and have accimiulated a large body of scientific knowledge relating to\nagriculture.\nLittle, however, has ever been done to bring this knowledge to the farmer.\nThe one sure means by whidi the knowledge of scientific agriculture can be brought to\nthe farmer is thru the public schools; and, to enable the public schools to do this great\nservice effectively, they must have teachers educated in the normal schools to teach\nagriculture.\nNational aid extended to the normal schools of the several states to enable\n\nthem to prepare teachers of agriculture is necessary to make finally effective all that the\nnational government has so far done toward the application of scientific principles in\nfarming. This further national aid to stimulate the states to action in providing for the\neducation of teachers of agriculture in the normal schools we consider an immediate and\npressing need.\nview with alarm the activity of the Carnegie and Rockefeller foundations, agencies\nnot in any way responsible to the people, in their efforts to control the policies of our state\neducational institutions, to fashion after their conception and to standardize our courses\nof study, and to surround the institutions with conditions which menace true academic\nfreedom and defeat the primary purpose of democracy as heretofore preserved inviolate\n\nWe\n\nin our common schools, normal schools, and universities.\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": "541", "text": "WORK OF PRACTICE-SCHOOL HEADS\n\nDepartment]\n\n541\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July 10, 1914\nRoxjnd-Table Conference\n\nThe department met in round-table discussion, and was called to order at 2:30 p.m.,\nwith D. O. Kinsman, professor of civics, economics, and sociology, State Normal School,\nWhitewater, Wis., in the chair.\n\nThe topic under discussion was \"The Content of the Course in Sociology in a Normal\nSchool,\" the first speaker being W. H. Cheever, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nDiscussion:\n\nWillis E. Johnson, president. State\n\nNormal and Industrial School,\n\nAberdeen, S.Dak.; Gustav S. Petterson, department of sociology. State Normal School,\nl^ankato, Minn.\n\nIn the absence of Frank H. Carver, State Normal College, Dillon, Mont., who was\nto have discussed this topic, his paper was read.\n\nW. T. Carrington, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE PRACTICE SCHOOL AND THE WORK OF THE HEADS OF\nDEPARTMENTS IN IT\nJOHN W. COOK, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DEKALB, ILL.\nI assume that I am to attempt to answer two questions:\n\nWhat should\n\nbe the character of the practice school ? What relation should the heads\nof departments in the normal school bear to it ?\nIn this discussion it is taken for granted that a practice school is\n\n1.\n\nan indispensable department of a normal school. Without it the normal\nschool would be like a laboratory without apparatus or experiment, like\na shop without machinery or tools.\n\nA practice school should include all of the grades for the teaching\n\n2.\n\nof which the normal school is preparing its pupils.\nfit its\n\nIf it is attempting to\n\npupils for work in country schools, it should have a country school\n\nas a department of its practice school, or, at least, an ungraded school\nsubstantially similar in its characteristic features to a rural ungraded\nschool.\n\nIf it aspires to\n\nprepare high-school teachers, there should be an\n\nopportunity for the observation of a good high school at least, and, what\n\nwould be far better, for practice teaching in such a school.\n3. These schools should be of the conventional type, with children\nof such a number as will be found ordinarily in the common school, with\nexcellent furniture, with an admirable equipment in the way of apparatus,\nlibrary, room decoration, playground and playground apparatus, school\ngarden, and all of the other accessories of a first-class school.\n4. The course of study should embody the most improved ideas respecting the curriculum. It should include manual training, the household arts\nand sciences, nature-study courses, excursions, and all the rest of the manifold means by which the young are introduced to the life of their time.\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": "542", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n542\n\n[Normal\n\nThe faculty of the practice school should consist of a general director,\nThe director should be a thorogoing expert\nin education.\nThe position is second in importance alone to that of the\nhead of the school, if it is not, indeed, superior to it. The practice school\n5.\n\nspecial assistants, and critics.\n\nIn a very true sense, the normal\n\nis peculiarly the center of the situation.\n\nschool should be built around the practice school.\n\nAll that goes on in the\n\nThe value of the former is prop-\n\nformer is supposed to point to the latter.\n\nerly measured by the effect it has in determining the character of the latter.\n\nThe practice school has for its problem the reduction of the manifold theories of education, so interesting and so easy to discuss, to fruitful schoolroom\n\nprocedures.\n\nThis is the most difficult of all the educational tasks of which\n\nI know anything, and this is the problem which the director of practice has\n\nto solve if it is to be solved.\nIt is possible that it is beyond the province of this paper to discuss the\nqualifications of a director of practice.\n\nI\n\nam constrained to say something\n\nupon the subject even at the hazard of getting out of line, and will content\nmyself with the following brief suggestions:\n\nHe should be an enthusiast in regard to the importance of elementary\neducation and should have so thoro a respect for its problems as to believe\nthat they demand the highest order of intelligence and ability for their\nsolution.\n\nEmerson declared the first qualification of the teacher to be a\n\nwarm respect for the child.\n\nThe first qualification of a director of practice\n\nin a normal school is a profound respect for his calling.\n\nHe should be broadly educated. He should also be a conceded expert\nBy this is meant that he should have paid such attention to\n\nin education.\n\nthe mastery of its theories, its literature, its history, its psychology, and\nthe technic of its practice, as the physician and the lawyer pay to the professional equipment for their calling.\n\nHe should be able to make creditable\n\nshowing in the actual management of a class of children in any of the grades\nthat he attempts to supervise.\n\nHe should have a well-defined theory of education and he should be\na practical psychologist.\n\nWe hear much of the value of psychology to\n\nthe teacher, but whether its study will be of any practical assistance in\n\nworking out his problems depends upon several considerations. I do not\nSome\nhesitate to assert that it may be of no appreciable value whatever.\nof the poorest teaching that I have ever seen has been in the classroom\nof the professor of psychology.\n\nPsychology is a science by itself.\n\nIt has\n\ngreatly enlarged its field since I first got some inklmg of its meaning more\n\nthan fifty years ago. In the extension of its investigations it has come\nupon the science of pedagogy. In consequence we now have *' educational\npsychology.\"\n\nBy this is meant the application of psychology to the prob-\n\nlem of teaching.\n\nAs the main problem in teaching is found in the attempt\n\nto aid the child in the knowledge process, that aspect of psychology which\nreveals the conditions under which this process proceeds most advantage-\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": "543", "text": "WORK OF PRACTICE-SCHOOL HEADS\n\nDepartment]\n\n543\n\nBut the adaptation of the\nmore difficult than the science itself.\nHe who can do it well is a \"practical\" psychologist, and in so far as he can\ndo it well he is prepared for the work of director of practice.\nThe practice school makes much of method and that it should do so\ngoes without challenge. I am not saying that the word has not been greatly\nabused. In the past, method imposed itself upon subject-matter and\n\nously will be found to serve the teacher best.\nscience to the teaching problem is far\n\noften in a tyrannical way.\nintrinsic dignity,\n\njoins\n\nNow subject-matter, having discovered its\n\nhands with the child\n\nthe determination of\n\nin\n\nmethod.\nI\n\nam saying this as a preface to the statement that he who under-\n\ntakes the administration of a practice school should understand that the\nlargest part of his work, after the direct work of guidance, must be in the\n\narrangement of the subject-matter of instruction.\n\nI should modify that\n\nstatement somewhat; I should have said that his largest work will be the\norganization of a body of critic teachers who have the ability to get the\n\nsubject-matter of instruction into shape for the best presentation.\n\nHe is\n\ngreatest who can multiply himself by putting his ideas of work into many\n\nminds.\n\nIt will not\n\nbe difficult to estimate the value of the headmaster;\n\nThose aids are the critics, who come into\nAs to their munber,\n\nwe have but to study his aids.\n\nclose and immediate touch with the pupil teachers.\n\ngenerally speaking there should be at least one for each of the rooms.\n\nI say\n\ngenerally speaking, for there are those who can manage two, or even three,\n\nrooms better than the average critic can manage one.\nThe critics should be mature women. They should conmiand respect\nby their attainments and not less by their characters. Especially should\nthey have those qualities of sympathy and justice and tact and balance\nthat inspire confidence and that call the beginner to the free expression\nwith which a child honors his mother. It has been for many years\nmy peculiar privilege to observe the work of such a critic. The beautiful\ngirls grow more beautiful in her presence as they exhibit their elfforts to\nher discerning scrutiny.\n\nThey covet her estimate, often anticipating her\n\nadverse judgment by self-criticism, and they seem to have filtered out the\n\nelement of personality, caring only for the excellence or the lack of excellence\nof the teaching act.\n\nIt is a wonderful thing to get rid of the disturbing\n\nself-consciousness and to have left only the thing to be dealt with in the\nlight of universal principles.\n\nI\n\nhave seen critics who cared much more\n\nfor their methods than they did for their girls.\n\nAll things that assist in\n\nestablishing the self-respect of the pupil teacher, the wholesome, discerning\nself-respect, go far toward a fine success.\n\nThe critic who has not learned\n\nthat simple truth has not gone far on the road to eminence in her calling.\nAll things that lead the pupil teacher to think first of the welfare of the\nchild go farther toward a fine success, probably, than any other one thing,\nfor that means that she has learned what it is all for, and to learn that\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": "544", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n544\n\nearly is to get at the fundamental of fundamentals.\n\n[Normal\n\nIf the critic is seized\n\nby that passion she is one of the chosen ones.\nI have spoken of certain qualifications that lie in the realm of personality\n\nrather than of technical equipment, because that lies at the foundation.\n\nThe rest consists of rational ways in which this engaging personality puts\nitself at the work of fitting others for professional service.\n\nWhat I have said of the professional preparation of the supervisor\napplies with parallel force here.\n\nThere must be clear ideas, mastery of\n\nprinciples, a highly superior technic of instruction and management,\n\nand\nan additional ability which, in the experience of my associates and myself,\nBefore attempting to describe it I must be permitted a\nis rarest of all.\nbrief digression.\n\nThe school textbook prepared for use in elementary grades is true to\nits name;\n\nit is\n\na book of texts.\n\nFor evident reasons it is so because of a\n\npractical difficulty that is encountered when an attempt is made to relieve\n\nIn order that a book shall be interesting it must have\nit of that criticism.\nan attractive content. There must be enough of detail to arouse the\nimagination and thus to furnish material for the pupil to construct a situaBut such a textbook would have at least two\ntion that appeals to him.\nfeatures that would condemn it in the open market: it would be far too\nbig for convenient use and consequently too expensive. Another objection\nmight be offered it would be so interesting that the children would read\nThink\nit thru at home and then the teacher's occupation would be gone.\nof it! A textbook that was ruined for school purposes because a child\nused up in a few evenings what was intended to last him for several months!\nWhat should be done with such a greedy creature and with such a misfit\nin the way of a book ? Parents would be bankrupt in trying to keep pace\n\n—\n\nwith such an intellectual appetite.\nWhat shall be done in so sad a situation?\n\nEvidently the teacher\n\nmust furnish the main part of the enriching material in the form of oral\ninstruction in the earliest grades, and when the child is able to read for\nhimself reference books must be at hand for the pupils' use. But here\nWhere shall the\narise three difficulties, especially with pupil teachers.\npupil teachers go ? When they have raised that question I have heard the\nIn\ncritic reply: \"That is your problem and you must learn to solve it.\"\nconsequence the pupil teacher is loaded down with encyclopedic treatises\nupon familiar subjects and to her heavy task and her inexperience there is\n\nadded work that can be done well only by an expert. But the encyclopedias\ndo not put their material in nicely digested pedagogical form; it would be\nunreasonable to expect it.\n\nIn consequence there remains the greater task\n\nof organizing the material for proper presentation.\n\nMore than once I have\n\nseen critics require young pupil teachers to attempt more within the com-\n\npass of a single week than the head of a department in a normal school\n\nfoimd it difficult to accomplish in the time at her disposal in three months.\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": "545", "text": "WORK OF PRACTICE-SCHOOL HEADS\n\nDepartment]\n\n^'\n\nTheir problem,\"\n\nindeed!\n\nWhat supreme\n\nnonsense!\n\n545\n\n\"But you\n\nwill\n\nnterfere with the originality of the pupil teacher\" is the indignant reply\nof some critic who never attempted to do the extraordinarily difficult thing\n\nthat he has imposed upon the timid beginner, who has all of the troubles\nthat she can walk under as it is, I dare say.\n\nIt probably interferes with the\n\noriginality of the art student to see a fine painting that someone else has\n\nput upon the glowing canvas, but it is a blessed interference.\n\nIt is\n\nan\n\ninterference with the originality of the music pupil to hear a great singer,\n\nbut he goes across the world to find such an interference.\n\nBy the same\n\ntoken, a would-be poet should never read Shakespeare until his originality\nis fully developed,\n\nyet we encourage our pupils to swim in a sea of poetry.\n\nAnd the third difficulty is graver than both of the others. The practice\nschool must be able to hold its own by the side of the school that is not\nhandicapped by inexperienced teachers.\n\nHere is a difficulty that chalWe have a hard enough\n\nlenges the skill of the most capable of managers.\n\ntime to preserve the confidence of that part of the public that will consent\nto have their children taught by learners.\n\nAnd now I may return to the point of departure.\n\nCritic teachers\n\nshould be able to do this organizing work upon the material to be used\nPupil teachers must be saved from failure\nand children must be saved from a sorry waste of time. As the music\nin the process of instruction.\n\nteacher sets before his pupils the finest exhibition of his art that is available,\nin order that their standards may be properly formed, so the critic teacher\n\nshould set before her pupils the finest possible piece of enrichment and of\nlesson organization at her command.\n\nThese lessons should be multiplied\n\nby some one of the common devices and made freely available.\n\nIt is an\n\nart that is rather slowly acquired, but when once mastered the lessons can\n\nbe prepared with such facility as to furnish a liberal supply. The critics\nunder my personal observation have made large numbers of them within\nthe last year.\n\nThe relief that has come to the pupil teachers and to the\n\nchildren in consequence is not easily put into words.\n\nHow many of the pupil teachers should a critic be responsible for?\nThe answer to that question will depend upon the organization of the\nteaching work.\n\nAfter fifteen years of experience in half-day teaching,\n\nI should regard it as a calamity to\n\nbe obliged to give it up.\n\nI\n\nam not\n\nunmindful of the need of superior scholarship, but the need of sufficient\nexperience in the actual work of room management and instruction to\nmake the attractive features of teaching apparent and the difficult features\ndiscernible, and enough more to make the learners quite at home in their\n\nchosen calling, has become so apparent in the problem that has been\npresented to the school of which I know most that I should rather add\nto our minimum for beginners\n\n—from twenty-four to twenty-seven weeks\n\nof half-day work— than to diminish it.\n\nWith such an arrangement each\nThey should be divided\n\ncritic can manage from four to six pupil teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": "546", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n546\nequally,\n\nif\n\npossible,\n\nbetween the first- termers and the second.\n\n[Normal\n\nThe first\n\ncan attend to minor details and do their preparatory work of observation\nwhile the second go forward with their room management.\n\nAs there are usually superior students who extend their course in\npreparation for critic work, they can be made of great value in many ways.\nIt has been our custom to pay to such pupils a small stipend in the way of\nI must not continue the discussion of this portion of my\ntheme further altho much remains to be said.\n\ncompensation.\n\n6. The relation of heads of departments to. the practice school is a\nmatter that has not become conventionalized to any such degree as have\n\nthe main outlines of the practice work.\ndifferent\n\nschools,\n\nthere are strong\n\nWhile the latter work differs with\n\nresemblances;\n\nhowever, there has\n\nbeen a marked individualizing of the part which the teachers of the normal\n\ndepartment play in the supervising of practice work.\n\nHere are some of\n\nthe conditions that will account for this variation:\n\nThe amount of money available for the payment of teachers' salaries.\n\nWe are always discriminating between necessities and desirable features.\nThere are some things without which we cannot get on at all. There are\nother things without which we cannot get on very well. The former,\nobviously, must receive first attention. The more the heads of departments must do of actual instruction of normal pupils in the normal department the less they can do in the supervision of practice and all that it\nimplies.\n\nWhere money is available we spend it, for we must always be poor.\nWe thus realize our ideals of organization and management. Where it\nis not, we indulge in the illusions of hope and plan what we shall do when\nthe golden age is ushered in. I shall attempt, therefore, to indicate what\nEvery teacher in the\nI would do if all the money needed were supplied.\nnormal department should be distinguished by a very high grade of ability\nas an instructor. The country should be ransacked to discover, not simply\ngood teachers, but the best in the market. They should possess superior\nscholarship.\n\nThis scholarship should be both general and technical.\n\nIt\n\nshould imply a broad foundation and a superadded special discipline in\n\nTo this there should have been\nadded a pedagogical training both technical and practical. I mean, by\nthe former term, liberal courses in the principles and theories of education, and, by the latter, a good degree of experience in the teaching of the\nyoung. From such a generous training there should have developed a\nfondness for teaching and an especial interest in elementary education.\nThere should be a sufl&cient number of such teachers in each of the\ndepartments to enable all of them to make careful studies of the work of\nthe departments over which they preside.\n\nthe practice school and, as well, of the best public schools, in the subjects\n\nwhich they are employed to take care of. They should prepare courses\nof instruction in their subjects that are adapted to the various grades of\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": "547", "text": "WORK OF PRACTICE-SCHOOL HEADS\n\nDepartment]\n\nthe elementary or secondary schools.\n\n547\n\nThey should have a chance to try-\n\nout these courses by working with the grades for which they are prepared.\n\nThese trial trips should continue daily for many months if necessary. In\none case they covered a period of daily instruction thru the entire geography\ncourse, requiring five years of work with the same class. Indeed, there\nare few things that will do so much for a normal school as the teaching\nof children daily for all of or at least a good part of each year by the teachers\nin the\n\nnormal department.\n\nThis teaching need not be continued as a\n\nregular daily program after courses are worked to a satisfactory conclusion\n\nand the teachers have developed a high degree of skill in dealing with their\nsubjects.\n\nThese exercises should be carefully studied by the critic teachers and\nespecially by the pupils of the normal department.\n\nIt will be found that\n\nnothing else will have so potent an influence upon the character of the\ninstruction in the normal classrooms.\n\nTheory will soon reduce itself to\n\nusable form and will test itself by its value as a schoolroom procedure.\n\nThere will be little talk about \"method\" but there will be a deal of things\naccomplished in the way of getting material into shape for use with the\nchildren.\n\nHere is where the heads of departments can do their greatest\n\nIt is fair to assume that they know more than anyone else about\n\nwork.\n\nthe subject-matter.\n\nanyone\n\nelse\n\nabout\n\nLet them show that they also know more than\nbest arrangement— perhaps the word \"organiza-\n\nits\n\ntion\" is better— for the uses of the children.\n\nNot only should they develop\n\ncourses of instruction, but they should prepare enriching material for\nspecial topics, to be placed in the hands of pupil teachers for oral helps\nin the lower grades and in the\n\nhands of the pupils in the higher grades.\n\nThis necessitates some convenient scheme of multiplication of prints, a\nvery simple matter with all of our modem devices.\n\nThese teachers should meet the pupil teachers of their subjects at\nleast\n\nonce a week for conference and interchange of ideas.\n\nteachers should be present at these conferences.\n\nThe critic\nAs I have said, the\n\nspecialists should confine their contributions to these conferences to the\n\nsubject-matter and its arrangement. They should be magazines of\nammunition upon which the pupil teachers can draw at pleasure.\nShall the department heads also perform the function of critic teachers ?\nShall they meet the pupils and discuss with them their successes and\nfailures in the matter of management and instruction?\nThey should\nattempt nothing of the kind in a systematic way. My reasons follow:\n(i) It is impossible that they should have the time to make a thoro piece\nof work of it; (2) their criticisms will be made from the point of view of\ntheir particular subject rather than from the broader point of view of\n\npedagogical principles;\n\n(3) there is\n\nof comments unless they shall all\n\ngreat difficulty in preventing conflict\n\ncome thru the same critic;\n\nplan presents insuperable obstacles to the pupil teacher.\n\n(4)\n\nsuch a\n\nShe is called\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": "548", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nS4»\n\n(Normal\n\nupon to meet far too many teachers and is cast about like a football among\nThe inroads that will be made upon her time, the peril of missing\nclose and sympathetic treatment, the divided interest of the department\nthem.\n\nheads, the fact that they can be with the pupil teacher but a small portion\n\nThe critics must devote\nThis does not mean that they\n\nof the time at best, all unite to condemn the plan.\ntheir entire time to their specific task.\n\nshall not teach classes, for that is indispensable to superior success,\n\nbut\n\nthat is to be done, not alone to protect the children, but also to furnish\n\nstandards of technic and to draw together into a fine unity all the parties\ninvolved in the management of the practice school; and ($) there is still\n\nanother danger in splitting up the work of criticism.\n\nThere should be a\n\nwholeness in the work of the teacher that cannot be expected from such a\nsystem.\n\nTlje subjects of instruction play into each other and presuppose\n\neach other, consequently they should not be isolated for purposes of criticism\nof teaching to such a degree as seems to me to be quite inevitable in case\nof the plan under consideration.\n\nHOW CAN NORMAL SCHOOLS BEST HELP THE FORWARD\nMOVEMENT IN RURAL LIFE?\nJ.\n\nW. BRISTER, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MEMPHIS, TENN.\n\nThe very\nThe glamor about\n\nCountry life is relatively not as important as it once was.\nshifting of population to the cities has caused a change.\n\nthe fine old farms, princely plantations, social\n\nfestivities, religious life,\n\neconomic independence has shifted with the population and now attaches\nto the city.\n\nThe thoughts of men are centered there, the ambition of youth\n\nmoves them in that direction; for the glittering prizes of success seem hung\nin its shops and temples and halls to dazzle and invite and allure.\n\nThe problem of rural life is one of real values. What are the things\nCan they be realized in the country? Are there opportunities in the country worthy the consecration and zeal of young manhood\nand womanhood ? Can ambitious youth, dwelling there, realize the highworth while?\n\nest possibilities of his being and get that enjoyment which success ought to\n\nbring ?\n\nWe may not restore the prestige which the country once enjoyed,\n\nbut can we not demonstrate that happy, contented, reasonably prosperous,\nand genuinely successful life can be lived on the farm ? And cannot life in\nthe country be so reorganized that it will offer to young people opportunities\n\nimprovement, success, and enjoyment approximately equal to those\nwhich the city gives ?\nThe movement to improve country life is many-sided. It is economic,\n\nfor\n\neducational, social.\n\nIt\n\nmeans a complete reorganization of country life,\n\nwhich involves the determination of the institution or agency around which\nthe organization can best be made. It cannot be the home, church, store,\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": "549", "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL SCHOOLS AND RURAL LIFE\n\nlodge, or union.\n\nAll are inadequate, too narrow, or too conflicting in their\n\n549\n\ninterests.\n\nThe one institution in the country that can serve as a central point in\nan organized country life is the school. It belongs to all the people; it\naffects, if properly conducted, the whole life from that of the youngest\nBelonging to the people, it can be directed as\nchild to the oldest adult.\nthey see fit; its functions can be increased or curtailed; its activities can\nbe enlarged or lessened at their will. Dealing primarily with youthful life,\nthe hopes and ambitions of the people center there. Affecting the thought,\ndirecting the study of the people, determining their ideals and standards,\nit is naturally, logically,\n\nthe central institution of all life.\n\nThe educational\n\nprocess is so broad and comprehensive, even that part of it carried on\ndirectly in the school touches life in so many ways, that we could not think\n\nof organizing any society without considering the part the school must play\nin the organization.\nIf our premises are correct, the place of the normal school in the move-\n\nment to improve rural life is not diflScult to see.\n\nIf the school is the deter-\n\nmining factor in the situation, the normal school looms large, because it\nprimarily, fundamentally, always has for its concern the school.\n\nThe\n\nnormal school is not an end in itself. It is not a subjective but an objective\nAll of its machinery, faculty, equipment, buildings, apj^ratus,\ninstitution.\ncourse of study are for the other school.\n\nAnd it has come to be realized\n\nduring the last few years that the other school for which it exists and functions is, in a peculiar sense, the country school.\n\nThe normal schools in the\n\npast have not served the country schools as they should, but they are now\nfully conscious of responsibility,\n\nand everywhere plans are being devised\n\nwith the hope of meeting it.\n\nWe make our suggestions, then, as to how the normal school can assist\nin\n\nimproving country schools, for in this way we meet the larger issue\n\ninvolved in our subject.\nI.\n\nThe normal school can help make the course of study for the country\n\nschool, which, with the exception of the teacher, is perhaps the most impor-\n\ntant factor in determining the value of the school.\n\nNone of our educational\n\nagencies is better fitted to do this than the normal school.\n\nIt is nearer the\n\ncountry school than any other which has any facilities for making the\nnecessary investigation.\n\nIt has the educational organization and the spirit\n\nof study and research which qualify it for the important task.\n\nIt can and\n\nought to study carefully and thoroly the field it serves, make surveys of\ncounties and communities and even of the whole state, to discover their\ncondition, educationally, financially, socially, as regards health, taxation,\n\nand resources. It will then know the needs of the school and of life; it will\nhave familiarity with the entire situation; and this, combined with its\nknowledge of educational values, will place it in a position to speak with\nauthority in mapping out a school program. Knowing the problems of life\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": "550", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n550\n\n[Normal\n\nand the relationship of school to life, it will be able to adapt the work of the\nschool to the pupil's environment and minimize the loss of time and energy\n\nand effort in the passage from the activities of the school to those of everyday life. It need hardly be argued that this investigation and knowledge\nare necessary before the course of study can be properly made; because any\nsatisfactory course is conditioned on the needs of the situation it is designed\nto serve.\nIt must grow out of those needs and be adapted to them.\nAn\nimportant phase of this work will be, not merely to make a general scheme\nfor the whole state, but to arrange it with such flexibility that it can be\n\nmodified to suit varying local conditions.\n2.\n\n—\n\nThe work of the normal school is to make teachers that is its\nBut we have too often stopped with\n\npeculiar aim and all else is incidental.\n\nthis rather vague statement instead of holding as its purpose the making\n\nof teachers in certain subjects.\n\nIf we are going to help country life, it is\n\nessential that we organize and develop departments of agriculture, home\n\neconomics, manual arts, and kindred subjects so that\n\nwe may prepare\n\nteachers thoroly grounded in the fundamentals of these subjects and able\nto present them in such a vital and convincing way as to show the school's\n\nnatural connection with the life of its community.\n\nThese departments\nmust be as thoroly organized as mathematics, English, or any other, and\nthe normal school must be equipped to give instruction in them of as sound\nand thoro a nature as in any other subject on the whole program of studies.\n3. Another most important field in which the normal school is already\noperating and which it must more completely cover, if it is to render the\nIt\nlargest service to the rural school and rural life, is that of supervision.\nmust enter seriously upon the work of training supervisors for country\nschools, of grade work, of special subjects, and of industrial work; it must\nturn out men who can give direction to school activities and efficiency to\nthe teachers' work.\n\nIt is the experience perhaps of every normal-school\n\nman here that it is difficult to get the specially trained normal graduate\ninto the country school;\n\nthe salaries are inadequate, the surroundings of\n\nthe school unsatisfactory, the physical conditions insanitary, the social iso-\n\nThe teachers we send forth are doing what most men\nwould do under similar conditions; they are seeking positions which offer\nthe largest inducements and greatest attractions, and unfortunately these\nopportunities are not often found in rural districts. Now and then some\nchoice spirit, with vision and the spirit of service, finds some humble sphere\nwhich he can thoroly cover, and he demonstrates his worth by showing the\nBut we\npossibilities in even the crudest and most unpromising situation.\ncannot expect all or many of our normal alumni thus to do; and if they are\nto touch and modify rural life it must be in another way. And the other\nway is by supervision. One thoroly trained normal student placed in a\nsupervisory position can affect the schools of a whole district, sometimes\nof a whole county, and the contribution he makes can be felt almost immelation repellent.\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": "551", "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL SCHOOLS AND RURAL LIFE\n\ndiately over a large area.\nfirst discover their work,\n\n551\n\nTo prepare supervisors the normal school must\nmust set before them definite aims which will be\n\nexpressed in the courses offered for their preparation.\n\nIt is pathetic to\n\nnote in some states the growth in the number of such officials without\nintelligent aim on their part or directive suggestion from other state and\n\nTheir aims being vague and indefinite, their efforts are\n\ncounty authorities.\noften without effect.\n\n4. Finally, if the normal school is to help to improve rural life, it must\ndo a great deal of extension work. The time is past when a school, any\n\nkind of school, can be satisfied with teaching, even satisfactorily teaching,\nthose who register in its classes.\n\nThe duty of the school stretches beyond\n\nthe schoolhouse, beyond the campus, into the homes, into the stores, to the\nfarms, into the social and institutional life of the community.\nof instruction that\n\nis\n\nAny system\n\nconfined by the artificial limitations of the school-\n\nhouse or grounds is practically useless to society and has no right to continuance;\n\nand the normal school is no exception.\n\nIn this extension work I should place first of all the duty of the normal\nschool to the teacher now in the field. There are many noble souls who\nhave given long years to teaching service with inadequate compensation,\nwho feel the situation slipping from their grasp. They need contact with\nscholarly men, and they have not the means to renew for any length of time\nthe personal association in the school. The normal school must go to them\nby correspondence, by lecture, and particularly by special courses of short\nduration in summer terms and other convenient seasons.\nAgain, I am convinced that the normal school should do more fieldwork.\nAs intimated above, much of its industrial activity, as carried on in the\ndepartments of agriculture, home economics, and manual arts, is in danger\nI feel strongly that the normal\nof being artificialized for lack of application.\nschool should foster and encourage club work among boys and girls. It\nshould show how these activities can be correlated with the work of the\nschool to the end that their educational significance may be appreciated.\nIf we are to bring educational benefits to all classes, it must be possible for\nboys and girls to make some contribution to economic life while at school,\neven as a part of school life. Thru the influence of the normal school, club\nwork can be made an integral part of school activity, and only thus can it\nhave permanency of life and real educational value.\nThe normal school should participate, I believe, in all movements for\nthe development of educational sentiment and increasing educational\ninterest.\nIn our state there is a most intimate connection between the\nstate department of education and the normal schools; and on every court\nday normal-school men may be found arguing before county courts for\nincreased funds for elementary schools, for taxes for establishing or improving high schools, for longer school terms, for bond issues for building and\nequipment; and they are also leaders in the aggressive campaign for\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": "552", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n552\n\n[Normal\n\nconsolidated schools, for the employment of supervisors, for the establishment of libraries, and for every other movement that promises to make better\nschools and better community life.\nI hope we can go farther and not only\nargue for these things but show how they can be accomplished. We are\nstudying the local situation in our various counties with the hope of making\na survey and then suggesting a feasible plan for the county system of schools,\n\nwith the location of consolidated schools, the determination of a sufficient\n\nnumber and the location of high schools, and other necessary constructive\nand directive work.\n\nWe have fooled ourselves too long with the idea that the teacher is the\nThere may be some choice spirits like Mark Hopkins or Horace\nMann or Pestalozzi who alone would constitute a school. But it needs\n\nschool.\n\nsomething besides the average teacher to make a school, and even the best\nteacher will do better teaching with improved physical conditions; hence\n\nwe must improve the conditions under which our teachers have to work.\n\nMuch of the work of the normal school is of no avail because its students\nWe may reach them in\n\ncannot put into operation the things it teaches.\n\nour teaching, but the bad conditions under which they labor render impossible the application of the things learned.\n\nI\n\nam fully aware that the\n\nzealous, thoroly trained teachers will themselves bring about, in many cases,\n\nthe desired conditions.\n\nBut the normal schools and other educational\n\nagencies cannot, have no right to, wait for them.\n\nIt is our duty not only\n\nto prepare teachers but to prepare a place for them.\n\nWe need to have this\n\npurpose definitely in mind and to force it upon the attention of the people.\n\nThe place must be prepared, first, to attract the normal-school man; second,\nto make it possible for him to utilize and apply the lessons he has learned.\nThe problem of the normal school is largely a school problem and the\ngreater part of its work must be carried on in the classroom, but it is not\non this account an artificial or unnatural process.\n\nWe are working for a\n\nnew institution in the country, a reorganized school, with trained teachers,\nwith intelligent supervisors, with vitalized courses of study, with high ideals\n\nand lofty standards, with aims comprehending the entire life of the community, with school activities growing out of, and related to, those of home\nand community. And every contribution we make to the accomplishment\nof this important task is directly helpful to the improvement of country life.\n\nTHE STRENGTH OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\n*\n\nDAVID B. JOHNSON, PRESIDENT, WINTHROP NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE,\n\nROCK HILL, S.C.\nIn the consideration of this question, I have sought the opinions of some\nAll of them agree, of course, that the\nmain basis of the strength of the normal schools is the great and vital service\nof our well-known normal-school men.\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": "553", "text": "STRENGTH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n553\n\nrendered the people thru the teachers trained by them for the schools of the\n\nThose who mold the ideals and characters of the boys and girls\nmen and women of tomorrow, are rendering the greatest\npossible service to our common country, and the agencies responsible for\ntraining these teachers are strong accordingly in popular esteem. There\nis pretty common agreement that the strength of the normal school lies in\nthe fact that it is the school of the people and that it has the backing of the\npeople.\n\nof today, the\n\ncommon people.\nOther opinions are: \"The democratic spirit that pervades the normal\nschools is an element of their strength.\n\nOther elements are the earnestness\n\nof the young people and the consecration of the teachers and their devotion\n\nto their work.\"\n\n\" The normal schools are not bound by the traditions which\n\nThey are free to adopt a course of study and to\nmodify this course of study to an extent that is very unusual in educational\nhandicap the colleges.\norganization.\n\ndemands\n\nof\n\nThey\n\nare,\n\ntherefore,\n\nthe present age.\n\nThey\n\nextraordinarily\n\nadaptable\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nrecognize academic freedom and\n\nthoro scholarship as essential to institutional life. They are patronized\nby persons who want thoro scholarship because of its vocational serviceableness. Their students have a specific purpose in view and the atmosphere is one of service. They regard anything as general education that is\nnecessary for the training of any individual for large serviceableness as a\nleader among the people. They regard present efficiency as the important\n\nelement.\"\n\nHaving said this much concerning the strength of the normal schools,\nwe must admit that all normal schools do not possess this strength in equal\ndegree.\nMight it not be profitable just here to consider briefly what a\nnormal school should be and do to have this strength in its fullest measure ?\nIt certainly must prepare teachers to meet fully the requirements of the\nmodern school. In view of the development of the school and the demands\nmade upon it by the people, what of the preparation necessary on the part of\nthe teacher to conduct such a school successfully ? It is clear that the teacher\n\nmust have a higher scholarship, a broader education; must know how to\nmake the school a factor in the social and civic life of the community.\nThere must now be teachers who know about homemaking, home sanitation, domestic science and arts, hygiene, gardening, elementary agriculture, rural problems, manual training, organized play, library methods,\nmethods in moral education, commercial subjects as well as the academic\nor so-called cultural subjects. The normal school which expects to live up\nto its opportunities and have the strength of which we have spoken must\nprepare teachers to do this work demanded of the modern schools.\nIn training teachers, normal schools, especially of the agricultural sections of our country, cannot lose sight of the tremendous importance and\n\nobligation of equipping them for the best rural-school work.\n\ncentage of our people live in the rural districts\n\nA large per-\n\n—in the South about 80 per\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": "554", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n554\ncent\n\n—and the welfare of the nation, urban and\n\nwelfare of the agricultural people\n\n[Normal\n\nrural, is involved in the\n\nwho are the wealth producers of the\n\ncountry and constitute such a large proportion of the whole population.\nIt is claimed that agricultural conditions may be improved best and most\n\nsurely by improving the rural public schools, by consolidation and otherwise, but especially by providing for the teaching in these schools of those\n\nsubjects, such as agriculture, bearing upon rural\n\nlife,\n\nby closely relating\n\nthese schools to the life of the people served by them, and by educating the\nchildren for country life instead of away from it.\n\nThere has long been unanimity of opinion practically among leaders\n\n—that\n\nof thought everywhere that character is the chief end of education\n\nthe primary aim of our public schools is to educate the children for moral\n\nThe state must rest for its safety and stability\nupon the character of its citizens rather than upon their intelligence and\nskill, and hence it is absolutely necessary for the state, for its own welfare,\nsuccess and social efficiency.\n\nto make provision for moral training in the public schools as well as for\nintellectual\nis\n\nand physical training\n\nto train for good citizenship.\n\n—hence the duty of the\n\nstate's schools\n\nThe normal schools should do something to\n\nprepare teachers for this most important part of their work.\n\nA normal-school course of study should be made up of about two-thirds\nacademic or cultural subjects and one-third professional work. It should\nbe of college grade and all the students should have the opportunity of\nsecuring a strong college education while securing their professional training.\n\nThe lack of scholarship in the early normal school brought the newer\nnormal school into disrepute among educators. A strong, effective, inspiring teacher must have scholarship as well as method and pedagogy.\n\nA\n\nnormal school should prepare, academically and pedagogically, teachers for\nthe kindergarten, the elementary school, the high school, rural and urban,\n\nand to teach special subjects.\n\nAnd then the normal school should have a\n\nstrong extension department to carry its benefits to the schools, teachers,\n\nhomes, and people in its territory.\n\nNOTABLE SHORTCOMINGS OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS\nALFRED C. THOMPSON, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOL,\nBROCKPORT, N.Y.\n\nThe day upon which this meeting opened marked the completion of\nan epoch in normal-school history, for on July 4, seventy-five years ago,\nthe first state normal school in the United States was opened in Lexington,\nMass. There are now more than three hundred public and private normal\nschools in the United States with over 100,000 prospective teachers enrolled\nas students, of which three-fourths are women. These normal schools\nand their graduates exert a commanding influence over the 525,000\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": "555", "text": "SHORTCOMINGS OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\nschool-teachers\n\nwho\n\n555\n\nare instructing over 18,000,000 school children in\n\nthis country.\n\nIn dealing with our shortcomings, it is not my intention to give much\ndestructive criticism but rather to suggest ways and means by which normal\nschools may better fulfil their important mission of making teachers.\n\nWe\n\nnormal schools and others are so prone to criticize shortcomings\nwithout telling how to build up that I am going to deal with this as my\nof the\n\nfirst topic.\n\nToday the average child of fourteen can read, write, cipher, and spell\nfar better than his forbears could when several years his senior.\n\nIn general\n\nthruout our country, the vital and material equipment of our normal\n\nThe ideals and standards in these schools and\nmeans and methods of their accomplishment are beyond anything\ndreamed of a generation ago. Proof of everything I have said is so accessible and so abundant that it is not profitable to make it a part of this\nThis wonderful achievement has not come to pass thru the\ndiscussion.\nschools has kept pace.\n\nthe\n\nagency of highly paid experts, nor thru lavish governmental aid, but is\nthe result of the earnest efforts of a great body of underpaid, self-sacrificing\nteachers, and unquestionably the normal school pointed the way.\n\nIn behalf of these same teachers, past and present, all of us should\nresent with contempt the ignorant and destructive criticism of the present\n\nschool methods and accomplishments, so prevalent in some current literature,\n\nby a few educational sciolists whose experience in the teaching of\n\nchildren is limited to theorizing, or by perverted teachers who prostitute\ntheir sacred profession for mercenary motives or notoriety.\n\ncriticism of schools from any source hurts.\n\nno good.\n\nDestructive\n\nCertainly it can accomplish\n\nIt is without doubt one of the most serious obstacles to progress\n\nat the present time.\n\nThe teacher stands in loco parentis a part of the time.\nnot share this responsibility without\n\nThe parent does\n\nmany misgivings, and there still\n\nobtains the traditional notion that the teacher is the natural enemy of the\nchild.\n\nUntruthful criticism spread broadcast strengthens this unfortunate\n\nnotion in the parent's mind and renders more difficult the task of education, for it must be remembered that the real school problem is not the child\n\nbut the parent.\n\nThe great teaching body should, so far as its influence\n\ngoes, consign to oblivion authors\n\nand publishers of destructive criticism.\n\nIt requires no great ability to attack and criticize a work as broad as ours\n\nwhich comes in contact with and touches all sides of life. Always, the\nkeenest critic of him who can is he who can't. There are more tellers than\ndoers.\n\nReal progress is greatly facilitated by demonstration, and this is a\nAgain it is our duty to encourage and push\n\nwork for the normal school.\n\nforward those who actually achieve.\n\nIt is not difficult to pick them out.\nAnyone who can demonstrate a means of helping a child attain his highest\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": "556", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n556\n\nefficiency need not tell of it.\n\n[Nohnal\n\n\"He may build his home in the wilderness\n\nand the world will make a beaten path to his door.\"\nFour years ago, when I assumed my present position, I sent out a\nquestionnaire, bearing upon normal-school problems, to one hundred\nrepresentative city superintendents of schools thruout the country.\n\nMy\n\nobject was to secure first-hand information from those who used the normalschool product, to assist me in shaping my administrative policy in my own\nschool.\n\nOne question was a request that the superintendent indicate\n\nthe most notable shortcomings he had observed in normal-school graduates.\n\nFrom the one hundred superintendents addressed eighty-one replies were\nThe\n\nreceived, and every state in the Union was represented in the replies.\nfirst\n\nshortcoming noted in approximately 70 per cent of the replies was\n\n\"lack of scholarship.\"\n\nIn most of the other 30 per cent were answers of\n\nthe same import, some saying that normal graduates attached too great\n\nimportance to methods and too little to subject-matter, others that normal\ngraduates could not command facts, etc.\nI did not expect such unanimity of opinion among school men on any\n\neducational matter.\n\nThe conclusion is inevitable that the requirements\n\nfor admission to\n\nnormal schools should be at least graduation from a\n\nall\n\nfour-year high-school\n\ncourse or the equivalent.\n\nProfessional\n\ntraining\n\ncannot be given profitably to those who have not at least four years of highschool work as a basis for intellectual development.\n\nIn all normal schools\n\nwhose standard of admission to professional courses is less, the first and\nmost important problem is to secure at least the minimum requirement\nof four years of high-school work as a prerequisite to professional study.\nLittle progress can be made until this condition obtains.\nIn my own state, New York, our commissioner of education has\nannounced that it is the policy \"to extend the courses of state normal\nschools and city training schools for elementary teachers in cities one year\nand devote that year to advanced academic instruction.\" At present\nthe regular normal-school course in New York is two years beyond highschool graduation.\n\nThe addition of another year will be a very distinct\n\ngain and should in a measure make it possible to meet the general complaint\nin the matter of scholarship, since by devoting a year to advanced academic\n\ninstruction in the subjects the teacher will have to teach he should have\n\na pretty good grasp of subject-matter.\nScholarship in itself is a most important element in giving teaching\n\npower.\n\nCertainly students should not be allowed to go from the normal\n\nschool until they have a sufficient knowledge content to form a proper\nbasis for future study and growth.\n\nI predict that the time will come at\n\nno distant day when normal-school courses will be four years beyond highschool graduation. This is an end to be achieved.\nIn all normal schools arrangements should be made so that every\n\nhead of a department at least should have a sabbatical year on full pay\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": "557", "text": "Department!\n\nSHORTCOMINGS OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nto be devoted to study and travel.\n\n557\n\nBy personal visitation and correspond-\n\nence I am somewhat familiar with the normal schools of several states.\n\nThe number of normal schools which have any provision whatever for time\noff on pay for teachers is very limited indeed,\n\nand yet it is likely that no\n\none who has any adequate knowledge of normal schools will disagree on\nthis point.\nTeaching the same thing in the same place year in and year\nout is peculiarly narrowing and tends most decidedly toward following\n\nTeaching is for the most part an imitative art. Every teacher\nand especially the one who is engaged in making teachers should have\nopportunity to observe the work of the most successful masters and to\nAlso the value of\nintelligently appropriate the best from every source.\ntravel as a means of growth cannot be overlooked. Very few teachers have\nthe opportunity or means to observe and travel without leave of absence\non pay.\nNormal schools should specialize. They should not try to cover the\nwhole field of teaching with each student. Each student should be given\nthe technical and definite training demanded by the department or special\nclass in which he is to teach.\nThis is an age of specialization. It is reasonable that a teacher will be more likely to succeed if he knows thoroly\nthe field in which he is to work. When the normal school was founded,\nit was not difficult to cover the whole range of school work since it did\nnot extend very far beyond the three R's. Today the schools furnish\ninstruction in practically every line of human endeavor. There are\nspecial classes for children of all ages and conditions.\nNo normal school\nin a rut.\n\ncan expect to succeed if\n\nit\n\nattempts the whole thing.\n\ndesirable for a normal school to have too many lines.\ndiscursiveness.\n\nUndoubtedly, the best results\n\nwill\n\nNeither\n\nis\n\nit\n\nThis will tend to\n\nbe obtained by the\n\nnormal school which directs all of its energy to the making of teachers\nfor some special line of teaching.\n\nProvision should be made in every normal school for a \"follow-up\"\nteacher or officer whose duty it would be to go out into the field and help\n\nthe graduates of his school, and also to bring back to his school definite\nsuggestions gathered from actual contact with outside schoolroom conditions, for its future growth and improvement.\n\nNo normal school can claim\n\nthat it sends out into the field a finished product.\n\nThe making process\n\nshould be well begun but it must continue after the neophite is launched\ninto an independent position outside the sheltering walls of his own normal.\nIt is well if he lands with a superintendent who is \"to his faults a little\n\nblind and to his virtues very kind\"\n\n—a superintendent who\n\nwill stand by\n\nand help him over the hard places. In any case the \"follow-up\" officer\ncould with tact help both the teacher and the superintendent to understand the situation in its true light and the teacher could be helped to do\nhis best.\nThere is no field to acquire wisdom like that of experience. A\nfield officer could bring to his school\n\nthe best available experience and, in\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": "558", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n558\n\nthe light of this, improvement would be facilitated.\n\n[Normal\n\nI believe that every\n\nnormal school would be helped with such an officer on its staff.\nThe normal schools of this country range all the way from those whose\nmethod is to make teachers exclusively by means of academic instruction\n\nand instruction in the theory of teaching to those which attempt to make\nteachers exclusively by means of experience in teaching. These extremes\nshould be avoided as Scylla and Charybdis for there are three essential\nelements in the teacher-making process: scholarship, theory, and practice.\nCertainly none of these can be omitted.\nFirst, there must be definite and thoro instruction in the subject-matter\nwhich is to be taught by the teacher. Second, there must be instruction\nin the teaching process, for teaching is an art as technical as medicine, law,\n\ndentistry, or engineering,\n\nand it does not come by inspiration.\n\nThird,\n\nopportunity must be given for the teacher in training to learn how to bring\nthe pupil and subject-matter together with the minimum of effort on the\n\npart of teacher and pupil.\n\nGreat care must be exercised not to overemphasize any one of these\nelements but to treat them in their due proportion.\n\nThere should,\n\nof\n\nsympathy, loyalty, and co-operation among the\nteachers who give academic instruction, the methods teachers, and the\ncritic teachers in the model school.\nIt is too often the case in normal\nschools that some one of these departments overestimates its own importance.\nNone can work alone. Satisfactory results can come only when\ncourse, be a spirit of\n\nall pull together.\n\nI will close with the faculty.\n\nIt has been truly said that the future\n\nof this country is more than ever in the hands of the public schools.\n\npupils represent all classes of society\n\ndevelopment.\n\nThe\n\nand all stages of social and moral\n\nTo train this heterogeneous collection of human beings\n\nto be members of society is the work the schools are trying to perform.\n\nThe normal school must make the teachers to do this work. On the other\nhand the teacher makes the normal school. The stream can rise no higher\nthan its source, its fountainhead. The normal school will not go beyond\nits faculty.\n\nArnold gave Rugby its fame.\n\nMark Hopkins at one end of a log and a\n\nstudent at the other were said to be a college.\n\nIt is as impossible to have\n\na good school without a good faculty as it is to have a poor school with a\n\ngood faculty. Manifestly, the success of any normal school is more\ndependent upon the selection of a good faculty and the ability to retain it\nthan upon any other element in school administration.\nIt should be possible for the normal school to attach to its faculty the\nbest teaching talent in the country. The professional and financial induce-\n\nments should be great enough so that the goal of every teacher's ambition\nwould be a normal-school situation. Thruout this country very few\nnormal schools are in this commanding position. Unfortunately, the\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": "559", "text": "SOCIOLOGY IN A NORMAL SCHOOL\n\nDepartment]\n\n559\n\nfaculties of most normal schools are depleted each year on account of the\n\nsuperior inducements other schools are able to offer.\n\nIt is anomalous that\n\na school whose mission it is to make teachers for the state should be com-\n\nThe\n\npelled to work with anything less than the best talent on its faculty.\n\nmost vital problem the normal school has today is to find the means of\nsecuring for its faculty the best educational experts in the country.\nthis\n\nWhen\n\nproblem is solved, most of the shortcomings of normal schools will\n\nvanish into thin air.\n\nROUND-TABLE CONFERENCE\nTHE CONTENT OF THE COURSE IN SOCIOLOGY IN A NORMAL\nSCHOOL\nW. H. CHEEVER, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nIn my discussion of the content of the course in sociology in a normal\nschool, I shall not attempt to treat the subject in a general way but rather\n\nto present in a brief outline the content of the course which I have been\n\ngiving for\n\nsome years in the state normal school at Milwaukee.\n\nThis\n\nwill tend, I hope, to keep our question out of the realm of theory and place\nit in that of practice,\n\nand consequently give us results of greater value.\n\nIn\n\nour work we have been disposed to gather information from every relative\nsource.\n\nCONTENT\nTextbooks.— Texthooks are freely used. We make use of bibliographies\nmentioned in the texts. These are found in the library, together with all\nthe standard books upon the subject. Students look up supplementary\nreading, outline in notebooks, and either report in class or talk over with\n\nteacher out of class.\n\nMagazines.— One day each week is given to reports from articles selected\nAt first articles are chosen from list submitted\n\nfrom the current magazines.\n\nby teacher and\n\nafter consultation with teacher.\n\nLater, the student's\n\nand he is led to center his reading upon\none subject. This subject is of his own choosing and forms the basis of\nhis closing theme.\nThese magazine articles are outlined in notebooks.\nNewspapers.— Five minutes are given at the beginning of each recitation\nto a resume and quiz upon current sociological topics: the Mexican situa-\n\ninterest dominates the choice,\n\ntion, the survey of the city of Milwaukee, high cost of living, court news,\n\nelections, etc.\n\nEach student is required to subscribe for a daily paper,\n\npreferably to one representing a different political view from his own.\n\nThis semester each student subscribed for a copy of the Survey.\nInstead of an examination, each student writes a thesis upon some subject of his own choosing and upon which he feels he has a message.\n\nThese\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": "560", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n56o\n\nlong themes are used by the English department.\n\n[Normal\n\nThey also serve as topics\n\nfor talks given by students before the daily assembly of faculty and students.\nVisits to city institutions.\n\n— Either as a class with the teacher in charge,\n\nor in pairs, students visit courts, police and fire departments, school board\n\nand common council meetings, social and playground centers, departments\nof the city government.\n\nLec/wre^.— Whenever an outside lecturer, speaking upon some sociological subject, comes to the city, an effort is made to bring him before the\n\nCitizens of\n\nclass.\n\nMilwaukee whose experience makes them valuable\n\nadvisers also speak before the class.\ncivics, history,\n\nTeachers of pedagogy, psychology,\n\nand geography in the normal school are always welcome,\n\nin order that their subjects\n\nmay be closely related to sociology. The\n\nteacher of sociology is also the teacher of economics and political science,\n\nand these subjects are closely co-ordinated.\nDiscussions and debates.— Free discussion is encouraged. The class is\na mixed one, consisting of twenty men and thirty women. Twelve different\nnationalities and about as many different religions were represented.\nTwo\nlabor union men, a socialist, an agnostic, and a Japanese student added variety\nand difficulty. The most delicate political, religious, economic, and sex\nproblems were freely discussed. At first there was some bitterness and feeling, but each learned later to respect the view of those who differed from him.\n\nThe results obtained are:\na)\n\nCapacity classes (the subject is elective).\n\nb)\n\nBroader views of life, resulting in greater sympathy and respect\n\nfor all religions, nationalities,\n\nand political parties.\n\nA desire to do something for humanity.\n\nc)\n\nOur students teach in the\n\ncity's social centers and assist on the playgrounds.\n\nd)\n\nA number go to higher institutions of learning and specialize in\n\nthese things.\n\nA desire to read books, magazines, daily papers.\nA desire to own books.\ng) A changed view of education, from the individualistic to the social.\ne)\n\n/)\n\nDISCUSSION\nWillis E. Johnson, president, State Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen,\n^The courses in sociology in our normal schools and universities are so dissimilar\nin content that they probably would not recognize each other if they met face to face\non the street. This arises partly from the extreme youthfulness of the subject but\nmainly from the manifold character of the subject-matter. It is not possible nor is it\ndesirable that the content of sociology be exactly limited and standardized.\nIt is both\npossible and desirable, however, that thru comparative study and conferences the points\nof view of teachers of the subject may become less divergent.\nThis is particularly true\nso far as it appUes to the normal school.\nI realize that the problem of the normal school is quite largely determined by local\nconditions.\nFor example, the normal school in the Dakotas has an agricultural constituS.Dak.\n\n-\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": "561", "text": "SOCIOLOGY IN A NORMAL SCHOOL\n\nDepartment]\n\n561\n\nency in overwhelmingly large proportions and the normal school represented by the\nleader in this conference has a preponderatingly urban basis.\n\nI shall allude to this again.\n\nNevertheless, the content of psychology in the normal school is fixed to a very slight,\n\nalmost negligible, extent by local conditions, and why not sociology ?\n\nThe point of view of the normal school is the training of teachers.\n\nThis may not be\n\na very startling fact to announce but it is unfortunately true that the teachers in other\n\nthan the training department of the normal schools forget this fact more than they\n\nremember it.\n\nShould not this be the angle from which we should view the content of\n\nthe course in sociology, or any other subject taught in a normal school?\n\nLet us bear in mind the fundamental relation which sociology bears to the whole\nproblem of education. As Aristotle said that society is the individual writ large, we may\nsay that the school is society writ small.\n\nIt is created by the people for the people.\n\ngets its mandates and to some extent its very form and procedure from society.\n\nIt\n\nEven\n\nAs Commissioner\nIt is part and\nparcel of society, created by society, an effect of social conditions as well as a cause and\nthe right of a parent to educate his child is a socially derived right.\n\nClaxton said last night, the school is our most democratic institution.\n\nprophecy of better things to come.\n\nSociology is the basic educational science, indeed,\n\neducation is one subordinate section of sociology.\n\nFurther than this, the educational process and procedure, the teaching and adminis-\n\nThe teacher almost never treats the normal\n\ntration of the school are social processes.\n\nTo be sure, if the child shows abnormality of body\nor mind, physical and psychical tests are made of an individual character. If the child\npupil in the school as an individual.\n\nis\n\nnormal, however, and it is for these children that the school primarily exists, it is the\n\nchild as a part of the group that is taught.\n\nIt is almost impossible for the adult to dis-\n\nsociate himself from social pressure and determinations, to free himself from the thraldom\n\nof public opinion, of community restraint, of social mandates.\nis to\n\nthan\n\nThe child in the school\n\nan even greater extent than the adult the subject of folkways, and is more imitative\nreflective in his determinations.\n\nWhen matters of discipline arise, the teacher\n\nfinds that it is not Johnny but the gang which has decided the standards, the ideals, and\n\nthe conduct of Johnny.\n\nThe main function of the school is to socialize and standardize the individual. We\nwant the pupil to pronounce words according to the standard of our best culture, to spell\nthem according to the same standard, to form his sentences, to think the story of mankind, and to conform in a thousand ways to the standards of civilized society. We want\nthe child's very attitudes and outlooks upon life to be standardized so that he will shudder\nat the thought of crime, rejoice in the triumph of right, hate the lie and that which is low,\nand in other ways conform to the highest social standards of his day.\nThe school not only aims to standardize the child's ideas and his ideals but strives\nearnestly to automatize him in the practice of social virtues. Emerson said that conduct\nis three-fourths of life.\nEven in the narrow sense in which he used the term, it is worthy\nof the careful study and attention it receives in the schoolroom.\nPractice in correct\nhabits of speech and action is persisted in until the individual is so automatic in his\nresponses to situations that we liken it to instinct.\n\nIn short, the purpose of the school is\n\nto socialize the individual so that his conduct and life are in a measure predictable.\n\nThe\n\naims of the school are thus socially derived.\nIn his discussion Wednesday afternoon, President Brister convincingly presented\nIt would be difficult\nargument on that subject as we all unanimously and emphatically agree\nwith him. This social function of the school and of the teacher is not limited to rural\ncommunities, however. In fact, I think probably that these ideals are finding more\n\nthe importance of the school as a social center in rural communities.\nto get up an\n\npractical demonstrations in the cities than in the country.\n\nThis is a social aspect of a\n\nteacher's preparation to which the normal school should be keenly alive.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": "562", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n$62\n\n[Normal\n\nThe problem of the management of a school is a social problem and its laws are to\nThe very thinking of the problems in arithmetic and\ngeography is determined not so much in the realm of individual psychology as in that of\nsocial psychology.\nThe background of the child's consciousness is the realm of social\nbe ascertained from sociology.\n\nactivity and enterprise.\n\nIt is the social mind, the crowd mind, that goes to school to\n\nEven more true is this in feeling and will than in intellect.\n\nlearn.\n\nThus the science of\n\neducation is a social science to an even greater extent than it is a psychological science.\n\nIn the light of the foregoing introduction is it not apparent that sociology in a normal\nschool has a most important place and a peculiarly important function?\n\nShould not\n\nits contents be organized with explicit and distinct reference to that place and that func-\n\ntion ?\n\nIt is important that the prospective teacher should acquire some familiarity with\n\nthe social elements and processes involved in teaching and school management and in the\nlife and work of the teacher outside the schoolroom\n\n—^and the latter\n\nis\n\nof no small impor-\n\ntance, however much we may shirk and evade our responsibiUty.\n\nRoughly speaking, we may divide the training of the teacher into two parts, that\nwhich is academic and personal and that which is distinctively technical and professional.\nIn the former, we want education such as the high school and college give, and, in the latter,\nthe professional training.\n\nSo far as this classification applies to the normal school, I\n\nmay say I do not Uke it as there the interweaving is so close as to make the division misleading.\n\nI use this arbitrary classification because I find it hard to make clear what I\n\nThe study of algebra belongs to the former class tho in a normal\nThe pupil studying algebra in a\nnormal school ought to understand arithmetic better for that study than the one who\nwant to say without it.\n\nschool there is a distinct reaction upon the arithmetic.\n\nstudied algebra in a high school.\n\nAs commonly taught in a normal school, I fear that sociology belongs very largely\nif\n\nnot entirely in the first type of teacher preparation, that is, it is a cultural and informa-\n\ntive subject\n\nteaching.\n\nand incidentally or accidentally gives distinct and technical training for\n\nI have seen outlines of work done in sociology in normal schools that could\n\nnot readily be distinguished from the species having its habitat in some college.\n\nWorse\n\nthan that, tell it not in Gath, I have taught that sort myself in normal schools.\nIt is probable that no one can map out a course in sociology that in the short time\n\nthat can be devoted to it in a normal school shall cover in succinct and tangible form what\n\nmight be called pedagogical sociology or sociological didactics\nin this discussion of content.\n\nbe slow.\n\n—\n\n^but never mind the label\n\nDoubtless the process of the evolution of the subject will\n\nIndeed, sociology as a college subject is in the early stages of development, to\n\nsay nothing of the organization and systematization of the aspects of the subject best\n\nIn the meantime the teacher of sociology may be patient\nand take comfort in the fact that its close neighbor, educational psychology, with its\n\nadapted for the teacher.\n\nearlier start, has much progress yet to make before it reaches a maximum percentage of\n\npedagogical efl&ciency.\n\nThe personal equation of the teacher is a big factor to be reckoned with in sociology\nand the social environment of the school, and the communities from which the students\ncome and the communities to which they go are also modifying factors.\nIf more educational writers were sufficiently informed in matters sociological so\nthat they could take more of their clues from that source, like Professor Scott in his\nSocial Education, for example, we would sooner find our way out of many a pedagogical\nlabyrinth. It so often happens, however, that one who is qualified to speak as an educator\nknows not sociology, and it is still rarer to find a sociologist who is informed as to the\nproblems of education.\n\nOne defect which I find in my own teaching of sociology in a normal school, and I\npresume I am not alone in the guilt, is that I am inclined to take too logical a view of the\nsubject, to see each phase of the subject and its related topics in their proper relation\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": "563", "text": "SOCIOLOGY IN A NORMAL SCHOOL\n\nDepartment!\n\nof subordination.\nis\n\n563\n\nAmong these phases is social psychology, and somewhere in the list\n\nthe science of education, the relation of the school to the state, etc.\nIt is so easy to ride a tangent away into interesting fields of social knowledge.\n\nhowever, should be wary of tangential tendencies.\n\nIt is a good plan to take these excur-\n\nsions as side trips, if I am not carrying the figure too far.\nsions of the special topics assigned are helpful.\n\nIt is\n\nThe normal-school instructor*\n\na most exhilarating trip, too, and fraught with great value.\n\nOccasional round-table discus-\n\nProfessor Cheever's plan of having each\n\nstudent follow up somewhat extensively some line of sociological inquiry, keeping a\n\nnotebook, making a bibliography, and giving occasional reports to the class, etc., is a most\nexcellent one.\nI have abandoned the conmion plan of commencing the work with a logical organiza-\n\ntion of the subject and find it highly advantageous to plunge at once into a central portion\n\nof the subject.\n\nFor example, a concrete test of evidences of common-mindedness in the\n\nclass quickens a splendid interest and startles the students into an inquiry into the social\n\nsources of standards of judgment and of conduct.\n\npoint of view.\n\nThe student soon acquires the social\n\nOnce infected, the case will run its course.\n\nLest I may be misunderstood in my contention for a sociology for normal schools\nthat is aimed specifically toward technical training for teaching, let me say I realize that\n\nwe often must get away from the school to understand the school. There is a certain\nstage in the teaching of English when we understand the subject better by studying the\nstructure of a foreign language. We best study arithmetic by studying the higher\nmathematics, etc. The indirect reaction of a study of sociology as given in our colleges\nupon teacher training is exceedingly valuable, and if there were no discernible pedagogical\nreaction at all it is well worth a conspicuous place in a normal-school curriculum.\ntheless, in\n\nNever-\n\nview of the social character of the school, of the aims of education, of the\n\neducational processes, and of the life and work of the teacher, sociology may be made\n\na much more efiicient instrumentality in the training of teachers.\nI believe this department of the National Education Association can do few things\n\nof more direct and lasting value in the furthering of the interests of education in the\n\ntraining of teachers than by continuing this investigation.\n\nGusTAV S. Petterson, department of sociology, State Normal School, Mankato,\nMinn.\n\n—^The content of the course in sociology\n\nis\n\nbased on the belief that the abuses in\n\npoUtical, industrial, and social affairs have been due largely to a one-sided and exaggerated\n\nindividuaHsm.\n\nIn the past even our education, in both method and subject-matter,\n\nOur psychology and pedagogy have been too individualistic.\nThe aim is not the teaching of the individual as a separate agent, but from the point\nof view of his obligation to the community that has produced him. The course is essentially practical.\nVery little theoretical matter is considered. The plan is to study as far\nhas been individualistic.\n\n—those that our students\n\nas possible social conditions and social problems in Minnesota\n\nwill come in contact with in the course of their teaching experience.\n\nA few basic definitions precede the study by way of introduction and a very brief\nstatement of the place of sociology among the sciences and what sociology is.\n\nSocial phe-\n\nnomena and social problems are really the latest products of organic evolution, and hence the\nevolutionary background is clearly established as early as possible.\n\nAll this is as an aid\n\nto the understanding of social facts and conditions and in the interpretation of these facts.\n\nThe physical, mental, moral, and religious characteristics of all the nationalities making\nup the American people are studied, this being a very effective aid in getting a clear\nconception of the many and varied social problems peculiar to the United States.\n\nThis\n\nleads to the treatment of the questions of population and immigration with a full and\ndefinite study of the causes and results of isolation and congestion.\n\nStress is laid on the\n\nfacts of rural sociology, and then the village and the city are studied somewhat less in\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": "564", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n564\ndetail.\n\n[Normal\n\nThe fundamental social institutions of the family, the church, the state, and\n\nthe school are examined in the light of their origin, development, present structure,\n\nfunction socially, and their possible destiny.\nbrief\n\nA general view of the negro problem and a\n\nexamination of socialism are undertaken.\n\nIn conclusion, the abnormal problems\n\nof crime, poverty, and pauperism are looked into.\n\nThruout the course, the social funcThere has been a demand for\na more advanced course as an elective, and this has been met by an intensive course in\nsocial problems, which so far has covered in detail the problems of crime, intemperance,\npoverty and pauperism, and feeble-mindedness in its social aspects. It is likely that\nthe problems considered will be varied from year to year.\nThe course covers a period of one term of twelve weeks, with five recitations a week.\nAll the work is covered in recitation and not in lecture form. The texts used are Ellwood's\nSociology and Modern Social Problems Wright's Outline of Practical Sociology, and Gillette's\nConstrtictive Rural Sociology.\nNo text has yet been used in the advanced course. Much\ncollateral reading is required and also the reading of the newspapers and the current\nmagazines. The term theses are on practical problems and local conditions. Much\nattention is paid to social surveys and the collection of social facts. Visits to the state\ntion of education is continually set before the student.\n\n,\n\n—to such\n\ninstitutions constitute a valuable part of the course\n\nprison, the schools for the deaf,\n\ninstitutions as the state\n\ndumb, feeble-minded, the epileptic colony, school for\n\nthe blind, and the school for dependent children, the charity organizations, etc.\n\nThe result has been capacity classes. The subject-matter is human and approached\nfrom the human side. It helps to render the student human. It helps to correlate the\nschool with the conmiunity.\n\nIt sends the teacher out with some idea and knowledge of\n\nthe social conditions that he will meet in the communities where he is to work; equipped\n\nwith the facts of social organization and of the social forces; and with an understanding\nof social problems.\n\nDuring the year 19 13-14, there have been 280 students in sociology\n\nalone, thirty-eight of these in one class of the advanced course.\n\nhas been given but once thus far, in the spring term.\n\nThe advanced course\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": "565", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nAND PRACTICAL ARTS\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—Arthur L. Williston, principal, Wentworth Institute\nBoston, Mass.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nVice-President— May Gearhart, supervisor of drawing, public schools\npublic schools .Pittsburgh, Pa.\nSecretary—^Irene E. McDermott, director of household\nPresident\n\narts,\n\n.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Forenoon, July 6, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order by President Arthur L. Williston in the Madison\nSchool, St. Paul, Minn., at 9 30 a.m.\n:\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, Wilson H. HenderHammond, Ind., was appointed secretary pro\n\nSQn, director of industrial education,\n\ntempore.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Report of the Committee on Vocational Education and Vocational Guidance\"\nRobert J. Fuller, superintendent of schools, North Attleboro, Mass., chairman.\n\"The Economic Significance and Relationships of Vocational Education\" ^John\nA. Seeger, president, Seeger Refrigerator Company, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"Vocational Education Its Social Relationships\" Helen L. Simmer, industrial\nexpert, Children's Bureau, Washington, D.C.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDiscussion: Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111.; P. A. Dietrichison, Stillwater, Minn.;\nMrs. T. Vemette Morse, Chicago, 111.; Arthur L. Williston, principal, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.; R. W. Heimlich, River Falls, Wis.; Sophonisba Preston Breckinridge, assistant professor of social economy, University of Chicago, Chicago, HI.;\n\nand\n\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, July 7, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order by President Williston in the Lodge Room of the\nMasonic Temple, at 9:30 a.m.\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n\"President's Address Should Manual Training and Technical High Schools Abandon\nTheir General and College Preparatory Aims and Become Efficient Secondary Schools of\nApplied Science?\" Arthur L. Williston, principal, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.\n\"Vocational Education Its Terminology\" Carroll G. Pearse, president, State\nNormal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\"The Place of Industrial Education in a Rational School System\" ^Arthur H.\nChamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nIn the absence of the author, a paper entitled \"Lessons Learned from Ten Years'\nExperience in Industrial Education,\" by Charles A. Prosser, secretary. National Society\nfor the Promotion of Industrial Education,\n\nNew York, N.Y., was read by Robert J.\n\nFuller, superintendent of schools, North Attleboro, Mass.\n\nThese papers were discussed by G. W. A. Luckey, dean. Graduate School of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\n\n565\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": "566", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n566\n\n(Vocational\n\nTfflRD SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 19 14\nFine and Applied Arts Session\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 a.m.\nThe following papers were read:\n\n\"The Need in America for Schools of Applied Art and the Necessity in American\nIndustries for Art Leaders and Designers of the Highest Grade\" ^Maurice I. Flagg,\ndirector, Minnesota State Art Commission, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"Art Appreciation for the Masses\" Robert Koehler, director, Minneapolis School\nof Art, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nEmma\n\n\"Art Courses in Elementary, Intermediate, and High Schools\" M.\nRoberts,\nsupervisor of drawing, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\"Art Education as a Part of General Culture\" Tyler McWhorter, professor of\napplied design, St. Paul Institute, St. Paul, Minn.\n\n—\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 1914\nVocational Education Session\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2:45 pm.\nThe following program was presented:\n\n\"The Use of the Factory and Office Buildings for Vocational Education in New\nYork City\"—John H. Haaren, associate superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.\n\"Trade Agreements in Industrial Education of Apprentices in Chicago\" William\n\n—\n\nM. Roberts, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, III.\n\"The Apprenticeship and Continuation Schools of Milwaukee, Wis.\"—R. L. Cooley,\nprincipal, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n—\n\n\"The Natural Growth of Industrial Education\" Frank M. Leavitt, associate\nprofessor of industrial education. University of Chicago, Chicago, III.\nAt the close of the program, a business session was held, at which, after a full discussion, it was voted to instruct the chairman to recommend to the business meeting of the\n\nAssociation the change of name of the department, of which notice had been given a year\nago, from the present name, \"Department of Manual Training and Art Education\" to\n\n\"Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts.\"\n\nFIFTH SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914\nHousehold Economics Session\nThe program of this session was arranged in co-operation with the Amercan Home\nEconomics Association.\n\nThe session was called to order in the large hall of the Masonic Temple at 9:30 a.m.,\nby Grace M. Shepherd, state superintendent of public instruction, Boise, Idaho.\nLouise McDanell, department of home economics. University of Minnesota, St. Paul,\nMinn., was appointed secretary pro tempore.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n\"The Renovation of the Home thru Home Economics\"\nof Cook County Institutions, Chicago, 111.\n\n—Alice P. Norton, dietitian\n\n—Mary F. Rausch, director of home economics. Unithe Islands\" —Miss Ferguson, supervisor of home economics,\n\n\"Woman's Noblest Calling\"\n\nversity of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\n\n\"Home Economics in\nPorto Rico.\n\nShort discussions on the relation of home economics to the other work in the schools\nwere given by the following; Susan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Los\n\nMinnie Coulter, principal of Lincoln School, Santa Rosa, Cal.; Louise\nMcDanell, department of home economics. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minn.;\narid David Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\nAngeles, Cal.;\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": "567", "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nDepartment]\n\n567\n\nSIXTH SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July 10, 1914\nThe department met in joint session with the Departments of Science Instruction\nand Secondary Education, and was called to order by President Williston, in the Madison\nSchool, at 9:30 A.M.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\nModem\n\nNeeds\" ^John H.\n\"The Adjustment of the High-School Curriculum to\nFrancis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"The Tendencies and General Status of Courses in General Science\" ^William H.\nTimbie, head of department of applied science, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass., and\nFred D. Barber, professor of physical science. State Normal University, Normal, 111.\n(For these papers, see Department of Science Instruction.)\n\"Applied Science Its Relationship to Shop Work and the Rest of the Curriculum\nAdelbert H. Morrison, head of science\nin an tJp-to-Date Technical High School\"\ndepartment, Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass. (For this paper, see Department of Science Instruction.)\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDiscussion: P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington,\n\nD.C.\n\n(For this discussion, see Department of Science Instruction.)\n\nSEVENTH SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July 10, 19 14\nManual Training Session\nThe meeting was called to order by Wilson H. Henderson, secretary. Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, Hammond, Ind.\n\nThe next topic under discussion was: \"Manual Training Appears in Current Courses\nof Study in Elementary Schools, Intermediate Schools, and High Schools, and Is Taught\n\nApparently with a Variety of Aims\n\n—\n\nportion, and Nature of Materials;\n\n(b)\n\nFor Developing an Appreciation of Form, ProFor Giving Insight into Industrial Processes and\nActivities; (c) As a Sense and Motor Training, and for the Developing of Executive\nFaculties; (d) To Give an Increased Feeling of Reality to the Entire Curriculum.\"\nA paper on this topic, entitled \"How May These General Aims Be Best Conserved ?\nwas read by Milton C. Potter, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nIn the absence of the author, J. A. Webster, East Technical High School, Cleveland,\nOhio, the concluding paper of the session, on \"The Value of Printing in the Public\nSchools,\" was read.\nAt the close of this session, a business meeting was held.\nIt was moved and seconded to continue the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements, with the request that, where practical, it co-operate with other bodies interested\nfor the fuller recognition in college-entrance requirements of the subjects in which the\ndepartment is especially interested.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was presented, as follows:\n(a)\n\n—\n\nFor President Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education,\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nFor Vice-President Martha Van Rensselaer, president, American Home Economics\nAssociation, and professor of home economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President Carl N. Werntz, president, Chicago Academy of Fine Arts,\n\n—\n—\n\nChicago, 111.\nFor Recording Secretary ^Wilson H. Henderson, extension division. University of\nWisconsion, Madison, Wis.\nFor Corresponding Secretary Florence Marshall, principal, Manhattan Trade School\n\n—\n\n—\n\nfor Girls,\n\nNew York, N.Y.\n\nThese officers were unanimously elected.\n\nWilson H. Henderson, Secretary pro tempore\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": "568", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n568\n\n[VocaUonal\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nSTATEMENT IN REGARD TO THE WORK OF THE COMMITTEE\nON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL\nGUIDANCE\nROBERT\n\nJ.\n\nFULLER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NORTH ATTLEBORO,\nMASS.,\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nThe Committee on Vocational Education and Vocational Guidance\nwas appointed as a result of resolutions passed at the Chicago meeting\nof the National\n\nEducation Association.\n\nThis committee, therefore,\n\nresponsible to the general Association for its acts and deliberations.\n\nyear\n\nit\n\nis\n\nLast\n\nmade its report before the general meeting of the Association,\n\nreceived approval for its work, and was granted an appropriation to continue its work. Later it was found that the finances of the Association\nwere such as to cause a lessening of the amount appropriated.\n\nOne meeting was held during the year at Grand Rapids at the time of\nthe meeting of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education.\n\nEight members of the general committee were present and a vote\n\nwas passed authorizing the chairman to appoint a subcommittee, which\nsubcommittee was to assign the work.\nAt a meeting of this subcommittee held in Boston in December, it was\nvoted to separate the work of the year into two parts. The first was to be\nthe preparation of a terminology in vocational education. This work was\nassigned to Commissioner Snedden and the chairman of the committee.\nThe second part was the preparation of two questionnaires. This work\nwas assigned to the chairman of the general committee and four other\nmembers.\n\nOn behalf of the committee, I am pleased to report that a terminology\nin vocational education has been prepared, with the idea of placing before\n\nthe country certain definitions together with illustrations which would be of\n\nvalue in the consideration of any form of vocational education.\n\nThis\n\nterminology will also make it possible for those discussing vocational education in any of its phases to base such discussion upon the same meanings\nof the terms.\n\nYour conmiittee does not intend that this terminology shall\n\nbe in the nature of a fiat.\n\nIt rather has intended that it should help to\n\nclarify the situation in regard to terms used.\n\nI am pleased to report also that two questionnaires were prepared by\nthis\n\ncommittee.\n\nin all\n\n—\n\nThe first was sent to a small group of persons\n\n—ninety\n\nincluding the past presidents of the National Education Association,\n\nthe United States commissioner of education, several state commissioners\nof education, and others interested in the welfare of the National Education\n\nAssociation.\n\nThis questionnaire established the fact that these persons,\n\nat least, believe that there is a definite field for the work of this committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": "569", "text": "Department]\n\nSIGNIFICANCE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n569\n\nAfter summarizing these results, a second questionnaire was prepared\nwhich was sent to a still larger number of the members of the National\nEducation Association. While the results from these questionnaires\ncannot be regarded as conclusive, they nevertheless indicate the tendencies.\nThese questionnaires, together with the summaries of replies and a special\nstudy of the second questionnaire, appear as a part of the preliminary\nreport of this conmiittee.\n\nThis report will be distributed at the annual\n\nmeeting of the Association.\nThis committee regards as its next duty the preparation of a handbook\n\nupon vocational education.\n\nSuch handbook will contain the following\n\nchapters:\n1.\n\nThe terminology of vocational education.\n\n2.\n\nDirectory of schools and forms of vocational education.\n\n3.\n\nAn evaluation of industrial schools already established.\n\n4.\n\nA selected bibliography of literature pertaining to vocational education, con-\n\ntributed either by the United States Bureau of Education or by the National Society for\n\nthe Promotion of Industrial Education.\n5.\n\nProposed methods and forms for the organization and administration of vocational\n\nschools.\n\nThese to be contributed, if possible, by the National Society for the Promotion\n\nof Industrial Education.\n6.\n\nDiscussions of problems of finance in vocational education.\n\n7.\n\nWays to meet the practical problems which arise in the processes of inauguration\n\nof successful schemes of vocational education.\n8.\n\nDiscussion of questions and issues unsettled in regard to vocational education.\n\nYour conmaittee believes that there is a definite call for a continuance\nof the work of the committee, and that, for the purpose of continuing its\n\nwork and for the preparation of the handbook indicated, it will need an\nappropriation of three thousand dollars ($3,000.00).\n\nYou committee will be very grateful to this department for any assistance it may render in the further prosecution of its work.\n\nTHE ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE AND RELATIONSHIPS OF\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nJOHN A. SEEGER, PRESIDENT, SEEGER REFRIGERATOR COMPArrSf,\nST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nWe are living in an age when, in order to be successful in business in\nalmost any department of life, we must be practical and have a thoroly\nconversant understanding of that business.\n\nIn fact, it may be said that\n\ntoday one must be an expert in his business, so as to be able to cope with\nthe sharp and keen competition offered on all sides.\n\nThe average boy or girl on leaving school is not sufficiently equipped\nor instructed to know what he or she is best able to do, and, in consequence,\n\ntakes the first job or employment offered that will help toward support,\n\nthen drifts along from one occupation to another, in many cases becoming\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": "570", "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\neither a common\n\nday laborer or a human machine in some factory, run-\n\n[Vocational\n\nning a particular machine and doing the same kind of work day in and\n\nday out.\nLarge sums of public money are being spent for the education of our\nyoung men and women in professional and scientific callings, and only a\nsmall amount, comparatively, for instruction along mechanical and domestic\nscience lines. I believe it is necessary and advisable, however, that practical instructions, with the use of hand tools only, be given in the grade\nschools, beginning with the sixth grade, so that when boys or girls are compelled to leave school after graduating from the eighth grade they will at\nleast have learned how to use their hands, as well as their brains, and also\nwill be able to read, write, and spell correctly.\nThere should be in every city at least one or more separate schools for\nboys and girls of a mechanical bent of mind. The time of instruction\nshould be so divided that reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geography,\nand grammar can be taught, and the balance of the time given over to\ninstruction in the practical mechanical courses in the trades and to domestic\nscience.\nAnd in these schools only men instructors should be employed\nto teach men's work, taken from the particular trade they are to teach;\nand women instructors for women's work, taken from their particular\nvocation, whatever it may be, to teach that particular trade or calling such\nas cooking, housework, sewing, millinery, etc.\n\nWomen should not be\n\nemployed to teach how to do carpenter work, blacksmithing, machinerywork, sheet-metal work, etc. Nor should men be employed to teach how\nto do cooking, housework, sewing, trimming of hats, etc. That would\nbe absurd.\nI do not advocate the use of any piece of machinery or machine tool\nonly hand tools. Let machine tools be used in the highin the grades\nschool mechanical courses for those boys and girls who are fortunate enough\nto be able to remain at school long enough to enter these courses. My\nreasons for recommending the employment of only practical mechanics,\nmen and women to teach the trades, are based on the experience of the\nBuilders' Exchange in conjunction with the Board of Education of\nSt. Paul, who, at their own expense, financed a class of one hundred\nboys for one year; and also on the experience of the St. Paul Institute in\n\n—\n\nits\n\nevening industrial classes in connection with the Builders' Exchange.\n\nAt first, instructors were taken out\n\nof\n\nthe regular corps of teachers\n\nemployed during the daytime in the Mechanic Arts High School. The\nresult was that it was almost impossible to maintain interest enough\nin the classes to pay the instructors, the final result being that, at the end\nThe\nof the school term, all of the industrial classes showed a financial loss.\nfollowing season we first organized the classes according to their vocation\n\nor trade, and then selected the instructors out of the various shops, factories,\n\nand industries, the result being that the classes grew so large in number\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": "571", "text": "Department]\n\nthat\n\nSIGNIFICANCE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nassistant\n\ninstructors\n\nhad\n\nto\n\nbe\n\nemployed.\n\nAt\n\nthese\n\n571\n\nevening\n\nindustrial classes, there were fourteen different branches of trades taught,\n\neach in charge of a man who had actually learned the trade and who was\nthoroly in earnest\n\nand skilled in that particular\n\ntrade.\n\nAs the classes\n\ngrew in number, assistants were employed, until finally a total of about\neight hundred scholars were being taught in the fourteen classes. At the\nend of the term, instead of showing a financial loss, there was a handsome\nprofit on the right side of the ledger account.\n\nI believe practical instructors in the grades are a necessity, for the\n\nreason that over 90 per cent of those attending school leave after finishing\nthe grades, and fewer than 5 per cent remain long enough to complete the\nhigh-school courses.\nin all the grades.\n\nIt may not be possible to employ practical mechanics\nIf there are no separate trade or vocational schools in\n\nthe city, then those teachers or instructors who are so employed, both men\nand women, should try to school and inform themselves along the lines of\ninstruction for which they are employed by visiting factories and the\nvarious industries. In this way, they may become familiar with the various\nvocations in which they are to give instructions, and thus make the vocational classes interesting as well as instructive.\n\nMen and women with trades are more likely to be self-supporting and\nto make good citizens.\n\nStatistics relative to inmates of penal institutions\n\nand of those for defectives show that but a small percentage of such persons are tradesmen. The great majority are men and women without any\nparticular training that would fit them to start in life with a fixed aim or\npurpose. Furthermore, there is an ever-increasing demand for skilled\nmechanics in every industrial calling. Over 90 per cent of the mechanics\nin this country are foreign born.\n\nThe salaries or wages paid our teachers or instructors in the industrial\nthey must be raised or we will never be able to\n\ncourses are not enough;\n\nhire competent men and women to instruct, for today the wages of skilled\n\nmechanics are considerably higher in this market than are the salaries\npaid to teachers and instructors.\n\nThere should be uniformity in the instruction offered in all the grade\n\nThe courses in the grade and high schools should\nbe correlated, so that the student leaving the grades could continue in the\nschools and high schools.\n\nAs it is today in many cities, there is\nno direct connection between the grades and the high schools.\n\nhigh school without serious break.\n\nThere should be a supervisor or superintendent in charge of this par-\n\nA part of his duties should be to maintain\nan industrial guiding bureau, thru which students leaving school would be\nticular branch of instruction.\n\ndirected to positions which their particular ability would best fit them for,\n\nthe idea being to have students, when leaving school, register at the bureau,\nstating their particular qualifications, and then to have business men apply\n\nthere when in need of help.\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": "572", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n572\n\nIt should also\n\n(Vocational\n\nbe the duty of the supervisor and of the individual\n\ninstructors to keep watch of each student and see that no student be allowed\nto continue along certain lines of trade that he or she may not have a liking\n\nor talent for.\n\nIn such cases these students should and must be transferred\n\nto other trades for which they may possess particular talent.\n\nNo person, man or woman, can ever become skilled or expert in any\ntrade or profession if he is obliged to learn it against his will and natural\n\nThis phase of character and disposition should not be lost\nand the student should be changed from one trade to another\nuntil finally the correct and most natural vocation for him is discovered.\nSo many boys and girls do not at first know themselves what they want\nto learn and follow thru life that this particular feature is most important.\nFinally, I believe that every state in the Union should maintain, in\nconnection with its universities, normal schools, or otherwise, a regular\ntrade school. This school should be similar to the so-called Gewerbeschule\nin Germany.\nIn it, at a slight cost, or, better yet, entirely free, all the\nmechanical trades and domestic sciences should be taught, so that skilled\nmechanics could be created. If this were done, and I firmly believe it\nwill be done in the near future, then Germany, when it again sends an\ninclinations.\n\nsight of,\n\neducational conunission to this country, as\n\nit\n\ndid in 1904 to study the\n\nschool exhibits at the St. Louis exposition, will receive a different report.\n\nIn 1904 the commission reported America to be abundant in resources,\nfilled with energetic and exceedingly quick-witted and resourceful people,\n\nwho would have to be reckoned with sooner or later in their commerce and\ntrade relations with foreign countries, but that, for the present, Americans\nwere so seriously handicapped in their vocational and educational institutions that Germany need have nothing to fear from them for some time\nto come.\n\n—I am glad to say that since 1904 there has\n—so that the next report say that the time has come\n\nLet us change this situation\nbeen a change\n\nwill\n\nwhen Germany must sit up and give us attention.\n\nNow we are competing\n\nalong trade lines in all foreign countries, and, with the completion of the\n\nPanama Canal, I believe Germany has seen its best day in all South American countries. Give us ten years more and we will have demonstrated\nthat the American people are the most progressive people on earth.\n\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION—ITS SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS\nHELEN L. SUMNER, INDUSTRIAL EXPERT, CHILDREN'S BUREAU,\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\nIn considering the social relationships of vocational education, it is\nnecessary to ask three questions.\n\nFirst, interpreting the word \"social\" to\n\nbe the adjective formed from the word \"society,\" What is or should be the\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": "573", "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION—ITS SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS\n\nend and aim of society ?\n\n573\n\nSecond, What is or should be the end and aim\n\nAnd third, What relation exists between the\nend and aim of society and that of the vocational education movement ?\nAs for society, various words and phrases have been used by different\nwriters in an effort to tell us what is or should be the end of our common\nefforts, the thing above and inclusive of all others that we should recognize\nas our goal.\nBut probably no statement of the end and aim of society is\nso likely to obtain general agreement as that given by James MacKaye in\nThe Economy of Happiness which is that \"society should seek to attain\nthe maximum surplus of happiness\" not the happiness of individuals as\nof vocational education?\n\nj\n\n—\n\nsuch, but the greatest possible\n\nhuman beings are capable.\n\nsum total of happiness of which living\n\nThis means, not the development of selfish-\n\nness, but the development of the highest t3^e of altruism.\n\nFor, to attain\n\n\"the maximum surplus of happiness,\" the individual must sink his interests\nwholly in those of his fellow-men, must give into the common pool all the\nresults of his best endeavors, and be content to receive back only so much\n\nof individual happiness as it is to the interest of society as a whole that he\n\nshould possess.\n\nThe happiness of society is obviously the sum total of the happiness of\nthe human beings who constitute society.\nests of individuals may be\n\nBut, also obviously, the inter-\n\nopposed to those of society as a whole.\n\nFor\n\n—\n—of employers in certain classes of industries that we should have in this\nexample, it may be to the interest\n\npossibly only to the apparent interest\n\ncountry a reservoir of ignorant, unskilled laborers who in busy seasons may\n\nbe called upon to work with pick and shovel for long hours and low wages,\n\nand who, at other times, may be cast adrift to shift for themselves as best\nthey can, falling back, whenever the struggle proves too hard, upon the\ncommunity. But is it to the interest of society as a whole that industry\nshould be carried on in this wasteful fashion? Is it to the interest of\nsociety that great masses of people should possess so little skill that their\n\nhuman labor force is cheaper in dollars and cents than the machinery that\nmight be used to do their work ?\n\nOn the other hand, society must support the various institutions, from\nlodging-houses thru hospitals to jails, which are necessitated, in large part\nat least, by this great surplus of low-skilled positions.\n\nSociety, in other\n\nwords, bears the burdens and certain individuals reap the profits of a cheap,\ninefficient labor supply.\n\nMoreover, if we lumped together the happiness\n\nof employers and employed, would not the total, and therefore the maxi-\n\nmum happiness of society, be far greater if the productive efficiency of all\nhad been so developed, thru a thoro system of vocational education, that\neach one would have been able to stand wholly upon his own feet ?\nFurthermore, society is deprived of the increased productivity which\nwould result from developing in each and every one of its individuals the\ngreatest amount of skill and efficiency of which he or she is capable; and\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": "574", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n574\n\n[Vocational\n\nthe scarcity of skilled workmen who can command good wages, together\n\nwith the superabundance of unskilled workmen who can command only\nthe lowest rate of wages, furnishes a continual handicap to the increase\nin efficiency of production.\n\nThe result is twofold.\n\nproduction is kept down, and society is the loser.\n\nFirst,\n\nthe rate of\n\nSecond, thousands of\n\nhuman beings who might be useful and happy citizens live and die in\npoverty and misery, and again society is the loser.\n\nTo take another illustration.\nIf\n\nSociety is also the loser from child labor.\n\nour industries were placed upon a socially efficient basis, child labor\n\ncould not exist.\n\nFor it is certainly not to the interest of society that little\n\nchildren should exhaust their vitality at the most critical period of their\nlives and should\n\nbe forced into production with no equipment which can\n\npossibly render their labor effective either as children or as adults.\nis,\n\nThere\n\nindeed, probably no phase of business activity to which society, in its\n\nown interest, could apply scientific management with more telling effect\nthan to the employment of children. If we mean to conserve \"the most\nfruitful of all natural resources,\" human beings, we should take our children\nout of industry, where they are learning little or nothing but the road to\ninefficiency,\n\nand should so educate them that each one will attain, as an\n\nadult, the greatest possible degree of usefulness of which he is individually\n\n—usefulness both to himself and to society as a whole.\n\ncapable\n\nLet us turn now to the end and aim of vocational education. \"The\nmost fruitful of all natural resources in any nation,\" as has been well said,\n\"are the human beings who compose it.\" Now all education is, or should\nbe, directed toward the simultaneous conservation and development of\nthese human resources, the conservation of health and happiness and the\ndevelopment of potentialities of usefulness usefulness of individuals not\nonly to themselves but to others. Every child, then, should be so educated\nthat he will attain, as an adult, the greatest possible degree of usefulness of\nwhich he is individually capable usefulness both to himself and to the\n\n—\n\n—\n\ncommimity as a whole.\nIt has been said, however, that general education is primarily education\nfor consumption.\n\nThe unskilled workman resting on a park bench from\n\nhis interminable hunt for a \"job\" may have been taught in school to read\n\nLongfellow and Whittier; but little good does such training for consumption of literature do him when his whole mind is atrophied by the desire\nof his stomach to\n\nconsume food.\n\nThe trouble is that, by ignoring edu-\n\ncation for production, we have, to a great extent, wasted the education for\n\nconsumption which we have given.\nIn the past we have left training for specific vocations mainly to chance,\n\nand there have been very few chances, under modern industrial conditions,\nof children ever receiving any real training whatever.\nAs early as 1825,\na committee of the Massachusetts legislature, appointed to investigate\nthe education of children employed in factories, recommended that an\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": "575", "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION—ITS SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS\n\n575\n\ninstitution be established \"for the education of the laboring classes in the\n\npractical arts\n\nand sciences. \"\n\nYet we are still working over the prelimi-\n\nnary need for a terminology of vocational education.\n\nMeanwhile the results of this lack of vocational training have been\nDisregarding the past effects and all the train of evils which\nhas been flowing along from generation to generation as a result of the\nneglect of this most necessary form of education, what are its present\nresults? The average child who goes to work early, either because his\nparents have never been trained to fit into the industrial system or because\nthe school does not give him the sort of education that he wants, drifts\ninto the first \"job\" he can find, utterly regardless of whether or not he\nhas any inclination or aptitude for the work and utterly regardless of\nwhether the work offers any future to him as an adult. Having no preparation for any kind of work and no skill to lose, he drifts out of an occupation or an industry as easily as he drifted into it. Sometimes by\nabsorbing all the information and valuable experiences he can get from a\nnumber of different occupations^ positions, or employers, he acquires\na smattering of an education which enables him to \"find himself\" industrially.\nMore often he simply continues to drift aimlessly, giving up a job\non the most trivial pretext and taking the next that happens to offer. In\nChicago, a boy left a good job with a good firm and became a telegraph\nmessenger because he did not like the shape of the packages that he was\nasked to carry. In Cincinnati, a boy employed in a department store\n\"thought work would be too heavy during the Christmas holidays,\" so he\ndisastrous.\n\nquit his job\n\n—in June. More often the child gives as a reason for leaving,\n\n\"boss is too cranky\" or \"didn't like the forelady.\"\n\nA Meriden, Conn.,\n\nboy not yet sixteen years of age has held and lost or given up fifteen posiAnd a Baltimore girl had fourteen positions\ntions since he was fourteen.\nHaving no training for any occupation whatin exactly fourteen months.\never, no knowledge of the opportunities offered by the various industries,\nand no pride or pleasure in their work, children employed in our industries\ndrift along with almost no aid or guidance from the higher agencies of\ncivilization.\nSome of them, unusually endowed or unusually fortunate,\nare able to swim upstream.\nSome of them are drawn into the rapids of\ncrime. A recent investigation made by the physician who was for years\nin charge of the hospital at the Wisconsin state penitentiary has shown\nthat, out of 269 murderers in that institution, over 90 per cent went to\nwork before they were fifteen. The vast majority of untrained working\nchildren, however, simply drift downstream into the ocean of unskilled\nlabor.\n\nA recent investigation made by Mr. Speek, of the Federal Industrial\nRelations Commission, shows that nearly all casual laborers began their\nindustrial careers young, with no training for any specific vocation.\n\nPracti-\n\ncally the only exceptions to this rule were a few foreigners who found, on\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": "576", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION\n\n5 76\n\n[Vocational\n\ncoming to this country, that the skill they had acquired in their native\nland was useless here owing to dijfferent methods of production.\n\nThus, for\n\nindividuals, vocational education necessarily tends to decrease the probabilities of misery and to increase the likelihood of happiness.\n\nThe end and aim of vocational education, however, is not merely to\nincrease the income of individuals and so to increase their opportunities\nof utilizing their general education.\n\nFundamentally the end and aim of\n\nvocational education is so to utilize the forces inhering in human beings as\n\nnatural resources as to secure the maximimi benefits for\nsociety as a whole.\n\nthem and for\nThe advantage to society of making a boy into a skilled\n\nmechanic instead of into a casual laborer is not merely that the mechanic\nreceives higher wages than the laborer, but that the potentialities of pro-\n\nductive efficiency are more thoroly developed in the mechanic than they\n\n—\n\nare in the casual laborer the mechanic not only gets more but actually\nmakes more. To society as a whole, as well as to himself, the man who can\nbuild a chimney is more useful than the man who can only dig a hole.\nThose to whom our schools give no training for self-support cannot,\nin this day of social consciousness, be blamed when they fail to support\nthemselves. There is no use in trying to classify such people into \"unfortu-\n\nnate\" on the one hand, and \"unemployable\" on the other.\nMost of\nthem are simply uneducated, and for that we who call them names are\nresponsible, because, out of our wisdom, we have provided them with a little\n\ntraining for the consumption of poetry, but with none for the production of\nutilities\n\nwhich would yield to them a bread-and-butter income and to\n\nsociety a surplus of consumption goods.\n\nVocational education cannot do everything, but the wastefulness of\n\nour modem society is without doubt due in large part to the lack of such\neducation.\n\nIt is, therefore, distinctly in the interest of society that the\n\nunskilled laborer shall be abolished, and that all men and women, not too\ndefective either physically or mentally, shall be trained to be self-supporting\nin some useful occupation.\n\nIn still another way, moreover, vocational education is calculated to\n\nand thru them the happiness of\nFor the joy of work which results from the consciousness of\nThe value of vocaefficiency is the highest form of individual happiness.\ntional education as a means of enriching the life of the individual and of the\ncommunity by developing pleasure in good workmanship, originality,\ncritical judgment, and respect for one's self and for one's occupation cannot\nincrease the happiness of individuals\nsociety.\n\npossibly be overestimated.\n\nUltimately, therefore, vocational education\n\nis\n\ndesigned to\n\nmake the\n\nindividual more efficient in producing happiness, both for himself and for\nsociety as a whole.\n\nYears ago, after a long and bitter struggle, the prin-\n\nciple was established that education was not merely a private affair but\n\nwas of vital importance to society, and should, therefore, be furnished at\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": "577", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n577\n\nNow, at last, we are beginning to realize the absolute\nstill another step away from the individualistic,\negotistic ideas of the past by broadening out public instruction to include,\n\npublic expense.\n\nnecessity of advancing\n\nnot merely general education, for personal enjoyment, but definite training\nfor productive work, for usefulness to society.\nstep,\n\nThus, gradually, step by\n\nwe advance toward the practical application of those socially con-\n\nscious, altruistic ideas without which society can never attain that \"maxi-\n\nmum surplus of happiness\" which James MacKaye calls the goal of human\nendeavor.\n\n(\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\n\nSHOULD MANUAL TRAINING AND TECHNICAL HIGH\nSCHOOLS ABANDON THEIR GENERAL AND COLLEGE\nPREPARATORY AIMS AND BECOME EFFICIENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF APPLIED SCIENCE?\nARTHUR L. WILLISTON, PRINCIPAL, WENTWORTH INSTITUTE, BOSTON, MASS.\nDuring the past few years, there has been a distinct and rapidly growing\ntendency to make education of all kinds fit more accurately probable lifecareer needs.\n\nThoughtful men everywhere, not only in America but in\n\nevery civilized land, have been giving to this matter a degree of serious\nattention such as was never given to it before;\n\nand the conviction has been\n\ngrowing that school training need lose nothing of its general educational\nvalue and might gain inameasurably in many ways if it were connected\n\nmuch more definitely with the after life of the boys and the girls for whom\nit is planned.\n\nIf we are all prepared to concede that there will be a very great gain\nwhen school training is more definitely connected with the after life of the\n\npersons for whom it is planned, then it becomes of very great importance\nto\n\nhave some clear notion of what the after life of those young people\n\nwill be.\n\nWe shall find that the boys who enter manual-training and technical\nhigh schools are divided into the three following groups:\n1.\n\nBoys who expect to continue their formal education after they leave the high\n\nschool.\n2.\n\nBoys who have formed no plans regarding the probable character of their future\n\noccupations.\n3.\n\nBoys who have at least general plans regarding the probable character of their\n\nfuture vocations.\n\nFor boys who expect to continue their formal education after they leave\nthe high school, either in college or elsewhere, a manual-training or technical\n\nhigh school obviously cannot be so serviceable as a well-planned general or\ncollege preparatory course.\n\nEven for those boys who plan to enter schools\n\nof engineering this would be true, for the directors of such schools are well\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": "578", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n573\n\n[Vocational\n\nagreed, I believe, that the preparatory training for their work should be\nbroad and general, strong in languages, literature, pure mathematics, and\n\nthe general laws and principles of science, but not highly specialized.\n\nFor the boys who have been unable to form any plans regarding the\nnature of their probable future occupations, for the boys who have not\n\n\"found\" themselves, and who have not discovered the direction in which\ntheir powers and abilities lie, the training that is needed, of course, must\n\nbe general.\n\nThe only boys, therefore, who should enter the technical high school\nare boys who have more or less well-formed plans regarding their vocations,\n\nand who believe that a training offered by such a school will be suitable\nIf technical high schools would eliminate their more\ngeneral and college preparatory aims and confine themselves exclusively\nfor their preparation.\n\nto the task of furnishing suitable preparation to this group of boys for\ntheir life work, I think there can be no question but that their efficiency\n\nwould be immeasurably enhanced.\nUnfortunately a great majority of the secondary schools of the United\nStates that are known as manual-training and technical high schools are\n\nvery far from this ideal.\n\nWhatever may have been their original plan and\n\npurpose, at the present time they do not differ in any important educational\nparticular from the general high schools.\n\nI mean by this that they receive\n\nthe same class of pupils, of the same age, and the same preparatory training,\n\nwith no attempt at differentiation as to the purpose in life or natural aptitudes;\n\nand they develop in them the same type of intelligence, the same\n\nhabits of thought, and the same kind of abilities as do those schools which\n\npride themselves on being primarily college preparatory institutions.\nIt is true, of course, that certain branches of shop practice and mechanical drawing are taught, but the main purpose of this instruction, so far as\n\none can observe, is almost identical with that of the avowedly college preparatory courses;\n\nfor example, in history, geometry, or language.\n\nThe\n\nresultant is training in memory, in deductive reasoning, and in critical dis-\n\nAlmost every shop teacher in the high school prides himself\non the fact that his courses develop this kind of purely intellectual faculties\n\ncrimination.\n\njust as well as do those of any other teacher in the school.\nI do not wish to be understood as opposing the college preparatory work\n\nor intellectual training of this kind.\n\nIt is, of course, important that every\n\ncity should provide abundant opportunities for it for those boys and girls\n\nwho are going to go to college or who have no plans; but I am urging a\ndifferent kind of training for boys who look forward on the completion of\ntheir high-school work to industrial careers or to occupations directly or\n\nindirectly related to industry.\nIf such differentiation is made for the manual-training high schools, it\nwill give a new definiteness of purpose which would help\n\nunifying and vitalizing all of the instruction.\n\ntremendously in\n\nThe conges involved are\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": "579", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\nprimarily changes in emphasis.\n\n579\n\nIn a multitude of details the instruction\n\nwill be given a totally different point of view.\n\nInstead of placing emphasis\n\nupon the development of memory, of the faculty of deductive reasoning,\nand of critical discrimination, the emphasis will be placed upon the development of quite a different set of faculties which are ordinarily little thought\nof in school.\nWith the new viewpoint there will be special effort to develop\nin the pupils the faculties of intuition, mechanical judgment, self-confidence,\n\npersistence, quick response in unusual circumstances, ability to discharge\n\nresponsibility and reliability, the habit of co-operation with others, knowl-\n\nedge of men, knowledge of industry, leadership and the habit of accomplishment, and the habit of inductive reasoning\n\nfor these are the qualities\n\n;\n\nthat count toward success in organized industry.\nI think that\n\none of the principal reasons why manual-training and\n\ntechnical high schools in the United States\ntheir point of view and in their instruction\n\nhave become so academic in\n\n— even tho a considerable number\n\n— because the advocates\n\nof them started out with quite a different purpose\n\nis\n\nof practical training have placed too much emphasis\n\nupon the shopwork.\n\nImportant as the shopwork is, it should never be made, in a high school,\nthe predominating feature.\n\nOveremphasis upon shop courses naturally tends to give the impression\nthat the school aims to be a trade school, which, of course, is wrong.\n\nExpe-\n\nrience has abundantly proved that boys who attend high schools will not\n\nenter mechanical trades for their life work.\n\nEven tho sufficient instruction\n\nin shop practice were given in the manual-training high school to produce\n\na degree of skill in the pupils equal to that of the journeymen in the trades,\nthe school could not be a trade school, for the reason that its graduates will\n\nnot earn their living as trade workers.\n\nThe trade school idea, therefore,\n\neven as a secondary aim, should not control.\nThe purpose of the manual-training high school and technical high\nschool, if they have a place of their own in our educational system, is to\n\ntrain the non-conmaissioned officers for industry.\n\nPersons interested in\n\nthese schools have often failed to appreciate the importance of this group\nof responsible positions\n\nwhich lie midway between those of the highly\n\ntrained engineers and captains of industry who direct affairs from the top,\n\nand those of the skilled journeymen who do the actual work with their\nhands. Too much emphasis cannot be placed, I believe, upon the idea that\nthe practical work of the type of schools that we are talking about should\nbe directed exclusively toward the training of persons for positions of this\nintermediate grade, that is, the positions of the \"non-commissioned officer\"\n\nThese schools are not elementary schools, and the trade idea, I\nrepeat, should be absolutely forgotten. They are not schools of collegiate\ngrade, and the aim should be quite distinct from that of the engineering\nschool.\nThey are secondary schools which occupy a field exactly half-way\nbetween these two extremes.\n\ngrade.\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": "580", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n5So\n\n[Vocational\n\nIn the trade school, the first emphasis is placed upon actually doing\n\nThe related technical and applied science instruction\n\nthings in the shop.\n\nis important, but it is kept secondary in emphasis and in the proportion of\n\nIn the college of engineering, on the other hand, the\n\ntime allotted to it.\ninstruction\n\nis\n\nalmost exclusively in applied science.\n\nThe emphasis is\n\nplaced entirely on this side of the work and on the acquisition of the scientific\n\npoint of view.\n\nThe shop practice is a very incidental feature.\n\nclear, then, that the\n\nIt is\n\nmanual-training high school or secondary technical\n\nschool, if it is to occupy its proper place between these two extremes, should\n\nplace far more emphasis than at present upon applied science instruction.\n\nShop practice should be kept, as at present, much more important than it\nis in\n\n—or at least of\n—^both in emphasis and in allotment of time, should be the\n\nthe engineering school; but of still greater importance\n\nequal importance\n\napplied science instruction.\n\nUnder this heading of applied science instruction, I would include not\netc., but new\nThey should begin at the beginning of\n\nthe usual types of college preparatory physics, chemistry,\ncourses of a totally different type.\n\nthe first year and continue thruout all four years.\n\nIn general, they should\n\noccupy, I believe, at least one-third of the entire time in the curriculum.\n\nEvery individual in practical life, especially if he is engaged in any kind of\nwork related to industry, would profit by some definite ideas regarding the\ncommon everyday effects of forces. From the two or three simple laboratory exercises usually given in the college preparatory course of physics,\n\nperformed on trivial apparatus, and with nothing to suggest the practical\napplications of the principles involved, the pupil gains but little real information.\n\nHe does not understand that the slight cord or suspension rod and\nmay be replaced by the cables and\n\nthe delicate scale band and weights\n\nsteel girders, the massive loads of real structures.\n\nhim most abstract and often meaningless.\ntical arts high school, who\n\nThe exercises appear to\n\nTherefore, for pupils in the prac-\n\nmay never have an opportunity to study applied\n\nscience in higher institutions of learning, there should be provided instead\nlaboratories filled with all kinds of simple belted and geared machines with\n\npulleys and shafting, with jackscrews and hoisting tackle, with large-sized\n\nworking models of actual working structures, such as cranes and derricks\nand shear legs, with models of arches and girders and bridge trusses, etc.\nThese should be large enough to inspire the respect of high-school boys and\nstrong enough to permit their being loaded with weights of respectable\n\nmagnitude.\n\nThe mechanics of moving bodies, and the relation of motion to the\nWhen we consider the extent\nto which modern civilization is dependent upon machinery and motion,\n\nforces which cause it, are equally important.\n\nthere is no need of argument to\n\nshow the importance of this feature of\n\nscience instruction in the practical arts school.\n\nequipped with suitable\n\nfull-sized\n\nLaboratories should be\n\napparatus to demonstrate the driving\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": "581", "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\n58\n\nforces on shafting and gears, belt tensions, speed changes, the use of the\n\nflywheel and of unbalanced moving parts, brake forces for stopping machinery, the time, limit required for getting it\n\nunder way again, the forces\n\ninvolved due to the inertia of matter, and ideas of work, energy, power, and\nefficiency.\n\nAll these principles should be made very definite and clear and\n\ntheir everyday applications to the common things in life and in industry\n\nwith which the boys are familiar should be illustrated again and again until\nthey are thoroly understood.\n\nThe applied science instruction in the practical arts high school, however, should not be limited to the study of mechanics and dynamics.\n\nIt\n\nshould include also the strength and properties of materials, their origin,\ntheir history, their manufacture, and all their useful properties.\n\ntake up pumps, water motors, and hydraulics;\n\nit\n\nIt should\n\nshould also include the\n\nmechanism of machinery, steam generation and steam boilers, heating and\nventilation, gas engines and air compressors.\nThere should also be practical\nstudy of dynamos, motors, transformers, telephones, wireless equipment,\netc., and the practical applications of chemistry in common chemical\nindustries.\n\nOf course, I do not mean that these topics should be studied with the\nsame kind of thoroness with which they are taken up in the engineering\ncolleges.\nLatin and economics are studied in the university but they are\nalso studied in the high school.\n\nThe school of practical arts or secondary\n\nschool of applied science should, in like fashion, take\n\nup the technical\n\nsubjects which are of such far-reaching importance in modern civilization,\nsimplify them, and adapt them to the needs of secondary-school pupils.\n\nTo make the typical practical arts high school of the present day into\na thoroly efficient secondary school of applied science, therefore, the following changes are, I believe, essential:\nFirst:\n\nAll foreign language\n\nmust be dropped, because it develops\n\nmemory rather than inductive reasoning and constructive imagination;\nbecause it means dissipating energy over too many different kinds of unrelated subjects in place of gaining efficiency by concentration upon a few;\n\nand because the time devoted to it is needed for applied science and\ntechnical instruction which is more directly in line with the purpose\nof the school and which connects more directly with the after-life of\nthe boys.\n\nSecond:\n\nThe practical arts school should absolutely disregard college-\n\nentrance requirements and the kind of textbook study and methods of.\ninstruction which we are in the habit of associating with college-entrance\n\nwork and with ordinary high-school teaching. The instruction should be\nalmost exclusively given by the laboratory method.\nThird:\n\nCare should be taken to see that only such boys are admitted\n\nto the school as have some reasonable likelihood of entering occupations\ndirectly or indirectly related to industry after they leave the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": "582", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n582\n\n[Vocational\n\nThe school day should be lengthened in order to provide time\nnew types of laboratory work and more constructive drawing and\n\nFourth:\nfor\n\ndesign.\nFifth:\n\nThe time\n\nschedule and the curriculum should be divided\n\nsubstantially as follows:\n\nOne recitation and one double laboratory period every day during the\nentire four years should be devoted to applied science and its applications\n\nto the various departments of industry.\n\nAt least a double period every\n\nday should be devoted to shop practice and drawing, and, in the latter part\nof the course, even more time should be found for constructive drawing\nand genuine design. The balance of the time should be divided among\nEnglish, history, economics, and pure and applied mathematics.\nSixth: The backbone of the school curriculum, the thing that gives it\nits prime interest, power, and vitality, should become the applied science\n\nand the applied science laboratory. // is not the actual doing of things\nnearly so much as it is the discovery of the ^'whys^^ that underlie industry that\nIt should be the aim of the school to fit its\ngives fascination and interest.\ngraduates for the subordinate positions of responsibility in industry, for\nthe positions of the \"non-commissioned officer,\" as the engineering schools\nfit\n\nmen to become \"captains\" of industry.\n\nThe spirit of the entire cur-\n\nriculum should be that of experimentation and investigation, trial and test,\nas a necessary foundation for economic production of surpassing excellence\n\nand efficiency.\n\n•\n\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION—ITS TERMINOLOGY\nCARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nI do not think it will be expected that such a paper as this shall extend\n\nto great length.\n\nNeither do I hope that any definitions set forth will have\n\nthe finish and quality which might be expected of the lexicographer.\n\nI shall\n\nhope, however, that the classifications and distinctions may, in general, be\n\naccepted as sound.\n\nI shall be contented to let time and the polishing effect\n\nof use establish their verbal form.\n\nto\n\nIn beginning the discussion, it seems necessary to pay some attention\nsome terms which are frequently misused either in connection with\n\nvocational education or in common speech.\n\nManual Training is often spoken of as tho it were vocational education,\nand many persons seem to think that vocational education consists in\nmanual training. Manual training is the name properly given in nonvocational schools to those exercises which involve the use of the hand.\nManual training gives some hand skill in the use of hand tools as used in\nconstruction and in the arts of representation;\neducational,\n\nand any\n\nskill\n\nthus attained\n\nis\n\nbut its purpose is purely\n\nincidental.\n\nThe training is\n\nintended to give a better all-round development of the brain and the other\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": "583", "text": "VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—ITS TERMINOLOGY\n\nDepartment]\n\n583\n\nbodily organs and is not intended to prepare for, or lead to, any particular\n\nemployment or vocation in which hand skill is required.\nIndustrial Education is sometimes vocational and sometimes nonvocational.\nSpeaking here of that which is non-vocational, such training\nusually involves a considerable amount of manual training of various kinds\nit also deals with other processes and information relating to, or dealing\nwith, industries.\nSuch training may serve merely to make the student\ngenerally intelligent or more intelligently interested in industry, or it may\nserve to show him whether he has taste for such employment and such\nability in this direction that it seems advisable to choose some special part\nBut such industrial training is not intended and\nof that field as a vocation.\ndoes not serve to fit the student for any particular employment or vocation.\nVocational Education is to fit and train students for particular vocations\nor employments, usually to be followed as a means of livelihood.\nSome\nkinds of vocational education have long been recognized as a proper part\nof an educational system.\n\nProfessional Vocational Education has long been carried on in the uni-\n\nand professional schools in fitting doctors, lawyers, theologians,\nand engineers for their future careers. Architects, artists, and musicians\nenjoy these same advantages.\n\nversities\n\nCommercial Vocational Education has now been completely recognized\n\nCommerce among us is easily separated into two parts\n\nas necessary.\n\nthat which deals with exchanges of products and values, and that which\n\nOur secondary\nand higher schools in thousands of cities train students for commercial\nvocations. Our high schools have so far concerned themselves chiefly with\ntraining for the recording of commercial exchanges and transactions; they\nsend out competent stenographers, bookkeepers, and cashiers. Our higher\nschools also give ample education in the organization of commerce, the\nsources of its materials, and the conduct of its exchanges and transactions.\nIndustrial Vocational Education is a newer and more recently recoghas to do with recording those exchanges or transactions.\n\nnized responsibility of the schools.\n\nUntil within a generation or two, this\n\nkind of education was given at the forge, the workbench, the loom, the\npotter's wheel.\n\nthe situation\n\n;\n\nIt is not necessary to discuss the causes of the change in\nsuffice it to\n\nsay that today few deny the necessity or the\n\npracticability of giving to our youth in schools that education and training\n\nwhich are necessary to make them competent and skilled to enter industrial\ntrades and vocations.\n\nTrade Education is the first form of industrial vocational education\nwhich claims attention. To some extent this education is still being given\nin shops\n\nand industrial establishments, where, by the time-honored plan\n\nof having the apprentice trained by the journeyman or the master-workman,\n\nor partly by this plan and partly by schools or classes within the establish-\n\nment for the education of their apprentices, the mysteries and the practices\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": "584", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n584\n\nof the craft are imparted;\n\n[Vocational\n\nbut conditions are such that the trade school,\n\nas a part of the public educational system, daily looms more important.\n\nbeen sufficiently demonstrated that trades both for men and for\nwomen can be imparted in a thoroly effective manner in well-conducted\ntrade schools. The apprentice-students sent out are entirely competent to\n\nIt has\n\ntake up the work of the craft as beginning journeymen.\n\nThere is no doubt\n\nthat an increasing proportion of trade education will be given in trade\nschools.\n\nOccupational Education is that training for certain work or certain opera-\n\nwhich are not extensive or comprehensive enough to\nand yet for which training within their\nlimited scope is necessary if the worker is to do well and prove a valuable\nand satisfactory employee. Training of this kind will ordinarily be most\nadvantageously given in the plant where the worker is employed and where\nhe is to be used. Training to perform a single process in manufacture, or\na few simple connected processes, or to handle a machine or two or three\nrelated machines, is no complex or difficult problem; yet as trades are more\nbroken up, and the work and the processes in manufacturing plants are\nmore and more subdivided and specialized, and as more and more men are\nrelegated to spend their time upon a single or a few processes, these little\nfragments of vocational training will become increasingly important and\nnecessary, and, tho some of this teaching may constitute proper subjectmatter for continuation school work, most good-sized plants at least will\nno doubt find it advantageous to do it within their own walls.\nAgricultural Education is a form of industrial vocational education that\neach day assumes more importance. Formerly, like the mechanical trades,\nit was taught by a system of apprenticeship, informal, but not very different,\ntions or processes\n\nconstitute a trade or vocation,\n\nin essence, from apprenticeship in the trades.\n\nSchools of agriculture, pri-\n\nmary and secondary, are turning the occupation of the farmer into a skilled\nhandicraft, involving a far greater modicum of scientific knowledge than\nmost handicrafts; while higher schools of agriculture are training men as\nscientifically and extensively as for the heretofore recognized learned\nprofessions.\n\nPre-vocational Education is a term which has had very queer and varied\nuses.\n\nCorrectly\n\nspeaking,\n\nany education received before undertaking\n\nspecific training for a vocation, in the elementary school, the high school,\n\nthe college, is pre-vocational education.\n\nIndustrial education, taken to\n\nobtain an understanding of the field of industrial vocations and to permit\nthe student to decide whether he will select such a vocation, perhaps properly\n\nmight be called pre-vocational. Certainly if this training should be found\nan asset, advancing the student on the way to a vocation, it would be\nsuch. In many instances, a plan by which dull or troublesome pupils\nare separated from their mates and allowed to putter with tools to amuse\nthem and perhaps keep them in school has been called by this name.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": "585", "text": "VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—ITS TERMINOLOGY\n\nDepartment]\n\n585\n\nSince this work has no definite purpose and leads to nothing concrete\nserving generally the purpose of busy-work\n\ngiven particularly to such a plan\n\nis\n\n—the term \"pre-vocational\"\n\nclearly misapplied.\n\nIn numerous\n\ninstances, the term \"pre-vocational\" has been applied to schools or classes\nof elementary grade where pupils were receiving specific training for particular employment or jobs which they wished to get, or for which certain\n\nclasses of employers wished to get them.\n\nOf course, such training could\n\nnot in any case be in any real sense vocational, since such preparation could\n\nbe only for certain operations or processes or tasks, never for any real\n\nA more proper term would be \"pre-occupational,\" since the\n\nvocation.\n\neffect of this training could be only to relieve the future employer of such\n\nsmall training for the particular tasks, in preparation for work in his establishment, as would otherwise be necessary, and to render this child labor\n\nmore immediately profitable to him; such training should certainly not be\nallowed to encroach upon the time and the studies of the elementary school.\nContinuation Education becomes necessary when young people leave\nschool prematurely to become wage-earners. Hundreds of thousands of\nthem do so yearly, few with adequate preparation for the duties of life\neither in the way of general knowledge and intelligence or in preparation\nfor any vocation.\nFrom the nature of the situation, then, there must be\nboth Non-vocational Continuation Education and Vocational Continuation\n\n—\n\nEducation.\nNon-vocational Continuation Education\n\nis\n\nconcerned with making up\n\narrears in general education and in completing the equipment necessary for\n\ngood citizenship.\nVocational Continuation Edttcation deals first with Trcuie Continuation\n\nEducation.\n\nMany young men who are apprentices or journeymen come into\n\nthese schools to advance themselves in knowledge of their trade, both in\n\n—the drawing, mathematics, and science%hich apply to\n—and also in various special processes and the use of certain tools\n\ncollateral knowledge\n\nthe trade\n\nwhich they are delayed in reaching or cannot get in their own shops.\nAgain, many youths wish to leave the job into which they have fallen,\nand numbers of these will take advantage of the continuation school to\nbegin work in the acquisition of a trade which they desire to take up.\nContinuation Occupational Education of industrial character is certain\nto have a very large place.\n\nMany of the smaller establishments cannot very\n\nand numerous larger establishments will not, do the teaching and\ncoaching which these young workers need, either to improve their earning\npower in their present positions or to fit them for promotion to better jobs.\nwell,\n\nFor these the continuation school offers the best opportunity.\nCommercial Continuation Education will be greatly in demand. This is\nneeded to assist to better training stenographers, bookkeepers, salesmen, and\nsaleswomen; also in helping into these, which may be considered real vocations, those youths who are working at mere \"jobs\" in which there is little\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": "586", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n586\n\n[VocaUonal\n\nhope of future advancement. There is room also for occupational commercial work. Help can be given to those who are merely holding jobs to\nmake them more efficient in their jobs or able to be advanced into better\njobs.\n\nProfessional Continuation Education will be needed and demanded.\n\nNo\n\nsmall number of young persons have aspirations to enter the professions\n\neven tho at present they are in conomercial or industrial vocations or merely\nholding jobs.\n\nThe continuation schools offer to all those who have courage\n\nand perseverance an open door, out and up.\nVocational Guidance cannot be far separated from vocational education.\nInformation about occupations must be placed at the service of boys and\ngirls and their parents to help them judge which vocations are worth enter-\n\nInformation as to the boy himself may very well be supplied to him\nand to his parents, so that they may better decide which occupation he will\nbe wise to choose. Such information and counsel are greatly needed also\nby those young people who have merely obtained jobs and need to choose\nand begin to prepare themselves for occupations or vocations which hold\nout some reasonable hope of future growth and advancement.\ning.\n\nTHE PLACE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN A RATIONAL\nSCHOOL SYSTEM\nARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA COUNCIL OF\nEDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nTime was when a discussion of the place of industrial education in a\nrational school system would have been attempted by anyone laying claims\n\nto an educational philosophy or posing as an expert.\n\nToday one pauses\nand\n\nto ask the question as to what constitutes a rational school system\n\nwhat industrial education comprehends.\nEducation as a science is every day moving forward. Discussion, however, moves in cycles.\nToday we have before us, in another form, the same\nquestion that confronted this department seventeen years ago at the Mil-\n\nwaukee meeting. Today we find ourselves in need of clear definitions as\nwe did then. That we are moving forward is shown by the fact that the\ndefinitions of seventeen years ago do not square with the needs and practices of today.\n\nThe National Council of Education has, within a day or two, considered\nthe relation of the cultural to the practical.\n\nA rational school system is,\n\n—not mechanical but\n\npractical.\nThe thing which\nhas not and cannot have a direct relation to the life at school or the life\n\nin the best sense, practical\n\n^\n\nfollowing school is not practical.\nin the best sense, is cultural.\nculture.\n\nThat which is practical, that is, useful\n\nUse, in some form or another, determines\n\nThere can be no separation of the two.\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": "587", "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN A SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\n587\n\nA rational school system must fit for life. To do this it must be life\nA rational school system is one that, when-\n\nand reflect life, here and now.\n\never a pupil leaves it, will send him out into the world able to utilize, to\n\nthe extent of his capacity, that which he has learned.\n\nThe school system\n\nthat is so organized as to give to its pupils that which can be used only if\n\nthey pass into an advanced school, grade, or year is not cultural.\nIndustrial education is practical education.\n\nWork that is offered as\n\nand that does not serve truly useful ends is not industrial.\nIndeed, much of our so-called manual training, manual arts, or industrial\nindustrial,\n\neducation is not industrial.\n\nIt is given either with a view to fit the par-\n\nticipant later to engage in similar work of a more difficult nature or with\n\nthe idea that\n\nsomehow the doing of the mechanical thing gets into the\n\nhuman system and becomes part of it. It circulates thru the individual\nmuch as the blood circulates and becomes part of the warp and woof of\nthe mental and moral make-up.\n\nIt supplies that\n\nwhich \"book larnin\"\n\ncannot supply, and by thus supplementing the \"whole boy\n\nis\n\nput to\n\nschool.\"\n\nTruth to tell, there can be no rational system of education without\nJust as history and geography and mathematics\nmust be stripped of their outward forms, their technicalities, their husks,\nand attention given the fundamentals and worth-while parts, so in indusindustrial education.\n\n\"Canned\" education has long held the center of the\n\"Canned\" manual training is as deadening to any school system\nas is the memorizing of the names of the bones in the human body, the\ntrial\n\neducation.\n\nstage.\n\nbattles of the Revolutionary War, or in having upon the tongue's end the\nrule for least common multiple or greatest common divisor.\n\nNo school system can be rational that does not comprehend in its\nmake-up, from kindergarten to college, real forms of industrial education.\nFor boys, there must be working in wood and clay and leather and metal,\nnot working with these materials.\n\nFor girls the home economics group of\n\nsubjects offers much greater opportunities for culture than does much of\n\nthe work now given in the traditional lines.\nIndustrial work must be given in the lower grades.\n\nNo place or time\n\nBoth place and time if much that is now required is eliminated.\nThis elimination is not simply for the purpose of making room for something\nelse, but because no system can be rational when cumbered by the outgrown\nand useless.\nMany of us are still emphasizing so-called educational manual training,\nrather than real industrial education. To be educational we say the work\nmust proceed in logical steps. It must merge gradually from the simple to\nthe complex and allow for one exercise to follow another in regular order.\nNo complete object may be attempted until the boy can saw to a line and\nfit a joint perfectly; until the girl has shown by a completed sample that\nshe has mastered all the stitches she will be called upon to use. This is on\nfor it?\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": "588", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nSSS\n\n[Vocational\n\nthe theory that before a child can read a sentence he must be able to repeat\nthe alphabet, or that before he can tell how many sticks of chocolate at\nfive cents\n\neach can be bought for a dime, he must be able to recite the\n\nmultiplication table forward and backward.\n\nWe need, in industrial education, the real thing, not the exercise or part\nThe child must not simply make; he must make something.\n\nof the thing.\n\nWe must hitch the work up with life-processes, with out-of-school activities,\nwith other school subjects. We need to consult the needs and bent of the\n\n—industrial,\n\nboy, the opportunities of the individual home, the conditions\n\neconomic, social, commercial, of the community.\n\nWe need to stop teaching subjects.\n\nlong look.\n\nWe need to take the\nWe need to teach boys\n\nand girls.\nThis means that a rational school system must be vocationalized.\ndoes not mean it is to be commercialized or made mechanical.\n\nThis\n\nIt does not\n\nmean that coin is pushed to the king row and culture given a setback.\nmeans that there was never, as much as today, a need for real culture.\n\nIt\nIt\n\nmeans that culture and accomplishment cannot be on opposite sides of the\neducational arena. It means that all boys and girls and all men and\n\nwomen are to be taught the dignity of doing worth-while things, of earning\nhonestly their bread and meat, and of attaching due importance to those\nfiner, richer qualities of life\n\nliterature\n\nthat come only with a thoro appreciation of\n\nand science and art and music.\n\nA rational school system is\n\nindustrial.\n\nDISCUSSION\nG. W. A. LucKEY, dean, Graduate School of Education, University of Nebraska,\nIt may seem questionable to have an outsider break into this council\nof specialists. However, when we consider that we are all teachers with our hearts set\nupon the highest service, and that our special problem is the best development of individuals who are to form a constituent part of a democracy, we are not so far apart in our\nfunctioning as we may seem. Earnest men and women searching for the truth have\nLincoln, Nebr.\n\n—\n\nmany things in common.\n\nHe who believes in the idea of service must learn to sacrifice\n\nself when that is essential to the highest service.\n\nOur present school system is disappointing and is breaking up.\n\nIt does not meet\n\nthe needs of a democracy; neither was it established for such a purpose.\n\nIn education\n\nfrom the first we have been borrowers of European models. We have reached a stage\nwherein we are able to walk alone and to create a public-school system which shall represent the highest expression of a true democracy. Such a system does not now exist, but\nwhy should a democracy accept as its ideal a system of education created to supply the\nneeds of an empire where individuality is unknown and class distinction an essential part\nof the civilization ?\n\nWe are ready to begin the building of this new system of education—one fitted to all\n\nthe common needs of a common people.\n\nIt must be worked out in harmony with the\n\nnatural evolution of the individual, be well-rounded, complete, progressive, fitted at\n\nevery stage to the developing instincts.\n^\n\nThe aim of the teacher in a democracy must be to make men and women, not machines\nMuch of our present education tends to fit a man to know and to do\n\nor automatons.\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": "589", "text": "THE NEED FOR SCHOOLS OF APPLIED ART\n\nDepartment]\n\nbut a small part of any trade or industry.\n\n589\n\nThis is a narrowing process and undermines\nBesides, it contains a lurking danger that must\n\nthe very foundation of a true education.\n\nin the end defeat the real purposes of a democracy.\n\nWe must not forget that the boys and girls we teach today will rule us tomorrow.\nOur aim must be individual development rather than efficiency. Efficiency means\nhabits of skill, desirable, no doubt, in an adult. But habits mean fixed conditions, hence\nan enemy to progress and true development. In a democracy where every member has\nan equal voice in shaping the policy, we need a broader education than is necessary in\nthose countries where the few think and legislate for the many.\n\nWe have neglected in our schools much of the practical and have given a supposed\nWe have awakened from our slumbers.\n\ncultural that did not, and does not, function.\n\nSome say we must establish separate schools, which, of course, will, in time, bring about\nclass distinctions.\n\nOthers feel that it is wiser, at least during the elementary period, to\n\nhave a common education for all. But, in the latter case, there must be a radical change\nin both the method and the material. It may be that the new system will incorporate\nso much of the industrial that it will be difficult to distinguish it from the present vocational.\nNevertheless it will be adapted to the growing needs and development of the\nindividual and have for its chief aim the making of men men who are self-sustaining,\nself-directing, thoroly imbued with the dynamic idea of service.\nIn my judgment, the new school will relate more closely the practical and the cultural, making greater use of the three important stages of education: informal, formal, and\nthe broader, richer, and more dynamic informal. The last covers the true vocational\nperiod of man's constructive life work.\nThe informal education which for centuries has been acquired mostly thru the\nvarious activities of the home has become so complex that it can no longer be so acquired.\nBesides specialization has made such changes in our social life that the children no longer\nsee in the home the activities once engaged in by the parents. The schools must there-\n\n—\n\nfore\n\ncome to the aid of the home in finding a way to place the child in touch with his\n\nsocial inheritance at the time when it will be most easily acquired.\n\nThese fundamental things necessary to the development of character and education, stated briefly, are:\n\ngardening, care of the body, cooking, cleaning, sewing, weaving,\n\nknitting, molding, modeling; constructive work with leaves, paper, cloth, leather, wood,\n\nmetal;\n\nobservation trips, care of animals, acting or dramatizing, story-telling, playing,\n\ndrawing, painting, singing, etc.\n\nThese activities may be greatly enlarged and should be\nFormal\n\ntaken up before, and continued along with, the second step, or formal education.\n\neducation should lead naturally into the purposive, constructive, vocational activity of\nafter life.\n\nThere should be one school for all at least for the first eight years; then there\n\nshould be diflferentiation into the different activities which are to fashion the individuals\n\nmore specifically for their life work.\n\nTHE NEED IN AMERICA FOR SCHOOLS OF APPLIED ART AND\nTHE NECESSITY IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES FOR ART\nLEADERS AND DESIGNERS OF THE HIGHEST GRADE\nMAURICE I. FLAGG, DIRECTOR, MINNESOTA STATE ART COMMISSION,\nST.\n\nGerman\n\nexports\n\n$2,000,000,000.\nfor its\n\n— 1913—^amounted approximately to\n\none year\n\nFifty per cent of this export was dependent upon \" beauty\"\n\nmarket value.\n\nUnited States.\n\nin\n\nPAUL, MINN.\n\nA large proportion of this export came to the\n\nThis is the chief reason why America needs schools of\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": "590", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n590\n\n[Vocational\n\napplied art and why American industries need art leaders and designers of\nthe highest grade.\n\nThere have been coming into this country, for years past, certain trademarks \"Made in Germany,\" \"Made in France,\" \"Made in Sweden.\"\nThese trademarks are doubly significant. They accompany products which\nare not only good in quality, but also good in design. American people\nhave had faith in these products. The trademarks have carried a guaranty\n\n—\n\nof beauty, as well as of usefulness.\n\nWhat are we doing in the United States to meet this American demand\nfor \"export beauty products\"\ndifiicult.\n\nThe\n\nlatest\n\nfrom other countries?\n\nThp answer is not\n\ntrade review says that American manufacturers\n\ncannot compete with the foreign-made products.\nnot altogether optimistic.\n\nThis trade report\n\nis\n\nIt adds that here in this country we have not\n\nthe workmen sufficiently trained to put into our products the very thing\n\nwhich has given intrinsic value\n\nmade products.\n\n—dollars-and-cents value—to the foreign-\n\nCurrent trade reports say that it would be folly, in fact,\n\ndangerous, to adopt at the present time any such slogan as\n\n\"Made in\n\nAmerica.\"\n\nWe have come to recognize that beauty is an economic resource of\nGermany, France, and Sweden. In fact, most of the European nations have\na national and industrial asset of beauty. This beauty is bringing millions\nof dollars into the coffers of European kingdoms, and, strange as it may\nseem, a large part of this financial tribute is being paid by good American\nmoney.\nForty years ago, directly following the Franco-Prussian war, Germany\n\nawakened to the fact that France was leading the world in the industrial\narts, and that these industrial arts were netting for the French government\none of its largest financial revenues.\n\nIn forty years* time, Germany has\n\nperfected an industrial art program and has put this program into operation\n\nwith such marked efficiency that she now leads the world in the industrial\narts and their relation to manufacture.\n\nWhy is it that a German crafts-\n\nman can take a piece of wood, carve a toy soldier, make a \"monkey-on-astick,\" in fact,\n\nmake a mechanical toy better than workmen of other\n\nIt is because the German craftsman not only has been trained\nto adjust perfectly the mechanical arrangement of the \" monkey-on- the\n\nnations ?\n\nstick,\" but he also puts \"art\" into the painting of the monkey's gay coat.\n\nHe uses \"art\" in the carving of the grotesque little figure.\n\"To do anything well,\" says the German, \"it requires training, and the\none who most needs the training is the one who does the work.\"\n\nIt is for\n\nthis reason that the German government has provided trade schools, con-\n\ntinuation schools, and industrial art schools to train boys and girls, in fact,\nto train anyone who has ambition enough to knock at the front door of a\n\ntrade school and ask admittance.\n\nThe result of this well-organized system\n\nof industrial art and its relation to manufacture is the answer to Germany's\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": "591", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE NEED FOR SCHOOLS OF APPLIED ART\n\nindustrial success.\n\n591\n\nThis close co-operation between manufacturer and the\n\ntrade school has produced captains of industry with \"art sense.\"\n\nThese\n\nmen go out into the industrial world, not only as leaders of industry, but\nas men who understand how to achieve the maximum economic value of\nGermany's resources.\nIf I seem insistent upon the problem of industrial art in Germany, it\nis because I am trying to point out to you what we here in America have\nnot done. This industrial organization in Germany is a living example of\nwhat can be accomplished. It does not require one hundred years to put\nsuch a plan into operation, provided there enters into the plan a nation-\n\nwide spirit of co-operation.\n\nRight here has been one of our chief obstacles\n\nWe have not had a definite program. Those of us who\nhave had to do with art problems are not wholly to blame. We have had\nsome very strong and potent forces that have not been wholly in sympathy\nwith our \"art point of view.\" Let us look for a moment at conditions in\nin this country.\n\nthis country.\n\nLet us see if there is a demand for art schools.\n\nthe problem of supply and demand.\n\nLet us study\n\nLet us look at the art phase of industry\n\nfrom an economic point of view.\nWe have had in this country for a number of years past three powerful\nforces, each one more or less diametrically opposed to the other.\nFirst,\nwe have the public busy in a mad whirl for the almighty dollar, content for\nthe most part with what the manufacturer produces ^with the exception\n\n—\n\nAny manufacturer will tell you his production is governed\nHe says he has not\ntime to \"educate the public taste.\" Second, we have the manufacturer.\nHe is concerned primarily with meeting the demand. His is a problem of\nproduction, and a production very often lacking in quality. He is concerned\nof the price.\n\nessentially by price and that the public is to blame.\n\nchiefly with machine-made products, and all of us know that the machine-\n\nmade product has stifled the opportunities which were formerly afforded\nindividual expression.\n\nHow can any art be possible under such conditions ?\n\nThird, we have a little group of workers who have adopted ideals of honest\nefficiency, and beauty.\nThey are willing to meet the\ndemands of the public, but their art product cannot compete with the\nmachine-made article. What is more, they say the public does not appreciate and will not pay their price.\nThese workers are craftsmen who have\nstood fast and fought for their ideals, and, in the face of overwhelming\nodds, this small dynamic force has worked wonders with the manufacturer,\nthe consumer, and the public taste.\nNow in view of these conditions, I want you to remember that there\nis a demand on the part of the American public, and I have only to refer\nyou to export products from other countries to point out clearly that the\nAmerican people spend vast sums of money yearly to enjoy the beauty of\n\nworkmanship,\n\nthis foreign-made product.\n\nIt seems to me that this is a conclusive argu-\n\nment for schools of applied art and art leaders of the highest grade.\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": "592", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n592\n\n(Vocational\n\nHow shall we ever realize and put into operation a plan for the relation\nof art to American industry ?\n\nIs it possible for us to demonstrate that art\n\nhas a practical application and an economic value ?\n\nShall we continue to\n\nCan\nwe put into practice an industrial-art program whose scope shall be so\nestablish art schools, art museums, art societies, art commissions?\n\ngreat that it will reach out into the towns, cities, and conmiunities and\n\ntouch the lives of our American people ?\n\nWhen an art program is made effective, it will come from a demand\non the part of the public. It is a problem of supply and demand. If we\nhave not a demand, it is folly to advocate art. It sounds too much\nlike \"Art for Art's Sake.\"\nThis is hardly consistent with our presentday machine-made products. \"'Art for Art's Sake' is the most delightful occupation under the sun,\" says Denman Ross.\nHe adds, however,\nthat \"it is the meanest business on earth.\" My frank and honest\nbelief is that we have a demand.\nBut something very radical must be\ndone in order to bring our art schools and programs of applied art into\ncloser contact with, into a more definite working relation to, the American\nmanufacturer.\n\nMany of our art schools in America at the present time are specialized\ninstitutions.\n\nA student is privileged to study this, that, and the other\nThe result is that he goes out from an\n\nthing, according to his desire.\n\nart school as a specialist, without having had sufficient training in the subject of design.\n\nWe have thought too little about design.\n\nIt has\n\nbeen\n\nclassified as one of the decorative arts and is often considered as a minor\n\nI think it is not too much to say that design is the general background\n\nart.\n\nfor the industrial-art program of\n\nGermany.\n\nOur schools of applied art,\n\n—I object to\n\nyes, in fact, our schools of fine art\nfine and applied art\n\n—should be more closely\n\nneeds a general tonic.\n\nthis distinction between\n\nrelated.\n\nEvery art student\n\nHe needs a building-up process, and this is only\n\nacquired by a definite and substantial training in design.\nIt is said that most of the students at fourteen years of age, in the Ger-\n\nman industrial art schools, can draw, model, and design better than many\nof our drawing supervisors in this country.\n\nThis is really something for\n\nleaders in the schools of applied art to think about.\n\nAmerican manu-\n\nfacturers are in urgent need of designers, men and women trained in the\npractical arts\n\n—men and women who can create, who can make, who can\n\nsupply, and who can originate ideas.\ngeneral educational program.\n\nWe need more creative work in our\n\nI do not think\n\nit is sufiScient\n\nto teach a\n\nTechnic is only a means to the\nIf a student can create, can visualize, can design, and then put into\n\nstudent to make a piece of furniture well.\nend.\n\npractice this creative effort, then and only then has he begun to realize\n\nthe true meaning of applied art.\nIf there is\n\nany hope for applied art in this country, we must combat\nWe must\nlife.\n\nthe general impression that art is apart from everyday\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": "593", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE NEED FOR SCHOOLS OF APPLIED ART\n\ndemonstrate.\n\nWe must prove conclusively that art is practical, that it has\n\n593\n\na doUars-and-cents value, that it is an economic resource.\nIt is well for us to look to Germany and study her trade schools, her\n\nvocational trade schools, and to see clearly the relation between these\nschools\n\nand Germany's industry.\n\nThe interesting part of the industrial\n\nart training provided in Germany is that not only are her workmen trained\nefficiently,\n\nbut they are given a background of theory and practice which\n\nproduces a substantial sturdy German citizen.\n\nNow what we need in this country more than anything else is a general\nprogram.\n\nThe trouble is that each community, trying to meet its own\n\nindividual needs, seldom realizes\n\nwhat its real needs are.\n\nWe need co-\n\nwe need a community, a city, a state, a national program. The\npublic needs to feel this program, it needs to experience in its own life\nthe desire for better and more beautiful things. The manufacturer demands\noperation;\n\n—he needs\n\nsuch a program and needs assistance\n\nGermany has realized that beauty\n\n—\n\nreasons briefly\n\n^better\n\ninterest, civic pride\n\n—\n\nis\n\nit badly.\n\nan economic resource.\n\nhouses, better towns, better\n\n^better people, better\n\nproducts.\n\ncities,\n\nShe\n\ncommunity\n\nIt is primarily\n\nan\n\nart problem.\nI am not going to submit a program, altho I have one very clearly in\n\nI am going to forecast, briefly, what I think should be done.\n\nmind.\n\nA\n\nNational Institute of Art and Industry should be the clearing-house of\nthis educational program.\n\n(This is not, by the way, a new idea.)\n\nstate should supplement this national institution\n\nEach\nby institutions of the\n\nsame character devoted to the exploitation of their own resources along\nart lines.\nA State Commission of Art should be active in each state to\nrender assistance and encouragement. This commission should be the\nstate clearing-house.\nThese industrial art and trade schools should reach\nout into the cities and towns and supplement the program of the public\nschools.\n\nStudents should be made to feel that whatever jirt study they\n\n—\n\nand\nwhere vocations\ncan be acquired whose backgrounds will be those of industry and beauty.\nAmerican industry requires this program. The manufacturers demand\nthe\nit. .There is such a school, I am told, planned for Minneapolis\n\npursue can be carried on thru higher institutions\ntrade schools\n\n—and\n\nstate, industrial,\n\nfinally thru this national institution,\n\n—\n\nDunwoody Institute.\nCan you not see how such a program in co-operation with manufacturers\nand trades unions, the producers and consumers, will produce leaders who\nwill more fully understand and grasp the needs of the employees— who\nOur programs for\nwill realize the maximum possibilities of our resources ?\ncivic\n\nbeauty and civic righteousness will be far more effective.\n\nPublic\n\nparks and playgrounds will not come from private subscriptions, but a\ngreat public demand will arise for the \"beauty of life and living.\"\n\nA spirit\n\nof art industry will develop which can be fostered and made to compete\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": "594", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n594\n\nwith foreign-made products.\n\n[Vocational\n\nWe have been groping around without organi-\n\nzation, with little financial assistance, and with little or no encouragement\n\non the part of the nation or state.\n\nThere is at the present time an awakening in this country.\n\nam optimistic about this awakening.\n\nI,\n\nfor one,\n\nI feel confident it is going to produce\n\nOur American people are coming into a vision; they are realizing\nmore clearly the need for art industry in the future. We are beginning\nto understand that the beauty of life and living is primarily a problem of\n\nresults.\n\nefficiency.\n\nIt\nEfficiency means organized skill and systematized knowledge.\nmeans doing your work, whatever it is, just as well as it can be done. It\nmeans that, thru this work, whatever it is, the individual shall experience\nthe greatest amount of happiness ^beauty and that he shall not only\nexperience happiness but shall put beauty into his work. This is what has\nmade Germany industrially successful; this is what has made art an\n\n—\n\n—\n\neconomic resource, a doUars-and-cents problem, a practical application in\n\nmany foreign countries.\nWhen applied art in its relation to American industry can be made to\nfulfil\n\nthe greatest need of the greatest\n\nnumber of people, then art will\n\napproximate its true function.\n\nART APPRECIATION FOR THE MASSES\nROBERT KOEHLER, DIRECTOR, MINNEAPOLIS SCHOOL OF ART,\nMINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nIn spite of all that has been attempted in our country to raise education\nto a higher plane than it has been occupying for generations past, there is\n\nbut little apparent evidence that the appreciation of art has made any\nsubstantial gain when compared with conditions obtaining in other countries.\nBut this is neither strange nor so alarming as it would appear were we\nignorant of, or indifferent to, the fact.\n\nAny system of education, to be\n\nmust grow out of, and adjust itself to, existing conditions. It\nmust be both flexible and elastic and capable of absorbing the best that\neffective,\n\nforeign systems may offer\n\n—but\n\nit\n\nshould not everlastingly be subjected to\n\nfundamental principles.\n\nThis\n\nyou are no doubt aware, is all too common with us.\n\nFor\n\nexperimentation in the application of\npractice, as\n\nits\n\ninstance, the average child is fortunate if it passes thru school with fewer\n\nthan three ''systems\" of penmanship, without in any learning to hold\npen properly; and the present system in arithmetic seems to puzzle\n\nhis\n\npupil and teacher alike.\nIt is a pleasure, however, to turn from these unpleasant observations\n\nto that branch of study which has probably had the hardest struggle to\nassert itself, and which, after being merely tolerated for many years, has\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": "595", "text": "Department]\n\nART APPRECIATION FOR THE MASSES\n\n595\n\nbecome firmly established as an important factor in the normal\nThat is, the study of art. As long as\nschool boards were allowed to imagine that the aim of the advocates of art\nin the school curriculum was to make an artist of every child, it was not\nfinally\n\npursuit of a child's education.\n\nsurprising that a strong opposition should develop against its introduction\n\nor its retention.\n\nI trust and believe,\n\nis a thing of the past,\n\nhowever, that this false impression\n\nand that now the study of art has come to be recog-\n\nnized as an essential fundamental principle among the great problems of\n\nTo class the study of art among the so-called fads is to betray\nan utter lack of knowledge of its very nature and purport. The end is and\neducation.\n\nshould be the development of an appreciation of beauty, as the choicest\n\nblossom of civilization, which we are constantly endeavoring to elevate\n\nand diffuse, in order to insure its blessings to ever-increasing numbers.\nAs long as we allow this to be the privilege of a chosen few, we fail to\nadminister our trust justly and equitably. We are, indeed, guilty of\ndepriving a large percentage of our children of their natural birthright.\n\nWe should qualify them, as best we can, for the fullest enjoyment of\nlife's\n\nvaried possibilities.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nthe province of art to furnish the most\n\ndelightful part of such possibilities, but it is surprising to see what a vast\n\nnumber of people fail to recognize the true nature and the value to themselves of these same possibilities.\nIt\n\nwould be easy, and, therefore, scarcely necessary, to demonstrate\n\nthat the quest of beauty is inborn in man and becomes manifest in the\n\nmost primitive of peoples. But it is less frequently acknowledged that the\nnatural growth of its appreciation in our own community has remained\na little behind the times, owing to the want of proper and sufficient nourish-\n\nment during its formative stage. Still, the primeval longing has always\nexisted and has led to the adoption of rather modest standards in the\nbeginning, giving way gradually to higher ideals.\n\nIn the nature of things it cannot be expected that the highest ideals\nshould appeal, or even be intelligible, to the majority; that need not worry\nus, as long as the smaller number is not discouraged from aspiring to the\n\nnobler purpose.\n\nThe best that we can hope for is to encourage in the\n\nmasses the honest desire to cultivate the latent ability to appreciate beauty.\n\nAnd by beauty, in this connection, I mean not only the attribute that\ncharms the eye, but also that which appeals to our sense of hearing, and\nour capacity for purity and loftiness of thought.\n\nUpon a foundation thus\n\ncomposed it will not be difficult to rear a substantial structure of general\nart appreciation.\nTo bring this about, therefore, let us bend all our energies toward the creation of such a base.\nWe cannot begin with this too\nearly in life.\nIt is only the exceptional few, endowed with greater ability\nthan the rest, who might be allowed to proceed beyond this point, under\nconscientious guidance, lest they be encouraged to rear a flimsy superstructure that would not stand the test of candid criticism.\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": "596", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n596\n\n[Vocational\n\nIn our eagerness to do the best by our tender charges, there is always\nthe danger of overdoing it, of expecting more of them than the circumstances justify.\n\nThere is a tendency to try to make them understand the\n\ndeeper mysteries of the fine arts, instead of the beauty in practical things.\n\nWe are prone to forget that the fine arts represent the highest development\nof artistic creativeness, to understand and to produce which thousands of\n\nyears had to pass, leading mankind thru many stages of evolution, thru\n\nwhich, in a condensed form, the child's mind is likewise compelled to travel.\n\nAnd since there is also a striking analogy between the mind of childhood\nand the mind of the masses, it follows that the education of the latter should\nbe undertaken in much the same fashion, and we must, in fact, exercise\neven greater patience and careful circumspection in order to insure the\ndesired results.\nI\n\nam making no distinction here between the fine and applied arts, for\n\nat bottom I consider them the same, with this difference, however, that,\nas an educational factor, the applied arts are really of greater importance\nin the beginning.\n\nMany young people gain just enough artistic ability\n\nto make them fit for some profession in which this could be put to good\nuse.\n\nThey can become\n\nsign\n\npainters,\n\nexcellent\n\nlithographers,\n\ncommercial designers,\n\nshow-card writers, window decorators,\n\ncabinet-makers,\n\npotters, jewelers, supervisors of art departments in publishing houses and\n\nother establishments where their art knowledge will suffice to place them\nabove their fellow-workers. All these are very honorable and very desirable vocations, in which they can become exceeedingly useful members of\nsociety.\nIt seems to me worth while to try to find some way of making\nthese various callings appear more alluring to our young people of artistic\nleanings and to discourage nine-tenths of the boys from aspiring to become\n\"cartoonists\" and about the same percentage of girls from endeavoring\nto teach art! A beginning, I think, should be made in school by making\n\nthe children acquainted with the nature of these vocations and with the\nlife-stories of\n\nmen and women who excelled in their calling, just as they\n\nare now told about the deeds of great warriors who led thousands of men\nto slaughter and the great inventors of deadly machines that can kill many\nmore in less time! Nor should the stories of great poets and artists be\nallowed completely to obscure the lesson to be drawn from the achievements of the humbler craftsmen, of whom, after all, the great majority of\nour citizenship is composed, and who outrank in practical importance the\n\nlearned professions.\n\nBecause of this neglect, so many aspire to the learned\nwhile the ranks of our\n\nprofessions that the latter are nearly all overfilled;\n\nskilled craftsmen must be replenished from abroad.\n\nDo not worry about the girl and the boy of exceptional talent and\nThey too will require the same fundamental training, only\nmore of it, and their course of study will extend over many more years\naspiration!\n\nbefore they can expect to turn it to practical use.\n\nI\n\ndo not see wherein\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": "597", "text": "ART COURSES IN SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n597\n\ntheir earliest training need differ much from that of any other child, except\n\nthat they should always be encouraged to try to give expression to their\nideas, even while their means are limited and their methods awkward and\n\nimmature.\n\nIdeas in art should be constantly encouraged; the mind of a\n\nchild so inclined will naturally turn to literature for inspiration, so that a\n\nproper guidance into the right channel for reading will be very helpful.\n\nThe rest is a matter of time and perseverance on the part of the student,\nand wise counsel by an experienced teacher who will know when to let\na student alone.\n\nOne other factor, in general as well as in special art education, is still\nto be considered: the museum.\n\nIt is becoming more and more customary\n\nto establish public museums thruout the land and make them a means of\n\neducation for the entire community, the mature citizen as well as the\nchild.\n\nAs long as such public collections consist only of pictures and\n\nstatuary, their usefulness in this respect is, of course, limited to the few.\nIt is only when works of handicraft are included that they begin to appeal\n\nto a larger constituency and their great educational value becomes apparent.\n\nThis lesson has been brought home to me in our early exhibitions of the\n\nMinnesota Art Society, which was organized with the idea of bringing the\ncitizens of smaller towns into closer contact with art.\n\nThese exhibitions\n\nconsisted not only of pictures, but also of artistically designed furniture,\n\nmetal and leather work, laces, embroideries, and needle work\nall\n\n—in fact of\n\nthe crafts of artistic qualities.\n\nOf course, a museum should endeavor to preserve all the art of the past\nthat is worth saving and that is to be made to serve an educational purpose;\n\nbut it should also consider the value of contemporaneous production and offer\nthe opportunity to study its proper application to our present-day needs.\n\nWhile it is perfectly delightful to wander from room to room in a museum\n\nand see how the people were housed in bygone periods, a far more effective\nway of offering practical advice to the general public is to show them the\nbest arrangement and furnishing of modern rooms, the product of experienced craftsmen and artists who have learned their trades by systematic\nstudy of the best examples of the past applied to the altered conditions and\nneeds of the present day.\n\nART COURSES IN ELEMENTARY, INTERMEDIATE,\nAND HIGH SCHOOLS\nM.\n\nEMMA ROBERTS, SUPERVISOR OF DRAWING, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nWe are living in an age when fine, applied, and industrial arts are considered separately and called special subjects.\n\nBut the day is at hand when\n\nthese things are recognized as vitally connected with everyday life.\n\nPos-\n\nsibly the children who are now enjoying the advantages of the increasingly\nvital training will realize how practical it is, and,\n\nwhen it becomes their\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": "598", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n59^\n\n[Vocational\n\nturn to take the place of the voters and serve as school directors, the manual\narts may be considered essentials.\n\nThis result will be brought about by\n\nthe wise direction of the leaders.\n\nWe must see to it that there is a vital\n\nconnection with the life of the community.\n\nWhat the children take home\n\nas finished product will illustrate to the parent the value of the instruction\ngiven.\n\nWhile it is generally conceded impractical to turn the school shops into\ntrade schools, all manual work should follow as nearly as possible the shop\n\nmethods of the craft taught.\nto unlearn.\n\nPupils should leave our schools with nothing\n\nWe may not be able to carry them far, but let it be along the\n\nright road.\n\nWeaving exercises given to the younger children may acquaint them\nwith the terms \"warp,\" \"woof,\" and \"shuttle,\" and may give them an\nappreciation of the nature of materials that continually enter our daily\nlife,\n\nand, also, an experience in dealing with color and design.\n\nMany\n\nsimple problems in bookbinding also are practical for the schoolroom and\n\ncan be carried out in quite a professional way. Many of the processes in\nbookbinding are hand processes, and young people are employed in this\ntrade.\n\nPrinting, too, is a branch of manual arts, which has many things\n\nIt may be correlated with other studies, serve an excellent\npurpose in the cultivation of taste, and furnish most useful knowledge\n\nto conmiend it.\n\nand experience.\n\nNot long ago I was talking to a teacher who professed to be teaching\nThe correct finish of pottery is glazing and firing,\n\npottery as an industry.\n\nbut, if that was not possible, she allowed the children to enamel or varnish\n\nthe pieces.\n\nOf course the right method was explained to the children and\n\nbut what a child is taught to do\nalways makes a deeper impression than what he is told. Makeshifts should\nthis procedure offered as a makeshift,\n\nnot be tolerated.\n\nWe should carry the work only as far as it can be correctly\n\nThen when the students go from us into commercial workshops,\nthey will at least have no bad habits, and we may avoid the often merited\ncriticism that we are not laying a firm foundation for future building.\nThe limited time allowed in the crowded school day for handwork\nis largely responsible for the makeshifts employed.\nThe broken program\ndone.\n\nwhich sandwiches the manual exercises between two academic subjects\nis distracting to both teacher and pupil.\nRooms in each school building\nshould be dedicated to the manual arts to be used by classes above the\nprimary grades. A period of one hour or more once a week is much better\nthan several shorter periods.\n\nIn that time enough can be accomplished\n\nto impress a complete idea upon the minds of the pupils.\n\nIn the same way an intelligent effort to design and make a piece of\nfurniture will add to the interest of construction and develop a discriminat-\n\ning purchaser.\n\nThis serves as an illustration of the power in our hands.\n\nThe merchant is handicapped by his public.\n\nMany a dealer has tried to\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": "599", "text": "ART EDUCATION AS PART OF GENERAL CULTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\n599\n\nforce the public taste to the level of his own ideas and found it a financial\n\nmistake.\n\nHe must lower his standard or go out of business.\n\nThis development of taste in the children is interesting to an observer.\n\nTwo girls in the same high school were very talented in drawing and design.\nThey both came from homes where harmony of color and kindred subjects\nAt school the girls applied their designs in the\n\nreceived little thought.\n\nusual way, stenciling sofa pillows and curtains, tooling leather, etc., and\nreadily produced excellent results.\n\nFor a long time there was no evidence\n\nin their dress that the lessons learned at school had become a vital part\n\nof their lives.\n\nBut finally better coloring and more harmonious tones\n\nbegan to appear, and their teachers rejoiced. One of the mothers remarked\nthat her daughter was becoming very \"fussy\" about the way things\nlooked at home. This was proof positive that a small fraction of the great\nmass was becoming appreciative and as purchasers would demand better\nthings.\n\nThe nations which have for years been prominent commercially have\nThis was not the result of a few experts\nemployed in their factories, but of a nation-wide training in appreciation,\na training given to the children thru public instruction. America is awakening to the fact that an art education is the right of all children that every\nchild should be expected to learn to express himself reasonably well with\nthe pencil and to gain a considerable degree of appreciation and love of\n\nbeen also leaders in design.\n\n—\n\nthe beautiful.\n\nART EDUCATION AS A PART OF GENERAL CULTURE\nTYLER MCWHORTER, PROFESSOR OF APPLIED DESIGN, ST. PAUL INSTITUTE,\nST.\n\nPAUL, MIKH.\n\nWhat we ordinary mortals need is just enough art education to sensitize\nour souls to the beauties of nature and to enable our eyes to appreciate that\n\nwhich is good, to see and detect and promptly reject that which would ultimately offend the sense of sight, and reject it before we are hopelessly\ncommitted to it. The trained eye would instantly reject the rug decorated\nwith pink roses the size of cabbages. The dullest person would tire of this\ncabbage-rose motif long before the rug was worn out be it ever so shoddy.\nIf the\nlife,\n\npurpose of culture is preparation for high and pure enjoyment of\n\nthink how far short culture falls if it has not brought appreciation of\n\nbeauty!\n\nNature has so much of joy to give us thru our eyes that almost\n\nit seems a religious duty to\n\ncomprehend the glorious blessing.\nThere are many people naturally endowed with excellent taste who\n\nnever use it.\n\nWell-meaning people are led into the wrong road by following\n\noutside influences thru a modest misgiving as to their own ability.\n\nOthers,\n\nmany more, are unable to see their own taste because their view is obstructed\nby an over-developed bump of approbativeness.\n\nThese are straining after\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": "600", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6oo\n\n—the\n\nthe popular thing\n\ndone.\"\n\nlatest thing.\n\n[Vocational\n\nThey want to do \"what is being\n\nWhy should a thing claim your affection simply because it is the\n\n\"latest\" ?\n\nFresh fads, like fresh people, are likely to pall very quickly and\n\nprove a distressing nuisance before we get rid of them.\n\nFreshness should\n\nnot condemn a thing in all cases, but freshness, per sCy is no recommendation\nfor either furniture, clothes, or people.\n\nThere is another force against which we need art education to protect\nourselves; a force which keeps people from being guided by the taste with\nwhich they are naturally endowed. That is, trying to keep up with someone else the Joneses, for instance. There are people who would strangle\nthe last little crippled bit of personality they had rather than allow the\nJoneses to appear to get ahead of them. If the Joneses have a khiva in\nthe Joneses have one, nothing\ntheir drawing-room, a khiva's the thing\nin\nA khiva may not be any sense what would be suggested\nelse matters!\nby personal taste. The khiva may run amuck, kill everything else in\nWhat of it, the Joneses\nthe room, and end up with temperamental suicide\n\n—\n\n—\n\nI\n\nhave one!\n\nA khiva is all right and a great artistic treasure in proper environment,\nbut don't buy one unless you like it yourself. Don't thrust it among\nenemies, for even beautiful works of art will resist an outrage. They are\nunforgiving and their revenge is awful! A little sound art education\nenables people to see their own individual taste unclouded by conventions,\npre-conceptions, approbativeness, \"the latest thing,\" or what the omnipotent \" they \" are doing or affecting. When I have finished I hope to have\n\nmade myself clear on this point.\n\nHow simple the matter of taste becomes when we learn to follow the\nbeacon of common-sense! Good taste never quarrels with logic. There is\na logical and even an ethical reason for nearly every dictum of good taste.\nFor instance, how beautiful is the keystone in an arch and how ridiculous in the lower segment of a circle! There was a time when \" they\" were\nusing an oval window in some conspicuous space in the front of \"their\"\nhouses. This was so much \"the thing\"— \"the fashion \"—that planingmills manufactured these windows in quantities and kept them ready.\n\nThe\n\nJoneses built a house and had an oval window with one keystone at the\ntop and another at the bottom, and the neighborhood went oval-window\n\nmad.\n\nNow what is the matter with the oval window?\n\nIt's\n\nthe keystone!\n\nNot the beautiful and emblematic keystone at the top which gives that\nhappy sense of security\n\n—an assurance that the graceful arch\n\nshall not fall\n\ndown—but the one at the bottom to keep the bottom of the arch from\nfalling up!\n\nThink of the beautiful art of savage tribes: the blankets of the Navajos,\nthe shields and weapons of the Zulus, and the exquisite rugs that vie with\nthe best art of the cultured and civilized world, woven by the wild Kurds\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": "601", "text": "ART EDUCATION AS PART OF GENERAL CULTURE\n\nDcpartmcntl\n\nand the fierce Afghans.\n\n6oi\n\nThese savages had no schools, no aesthetic train-\n\nHow could they know how to produce art that defies our criticism ?\nHow does the bird know how to build its nest ? Do you know that there\ning.\n\nis\n\nsuch a thing as art instinct in the human race?\n\nThis instinct has a\n\nchance in the savage; his mind is not clouded by preconceptions and a\nsmattering of misdirected art.\n\ngo together or not\n\nHe doesn't know whether green and pink\n\n—nobody ever told him—so he puts them together and\n\nfinds out for himself.\n\nAnd his conclusion is right.\n\nAnybody's would be\n\nunder the same conditions.\nArt education must be of the character that gives us control of our\nnatural art faculties.\n\nThe trouble with us is that we are in the air.\n\nWe\n\nhave tried to jump the chasm between art instinct and art culture. We have\nleft the cliff of art instinct and haven't yet alighted on the terra firma of\nart culture. We would be safer to go aroimd and not get clear away from\nthe one till we are in position to safely plant our feet on the other.\nI once saw a family buy a rug for thirteen hundred dollars in twenty\nminutes! Taste never had a chance here! And just think what a wealth\nof joyous anticipation was lost by having thirteen hundred dollars that was\nburning a pocket!\n\nOne of the pretty homes that lingers in my memory, one of the most\ntasteful homes, was of a very poor family who hadn't an expensive article\n\nin their cottage.\n\nThese dear people had wished for everything they had\n\nso long before they got it that they had visualized it in its modest environ-\n\nment, and if what they wanted wasn't right they got tired of the visualization before they had money enough to buy the thing and clutter up the\n\nAnd oh, how they loved their home!\n\nhouse with it.\n\nTheir modest posses-\n\nsions were so dear to them and so personal and so a part or at least an\n\nexpression of themselves that every chair and even the braided rugs were\nobjects of affection.\n\nTheir possessions were for themselves and not for\n\n—^wooed and won by labor and love and not by lust and\n\nvulgar display\nvanity.\n\nThoughtful educators had been confronted with the grave fact that\nthe people were losing their abstract constructive ability.\n\nChildren in the\n\nschools showed an alarming lack of the power of applying what they had\n\nlearned\n\n—\n\nor,\n\nmore strictly speaking, memorized.\n\nWe educated a genera-\n\ntion of lawyers who couldn't take the facts before them and construct a\ncase.\n\nWe had teachers who could not construct their education into\n\navailable form for their pupils.\n\nfrom disuse.\n\nIt was a case of the atrophy of a faculty\n\nA remedy for this alarming disease had to be found, and we\n\nfound it in manual training and popular art education and hastened to\nequip our schools for the education of hands as well as heads, and of heads\nthru the use of hands.\n\nArt handicraft and manual training are not taught merely to students\n\nwho expect to follow manual callings, but to all students.\n\nNo matter what\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": "602", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n602\n\n[Vocational\n\nour position in life, we need constructive ability, and the way to acquire it\nis by most primarily and literally constructing something; not on paper\nnor by giving orders to someone else, but with our own hands actually to\n\ncreate tangible things. This principle is now so thoroly recognized by the\ngreat schools of architecture that they make two years' actual experience\n\nwith materials a requirement for matriculation.\nJesus was a carpenter;\n\nOmar Khayyam was a tent-maker; Hofmann,\n\nthe great pianist, has built two automobiles with his own hands; and two\nof the best physicians in St. Paul are first-class cabinet-makers and have\nI know also of an advertising expert\nThese men who know how to construct things with\n\nproduced furniture of high merit.\n\nwho is a coppersmith.\n\ntheir hands are surpassing others in intellectual constructiveness;\n\nand just\n\nthink how much more there is in life for those with developed appreciation!\n\nTHE USE OF THE FACTORY AND OFFICE BUILDINGS IN\nNEW YORK CITY FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nJOHN H. HAAREN, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe problem of determining the nature and scope of vocational education has been forced on us by our social and industrial conditions, and\nits solution is necessarily difficult.\n\nIf one were charged to organize a sys-\n\ntem of practical education in a community isolated from the rest of the\nworld, and, unhampered by laws, regulations, conventions and traditions,\nto send out the product of such a system to fit certain niches in the industrial\n\nand mercantile world, after due study to ascertain the adaptability\n\nof the children to fill the niches, the problem would not be an easy one.\n\nBut we have to attack the problem of vocational education as we find it,\nsubject to existing laws, regulations, conventions, and traditions. So we\nmust proceed to study aptitudes, to investigate conditions, to determine\nprocesses, to correct errors, to supply defects as well as we can, always\n\nbearmg in mind that we are fallible, that many pupils fail because of us,\nand that many succeed in spite of us.\nThe largest manufacturing and conmiercial city of the western world\nhas not been unconscious of the problem and has not neglected to attempt\nits solution.\nThru many years, the manual-training courses in both elementary and high schools have been extended and improved, and, if in all\nschools the training has not culminated in the workshop or the kitchen,\na basis for the work has been laid in the kindergarten and continued in\nsome form or other as the pupil progresses thru the grades. That industrial training has not progressed as rapidly as we wish is due to\n\nthe great\n\nflood of immigration that has multiplied the need for school accommodation\n\nand complicated our school problems.\nnot been entirely neglected.\n\nHowever, industrial education has\n\nMany of the evening schools have courses\n\nin woodworking, sewing, dressmaking, and cooking, and every year there is\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": "603", "text": "Department]\n\nFACTORY BUILDINGS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n603\n\nan increase in the number of classes in evening schools in which subjects like\nelectrical wiring, plumbing, care of boilers, tailoring, flower-making, costume\nFor five\ndesign, sign-painting, etc., are taught along strictly trade lines.\nyears a vocational school for boys, now with an attendance of 700\nstudents, and for three years a trade school for girls, now with an attendance of 500, have been in operation.\n\nA new vocational school has recently\n\nbeen opened in an old school building, and a fourth will be organized in the\nOur vocational and trade schools\nfall in a factory building in Brooklyn.\nare open for instruction during eleven months in the year for seven hours\n\na day, and as trade schools they are open for two hours an evening for\n120 evenings.\n\nIn addition to these evening trade schools, attended to a\n\nlarge extent, and in one instance exclusively, by students engaged in indus-\n\ntry during the day, there are five other evening trade schools.\n\nA number\n\nof the classes are conducted with the active co-operation of employers and\n\nlabor\n\norganizations.\n\nManufacturers have contributed machinery and\n\nmaterials, as well as advice, and have visited the schools and advanced to\n\nhigher positions employees whose fitness was demonstrated by the visit\nto the classroom or the school shop.\n\nCommittees of employers and labor\n\norganizations have made several elaborate reports looking to the improve-\n\nment of the instruction and equipment, and many of their suggestions have\nbeen acted on. The co-operation has been marked in the case of a sixth\nindustrial school, namely, the evening school of industrial art, a school\n\nwhich, altho it has been in operation for but one season, has been a marked\nsuccess.\n\nThis school is unique among our public evening schools, because\n\nof the artistic atmosphere which has surrounded it.\n\nSome of the subjects\n\ntaught are clay and plastiline modeling, jewelry design, stained glass\ndesign, costume design, etc.\n\nAn interesting experiment in pre-vocational education is being carried\non in two of our schools; one an industrial course for girls in the last two\nyears of the elementary-school course, and covering three hours daily with\nthree hours of academic work; and one for boys and girls with the same\ndivision of time.\n\nBut it is the extra-school work which is my general topic for discussion\nat this meeting.\n\nThis phrase requires a brief explanation.\n\nBy extra-\n\nschool work is meant the instruction given in shop, store, factory, or in\n\nrooms hired by employers or donated for use in other than school buildings.\nThe primary object of vocational training is to develop aptitudes and to\nenable skill to be acquired along those aptitudes. Vocational training also\nreveals ineptitudes, and, while it should not force into industrial lines pupils\n\nmanifestly unfit, it occupies for such pupils the place of manual training.\n\nBut the important purpose of industrial training is to develop skill, to make\nthe worker more efficient, first, in the particular activity in which he is\nengaged, and, second, in preparing him to take the next higher step in his\nsocial advancement.\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": "604", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o4\n\n[Vocational\n\nThe foreigner is handicapped by his ignorance of our language and can\nmake little advance until he can speak and understand English. In accordance with this idea, a class has been organized in one of our large hotels,\nthe Hotel Astor, and it is attended by women employees, largely chamber-\n\nmaids of Polish birth.\n\nThis class meets from seven to nine o'clock four\n\nevenings a week, for about twenty-three weeks, in a room provided by the\n\nNot long ago I received from this class a letter of\nthanks to the Board of Education, in which the benefits of the instruction\n\nhotel authorities.\n\nwere acknowledged, and the statement was made that a number of the\npupils who had been entirely ignorant of English had learned to speak,\n\nAn application for a similar class in\nanother prominent hotel, the McAlpin, has been made, and it is hoped\nread, and write English fairly well.\n\nthat, during the coming school year, at least a dozen such classes will be\n\nin operation.\n\nAnother important experiment along the same lines but with day\nFour classes in the Educational Alliance Building, on East Broadway, Manhattan, have been in operation and will consessions has been begun.\n\ntinue in the fall, for the instruction in English of night-workers, such as\n\nbakers, theater employees, compositors on Yiddish papers, and others who\n\ncannot attend evening school.\n\nIt is interesting to note that\n\namong the\n\nstudents are found mothers, who take the opportunity to learn while their\nchildren are at school, as well as teachers of Hebrew in the Talmud Torah\nschools.\n\nAn extension of classes of this kind will probably be made in two\n\nother neighborhoods.\nI pass over the extensive work in teaching foreigners in our evening\nschools.\n\nA most interesting experiment is that of the organization of classes in\nA large number of these stores have welfare\n\nthe large department stores.\n\ndepartments and classes for the instruction of beginners.\n\nBut these classes\n\ndeal with the elements of salesmanship exclusively from the standpoint of\n\nthe store.\ngirl\n\nTheir only connection with increasing the efficiency of the sales-\n\nor boy is to acquaint the pupils with the usages of the store and to\n\nbring them up to the point of rendering equivalent service for the wages\n\nthey are paid.\n\nThe store is not really concerned with training its clerks\n\nfor higher positions, except incidentally.\n\nSuch training is an educational\n\nproposition and belongs to the school.\n\nIn order to improve themselves\n\npupils may attend evening schools.\n\nBut growing boys and girls are not\n\nin fit mental or physical condition to attend evening school after a hard\n\nday's work.\n\nA law recently enacted in New York state empowers the\n\nBoard of Education to organize,\n\nin factories\n\nand mercantile establish-\n\nments, classes for the instruction of those who might otherwise be compelled to attend evening schools.\n\nSo far, classes have been organized in\n\ndepartment stores under the supervision of the Board of Education,\nand in two other stores the proprietors have co-operated with the board\nfive\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": "605", "text": "Department]\n\nFACTORY BUILDINGS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n605\n\nand organized classes, paying all the expenses but asking the supervision\nof the city.\n\nIt is not stating too much when we say that at least ten addi-\n\ntional classes will\n\nbe organized next year.\n\nOne of the employers has\n\nrequested that sessions be held all day, from nine to five o'clock and is\n\nequipping a gynmasium.\n\nIn nearly every case, the girls attending the\nSome have had promotions, others\n\nclasses have received material benefit.\n\nincrease of pay in their present positions, while some are being considered\nfor advancement.\n\nThe proprietors state that the influence of the classes\n\nso far is distinctly noticeable in the tone of the stores, as particular attention is paid to oral English and to courtesy and politeness.\nof studies in these continuation classes is very elastic.\n\nThe program\n\nSo far it has been\n\n—particularly of\n—the writing of\n\nrestricted to the teaching of a plain handwriting, spelling\n\nthe words used in the business and of names of streets\n\nsales slips, letter-writing, rapid calculation with the first essential of cor-\n\nrectness, oral English with general deportment.\n\nThe reasons why the Board of Education has not employed fully its\npower to organize classes in factories and mercantile establishments are\nvarious and need not be cited here further than to say that compulsory\nmeasures would hardly secure the heartiness of co-operation which so far\nhas attended the efforts to organize the classes, and that it has been difficult to get teachers qualified for the work and willing to work for but a\ncouple of hours a day.\n\nInexperienced teachers are not the ones for this\n\nwork, and those who are regularly employed cannot be spared from their\nregular classes just yet.\n\nThe co-operation of employers referred to may be well illustrated by\nthe offer of the head of one of our largest department stores to hire a suitable room in a mercantile or office building, to furnish it, and to arrange\n\na schedule that will provide for the instruction of twenty or more young\npeople at a time during five or more hours a day.\n\nIn addition he promises\n\nto interest the heads of other large establishments, so that eventually a\n\nschool of salesmanship will be developed along several approved lines\n\nunder the supervision of the Board of Education and with an advisoryboard of merchants. This employer believes that the school should be\napart from the store to be most effective in the interest of the young people\n\nand as an educational proposition, but still near enough to the store to\nkeep active its mercantile purpose.\n\nAn illustration of a different view is the experiment of a large manuwear in conjunction with Public School, Number 4,\n\nfacturer of white\n\nManhattan. After trying for one year the experiment of sending sixteen\ngirls to day school to learn English and to be paid their usual wages while\nat school, the plan of having the teacher give instruction in the factory was\ntried, and with great success.\nIt is not in any way derogatory to the\nmotive for changing the locale of instruction to state that the cost per\npupil to the proprietor has been lessened to one-tenth of the cost of\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": "606", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o6\n\n[Vocational\n\nThe change of place increased the class\nOne significant result of this organization is the\n\ninstructing them in the school.\n\nfrom sixteen to forty-two.\n\napplication of a firm of manufacturers to furnish rooms in their factory and\nto arrange a schedule that will permit 500 employees to attend school five\n\nhours a week for twenty-six weeks, during business hours, without loss of pay.\nThe Merchants Association not long ago took steps to ascertain how\nit might co-operate in the organization of continuation classes.\n\nAs a result,\n\nthe association is now considering the means of gathering and classifying\n\nthe boys and girls who hold positions in the Woolworth Building as office\nboys, assistants in filing departments, etc., who either have no opportunity\nor find it difficult to attend evening school.\n\nAs the associatic«i's committee\n\nputs the matter, \"Since these boys and girls find it impractical to go to\nschool, the Board of Education has expressed a willingness to bring a school\nto them.\"\n\nThe purpose of the school will be to give the elements of a\n\npractical business education to these boys and girls, to fit them to assume\n\nhigher responsibilities, and to help them to become better citizens and of\ngreater service to society.\n\nIf this class is organized, it will\n\nimdoubtedly\n\nbe followed by many more in other large office buildings.\nTo give an idea of the work that is being done in the vocational work\nin its various aspects, we may have recourse to figures.\n\nDuring the year\n\n1913-14, instruction along vocational lines was given to classes having in\nelementary evening schools an average attendance per evening of 6,398,\nin evening high schools 8,313, -and in evening trade schools 3,163.\n\nOf this\n\nnumber, 5,185 have been taking homemaking courses, 7,741 commercial\ncourses, and 4,048 strictly trade courses. The average attendance per\nsession in the continuation classes in department stores has been 256, and\nin the class in the factory 42.\n\nthese classes\n\nis\n\nas large as\n\nit\n\nis\n\nnot claimed that the attendance in\n\nThis work is only beginning, and the possi-\n\nthere will be a great increase.\nbilities are almost limitless.\n\nIt\n\nshould be, but with the new co-operation\n\nA number of classes will shortly be organized\n\nin factories, not only for enabling foreign employees to learn\n\nenough\n\nEnglish to imderstand the directions of foremen both as to work and\nagainst careless handling of machinery, but for real continuation work that\nwill make for greater efficiency.\n\nThe outlook for vocational work in our city is now very bright, for we\nhave the encouragement and active participation, not only of our Board\nof Education, thru its president, Thomas W. Churchill, but of our mayor,\nJohn Purroy Mitchel. To this has recently been added the approval of\nComptroller Prendergast. The active interest of the Board of Education\nmeans much, but little can be done imless funds are provided, and the\ninterest of the mayor and the comptroller is almost an assurance of suitable\nprovision.\n\nThe criticism has been made that New York City has done very little\nBut, while I realize how little\n\nalong the line of vocational instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": "607", "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE AGREEMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\n\n607\n\nhas been attempted as compared with what will have to be done if our boys\n\nand girls who leave school before completing the high-school course are to\nbe prepared to take their places in industry with efficient service, New\n\nYork City has done as much relatively as almost any other large city in the\nThis whole matter of making commerce and industry participate\nmore actively in the education of our youth and of bringing the school into\ncountry.\n\na closer relation with active life is only in its infancy.\n\nBy keeping the\n\nschool as the controlling power in methods, and by taking steps that nothing\n\nthat is cultural and disciplinary in our old academic curriculum is sacrificed,\n\nwe need not fear that a material aim will be too constantly kept before our\npupils.\n\nTRADE AGREEMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OF\nAPPRENTICES IN CHICAGO\nWILLIAM M. ROBERTS, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nMost of the workmen in the building trades in Chicago are members\nAny plans made for the education of apprentices in\n\nof trade unions.\n\nthese trades will necessarily have to deal with apprentices affiliated with\n\nthe trade unions, and the co-operation of the unions in such case is not\n\nonly desirable but necessary.\nIllinois has no laws governing vocational\n\nor providing for apprentice training.\n\neducation and none requiring\n\nProvisions made by boards of educa-\n\ntion for vocational training of any sort are not made in obedience to any\n\nlaw, but simply in response to the general demand en the part of the com-\n\nmunity.\n\nTwelve years ago (1902) the organized carpenters, together with the\nemploying carpenter contractors, asked the Board of Education in Chicago\nto provide instruction for the apprentices working at that trade, and a\n\n—^January,\n\nschool was provided, which ran for three months in the year\n\nFebruary, and March.\n\nThis school has been conducted each year since\n\nthat time, and about 275 apprentices are in regular attendance.\n(in\n\n191 2)\n\nthe electrical workers,\n\nby agreement with\n\nLater\n\ntheir employers,\n\narranged for attendance of their apprentices at school for one half-day\neach week thruout the school year.\n\nThese number about 150.\n\nIn 1913\n\nthe organized plumbers and their employers agreed upon a similar plan\n\nby which 160 plumbers' helpers attend school for one half-day each week.\nThere are similar groups of sheet-metal workers apprentices and machinists\n\n*\n\n'\n\napprentices attending one half-day each week.\n\nIn all instances, except in\n\nthe case of two small groups of machinists' apprentices, the attendance of\nthe apprentices at school is in accordance with agreements made between\nthe unions and the organizations of employers.\n\nWith a few exceptions,\n\nthere is no deduction from the wages of the apprentices for the time spent\nat school.\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": "608", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o8\n\n[Vocational\n\nThe carpenters' agreement, as has been said, was consummated in\nIt was brought about after consultation of the Joint Arbitration\nBoard of the imions and employing contractors with the superintendent\nof schools, and was in the following form:\n\n1902.\n\nSec. 4.\n\nThe contractor taking an apprentice shall engage to keep him at work in\n\nthe trade for nine consecutive months in each year, and see that during the remaining\nthree months of the year the apprentice attends school during January, February, and\nMarch, and a certificate of attendance from the principal of the school attended must\nbe furnished to the Joint Arbitration Board as a compliance with this requirement,\nbefore he is allowed to work during the coming year.\n\nThe electrical workers' agreement was made in 191 2, the plxmibers' in\nThe agreement of the electrical\n\n1913, the sheet-metal workers' in 1913.\n\nworkers was as follows:\nIt shall be compulsory upon apprentices to attend school at least one half-day each\n\nweek during the school term, and the employer will pay apprentice for such time up to\n$1.00 per week.\n\nThe union shall furnish the apprentice with necessary textbooks free\n\nof charge, and shall also provide each apprentice with a card which must be presented to\n\nthe instructor at the school and signed by him each week, to show that apprentice was in\n\nattendance, and this must be shown by the apprentice to the foreman or employer upon\nrequest.\n\nThe plumbers' agreement, the exact wording of which I do not have\nat hand, is quoted in a letter addressed by the Master Plumbers' Association to its members, as follows:\n\nChicago, III., May i, 1913\n\nDear Sir:\nIn connection with the system of vocational training, which was inaugurated by the\n\nBoard of Education in the public schools, April 7, we desire to notify you that an agreement has been reached between our association and the Chicago Journeymen Plumbers'\nAssociation whereby the registered apprentices now learning the trade are to spend one\nhalf-day of each week at the Lane Technical High School, Division and Sedgwick Streets,\nthere to receive a theoretical course that wiU enable them to better understand the\nprinciples of the plxunbing trades.\n\nIt is understood that the employer will pay the boy for the time thus lost in attending\n\nschool\n\nThe sheet-metal workers* agreement is also quoted in a letter sent to\ncontractors by the Joint Arbitration Board:\n\nCmcAGO, September 19, 1913\n\nDear Sir:\nYou received a communication from the superintendent of the Chicago public schools,\nunder date of July 20, giving a synopsis of the work that is being done to advance the\nwelfare of apprentices by giving them a technical, as well as a practical, education in their\nchosen trade.\n\nThis project has the hearty approval of employers constituting the Sheet Metal\nContractors' Association of Chicago, as well as of the Sheet Metal Workers Union, No. 73,\nand if you have an apprentice in your employ, we respectfully request that you extend\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": "609", "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE AGREEMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\n\nto him the privilege of attending this school.\n\n609\n\nIf this does not meet with your approval,\n\nwill you kindly notify the undersigned, stating objections ?\n\nWe might add that, in the future, indentures for apprentices will be granted only\nupon the condition that this privilege be given the apprentice.\nYours very truly,\nJoint Arbitration Board\nSheet Metal Contractors' Association and Sheet Metal Workers' Union, No. 73\nE. D. Markham, Secretary\nThe Board of Education employs the teachers and conducts the classes\nas free public schools.\n\nAdvisory committees, usually the same as the joint\n\narbitration boards for adjustment of labor difficulties, are appointed to\n\nconfer with the superintendent about courses of study and methods of\n\nThere is not sufficient room or sufficient equipment in any\none school to accommodate all of the classes, and they are taken care of\nFor the carpenters it is necessary to employ a\nin three of the high schools.\nfew extra teachers for three months, but the other part-time classes are\nhandled by teachers who are employed for full time, and who have other\nclasses in similar subjects in the regular high-school work.\nBecause of\nthe limits necessary to set for a discussion of this subject, it will not be\npossible at this time to go into the subject of courses of study and other\ninstruction.\n\ndetails of administration.\n\nPractical teachers, that is, teachers experienced in the trades, are in\n\ncharge of all work related directly to the trade.\n\nThe instruction is mostly\n\ntechnical, with enough practical shopwork to illustrate standard\n\nmethods\n\nof construction.\n\nAltogether about 650 apprentices are in attendance, and other classes\nare to be organized next fall.\n\nThe plan is growing in favor with both\n\nimions and employers.\n\nThe unions require attendance of the apprentices at school and, in\nmost cases, enforce obedience to the regulations by withholding the working\ncard. The carpenters add two days to the apprentice time for each day's\nabsence from school; they also withhold working cards in cases of insubordination or failure to do the required work. The other unions concerned\nhave similar methods of enforcing attendance and good conduct. Such\nmatters are usually handled by the joint arbitration boards of employers\n\nand labor unions.\n\nThe following letter from the Joint Arbitration Board\n\nof the carpenters is self-explanatory:\n\nChicago, December 9, 19 12\n\nTo Carpenter Apprentices:\nIn accordance with the apprentice rules, you are required to attend day school\nduring January, February, and March, 1913, and the following directions are given for\n\nyour guidance in this matter:\nApprentice day schools will open Monday, January 6, at the Crane Technical High\nSchool, Oakley Avenue and Van Buren Street, and the Lane Technical High School,\nDivision and Sedgwick Streets. Apprentices of the first and second years will attend the\nCrane School; those of the third and fourth years will attend the Lane School.\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": "610", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6io\n\n(Vocational\n\nYou will be required to report January 6 at the school to which you are directed,\npromptly at 9:00 A.M., and thereafter at such time as required by the principal of the\nschool.\n\nAttendance cards will be issued to the apprentices at the end of each week, and your\ncontractor is instructed to deduct from your pay one-fifth of the week's wage for each\n\nday of imexcused absence; the cards are to be returned to the teacher at the beginning\nof the week, after having been signed by your contractor.\nYou wiU be required to conform in every respect to the rules governing the schools\nwhich you attend.\nNo exception will be made from the above directions without a permit from the Joint\nArbitration Board.\n\nJoint Arbitration Board\n(Signed) Chas.\nJ.\n\nTheo. Green, President\n\nW. QuAYLE, Secretary\n\nAs a disciplinary measure, at the dose of the term in 19 14 the carBoard required about thirty apprentices who\nhad failed in their school work to continue attendance for two weeks, without pay, and in addition required them to bear the expense of the instruction,\nwhich was about $160 for the thirty apprentices.\nThe trade unions and the employers apparently acknowledge the failure\nof the old apprentice system, but some of them are trying to restore it in\nsome measure by agreements which require the employer to teach the\npenters' Joint Arbitration\n\napprentice the trade, or at least as much of the trade as is involved in the\n\nIn most of the trade agreements relating to the work of apprentices such a clause is included. The\nfollowing clauses in the agreement between the Carpenter Contractors'\nAssociation and the Carpenters' Executive Council of Chicago and Cook\nCoimty are to the point:\nbusiness in which the employer is engaged.\n\nSec.\n\n6.\n\nIn case an apprentice at the end of his term of four years, for want of\n\nproper instruction in his trade, is not a proficient workman, and if, after a thoro investigation, the Joint Arbitration Board finds that the contractor to whom he was apprenticed\n\ndid not give him proper instruction and an opportunity to learn his trade, he may be\nrequired to serve another year, with\n\nwhom he and the Joint Arbitration Board may\n\ndetermine and at a rate of wages Qess than minimum) in his trade they may determine;\nthe difference between said rate and the minimum scale in his trade shall be paid him\n\nthru the Joint Arbitration Board by the contractor to whom he was apprenticed.\nSec. 12.\n\nThe apprentice upon completing his indenture shall report to the Joint\n\nArbitration Board and shall, after furnishing said board with satisfactory proof of his\n\ncompetence as a skilled mechanic in his trade, receive a certificate approved by the board\nwhich shall entitle him to a journeyman working card.\n\nI am told that Section 6 of the carpenters agreement has been enforced\n'\n\nin a sufficient niunber of cases to cause it to be generally respected by\n\ncontractors.\n\nSection 12 is the clause under which the negligent or unteach-\n\nable apprentice is either reformed or eliminated.\nSimilar agreements are in force in\n\nsome of the other trades.\n\nOne\n\nclause in the apprentice agreement of Typographical Union No. 16 with\n\nthe Employing Printers' Association reads as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": "611", "text": "TRADE AGREEMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\n\nDepartment)\n\nSec.\n\n2.\n\n6ll\n\nDuring such time, he may be assigned to any work connected with the\n\nbranch of the trade he is learning, which his employer or foreman may deem proper, and\nwhich shall embrace finally everything a journeyman may be called upon to do.\n\nWhen properly enforced, this rule is suflGicient to provide for proper\nrotation, as far as the work of the shop covers the trade.\n\nThe clause in the indenture contract of the sheet-metal workers provides that \"the said\n\n,\n\nMaster, shall use and employ the utmost\n\nof his endeavors to teach or cause the said\n\n,\n\napprentice, to be taught\n\nor instructed in the trade of the sheet-rnetal worker.'*\nIt must be admitted that unless the apprentice is required at the close\nof his apprenticeship to stand an examination on the work of the trade\n\nsuch agreements to teach the trade are not effective.\n\nSuch examinations are\n\nrequired in some cases by the unions before the working card may be issued.\n\nLocal 134 of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, whose\napprentices attend the public schools, requires the apprentice to pass a\n\nthoro practical examination before the proper officials of the union before a\n\njourneyman's card may be issued.\n\nThe painters have a similar regulation\n\nrequiring an oral examination and a practical demonstration in pantomime\n\nbefore a committee of expert workmen.\n\nIn the case of the carpenters,\n\nas has been stated, this final inspection is made by the Joint Arbitration\n\nBoard.\n\nIt may be found advisable, if the Chicago plan of continuation\n\nwork is extended to include most of the skilled trades of the city, to\nhave admission to the trade based in part on certificates issued by the\nschools.\n\nIn their support of the continuation schools for their apprentices, the\nunions seem to recognize the fact that, unless the boys coming up into the\ntrade are trained in the science of their calling and are able to do good head-\n\nwork as well as handwork, the trade unions cannot rightfully persist in\ntheir claims to be the only source of supply in Chicago for the skilled-labor\n\nmarket.\n\nOn their part, the employers see in this school plan a means of\n\ninsuring them each year a supply of young men well grounded in the theory\n\nunderlying their calling, and capable of advancing, as they gain experience,\n\nemploy which require more than the average\nand for which men are hard to find. While these\nviews of the matter are in a sense selfish, yet on both sides there is an apparent real interest in the boys themselves, for many of them are the sons of\nthe journeymen or of the contractors.\nThe system in operation in Chicago needs two supplementary provisions to make it complete.\nIt must provide for some supervision of the\nboy when at work, to see that he has a fair opportunity to learn his trade;\nand it must also provide for some preliminary training before entering the\ntrade.\nI wish to enlarge on this latter point.\nWe find, when the apprentices come to us, that we have caught them\ntoo late. We should have had them several years earlier. Every year\ninto the positions in their\nskill\n\nand intelligence,\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": "612", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6l2\n\nin Chicago over 10,000 boys between fourteen\n\nleave school to go to work;\n\n(Vocational\n\nand sixteen years of age\n\n7,000 are fourteen years old and 3,000 are\n\nfifteen years old; 4,000 are only up to the sixth grade or below; 4,600\nleave in the seventh and eighth grades, and only 1,400 are above the eighth\n\nThey cannot enter any trade as apprentices, for no skilled trade\nthey are sixteen years old. They work in factories,\nin stores, or as errand boys, telegraph messenger boys, and in other jobs\ngrade.\n\nwill take them until\n\nof that kind, and few of the jobs are worth remaining in, for they offer no\nfuture.\n\nIn this year and a half to two years they are not learning much\n\nthat will be of use to them in after life.\n\nIt is from this class of boys that\nmost of the trade apprentices come. Their parents have, in many cases,\nfully intended at the time they were fourteen that they should have a\n\nchance to learn a trade, but, while waiting for their sixteenth birthday, have\npermitted them to work around town at whatever odd jobs they could get.\n\nThis I consider a mistake.\n\nIf the boy has made up his mind that he wants\n\nto be a carpenter or an electrician, and his parents know that the way is\n\nopen for him, he should not be permitted to waste two years of the best\npart of his youth.\n\nThe high schools offer him a chance to study his trade in these two\nyears.\n\nThere are two-year courses in carpentry, in electrical work, in\n\npattern-making, in machine-shop practice, etc., which take the boys over\n\nabout the same theoretical and practical work that the apprentices are\ndoing in our apprentice classes. Not many are taking these courses, for\nthere is no assurance that when a boy gets thru he will be taken into the\n\nThere are some restrictions, not entirely in accord\nwith American ideas of fair play, which ought to be abolished, and one\ntrade as an apprentice.\n\nof these is the restriction of apprenticeship in some trades to sons of the\njourneymen and sons of the employers.\nNow the next step in advance for the instruction of apprentices in\nChicago is this: To require apprentices to take the pre-apprentice courses\noffered in the public schools. If the son of a carpenter, or an electrical\n\nworker, or a plumber, or the son of the employer, has made up his mind at\nfourteen or fifteen that he is going to follow his father's trade, he should\nbe required to take at least the two-year trade course in school. This\n\nthe union could require as a part of its apprentice regulations.\n\nThe best method of bringing this about, perhaps, is to have an apprentice\nagreement which provides that preference be given to boys who have given\nsome time in school to the preliminary study of their trade. One union\nof electrical workers has already begun to work upon this plan and is now\n\ngiving preference to those who have devoted some time to the study of\ntheoretical and practical electricity in a good school.\n\nA letter from the\n\npresident of this union (Local 134, International Brotherhood of Electrical\n\nWprkers) appears below:\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": "613", "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE AGREEMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\n\n613\n\nChicago, July 6, 1914\n\nDear Sir:\n\nIn answer to your request for a complete history of the arrangements and action\ntaken by our organization relative to the apprentices being registered and serving an\napprenticeship, I wish to say that a two years' course in electrical construction is now\none of the requirements to be registered as an apprentice. The apprenticeship covers a\nperiod of four years. One half-day of each week during the school term in the public\nschool must be attended by each apprentice. The school work is given up entirely to\ntechnical training, practical work being taken care of on the job.\nAbout four years ago, we first went on record to make the school training compulsory\nfor the apprentices.\nThe boys first took up the school work in the different private\ninstitutions and the public schools.\nWe later found on investigation that the best results\nwere not accomplished; so, working in conjunction with the district superintendent, and\nour committee meeting with the employers, we devised the method of having the boys\nattend school one half-day each week, making the same compulsory on their part, the\nemployers agreeing to reimburse the boys for the time spent in school. We found the\nsystem worked out very satisfactorily to both the apprentices and the employers.\nOn further investigation we found that, to accompUsh the best results, it would be\nnecessary, in registering the apprentices, to see that they had at least the two first years in\nthe technical work of the high schools of the city of Chicago. We have also foimd that\nit is much better to adopt this system so it will be universal for all apprentices, making\nsure in that way that none of the boys have been neglected.\nWe hope the addition of the two years' course in the technical school will place us in a\nposition to have mechanics to fill any of the places they may be called upon to fill, either\nas estimators, as superintendents, or as technical men.\nHoping I have covered the question thoroly, I remain\n\nVery truly yours,\n\n«\n\n(Signed) D. F. Cleary, President\n\nLabor unions in Chicago are in favor of such pre-apprentice schools,\nThree years ago a committee of the City Club of Chicago sent out a series of questions to the\nlabor unions affiliated with the Chicago Federation of Labor, one of which\nwas as follows:\nDo you favor pubUc trade schools for boys and girls between sixteen and eighteen\ntho the general impression is that they are not.\n\nyears of age that would give two years of practical training, together with drawing and\nmathematics, provided the graduates of such schools should serve two more years as\napprentices or improvers ?\n\nTwo hundred and fourteen inquiries were sent out;\nof these said \"Yes\";\n\n112 replied;\n\n88\n\nonly 24 said \"No.\"*\n\nIn New York State, out of 1,877 replies to a similar question, 1,307\nsaid \"Yes,\" and 570 \"No.\"\n\nThe Committee on Industrial Education of the American Federation\nof Labor, in its report to the Federation, indorsed this plan of pre-apprentice\n\nschools:\n\nIts recommendations contain the following section:\n\nSec. 2. Industrial Education: The establishment of schools in connection with\nthe public-school systems, at which pupils between the ages of fourteen and sixteen may\nbe taught the principles of trades, not necessarily in separate buildings, but in schools\n\nadapted to this particular education, by competwit trade-trained teachers.'\n\nTo prevent misunderstandings, it may be necessary to add here that\ntwo of the apprentice groups attending the classes are from open shops.\n'\n\nA Report on Vocational Training in Chicago and in Other Cities.\n\n»\n\nReport of Committee on Industrial Education of the American Federation of Labor, compiled and edited\n\nCity Club of Chicago, iQia.\n\nby Charles H- Winslow, p. 18 (Senate Document 936, 62d Congress, ad Session).\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": "614", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6l4\n\n[Vocational\n\nIn those cases arrangements were made with employers only. In all such\ncases there are regular apprentice indenture contracts between employers\n\nand parents or guardians of the boys, in which the employer is obligated\nto teach the trade, and the boys attend school without loss of pay.\nMention should also be made of the trade agreement between the\nPainters' District Council and their employers' association providing for\nattendance of their apprentices at their trade school for one full day of\neach week. While the public-school ofl&cials afforded some assistance in\nthe beginning in securing a teacher and by way of advice, yet the school is\nconducted by the Painters District Council, and the cost is borne by the\napprentices, who pay a fee sufficient to cover all expenses.\n'\n\nTEE APPRENTICESHIP AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF\nMILWAUKEE, WIS.\nR. L.\n\nCOOLEY, PRINCIPAL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nThe Milwaukee Continuation School entered upon its work November\nI, 191 2, in a small room on the eighth floor of the Manufacturers' Home\nThere were in attendance two hundred girls under sixteen\nyears of age from the department stores of the city. These girls were\nworking on \"permits\" issued by the State Industrial Commission thru the\nBuilding.\n\noffice of the factory inspector of this city.\n\nIn explanation it may be said that all boys and girls under sixteen\nyears of age and over fourteen mtay, under certain conditions, secure a \"permit\" to work at a \"gainful occupation.\" Under recent legislation, one of\nthe conditions to be fulfilled in order that the child may work is that he\nshall attend continuation school at least\n\none half-day a week for eight\n\nmonths.\nThis attendance upon the part of the child is an obligation upon the\nemployer, as well as upon the child, inasmuch as the employer is required\nto give such employee permission to attend school at the time requested\n\nby the school authorities.\n\nThis school attendance must be counted a part\n\nof the boy's regular work.\n\nThe school has grown rapidly from its small beginnings.\n\nThe demand\n\nof both the compulsory and the voluntary attendance has led to the acquisi-\n\nand a considerable enlargement of the teaching\nnow\nThere\nare\ncorps.\n1,600 permit girls and 2,000 permit boys attending\nschool one half-day a week in the Manufacturers' Home and Stroh BuildThirty-one classrooms are now occupied, and seventeen women and\nings.\ntion of additional space\n\ntwenty-one men comprise the day teaching corps. The hours of school\nattendance are from 8 00 a.m. to i 2 00 p.m. and from i 00 p.m. to 5 00 p.m.\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nThe school aims to teach the \"permit\" girls to cook, to prepare tasty\neconomical dishes with a knowledge of food values and simple dietetics.\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": "615", "text": "CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF MILWAUKEE\n\nDepartmentJ\n\n615\n\nto sew, to judge qualities of goods, to assist them to acquire a taste in color\nand design, to select suitable qualities of goods with reference both to personal dress and to the furnishing arrangement and decoration of the home,\nand to review and advance the pupils in the academic branches usually\ntaught in the elementary school. There is also a definite effort made to\nconnect each girl with the public library and to direct her reading to the\nend that a taste for good books may be formed at this critical time in the\ngirl's life, when she is breaking away from school, also, in a measure, from\nhome, and is entering upon a wage-earning career in shop or factory.\nIt may be interesting to know that nine hundred books were drawn\nfrom the library during one month by these young girls, practically all of\nwhom had not been in the habit of reading at all.\nIn connection with the girls' work, there has been given a brief course\nin the purchasing of beds and bedding, airing and making of beds, bedroom\nventilation and arrangement, and the care of the sick in bed. This work\nhas been very much appreciated by the young people, many of whom have\nhad the responsibilities thrust upon them far in advance of their years.\nClasses in typewriting and stenography are offered to young people\nworking in offices and to those who particularly request the opportunity.\nThe boys are classified broadly, according to their expressed ambitions\nand talents. Those who clearly intend to follow conamercial careers are\npermitted to put most stress upon the academic work in connection with\ntypewriting, stenography, bookkeeping, business practice, etc. Those\nwho manifest a special ability as, for instance, talent for, and appreciation\nof, color and design, coupled with ability in freehand drawing, have occupations called to their attention in which such ability would be a distinct\nSuch pupils we aim to segregate and afford the kind of special trainasset.\n\ning they need.\n\nThe great majority of the two thousand boys who attend our continuation school are not working at jobs which will afford them a living\nas men, or which, in the main, lead to work that will ever afford a man's\n\npay.\n\nSome of the boys have ill-formed ambitions to become one or another\n\nkind of journeyman, at some remote time.\n\nOn the other hand, many have\n\nno idea of what is before them, are not thinking ahead, and have no conception of the various trades or occupations available in this community\n\nwhich might afford them a way up.\n\nThey shift without thought or reason\nfrom one job to another, and frequently their latter condition is worse than\nthe former.\n\nTo such boys we aim to give a diversified shop experience,\n\nwhich includes woodworking, metal working, and simple work with electrical\nappliances. One and one-half hours each week are spent by small groups\nin the shops under competent instructors.\n\nIn addition, these same young\n\npeople spend one and one-half hours each week in mechanical drawing and\n\none hour in academic work.\n\ntwenty or less.\n\nAll classes are kept at a\n\nmembership of\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": "616", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6l6\n\n[Vocational\n\nThe mechanical drawing continues for thirty-two weeks in each school\nyear and is calculated to enable the boys to read blue prints and to become\nproficient in mechanical drawing, as the time and ability of the boys will\n\npermit.\n\nThis training it is expected will be of use in any of the various\n\nmechanical lines which the boys may ultimately follow.\n\nThe work with both boys and girls is further intended to guide them\nby means of reviews what\n\nin their selection of vocations, to preserve\n\nacademic knowledge they may possess upon leaving the elementary school\n\nand to advance them in those branches, to assist and advise them in securing work, to give them greater ability to do things with their hands, and to\ntrain them in the duties and obligations of good citizenship.\nThis work is\nobviously very important during the lean years while these young people\nare confined to jobs which inherently have little or no educative influence,\nand, in many instances, may be said to be \"de-educative,\" if one may be\n\npermitted to coin the word.\n\nFrom fourteen to sixteen years is a period of retrogression for the great\nmajority of boys and girls who go out to work.\n\nThis is especially true of\n\nwho have not finished the elementary school. Instances may be\ncited to the contrary, but it is only by viewing the young people in large\nthose\n\nnumbers that the rule may be ascertained.\nIt has been demonstrated that in the brief half-day a week at the con-\n\ntinuation school much of the work done in the elementary school can be\n\nclinched and made a permanent possession of the4)oy or girl.\n\nLikewise\n\nin this time a valuable practical training can be given which will be found\n\nThe function of the continuation school, however, is\nmuch broader in scope than merely to provide for the \"permit\" pupils,\nThe task of\nof whom there are approximately five thousand in the city.\nimmediately useful.\n\nmeeting the needs of this particular feature of the work has been a large\none and has occupied our attention during the first months.\n\nWe have about concluded our arrangements to group the boys more\ndefinitely according to their expressed wish relative to their future occu-\n\npation.\n\nIt will be possible, as we now have our school planned, to give the\n\nboys definite pre-vocational work in the following lines:\n1.\n\nCarpentry\n\nii. Concrete- work\n\n2.\n\nCabinet-making\n\n12.\n\nPower plant operating\n\n3.\n\nPattern-making\n\n13.\n\nDrafting\n\n4.\n\nTinsmithing\n\n14.\n\nBookkeeping\n\n5.\n\nSheet-metal work\n\n15. Store clerking\n\n6.\n\nPlumbing\n\n16.\n\n7.\n\nSteam-fitting\n\n17. Printing\n\n8. Electrical work\n\nMasonry\n10. Machine shop work\n9.\n\n18.\n\nStenography\n\nBaking\n\n19. Painting and decorating\n\nTo illustrate: A boy wants to be a plumber and so expresses himself.\nUnless he is physically incapacitated or has special talent which makes\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": "617", "text": "Department]\n\nCONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF MILWAUKEE\n\n617\n\nanother choice of occupation obviously better, we shall take him seriously.\n\nWe shall acquaint him with plumbers' tools and plumbers' fittings. We\nshall have him call tools and fittings by their right names, have him put up\n\nand sizes correct, and do simple bookkeeping,\nof names and a knowledge of prices of plimibing\nwork and supplies. Simple shopwork will be provided and the conditions\nof the trade studied. The inmiediate object will be to get the boy\nto take seriously his own wish to be a plumber, to aim soon to get into\nthe work he expects ultimately to follow, even at an immediate loss.\nWe shall try to get the boy to value an apprenticeship contract and\norders,\n\ngetting shapes\n\ninvolving spelling\n\ndemand one.\nWhile this boy is working with singleness of purpose in the shop, we\nshall so shape his work in mechanical drawing that it will be of value to\n\nhim in any trade or occupation he may ultimately follow.\n\nTo that end\n\nsimple lessons in architectural, mechanical, sheet metal, and freehand\n\ndrawing are provided.\n\nIt is a well-known fact that chance, in spite of all\n\nwe may do, will be a large factor in determining where the boy will land in\nseeking a job.\n\nHe may be seriously wanting to be a plimiber, but chance\n\ngives him the opportimity to be a sheet-metal worker.\n\nOur work must\n\nbe of such a nature that it will help him even in that event.\n\nDay classes for apprentices have been established at which three\nhundred are in attendance.\n\nVoluntary day classes have been conducted,\n\nas in the case of the druggists' clerks who attend twice each week.\n\nOther\n\nvoluntary classes are being formed as rapidly as the need and desire for the\n\nsame are ascertained.\nThe evening work is carried on in public-schooF buildings in six centers\nand is in the inamediate charge of the day principals of the schools in which\nthe evening school is held.\nClasses in cooking, sewing, mechanical drawing, academic work,\n\nand\n\nEnglish for foreigners are largely attended, the aggregate weekly attend-\n\nance at this time being twenty-seven hundred.\n\nThe work conducted imder the local Board of Industrial Education is\nscarcely more than a year and half from its inception.\n\nPreparing part-\n\ntime school facilities for thousands of \"permit\" boys and girls has largely\nabsorbed the attention of the authorities.\n\nThis work, however, as stated\n\nbefore, does not measure the scope of the work intended to be carried on\n\nunder the provisions of the law.\n\nIt is the duty of the local Board of Indus-\n\ntrial Education to analyze the educational needs and desires of the employed\n\nmen and women of the community and to afford reasonable opportunity\nfor their gratification.\n\nIn establishing apprenticeship schools, each trade is studied with a view\nto finding out just what sort of equipment and instruction is necessary to\n\nsupplement the opportunity of the apprentice in that particular industry.\nIf,\n\nin the estimation of the practical\n\nmen who have been handling the\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": "618", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6l8\n\n[Vocational\n\napprentices in that industry, it needs shop or laboratory equipment, such\n\nequipment is provided.\n\nTo illustrate: We shall teach the baker's apprentice the growth of\nyeast and how a certain temperature is best for its development;\n\nwe shall\n\nshow them what happens when we go beyond this temperature and also\nwhat are the results of too low a temperature. In practical experience,\n\nmany causes may contribute toward unsatisfactory results, and young\nmen are seldom able to recognize the changes any one cause may produce.\nIn the school we shall be able to make and treat dough alike; then we shall\nvary our procedure by a single item, thus enabling the boys to observe\n\nand become familiar with the results of that particular variation. We\nprogram until all the possibilities in connection with\nyeast have been taken up and illustrated.\nThe same idea of instruction can be followed in the use of salt, sugar,\nshall repeat this\n\nlard, malt extracts, etc.\n\nIn short, all the articles used in the bakery, as\n\nwell as the different modes of working, will be treated in a similar manner.\n\nWe shall take a dough, and, by manipulating it differently, working it\ndifferently,\n\nmolding\n\nit\n\ndifferently,\n\nand proofing\n\nit\n\ndifferently,\n\nproduce\n\ndifferent results and at the same time always keep the effect and the result\n\ndirectly before the eyes of the pupil.\n\nNow all these problems occur in the bakeries, where the apprentice\nworks, from time to time.\n\nIn the way in which they occur, however, they\n\ntend to confuse rather than to enlighten the apprentice; they fill his mind\n\nwith doubts and misgivings rather than with certain knowledge as to just\n\nwhat occurs.\n\nHe sees only the effects and is often entirely in the dark as\n\nto the cause.\n\nIn the commercial life neither the time, nor the knowledge,\n\nnor the training necessary for lucid explanations are available to the boys.\n\nTo evolve an institution so varied in work offered and so adaptable\nin its organization as to meet these needs and fit into the chinks of leisure\n\nMuch of how\nThe institution will undoubtedly\n\nenjoyed by members of the community is a difficult task.\nto do it can be learned only in the doing.\n\nIt imdoubtedly will be\nThose having responsibility for the work can only hope that they may be so fortunate in this\nrespect as to be fed on a balanced ration.\n\nafford plenty of opportunity for just criticism.\n\nthe recipient of criticism both just and unjust.\n\nTHE RENOVATION OF THE HOME THRU HOME ECONOMICS\nALICE P. NORTON, DIETITIAN OF COOK COUNTY INSTITUTIONS,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\nIt would be foolish for me to take your time to prove that the home\nof today needs renovating.\n\nIt would be still more foolish for me to attempt\n\nto outline the changes that have taken place in the home and the many\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": "619", "text": "Department]\n\nRENOVATING THE HOME THRU HOME ECONOMICS\n\nforces Ihat are working more or less directly against\n\nit.\n\n619\n\nThe tendency\n\ntoward urban life, the lack of permanence in the home, the development\nof social life outside the home are too well-known factors to be more\nthan suggested. I am not a pessimist and I believe the best homes today\nare better than ever before, but I wonder sometimes if we realize the\nrapidity with which still further changes are coming into our home life,\n\nand if we anticipate the need of adjusting ourselves quickly to new conHome\nditions if we would make the most of the home of the future.\neconomics should stand as an important element in aiding in this adjust-\n\nment of old conditions to new ones.\n\nIt should help to set right standards,\n\nto give a sense of values, to develop a life of the home that will work more\ndefinitely\n\nthan anything else toward the making of the true home.\n\nIt\n\nshould be able to adjust itself to the humblest home as well as to the more\nelaborate;\n\nto\n\nshow the country child what possibilities there are for it;\n\nto go into the poorest of the city homes and lift the child, and, thru the\nchild, the parent, toward something that is better and more worth while.\n\nThe higher, more spiritual side of home life we may not be able to teach\nin the curriculum of the elementary school, but the insight into the possibilities of\n\nthe material side may well lead the children to an interest in\n\ntheir homes, and a love for them, that shall contribute by and by to a\nspiritual ideal.\n\nThere may be gradually developed in them a realization\n\nthat the home is more than an aggregate of shelter, food, and clothing,\n\nand so another illustration be given of the great principle that the life is\nmore than meat, and the body more than raiment.\nMiss Kelly told us at Cleveland of a small boy, underfed, slouchily\ndressed in a passed-down coat much too large for him, who competed for\n\na prize in one of the pig clubs lately started in the South.\n\nThe pig was so\n\nlarge that it had to go into the pen *' eater-cornered,\" and as people came\n\nby and spoke in praise of it the boy lost his shy and timid manner, began\nto straighten up, became alert, and so \"swelled with pride\" that his clothes\nseemed actually to fit him! So the girl who in her home can do something\nto help in the family life, who gains the sense of power that comes from\n\ncontrol over materials, from doing something well,\n\nwho knows how to\n\nchoose a meal that is of real value and that means the best expenditure of\nthe amount of money that is allowed gains in self-respect and in poise.\n\nAt a farmers' convention one of the questions in the question box\nThe answer seems to me\nto be, \"By making the home interesting to them.\" The boy is gaining\n\nwas, \"How can we keep the girls on the farm\" ?\n\nan insight into the real value and interest of the farm. He is learning to\nknow that time and effort and knowledge put into the treatment of the\nland will give definite results. That in itself is an object toward which\nhe may work. The girl should have the same impetus and inspiration to\nmake the home what it should be. Much of the work must today be\n(greeted toward training her as a consumer rather than as a producer.\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": "620", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n620\n\n[Vocational\n\nIt is even more important for her to know how to select her materials than\nfor her actually to prepare so many things as she did formerly.\n\nMuch of\n\nher actual doing must be chiefly for the sake of gaining standards.\n\nTheo-\n\nmay be given is of little value imless it goes directly\ninto her everyday life.\nProteids and carbohydrates and fats may be taught\nretical knowledge that\n\nin such a way that she will actually know better how to select her food.\n\nThe visiting housekeeper has done a great deal to show the poorer\nmother the full purchasing power of the money that she has to spend, but\nthat there is opportunity for much more help is shown by the following\n\nexpenditure of money furnished a family for food by the United Charities:\nPot roast\nAngel cake\n\n$i.oo\n20\n\nChocolate cake\n\n20\n\nBeechnut peanut butter\n\n25\n\nTotal\n\n$1.65\n\nAnother family aided in the same way spent 80 cents for sirloin steak\nand 20 cents for angel cake.\n\nWe find too that money may be wrongly spent, not only by the family,\nbut even on the part of those who are relieving the needs of the family.\nThe sort of relief that should be conducted intelligently often gives supplies\nthat are not suflicient to maintain healthy life, and with no suggestion of what\n\nshould be added to them and no help in the way of using these supplies.\n\nA family receiving the county agent's supplies was found using for cleaning\npurposes the rice that had been given.\n\nAnother woman was storing away\n\nthe beans because she did not know how to use them and dared not exchange\n\nthem for fear she would lose her opportunity of gaining supplies.\nAt a school in one of the poorest districts of Chicago, on a warm June\nday this summer, children were at their gymnastic work in the yard still\nsewed into the heavy woolen underwear that they had worn all winter. At\nthe same time, in their beginning sewing, children were working on pincushions, small bags, fancy holders.\n\nThere seemed to be no connection in\n\nthe minds of the children between sewing and the idea of clothing, and yet\nthese children were old enough to be making the actual underwear needed\nfor that time of year.\nif\n\nIt is not less knowledge that we need\n\nyou choose to call it so\n\n—but\n\nit is\n\n—\n\nless theory,\n\nmore knowledge carried directly over\n\ninto living.\n\nBut if home economics is to renovate the home it must begin by making\nElaboration of service and of\n\nthe standards of housekeeping more simple.\n\ndress, if taught to the wealthy girl, emphasizes the false standards which\n\nshe already has;\n\nif taught\n\nto the poor child, it fails entirely to influence or\n\nelse it promotes envy and gives a desire for possessions beyond the means.\n\nAt Cleveland, Miss Arnold told the story of a settlement worker who visited\na woman who was to be ejected from her home because she was entirely\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": "621", "text": "I\n\n1\n\nDepartment!\n\nRENOVATING THE HOME THRU HOME ECONOMICS\n\n62\n\nwithout money to pay rent. A second visit on Sunday brought the comment from the woman, \"You have on the same hat you wore yesterday.\"\n\"Yes,\" said the worker, \"it is the one I wore.\" \"But it is Sunday today.\nDon't you have a different hat for Sunday?\" The visitor replied, \"No,\nI have only one hat.\" The woman stared for a moment, then said, \" Thank\n\nHeaven, I haven't fallen so low as that.\"\nI had occasion a few days ago to visit a number of home economics\ndepartments in high schools. In one there was a typewritten lesson on\ntable service. In this I found these two statements: \"Paper napkins\nshould never be used in the home.\" \"The dinner napkin should be a yard\nsquare.\" These were the standards set before girls in very moderate\ncircumstances, who should instead have been taught the legitimate use of\nthe paper napkin and a reasonable size of the linen napkin. In another\nschool, the sewing was done entirely by hand.\nElaborate garments were\nmade, long seams stitched by the laborious hand method. The teacher\ntold me that she did not wish a machine because handwork was the best.\n\nShe had taken her girls to a children's store in the city and there they had\nhad impressed upon them the fact that handwork brought higher prices\nand was more desirable than machine work. She endeavored to fix this\nas a standard for the home, taking no account of the value of time and of\nlabor.\nA false ideal, it seemed to me, was put before such girls.\nA maid who left the family in which she was working was asked\nthe cause of her dissatisfaction. She replied that \"there was too much\nshifting of the dishes for the fewness of the victuals.\"\n\nIs it not true that\n\nin our work we often make the \"shifting of the dishes\" the apparently\nessential point ?\n\nWe must learn to distinguish between the essential and\n\nthe nonessential in housekeeping.\n\nThe girls should know the difference\nThey should know\n\nbetween sanitary cleanliness and aesthetic cleanliness.\n\nthat the woman who maintains sanitary cleanliness at a cost of time and\nmoney and labor that she can afford, even tho there may be dust upon her\n\nhigh shelves or unpolished silver on her table, is a far better housekeeper\n\nand homemaker than the one who exhausts her own resources and neglects\nthe real comfort of the family by trying to maintain the aesthetic cleanliness\nthat may be beyond her reach.\n\nThe renovation of the home involves the adaptation of the work to\nthe special needs of the group which is being taught.\n\nA successful state\n\nworker in the South told me that she had planned her lessons in cooking\n\n—\n\non poultry, on fish, on rice, on eggs Just the things that the children would\nbe using in their homes. Another illustration of this adaptation is given\nby the work of some seventh-grade children who one day a week prepare\na luncheon for the forty teachers in the building.\n\nThey charge twenty-five\n\ncents for the luncheon and try to plan it so that the raw food material costs\n\nnot more than fifteen cents.\n\nPart of the money cleared has been used for\n\nfeeding the anemic children in the building under the direction of a normal\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": "622", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n622\nclass.\n\n[Vocational\n\nOne class in a normal school has applied the latest theories of diet\n\nin the establishment of\n\nof the city.\n\na penny luncheon in one of the poorer schools\n\nThe teacher of domestic science has direct charge of the\n\nwork, and it is supervised by the principal of the school and the normal\nclass.\n\nThe renovation of the individual home can be accomplished only when\nthe community itself is made better.\n\nWe cannot have good homes unless our\n\nneighbors have good homes. We cannot have clean homes unless the streets\nare clean. \" Madam, who keeps your house ? \" is the question that is asked\ntoday, and the answer is found in the health department with its foods\nand markets, its weights and measures, its factory inspection, its milk\ninspection; in the sanitary inspection of the streets and alleys; in the board\nof medical and school inspection; in the bureau of smoke inspection, the\n\nbureau of contagious diseases, the marriage license bureau.\n\nThe various\n\ndepartments of city administration furnish the real force that stands\nbehind the good home. Children must gain civic standards if they are\nto have the renovated home.\n\nBut all the work for the home will be in vain unless it is directed not\nmerely toward efficiency, toward good housekeeping, but even more toward\nwelfare,\nit\n\ntoward happiness and service.\n\nEven efficiency in the home, if\n\ninterferes with comfort, with the development of the family spirit and\n\nthe family unity, will be of no permanent value.\n\nTOPIC: MANUAL TRAINING APPEARS IN CURRENT COURSES\nOF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, INTERMEDIATE\nSCHOOLS, AND HIGH SCHOOLS AND IS TAUGHT APPARENTLY WITH A VARIETY OF AIMS:\n(a)\n\nFOR DEVELOPING AN APPRECIATION OF FORM, PROPORTION, AND\nNATURE OF MATERIALS; {b) FOR GIVING INSIGHT INTO INDUSTRIAL\nPROCESSES AND ACTIVITIES; {c) AS A SENSE AND MOTOR TRAINING,\nAND FOR THE DEVELOPING OF EXECUTIVE FACULTIES; {d) TO\nGIVE AN INCREASED FEELING OF REALITY TO THE ENTIRE CURRICULUM\n\nHOW MAY THESE GENERAL AIMS BE BEST CONSERVED?\nMILTON C. POTTER, SUPERINTENDENT OP SCHOOLS,\nMILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nWhether manual training appears in the shape of kindergarten handwork, primary construction, grammar-grade cooking, sewing, woodwork,\nor high-school handicraft, drawing, laboratory or shopwork, it should per-\n\nform the fourfold function (i) of developing appreciation of materials with\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": "623", "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN COURSES OF STUDY\n\n623\n\na sense of form and proportion, (2) of furnishing the elements of any industrial technic whatsoever, (3) of developing the doing sense and the joy of\n\ndoing, and (4) of reinforcing the abstract teaching of the academic class-\n\nrooms.\n1.\n\nThe boys who say their mensuration tables perfectly and yet lay\n\noff\n\na yard as their idea of a foot have not reduced their academic lore\n\nto\n\nthe terms of manual training.\n\nproportion grace\n\nAppropriate form and consistent\n\ncommon things no less than the walls of the Louvre\n\nor the Vatican.\nGirls who select a checked paper to put upon the walls of a very low-\n\nceilinged room, or vertical stripes for a very high room, or who purchase\n\nonly a roll or two of it thinking that it will cover the walls of an average\nliving-room, have far to go before they shall ever incarnate their fancied\n\nknowledge into bodily form.\n\nAn appreciation of materials cuts the sale\n\nand promotes the honest weaving-in of colors.\nHappy and thrifty home life can never be hoped for among people who\ncannot or do not develop and use this sense.\nof dotted print cloths\n\n2.\n\nThe proper care of a few fundamental tools will soon deposit a\n\nresiduum of tool technic in the muscle, mind, and eye of the fortunate child\n\nwho has the opportunity to see and participate in real industrial processes\ncarried on in the best way under the sympathetic eye of a teacher mechanic.\nOne who planes with an ax, chops with a plane, draws nails with a chisel,\nand hacks with a saw is not possessed of a sense of tool functions which\nwould connote the possibility of his ever incarnating his academic knowledge into real life. The same considerations carry forward into the more\nelaborate industrial operations.\n3.\n\nThe boys and girls who frequently and too easily follow their fellows\n\nare in need of some field wherein the project to be done shall be their own.\n\nThe few elementary required projects once finished in any term, the individual projects may well come forward both as a test and as a generator of\n\nThis takes them away from the set course\nwhere one may copy the \"other fellow.\" The boy who wills to do a thing\nthe child's dynamic senses.\n\nin the shop, designs it carefully, and accomplishes it has taken a major step\n\ntoward the perfection of his own larger volitional life in society.\n4. That springtime schoolroom which has received nothing permanent\nfrom the residence of forty or fifty live creatures within it is a mute witness\n\nto the deadly stagnation of the daily school life which obtained there.\n\nFor\n\na long time our children have been engaged in many a classroom in purely\nreceiving processes;\n\nthey have almost exclusively given themselves up to\n\nabsorbing, to taking in impressions.\nto the final results in the nervous\n\nEveryone who has ever given thought\nand cerebral matter from such long-\n\ncontinued processes knows that there\n\nis\n\na positive\n\ndam finally erected\n\nagainst the transmission of the received impression into external expression.\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": "624", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n624\n\n(Vocational\n\nThe permanence of impressions themselves is finally threatened by a\nlong and exclusive continuance of the purely receptive processes. Doing\nand education for doing finds in a co-operating group of manual-training\n\nand classroom teachers a splendid opportunity to justify itself in the growing reality and abounding life of classroom history, science, geography,\narithmetic, or reading.\n\nThis family relationship of all the various teachmotivating of children's\n\ners insures the vitalizing, the correlating, the\n\nschool life.\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": "625", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—Osbourke McConathy, director, public-school music department, School of\n\nPresident\n\nMusic, Northwestern University\nVice-President—LvcY K.\n\nCom, supervisor of music, pubb'c schools\n\n—Glen H. Woods, director of music, public schools\n\nSecretary\n\nEvanston, 111,\nSeattle, Wash.\n\nOakland, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, July 7, 19 14\nThe Department of Music Education was called to order at 9:00 a.m. in Elks Hall\nwith President McConathy in the chair.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, the chairman appointed William B. Kinnear, supervisor of public-school music, Lamed, Kans., secretary pro tempore.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n—\n\n\"Community Music ^An Opportimity\" Peter W. Dykema, professor of music.\nUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\"High-School Credit for Applied Music Taken under Special Teachers Outside of\nSchool\"—-Osbourne McConathy, director, public-school music department, School of\nMusic, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.\n\"A Psychological Analysis of the Basis on Which Credit for the Study of Music Is to\nBe Placed\" J. Beach Cragun, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\"Report of the Committee on Terminology\" Charles I. Rice, director of music,\npublic schools, Worcester, Mass., chairman.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe department favored the group idea with its terminology, but, thinking that it\nshould be made more comprehensive, referred it back to the committee for the inclusion\nof beat-groups containing both notes and rests.\n\nThere was a free discussion of all papers by P. C. Lutkin, dean. School of Music,\nNorthwestern University, Evanston, 111.; A. J. Gantvoort, College of Music, Cincinnati,\nOhio; Elsie M. Shawe, supervisor of music, city schools, St. Paul, Minn.; Emily Grace\n\nKay, St. Paul, Minn., and others.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 1914\nThe department was called to order at 2:30 p.m., and the following program presented:\n\n\"The Place of Music in Popular Education \"—P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n\"When Music Fulfils Its Highest Function\"—P. C. Lutkin, dean. School of Music,\nNorthwestern University, Evanston, 111.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President Lucy K. Cole, supervisor of music, public schools, Seattle, Wash.\n\n— —\n—\n\nFor Vice-President ^Will Earhart, director of music, public schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Secretary Herman E. Owen, director of music, public schools, San Jose, Cal.\n\nTHURSDAY AFTERNOON, July 9, 1914\nAt this time, a program of music by composers living in St. Paul was presented by\nThe concert was\ngiven in Lodge Hall, Masonic^Temple.\n\nthe Schubert Club of St. Paul for the members of the Association.\n\n62s\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": "626", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n626\n\n[Music\n\nPROGRAM\nSongs:\n\n(a)\n\nGertrude Sans Souci\nGertrude Sans Souci\nW. Rhys-Herbert\n\nEileen\n\nHeart of the World\nSongs: (a) In the Forest Fair\n(b) In a Garden\n(c) Joy of Life\n(6)\n\nW. Rhys-Herbert\nW. Rhys-Herbert\n\n.\n\nAlma Peterson, Soprano\nW. Rhys-Herbert, Pianist\n\n....\n\nPiano Solo: Variations on an Original Theme\n\nCarl HeUmaier\n\nDorothy Holmes\nAlbum Leaf\nRomance\n\nCello Solos: (a)\n(b)\n\nEmilStraka\nEmilStraka\n\nArthur Skoog\nAlice Olson, Accompanist\n\nSpoken Songs: (a) The Three Fishers (Words by Charles Kingsley)\n{b)\n\nPiano Solos:\n\nArthur C. Koerner\nArthur C. Koerner\n\nGypsies (Words by Alonzo L. Rice)\nMildred Phillips Kindy\nArthur C. Koerner, Pianist\n\n(a)\n\nRomance in G\n\n(6)\n\nValse de concert\n\nGeorge H. Fairdough\nGeorge H. Fairclough\n\nCharlotte Burlington\nSongs: (a)\n(b)\n(c)\n\n....\n\nEs war ein alter Koenig\nThere Is No Music in My Heart Today\nEldorado\nFrancis Rosenthal, Baritone\n.\n\nLeopold G. Bruenner\nLeopold G. Bruenner\nLeopold G. Bruenner\n\nLeopold G. Bruenner, Pianist\nClaude Madden\nViolin Solo: Russian Lullaby\nArthur Bergh\nViolin Solos: (a) Serenade Coquette, Op. 15, No. 2\nArthur Bergh\n(6) Alia Zingara (Hungarian Dance), Op. 8, No. 2\n.\n\nGeorge Klass\nIna Grange, Pianist\nMalcolm Dana McMillan\n\nSong Cycle: The Heart of Farazda\nL3a:ics by Olive\n\nLong\n\nBeatrice Lavine Thurston, Contralto\nintroduction\n\nThe Question\nII. Before Her Mirror\nI.\n\nIn the Rose Garden\nIV. At the Mosque\nV. The Cry to Azrael\n\nIII.\n\n\"The Heart of Farazda\" tells the love of an Arabian girl. Number one is the song\nThe music changes without interlude to the swing and\nof the springtime of her heart.\nthe sii^ of the desert cry; love has came into her life from the desert. In the interlude\nbefore the third song is heard the dulcimer of her lover as he sings his serenade to her in\nthe rose garden.\nA quiet interlude, expressive of night, before the fourth song, breaks into the call\nof the eastern temple bells, as the dawn comes. He has gone and she is at the mosque\npraying to Allah for his safe return.\nThe last song is one of despair over her lover's departure, a cry to Azrael, the Angel\nof Death, and the vow of her endless love.\nWilliam B. Kinnear, Secretary pro tempore\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": "627", "text": "COMMUNITY MUSIC—AN OPPORTUNITY\n\nDepartment]\n\n627\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nCOMMUNITY MUSIC— AN OPPORTUNITY\nPETER W. DYKEMA, PROFESSOR OF MUSIC, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nIn discussing the topic announced, it will be best to glance at certain\nconditions in our national life which need rectifying.\n\nAfter having done\n\nthis, we shall examine the means by which improvement\n\nmay be expected,\n\nand shall consider what part music may have in this betterment. Finally,\nwe shall consider the type of musician who is needed to carry on this new\nsocial aspect of music, and shall endeavor to point out what his qualifications should be and how these may be obtained.\nI.\n\nTHE NEED— SOME CHARACTERISTIC TENDENCIES OF AMERICAN LIFE\nThis is an era of specialization, of individualism, of seeking for the\n\nefficiency of\n\neach man and each woman.\n\nThe tendency of education^ the\n\ntendency of life as a whole, is to consider that every person has a particular\ntalent which he should develop, and which, being developed, will cause\nhim to reach the highest degree of usefulness to himself and the world at\nlarge.\nEven tho some restrictions should be made, it is hardly too much\nto say that we are fast adopting as our national motto, \"Every Man for\nHimself.\" The extreme of this point of view is what is without doubt\nresponsible for a large amount of the dishonesty in our commercial and\npolitical life; the grafter, in other words, is merely the\n\nman who has exalted\n\nthe ideal of every man for himself.\n\nHis point of view merely says, \"Let\nme get what I can; let everybody do the same, and the world will get\non best, or at least, I will get on best, and that, in the end, is what every\nperson is anxious to accomplish.\"\n\nA second characteristic is the national idfea of rush. To be busy is\nto most of us an indication of value; the more rapid the pace of our life, the\n\nmore important we think we are. The principle of conduct is work hard\nand play hard ^work up to the last minute until you are depleted in energy\nand exhausted in spirit; give all that you have, and then have a new supply\npoured in; work with a set jaw; be filled with ginger and pep and then go\nover to play which, thru its excitement, its thrills, and its shocks, will so\nsurprise and overturn the organism that we shall forget the tension of work.\n\"\nIt is this tired-business-man's attitude which is responsible for our \"yellow\n\n—\n\nnewspapers with their shrieking headlines, our ephemeral magazines, our\nlarge output of debased plays, our melodramatic movies, our sensational\n\n—\n\namusement parks in a word, for our Coney Island type of recreation.\nThe third and largest tendency we shall examine is that which sets as\nthe goal of life the acquisition of many things, which has as its standard\nthe owning of much that can be measured and counted.\n\nIn the rising scale\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": "628", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n628\n\n[Music\n\nand cost of living, one large element is the willingness of the public to pay\never higher prices for the things it wants, especially those things which are\nin the class of luxuries. Those means which former generations have used\n\n—art many manifestations,\n—are as cheap as or cheaper\n\nfor the developing of the spiritual side of life\n\nin its\n\nbooks, pictures, music, at least printed music\n\nthan ever before.\n\nTHE REMEDY\nII.\nWhat means for correcting these conditions are there already in operation?\n\nWe are endeavoring to counteract individualism by the developWe hear much of the development of a\n\nment of the social aspects of life.\n\nand responsibility for, the way the\nThere is the largely intellectual appeal thru publications\n\nsocial consciousness, the knowledge of,\n\nrest of folks live.\n\nsuch as the Survey magazine, the bulletins of the Russell Sage Foundation,\nreports of associations for relief;\n\nwe are forming various bodies such as\n\nthose devoted to charities and corrections in which we are having certain\n\n—\n\nagents work for us\nresponsibilities;\n\n^we are endeavoring vicariously to enter into our social\n\nand, finally, the social-center movement is bringing large\n\nnumbers of us together for discussion.\nis\n\nThe keynote of all these movements\n\nthat of co-operation, of neighborliness, of brotherhood.\n\nMusic is having a large part in this movement and is destined to have\nan even larger one. For the sake of convenience, we may consider music in\nits two aspects: as something which is heard by an audience, and something which is made by the performers. Consider first the listeners: we\nfind that the process of hearing music is a social one in itself. There\nmust be the audience in order to have the best performance; it must supply\nthe artists with inspiration and a reason for their existence. This is true\nas regards not only physical presence, but mental attitude as well. The\nperformer gives according to his audience. They who hunger and thirst are\nthe only ones who can receive. All the audience is therefore bound together\nin a sort of mutual endeavor to obtain the most and the best. This fact\ngives rise to what is called the \"mass spirit,\" the psychology of the crowd\nwhich points out that the collective listeners are greater in their demands\nand their abilities to appreciate than any individual, and that, moreover,\nthe power of each listener in the group is stimulated and heightened by\nthe possibilities of the group as a whole. My bit of appreciation joins with\nyours, and with that of hundreds of others, and the composite mass envelops\nus and causes our little contribution to grow and expand. In this composite\nappreciation or enjoyment, there is a binding force which not only makes\nEmotion of any kind, grievous\nfor sympathy but which is itself sympathy.\nor joyous, helps to bring people together. Go into any strange community\nand listen to an enjoyable instrumental performance, and you will find\nyourself becoming neighborly with those about you.\nBut if music tends toward sympathy and brotherhood when we are\nmerely listeners, its effect is greatly heightened when we become per-\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": "629", "text": "I\n\nCOMMUNITY MUSIC—AN OPPORTUNITY\n\nDepartment]\n\n629\n\nMusic performed by a group is essentially and pre-eminently\nsocial.\nPart singing is a symbol of democracy; each part is necessary, and\nthere is a place for every type of individual. Frequently the bad qualities\nof one are counteracted and sweetened by those of another; the flatness\nor hollowness of one voice may combine with the overshrillness and acidity\nformers.\n\nof another, with the resultant combination that, while neither is pleasant\nalone, both are pleasant when combined;\n\nbut whatever the form of singing,\n\nthe result of adequate work is the promotion of a feeling of co-operation,\ninterdependence, warmth, appreciation in a word, of brotherhood, and,\n\n—\n\nour education, of\n\nin the end, is this not the goal of all\n\nall\n\nour social\n\nendeavor ?\n\nIn our endeavors to overcome the feeling of hurry and overexcitement,\nwe are anxious to develop a feeling of poise. We recognize the definite\nrelation between work and leisure; the latter determines to a large extent\nthe former, work being considered as the storing-up of poisons which must\nbe gotten rid of thru recreation.\n\nRest\n\nis\n\nthe rebuilding of our bodies.\n\nwe are all anxious to obtain better working conditions, more\nreasonable hours, closer adaptation to work, we are greatly concerned\nwith what shall follow work— in other words, the disposition of the play\nSo while\n\nThere are societies for the suppression of unnecessary noise, of\nunnecessary stimulation, the ridding of our ears of sounds that can be\ndone away with, the ridding of our eyes of signs that shriek at us, and\nhours.\n\nthe general guarding of our environment.\n\nWe are endeavoring to super-\n\namusements of various types by censorship and otherwise; we are\nmaking enormously increased provision for play and recreation both thru\nprivate enterprises such as the valuable endeavors of the Y.M.C.A. and the\nY.W.C.A. associations which have gained a new lease on life and a great\nincrease in their religious influence thru the attention they have given to\nthe physical and recreational aspects of life and thru municipal parks,\nplayhouses, baths, and the like; and, finally, we are undertaking not only\nthe supervision, but the stimulation and direction of self-activity in play.\nThere are municipal theaters springing up here and there in which not only\nthe professional plays for which the theater is rented are given, but in which\nthe citizens of the towns are performing plays. A great increase in festival\nwork in the schools and pageantry in the community as a whole is another\nindication of the use of recreation for the development of poise.\nMusic is an important factor in this movement. Carlyle has said,\nvise\n\n—\n\n—\n\n\" Give me the man who sings at his work.\n\n'\n\n'\n\nA wealthy French manufacturer\n\nhas lately taken steps to get the people whom he employs to sing at their\ntasks.\n\nThe idea that is back of these endeavors and many others of similar\n\ncharacter is that he who sings must of necessity be cheerful, contented,\n\nand calm, or at least composed, and if he is not already so, the presence of\nmusic and especially the production of it will tend to bring out these\nattributes.\n\nHundreds of examples can be cited in which the installation\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": "630", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n630\n\n[Music\n\nof music has had a definite effect upon the steadiness and calm direction of\n\nThe Salvation Army with its great use of song may not always\nmake use of the selections which the trained musician would choose, but\n\nwork.\n\nthey are means of showing the power of music to develop sane, happy\nlives.\n\nThe musician must be careful that in the attempt to produce\n\nstrong technicians we do not kill the spirit of song.\n\nWhether a song be\n\nlearned by rote or note, the important thing is that the singing spirit must\n\nbe kept alive.\n\nIf\n\nour children do not sing when they leave the school,\n\nour work is a failure.\n\nAnd for those who are outside of school, there must\n\nbe opportunities for the renewing of this desire to sing.\nThis singing and playing by the amateur is of value not only for the\npleasure and profit he may get from it in the actual performance, but it is\n\nthe absolutely essential basis of appreciation of any higher form of music.\nSelf-activity, the trying to do, is the ultimate basis of\n\nour appreciation.\n\nHe who would appreciate Raphael must have tried to draw;\n\nhe who\n\nwould appreciate Chopin or any of the other great musicians must have\ntried to compose, to play, or to sing.\n\nIn considering the steps toward the developing of materialistic aspects\nof life into something higher, nothing has been of\n\nmore significance in recent\n\nyears than the welcome accorded to some modern prophets such as Charles\n\nWagner with his doctrine of the simple life, the Hindu prophet with his\ncult of the Bahai,\n\nand the ready ear with which minor poets in many\n\ncountries have been listened to in their portrayal of the lives of the humble.\n\nNevertheless, this materialism remains one of the most forbidding tendencies in our\n\nAmerican\n\nlife.\n\nThe\n\nschools\n\nand\n\nuniversities with their\n\nextension and free public lectures, the churches with the popularizing of\ntheir service, the formation of\n\nof business\n\nmany forums for the discussion of topics\n\nand politics, and the social center with its \"get together\"\n\nmake possible the ideal of the\nend of education, the making of men rather than millionaires,\n\ntalks, all these are striving valiantly to\n\nspiritual\n\nthe making of a life rather than a living.\n\nMusic, by its very intangible, fleeting, and unmonopolizable character,\nis\n\nespecially valuable in this connection\n\nwhen properly directed.\n\nIn its\n\nvery nature the one who would possess it must give it away, and the more\n\nhe gives the more he has. It is an ideal example of the fact that only that\nwhich one shares can one really have. Moreover, by its nature, it builds,\nin Keats's words, \"a bower full of sweet dreams and health and quiet\n\nMusic teaches that the satisfactions of life are in the outlook\nman, in his spiritual attainments, not in physical possession. Music\ndevelops the imagination and immensely widens the experience of its\ndevotees. He who would perform or even listen to music must be able\nHe who puts time\nto enter into the soul of the composer in his every mood.\nand effort into the production of music has taken a long step toward the\nemancipation of himself from the domination of things. He has begun\n\nbreathing.\"\nof\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": "631", "text": "COMMUNITY MUSIC—AN OPPORTUNITY\n\nDepartment]\n\n631\n\nto realize the beauty, power, and never-dying attributes of things spiritual\n\nand eternal.\n\nWho is to apply these remedies, who is to guide the music so that it may\nhave these effects ?\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to describe minutely\n\nthe different types of musical organizations.\n\nSome of these have been\n\nsuggested in a bulletin on Community Music published by the University\nof Wisconsin.\n\nOthers will occur to each person as he reads of the suc-\n\ncessful experiments in various places of this and other countries.\n\nIt may\n\nbe said, however, that no particularly new or striking means or organizaThere are already in this country\ntion is contemplated or necessary.\nprobably enough agencies, at least in embryo, to take care of all of our\nneeds.\n\nWhat is essential is that these be used wisely.\n\nA community consciousness regarding the need of music must be\naroused.\n\nIn any town if the church choirs, the singers in the lodges, the\n\nsingers in the homes, the schools, the factories could combine, what place\n\ncould not form a worthy chorus ?\n\nIf, on the instrumental side,\n\nthe players\n\nin the band, the dance orchestras, the theaters, the homes, and the music\n\nstudents could be united in one harmonious group, what town could not\nhave good instrumental music? In the lines of concerts and entertainments, if the churches, the theaters, the clubs, and private individuals\nthat now compete in bringing in from the outside various types of concerts and musical entertainments were to unite in one strong course, we\nhave only to look to towns like Elgin, Ann Arbor, or Dayton to realize\nwhat remarkable offerings could be given the people at a low price.\nHow shall this union be brought about ? Shall the direction and control be by an association of private individuals, by a committee of some\ntown government, or by some one person definitely assigned to this as his\nofficial task ?\nPortions at least of the scheme of union have been worked\n\nout in accordance with each of these plans and even under a different plan,\n\nnamely, that of the enterprising manager who by his cleverness is able to\ncontrol to a large extent the musical situation of the town.\n\nIn Elgin, 111., this latter plan is in operation, and a most remarkable\nseries of concerts is the result.\n\nIn one Wisconsin town a committee repre-\n\nsenting different and competing music schools and various other musical\ninterests of the town has succeeded in combining the various factors so that\n\na series of orchestral concerts is given yearly by the Chicago Symphony\n\nIn Dayton, Ohio, a semi-official body directs this work. In\nRichmond, Ind., the teacher of public-school music was engaged on the\ncondition that one-half of his time be given to the school work and onehalf to the direction of municipal music.\nIn New York City one man\nwas chosen as director of municipal music, which, however, in this case,\nincludes only concerts by bands and orchestras employed by the city. It\nis evident, therefore, that there may be many solutions of this problem.\nProbably the one suggested by Richmond, Ind. will be a satisfactory\nOrchestra.\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": "632", "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\narrangement when our public-school music teachers and supervisors are\nprepared for this larger work.\n\nAt a recent conference of social-center\n\nworkers, a movement was started for the passing of a law in Wisconsin\n\nwhich should, under certain conditions, make the principal of the high\nschool or the superintendent of a small system of schools the city socialcenter director at a definite salary for each oflSce. This movement is a\nrecognition of the necessity of direction of the additional agencies in a\n\nbeyond those which are conducted in the public-school instruction\nOf these educational agencies outside the school, music, as\nwe have been led to believe, if there is force in what has already been\ndiscussed in this paper, is to be counted as one of the foremost elements.\nIt will therefore be necessary, if we are to utilize it wisely, that there be\nsomeone in charge of using music in its social aspects. It is possible that\nthe social-center director mentioned before may be able to fulfil these\nrequirements, and it is certainly to be hoped that it will not be necessary\nto multiply officers. If, however, he is not, there is no more logical candidate for such a position than the supervisor of music in the schools. By\nhis position he is in touch not only with the school but with the homes.\nHe has under his direction the future adult music of the town, and if he is\nat all a permanent factor in the community, he would be in a position to\ncontinue with the graduates into adult life, and thus to unite youth and\nage by the one art which does it most simply and most naturally.\ncity\n\nfor children.\n\nIt is evident, however, that the school music teacher who is prepared to\ndo only the work in schools will be obliged to prepare himself along some\n\nnew lines. This is hardly a place to sketch a course of study, but we may\nmention one or two essentials. First of all, he must have a social instinct\nwhich may be defined as devotion to the good of the whole, and a knowledge\nof how to forward this.\n\nHe must have some of the education which is\n\nrequired of a social worker, a knowledge of many of the phases of this\ninteresting career.\n\nHe must be in touch with the transforming of music\nHe must above all\n\nin the life of the people in many parts of the globe.\n\nbe an organizer and executive, for in this work he is most successful who\nis\n\nable to get people to do things for themselves.\n\nOf his musical require-\n\nments, it is only necessary to say that in addition to that vocal ability\n\nwhich we now expect of all teachers and to that instrumental accomplish-\n\nment which we feel is necessary for the best school work, there must be\nadded some facility in band and orchestral instruments, or at least an adequate judging and directing of players of them, and, finally and especially,\nthere must be that capability of forging ahead in as yet unblazed trails,\nWhen\nfor the question of community music is one which is still unsolved.\nthe national commissioner of education asked me the other day if I could\n\nsupply him with six people to undertake national work on the community\nmusic idea, I was obliged to say that as yet I had not seen six properly\nqualified people.\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": "633", "text": "—\n\nDepartment]\n\nCOMMUNITY MUSIC—AN OPPORTUNITY\n\n633\n\nWherein then lies the opportunity of community music ?\n\nIt is in the\n\npossibility of bringing to this troubled nation of ours a factor which will\n\nmake for greater sanity, greater contentedness, greater poise, which will\ndevelop ideals of a finer and more worthy life, and which will do probably\nmore than any other one single medium to develop among us that for\n\nwhich our civilization exists, the feeling of a finer brotherhood. In the\ndoing of this we may find also that we are accomplishing that which Richard\n\nWagner in his glorious opera Die Meistersinger makes Hans Sachs say is\nthe keynote of the permanency of a nation, the development of a native\n\nAs O'Shaughnessey in his poem, The Music Makers\nEdward Elgar, says:\n\nart.\n\nWe are the music makers,\nAnd we are the dreamers of dreams,\nWandering by lone sea-breakers,\nAnd sitting by desolate streams;\nWorld-losers and world-forsakers,\n\nOn whom the pale moon gleams:\nYet we are the movers and shakers\nOf the world for ever, it seems.\n\nOne man with a dream, at pleasure,\nShall go forth and conquer a crown;\n\nAnd three with a new song's measure\nCan trample a kingdom down.\n\nA breath of our inspiration\nIs the life of each generation;\n\nA wondrous thing of our dreaming\nUnearthly, impossible seeming\n\nThe soldier, the king, and the peasant\nAre working together in one.\nTill our dream shall become their present.\n\nAnd their work in the world be done.\nThey had no vision amazing\nOf the goodly house they are raising;\nThey had no divine foreshowing\nOf the land to which they are going:\nBut on one man's soul it hath broken,\n\nA light that doth not depart;\nAnd his look, or a word he hath spoken\nWrought flame in another man's heart.\n\nj\n\nso nobly set by\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": "634", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n634\n\n[Music\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL CREDIT FOR APPLIED MUSIC TAKEN UNDER\nSPECIAL TEACHERS OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL\nOSBOURNE MCCONATHY, DIRECTOR, PUBLIC-SCHOOL MUSIC DEPARTMENT,\nSCHOOL OF MUSIC, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL.\n\nOur subject naturally divides itself under three headings:\nFirst:\n\nShould high schools offer credit for the study of singing or play-\n\ning on the piano or an orchestral instrument taken outside of school hours\n\nunder a private teacher ?\n\nIf so, why ?\n\nSecond: Granting that the high school should offer such credit, under\n\nwhat plan can the credit be arranged most effectively ?\nGranting that these two points receive satisfactory afl&rmative\n\nThird:\n\nsolution, what steps should be taken by the Department of Music Education\n\nof the National Education Association to spread the idea to the end that\n\nthe high schools of the country shall generally offer such credit ?\n\nLet me say at once that I firmly believe in the principle of crediting\noutside music study, and, further, that for six years I directed a high-school\n\nmusic department where such credit was given, and therefore am well convinced of its practicability.\n\nThere are a few miscellaneous thoughts on\n\nthe subject which I should like to express.\n\nWith regard to the general principles upon which a system of credit\nshould be based, let me offer the following:\nFirst.\n\nNo system of credits should be advocated which fails to keep the\n\nschool thoroly in touch with the work the pupil is doing.\n\nThe private\n\nteacher must become, so far as that particular student\n\nconcerned, a\n\nis\n\nmember of the school faculty.\nSecond. The most difficult problem to be solved is the one of deciding\nwhich private teachers should be recognized by the school as qualified to\ngive instruction of a quality acceptable to the school authorities.\n\nThird. In some way the students must receive tests in their music\nwork on a plan similar to those which determine their fitness for promotion\nin the other high-school subjects.\n\nFourth.\n\nNo school should grant outside credit which does not offer\n\na course in theoretical music which the student who receives outside credit\nis also\n\nrequired to take.\n\nWe should recognize the value of a technical\n\nmusical equipment, but it should be theoretical as well as applied.\n\nA surprisingly large number of students are seriously studying\nA plan which would enable them to give ample time to their music\n\nFifth.\n\nmusic.\n\nand at the same time carry on their high-school work would be hailed with\njoy thruout the country.\nSixth.\n\nThere is probably no one movement which could so quickly\nmusic teaching as the widespread adoption\n\nraise the standard of private\n\nof the crediting system.\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": "635", "text": "Department]\n\nHOW CREDIT FOR MUSIC SHOULD BE PLACED\n\n635\n\nA PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE BASIS ON WHICH\nCREDIT FOR THE STUDY OF MUSIC IS TO BE PLACED\nJ.\n\nBEACH CRAGUN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe question that concerns us here is that of the giving of school credit\nIf we are of the turn of mind that goes to the\n\nfor work done in music.\n\nbottom of things, there immediately arise several questions, one of the\nmost important of which is this: By what right or benefit may we demand\nthat music, especially instrumental music, be accorded the basis of serious\nbenefit accorded the other subjects?\n\nThis paper will not concern itself\n\nwith the amount of credit offered, but will attempt to indicate the bearing\nof the subject of music on the mental development of the child, the difficulties to be overcome in getting music upon the proper accredited basis,\n\nand will endeavor to offer some aids to your own thinking as a means to\nthis end.\n\nThe value of music study is by no means one to be taken as self-evident.\nThe problem of the psychologic value of the study of music is an unsolved\none.\nManual training was once where music is now treated more or\n\n—\n\nless\n\nas an\n\nornament, and to be tolerated rather than fostered in a\n\nsystem.\n\nThe school has literally been forced to incorporate every subject found\nThe same will be true of music as we would have it\nincorporated. And in this process we professional music teachers must\nin its curriculum.\n\ntake the initiative for no one else has our opportunity for gathering data.\n\nA further reason to show that we must study our own subject: I recently\nasked a number of professional school men and women this question:\n\n\"Do\n\nyou think that the methods of teaching music now in use in our schools are\nas efficient, comparatively speaking, as those of other subjects ?\" Only\ntwenty-five answered in the affirmative, while eighty-three said, \"No.\"\nOf course we understand the value of our subject, we feel it, hence we are\nthe ones on whose shoulders falls the burden of proving its value to the\nuninitiated directors of public-school affairs— and their name is legion.\nIt is the hope of the writer that this paper may be successful in aiding to\norganize our thinking to this end.\n\nBefore attempting to locate the value of our subject, we must obtain\n\na category which\n\nis\n\ninclusive,\n\nwhich omits nothing.\n\nThis exhaustive\n\nsummary we find in the term \"mental life,\" as used by present-day\npsychologists.\nIn this are bound up all phases of being and development, whether mental, or physical, or spiritual. Modern psychology\nis\n\nmore and more finding that these are but more or less separate\nit must be accepted that\n\nphases of the one unit, the individual, for\nall\n\nmental processes are psycho-physical,\n\nsome\n\nsort.\n\ni.e.,\n\nresultant in\n\naction of\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": "636", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n636\n\n[Music\n\n\"Mental life\" being an inclusive term, all affairs with which education\nhas to do must find their bearing on it in some manner. It is the burden\nof this paper to locate the bearing of the study of music on mental develop-\n\nment.\n\nI have\n\nput the matter in the form\n\nof\n\na chart to\n\nfacilitate\n\ndiscussion:\n\nMENTAL LIFE\nCognitive Aspect\n\nAffective Aspect\n\nTo Know\n\nTo Feel\n\nTo Do\n\nThe knowing of things thru\n\nRelative subjective feeling\n\nRelatively objective desire\n\nreason, imitation, or sen-\n\nor emotional response.\n\nsory information.\n\nConative Aspect\n\nor volition\n\n—the striving\n\nto or away from an end.\n\nThe apperceptive mass.\n\nTo think and to know.\n\nTo feel and to appreciate.\n\nAiBFerent.\n\nCentral appreciation.\n\nTo wish, desire, to be able\nto do.\n\nMotor or efferent.\n\nThis division may be safely taken as an acceptable and inclusive one.\nIf interested in\n\nstudying further along this line, read McDougal's Social\n\nbe noted that each element in the curriculum has\nelements of value coming from beneath each of the three divisions, cognitive,\nPsychology.\n\naffective,\n\nIt is to\n\nand conative.\n\nTake geography, for example. The learning of\nThe process by which the child learns \"to\n\nfacts comes imder the first.\n\nfeel\" the relative sizes of countries, the isolation of one people, or the\n\nThe desire to further study,\nTake the\nThe child learns to know certain facts, or\n\nsavagery of another falls under the second.\n\nor to go to see some land studied, would fall under the third.\n\nstudy of elementary science.\nhe learns to feel certain relationships, or there follows a different behavior\n\nthan otherwise there would have been.\n\nTake the study of music.\n\nchild learns certain elements of notation, for example,\n\nThe\n\nand he feels the\n\nbeauty of tone or rhythm, and because of these and other previously\nreceived experiences, he desires the enjoyment of again hearing or producing\ngood music.\nSince we have registered the opinions of some of our leading psychologists to the effect that our classification is inclusive, our next point is to show\n\nthe bearing of music work on this classification.\n\nthat we might take for granted.\n\nThis, again, is a thing\n\nBut since I am taking nothing for granted,\n\nI have gathered some objective data bearing on this point.\n\nAllow me,\n\nagain, to present these in the form of a chart, and remember that we are\n\nattempting to get at the location or bearing of the study of technical music\n\non the mental development of the child.\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": "637", "text": "Department]\n\nHOW CREDIT FOR MUSIC SHOULD BE PLACED\n\nI\n\n637\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": "638", "text": "..\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n638\n\n[Miisic\n\nThese figures were obtained in this way: The following people were\nasked to write down what subjects, in their opinion, should find their chief\nvalue in each of the three phases of mental life, cognitive, affective, and\nconative:\n\nPositions\n\nGrade teachers\nCity, county, and district superintendents\nDomestic science and art supervisors and\n.\n\n.\n\nteachers\n\nHigh-school teachers\nManual-training supervisors and teachers.\nElementary-school principals and assistant\n.\n\n.\n\nprincipals\n\nHigh-school principals and assistant principals\n\nGenerd\nTotals\n\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nTotal\n\nI\n\n18\n\n19\n\n41\n\n2\n\n43\n\nI\n\n14\n3\n\nIS\n\n6\n11\n\n2\n\n13\n\n9\n\n9\n\n5\n\n14\n14\n\nI\n\n13\n\n14\n15\n27\n\n97\n\nS8\n\n155\n\nThe chart given above indicates the response.\n\nBut it is always neces-\n\nsary to go behind any such quantitative statement as this and seek the\nqualitative interpretation of the same figures. Note *' science \" for example.\n\nThe chart does not prove that science, having twenty votes more in the\ncognitive than in the conative, should be approached primarily from the\nfirst\n\nstandpoint, under which procedure the child would accumulate a\n\nquantity of facts; but the table does show that science, with history and\nlanguage, is a subject the study of which contributes largely to all aspects\nof the mental life of the child.\n\nAnd it does show, in terms of the expert\n\nopinion of this group of people, that the values derived from penmanship,\n\nmathematics, industrial subjects, music,\n\nart,\n\nand geography are more\n\nspecialized in their contribution.\n\nTo get to the case in point, music study has a definite contribution to\nmake in terms of this chart. There was little doubt in the minds of these\nRemember, again, that I am trying to so organize\nbearing, and not the relative value, of music\nshow\nthe\nour thinking as to\nshow,\ntoo, that music is not to be developed from\nchart\nstudy. Does this\n?\nNo, not at all, even if this were possible.\nstandpoints\nas\nwell\nthe other\ninterrelation, and the one ever concerns\nclosest\nof\nthe\nare\nThese three phases\nindicate\nto\nme the one phase we should stress,\nit\ndoes\nthe others. But\nuppermost\nin\nthe musical education of the child.\never\nkeep\nthat we should\nwhich\ndid\nnot\nteach half and whole notes were\nmusic\nin\ncourse\nTo have a\nrespond\nin\nthe finest fibers of his being,\nchild\nto\nthe\nteach\nto\nfolly, and\nin\nsome\ndirection, were impossible.\nvolition\ndesire\nor\nresultant\nwithout\nLet us stress the affective in the musical development of the child, for then\nwill the conative be automatically cared for.\nTo smnmarize the material covered thus far: All mental processes are\npsycho-physical, that is, resultant in action of some sort. It is the opinion\neducators as to this fact.\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": "639", "text": "Department]\n\nHOW CREDIT FOR MUSIC SHOULD BE PLACED\n\n639\n\nof experts in psychology that all mental processes may be divided under the\n\nand conative, and that under these, as\n\nthree heads, cognitive, affective,\n\ncontributing elements, may be placed all the subjects of the curriculum.\nLastly, in terms of the expert opinion of the 155 people above named,\n\nmusic has a primal and very definite value in building up the affective\nphase of mental development.\n\nGranted all this, all that remains to be done is to properly organize and\npresent our material and measure results, for only after these things are\n\ndone will music be accorded the serious place on the program it deserves.\nThree sets of figures gathered from the same group of people cited above\nhave bearing here. To the question \" Should the pupils in the elementary\nschool or high school be given opportunity for vocational training in\nmusic, i.e., training leading to the work of the professional musician?\"\n:\n\nNinety answered ''Yes,\" and twenty-eight, \"No.\" To the question:\n''Should pupils in the elementary school or high school be given school\ncredit for good work in instrumental music done with private teachers, but\nunder school supervision?\" this was the response:\nElementary\nSchool\n\nHigh School\n\nBoth\n\nTotal\n\n114\n9\n\n126\n\nYes\n\nI\n\nII\n\nNo\n\n9\n\nI\n\n19\n\nOf the same group, the following figures cover their schools in which\nsuch credit is given with additional showing of the working success of the\n\nscheme.\nElementary\nSchool\n\nFairly successful\n\nI\n\nHighly successful\n\nHigh School\n\nBoth\n\nTotal\n\n12\n\n8\n\n21\n\n4\n\n5\n\n9\n\n16\n\n13\n\n30\n\nNot successful\nTotals\n\nI\n\nThe facts to be derived from the foregoing figures are these:\n1.\n\nMost school people, indicated by the facts that 90 voted yes, and 28 no, would\n\nfavor putting music on a vocational basis, if they could see their way so to do.\n2. A total of 126 would, and only 19 would not, give school credit for instrumental\nwork done with private teachers under school supervision.\n3. Of these 126 who would, 30 represents the number of schools which actually do\ngive such credit, in not one of which is the scheme unsuccessful.\n\nA serious question arises from these facts. Why do not the others,\nalso, give similar credit?\n\nThe explanation may be found largely in the\n\nanswers to the question as to the relative efficiency of our present methods\nof teaching school music.\n\nYou remember twenty-five answered in the\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": "640", "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\naffirmative while eighty-three went on record to the effect that our methods\nof teaching music were not as efficient as those of other subjects.\n\nIt will\n\ntake the combined experience and the thinking of all of us to successfully\n\nmeet such situations as this.\n\nProper organization of our material is a\n\nmatter that must occupy our most serious attention.\n\nWe said above that having an inclusive basis from which to work,\nand a classification fitted to the best modern educational and psychological\nthinking, and having music established as a primal contributor to one of\nthe three elements of this classification— having all this, all we needed to\ndo was to organize our material and measure results, and our case would\nbe a complete and clear one. It is in the measurement of results that we\nhave met our Waterloo.\nMeasurement of the results is a matter the difficulty of which is almost\nself-apparent, on the basis of the cognitive, affective, and conative classifications here assumed.\n\nIf the stimulus be this:\n\n2X2 equals 4, placed on the blackboard by\n\nthe teacher, or if it consists in a list of spelling words, the effect of the\nprocess -4 to 5 to\n\nD is easily reducible to quantitative terminology.\n\nHow-\n\never, such a study as music, developing largely in the affective phase of\n\nmental life, is likely to develop a different pathway, one that leads from A\nto B and then to C, where it may remain operative yet dormant for almost\nany length of time before functioning as it is bound to do, sometime at\nD, This is what I meant early in this discussion when I described the\n\n—\n\n—\n\naffective as a \"relatively subjective\" mental phase.\nThe point is this:\nIn the arithmetic problem the result D can be quickly and easily tested.\n\nBut in the case of music, altho this child may have labored twice as hard\nas the other to acquire the appreciation concerned, his acquirement does\n\nnot function at D, perhaps, until a year or two after he has been failed in\nhis music course, and meantime nobody has been able to see or measure the\n\nvalue of the process at C which has been slowly developing.\n\nOf course C\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": "641", "text": "Department]\n\nis\n\nWHEN MUSIC FULFILS ITS HIGHEST FUNCTION\n\nequally important with D,\n\n641\n\nand here we have the foundation of our\n\nadministrative difficulty, the one that you and I must stand united to solve,\n\nand concerning which I hope you will all find your own thinking the better\norganized thru the hearing of this paper.\n\nWHEN MUSIC FULFILS ITS HIGHEST FUNCTION\nPETER CHRISTIAN LUTKIN, DEAN, SCHOOL OF MUSIC, NORTHWESTERN\nUNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL.\nMusic may be considered from two points of view: In the first instance\nas something we may listen to, and in the second instance as something\n\nwe can bring into being thru our own intellectual, emotional, and physical\nactivities.\nOn first impulse we will be disposed to say that music is\nIn any event, the great mass of\nhumanity to whom music appeals get their pleasure thru hearing it, and\nperformance is looked upon as a necessary process, without which there\nwould be no music at all. Whether or no this act of hearing is the highest\nfunction which music serves will be determined later.\nMusic as something to be listened to embraces a vast gamut of possiTo begin at one of its lowest levels, the Salvation Army depends\nbilities.\nupon the seductive tones of the cornet, tambourine, and bass drum to\nattract the passer-by. And they do attract him, partly because they produce noise and partly because the simple melodies and recurrent rhythm\nhave something elementally appealing in them. But the music is not only\na means by which the crowd is gathered together— it is further expected\nto so affect the listeners that their emotions will the more readily be worked\nupon. Even on this humble plane, the two primary characteristics of\nprimarily something to be listened to.\n\nmusic stand out distinctly.\n\nOn the one hand, it has the capacity of afford-\n\ning pleasant entertainment; on the other hand, it has the capacity of arousing\n\nemotions, and that from the most flippant to those that are most deeply\ningrained in our natures.\n\nThe band at the circus will pleasantly excite\n\nus while the band at a funeral procession will deeply impress us with its\nsolemnity.\n\nA singer at a vaudeville entertainment arouses passing mirth\n\nor cheap sentimentality, while an artist at a song recital will play upon\n\nour finer emotions to an indescribable extent.\n\nThe same piano will at\n\none time set our feet tingling with engaging dance music, while at another\ntime it will move us profoundly with the lofty inspirations of some great\nmaster.\n\nThat music is well-nigh universal in its appeal is proven by its widespread use in theaters, vaudeville, and moving-picture shows.\n\nNothing\nmore vociferously applauded than the popular song with its obvious\nrefrain.\nThe hectic melodrama must needs have its pizzicato when the\nvillain is secretly plotting and its slow music when the heroine dies.\nIn\n\nis\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": "642", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n642\n\n[Music\n\nfact popular entertainments are rare indeed which do not provide music\nin some form or other.\n\nBut we have considered music only in its widest and, as logically follows,\nAs we narrow the circle of our operations and\n\nits most superficial appeal.\n\nconfine its effects to the real music lover, we tremendously broaden its scope\n\nand meaning. It is difficult, indeed, to describe to the uninitiated the\ncharm and fascination which music exerts upon those who either by natural\ngifts or by careful study are capable of fathoming its deeper import.\nWe\nare all familiar with the inflections of the speaking voice and we know with\nwhat power they may be projected by a gifted orator or actor. If we\nanalyze the technic of oratorical art we will discover that it is composed of\nprecisely the same elements as music, but in a restricted measure. We\nhave variations in pitch, in dynamics, in emotional force or intensity, and\nthe suggestions of rhythm. Here we have the whole working outfit of music.\nBut mark the differences: the tones of the orator are indefinite in pitch\nand very restricted in range, while the singer's tones are definite in pitch and\ncover an extended range. Moreover the tones of the speaking voice have\nno well-defined relation to each other, while those of the singing voice have\nan exact and complicated relation to each other. As to dynamics, the\nspeaking voice in its gradations from the softest whisper to the loudest\n\nshout may possibly exceed those of the singing voice but they are by no\nmeans so finely differentiated. Certain instruments, however, notably\nbrass and percussion, will greatly exceed the possibilities of the voice in\ndynamic energy.\nWhen it comes to a consideration of rhythm, prose recitation touches\nbut the \"fringe of the crust of the edge\" of time values. Even the involutions of poetic rhythms are rudimentary as compared with those of music.\nFrom this summary we see that single-voiced melody has practically all\nthe expressiveness of oratorical art plus the grace of melodic outline, the\n\nbeauty of musical tone, and the satisfying effect of coherent rhythmical\nand structural form. When well-ordered melody is added to words, the\nlatter at once gain a greatly increased significance.\n\nWe have but to recall\n\n\"But who may abide the day of his coming,\" \"Rejoice, greatly,\" or \"I\nknow that my Redeemer liveth\" from Handel's Messiah in order to be\nconvinced of this statement as far as prose is concerned. The moment we\nexamine classic German verse set to music by a Schubert, a Schumann, or\na Brahms, we must admit that the contention holds equally good concerning\npoetry.\n\nBut so far we have considered music only in its melodic and rhythmic\nIts most potent factor, harmony, has not been stressed at all.\nMelody may be defined as an expansion of human speech. The birds sing\n\naspects.\n\nThe mother crooning her babe to rest is\nthe most natural impulse in the world. But where do we find a rational\nbasis for harmony? Painting, sculpture, architecture, poetry, bellesat least a suggestion of melody.\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": "643", "text": "WHEN MUSIC FULFILS ITS HIGHEST FUNCTION\n\nDepartment]\n\nlettres,\n\nall\n\n643\n\nThey imitate, exploit, or\nBut harmony is unlike anything in tlie heavens above,\n\nfind their bases in concrete facts.\n\nexplain actualities.\n\nthe earth beneath, or the water under the earth.\n\nIt is certainly a marvelous\n\nart that can give to one and the same tone a feeling of brightness, a feeling\nof sadness, a feeling of stability, a feeling of instability, a tendency to\n\nascend, a tendency to descend, a sense of close, a sense of progress, a sense\n\nMoreover, thru the subtle power of harmony, this same tone may receive emotional colorings, varying all the way\nfrom deepest awe to highest elation.\nBut this is only part of the function of harmony. An orator can express\nbut one thought at a time. If a second speaker interposes another idea\nor the same idea in other words, confusion results. Music has the peculiar\nquality of being able to present coherently, definitely, and harmoniously\ntwo or more ideas at the same time, or of presenting the same idea in various\nof repose, a sense of restlessness.\n\ntransformations simultaneously.\n\nA musical motive may appear in innu-\n\nmerable forms thru change of key or mode, thru transplanting to other\nscale degrees, by means of augmentation, diminution, expansion, contraction,\n\ninversion, oj shift of harmonies.\n\nAll these transformations may be applied\n\nto a single part or to many parts, intertwining, overlapping, intensifying,\n\nTo these endless devices for development\nand variation must be added the inexhaustible rhythmical combinations\n\nor qualifying one another.\n\nsymphony orchestra, the differing qualities of\nThe whole represents one of the most complex structures the\nhuman brain can conceive. With all these manifold possibilities it is\nand, in the case of a\nsounds.\n\nsmall wonder that music has infinite fascination for those whose ears\nare keen enough to pierce below the surface\n\nand understandingly follow\n\na maze of complex details.\n\nTo look at the full score of a modern choral work gives to the eye some\nIn such a work which\nwas recently given under my direction over thirty staves were required to\naccommodate the tonal equipment. To follow the order of the full orches-\n\nadequate idea of the machinery of great music.\n\ntral score there were parts for four flutes, four oboes, four clarinets, four\n\nbassoons, eight French horns, three trumpets, three trombones, one tuba,\nthree kettle-drums, a bass drum, a long drum, a snare drum, cymbals,\ntriangle, tambourine, two sets of bells, celeste, xylophone, tam-tam, eighteen\n\nsolo voices, an adult choir dividing\n\non occasion into ten parts, an echo\n\nchorus, a children's chorus, first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and\n\nAt no time was this imposing array of musical forces used\nTo write two\nsolid hours of music for such an outfit and to have every phrase of every\ninstrument a necessary and an artistically integral part of the whole is\ndouble-basses.\n\nall together,\n\naltho nearly all were employed in the climaxes.\n\nThe oratorio made a deep impression on the\nmore susceptible auditors, but it was the conductor, and the conductor\nonly, who had any adequate appreciation of the many delicate shades of\n\ncertainly a herculean task.\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": "644", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n644\n\n(Music\n\nmeaning and the inexorable logic which carried it thru to a successful issue.\n\nAnd this appreciation came about only after weeks of painstaking, analytical\nstudy.\n\nBut we have considered only one side of our investigations, music as\nsomething to be listened to.\n\nWe will now approach the art from the oppo-\n\n—music as something to be performed. We have assumed thus\n\nsite angle\n\nfar that the\n\nmusic under consideration has been artistically performed,\n\notherwise it would lose much of its potency.\n\nIn point of fact, even slight\n\nlapses from a really good performance will make an astonishing difference\nin the effect.\n\nMusic is a fine-grained art and in its higher manifestation\n\ncalls upon a combination of\n\nmany unusual qualities in order to accurately\n\npresent the composer's thought.\n\nAside from the physical dexterity required\n\nthere must be a keen sense of pitch, a supersensitiveness to rhythmical\neffects,\n\na vivid imagination, and an emotional temperament all added to\n\nintelligent and ripe musicianship.\n\nIn the last analysis, the performer must,\n\nin a considerable measure, possess all the artistic maturity of the composer,\nfor he must re-create the music and clothe it with all the subtle nuances\n\nthat were in the composer's mind, else the performance will\n\nfail of its\n\nhighest purpose.\nIt goes without saying that performance calls upon capacities that the\nlistener rarely has.\n\nIt is one thing to recognize and appreciate the artistic\n\ntouch when heard, but it is quite another thing to be able to produce a like\neffect.\n\nThe performer is the active agent in music-making and the listener\nBut, some will say, we grant the superiority of the\n\nis relatively passive.\n\nperformer over the listener and the desirability of all being performers.\n\nBut if all are performers there will be no one left to listen.\n\nThis contention\n\nbrings to a focus the question at issue in the paper: Is music necessarily\n\nsomething to be performed by the few and listened to by the many ?\n\nThe\n\nanswer is ''Yes,\" as far as instrumental music and music intended for solo\nor selected voices is concerned; the answer is \"No,\" as far as choral music\nis\n\nconcerned.\n\nSo long as instrumental music is dependent upon digital\n\ndexterity for its performance, just so long will it remain the possession of\n\nlayman must needs content\nWith choral music it is an entirely different propoThe question of physical dexterity and natural capacity does\nsition.\nconcern the solo singer, but practically anybody can learn to sing well\nskilled players in its performance, and the\n\nhimself as an auditor.\n\nenough to take his part effectively, not only in simple hymn music, but in\nthe great choral masterpieces of music as well.\n\nTo play the instrumental\n\nmusic in these same masterpieces requires years of patient toil; to sing the\nchoral parts takes surprisingly little training\n\n—training that systematically\nif\n\nspread over the grade-school period would require no appreciable effort\nat all.\nIf there is one privilege to which all human beings should be entitled^\nit is\n\nthe privilege of having the himian voice properly developed.\n\nAnd\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": "645", "text": "Department!\n\nWHEN MUSIC FULFILS ITS HIGHEST FUNCTION\n\n645\n\nthis concerns not only the singing but the speaking voice.\nThe typical\nAmerican voice, high pitched, nasal, and twangy, is a national reproach.\nThese unpleasant and vulgar sounds are quite unnecessary, and could\neasily be corrected in the schoolroom.\nThey are the remnants of frontier\nlife and have no part in civilized surroundings.\n\nIt should also be the business of the public school to teach voice pro-\n\nduction as it concerns singing, for the ability to sing well should be the\nheritage of every human being.\n\nAt the present time, the teaching of the\nGood voice teachers com-\n\nart of singing is a highly specialized profession.\n\nmand anywhere from one to ten dollars per half-hour lesson.\n\nNow such\n\nprices may be all right for those aspiring to become operatic or concert\nstars.\n\nThe fact remains that proper breathing, good tone production, and\n\ncorrect enunciation can be successfully taught in classes.\n\nChildren with their\n\nquick intuition and plastic voices will be taught much more readily than\nadults.\n\nIf really capable and efficient instruction in singing were given in\n\nour public schools the gain would be not only an aesthetic one.\nis\n\nSinging\n\na most health-giving exercise, expanding the lungs and increasing the\n\ngeneral vitality. It is further claimed by no less authority than William L.\nTomlins that the intellectual capacity is both stimulated and enlarged and\n\nHe cites out of his\n\nthat the moral sense is developed thru emotional singing.\n\nown experience in Liverpool, England, how children of the dock laborers, subnormal both mentally and physically, were so stimulated by music that the\nimprovement in health, moral sense, and scholarship was most remarkable.\nSinging in chorus is the one means by which we can collectively give\neffective expression to one and the same emotion at the same time.\nThe\ngreatest singer that ever breathed could not produce the overwhelming\neffect with a patriotic song that is brought about by a great concourse of\n\npeople, all singing the same song.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nthe self-participation that gives\n\nthe larger thrill.\nIf music, then, gives such magnificent opportunities for mass expression,\n\nwhy should not mass singing be more generally and systematically developed ?\n\nNoble and inspiring as patriotic music is, it represents but a frac-\n\ntional part of the musical possibilities in this direction.\n\nIt is the convention\n\nthat at an oratorio performance one-fourth of the people shall perform and\n\nthe remaining three-fourths listen.\n\nWho are the people who really pene-\n\nThe singers, of\nThru extended and painstaking study they have arrived at that\n\ntrate to the core of the music, the singer or the audience ?\n\ncourse.\n\ndegree of familiarity with the music that they really appreciate its artistic\n\nimport and are capable of entering into its inner spirit.\n\nImagine a noble\n\nchurch, packed with eager singers and players uniting in the strains of an\ninspired oratorio, not with the idea of winning commendation, nor even of\n\ntransmitting a message to others, but solely to voice their own emotions\n\nand to sink their identities in that of a master-mind that evolves a wonderful fabric out of intangible sounds.\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": "646", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n646\n\n[Music\n\nThe musical sense like the moral sense is something apart from what is\nMany scientists and professional men have\n\nordinarily called education.\n\nno liking for painting, sculpture, poetry, or music.\n\nOn the contrary, many\n\npeople without educational advantages whatever have an inborn feeling\n\nWealth and poverty, education\nand ignorance have divided mankind into well-defined strata. Morals\nand art have the wholesome effect of cross-cutting these strata at varying\n\nfor the beautiful in color, form, or sound.\n\nReligion draws together those who make for righteousness, be they\n\nangles.\n\nliterate or illiterate, rich or poor.\n\nIn\n\nlike\n\nmanner the\n\nfeeling\n\nfor art\n\ncross-cuts not only the strata of relative education and riches but that of\n\nmorals also, for the artistic temperament does not carry with it, any more\n\nthan does culture or money-getting power, the sense of moral obligation.\n\nBecause the results of wealth and education are apparent to all men, they\n\nhave overshadowed the more subtle and hidden results of morals and arts.\nIn the final analysis of the values of life, all right-thinking men will place\nright doing first and worldly possessions last.\n\nThe relative value of edu-\n\ncation minus art, or art minus education, will be largely a matter of personal\nbias.\n\nReal culture combines both education and art, and our colleges and\n\nuniversities are slowly recognizing the fact.\n\nMusic is the most democratic of all the arts, and it concerns or interests\na vastly larger number of people than does any of its sister arts. At concerts and opera performances we find all sorts and conditions of people\n\ndrawn together by a conamon love for music. Oratorio choruses are\nmade up of all ranks of society, and bankers, butchers, professors, clerks,\nladies of high social standing, and housemaids all meet for the time being\n\non a common, or rather on an uncommon, level.\n\nOne of the interesting\n\nsigns of the times is the fact that business interests are waking up to the\n\nvalue of art and recreation for their employees.\n\nThe largest mercantile\n\nhouse in Chicago has a well-organized and well-disciplined oratorio society\n\ncomposed of its clerks, and two concerts annually are given with full\norchestra at Orchestra Hall. Large manufacturing establishments are employing trained specialists to organize and promote social activities, and\nmusic is by no means overlooked in the general scheme.\nMusic unquestionably fulfils its highest function when we ourselves are\nthe participants and the music makers. If we take our part seriously and\nintelligently, we will discover a vast fiel4 of pure and unalloyed pleasure.\n\nWe will find our dulled emotions sharpened, our enthusiasm quickened, our\naugmented. A wholesome sense of taking one's part in a large\n\nvitality\n\nand more important whole will be engendered. In musical performance,\nthere is ample room for emotional expression, and Americans sadly need\nmore sentiment in their composition. At times, confidence and courage\nwill be vigorously voiced, and again great restraint, and a keen sense of\nproportion will be necessary.\n\nAny tendency to self-exploitation may\n\ndestroy the delicate relation of the parts.\n\nThis feeling for balance serves\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": "647", "text": "Department]\n\nWHEN MUSIC FULFILS ITS HIGHEST FUNCTION\n\n647\n\nas an antidote to selfishness and self-assertion and awakens a kindly feeling\n\nand mutual adjustment. And what is most important,\nwe become familiar with an art that above all arts can voice the whole\ngamut of human emotions.\nTo sum up, music in its broad aspects ministers to the vast majority\nof civilized and enlightened humanity.\nFrom the simple and indefinite\nenjoyment of the masses, we pass in constantly ascending scale to the comof co-operation\n\nplex and definite enjoyment of the cultured few.\n\nIt should be our aim and\n\nendeavor to constantly raise the standard of musical appreciation so that\nthe cultured few will eventually be lost among the cultured many.\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": "648", "text": ""}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": "649", "text": ".\n\nDEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—\"Eaxl G1.AOE, head of commercial department, Brigham Young University\nProvo, Utah\nPaul, Minn.\nVice-President—^David P. Biankenbuxer, Mechanic Arts High School\ncommercial department, High School\nSecretary—^Margaret MacVichie, head\nPresident\n\nJ.\n\nSt.\n\nof\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nFIRST SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, July 7, 1914\nThe first meeting of the department was called to order at 9: 30 a.m. in the auditoriimi\nof the Y.M.C.A. building, by President Glade.\nThe first paper was an address by President Glade, entitled \"The Present Status of\nBusiness Education in the United States and Some Recommendations.\"\nSerious illness in the family of Edmund J. James, president, University of Illinois,\nUrbana, HI., prevented his being in attendance at the convention. For this reason, the\ntheme of his paper on \"Do the Subjects of Our Business Curricula Really Afford a Vigor-\n\nous and Satisfactory Intellectual Training ? \" was discussed informally.\n\nThose partici-\n\nW. S. McKinney, commercial teacher, Englewood High\nSchool, Chicago, 111.; Sherwin Cody, director. School of English, Chicago, 111.; Roy V.\npating in the discussion were:\n\nCoffey, assistant professor of commercial education, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar\n\nDavid P. Blankenbiller, commercial teacher, Mechanic Arts High School,\nMinn.; James S. Curry, head of shorthand department, High School of\nCommerce, Cleveland, Ohio; Earl J. Glade, head of commercial department, Brigham\n\nFalls, Iowa;\nSt. Paul,\n\nYoung University, Provo, Utah;\n\nJ.\n\nHenry Allen, superintendent\n\nof schools.\n\nGrand\nand\n\nJunction, Colo.; P. L. Greenwood, St. Paul, Minn.; J. A. Bexell, Corvallis, Ore.;\nMr. Preston, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order in the Y.M.C.A. auditorium at 9:00 a.m. with\nPresident Glade in the chair.\n\nThe first speaker was Herbert M. Temple, Webb & Company, St. Paul, Minn., who\ngave an address on \"The Value of Collegiate Training in Business to the Man of Affairs.\"\nDiscussion:\n\nRoy V. Coffey, assistant professor of commercial education, Iowa State\n\nTeachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa; Sherwin Cody, director. School of English, Chicago,\n111.;\n\nW. S. McKinney, commercial teacher, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.; Earl J.\n\nGlade, head of commercial department, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah; R. G.\nLaird, Boston, Mass.; J. A. Bexell, Corvallis, Ore.; Clay D. Slinker, Des Moines, Iowa;\nRobert W. Diehl, St. Paul, Minn.; Mr. Preston, Minneapolis, Minn.; Mr. Ames,\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.; and Miss Huff, Kansas City, Mo.\n\nA resolution was unanimously passed thanking Mr. Temple for his splendid address\nThe next paper, entitled \"Preparatory Educational Requirements for Collegiate\nTraining in Business, with Special Reference to Articulation between the High-School and\nCollege Courses,\"\n\nwas presented by Roy V. Coffey, assistant professor of commercial\n\neducation, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\n\n649\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": "650", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n650\n\n[Biisiness\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order at 11:00 a.m., in the Y.M.C.A. auditorium, by\nKimball, New York, N.Y., who took charge of the National Typewriting Contest\n\nJ. N.\n\nwhich had been schedtded.\n\nThe results of the contest are as tabulated below:\nNational Typewriting Contest\n\nName\nBessie Friedman\nJ. L. Hoyt\n\nRose Bloom\nWaiiam F. Oswald\nParker C. Woodson\nHarold H. Smith\n\nG.R. Trefzger\nThomas J. Ehrich\n\nMachine\n\nGross\n\nErrors\n\nPenalty\n\nNet\n\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nRemington\nRemington\nUnderwood\nRemington\n\n3,804\n\n30\n44\n\nISO\n220\n\n3,6S4\n3,S4i\n3,403\n3,38s\n3,337\n3,2S4\n3,233\n3,227\n\n3.698\n3,720\n3,S02\n\n29s\n\ni?\n\n300\n\n'Si\n3,672\n\n89\n\n435\n44S\n\nNet Words\nper Minute\n\nZ22\n118\n112 25/30\nIII\n\n108 14/30\n107 23/30\n107 17/30\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July 10, 1914\nRound-Table Conference\nPresident Glade called the meeting to order at 9:00 a.m. in the Y.M.C.A. auditoriiun.\n\nA round-table conference was the order of business.\ndiscussion were:\n\nLaramie, Wyo.;\n\nThose participating in the\n\nA. Gideon, professor of modem languages, University of Wyoming,\nDavid P. Blankenbiller, commercial teacher. Mechanic Arts High\n\nSchool, St. Paul, Minn.; Earl J. Glade, head of commercial department, Brigham Young\nSherwin Cody, director, School of English, Chicago, 111.;\n\nUniversity, Provo, Utah;\n\nTodd E. Paulus, St. Paul, Minn.; P. L. Greenwood, St. Paul, Minn.; J. C. Walker,\nDetroit, Mich.; Clay D. Slinker, Des Moines, Iowa; and R. G. Laird, Boston, Mass.\nJ. C. Walker, Detroit, Mich., of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company then\ngave a demonstration of the operation of the Burroughs Adder. He supplemented the\ndemonstration with a discussion of the possibilities of the machine for bookkeeping and\naccoimting purposes.\nPresident Glade then called for the reports of the various committees, the first of\nwhich was the Report of the Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation.\nThis committee reported as follows:\nIt is proper that some account shall be rendered of the work of your committee.\nFirst, it should be said that some research has been made as to the character of\nthe work being done in several of the subjects included in an ordinary commercial\ncourse.\nSomething has been done toward standardization; altho, as yet, no final conclusion\nhas been reached in any one subject. The inability to secure meetings of the committee\nlargely accounts for our not being able to submit a report of completed work upon any\nIn fact, the work thus far done has merely provided material for real\nsingle subject.\n\ncommittee work.\nIt has not been the purpose of the committee to offer syllabi of the several subjects\nby single individuals, however expert, but rather to analyze, criticize, and work over these\nspecial reports by putting them thru a smelting process whereby they shall be reduced to\nelemental things. Having done this with the more essential subjects, it will then be in\norder to issue the results in pamphlet form and submit them for the criticism of commercial teachers and experienced business people preparatory to a revision for final publication.\n\nYour committee has been seriously handicapped from a lack of money necessaiy to an\nefficient prosecution of the work thus far, and a point has been reached beyond which it is\n\nalmost impracticable to go without financial support.\nYou will understand from the appeals that have been made to the Executive Committee of the Association how earnestly an appropriation has been sought, and that\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": "651", "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nDepartment]\n\n651\n\nour claims have again been pressed upon their consideration at this meeting without sucIndeed preliminary steps have\nIt is now proposed to seek aid from outside sources.\ncess.\nalready been taken with some promise of success.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nW. S. McKiNNEY, Chairman\nSherwin Cody\nMargaret MacVichie\nW. C. Preston\nR. R. Stuart\nG. F. Roach\n\nSelby a. Moran\nH. M. RowE\n\nRobert A. Grant\n\nW. A. Sheaffer\nThe report was imanimously adopted.\nThe Committee on Resolutions then tendered its report which was as follows:\nResolved, That the newly elected ofl&cers of this department be directed to seek a\njoint session next year with the Department of Secondary Education.\nResolved, That the permanent Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation be requested to seek co-operation with the United States Bureau of Education\nand that the department hereby indorses the petition to Congress for an appropriation\nfor a division of commercial education under the Bureau of Education.\nResolved, That the present president of this department appoint a committee of j&ve\nto investigate the feasibility of standardized business-ability tests which may be useful\nalike to business men and as a partial basis of determining college entrance when credit\nis given for commercial subjects, this committee to report at the next meeting.\nWhereas, The Department of Business Education has for four years in succession\nasked of the Board of Directors an appropriation for its Committee on Research, Stand-\n\nardization, and Correlation and has been ignored; and\nWhereas, The chairman of the Board of Trustees has stated at the last annual\nmeeting that the request was refused because committees of other departments (science,\nhigher education, etc.) were doing similar work (committees appointed long after ours),\n\ntherefore be it\nResolved, That this department requests the Board of Directors of the National\nEducation Association to take action either to appropriate to the uses of the department\none-half of the membership fees of such members of the National Education Association\nas specifically request it during the ensuing three years or to indicate some other means\nof financing the work; and be it further\nResolved, That if no definite and positive action has been taken before the next annual\nmeeting of the active members, the officers of this department are directed hereby to\npresent this matter to said annual meeting.\n\nThe foregoing resolution was vigorously discussed.\n\nA. Gideon, of the University\n\nof Wyoming, suggested that a \"monster petition be prepared and submitted to the proper\n\nauthorities, this petition to contain the signatures of the presidents\n\nvarious universities and colleges now offering work in commerce.\"\n\nand heads of the\n\nIt was his idea that\n\nsuch a petition would be formidable enough to secure at least some financial relief for\n\nour committee.\n\nThe report was then adopted as read.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\n—\n\nFor President Reginald R. Stuart, head of commercial department, Technical High\nSchool, Oakland, Cal.\nFor Vice-President (To be filled by the president of the department.)\nFor Secretary Alvah B. Way, head of commercial department. High School, Petaluma, Cal.\nD. P. Blankenbilleb, Secretary pro tempore\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": "652", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n652\n\n(Business\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE PRESENT STATUS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE\nUNITED STATES AND SOME RECOMMENDATIONS\nEARL JAY GLADE, HEAD OF THE COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT, BRIGHAM YOUNG\nUNIVERSITY, PROVO, UTAH\nIt is rather an interesting paradox that the United States of America,\nwhich as a nation has enjoyed industrial supremacy among the world\npowers during the past century, has been so tardy in recognizing the impor-\n\ntance of business education.\n\nThe ultra-practical business man may ironi-\n\ndue to the absence of\nany serious intrusion on the part of the pedagog, but a moment's refleccally observe that this success has evidently been\n\ntion will lay bare the fact that it is really to a superabundance of natural\nresources, scattered over a wealth of virgin territory, that credit should be\n\ngiven.\nIt is equally paradoxical that for so many years the ideals of business\n\nand education should have been regarded as diametrically opposed. To the\nbusiness man, the school-teacher was somewhat of an \"old fogy\" whose\nability lay entirely in the realm of theory, and, in return, the teacher fre-\n\nquently looked upon the man of affairs as an individual of questionable\n\nmotives and little culture.\n\nThat there must have been some provocation\n\nfor this antipathy is very likely.\n\nEnmity of this nature would naturally retard any real advance in commercial training.\n\nTherefore, we are not surprised that, during the greater\n\npart of the past century, the most prominent exponent of business education in the United States was the so-called business college.\n\nOf the particu-\n\nlar reason for the use of the word \"college\" in this connection I\n\naware, unless it was for advertising purposes.\n\nam not\n\nAt any rate, the use of this\n\nterm has caused much annoyance in educational circles, particularly in\nthe compilation of our statistics, so much, in fact, that some states have\nentirely forbidden its usage except when employed in harmony with the\n\naccepted meaning of the term.\n\nUnder these conditions, our business education for a long period could\nbe little else than the offering of a few courses, all of which were more or less\nmechanically taught. Ornamental penmanship was especially conspicuThe penman was the hero of the hour and was followed about very\nous.\nmuch as were teachers in the days of the Beggar Students in mediaeval\nEurope.\n\nThen came the era of commercializing this form of education and\n\nthe establishment in prominent centers of veritable chains of \"colleges,\"\nthe best known of which was that of Bryant and Stratton.\n\nThe spirit of\n\nmoney-making in the management of the schools was rampant, the result of\nwhich was a bitter advertising campaign that continued for years and in\nsome quarters still gbtains. Naturally persons of very questionable educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": "653", "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES\n\n653\n\ntional standing were also attracted to this movement by reason of extraor-\n\ndinary financial inducements.\n\nObviously such superficiality could not hold its own for any protracted\n\nmethods were\nundreamed of at the inception of the\nThe attendant result was that graduates of these schools\n\nperiod, particularly in view of the fact that our business\n\nattaining a degree of complexity\n\nbusiness college.\n\nwere unprepared for other than subordinate clerical positions.\n\nThe instruc-\n\ntion was altogether too narrow.\n\nHowever, it would probably be no more than fair to state, that, at\nleast at the present time, there is a vast difference between business colleges\n\nand business colleges. Those institutions which open their doors only\nto mature students who already possess a liberal number of fundamental\nprerequisites (or make adequate provision therefor), and then offer a still\nmore liberal curriculum of applied courses, intensively taught by an accredited faculty of business specialists\nsuch schools have genuine service to\noffer.\nHowever, for the institution which is established solely for mercenary purposes; which expends, for extensive advertising campaigns,\n\n—\n\nfunds that should be used to purchase additional facilities and equipment;\nfor the school which will enrol anyone in its classes in spite of immaturity,\n\nunpreparedness, or even inaptitude, so long as they can be induced to meet\n\nan extortionate tuition charge;\n\nfor the school which does little else\n\nthan\n\nexploit a guaranteed job proposition, when, in fact, those jobs are not its\n\nproperty to guarantee at all; for the school the proprietor of which plus\n\na diminutive office girl constitute the president, secretary, treasurer, and\nfaculty\n\n—for such an educational excrescence, I see no function in our\n\nmodern civilization at all.\nOne of the most conspicuous movements for the betterment of business\neducation in our country took place about twenty-four years ago.\n\nPro-\n\nfessor Edmund J. James, then director of the Wharton School of Finance\n\nand Commerce of the University of Pennsylvania and now president of the\nUniversity of Illinois and the nation's most eminent business educator,\nbefore the American Bankers Association at Saratoga, made a plea for the\nestablishment of separate high schools of commerce. At that time the\nidea was an innovation indeed.\nThe educators of the country were by no means converted to work in\ncommerce as a part of the high-school curriculum, but President James's\nrecommendation was an expression of the national need and could be suppressed only with difficulty. That he was right in his contention is evidenced today by the great number of high schools of commerce now successfully operating in our metropolitan centers and by the large nimiber\nof schools containing departments of business education.\n\nThere were, at first, as is invariably the case with an innovation of this\nmagnitude, several conditions which interfered with the introduction of the\nwork, chief of which was the absence of a competent teaching force.\n\nThis\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": "654", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6S4\n\n(Business\n\ncondition, however, was only natural as at that time there were practically\nno facilities for advanced study. Then, too, many rural and some urban\nhigh schools attempted to provide the work when they were practically\n\nwithout facilities.\n\nWhile many of these problems have been solved, there is still much to\nOur schools lack the compactness of those of Europe, particu-\n\nbe done.\n\nlarly those of Germany.\n\nThe desirability of standardization is still debated.\n\nExperimenting seems to be the order of the day.\nis\n\nThere is a feeling, that\n\nwell founded, that our high-school curricula are already overcrowded.\n\nTo state that some far-reaching adjustment is needed is only to emphasize\nthe obvious.\n\nIn the meantime, higher work in commerce went on apace.\n\nFrom 1881\n\nuntil 1900, the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce was practically\n\nalone in the field of advanced business education.\n\nhas been widely felt thruout the country.\n\nIts influence, however,\n\nBeginning with 1900, the tre-\n\nmendous impetus given this work is evident in the establishment of departments of commerce in many of our prominent universities, among which\nwere Dartmouth, New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Chicago, Michigan, CaliThe work has gone along vigorously. The report\nfornia, and Vermont.\nof the commissioner of education for the year ending June 30, 1913 shows\nthat there were, during last year, 224 universities and colleges in the United\nStates offering courses in commerce.\n\nConsidered from the standpoint of\n\nnumber, the western states seem to be the more progressive in this direction.\nIn the following abbreviated list, which is fairly representative of the eastern and western divisions, are recorded the number of colleges offering\n\nadvanced work in conmierce:\nEastern Division\nVermont\nMaryland\nMaine\n\ni\n\nNew York\n\n2\n\nMassachusetts\n\n9\n6\n\ni\n\nPennsylvania\n\n14\n\nLouisiana\n\n3\n\nWestern Division\nColorado\n\n4\n\nTexas\n\n7\n\nCalifornia\n\n5\n\nIllinois\n\n15\n\nKansas\nMinnesota\n\n13\n\nOhio\nIowa\n\n16\n\n4\n\ni8\n\nAnd this is the work of a decade! What may we not expect in the\nyears to come ? The history of education has seen only a few movements\nEven the most conservative of our American colleges\nare coming to a recognition of its importance. The splendid struggle of\nthe Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania has clearly shown\n\nof this magnitude.\n\nthat the lowering of standards has not been necessary with the introduction\nof these courses.\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": "655", "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES\n\n655\n\nNow what are some of the needs of the hour in this division of our\nI am impressed with the diversity of names which\n\neducational regime?\n\nare given to the various departments offering courses in commerce.\n1 9 13\n\nIn the\n\nreport of the commissioner of education, there were no fewer than\n\ntwenty-eight different styles of appellation given these subdivisions of the\nuniversity curricula.\n\nWhile these names may not be any more divergent\n\nthan the departments they describe, and while such a variety is quite\nnatural at this early period, nevertheless, I believe it would be consistent\nto look toward a certain degree of standardization, which would also naturally include a somewhat similar unification of the courses covered as also\n\nthe degree offered at the completion of the work.\n\nFollowing are some of the departmental names used today by our\n\nprominent universities:\nDepartment of Economics.\nDepartment of Business Science.\nUniversity of Chicago: School of Commerce and Administration.\nUniversity of Illinois: School of Commerce.\nIowa State Teachers College: Department of Commercial Education.\nSimmons College: Department of Secretarial Studies.\nDartmouth\nSchool of Administration and Finance.\nNew York University: School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance.\nUniversity of Pennsylvania: School of Finance and Commerce.\nLeland Stanford Junior University:\n\nNorth Georgia Agricultural College:\n\n:\n\nIf the impetus given advanced work in business is to be very far reaching,\nand one has every reason to believe that it will be, the high schools will\nprobably occupy an important position as preparatory schools for the\nbusiness work of the college. Already the matter of proper articul^-tion\nbetween the courses of the high school and those of the university is one of\ngreat moment. However, there will always be a definite function for the\nstandard high school of commerce, and that will be to prepare students for\nthe more or less routine work of business and public life. It is to be hoped\nthat those in charge of this line of endeavor will conduct the work in such a\nmanner as to avoid producing automata. Phenomenal ability at thumping\ntypewriter keys, if unaccompanied by a reasonable development above the\n\nshoulders, is the incarnation of superficiality.\n\nculture and much of it.\n\nThe business student needs\n\nIt is also a matter of sacred duty on the part of the\n\nteacher to guard well his protege during the troublesome period of adolescence.\n\nThere are in the United States about 12,500 public and private high\nA great many of these are attempting to offer work in commerce\nwithout adequate equipment and without any need for the work other than\nthat of satisfying an ambitious principal's desire for an extensive curricuschools.\n\nlum.\n\nSurely this is the height of folly.\n\nAnother need of the work in our universities is an active interest on the\npart of our chambers of commerce and our municipal and state governments.\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": "656", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n656\n\n[Business\n\nIn some centers this co-operation is already being enjoyed with splendid\nSupport of this kind will tend toward a\nresults, but it needs extension.\ndegree of stability that is characteristic of the German institutions.\n\nNotice\n\nfor a moment the organization of the Handelshochschule of the city of Leip-\n\nIn the first place, the Chamber of Commerce assumed the responsi-\n\nzig.\n\nbility for the school and was given assurance of the support of the Saxon\n\ngovernment.\n\nThe senate in control of the institution is composed of the\n\nfollowing:\n\nOne member from the Saxon government.\nOne member from the city of Leipzig.\n3. Three members from the Chamber of Commerce.\n1.\n2.\n\n4.\n5.\n\nThree professors from the University of Leipzig.\nTwo teachers from the middle commercial schools.\n\nWith this as a characteristic organization of the German higher schools\nof busmess training, it is only natural that their influence should be so wide-\n\nspread.\n\nAltho vigorous emphasis has been placed upon this phase of\n\nlearning, the ideals of education in Germany have not been lowered;\n\nthe\n\ntruth of the matter is that the sturdy Teuton not only excels in training for\nbusiness, but has maintained his leading position in other fields as well.\n\nWhile the spirit and genius of the American people are different from\nthose of the Vaterland, we can nevertheless well afford to profit by this\nexperience.\n\nNow one word by way of conclusion. I believe that the struggle for\nadequate business training is just in its incipiency. The next score of years\nThis very hour finds us in the realm of the dynamic.\nwill not be idle ones.\nThe curricula of our colleges are being modified more vigorously than at\nany previous time in our history and it is all in response to a national\nawakening.\n\nThe call of the hour is for efficiency in affairs.\n\nThis call is being sounded\n\n—in the passing of the New Haven\n\nin the daily happenings of our public life\n\ndividend, in the bankruptcy of the Siegel and Clafin companies, in the\nfailure of the Lorimer banks, in the sinking of the \"Empress of Ireland,\"\n\nin the lingering bitterness of the southern Colorado labor imbroglio, and in\n\nmany other problems that stare our nation in the face.\nOnly the highest type of man power is commensurate with the situation.\nToday this type of power cannot be generated thru apprenticeship in business and public life alone, for there it is too late and costly.\n\nIt is largely\n\nupon our educational system that we shall have to rely.\nIn behalf of America's future men and women, who will desire to\nrender service in the world of affairs, permit me to express the hope that\nthe educational powers in our land of industrial supremacy may come to\n\na speedy recognition of business as a profession and of the need of making\n\nadequate educational provision therefor.\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": "657", "text": "BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR COLLEGIATE TRAINING 657\n\nDepartment]\n\nPREPARATORY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COLLEGIATE TRAINING IN BUSINESS, WITH SPECIAL\nREFERENCE TO ARTICULATION BETWEEN THE HIGHSCHOOL AND COLLEGE COURSES\nROY V. COFFEY, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION,\nIOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\ncommon knowledge, I believe, that there have been many\n\nIt is\n\nchanges in college-entrance requirements during the past few years.\nIndeed, they are taking place rapidly at the present time.\n\nWhen C. F.\n\nCopeland, director of the School of Commerce of Ohio University,\n\nconducted his investigation in the year 1909, not more than six of the state\nuniversities allowed technical commercial branches to make up as many\n\nas one-seventh of their entrance units;\n\nall\n\nand few, indeed, of these schools\n\nNow, one school of this sort accepts\n\nallowed more than one-seventh.\n\nthe secondary commercial subjects, three allow commercial subjects\n\nto make up one- third of their entrance units, and many more, less than\none-third.\nIt is\n\nmy belief that the credit for these rapid changes is due more\n\nto the efforts of the advocates of the other vocational subjects than to\n\nthe commercial teachers, however.\n\nThe higher institutions are trying\n\nto work out a uniform basis which will be fair to all; hence, they group\n\nthe industrial subjects and agree to accept a definite number of units\n\nmanual arts, agriculture, domesOf course, this is provided the candi-\n\nfor entrance from any of the following:\ntic arts, or commercial branches.\n\ndate offers in addition a given number of required units.\nI feel, sometimes, that the other vocational departments are reaching\n\na working basis which is satisfactory to the higher institutions more\nrapidly than are the commercial departments;\n\ni.e.,\n\nmore rapidly becoming established and uniform.\n\ntheir standards are\nI feel deeply that if\n\ncommercial teachers are to continue to enjoy the opportunity which\nthis gives, it behooves us to hold firmly to actual conditions, making\ncertain always to yield what we undertake to accomplish\n\nand to cease\n\nto prejudice our privileges with fancies and theories we hope to reach,\n\nbut have no clear idea of how they shall be worked out.\n\nThe following is a table compiled from a questionnaire I conducted\nlast October for our state teachers' association.\n\nIt was the intention of our committee to learn the attitude of state\n\ntoward the high-school commercial subjects. The third\ncolumn shows the relation between the maximum number of entrance\ncredits or units allowed commercial subjects and the total number of\nentrance units required by the institution. The remaining columns are\na detailed statement showing the amount allowed each subject. The\ninstitutions\n\nonly point I wish to call especial attention to is the order of greatest\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": "658", "text": "6s8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": "659", "text": "I.\n\nDepartment]\n\nBUSINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR COLLEGIATE TRAINING 659\n\nseems that commercial geography is accepted by the\nlargest number of schools, followed by industrial history, commercial\nrecognition.\n\nIt\n\nlaw, etc.\n\nThe answer to three other questions developed a fact which was a\ndistinct surprise to me and suggested the real theme of this discussion.\n\nhad supposed the departments of commerce of these schools might\nshow more sympathy toward commercial studies and be willing to give\nthem more consideration than the other college departments. The\nreplies showed, however, that only three of the schools permitted any\ndifference in entrance requirements for their commerce work and their\nregular liberal arts departments. Ohio University, at Athens, accepts\nI\n\nall\n\ncommercial subjects finished in accredited high schools for entrance\nThey add, however, that the student\n\nto their department of commerce.\n\nmust show his good faith by seriously applying himself to the work after\n\nThe University of Pennsylvania accepts\nWharton school the following subjects, which are\n\nentering the department.\nfor entrance to the\n\nnot accepted in the regular college\n\n:\n\neconomics, business law, commercial\n\ngeography, drawing, and manual training.\n\nThe University of Vermont\n\nrequires no Latin, but does require four units of some language.\n\nHence,\n\nwith these three exceptions, the table shows the real entrance require-\n\nments\n\nfor collegiate training in business at these institutions.\n\nThe\n\nreason they appear so rigid seems to be that generally the departments\nof commerce are but a subdivision of the departments of economics, and\n\nas the departments of economics are a part of the liberal arts depart-\n\nments they are all controlled by one entrance regulation. It is the purpose of this paper to question the justice of this combination.\nThere are valid complaints on both sides and I want to suggest a\nfew.\nI have many good friends in the large high schools of our section\nof the country who contend that their courses and departments are\nsucceeding in ''training for business.\" I have good friends in the state\nuniversities who publish in their catalogs that they are offering courses\n\nwhich seek,\n\nalso,\n\nto ''train for business.\"\n\nWhat is the high-school\n\ngraduate to think on leaving the high school?\ntelling the registrar of the university that\n\nIs he not justified in\nhe is already \"trained for\n\nbusiness\"?\n\nAgain there are high schools professing to offer courses in business\norganization while the subject of economics is not undertaken in their\ncurricula in even an elementary way.\n\nWhen the high-school graduate\n\nlearns that the university course, called business organization, is based\n\non fundamental economic theories and the terms used must be mastered\nin prerequisite courses in general economics, he loses respect for the highschool work and the teachers offering it.\nOn the other hand, there are colleges offering courses in commercial\ngeography and granting college credit for the work when they employ\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": "660", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nthe same textbook as a basis which the high schools use.\n\nThe same thing\n\n66o\n\nis\n\ntrue of the college work in elementary bookkeeping and accounting.\n\nAnd, while this is possibly anticipating trouble, another new difficulty\nis gathering upon the horizon.\nThere are three universities, Columbia,\nCalifornia, and South Dakota, which are offering shorthand for college\ncredit.\nThis latter may be solved, eventually, in the same way the\nmodern languages are handled; i.e., two years of high-school work being\nconsidered equivalent to one of college.\nAll these problems, however, only serve to complicate the question\nof what really should be offered in high school and what in college.\n\nIf\n\nmight be adjusted, the question of credits would be more simple\nand might possibly be reduced to a matter of substitution, the student\nfinishing in college what he failed to take in high school.\nthis\n\nThe attitude of the state authorities in control of these questions\nseems to be to maintain in high school what they consider a *' backbone\"\nof secondary subjects which each student is required to take and then\npermit him to complete his schedule with elections in the vocational fields.\nSometimes the state boards of education undertake to outline a\nsecondary commercial course for all high schools and publish it as their\nrecommendation to superintendents and principals. This is done in\nour state, but the practice has the disadvantage of being performed by\nmen who lack judgment and experience on both sides of the question.\nFor example, our state board recommends three years of shorthand, and\nthis all experienced high-school teachers know is more than necessary.\nI suppose all present know of the office, standing, and reputation\nof the Board of Regents of the state of New York\nthat for more than\na century and a quarter it has had almost absolute control of matters of\npublic education in one of our most densely populated states. It prescribes the requirements and gives the examinations which entitle\nstudents to the academic diploma which admits to the colleges of their\nstate.\nBut even this board has been changing front during the past\nfew years. Not more than four years ago, this statement was published\nin its annual report: ''The following subjects of study are deemed\nessential to a sound and symmetrical education, and, under normal\nconditions, should be prescribed for all pupils in a secondary school:\nEnglish, four years; ancient, English, and American history; with\ncivics, algebra, and plane geometry, biology, and physics.\"\nThen it\noutlined and recommended the following commercial course:\n\n—\n\nSecond Year\n\nFirst Year\nEnglish\n\n4 counts\n\nAlgebra\nBiology\n\nS\n5\n\nElementary\n\nbookkeeping\n\nbusiness practice\nBusiness writing\n\n\"\n\"\n\nand\n3\n\n\"\n\n2\n\n\"\n\nEnglish\n\n3 counts\n\nAdvanced bookkeeping and office\npractice\nPhysical geography or\nlanguage\nCommercial arithmetic\n\nCommercial geography\n\n5\n\nforeign\n5\n\n2^\n2J\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n'*\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": "661", "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR COLLEGIATE TRAINING\nFourth Year\n\nThird Year\nEnglish\n\n3 counts\n\nMathematics or language\n\n5\n\nTypewriting\n2J\nShorthand I or science\n5\nHistory of commerce or history of\nGreat Britain and Ireland or\n\nmodem history\nNote i.\n\n66l\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\n3\n\nCommercial\n\nEnglish\n\nor\n\ncorre-\n\nspondence\n\nAmerican history with civics.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n3 counts\n\"\n5\n\nForeign language or science or\nshorthand II (see note i)\n5\nEconomics (2) or commercial law\n4\n(2§)\n\n—Pupils who complete the above course and secure a grade of at\n\n\"\n\"\nleast\n\n75 per cent in the department examinations in the commercial subjects and at least 60 per\ncent in the other subjects will be entitled to academic diplomas.\n\nThe last annual report of the Board of Regents shows that it requested the state commissioner of education to outline a course which\n\nmight act as a standard for students in night high schools or private\nday high schools who looked forward to entering college. It accepted\nthe following course as his and its recommendation:\nFirst Year\nRequired\n\nEnglish 1\nAlgebra\nForeign language 1\n\n,\n\nElective\n\n4 counts\n\"\n5\n\"\n5\n\nAdvanced arithmetic\nElementary\n\nbookkeeping\n\n2 counts\n\nand\n\nbusiness practice\n\n3\n\nElementary representation\n\n2\n\n\"\n\"\n\nSecond Year\nEnglish II\n\nGeometry\nFirst foreign language\n\n3 coimts\n\"\n5\n\"\n5\n\nEconomics\nSecond foreign language\n\ncounts\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n2\n2\n\n5\n5\n5\n\nHistory^\n\nShorthand 1\n\nAdvanced representation\n\nThird Year\nEnglish III\nScience*\n\n3 counts\n\"\n5\n\"\n5\n\nAmerican history\n\n3 or 5 counts\n\"\n5\n\nSecond foreign language\n\n5\n\nAdvanced bookkeeping\n\nS\n\n\"\n\"\n\nFourth Year\n\n*\n\nScience*\n\nHistory^\nScience*\n\n5 counts\n\nHistory*^\n\n5 counts\n\nShorthand II\n\n5\n5\n\nAdvanced algebra\nAdvanced design\n\n\"\n\"\n\n2\n\n*\n\nEnglish\n\n4\n\n•'\n\nScience*\n\nS\n\n\"\n\n« Physics, chemistry, or biology.\n* Physical\n\ngeography or that one of the three following not taken in the required\n\ngroup: physics, chemistry, biology.\nc\n\nAny one of the following: ancient history, history of Great Britain, modern history.\n\nMany public-school authorities, however, are not yet as liberal.\nIn many localities still, they seem to think it impossible for the secondary\ncommercial course to have any connection with college or further education.\n\nTherefore, until we have definite courses and articulation to offer\n\nthem, such experiences as the one described below will prevail.\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": "662", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n662\n\n[Business\n\nIn a home of means there are two sons and a daughter.\n\nOne boy\n\ndecides he would like to be an electrical engineer and enter an eastern\nschool of technology.\n\nThe principal of the high school advises him,\n\nat the beginning of his sophomore year, to obtain the entrance require-\n\nments of the school of his choice and govern his high-school elections\naccordingly. The daughter wants to enter an eastern girls' school.\nAt the opening of her sophomore high-school year, she elects sufficient\nmodern language and mathematics to admit her to her college. The\nother son tells the principal he expects to enter business, possibly manage\n\nwhen both\nThe principal tells him he is\n\nthe distribution of the products his brother manufactures\nof them step into their father's business.\n\ntoo young to decide such a question at that time, that he should pursue\n\na general high-school course, and a general college course, and then he\n\nwould be better fitted to select his future. He studies everything except\nthe requirements of the work he expects to do and finishes a typical\ncollege sport.\nI trust I have suggested to you some of the difficulties we face, and\n\nthe only remaining service I feel able to render is to leave for your discussion the questions which are of so much difficulty to me.\n\nSome of them are as follows:\n\nThe engineering, the law, and the\n\nmedical students we have been taught to regard as professional students,\n\nbut is not theirs a vocation also ? Do they not begin studying subjects\nwhich bear directly on these callings while in high school ?\nIs it necessary for a business man to learn all his natural science,\nmathematics, language, and history in high school, and to spend his\ncollege life specializing in subjects which are thought to be narrowing in\ntheir tendency?\nWhat reason compels a business man to receive his\nculture largely in high school and his technical training in college ?\n\nDoes the department of commerce of the college or university owe\nany greater obligation or duty to the graduate of the high-school commercial department than the regular liberal arts department? Is\nit\n\nlogical to believe that the student is not thinking\n\ncareer until he reaches the higher institution?\n\nabout a business\n\nWhat is the relative\n\nvalue for business life of a general high-school training and one which\n\nembraces a few specific business principles and conditions?\nColleges usually strive for breadth of training as much as the high\nschools and permit the student to continue the study of the majority\nof the subjects begun in high school except so-called vocational subjects.\nAny language except Latin may be begun in college as well as high\nschool.\nShould shorthand belong in the Latin group ? Chemistry and\nsciences\nmany\nmay be begun either in college or high school. Why,\nthen, may not vocational and cultural subjects run side by side in high\nschool as well as in college ?\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": "663", "text": ":\n\nDEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—^W. C. Bagley, professor of education, University of\nVice-President—Helen C Putnam, American Academy of Medicine\nSecretary—L. N. Hines, superintendent of schools\n\nPresident\n\nUrbana, 111.\n\nIllinois\n\nProvidence, R.I.\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, July 9, 1914\nThe Department of Child Hygiene met in the Central Presbyterian Church with\nPresident Bagley in the chair, and was called to order at 2 30 p.m.\n:\n\nThe following program was presented\n\"Some Phases of the Health Supervision of Schools\"\nof schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\n\n—L. N. Hines, superintendent\n\n—\n\n\"Industrial Hygiene and Vocational Education\" Louis\neducation, Pennsylvania State CoUege, State College, Pa.\n\nW. Rapeer, professor of\n\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nLouis\n\nW.\n\nRapeer, professor\n\nof\n\neducation,\n\nPennsylvania State\n\nCollege,\n\nState\n\nCollege, Pa.\n\nE. G. Bauman, superintendent of schools, Quincy, 111.\nS. S. Colvin, Brown University, Providence, R.I.\n\nSECOND SESSION—pRroAY Afternoon, July 10, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order in the Central Presbyterian Church at 2 30 p.m.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Health Administration of Schools\" H. M. Bracken, M.D., secretary, Minne:\n\n—\n—\n\nsota State Board of Health, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"The Attitude of the Child in Learning\"\ndence, R.I.\n\nS. S. Colvin,\n\nBrown University, Provi-\n\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report:\n\n—\n\nFor President L. N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nFor Vice-President Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland\n\n—\n\nStanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nFor Secretary Ernest B. Hoag, Long Beach, Cal.\n\n—\n\nThe department voted to elect the persons nominated as ofl&cers for the ensuing year.\nL. N. Hines, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nSOME PHASES OF THE HEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS\nLINNAEUS NEAL HINES, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CRAWFORDSVILLE, IND.\n\nThe growth of the idea that the child belongs to the state, and that,\nconsequently, he must receive an education no matter whether his parents\ndesire him to have it or not, has brought us face to face with many problems\n\n663\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": "664", "text": "664\n\n^\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nthat some years ago were not dreamed of. If the child must have a\nsound mind, it must follow necessarily that he must have a sound body\nin which to keep his mind.\nNot only must he have the rudiments of an\neducation that will fit him for any station in life, but he must have something of a special education, so that he will not drift in helpless fashion when\nthe school has let him go. In colonial times the child had to learn to read\nso that he could peruse the Scriptures and know for himself the way of\n\nTo the reading were added the other two R's, of necessity.\nby\none,\nfrom those old days to this present time, the school has\nThen, one\nnew\nsubjects\nand new duties. The end is not yet. What that end\ntaken on\nEternal Life.\n\nmay be it is not safe to predict except that the school will assume increasing\nimportance as the years go by.\nIt has been said that the child must have a sound body in which to\n\nThat arrangement spells efficiency in the long run.\nNothing could be more evident. The concern of the school has gone so\nfar in this direction that not only is the child's health conserved while he is\nin the classroom, but the school is reaching out and into the home and\ninquiring into the manner of life led in the home, the quality of food eaten,\nhygienic conditions about the home, and all the other details that bear on\nthe health of the child. Not onl)f are inquiries made, but in some cities\nnurses are sent to look into any home conditions that are not right and to\nhelp in cases of sickness that affect the pupils or the school in any way.\nkeep a sound mind.\n\nThis course of procedure and this view of the responsibility of the school\n\nThe amount\nOne may well shrink from even the contemplation of the magnitude of the task set before us. The only thing to do, however, is to push ahead and assume one, by one the duties that are being\n\nare leading us into a great field that is only partially explored.\nof work to be done is vast.\n\nturned over to the school system of our country.\nIf the health of the children is to be sound, then, after assuming and\n\nadmitting the place and the duty of the school in the premises, the task of\nthe supervisor of the health of the children may be divided into several\n\nThese parts are as follows:\nTo see that the child is properly clothed.\n2. To see that the child is physically clean.\n3. To see that his eyes and ears are all right and are properly cared for.\n4. To see that his teeth are sound and are kept clean.\n5. To see that he is shielded as far as possible from contagion.\n6. To see that, in case of contagion, the patient gets the best possible care and exposes\n\nparts.\n1.\n\nas little as possible other children to the danger of contracting the same disease,\n7.\n\nTo see that all conditions about the school are as they should be, as to light, heat,\n\nrecess periods, playgrounds, drinking water, drainage of the school premises, the presence\n\nin the neighborhood of offensive conditions, etc.\n8.\n9.\n\nTo see that teachers and janitors are free from diseases of all kinds.\nTo see that the state or other agencies provide clothes, food, means of cleanliness,\n\nmedical attention, etc., when the parents are unable to furnish the same.\n10. To see that the patrons and taxpayers understand what is going on and see the\nnecessity for it.\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": "665", "text": "Department]\n\n11.\n\nHEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS\n\n665\n\nTo see that public funds are provided wherewith to do all the things enumerated\n\nabove.\n12.\n\nTo keep thoroly posted on the newest and best things in all lines looking to\n\nthe preservation and improvement of the health of the pupils in the schools.\n13.\n\nTo think of anything that has been left out and see that it gets the attention its\n\nimportance deserves.\n\nThe program outlined above is rather formidable.\n\nIn fact, in many\n\nschool systems, the matter of looking after the health of the schools ought\nto be turned over to a separate head other than the superintendent of\nschools, if the entire program of preventive medicine and of modern school\n\nhealth is to be followed out.\n\nIn a large city, for instance, the health depart-\n\nment of the schools ought to be directed by a person of large administrative\nability, with special training along the line of his efiForts, with the teacher's\n\ncomprehension of what school problems\n\nare, with enough sanity and\ncommon-sense not to go to seed on any particular branch of his work, and\nnot to get it into his head that everything else in the school system must\nstop while he has the pupils' teeth examined or the quality of their vision\ninquired into. Health problems and the dealing with health conditions\nare questions for specialists who should have under their supervision\nphysicians, nurses, and others to do the work outlined for them. A beginning in this direction has been made by New York City, Chicago, and a few\nother cities, perhaps, but there is a world of work to be done and a world of\nthe gospel of school health to be preached before the goal of universal and\nexpert health supervision is to be reached.\nThere is much that is hopeful, however, in the school situation of the\nUnited States as far as that situation pertains to the campaign for good\nhealth among teachers and pupils. Some states have passed laws commanding or permitting the appointing of school physicians and others to\ncarry on health work. A beginning in this direction is usually made by\nthe laws which permit this kind of work to be done in the schools. Public\nopinion, ever sensitive to any sudden innovation, is thus saved from any\nrude shock since school health officers need be appointed only where there\nis a strong demand for such action.\nThe example of the communities\nleading in any state in this matter is contagious; the people find out gradually that taking advantage of the legislation is a good thing, and so the\ngood work goes on. In like manner, the example of a progressive state is\n\nfollowed by other states.\n\nThe Indiana legislature passed in 191 1 an act relating to the medical\ninspection of schools.\n\nThis act is a good example of the permissive legis-\n\nlation along this line.\n\nThe first paragraph of that act reads as follows:\n\nThat all school trustees and township trustees are herewith permitted and recommended to institute medical inspection of school children at any time. The said trustees\nmay require teachers annually to test the sight and hearing of all school children under\ntheir charge, the said tests and uses thereof to be made according to the rules hereinafter\nauthorized.\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": "666", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n666\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nThe act goes on to define medical inspection as meaning the \"testing\nof the sight\n\nand hearing of school children and the inspection of said\n\nchildren by school physicians for disease, disabilities, decayed teeth, or other\ndefects, which may reduce efficiency or tend to prevent their receiving the\nfull benefits of school work.\"\n\nFurther paragraphs of this piece of legisla-\n\ntion provide the manner of appointing school physicians, declare that no\n\nphysician shall look after the health of more than two thousand children,\n\nWhile this law merely permits medical inspection of schools, it has\nbeen a big help in giving the health campaign in Indiana a strong impetus.\netc.\n\nThe whole matter has the sanction of the law as being a good thing.\n\nA\n\nfew corporations have taken up this work and gradually others are falling\nin line.\nThe matter of supervising the health of school children in Indiana\nis becoming\n\nan easier matter because of legal aid and because the people\nmore and more the need of such activities in the\n\nare coming to see\nschools.\n\nAny aggressive health campaign in any school community, where the\npublic has not been educated to look with favor on such efforts, is bound to\n\nmeet with opposition.\n\nThe better informed part of the conununity will,\n\nof course, sanction anything that is progressive and sensible, but a certain\n\ntype of the citizenry will not for some time be able to see anything in such\nfoolishness as having children listen to the ticking of a watch, or look at\n\na card with big letters on it, or carry home reports that \"teacher\" has filled\nout for the purpose of informing the parent as to the child's physical welfare.\n\nThe argument of a certain type of ignorant parent is to the effect\n\nthat \" they didn't have no such foolishness when I went to school and I\n\nnever died.\"\n\nYou will readily infer from the foregoing statement that it is\n\nnecessary to kill some people before they can be convinced.\n\nOther objec-\n\ntions will be made to looking after the health of the children and especially\n\nto any of the school's interference with the routine of the home.\n\nSchool\n\nadvice to the effect that children ought to be cleaned up, or have adenoids\n\nremoved, or be straightened up in other ways will all too often be resented\n\nby the type of parent that needs such admonishing. Thru all such opposition the health administrator must go serenely on his way, sure that he is\ndoing the right thing in insisting on good conditions of living, and sure also\nthat sometime the unwilling part of his public will catch up with him on\nthe highroad to higher and better things.\n\nOne of the biggest helps in maintaining good health among any given\nbody of school children is to have on the school premises abundant bathing\nfacilities.\nSuch facilities will be primarily, of course, for the benefit of\nthe people who do not have such facilities at home or who are neglectful of\nsuch means of health; but such a spirit can be worked up in the school that\nall children, rich and poor, will want to use the baths and will vie with each\nother in their desire to use the bathing privileges that the school affords.\n\nThis is one phase of health supervision that can be managed without much\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": "667", "text": "HEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n667\n\nfriction, since the parent that is opposed to overmuch bathing need not be\n\ndisturbed by requests from the school that he give his child a natatorial\nrenovation.\n\nThe teacher or school matron can see to that.\n\nSchool baths\n\ncan be installed and maintained without a great expense, and they will ere\nlong prove themselves, even to the most skeptical, to be good things.\nCleanliness is, indeed, next to Godliness, and it is also a tremendous help\nin maintaining proper health conditions in the school.\n\nEvery pupil in the United States ought to have at least occasionally\nthe attention of a school physician.\n\nIn every school corporation a doctor\n\nought to examine all the children occasionally in times of good health and\ngive them extra attention in times of contagion and danger to health. An\nexpert on sanitary conditions ought to go over every school building at\nleast once a year and point out any situation that might prove harmful to\n\nany child in any way.\nthruout our land.\n\nIt may be a long time before this comes to pass\n\nThe people thru their government spend more on the\n\nhealth of live stock than they do on live people, but there is nothing to do\n\nbut go ahead as best we may, pioneers tho we may be, and dream and work\n\ntoward that better day when children in our schools and in our homes will\nreceive their just dues and will be neither neglected nor forgotten.\n\nThat there needs to be a great awakening in the matter of care for public\nhealth both in the schools and elsewhere is shown from statistics compiled\nin an editorial in the New York Sun of some months ago and given further\n\nThe statistics go something as\n\npublicity\n\nby the Journal of Education.\n\nfollows:\n\nNew York State spends for health preservation annually i^^\n\ncents per inhabitant; Massachusetts, 4y\\; Indiana, ly^^; Kansas, 2^^y etc.\nFifty of the largest cities in the country averaged in 191 1 30 cents per\n\ninhabitant for prevention of disease and loss of life, while the average in\n\nthe same cities for fire prevention was $1.63 per capita.\n\nThe number of\n\npreventable deaths was 117,724, involving an economic loss of $200,000,000.\n\nFour t)^ical cities are cited: Minneapolis, fire prevention, $1 .67 per\n\ncapita;\n13 cents.\n\ndisease prevention, 14 cents.\n\nPortland, Ore., fire, $1.91; health,\n\nLouisville, fire, $1 36 ; health, 1 2 cents.\n\nhealth, 1 1 cents.\n\n.\n\nProvidence, fire, $1 99;\n.\n\nPrevention of fire is all right, but why not put the preser-\n\nThe New York City Health\nDepartment asked for 200 food inspectors and received 30 to watch 27,000\nplaces where food is sold. Philadelphia had 7 inspectors to watch 8,000\nmeat stores. The legislature of Ohio granted $25,000 to the farmers of\nthat state for a laboratory for the manufacture of a serum to prevent the\ndeath of their hogs by cholera, but refused to grant a cent for the manufacture of a serum (antitoxin) to prevent the death of their children.\nThe foregoing facts are not given thru any spirit of pessimism, but\nmerely to show that the supervisor of health work in the schools, as a general\nproposition, has much to contend with whenever his work comes in con-\n\nvation of health on an equal footing with it ?\n\nflict\n\nwith inertia, indifference, or opposition of a part of the public with\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": "668", "text": "668\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nwhich he deals.\n\nMeasured in financial expenditure, property in the United\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nStates is still much more valuable than life.\nIt is not the part, however, of any earnest soldier in the war for the\n\ncommon good ever to become discouraged.\n\nIf we want to become encour-\n\naged over what is being done in the matter of conserving the health of\nschool children, let us look back over twenty years.\n\nWe shall certainly\n\nbecome optimists when we reflect on the difference between conditions then\nand now. We are, indeed, on the upgrade. What the morrow will bring\nforth we can only guess, but we can be sure that all of our work as conservers of the public health is good work and that sometime and somehow\nthis work will have its reward.\n\nINDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nLOUIS W. RAPEER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, PENNSYLVANIA STATE\nCOLLEGE, STATE COLLEGE, PA.\nI.\n\nTHE ANOMALY\n\nTo those who have studied the pressing problems of working people\nThe movement for industrial education has been a most desirable effort to help the\na serious anomaly appears in American industrial education.\n\ngreat masses of our people solve successfully thru public education one of\n\nthe most serious problems of\n\nlife\n\n—that of making a\n\nliving.\n\nA rough\n\nanalysis of this problem has associated vocational preparation with forges\n\nand lathes, special schools, and costly apparatus. Educators have clamored long and loudly for appropriations with which to begin this work.\nThey have said, \"We can do nothing until we get the money with which\nto purchase this equipment.\" And they have done nothing without it.\nNow a more thoro survey of the prime needs of the world's workers will\nreveal two very essential and fimdamental factors of vocational education\nwhich most industrial courses and schools very largely overlook, and which\nThese are, first, the developare, moreover, comparatively inexpensive.\nment of general industrial intelligence, including acquaintanceship with the\ncomplex industrial world of the present, and, secondly, thorogoing education\nWhile they are waiting\nfor appropriations, school systems could be giving, without very great outin general, industrial, and occupational hygiene.\n\nlays of money, fundamental instruction with regard to our complex indus-\n\nand this invaluable health education, largely by the use of the\nschoolmaster's favorite instrument, the book a simple, inexpensive tool.\ntrial life\n\n—\n\nLet us glance at just one of these propositions\n\n—that in reference to\n\nhealth education for workers as primary vocational education. What is\nthe health problem of our working people? From extensive studies of\n\nmortality statistics and the data of private and public insurance agencies\n\nhere and abroad, as well as from many special studies, we learn, with respect\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": "669", "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\n669\n\nto the illness problem, that there are in this country no fewer than thirteen\n\nmillion cases of sickness each year among those engaged in industrial pursuits.\n\nThe effects of such illnesses are well known.\n\nIllness reduces bodily\n\nefficiency, causes loss of work and of wages, and frequently ends in death.\n\nWebb, Devine, and other social students and workers are agreed that to the\nis directly due over 25 per cent of all poverty and\n\nsickness of workers\ndestitution.\n\nRubinow, in his Social Insurance, reports that in Austria, where the\ngovernment insures workers against illness and where accurate records are\nkept of the illness problem of workers, with nearly three million workers\ninsured in 1907, there occurred 1,623,000 cases of sickness, causing a loss\nof 28,000,000 days;\nloss,\n\n53 per cent of the entire working army suffered such\nHow much of\n\nand the average time lost was seventeen days each.\n\nlow vital working efficiency there resulted could not well be measured.\nIn Germany, with over thirteen million insured against sickness, there\n\nwere 5,200,000 cases of illness in 1908, and the number of days lost was\n104,000,000, an average of eight days for each of the thirteen millions\ninsured.\n\nOf course, these are only partial costs since the public taxation\n\nfor public hospitals and other such health agencies is not here included, and\nstill other costs are omitted.\n\nSince we have as yet in this country no such\n\nsystems of social insurance, we do not yet have accurate statistics of the\nhealth problem of our own workers.\nseveral sources, be\n\nBut these illness losses may, from\ncomputed as an average of over two weeks of work\n\nand not far from 5 to 15 per cent of the worker's annual wages, including\nmedical, burial, and other expenses, both private and public. When we\nstudy the annual wages of our workers, a large proportion of them now\nbeing industrial wage-earners of the factory type, and find that the median\n\nannual wage is not far from $650 to $700, and that this sum is hardly up\nto,\n\nand certainly not above, the minimum amount necessary for a family\n\nwith which to maintain a minimum standard of living\nindustrial population working so close to this\n\n—^when we see our\n\nminimum, then we realize\n\nwhat the direct and indirect loss of even one-twentieth of the annual wages\nfor sickness really means, especially when we learn that 50 per cent of it\n\nThese data, of course, hardly show up the\nOur working population cannot afford such losses! Over one-fifth of the children\nbrought into the world each year, at such cost, die in the first year, and\nhalf of all born into the homes of our workers die before the age of twentythree.\nOver 1,600,000 of our total population die each year, 100,000 of\nthem of school age. This is an annual loss of about 2 per cent of our total\npopulation, and, in a modern enlightened civilization, is about double what\nit should be.\nThe most fundamental form of general and vocational training is that which would enable the working population to meet more effectively these death, illness, and lowered vital efficiency losses.\n\nis\n\nreasonably preventable.\n\nactual death and lowered vital efficiency problems of workers.\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": "670", "text": "—\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n670\n\n[Chfld Hygiene\n\nMoreover, the young men and women, the boys and girls of our schools,\nvery much need this type of vocational education because they themselves are seriously defective\ngirls\n\nand ailing.\n\nDr. Chisholm's studies of the\n\npreparing for work in Manchester, England;\n\nthe great amount of\n\ndata collected in our medical supervision of schools; and the statistics of\nexaminations for army recruits and for those entering industry abroad\nall\n\nshow the extreme importance of complete and thorogoing systems of\n\neducational hygiene for our working population.\n\nWe do not need, I think, to demonstrate by the statistical studies that\nhave been made that the general, the industrial, and the occupational\nhygiene phases of vocational education are woefully neglected in the schools\n\nOur teachers do not know the elements of general, perand public hygiene, not to mention industrial and occupational\nhygiene. We have few good textbooks in hygiene in use, and little or no\ntime and attention is given to the subject as a school study. An extensive\nstudy of actual courses in vocational education shows that, with but practically one exception, the only progressive work of this type is being done\nabroad. Our vocational courses, like our general elementary and highschool courses, almost entirely overlook this form of vocational preparation.\nThe anomaly then, in summary, is about as follows: Hygienic education an indispensable phase of vocational education, and yet an almost total\nlack or great inefficiency of health education, both general and vocational;\nmillions of workers suffering high illness, death, and lowered vitality losses,\nand yet educators clamoring for the costly tools for a narrow type of vocational training while at the same time neglecting the preparation so near,\nso fundamental, and so comparatively inexpensive.\nof this country.\nsonal,\n\nII.\n\nWHAT IS BEING DONE\n\nThe best evidences I have been able to find of adequate attention to\nthis\n\nimportant matter have been in Munich, Germany, some schools of\n\nEngland, the schools of Sweden, and the Manhattan Trade School for\nDr. KerGirls (not true of the one for boys as yet) in New York City.\nchensteiner at Munich not only has medical examinations and follow-up\nwork and attention to sanitation and physical education, but he has a regular\n\ncourse intended to give intelligence with respect to the complex industrial\n\nand civic world of today and the elements of general, industrial, and occupational hygiene. His course is called \"Civics and Hygiene.\" Sweden\nhas all these features but adds to them a most progressive feature in the\nform of health vocational guidance and follow-up work, including annual\nmedical examinations by government medical examiners, until the youth\nreaches the age of eighteen. A young man may be changed from occupation to occupation; he may be given shorter hours and guidance as to\nhis health regimen; and may even be kept out of work altogether imtil he\nIn England, medical supervision and follow-up work\nis physically fit.\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": "671", "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nwith some health vocational guidance is rapidly making its way.\n\n671\n\nIn these\n\ncountries the insurance of workers against sickness by the state makes the\n\nproblem of health preparation perhaps not such an acute one as here, yet\nthese countries are leading the way in school health work.\n\nThe Manhattan Trade School for Girls gives each girl careful physical\nexaminations, annually or more often, and supplements these with thoro\nfollow-up work; the home and school environments are made as sanitary\nas possible; medical, corrective, and recreational gymnastics, including plays\n\nand games, are much used, meeting individual and conmaunity needs; there\nand public hygiene,\nand of the most usable phases of industrial hygiene, developing later into\nspecific occupational hygiene for those going into definite trades; and last,\nbut quite important, is careful guidance before, and follow-up work along\nsanitary and personal health lines after, the girls have gone into industry.\nFurther than these few examples, we can point to little that is worth while.\nis a great deal of practical teaching of general personal\n\nThe recent success of the Life Extension Institute in getting employers\nof himdreds and thousands of working people to furnish each one free of\n\ncharge with an annual, very thorogoing medical examination and the\n\nremarkable revelation of the low health status of most of these industrial\nworkers show what the world of industry is beginning to think of thoro\nhealth education from the earliest years on.\n\nIt, moreover, indicates that\n\nwe are here on the right track.\nIII.\n\nWHAT MUST BE DONE\n\nWe have seen the anomaly and what is being done in a few places, mostly\nabroad, to eliminate it.\n\nalong this line.\n1.\n\nLet us now see what in this country must be done\n\nBriefly, we must have:\n\nThorogoing medical supervision of all school children, and those before and after\n\nthe school years so far as possible, especially annual, or more frequent, examinations and\nfollow-up work of a corrective and preventive character.\n2.\n\nAn improved sanitary environment at home, at school, and at work.\n\n3.\n\nAdequate individual and collective physical education, including medical and\n\ncorrective gymnastics, plays, games, recreation, etc.\n4. Improved teaching of hygiene, general, personal, and public, general industrial\nand occupational hygiene, each person getting as much of each as is reasonably possible,\n5. Careful health-vocational guidance up to the age of eighteen or twenty if possible.\n\nElementary and high schools must pay more attention to these phases\nof health education, employing teachers who have improved health training\n\nand textbooks superior to those in vogue, along the line perhaps of the\nGulick and of the Ritchie series. In the year or so before pupils go out\ninto industry, they must have added some general industrial hygiene such\nas is desirable for all workers; and, third, if possible, they must have some\nknowledge of the special hygienic precautions necessary in the special\n\n—occupational hygiene. Those\n\noccupation the pupils are sure to take up\n\ngoing into teaching, for example, must, in their professional training know\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": "672", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n672\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nthe hygiene of their occupation; those going into the lead industries must\n\nknow how to meet the lead-poisoning problem, and so on.\nFortimately, some good texts are being published which will aid in the\n\nteaching side of the problem, including general, personal, and public hygiene\n\nand general\n\nindustrial hygiene.\n\nI take time to\n\nmention one entitled\n\nHygiene for the Worker, by Tolman, a textbook on personal, public, and\nindustrial hygiene which hooks on to the keen interest of children who go\n\nout into industry, and which sets them at work in direct industrial preparation in the ways of health knowledge, health ideals, and health habits of\n\nvalue to them as workers.\n\nAnother new and high-class text for upper grades and high schools, but\nmore general in its appeal and in its subject-matter, yet of very great\nimportance, is Coleman's The People's Health. This volume will be a\ngood introduction to special industrial hygiene for those who go on into or\nthru high schools and trade schools of secondary grade.\nHere, then, we have a tentative program for helping vocational education to enlarge its service slightly beyond the giving of mere trade skill\nin order to help the workers of the country meet in a healthy, vigorous\nmanner these serious problems of life, and to attain genuine social efficiency\nso long set up by the president of this section as the aim of education. It\nmay seem somewhat progressive, but it is not in any sense ultra. As\nSeager says in his Social Insurance: \"In the United States we are still so\nfar from considering illness as anything beyond a private misfortune against\nwhich each individual and each family should protect itself, as best it may,\nthat Germany's heroic method of attacking it as a national evil thru governmental machinery seems to us to belong to another planet.\" But this\nfeeling will soon pass, since the governmental machinery we should chiefly\n\nuse in this democratic country is the machinery of our public schools,\nespecially of our industrial courses\n\nand schools.\n\nTHE HEALTH ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS\nH. M.\n\nBRACKEN, M.D., SECRETARY, MINNESOTA STATE BOARD OF HEALTH,\nST.\n\nPAUL, MINN.\n\nAn outline for this work depends largely upon what was done for the\nchild before it reached school age.\n\nGiven the attitude toward general health\n\nproblems for the child, it will then be easy to discuss the subject presented\nin the title of this paper.\n\nThe first question will then be: When and where does the health\nadministration of schools begin ?\n\nIs it before the birth of the child, with\n\nthe birth of the child, or with the admission of the child into school ?\n\nIf\n\nwe go back to the prenatal period we are confronted with the problems of\nduty of teachers and sanitarians to solve these\n\neugenics.\n\nIt is not the\n\nproblems.\n\nWe can therefore leave out for the time being the question of\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": "673", "text": "TEE HEALTH ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n673\n\neugenics and heredity, and discuss the environment of the child beginning\n\nwith the subject of infant welfare.\n\nIt is said that the mortality\n\namong\n\ninfants is greater in the state of New York at large than in the city of New\n\nYork.\n\nThis is due to the fact that there has been great activity in New York\n\nCity during the past few years looking to the reduction of infant mortality,\nwhile no similar effort has been made in the state at large.\n\nLike compari-\n\nsons can undoubtedly be made for other districts thruout this country.\nIf child welfare work were properly carried out, we should have a com-\n\nplete history of the health of each child up to the time of its entrance upon\n\nschool life.\n\nIt would then be an easy matter to make out a school-census\n\ncard for each child as it entered school, similar to the one which I now\n\nshow you.\nDisease-Census Card\n[face of card]\nI.\n\n2.\n\nFamily name\n\nGiven name in full\n\nMinn.\nAddress while attending school in Minnesota\nStrike out words which do not apply\n\n(Township\nVillage\n\nof\n\nCity\n\nCounty of\nDate of birth\n\nState of\n6.\n\nPlace of birth\n\nGive dates of residence outside Minnesota\n[Back of Card]\n\nTo be filled out by student's mother if possible, otherwise by person who\n\n1\n\ncared for student during childhood.\n\nI know this student had\n\"S\n\nChickenpox when\n\nyears old\n\nDiphtheria when\n\nyears old\n\nGerman measles when\n\nyears old\n\nInfantile paralysis when\n\nyears old\n\nMeasles when\n\nyears old\n\na\n\nMumDS when\n\nyears old\nyears old\n\n1\n\nPneumonia when\nRheumatism when\nScarlet fever when\nSmallpox when\nTonsillitis when\nTuberculosis when\nTyphoid fever when\nWhooping cough when\nand\n\ns 2-\n\n1\n1\n\nyears old\nyears old\nvears old\n\n_ years old\nyears old\n\nwhen\n\nyears old\n\n(Name of disease)\n\nStudent was vaccinated when\n\n1\n\nyears old\n\nyears old\n\nyears old\n\nSigned\n\nMother of Student\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": "674", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n674\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nWhen a student has been absent because of an attack of one of the\ndiseases listed on the card, the fact should be entered on his card when he\n\nreturns to school, after the sickness.\n\nIf\n\nsuch an attack occurs during\n\nvacation, the entry should be made when school is resumed following the\nvacation.\n\nThe teachers must question the children, or the parents if\n\nnecessary, in regard to these matters.\n\nWhen new children enter school, cards should be given them for their\nWhen a pupil is promoted or transferred to another\n\nparents to fill out.\n\nschool, the disease-census card should go with the pupil.\n\nNote.\n\n—^The summaries from schools thruout the state will be tabulated, the results\n\nstudied and expressed in charts, diagrams, etc., to be published for information of school\n\nand health authorities by the Division of Epidemiology of the State Board of Health.\n\nAs we now understand medical supervision of schools the duties imposed\nare:\n\nTo discover physical defects.\nTo guard against preventable diseases.\n3. To watch the physical development of the child.\n1.\n2.\n\n4. Sanitation as relating to school buildings and their surroundings.\n5.\n\nThe education of teachers and pupils in public-health matters.\n\nWith the proper supervision of the child, we would have knowledge\nit entered school.\nWith the school-census\ncard, we would know which children were protected from any one, or from\nThis is most important,\nall, of the diseases common to school children.\nfor with the knowledge we have we know that the spread of disease is not\ndue to the typical case alone. The question is often asked: Where did the\nof its physical defects before\n\npatient get his infection ?\n\nThe difficulty in answering this will be under-\n\nstood when we keep in mind the sources of danger.\n\nThese are:\n\nThe immune or convalescent germ carrier.\n2. The mild unrecognized case.\n3. The mild concealed case.\n4. The recognized sick individual.\n1.\n\nIn the past we have given our attention chiefly to the individuals of the\nfourth group, ignoring to a great extent the first three groups.\n\nYet any\n\none of these is really more dangerous than the fourth group, for people of the\nlatter class are generally at home during a part of the danger period, even\nif\n\nnot quarantined, for they are of necessity restrained by their illness.\n\nFurther, being known cases, they are naturally avoided.\n\nMedical supervision of schools should protect the children from the\n(a) by the prompt discovery of the concealed\nby the prompt discovery of the carrier whose\npresence is made evident by the appearance of disease among the nonimmune.\nIn dealing with preventable diseases we have to consider the primary\ncase and the secondary cases. With proper sanitation we should have\n\nfirst three sources of danger:\n\nor unrecognized cases,\n\n{b)\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": "675", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE HEALTH ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS\n\nneither of these, but admitting our inability at present to preV\n\nprimary case, those who have responsibility in dealing with these\nmust admit that they are deserving of blame if secondary cases\nfor their existence is proof positive that the primary case has nc\nproperly cared for.\n\nPreventable diseases continue because of ignorance or indifference.\n\nWe cannot excuse ourselves any longer on the plea of ignorance as to how\nto prevent the diseases common to school children.\n\nWatching the physical development of the child is important from\nIt is not safe to assume that all children of a given\n\nevery point of view.\n\nage are physically equal.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nnot fair to the individual child that\n\nphysically below par to expect it to do the work of the normal child.\n\nis\n\nIt is\n\nnot fair to the normal children of a given class to hold them back to the\npossibilities of the subnormal ones.\nSanitation as relating to the school building and its surroundings covers:\n\nThe selection of a proper site for the school.\nThe proper orientation of the building.\n3. The proper heating, lighting, and ventilation of the building.\n4. The sanitary control of the building and its surroundings on the school grounds.\n5. The sanitary control of the environment of the school building.\n1.\n2.\n\nA detailed discussion of each of these points is not necessary at this\ntime.\n\nUpon whom rests the responsibility in health administration of schools ?\npresume we will all agree that this work should be carried out by an\norganized staff consisting of the school physicians, the school nurses, and\nthe teachers. I have named these in the order of their responsibility.\nWho shall have charge of this work the health authorities or the\nschool authorities ? That should depend upon conditions. Special schools\nhave in the past had physical directors. In some places the physical\ndirector has been put in charge of the medical supervision of the schools.\nI\n\n—\n\nBut the great majority of schools (and this applies equally to the small city,\nthe village, and the country school) have no physical director. If a system\nof medical supervision is decided\n\nteachers, must be chosen.\n\nupon, the entire staff, exclusive of the\n\nAre the medical men chosen to be of the physical\n\ndirector type acting under authority of the school board, or are they to be\n\ntrained sanitarians under the health department?\n\nThe physical director\n\nshould, of course, be able to discover all defects in the school child, but, if\n\nthe proper authorities have done their duty up to the time of the child's\nreaching school age, he should have to be on his guard only for defects that\n\nmay appear after the child enters school.\n\nIt should be his duty to watch\n\nthe physical development of every child.\n\nHe certainly is in a position to\n\nsupervise the sanitary requirements in and around the school building.\n\nIf\n\nhe is properly trained to guard against preventable diseases, as he should be,\nhe is in a position to take charge of the medical supervision of schools. He\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": "676", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\nalize, however,\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nthat this is probably the most important part of his\n\nHe must find the carriers of disease: the mild unrecognized cases\nmild concealed cases. He must remember that he is directly or\niy in constant touch with the school-teachers and the children,\nthe health authorities have to do only with those who are sick or\nassociated with the sick.\nI have already said that there should be no secondary cases of disease.\n\nThe primary cases of conamunicable diseases among children in this country\nat least are very likely to infect other children in the school.\n\nIf the physical\n\nassume the responsibility of guarding against preventable\ndiseases among the school children, he must be a trained and efficient\nepidemiologist. Not only must he find the dangerous individuals in the\nschool, but he must promptly advise the health authorities of the facts\ndirector\n\nis\n\nto\n\nin order that they may get in touch with the conditions surrounding the\n\nchild outside the school.\n\nBut here another difficulty manifests\n\nitself.\n\nHealth organization in our rural districts, in the majority of our villages,\n\nand even in a large proportion of our cities is either entirely lacking or so\nprimitive or inefficient that, even should the physical director discover\nconditions which ought to be referred to the health authorities, he may\nhave difficulty in finding such proper authorities to whom he may refer\nthem. Educators and boards of education should recognize these con-\n\nThey should also appreciate the fact that the health of the child\nmore important than its education, that an educated child without\n\nditions.\nis\n\nhealth is an economic loss.\nIt is therefore most important that our efforts should be bent toward\n\nsecuring the proper health administration of schools.\n\nThis should apply to\n\nthe rural and semi-rural districts as well as the large cities.\n\nIt is not\n\npossible to establish two efficient organizations where there is not even one\n\nat the present time.\n\nIt is not possible to establish\n\nan\n\nefficient\n\nhealth\n\norganization for rural districts and also an independent organization to\n\nlook after health administration of schools.\n\nThe larger cities may work out\n\ntheir own individual problems as may seem most desirable, but other com-\n\nmunities can get the best results only by combining general health administration and the health administration of schools.\n\nEvery section of the country should have a well-trained whole-time\nhealth officer and medical school supervisor.\n\nRecognizing that it is impos-\n\nsible to have these places filled by two distinct individuals, we should work\n\ntogether to secure one competent\n\nman to fill both places.\n\nThe school\n\nphysician should therefore be the health officer for his district or, if in a\nIn\ncity, the head of a bureau or division under the health department.\ncities where medical assistants are needed, these should be entirely \\mder\n\nhis charge and he should be responsible for their efficiency.\n\nAs to the school nurse: Her work is by no means confined to the schoolroom. It is largely follow-up work in the home. She is a most valuable\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": "677", "text": "THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHILD IN LEARNING\n\nDepartment]\n\naid to the health authorities.\n\n677\n\nIn large cities her findings should promptly\n\nbe made a part of the health officer's records.\n\nIn the smaller municipalities,\n\nand in the rural districts where the health officer and medical supervisor\nof schools are one and the same, the teacher's records should at once be\n\nmade a part of the regular health records.\nThere is still another important point in the health administration of\nschools, viz., an improved method of instruction in health matters for both\n\nteacher and pupil.\n\nMore attention should be given in normal schools, col-\n\nleges, and universities to the preparation of teachers for their responsibilities\n\nin caring for the health of school children, and the teaching in the public\n\nschools of subjects dealing with health should be made interesting and\n\npractical.\n\nNo one should expect a teacher to become an expert physical director,\nor epidemiologist, but such individual should at once recognize suspicious\n\nconditions and bring them to the attention of the school physician or the\n\nIn dealing with such conditions the suspicious individual\n\nschool nurse.\n\nshould be considered guilty until proven innocent.\n\nThe public should\n\nhave the benefit of the doubt.\n\nThe proper health administration of schools is a most important economic problem from every point of view. The annual economic loss in\nthe United States from preventable diseases is estimated at $1,500,000,000.\nOne and one-half million people in the United States are constantly\nsuffering from preventable diseases.\nAbout one-half of the annual deaths\nin Minnesota, and I presume the same is true in other states, are due to\npreventable causes. A large percentage of this loss of life and property\ncan be prevented by the proper administration of health in schools.\n\nTHE ATTITUDE OF THE CHILD IN LEARNING\nS.\n\nS.\n\nCOLVIN, BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, R.I.\n\nThe question of mental hygiene is in the last analysis a matter of\nAn attitude itself is to be explained in part by the immediate\nenvironment, in part by preceding external conditions, and in part by the\nattitude.\n\ninborn nature and original tendencies which the individual inherits.\n\nFor\n\nexample, the tendency to be annoyed which a child may show in school may\n\nbe due to conditions that exist in the schoolroom, it may be due to an\nirritable disposition that has been\n\ndeveloped thru unfortunate home con-\n\nditions, or it may arise, in part at least, from an inborn predisposition.\n\nIn\n\nthe first instance, the remedy lies in changing the school atmosphere;\n\nin\n\nthe second instance, there is hope thru re-education of removing the tendency; while in the third instance, nothing can be done except to\n\nmake\n\nthe environment of such a character as to offer the least incentive to\nthe expression of the undesirable attitude.\n\nWhatever the reason for this\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": "678", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n678\n\nattitude, its result\n\nis\n\nto\n\neffect\n\n[Quid Hygiene\n\ndisadvantageously the entire learning of\n\nthe child.\nAttitudes that benefit behavior may be considered as essentially healthful;\n\nthose that injure behavior, that make it uncertain, irregular, and with-\n\nout clear purpose, that lower its value, are as truly unhygienic as are those\nphysical conditions which make the body less efiicient.\n\nThus it is that the\n\nattitude of the child in learning is a matter of fundamental importance in\n\nthe discussion of the mental hygiene of the pupil.\n\nSome of the attitudes\n\nthat are obviously unhygienic are worry, fear, discouragement, lack of selfconfidence, and all forms of excessive excitement or undue depression.\nThese have been discussed at considerable length, and it is not my purpose\nto attempt to enlarge upon them here. I wish, however, to consider a\nspecific attitude that has not been given sufficient attention and which,\nat the first glance, may seem to be somewhat removed from those states\nHowever, if we\nof mind which are commonly thought of as unhygienic.\nkeep to the point of view that all mental dispositions that tend to lower\n\nthe efficiency of the child's conduct are unhealthy, we shall see at once\nthat this particular attitude is as truly unhygienic as others which are more\noften considered as evidences of a diseased mind.\n\nThe attitude to which I refer is difficult to describe by a single term.\nIt is a condition of lack of interest in, and a general dissatisfaction with, the\n\nThe lack of interest and the dissatisfaction are\ndue to the fact that the learner sees no significance in his task. It means\nnothing to him. It is not worth while, either in itself or in its consequences.\nThere is no result that is pleasurable, no end to the activity that meets his\napproval. This condition of the mind toward the task at once makes the\n\nparticular task at hand.\n\nchild's entire behavior in relation to it of little value.\n\nA large part of the\n\nwork of most children and of adults is done for some end beyond the work\nWork that would not be undertaken for its own sake can become\nitself.\npleasurable if the end in sight is a desirable one.\n\nWhen this end is reason-\n\nably immediate, and seems of sufficient value, the work is done well with a\ncheerful spirit, and the whole mental tone of the individual is sane and\nnormal.\n\nWhen the end is far away and uncertain, or when it does not appeal\n\nas of value in any case, the work is mediocre, perfunctory, and listless, while\nthe mental attitude of the worker is depressed and unsound. The healthful attitude of mind is to go about one's work with cheerfulness and zest,\n\nbut this attitude cannot be present when the work itself is distasteful\neither in its inmiediate exercise or in its results.\n\nThis fact is clearly brought out in the industries. One of the chief\nproblems that confront the employer is to keep those who are working for\n\nhim in the proper frame of mind to do their work to the best of their ability.\nIn most industries it is\nIt is difficult to make the work itself pleasurable.\nthought and giving\nlittle\nrequiring\nof a routine and mechanical nature,\nThe\ndepressing.\nis\ndull\nand\nIt\nvariation.\npractically no opportunity for\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": "679", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE ATTITUDE OF THE CHILD IN LEARNING\n\n679\n\naverage workman who sees nothing in it but the means of earning an unvarying daily wage is likely to do it just well enough to \"get by.\"\n\nHe may\n\nknow that hard, conscientious, intelligent work is likely in the end to secure\npromotion, but the end is far off and uncertain;\n\nit is not sufficiently definite\n\nand near to make the work worth while.\n\nOnly in a vague way is it connected with his success. If, however, the workman knows that every bit\nof extra endeavor that he puts forth is to result in an added amount of\nmoney in the weekly pay envelope, his whole attitude is almost certain to\nchange. It is worth while now to do his best; there is joy in the work.\nLike the runner who trains for the race, he finds that the laborious activities\nin which he must engage become pleasurable in the thought of their\nresult.\n\nWhat is true of the workman is likewise true of the child and youth in\nIf they are to have a proper attitude toward their work, it must\nseem to them worth while. One of the greatest problems in education today\n\nschool.\n\nis\n\nto make the task appear valuable to those who are pursuing it.\n\nThis\n\napplies to every stage of education from the primary grades of the elemen-\n\ntary school to the university.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nless in\n\nevidence in vocational and\n\nbut it exists even here. The college\nyouth often seems to take the general and cultural courses in the curriculum\nas little short of a joke.\n\"Student activities,\" so called, are never intellectual activities.\nThe vast majority of youths who are pursuing an\nacademic education see little relationship between it and life. It does\nnot appeal to them as of any particular value. This attitude is surely an\nunhealthy one. Often, perhaps always, the doing of something for no\ngenuine purpose is worse than doing nothing at all. It surely is worse\nthan doing anything that appeals to the learner from the positive standpoint.\nIn earlier times this belief in the lack of value of college studies resulted\ntechnical education than elsewhere;\n\nin all sorts of irresponsible\ncollege students.\n\nand even vicious forms of behavior among\n\nFortunately, today athletics and social functions pro-\n\nvide something that is seemingly worth while, and are doubtless important\nfactors in contributing to the sanity of college men and women.\n\nNo one\n\ninterested in education, however, can help regretting the fact that often\n\npoise and intellectual soundness are not secured thru the college subjects\n\nthemselves, but rather thru outside activities.\nSimilar conditions confront the pupils in the high school and the elementary school. In so far as their work lacks purpose, is devoid of significance, and appears as a mere formal exercise, an unhealthy attitude of\nmind is created toward this work, except in those instances in which the\nwork, in and for itself, is a pleasurable exercise. Fortunately, the pleasure\nof intellectual exercise is sufficient in some instances to give a real zest and\npurpose to the school activities. However, this desire of activity, for\nactivity's sake, is woefully insufficient, especially when the pupil reaches\n\nthe age when life-interests begin to develop, and the value of school work\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": "680", "text": "NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n68o\nis\n\n(Child Hygiene\n\nestimated largely in terms of its practical significance.\n\nUnless some\n\nreal motive for the school activities is then found, a motive that possesses\n\na strong appeal and the end of which is not so far removed as to appear for\na long time unattainable, the school activities are bound to suffer, and the\nwhole attitude of the child toward his work is seriously impaired.\n\nThere are several motives that may vitalize the school work and bring\nabout a helpful attitude toward it.\n\nWhen the pupil reaches an age where\n\nvocational interests begin to loom large, the practical subjects, so called, are\n\nseem worth while.\n\nHowever, these subjects can be introduced\nTo attempt to make\nthe entire program of such a nature as to insure this practical appeal would\nseriously upset the present course of study and surely would be undesirable.\nWhatever we may think of the ultimate worth of these narrowly practical\nsubjects, we cannot substitute these for the foundation studies that are\nessential in the ordinary equipment for life.\nThese latter are even more\npractical, in the true sense of the word, than the vocational subjects, and\nyet their value from the practical point of view cannot be readily seen by\nlikely to\n\nonly in a limited degree into the elementary school.\n\nthe pupil.\n\nHowever, we can make them seem worth while if we can show that they\nare connected with life in a rather definite way.\n\nAltho it is difficult to\n\npresent the arithmetic, the spelling, the geography, and the history so that\ntheir essential significance for the life of the school boy is at once apparent\n\nto him, something can be done by connecting these subjects as far as possible with the common activities of the community in which the school is\n\nsituated\n\nand with the daily interests of the child.\n\nThe boy who finds\n\npercentage a bore, as ordinarily taught, may work up an interest for it in\nfiguring out the standing of ball teams; the girl who finds little meaning in\n\nthe textbook statements of elementary principles of hygiene and sanitation\n\nmay become enthusiastic in regard to these by applying them to home conditions.\n\nThe immediate and direct application of any principle to daily\nmake it worth while, and it is safe to say that almost any\n\nlife at once tends to\n\nsubject that is so applied is likely to become of significance to the pupil.\n\nHowever, there are parts of subjects at least that have neither a clear\nThese must\nbe made worth while in other ways. Most pupils who can find no other\nvocational significance nor a definite practical application.\n\nsignificance in a subject strive to attach a value to it in terms of school\n\nmarks.\n\nThis tendency to find worth and meaning in a study from the\n\npoint of view of grades is very widespread.\n\nA great many pupils seem to\n\nthink that the principal significance of the recitation\n\nlies\n\nin marking.\n\nSome principals believe that it is absolutely essential to impress upon the\nchildren that they are being marked for everything that they do, if a high\ngrade of work is to be secured from them.\n\nWhile it is doubtless true that\n\ncareful and accurate marking in school work is important and essential for\n\nbest results, and while it is better that pupils should study for marks than\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": "681", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE ATTITUDE OF THE CHILD IN LEARNING\n\n68l\n\nthat they should study with no aim in view that appears to them worth\n\nan excessive emphasis on marking is likely to lead to an attitude\non the part of the pupil that is almost as unhygienic as the attitude which\nfinds no worth at all in the work.\nThe pupil who considers that the mark\nis the only aspect of the work that has real meaning is shut off from most\nof the higher phases of mental activity and intellectual interests.\nClosely connected with the significance of marks as an aim for work is\nthe significance of the school tasks from the standpoint of rivalry. This\nattitude is entirely normal and usually helpful if it is not excessively developed. Rivalry with one's mates that is friendly and sportsmanlike, and,\nwhile,\n\nbetter still, rivalry with one's self to better one's previous record, gives a\n\ntone to the work of the school that should not be underestimated.\nHowever, rivalry between various individuals in a group or between various\ngroups may become extreme and has certain definite dangers. Some\nvirile\n\nteachers believe that rivalry should have little place in the school work.\n\nIn any event it is not suflicient to provide a legitimate purpose for more\nthan a limited number of school activities.\n\nThus there are times when the significance of school activities cannot be\nmade evident thru their vocational value; again these activities cannot\nalways be directly applied to the matters that interest the child in his daily\nlife;\n\noccasionally marks are ineffectual and always are in danger of being\n\noveremphasized; and, finally, the spirit of rivalry may be easily developed\nto excess.\n\nThere is, however, one other means by which work may be made signo inherent dangers\nand which is not likely to be carried to an extreme. Whenever the child\nfeels that he is taking an active part in the school work in the sense of contributing to it and adding something of worth, he is likely to feel that this\nwork is really a part of himself, and that it belongs to him as a personal\naffair.\nAs an example of this, I recall a fifth-grade class in which the mental attitude of the pupils was unusually sound and healthful.\nTo a great\ndegree this attitude was secured because the teacher made it her aim to\ndevelop on the part of the pupils a spirit of co-operation in each and every\nlesson.\nIt was her custom, for example, to send certain children to the\npublic library to select books that were suitable for the class to use as\ncollateral reading in American history.\nThese pupils not only selected\nthe books, but they told the class the reasons for their choice and the most\nimportant points in the books as they related to the class work. Other\nnificant to the child and which fortunately possesses\n\npupils brought in postcards and magazine clippings for exhibition when the\nclass was discussing foreign travel in connection with geography, or daily\n\nSome of the children prepared\nway or another, according\nto their ability, aimed to do something to add to their lesson and to make\nit a part of themselves.\nI am inclined to believe that this method of\n\nhappenings in their study of current events.\nquestions on the lesson to ask others;\n\nall in some\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": "682", "text": "682\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nattacking the work, which makes the learner a contributor as well as a mere\nlearner, is likely to do more than any of the other means suggested to make\n\nthe value of the school work apparent to the pupil.\n\nI am sure at least that\n\nunless this is done, or unless some other method is devised for securing this\n\nattitude on the part of the learner, school work in all grades is likely to prove\n\na sorry failure; and even worse than the failure of the work itself is the\nfailure of the pupil to find anything worth while in the school activities, for\nthis can result only in a most unsound and dangerous attitude that is likely\n\nto be carried from the schoolroom into life itself and which is sure to entail\n\nmost serious consequences.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": "683", "text": "—\n\nDEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—Bakoness Rose Posse, president, Posse Nonnal School of Gymiu^tics\n\nPresident\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\nVice-President—W. J. Monilaw, University of Chicago\n\nChicago, Hi.\n\n—Orson Ryan, superintendent of Jordan School District, Salt Lake County\n\nSecretary\n\nMidvale, Utah\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\nThe meeting of the department was called to order at 9:00 a.m. in the Madison\nSchool with President Posse in the chair.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, May G. Long, supervisor of physical training,\npublic schools, Everett, Wash., was appointed secretary pro tempore.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n\"Physical Care and Training of Children in European Schools\" (illustrated) Carl\nG. Rathmann, assistant superintendent of instruction, St. Louis, Mo.\n\"The Physical Director in Relation to the School\" ^Mary E. Samson, physical\n\n—\n—\n\ndirector, State Normal School, Winona, Minn.\n\" Shall Sex Hygiene Be Taught in the Public Schools ? \" F.\nJ. Sperry, superintendent\nof schools, Mankato, Minn.; Charles H. Keene, M.D., supervisor of hygiene and physical\ntraining, Minneapolis, Minn.; Mabel M. Wright, physical director of girls, Schurz High\n\nSchool, Chicago, 111.\nPresident Posse.)\n\n(In the absence of Superintendent Sperry, his paper was read by\n\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\n—Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gymnastics,\nFor Vice-President— Clara Gregory Baer, professor of physical education, Newcomb\nCollege, Tulane University of Louisiana, New Orleans, La.\nFor Secretary—^May G. Long, supervisor of physical\npublic\nEverett,\nFor President\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\ntraining,\n\nschools,\n\nWash.\nIt was moved and carried that this department go on record as suggesting the con-\n\ntinuation of the study of sex hygiene at the next regular meeting of the department.\n\nThe following resolution was passed:\nResolved, That by the death of Jakob Bolin, professor of physical education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Ut^, the cause of physical education in America has\nlost one of its most valuable, most earnest, and most enthusiastic workers.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July 10, 19 14\nThe department was called to order at 2:30 p.m., and the following program was\ngiven:\n\n\"The Relation of the Teacher of Hygiene and Physical Training in Our State Normal\nSchools to the Secondary Schools\" Annie C. Skeele, instructor in hygiene and physical\ntraining, State Normal School, North Adams, Mass.\n(In the absence of the author, this\npap er was read by May G. Long, secretary pro tempore).\n\"The History of the Development of Physical Education at Newcomb College\"\nClara Gregory Baer, professor of physical education, Newcomb College, Tulane University of Louisiana, New Orleans, La.\n\n—\n\n683\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": "684", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n684\n\n[Physical\n\n\"The Physical Condition of the Child as a Leading Factor in Determining His\nVocational Guidance\" Margaret E. Schallenberger, commissioner of elementary schools,\nDepartment of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Cal.\n\"Swedish Gymnastics in American Schools\" W. P. Hubert von Blijenburgh,\ndirector of physical education, Royal Military Academy, Breda, Netherlands.\n\"The Heart Volume in Man the Nitrous Oxide Method and the Results of Professor Franz Muller\"\nElmer Berry, professor of physiology. Young Men's Christian\nAssociation College, Springfield, Mass.\nMay G. Long, Secretary pro tempore\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPHYSICAL CARE AND TRAINING OF CHILDREN IN EUROPEAN\nSCHOOLS\nCARL G. RATHMANN, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION,\nST. LOXnS,\n\nMO.\n\nPhysical training is a regular part of the school curriculum in the leading countries of Europe and is considered an essential part.\n\nEvery elementary and secondary school in the eight countries in which, two years\nago, I made my observations has a well-equipped gymnasium for boys and\none for girls.\n\nMore time is given to physical- training work there than in our schools.\nThe health and physical well-being of the school child in the leading\ncoimtries of Europe, the proper care and training of his body, are given the\nmost careful attention by the school authorities, but not by them alone.\nOrganizations of men and women for the care of children, which are found\neverywhere, co-operate with the educational authorities of state and community in looking after the physical welfare of the school children. These\nassociations are somewhat like our school patrons' associations, or fathers'\nand mothers' clubs, but with a larger membership and a more extended\n\nscope of work.\n\nTheir relations to the schools are as follows:\n\nThe school work proper\n\n—the administration of the schools, the training\n\nand appointment of teachers, the framing of the course of study, the selection of textbooks, etc., is all in the hands of the state and city governments.\nBut all the people are concerned in the education of their children and the\npeople insist that they be given part of the educational work. They want\nto co-operate with the school authorities to afford the rising generation the\n\nvery best educational opportunities, and the authorities welcome this\nco-operation and encourage it in every way.\n\nThe state and city governments furnish the school buildings, equip\nthem with all that is necessary, and supply well-trained teachers. The\npeople's associations see that the child\n\nis\n\nin proper condition to go to\n\nschool and to spend his time in school to the best advantage.\n\nFood, shelter, and clothing are supplied to everyone who needs it.\nThousands of children in the large cities of Europe cannot be taken care of\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": "685", "text": "Department]\n\nCARE AND TRAINING OF CHILDREN IN EUROPE\n\n685\n\nby their parents during the hours of the day, because both parents have to\ngo to work.\nhours.\n\nThese children would have to remain without care after school\n\nIn Germany, Austria, and the Scandinavian countries where the\n\nschool sessions are now from seven to twelve in summer and from eight to\n\none in winter, the children would be left to themselves the whole afternoon were not some of the school buildings opened and maintained for\nthem by the people's organizations.\nDuring the vacation period the activity of these organizations for the\nwelfare of children who must be cared for is greatly extended. In America\nwe hardly have an adequate idea of the extensive and highly beneficial\nwork of these school organizations during the vacation periods. Excursion\ntrips, mostly for a period of two weeks, are arranged every year for the\npupils who want to take part in them. On my trips from Stockholm to\nCopenhagen, from Berlin to Munich, from Munich to Vienna, I saw, from\nthe train, many groups of boys or girls, equipped with their knapsacks,\n\nwalking thru the country in charge of a teacher, and enjoying their vacation greatly.\n\nThey showed the keenest interest in everything around\n\nthem, and I am sure that when they returned to the city they not only\n\nhad profited as to their physical well-being, but had acquired much moral\ntraining, and that, thru the many new impressions received, their mental\nhorizon had become wider and they were better able to take up their\nschool work.\n\nThese vacation excursions are not intended for the children of the poor\nFor them a longer stay in the\ncountry is necessary, in the opinion of the school associations, and they are\n\nwho live in crowded tenement houses.\n\nsent to the vacation colonies established by the organizations in various\n\nparts of the country.\n\nFor mentally defective, crippled, physically weak,\n\nanemic, and tubercular children, special vacation colonies adapted to the\n\nneeds of such children are maintained at the seashore, in the mountains,\n\nand in other places.\n\nFor the children who remain in the city, picnics and\n\noutings are arranged several times during the vacation period, and the\nassociations\n\nmake such arrangements as will make the children thoroly\n\nenjoy these occasions.\n\nThis is the great work of the patrons' or people's association for the\nphysical care of the young in the leading countries of Europe.\n\nNow, let us see what the schools are doing for the physical care and\ntraining of the children:\n\nWe shall consider the physical conditions of the\n\nschools, medical supervision, and physical training.\n\nSCHOOL BUILDINGS\n\nThe school buildings erected during the last ten or fifteen years, notably\nthose in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and the Scandinavian countries,\nare, as a rule, models of modern school architecture and equipped with every\n\nprovision for the child's health and well-being.\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": "686", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n686\n\n[Physical\n\nMEDICAL SUPERVISION\n\nThe health of the school child is cared for in a well-planned and most\nconscientious manner in the schools of all the countries I visited.\nis\n\nThere\n\neverywhere an adequate and efficient system of hygienic supervision.\n\nFor example, let us look at the conditions for supervision of hygiene\nin the schools of Berlin.\n\nHere, all children entering the schools at the age\n\nof six are examined in the presence of the parents.\n\nChildren who are not\n\nin sufficiently good health to go to school are sent home,\n\nand the parents\n\nare told to bring them again at the opening of the next term, six months\nIf children have physical defects which do not prevent them from\n\nlater.\n\ngoing to school, the teachers are given notes stating what defects each child\nhas, what special treatment as to place in the classroom, omission of some\nof the school and home work, etc., he should have.\nThe parents are told\nwhat to do for him in regard to food, amount of sleep, medical treatment,\n\nThe school physicians visit each schoolhouse four times a year, look\n\netc.\n\nafter the sanitary conditions, examine all children needing attention, especially such as are reported to be subjects for the special schools, and select\n\nchildren who should be sent to vacation colonies.\n\nThere are three dental\n\nschool clinics in Berlin, in each of which the pupils of the neighboring\nschools get dental treatmeait whenever they need it.\nclinic\n\nChildren sent to the\n\npay one mark and this entitles them to treatment for one year.\n\nSimilar provision is made in the cities of Munich, Leipzig, Brussels, Paris,\nCopenhagen, Stockholm, and other European cities.\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING\n\nUnder such favorable conditions, where so much is done for the physical\nwell-being of the child both in and out of the schoolroom, it is obvious that\n\nthe child in European schools is in the proper condition to receive and\n\nenjoy the benefits of a well-planned system of physical training.\n\nLet us\n\nsee what is done for physical training in the schools of the different countries\nI visited and let us begin with the country in which it has attained the\n\n—Germany.\n\nhighest stage of development\n\nUp to 1910, two hours per week were assigned to regular calisthenic\nand gjminastic work in the schools of Germany. In that year, a third\nwas added. But these three hours are only part of the physical\n\nlesson\n\ntraining work.\n\nIn all the schools of Prussia, five minutes of the morning recess are given\nto free exercises on the playground, participated in by all the children of the\nschool.\n\nground.\n\nThe children, filing out of the building, form lines on the playA boy of the highest room stands upon a platform near the\n\nentrance to the schoolhouse and gives the conmaand for a series of seven\nfree exercises.\n\nThese exercises are selected by the state department of\n\neducation and are prescribed for all the schools in the kingdom.\n\nThey\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": "687", "text": "Department]\n\nCARE AND TRAINING OF CHILDREN IN EUROPE\n\n687\n\nare executed every morning thruout the year, a different boy taking the\n\ncommand every week.\nAll school sessions in Germany are, as stated before, in the morning.\n\nIn most of the cities, two afternoons are devoted to outdoor work in physical\ntraining and to athletic games, under the supervision of the regular teachers.\nIn some places the teachers do this work gratuitously, but in many\nplaces they receive extra compensation for it. In winter some of the afternoons are spent on the ice. In Munich, part of the schoolyards of twentyone schools are changed into skating rinks in winter, and the poor children\nare loaned skates which are the property of the schools. Excellent opportunities for additional practice in bodily exercises are furnished the boys\n\nof the\n\nupper grades of the grammar schools, continuation schools, and\n\nsecondary schools of Berlin and other German cities by the TurnvereinCy or\n\ngymnastic societies.\n\nThey admit these boys to their preparatory classes.\n\nMany of these boys stay in these classes until they can and do become\nmembers of the Turnvereine, and in this way they continue the good work\nfor which the public school lays the foundation.\n\nIn the elementary schools, the lessons in physical training are given by\nregular teachers who have received their preparation for this work in the\nteachers' training school.\n\nIn Prussia, extension courses for physical-training teachers are established under the supervision of the director of physical training for the\n\nschools of the city.\n\nDuring the first half-year of their service in the schools,\n\nthe young teachers are required to attend these courses.\n\nAfter that, the\n\nattendance is optional.\n\nBodily training is given far more attention in the high schools than it\n\nThree periods of regular gymnasium\nwork are obligatory for every year of the secondary-school course. The\nreceived ten or fifteen years ago.\n\neducational authorities encourage athletic sports in the high schools in\n\nevery way.\n\nAthletic clubs, including\n\nfound in almost every high school.\nis given\n\nswimming and rowing clubs, are\n\nIn the secondary schools, instruction\n\nby special teachers who are trained in the state normal schools for\n\ngymnastic teachers.\nIn Austria, physical training does not play as prominent a part in the\nchild's education as it does in\n\nGermany.\n\nIt certainly seems strange that\n\nin a country which has made as great progress in education as any in Europe\n\nduring the last twenty years, bodily training for girls is not considered\n\nWhile physical training is obligatory for boys in all schools,\nEvery school has a gymnasium for boys and\none for girls. Only two hours are assigned to gymnastic work, however,\ninstead of the three in Germany.\nCalisthenics for the younger pupils are\nessential.\ngirls\n\nmay or may not take it.\n\nIn the spring and summer months much of the\nwork in physical training is conducted in open-air gymnasiums in the public\n\ngiven in the classroom.\nplaygrounds.\n\nThe school playgrounds are used only in winter, when they\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": "688", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n688\n\nare transformed into skating rinks.\ntion during the recess periods.\n\n[Physical\n\nThey are hardly ever used for recrea-\n\nEvery new schoolhouse in Vienna has a\n\nroof playground where the pupils play during recess.\n\nThe Swiss is naturally fond of bodily exercise, and he deems any educational system imperfect that does not consider the proper development\nof the body one of its most important features.\nThere is a gjminasium for\nboys and one for girls in each elementary school and in each high school.\n\nIt is considered as necessary as the classrooms and is furnished with every-\n\nthing that modern physical education requires.\n\nThe floor of every gym-\n\nnasium is covered with cork carpet, and I wish to add here that this is the\nmaterial used in most of the German g3manasiums. Three hours a week are\ndevoted to physical training for boys and a like amount for girls. One of\nthese periods is given to organized play and athletic sports in the schoolyard.\n\nThe three hours of physical training in the school constitute but a part\nof the physical education which the child in Switzerland receives.\n\nSchool\n\nexcursions are an important feature of the physical exercises.\n\nIn the\n\nschools of Zurich, Basel, and Bern, six or seven excursions of half a day,\nand two for the higher classes occupying the whole day, are on the regular\nyearly program. Teacher and pupils wander into the picturesque surroundings of the city, to forests, lakes, and mountains. The singing of\npopular songs while marching, games of all kinds, the study of the physical\ngeography of the places visited, and of nature are the pleasant and highly\n\neducative occupations of the day.\n\nOutdoor work in athletic sports and organized games under the direction of the teachers is carried on two evenings a week in Zurich and the\n\nother large cities.\n\nIn Switzerland, there are school sessions in the morn-\n\ning and in the afternoon, and so the exercises take place from five to seven\nafter school.\n\nThe attendance at these exercises, while called voluntary, is\nEach child who does not take part on any of the after-\n\ncarefully controlled.\n\nnoons must explain his absence.\n\nThere are not many cases of absence,\nMany boys\n\nhowever, since the work is thoroly enjoyed by the children.\n\njoin an organization of boys of twelve years which, under the direction of\n\nteachers offering their services, takes outdoor physical exercises on two\nmore afternoons. The high schools have their own Turnvereine. The gymnastic societies of Switzerland maintain juvenile classes, which are attended\n\nby many of the young people in the evening.\nEvery schoolhouse has shower baths.\n\nOpportunities for instruction\n\nin swimming are given the pupils of all the schools in the public bathing\ninstitutions, of which there are many more in European than in American\ncities.\n\nRifle practice is a part of the program for bodily exercise.\n\nInstruction\n\nin shooting is given to the boys of the higher elementary schools, a depart-\n\nment between the district and the high school.\n\nBut it is not only the gun\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": "689", "text": "Department]\n\nCARE AND TRAINING OF CHILDREN IN EUROPE\n\nthat is used in shooting.\n\n689\n\nBow and arrow have always played an important\n\npart in the history of Switzerland.\n\nInstruction in bow and arrow shooting\n\nis given the boys of the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary schools\n\nand of the two lower classes of the advanced elementary schools.\nAs to the teaching force, the same conditions prevail in Switzerland\nas in Germany and Austria. There are special teachers in the high schools\nand in the common schools, the regular teachers are the instructors in\nphysical training.\n\nFrom Switzerland I went to Belgium, the only country I visited where\nthere is no compulsory education.\n\nIn 1905, a normal school for gymnastic\n\nteachers was established in Brussels, which institution became an almost\n\nexact replica of the Stockhohn training school, for the training of teachers\nof the Swedish system of gymnastics which replaced the German system in\n\n1888.\n\nEach school in the country has two gymnasiums, one for boys and\nThose that I saw were spacious and high, well lighted\nand ventilated, and equipped with all necessary apparatus, even a piano.\nThree hours per week are given to physical training proper during the\nregular school time and two and three-fourths hours per week to outdoor work. All the work is obligatory. In the lower rooms of the\none for girls.\n\ncommon schools, six lessons of one-half hour each are devoted to bodily\nexercises, and in the middle grades four lessons of three-fourths of an hour\n\nIn the upper grades and in the high schools three full hours are\n\neach.\ngiven.\n\nIn the elementary schools, as almost everywhere in Europe, the regular\nteachers conduct the lessons in physical training.\n\nIn the high schools,\n\nspecial teachers who have received their preparation in the higher normal\n\nschool for physical training are the instructors.\nAll pupils of the highest grade of the grade schools and of the higher\n\nelementary schools, both boys and girls, must take lessons in swimming.\n\nOne lesson in swimming per week is given thruout the season, and these\nA number\n\nlessons take place in the afternoon after regular school hours.\n\nof excursions for each class to places outside of the city form a part of the\n\nregular program of physical training.\n\nIn France, the cause of physical training has found strong and enthusiastic\n\nadvocates only in recent years.\n\nMuch has been done during the\n\nlast ten years, but much more remains to be done.\nstill\n\nPhysical training is\n\nthe stepchild in the French educational curriculum.\n\nThere is a gymnasium in every girls' and in every boys' school, but only\none lesson, of an hour a week, is given in physical training.\n\nThe lessons in\n\nParis are given by the regular teachers, who receive no preparation for this\n\nwork, under the instruction and supervision of i inspector, 3 male and 2\nfemale subinspectors, and 59 male and 25 female instructors.\n\noutdoor work\n\n—organized play,\n\netc.\n\n—was introduced about\n\nGymnastic\n\nfifteen years ago,\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": "690", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n690\n\nbut its life was short.\ncontinued.\n\n[Physical\n\nAfter a few years' practice, the outdoor work was dis-\n\nA number of excursions during the year, however, are insisted\n\nThe French school associations, thru outings, excursions, and organ-\n\nupon.\n\nized play for the poorer children outside of school hours, do much to give\n\nmore opportunities for bodily exercise.\nShooting seems to be considered important.\n\nSome of the elementary\n\nschools in Paris have a shooting gallery in which the girls as well as the boys\n\nindulge in rifle practice.\n\nEngland does not give the same prominence to physical training in the\nelementary school curriculum as Germany and Switzerland give to it, but\nits importance as a vital factor in the education of the child seems to become\n\nrealized more and more.\n\nIn London, two regular lessons a week in physical training are given\nin every elementary school.\n\nEach of the higher classes has the last hour\n\nbefore noon for organized play in the schoolyard once a week.\n\nOutings to\n\nplaces of interest outside of the city, excursions to the many museums and\ngalleries of London, the zoological garden, etc., are obligatory.\n\nIn the high\n\nschools, in addition to the regular physical-training work, a great deal more\nathletic work is carried on than in any European country I visited.\n\nThe\n\nfine buildings have, besides well-equipped gymnasia, large and well-furnished\n\nathletic grounds,\n\nand the boys and girls in the English high schools are\n\nenthusiastic athletes.\n\nWhile in the elementary schools instruction is given by the regular\nteachers without any special supervision, the instruction in the high schools\nis given\n\nby special teachers and well-trained coaches.\n\nAll gymnastic activity in Sweden seems to center in the Central Gym-\n\nnastic Institute in Stockholm, perhaps the oldest training school for physicalIt was founded by Pehr Henrik Ling in\nand in this institution Ling and his son Hjalmar built up the Swedish\n\ntraining teachers in the world.\n1 813,\n\nsystem of gymnastics.\n\nThe school trains all the gymnastic teachers in the\n\nkingdom, all the teachers for the high schools, for the military schools, and\nfor the normal schools.\n\nThe teachers in the latter train those of the ele-\n\nmentary schools, each of whom is required to conduct the work in physical\ntraining in his or her class without special supervision.\n\nThere is a well-equipped gymnasium in each boys' and each girls'\nOne-half hour on each of the six school days is devoted to physicaltraining work. The educational authorities make no further provisions\nThere is a great deal of outdoor work in the public\nfor bodily activities.\nplaygrounds and in the schoolyards in the afternoons, but all this work is\nin the hands of people's school associations which do as well-planned and\nIn the\neflScient work in this direction as do those in the German cities.\nhigh schools, military tactics, rifle practice, and fencing are part of the\nprogram. To the latter, two hours per week are assigned. Three full\nschool.\n\nhours of systematic physical training are insisted upon.\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": "691", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE PHYSICAL DIRECTOR AND THE SCHOOL\n\n691\n\nThe physical-training situation in Denmark is almost exactly the same\nThe country has shaped its system of gymnastic work almost\n\nas in Sweden.\n\naltogether after that of the sister-country, but has added one feature of\n\nbodily exercises of great value.\nall\n\nInstruction in swimming is obligatory for\n\nboys and girls of the elementary schools.\n\nThe large number of public\n\nbathing institutions in Copenhagen are the centers to which the pupils go\n\nonce a week during regular school hours.\n\nThis is a brief survey of what is done for the physical care and training\nof the school child in the leading\n\nEuropean countries.\n\nI think you will\n\nagree with me in that, as to this important feature of educational work, we\n\ncan learn from our cousins on the other side of the ocean.\n\nTHE PHYSICAL DIRECTOR IN RELATION TO THE SCHOOL\nMARY E. SAMSON, PHYSICAL DIRECTOR, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nWINONA, MINN.\n\nThe occasion for the writing of this paper was a discussion of the reasons\nfor the failure of some physical directors to appreciate the responsibilities\n\nthat are put upon them.\n\nWhen an athletic coach, as such, had no other\n\nduty than to develop a winning team, there was some excuse for hiring\na star athlete, who could lay no other claim to consideration as a teacher\n\nthan his athletic prowess.\n\nBut that condition no longer exists, at least\n\nHe is now a recognized\nmember of the school faculty and must be able to measure up to a higher\nstandard. To discuss his relation to the school as a whole involves first a\nas applied to the director of physical education.\n\ndiscussion of himself.\n\nThere is, doubtless, too much ground for the complaint made, by men\nwho have it as their business to hire teachers, that a man or woman is likely\nto go into physical education just because he can do\n\nsome particularly\n\nthrilling turns on the apparatus, or because she can dance unusually well.\n\nJakob Bolin, of the University of Utah, deservedly prominent among\nphysical educators, said:\nI find few among\n\nmy professional brethren who have any far-reaching interest beyond\n\ntheir specialty, few whose hearts throb in unison with the great movements of the time.\n\nI\n\nsee men and women whose minds revolve only around drills and exercises, lessons and exhibitions, visits of the superintendent, rules of the board of education, the return of pay day,\n\nthe possibiUty of advancement, the victory of yesterday, the contest of tomorrow.\n\nThese accusations are not now nearly so true as at the time they were\nmade, a few years since. But experience shows that we have not yet come\nto the time when we can in the least degree lower the standard required of\n\nthe applicant for entrance into this line of work.\n\ngymnastics is a thing much to be desired.\nit is\n\nSkill in athletics\n\nand\n\nIndeed it is very essential, but\n\nby no means a sine qua non of an efiicient physical director.\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": "692", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n692\n\n[Physical\n\nMuch has been said and written from time to time concerning the\nnecessary qualifications for such a director.\n\nMiss Dudley\n\nin her Athletic\n\nGaines for Women summarizes them as follows:\nPlay-spirit (often disguised as enthusiasm), ability to play as well as teach, a personality which has capacity for leadership and ability to inspire;\n\nand a character which, in\n\naddition to true culture and a spirit of fairness, possesses the somewhat rare quality of\n\nhigh moral courage.\n\nThese may be called special qualifications.\n\nAdded to these are\n\ngeneral training such as a fair education and knowledge of such subjects as anatomy,\n\nphysiology, hygiene, dietetics, pedagogy, psychology, and sociology.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nnecessary that the physical director be a specialist.\n\ninterest.\n\nBodily\n\nmust be to him a compelling\nHe must confine himself to his own line of work to reach his\n\ndevelopment, with\n\nall\n\nthat that implies,\n\nHe must, however, be of that broad type of specialist\nwhich can see the value of other lines of work as well as his own, see their\nrelations, and make his specialty contribute to the common good.\nIt is this correlation with which this paper has to deal.\nThis may,\nmaximimi eflSciency.\n\nperhaps, be called a by-product of physical education, but we may learn\n\nfrom modern industry that the by-product is sometimes the most important aspect of business. We assume the direct benefits of physical trainIt is on account of these benefits that physical training has come to\nhave so large a place in the general educational scheme, but beyond these\nthere are certain collateral results in the way of social development that\nought to be obtained.\nWhen men began to realize that the man with an education was the one\nwho forged ahead in the world and was able to attain the highest success,\nmental training came to have great value and was sought at any cost.\nAs people of the civilized world came to live more and more in the cities, they\ncame to live more sedentary lives. The struggle for existence became less\nand less a physical struggle and more a battle of minds. So the tendency\nwas everywhere to put a premium on mental development and disregard the\nphysical.\nOnly when the disastrous effects of this one-sided development\nbecame manifest did the reaction come. It was to meet this need for allround development that physical education was made a part of our educaing.\n\ntional system.\n\nNow educators are realizing that the school is responsible\n\nfor social and moral training.\n\nAs a system of education designed to train\n\nintellects alone will not suffice, neither will one which takes into account\n\nmerely individualistic training.\ntrained, not merely as\n\nA child is a social being. He must be\n\nan individual, but\n\nin his relation to other indi-\n\n— as a member of society.\n\nviduals\n\nPhysical education has long claimed to give a moral and social training\n\nthru its athletic games.\nif\n\nIn the administration of these games, especially\n\nthe games be so administered as to reach the student body as a whole,\n\nthe director comes into very close contact with the entire student life. He\ncomes to know more or less intimately the students with whom he is work-\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": "693", "text": "THE PHYSICAL DIRECTOR AND THE SCHOOL\n\nDepartment]\n\n693\n\nHis viewpoint is different from that of any other member of the\n\ning.\n\nfaculty in that he touches more closely than the others the less formal side\nof the school\n\nlife.\n\nThe play spirit is a thing for which he is always\n\nstriving.\n\nSchool life is a strenuous thing.\n\nWith the necessary application to\n\nstudies, it has a tendency to become an intellectual grind.\n\nIn attempting\n\nto develop a truly recreational phase that will break the strain that would\n\notherwise be too great, the effort of the athletic director is to create so\nintense an interest in a game of basket-ball, for example, that rest and\nrelaxation may come as a result of an hour of vigorous play.\n\nIf he succeeds\n\nin doing this he sees the student when he is absolutely himself.\n\nNowhere\n\nas in a game in which he is really interested is a boy or girl so completely\n\nwithout reserve or self-consciousness, so lacking in formal action.\n\nNo\n\nmatter how long he may maintain a more or less unnatural or assumed\nattitude in other kinds of work, it does not hold here.\n\nThe boy who tries\n\nto play baseball, but is afraid to bat for fear of getting hit, has to get over\n\nHe cannot be thinking of himself and play\n\nthat fear or get out of the game.\nthe game too.\n\nThe girl who attempts to play basket-ball with her hair\n\ninsecure, so that she has constantly to be adjusting hairpins, soon learns\n\nto take care of that hair so that she doesn't have to give it attention.\n\nJust\n\nas these physical obstructions are consciously done away with, so moral\n\nand mental reservations either consciously or unconsciously disappear in\nthe gymnasium.\nThe fact that the physical director knows his student in this intimate\nway places upon him a double responsibility: first, to the student in making\nhis training count for genuine development; and, second, to the school, in\n\ngetting the student's point of view and giving it back to the school.\n\nschool\n\nis\n\norganized for the benefit of the student.\n\nThe\n\nHis attitude really\n\nconstitutes the \"public opinion\" of the school, and that public opinion is a\n\npowerful factor for good or evil.\n\nIt must\n\nbe molded and controlled, of\n\ncourse, by the teacher, but in order to be able to\n\ndo this effectively the\n\nteacher must be able to get hold of the student's point of view, must be able\nto see the various problems of the school life from the student's angle as\nwell as his own.\n\nConsidering the school as a social group, the students as\n\nwell as the teacher must have a vital part in the group life;\n\neach must\n\nbe a genuine factor, sharing its life, and contributing his own part to making\nit\n\nwhat it ought to be.\n\nThe school is a social unit.\n\nIn its routine classroom work it does not\n\npresent the conditions for social intercourse that the student will meet in\n\nHere he works more independently for his own individual\nThere is not the same interrelation that there is among\ncitizens.\nThere is, however, in every school a spontaneous social life.\nvv\nWherever\nyoung people are gathered together this must be true. It may not\nbe the most desirable type of social life, but it is inevitable. Organization\n\nlater\n\nlife.\n\nattainment.\n\n^^\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": "694", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n694\nis\n\n[Physical\n\nfound thruout the school for different purposes; leaders are developed,\n\nand standards are\n\nset.\n\nIt remains for the school\n\nschools\n\nto take this\n\nmore\n\nSome\nchoose to ignore it or more often, perhaps, to regulate it by a\n\nor less complex structure and use\n\nit\n\nfor educational purposes.\n\nseries of don'ts, in either of which case it proves, almost without exception,\n\nto be a source of constant annoyance and failure.\n\nThe student govern-\n\nment idea is a recognition of the fact that there is something of value there\nif it is\n\nrightly used.\n\nStudents given an opportunity to co-operate with\n\nthose responsible for the management of the school develop a strong desire\nto have things go right.\n\nIn most schools there is too great a separation between students and\nIn reality their interests are common, so that there ought to be\n\nfaculty.\n\nunity of effort.\n\nThe different departments of the school are striving toward\n\nthe same end.\n\nYet in the stress of work each one becomes so engrossed in\n\nown particular phase that it is likely to see its importance, to a certain\nThe school festival is a recognition\nThe physical director,\nof this fact, and is a worthy effort to counteract it.\nas a member of the faculty, naturally has the faculty point of view, so that\nits\n\nextent, to the exclusion of the others.\n\nwith his more or less intimate contact with the student point of view he\n\nought to be able to do something toward bringing these two groups to the\nconmion ground of a more practical and open-hearted understanding of\neach other.\n\nIn conclusion, then, educators are recognizing the importance of the\n\nand the social as well as the intellectual in a wellThey also recognize that social and moral\ndevelopment can come only by practice, and not by any amount of theorizing on ethical principles. Since this is true, and since the activities of\nphysical education offer so great an opportunity for this training, these\nactivities should have an important place in school life, and they demand\nmost thoro and intelligent supervision.\nSince the physical director comes so closely in touch with that large\npart of the student's life which lies outside of the classroom, his responsibility for that less formal side of the student's development is very great.\nHe must, accordingly, be a person of high ideals and one whose interests\nare general. If he is to measure up to this standard, he cannot be of the\ntype whose interests go no farther than his own specialty. Then, if he has\na broad idea of the moral and social significance of his work and has a\ndetermination to make that work contribute to the all-round development\nof his student, he may accomplish much toward the real end of education.\n\nphysical, the moral,\n\norganized educational system.\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": "695", "text": "SHALL SEX HYGIENE BE TAUGHT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS?\n\nDepartment]\n\n695\n\nSHALL SEX HYGIENE BE TAUGHT IN THE PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS?\nI.\n\nCHARLES H. KEENE, M.D., SUPERVISOR OF HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL\nTRAINING, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nThe main argument for teaching sex hygiene in the public schools has\nbeen that the home is not giving this instruction; that it must be taught\nsomewhere; therefore, it should be taught in the school. This same argu-\n\nment applies equally well to numerous other things that the home should\ndo but has failed to do. More and more is the home giving up its responsibilities to public organizations.\n\nThe school, being the best organized body,\n\nhas been compelled to receive a large share of these offcasts.\n\nWith this attitude of the home, I have no sympathy.\n\nPractically no\n\nhome exists where the parents, if they so desire, do not have time and\nopportunity for the moral and religious instruction of their offspring.\n\nEven in those unfortunate homes where both parents have to work outside\nthe home to obtain funds for the support of the family, there is some opportunity for this instruction. As for the better class of homes, where this\nduty is neglected because of lack of responsibility on the part of the parents,\nthere are no words that properly express our condemnation of their sin of\n\nThe amount of freedom from observation the average well-to-do\n\nneglect.\n\nparent permits his children is outrageous.\n\nWith this tendency on the part of the home to throw off its burden is\nthe other tendency of certain agencies to take from the home its privileges.\n\nThe playhouse, the pulpit, the public platform, as sjmfibolized by certain\nwould-be reformers, and even the school authorities are attempting to\nassume the offices and duties of the parent.\nThere is, too, a question of very great moral injury to many of the\nchildren themselves. A few evil-minded pupils in a class or group can do\nirreparable injury. As things are at present, such efforts toward injury\nare outside the law and many pupils shun them accordingly. If this\nmatter were given a standing in school, it would legitimize it in a way that\nwould make the efforts of these perverted ones much more fruitful of evil\nthan they are at present. Then, too, the mere fact that the thing is taught\nin the school, like geography and arithmetic, makes it a familiar matter,\nso familiar that it soon loses its innocence and sacredness. Moreover it\nhas never been proven that knowledge compels purity.\nThat I might have some information on which to base the discussion\nof this matter, there was sent to 104 clergymen in the Twin Cities a questionnaire, asking the following questions:\nFirst:\n\nDo you believe sex hygiene should be taught to children ? At what age ?\n\nSecond:\n\nWhere should it be taught?\nIn the public schools ?\n\na)\nb)\n\nIn the church or Sunday school ?\n\nc)\n\nIn the home ?\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": "696", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n5^6\n\nIf it is to be taught in the public schook, by\n\nThird:\n\n[Physical\n\nwhom should it be taught ?\n\nBy teachers chosen particularly for that purpose?\nb) By the teacher in biology ?\nc) By the school nurse ?\nd) By the teacher in physical education ?\na)\n\nFourth\n\nIf it is to be taught in the public schools, in what grade\n\n:\n\nshould it be taught ?\n\nThe first to eighth, containing children from six to fourteen ?\nthirteen to nineteen ?\nb) The ninth to twelfth, containing children from\n\na)\n\nc)\n\nIn the colleges, containing children seventeen years of age and over ?\n\nFrom the 104 inquiries, only 28 replies were recieved, indicating that\nonly approximately one-fourth of our clerg)rmen are interested enough in\nTwenty-four replied definitely that\nthis matter to answer these questions.\nsex hygiene should be taught children; the other four seemed to be in doubt\nas to its advisability.\n\nAs regards the age at which it should be taught, 15\n\nadvised this teaching before the age of puberty, 7 during pubescence, 3\nafter that age; 3 gave no definite reply in the matter of age.\n\nAssuming that it is to be taught somewhere, 13 favored teaching it in the\npublic schools, 7 gave a decisive negative answer, 8 were very vague upon\nthis point; 9 favored teaching it in the Sunday schools, 5 gave a definite negative answer, 14 did not give a decisive answer; 28 favored teaching it in the\n\nhome; that is, even those who advocated teaching it in the public schools\nor in the Sunday schools felt that it should be taught in the home, but should\nbe taught by these other agencies because the home so generally failed.\nAssuming that it is to be taught in the public schools, 10 favored having\nit taught by teachers chosen particularly for that purpose, 6 by the teacher\nin biology, 8 by the school nurse, 8 by the instructor in physical education.\nOne maintained that the instruction should be only incidental, 2 that the\nclassification of the teacher did not matter, as it was purely a matter of\n\nTwo maintained that whatever instruction was given should\nbe given to the parents rather than to the children.\n\npersonality.\n\nAgain assuming that it is to be taught in the public schools, 16 favored\nteaching it in the grade schools, 10 favored teaching it in the high schools,\n\n9 favored teaching it in the colleges. Five maintained that it should be\ntaught in all three; i in the grade school and college only, 2 in the grade\n\nand high school only, i in the high school and college only, i in the college\nonly, this last gentleman declaring that it should not be taught until the\nlast\n\ntwo years in college, on the ground that this was the nearest to the\n\nparental age of any public-school pupils.\n\nWe see, then, that this group\n\nof men, who probably have given considerable thought to this important\n\nmatter, were unanimous that this thing should be taught in the home and\npractically all of them maintained that it should not be taught in the public\n\nschools except for the reason that the home has failed; so we get back to\n\nthe fundamental argument.\nI think we are unanimous in agreeing that this is a parental duty, none\nthe less a parental duty merely because the parents are shirking it. The\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": "697", "text": "Department]\n\nSHALL SEX HYGIENE BE TAUGHT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 697\n\nonly way in which this condition may be bettered is not by preaching that\nthe public schools should take over more of the parents' burdens, but by\ninsisting that the parents should fulfil the duty they owe their offspring\n\nand the community.\nIt may be fitting to give special instruction to some individuals privately,\n\nwho are selected by the teachers and sent to the nurse or physician for this\npurpose.\n\nOr, in the high schools, instruction may very properly be given\n\nto those individuals\n\nwho make confidants of their teachers.\n\nWith the\n\nright kind of teachers in physical education, these are the teachers selected\nfor confidences most frequently, and their opportunity for private instruc-\n\ntion and for influence over their pupils is extraordinarily beneficial.\n\nWe now come to the real gist of the situation: that sex hygiene should\nbe taught, but that it should be taught to the parents, first, that they may\nbe made to feel that it is their duty to do this work, not the duty of the\nschool; second, that they may feel that they have the necessary kind and\n\namount of information, so that they may teach it properly. This instruction may be given to the parents by properly chosen school nurses or lecturers or school physicians, or by the teacher of physical education, providing\nhe has been properly trained.\n\nThis is not a matter to be left to an athletic\n\nIf this work is to be given\n\nor football coach.\n\nunder school auspices, it\n\nshould be done by someone regularly employed by the board of education,\nso that the proper authorities\n\nmay have absolute control.\n\nThese talks\n\nshould be given to groups of parents, with the sexes separated, for the\nreason that discussion and the asking of questions will be much more free\n\nthus than in mixed groups.\n\nBy this means, an opportunity is afforded the public school to perform\neducating the people, not only educating them in the\nfundamentals of this subject which is so important to the future of our race,\nits true function of\n\nbut educating them along lines that will enable the home to get back some\nof the ground it has lost in the proper education of its young. Only by such\n\nmeans are we going to check the downward tendency of the home for throwing off its duties and the equally downward tendency of outside agencies\nto take from the home its privileges. Thus may we replace the family\nhearthstone where it belongs, as the foundation of the moral and religious\ntraining of our youth.\n\nn.\n\nMABEL M. WRIGHT, PHYSICAL DIRECTOR OP GIRLS,\nSCHURZ HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nIn this brief discussion of a very large question the various aspects of\nthe present needs for sex education will not be dwelt upon at length.\n\nThe\n\nobject of this paper will be largely to give some of the practical residts of\n\nthe personal purity talks given in the Chicago high schools during the fall\nof 1 913.\n\nSuch tangible facts as have been obtained come chiefly from the\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": "698", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n698\n\n(Physical\n\none of the coeducational high schools where economic and social\nconditions may be considered somewhat above the average.\ngirls of\n\nA series of three lectures was given to all high-school pupils by members\nof the medical profession.\n\nBoys and girls were segregated, women physi-\n\ncians giving the talks to girls, while the boys were addressed by men.\n\nThe\n\ngeneral plan for these lectures was the same in all high schools, but when\n\nwe consider that some latitude was given each speaker, that religious,\neconomic, and other conditions cause public opinion to vary with each\nlocality, and, most important of all, the personal equation of the lecturer,\nit is plain that the results will differ more or less widely.\n\nAny pupil whose\n\nparents wished to have him excused was not required to be present.\n\nwere very few of such requests.\n\nThere\nThree lectures were given in progression.\n\nThese talks covered in general the biological and physiological truths which\nformed the basis for sex education, personal sexual hygiene, problems of\nsex instincts, and a few of the hygienic and social facts regarding venereal\ndisease.\n\nWhen some time had elapsed after these lectures had been given, representative gymnasium classes from the four years of the high school were\n\nasked to write out a criticism of the lectures and, in addition, to answer a\nfew questions which were suggested. No names or other means of identification were placed on these papers.\n\nThe first question asked of the girls was in regard to the source of information of sexual knowledge. About 53 per cent received this information\nfrom their mothers, 15 per cent from older sisters or other relatives, 27 per\ncent from girl friends, and 5 per cent from various other sources as teachers, nurses, doctors, lectures\n\nat school, books, and overhearing conversa-\n\ntions in regard to such matters.\n\nClosely associated with the source of information is the need, as the\npupil sees it, for sex instruction in schools; also the attitude of parents\n\ntoward such instruction. So it happens that the answers to these three\nquestions are grouped together in many instances and throw an interesting\nlight on the teaching of sex education in the schools.\n\nThe following are some of the replies received:\nFreshman.—1 knew nothing before the lectures: Mother thought me too young.\n\n1.\n\nMy instincts and imagination told me some things and then I overheard a conversation\nbetween mother and a lady visitor, so guessed at part of it,\nbut did not have any definite\ninformation until the lectures.\n2.\n\nJunior.—Got my first information from my girl friends. Was very glad to hear\nand want to hear more, for while my motiier knows a\nlot, she won't tell me\n\nlectures\n\na thing.\n\n3- 5e»wr.—Mother told me about menstrual periods after\nthey had arrived. Was\ntold a great many Uimgs by girl friends\nat ten years of age which I did not understand\nvery well. I took a dark view of all\nthose tilings and feel now, after havmg had tiiem\n\ncxplamed, tiiat I should have been told\n\nhad a wrong view.\n\nearUer by an older person and not by girls who\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": "699", "text": "Department]\n\nSHALL SEX HYGIENE BE TAUGHT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 699\n\nOf the parents, only 8 per cent found open objection to the lectures.\nSome were a little dubious, but the usual answer to this question was that\nthe parents did not object.\n\nA few girls were indifferent as to whether the lectures should be continued, but at least 90 per cent were in favor of having this work intro-\n\nduced regularly into the schools.\n\nIn their search for the best means of\n\nby whom, with whom, when,\nand where. The consensus of opinion is that the teacher who presents this\nwork must be the one who knows the girls most intimately and has their\nconfidence, respect, and admiration. There must be a close personal relationship between pupils and teacher, so the pupils will feel free to ask\nquestions. Many said they were too shy, too modest, too embarrassed, or\ndid not think it right to ask questions of a stranger. There must be a closer\nbond between members of the group than is usually found in the average classroom. There was an urgent demand for small, intimate groups,\nranging in nimabers from five to fifty. Many preferred personal talks, but\nrealized that such would not be feasible.\nTime and place were of little\nconsideration so long as there was no disturbing of the program or other\npublicity given these lectures. Above all, this particular subject must not\nstand out by itself or be out of relation to other things. In casting about\nfor a solution for these problems, the great majority of girls seized the one\nclosest to hand\nthe gymnasium class.\nNo doubt the fact that these answers were written in the gymnasium,\nfor the g3^mnasium teachers, and with girls whom they had learned to know\nintimately thru gynmasium work, acted as a strong suggestion in deterintroduction, four conditions were considered:\n\n—\n\nNearly 80 per cent foxmd the gymnasium class the\none place which met all these conditions; 12 per cent felt the physiology\n\nmining their answers.\n\nand hygiene class the natural place for this subject; while the remaining\n8 per cent divided their preference\n\namong the dean, domestic science\n\nteacher, and outside lecturers.\n\nAmong the interesting remarks on these points are the following:\n\n—\n\n1. Freshman.\nWhen we come to the gymnasium is the time to hear the lectures.\nThen every boy and girl and teacher in the school does not know that we are having\nlectures.\nThe gymnasium teacher comes closely in contact with the girls, and when we\nare in doubt we can go to her and she will explain.\n2.\n\n—I think would be a good plan to have our teachers lecture on such\nSenior.—^Lectures should be given in the gynmasium by the g>'mnasium teacher\n\nJunior.\n\nit\n\nsubjects and make it a regular study in the high school like physiology.\n3.\n\nwho has girls only, and with whom the girls are well acquainted. She has to know when\nwe are excused from work and everything else about us when she gives physical examinations, so the girls are not afraid to ask questions of her as they are of other teachers\n\nand lecturers and doctors.\nIt is very difficult to plan subject-matter which will not be a repetition\n\nof well-known facts for some or entirely too new or advanced for others.\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": "700", "text": "NATIONAL EDU CATION ASSOCIATION\n\n-OO\n\n[Physical\n\nat\nWith but two or three exceptions, there was not a girl who\nhad been treated\n\ntook offense\n\nanything that had been said nor who thought the subject\nuniversal demand for more\ntoo frankly. There was, however, an almost\nfor advice regarding the\nplain facts. There was also a strong demand\n\nIt is not probable that any of the\nattitude of one sex toward another.\nbiological facts or facts on personal hygiene or reproduction were too\n\nadvanced for high-school pupils to grasp, but in the method of presentation\nThere was scarcely a girl who\nit was obvious that things were not clear.\nOne girl, when asked why\nused.\ndid not say something about the big words\nshe did not ask questions about the things she did not understand, said:\n\"I couldn't remember the big words long enough to ask questions about\n\nthem.\"\n\nThe biological method of presenting this work, if used in the regular\nclass, where full equipment is at hand, is perhaps the best method of teaching reproduction and placing the whole subject on a basis where it may be\napproached from any side. Few people are disturbed by the facts of the\nnatural history of sex.\n\nHowever, biology in itself is not sufficient. Sex mistakes are generally\ndue to ignorance and to uncontrolled instincts. A complete and comprehensive course based on biology and physiology would do much to overcome ignorance, but, when we consider the matter of controlling instincts,\n\nwe need a greater inspiration than is found in biology.\n\nIf we are to affect\n\ncharacter, which will be necessary in conquering these instincts, we must\n\nuse examples of the highest type and not stop short of the spiritual side of\nIt is here that the heroic method advocated by Dr. Hall\nand the children want this method. They do not care so much\nto have you tell them what to do, as what others have done. One girl said:\n\"I think the time could have been used to better advantage if she had told\nus what women had done and whether they did right or wrong.\" This\nwork obviously belongs somewhere in the department which in some schools\nis called the department of health and is in no §ense limited to one's physical\n\nthe sexual life.\n\nis of value,\n\nwell-being alone.\n\nEminent authorities find that the sexual instinct has increased rather\nthan diminished with the growth of civilization.\n\ngrowth of civilization.\n\nThe school is the out-\n\nIn pioneer days, education came from the home,\n\nand the more highly civilized we become the more does the school have\nto assume what was formerly considered the work of the home.\nIf sex\ninstinct has increased in direct proportion with civilization, how\n\ncan the\n\nschool shift this responsibility entirely on the unprepared homes, while it\nassimoies much less vital responsibilities ?\n\nIn handling this subject, we are too much impressed with the harmful\nside of it, and, as in teaching temperance, we have used the scare method,\n\nwhich only tends to inhibit the development of all the higher affections\n\nand nobility of sex.\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": "701", "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSICAL EDUCATION AT NEWCOMB COLLEGE\n\nHavelock-Ellis says:\n\n701\n\n\"Foolish and ignorant persons may deplore the\n\ndevelopment which the sexual instinct has reached in civilized man;\nto a finer insight that development is seen to be indissolubly linked with\nall that is most poignant and most difficult indeed, but also that is best in\n\nfull\n\nhuman life, as we know it.\"\n\nTHE HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION AT NEWCOMB COLLEGE\nCLARA GREGORY BAER, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, NEWCOMB\nCOLLEGE, TULANE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISIANA, NEW ORLEANS, LA.\nIn presenting this subject, one would feel impelled to plead indulgence\n\nwere it not for the fact that all teachers whose years of service have given\nthem opportunities to see their chosen work develop will recognize in the\nrecital some of their own struggles in the past to work out their ideals\n\nstruggles that are inevitable in the birth of a new and untried element in\n\nthe scheme of modem education.\n\nThen, too, the history of a movement in any one section cannot fail\nand the growth of a subject in any\nspecial institution may be taken to mark the progress in the subject in the\nsection of the country where this institution is located. It is with some\nsuch thoughts as these, rather than the exploiting of the work of a special\nto have its interest for other sections;\n\nschool, that this paper is presented.\n\nAt present the department of hygiene and physical education at Newcomb includes the following courses: First, the regular practical work of\nthe gymnasium, including hygienic, corrective, medical, and aesthetic\ngjnnnastics.\n\nSecond, a theory course.\n\nThis is a lecture course including\n\npersonal and general hygiene, voice culture and expression.\n\nThe depart-\n\nment is closely allied with that of biology; and in certain years the lectures\ninclude the study of exercises from the standpoint of biology.\n\nThird, a\n\ntraining course for teachers providing technical instruction in kinesiology\n\nand allied subjects, with practice in teaching. This course is designed to\nmeet the needs of those students who wish to specialize in physical education.\nFourth, an extension course for teachers in connection with the\nregular extension work of Tulane University. These represent the result\nof twenty-three years' growth and development of the department of\nhygiene and physical education in the college. Serious gymnastic work was\nnot undertaken at Newcomb until the fall of 1891.\n\nAbout this time students from other sections of the country spending\nSouth wanted to specialize in physical education.\nNewcomb, at that time, offered no such course; but the director of the\n\ntheir winters in the\n\ngjrmnasium offered to take these applicants as private pupils.\ntinued until the fall of 1893,\n\nThis con-\n\nwhen provision was made to accept these\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": "702", "text": "NATIONAL EDU CATION ASSOCIATION\n\nyo2\n\nPhysicat\n\nbeing provided\nstudents in the college as specials, certain college subjects\nWhile the number of pupils in this course has not been\n\nin the course.\n\ngreat,\n\nit\n\nhas served its purpose in giving to the profession some splendid\n\nyoung women, and it has given to the community trained teachers who\nprobably at that time could not have gone elsewhere for the work. The\ncourse has advanced to the position of one of the regular educational\nsubjects offered in the college. For a two years' course, a certificate is\ngranted, and for a four years' course, a degree in education is given. One\nof the chief ends accomplished in this training course has been the dissemination of the gynmastic idea among the people.\n\nAt Newcomb the work was first planned so that combinations of classes\nwere made, in order to take as little time from the regular curriculum as\nGradually, however, each class had its regular hours arranged,\npossible.\nand today the students have weekly two regular periods of work thruout\nthe four years of the college, with certain specified practice in basket-ball\n\nand other games out of doors.\nIt was in 1893 that basket-ball was introduced at Newcomb and into\nthe South. At that time the game had not reached its present development. When Newcomb College first tried basket-ball in its gymnastic\nwork, there were no published rules for women, none of the fine points of\ncontrol that characterize the game today. The results were naturally to\nbe expected; its introduction at Newcomb was not entirely satisfactory.\nLater, a compromise was reached by modifying the game for girls. This\ngame thruout the years has been developing at Newcomb and is known\nas \"Newcomb College Basket-Bali Rules for Girls.\"\n\nThe first edition of\n\nany other modified\nform of the game appeared. In making this statement, there is no intention of reflecting upon the great work done in developing basket-ball\nthese rules was issued in 1895, several years before\n\nelsewhere, but merely the desire to be accurate, historically.\n\nNewcomb,\n\nbeing so far from other colleges and not in touch with the progress of the\n\ngame elsewhere, found its modifications developing along original lines;\nso that today, as it was originally,\n\nNewcomb basket-ball is unique.\n\nIt\n\nwas while the question of basket-ball was hanging in the balance that the\ngame \"Newcomb\" was really born. It was provided as a compromise.\nWhen basket-ball had taken its legitimate place in the college, it soon\nbecame apparent that match games would be played. A series of interclass games was established, and in 1903 the department decided to offer\na class cup for competition.\nWith the broadenmg of the athletic idea an athletic association was\norganized in 1908. Today, the athletic association of the college has\ncharge of\n\nall\n\noutside events which, however, are under the supervision\n\ncommittee on athletics. No student who is not a member of one of the regular gymnastic classes is eligible to membership in\nof the faculty\n\nthe N.A.A.\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": "703", "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL EDUCATION AT NEWCOMB COLLEGE\n\n703\n\nFor many years, owing to local conditions, the department was not\nits work in anthropometry and physical examinations,\ncontenting itself with certain chest measurements and the vital test by use\nof the spirometer, and with the introduction of lectures, on personal hygiene\nand allied topics, into the regular course. This served to give the student\nable to develop\n\nan interest in the work and some idea of its purpose. In 1 909 ample facilities\nThe college is now able to make extended\nfor measurements were provided.\nand thoro examinations of all students. These measurements are repeated\ntwice each year; and, up to the summer of 1913, when a statement was\nmade for the university, two thousand measurements had been taken. We\n\nhave noticed an ever-increasing interest in the gymnastic work since the\nstudents are able to see what progress they are making and to learn wherein\ntheir needs lie.\n\nFor some years the problem of the special student faced the director,\nand the plan was adopted to take these girls outside of school hours as\nprivate pupils. During these years many girls were so treated and greatly\nThis was the only plan that appeared feasible at the time,\nbenefited.\nbecause existing conditions did not provide integral work of such a character.\nDuring late years the director made this a part of the regular work,\nselecting such students as were most in need of corrective work, as\nthe time she had to spare was necessarily limited. That the students\nappreciated this work was proven by the fact that they would remain until\nall hours of the afternoon waiting for their appointments.\nWith the\nfurther enlargement of the department, however, and the addition of assistant instructors, the director is now enabled to take most of these students at\ntheir regular gymnasium hour and give them special work, instead of general\nclass work.\nNo college that cannot provide for the delicate, timid, and\nweak student is able to do its best work in physical education. Too often,\nthe girl who most needs physical development is crowded out by her more\nambitious and stronger companions. To my mind, the college of the\nfuture will provide with great care for this character of work. While we\nmay not hear as much about it, it will undoubtedly do more for the women\nof the future than anything else this department can offer.\nToday Newcomb has many departments, and the coming together of\nthese students in the gymnasium hour has greatly enlarged the scope of\nthe work. We not only have interclass match games, Varsity-Alumnae\ngames, but we have inter-department games also. This year a Field Day\nwas inaugurated. It met with great success. If we can be judicious in\nour selection of events, we believe it will add greatly to the outdoor life of\nthe college. At Newcomb the student lives out of doors all the year round;\ntherefore much of the gymnastic work itself is given in the open air, even\nin the midwinter months.\n\nThe season of athletic activities lasts, practically,\n\nfrom November to Commencement week. Basket-ball opens the series.\nA regular schedule for class practice on specified days is outlined by the\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": "704", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n704\n\n[Physical\n\nN.A.A. for each team. Practice games begin about the first of November,\nand the match games are held usually during February and March. In\naddition to basket-ball and Field Day events, Newcomb has a tennis tournament each spring which closes with a \"Tennis Tea.\" At this time the\nvarious trophies in athletics are presented.\nNewcomb has never entered into contest with other colleges in athletics,\n\nbut has encouraged all legitimate and healthful contests on its own campus.\nWhile competition may be necessary to life, extremes in competition have\nnever been encouraged at Newcomb College. The South has always been\nconsidered conservative; but it is a conservatism that has often saved us\n\nfrom making mistakes.\n\nCertainly\n\nwe know that undue\n\nexcitement\n\nis\n\nnot to the well-being of the girl; and the chief aim of gymnastic work\nshould be the health of the student. In fact, it is the representative depart-\n\nment of hygiene as well as of physical education; and the problem before us\nnow, as it is before all other colleges, is to give to the student that character\nof development that will make for finer womanhood, physically, mentally,\n\nand morally.\n\nIf we can do this, we shall feel that the department of physical\n\neducation is doing\n\nits\n\nlegitimate work in the college.\n\nWe believe that\n\nharmonious physical development is the chief factor in promoting the\ngeneral efficiency, as well as the healthfulness and happiness, of women.\n\nTEE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE CHILD AS A LEADING\nFACTOR IN DETERMINING HIS VOCATIONAL\nGUIDANCE\nMARGARET E. SCHALLENBERGER, COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS,\nDEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CAL.\n\nOne of the first lessons a student of scientific psychology is taught when\nhe enters the laboratory is the necessity of his making a careful statement\nof the exact conditions imder which the problem he is solving is performed.\nWithout this statement his results are worthless. They form the proof of\nthe truth of his experiment. These conditions, of course, vary greatly,\ndepending upon the sense department in which the work is being carried\non, and cover not only definite statements concerning the apparatus used\n\nand its placement, but any fact touching the physical state of the subject\nthat might in any way affect his judgments. Sometimes a seemingly trivial\ninaccuracy is sufficient to vitiate the results of an otherwise worthy investigation.\n\nIt is only after a student has failed more than once to make the record\nof an extremely small and seemingly worthless condition and has lost the\n\nvalue of his experiments thereby that the significance of the caution,\n\n\"Everything depends upon a full and accurate statement of the conditions,\"\nis borne in\n\nupon him.\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": "705", "text": "PHYSICAL CONDITION IN VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE\n\nDepartment]\n\n705\n\nIllustrations of this important rule of scientific procedure are found in\n\nthe everyday work of life.\n\nThe best physician, for example, is not always\n\nthe man whose knowledge of therapeutics is most profound;\n\nhe is often\n\nrather the most acute inquirer into the causes of disorders, the discoverer\n\nHe understands how to diagnose the case. He is able\n\nof the conditions.\n\nto find out what is the trouble before he attempts to cure it.\n\nWe could\n\nfind illustrations and examples of this method applied in almost every field\nof human endeavor, and yet it is only very recently that we have begun\n\nto make use of it in our own field of education.\n\nvery eager about it.\n\nToday, however, we are\n\nWe wonder how we could have been so blind as not\n\nto see that it is indirectly rather than directly we should put forth our\nefforts.\n\nWe have discovered that we ought to spend more time in learn-\n\ning what we wish before we begin to institute reforms.\n\nTherefore, before\n\nremodeling the course of study in a city in order to improve its efficiency,\n\nwe make a survey of all the conditions bearing upon education in that city\nthat it is possible for us to ascertain.\n\nBefore working toward legislation\n\nfor better school administration in a state, we set to work to tabulate all\n\nthe conditions pro and con that make for power or weakness in the present\n\nsystem of administration.\nwell as of schools\n\nWe are even making surveys of teachers as\n\nand communities.\n\nThis has changed the focus of our\n\nactivities.\n\nAnother factor closely allied to the foregoing, which enters strongly\ninto present-day educational ideals and policies, is conservation.\n\nWe are\n\nbeginning to realize that public education is a mammoth business and that\nlike any other business it ought to be managed with as little waste and with\n\nas great profit as possible.\n\nThe amount of money spent on the education\n\nof our children is not a matter for concern, provided the returns made to\nsociety, as a result of the expenditure, are sufficiently large.\n\nWe are\n\nhow to eliminate waste in\nevery possible way; and within the last few years we have been fairly well\nthinking in view of this business proposition\n\nconvinced that our children leave school too young, probably because\nschool is not interesting and also because it does not fit them for the life\nthat the large majority must live.\n\nThey leave school neither desiring to\n\ngo farther, if opportunity offered, nor prepared to adjust themselves to the\nsituations that life presents.\n\nThis state of affairs brought about the vocational school.\n\nIn these\n\nschools we hope to hold the children longer and keep them interested, therefore learning, and so send them out or on, as the case may be;\n\nif out, as will\n\nbe the destiny of the large majority, with ability to make a living at some\ndefinite kind of work, and with desire to know all they can about it, and all\n\nthey can about the world's activities in general.\n\nThe vocational school in its turn inaugurates another departure.\n\nWe\n\nfound it was not fair to force, or even too strongly to suggest, children into\nvarious forms of life activities without giving the children themselves a voice\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": "706", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7o6\n\n[Physical\n\nin the matter; besides it is better business for men and women to be engaged\n\nin those lines of work for which they are best fitted.\n\nIt is a bad business\n\nthat puts round pegs into square holes and square pegs into round holes;\nand so today we are giving our boys and girls conferences, or lessons, or lectures, along with their school activities, that will help each to find his or her\n\nThis departure has been\n\nown place in this world of work and service.\ncalled vocational guidance.\n\nThe idea of vocational guidance is spreading rapidly and is broadening\nUltimately it will mean a more intimate relation between\n\nas it spreads.\n\nteacher and child, between parent and child, and between parent\nteacher.\n\nand\n\nIt will mean a better understanding of the laws of heredity, of\n\npsychology, hygiene, anatomy, and physiology, and a better understanding\nof the meaning and function of environment.\n\ntake a survey of each child, to find\n\nAt present we are trying to\n\nout what his natural tendencies are,\n\nand, thru a study of his parents and grandparents, to find out how deepseated are these tendencies.\n\nWe are looking into the conditions of his life\n\nin financial aspects to see how large a part money or lack of money will\n\nprobably play in his choice of occupation.\n\nWe are considering his geo-\n\nand making his present residence with its probable or\nWe are finding out what\npossible permanence a factor for consideration.\nfamily\nrelationships,\nof\nsupport\nfamily\nto be depended upon or\ncan\nof\nwe\nfamily dependence to be expected. We are making the survey that is\nwe are seeking the conditions under which our experiment in education is\nto be conducted. But we are omitting, as frequently do the students in\ntraining in the scientific laboratories, not an insignificant, but a most\ngraphical setting\n\n—\n\nimportant, condition\n\n—that of his physical health.\n\nObvious deformities and mental deficiencies are of course considered,\nbut aside from that the child's physical condition, as a factor in determining our guidance for him as to his place in life, does not seem greatly\nto impress us.\n\nIt goes without saying that we shall not always be able\n\nto bring about what our survey of conditions directs, but the consideration of the physical condition as\n\nan important factor in the survey will\n\noften change our point of view and will radically change our method of\n\nprocedure, and the results of these changes will always be beneficial to\n\nthe child.\n\nMoreover there is probably no movement in education that will ultimately do more for the cause of physical education in general than this very\npopular movement of vocational guidance.\n\nBoth parents and teachers\n\nare going to study all children, as they develop from year to year, with the\n\nthought in mind, \"I wonder where you will find your own individual life\n\nwork.\"\n\nTendencies will be discussed. As new subjects are provided in\nthe school curriculum, they will more and more be regarded as tools for\nthe development of the possibilities of the child.\n\nAs soon as there is even\na tentative choice of the child's future work in life made by parent and\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": "707", "text": "Department]\n\nSWEDISH GYMNASTICS IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS\n\n—\n\nthis choice may come when the child is quite young\n\nteacher\n\n707\n\n—there\n\nwill\n\nimmediately be presented the question, \"Is he physically fit ?\"\nWhere medical inspection has been installed, vocational guidance will\ngive this work emphasis and an added point of interest.\n\nWhen indifferent\n\nparents learn that unless the corrective eyeglasses are purchased their child\nwill possibly be shut out forever from the vocation they are looking toward\n\nfor him, the glasses are likely to be forthcoming.\n\nWhen it is known that\n\nthe medical inspector understands what vocations have been selected by\n\neach of the boys and girls of the upper grammar grades, it not only gives his\ndiagnosis of each case a certain added weight that appeals to both parent\n\nand child as thoroly practical, but it also gives an added zest to the inAnd the time will come when certain avenues will be\n\nspector's work.\n\nentirely blocked as fields of action, because of failure to provide the right\n\nphysical conditions.\n\nNo young person with a strong inclination toward\nteacher.\nNo one whose eyes have\n\ntuberculosis should plan to be a\n\ntroubled him thru youth should look toward entering a life work involving\n\nuse of the eyes for long periods at close range.\nlooking for efficiency.\n\nThe world of business is\n\nPhysical health makes for efficiency and will be\n\nmore and more in demand. Not only how much do you know, but how\nmuch can you do, and how well can you do it are the practical questions\nthat are being asked today. There is no vocation or profession open to\nmen and women in which physical health is not a prime condition of effi-\n\nWe cannot consistently ignore or even minimize the health con-\n\nciency.\n\ndition in helping children select their life work.\n\nSome such questions as\n\nthese must be asked: Does the work appeal to you?\nwilling ?\n\nIs it sufficiently remunerative ?\n\nAre your parents\n\nCan you do the work, that is,\n\nhave you the knowledge therefor ? Have you a body in all respects suffiThe last question answered\nciently strong to enable you to do this work ?\nnegatively would require a change of choice in the life work selected.\nThe prominence that is being given to vocational guidance is significant for physical education, child hygiene, medical inspection, child-labor\nlaws,\n\nand school architecture and equipment.\n\nAll of\n\nthese focus the\n\nattention upon physical well-being as a prime requisite for efficiency in the\n\nwork and service of the world.\n\nSWEDISH GYMNASTICS IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS\nW.\n\np.\n\nHUBERT VON BLIJENBURGH, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,\nROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY, BREDA, NETHERLANDS\n\nBefore discussing the subject of gymnastics, let us first agree on the\nmeaning of the word \"gymnastics.\" Gymnastic exercises are those exercises by the practice of which we aim at a systematic, gradual, and harmonious development of the body. This development is the only and\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": "708", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7o8\n\n[Physical\n\nexclusive aim, and this aim is the only factor which decides which move-\n\nments will be practiced, in what sequence they will be executed, what is\nthe exact and correct form of execution, etc. Gymnastics form a special\nclass among the great variety of physical activities.\n\nAll the other physical\n\nexercises together form a second class of which the chief aim is recreation\n\nand by which it is possible to develop certain parts of the body and certain\nmoral and intellectual qualities. This class includes the different sports\nand games. In the practice of these physical exercises there is no thought\nabout a harmonious development of the body. Nobody bothers about\nwhether, to perform a certain exercise in apparatus work or to make a\ntouchdown, he has to hold his breath, to disturb or to interrupt the circulation of his blood, etc.\n\nI do not mean to say that all the sportive exercises\n\n—\n\nmust necessarily have bad physiological influences but still, we cannot\nsay that their practice guarantees us a harmonious development of the body.\n\nOn the contrary it very often leads to specialization as far as the physical\ndevelopment is concerned.\n\nGymnastics build up the body harmoniously, build up the different\norgans in order to make them better fitted for their natural functions\n\nand for their use during daily life.\n\nAn example will make this clearer. The\n\nrespiratory exercises aim to develop the mobility of the thorax, the elas-\n\nlung tissue, and the strength and tone of the respiratory\nThruout daily life, and still more during the practice of physical\nDuring the practice\nexercises, we take profit of that increase of capacity.\n\nticity of the\n\nmuscles.\n\nof gymnastics we try to contract our respiratory muscles as much as possible\nin order to dilate our chest and consequently our lungs as much as possible.\n\nBut thruout daily\nand particularly during the practice of sports and games, a better\n\nIt is our voluntary action which produces this result.\nlife\n\nrespiration is the involuntary result of the better training by gymnastics.\nThen we use the increased efficiency of the respiratory organs. The same\nis\n\ntrue for the other organs (muscles, nerves, etc.).\n\ngymnastics are body-builders;\n\nConcisely stated,\n\nsports, games, and also the various activi-\n\nties of daily life are body-users.\n\nWhile in gymnastics we use chiefly exercises of the definite type, in\n\nand in daily life activities we always use movements of the indefinite type. In gymnastics we use exercises, the exact\nform of which is previously determined by the physiological effect which is\ndesired.\nBut when we learn to walk, to throw a baseball, to write, etc., the\nfinal result which we want to reach is not previously determined as to the\nexact form of our movements. The same is true for all the natural movements and even for all the artificial ones, the form of which is not determined\nby some desired physiological effect, but by the practical purpose of the\nmovement. The individual tries to arrive at the combination which makes\nsports, games, athletics,\n\nit possible for\n\nhim to execute the movement in the most economical way,\n\nthat is, he tries to get the maximum effect with the minimum of effort.\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": "709", "text": "Department]\n\nSWEDISH GYMNASTICS IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS\n\n709\n\nBut in the movements of the definite type, the form is determined so\nas to get the maximum, physiologically useful effect.\n\nThis maximum effect\n\ncan be obtained only by one special form of execution, which requires the\n\nmaximum effort and which is the same for all the individuals. It holds\ngood for all normal individuals that a trunk bending backward gives the\nmaximum of physiological effect only if the flexion is performed in the dorsal\npart of the spine;\n\nthat in arms sideways\n\nought to be kept down, etc.\n\nraised the\n\nshoulder-blades\n\nThe conditions of execution required in the\n\nSwedish gymnastics hold good for every individual, and for this reason this\n\nAnd this explains, also,\nwhy it is wrong to claim that every nation must have a system of gymsystem uses exercises only of the definite type.\nnastics of its own;\n\nphysiology is the same in America as in Sweden and\n\nconsequently the principles on which gymnastics must be based are the\n\nsame for all the countries.\nHaving previously defined gymnastics, let us now briefly review the\nrequirements of a rational system of gymnastics. We have seen that the\nsystem must guarantee a development that is systematic, gradual, and\nharmonious.\nI.\n\nThe requirements for a systematic development are the following:\n\na)\n\nEvery organ (muscles, group of muscles, heart, lungs, etc.) must be\n\nappropriately developed. That is, in a way which is according to its natural\nfunction.\nSo-called \" supporting muscles,\" for example, must be developed\ndifferently from motor muscles, because of the difference in function.\nb)\n\nGymnastic exercises must have a corrective influence; the necessity\n\nof the practice of gymnastics stands or falls with their corrective influence.\n\nThe word \"corrective\" must be taken in a broad sense and not only must\nindicate the correction of deformities and faulty postures, but also must\n\ninclude the neutralizing of the bad influences caused by our daily activities\n(sitting\nc)\n\nover desks, lack of physical activity, superficial respiration, etc.).\n\nIt must be possible to analyze the movements as to their influence\n\non the bodily development in order to get the desired results.\nd) These results depend on details of the execution and consequently\ngreat stress must be laid upon the correct execution of the movements.\ne)\n\nIn order to make the analysis possible and to obtain the desired\n\neffects, localization of\n\nmovements is necessary.\n\nIt\n\nmust be emphasized\n\nthat, contrary to the general opinion, localization of the movements does\n\nnot at all imply localization of effect nor of activity; on the contrary, by\nlocalizing the movements, the muscular activity and the effect become far\n\nmore widespread.\n/) In order to obtain the correctness of execution, the slow execution\nof the majority of the movements is necessary;\n\nthe most desirable speed\n\nof execution of gymnastic movements depends primarily on the difficulty\nof co-ordination, and not, as is always assumed, upon the relation between\n\nthe strength of the muscles and the displaced mass.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nsometimes\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": "710", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n710\n\n[Physical\n\nthought that the chief aim of gymnastics ought to consist in movement.\n\nThis is wrong;\n\nit is\n\nespecially activity that we are after.\n\nmovement just\n\nactivity without\n\nas\n\nWe may have\n\nwe may have movement without\n\nbut it is the activity which produces the effect on the metabolic\nprocess in the cells. Movement increases the circulation, but there is no\nreason for an increased circulation if there are no waste products to be\nactivity;\n\nremoved.\n\nThere is no use to open the windows when the\n\nair inside is\n\nas pure as outside.\ng)\n\nMost attention and most time must be given to the development\n\nof the most important organs; the importance of the rational development\nof the heart and lungs, rather than that of the muscles, is evident in this\nrespect.\n2.\n\nThe gradual development\n\nintensity of the exercises;\n\nthis\n\nrequires\n\na very slow progression in\n\nprogression has to be as slow as the\n\ndevelopment of the nervous and muscular systems. Does not the word\n\"education\" imply a slow and systematic progression? Without this\nprogression there\n\nmay be physical exercise, there can never be physical\n\neducation.\n3.\n\nThe harmonious development\n\ncomplete unit.\n\nrequires that every lesson form a\n\nIn order to guarantee this, the exercises must be judged\n\nand classified according to their physiological influence and not according\nis used for their execution.\nThere must be a\n\nto the apparatus which\n\nguaranty that the physiologically best sequence is followed in the lesson.\nThese requirements are fulfilled by using the Swedish days-order.\nI have studied physical education all over Europe and for the last year\nin America, and my conclusion is that all these requirements are fulfilled\nby the Swedish system of gymnastics better than by any other system in\nthe world. I regret sincerely that the time does not allow me to tell you\nwhy I am so strongly convinced of the superiority of the Swedish system,\nand I should be delighted if I could have given you the arguments why I\nthoroly believe that the physical education in the schools ought to be based\non Swedish principles. However, lessons in Swedish gymnastics must\nnot be the only kind of physical activity practiced by the school children.\nOutdoor and indoor games ought to occupy an important place among\nthe physical exercises, but they may not take the place of gjonnastics.\nEspecially in schools where the time devoted to physical activity is very\nlimited and does not exceed say three periods of half an hour or an hour\neach a week, we cannot afford to devote a part of this time to games and\nsports.\nGymnastics, more than any other kind of physical activity, give\nsufficient guaranty that all the pupils will be reached and get the kind of\nexercises which they need most (not which they like most).\nFurthermore,\nas was mentioned before, the corrective influence of Swedish gymnastics\nis the most desirable and most important element and cannot be obtained\nby the practice of games and sports. As for the so-called \"general\" effect.\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": "711", "text": "SWEDISH GYMNASTICS IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n711\n\nobtained as well by the Swedish gymnastic lesson exercises of the\n\nthis is\n\ndefinite type, as by the practice of games and sports, and better than by\n\nthe practice of artificial exercises of the indefinite type; furthermore the\nchildren have a certain amount of general activity by playing games, running, and walking in their spare time.\n\nIt is often claimed that the degree\n\nof perspiration is an indication of the general effect produced by the exercises and that therefore the gymnastic lesson must give us a good \"sweat-\n\nNot only is it true that the general effect depends on activity more\n\nup.\"\n\nthan on movement, and that, therefore, the increase of the circulation ought\nto be less exclusively emphasized, but it seems by no means desirable to\n\nproduce an abundant perspiration by the practice of gymnastics in the\n\nThe period of gymnastics is followed by other periods, and, since\n\nschools.\n\nno time is available for changing dress and taking shower baths, the pupils\nare likely to catch a cold and to suffer the disagreeable consequences which\nfollow after perspiration under those conditions.\n\nIt is very questionable\n\nwhether, from a hygienic point of view, the good effect of a gymnastic\nlesson,\n\nnamely the increased metabolism, would justify this very unde-\n\nsirable\n\neffect.\n\nBy conducting the gymnastic lesson according to the\n\nSwedish principles, this undesirable effect can be avoided.\nIt is sometimes said that the Swedish system is boring, that the lessons\n\nare monotonous.\n\nIt\n\nseems to me that there are no boring systems, but\n\nthat there can be only boring teachers.\n\nWe all know that in physical\n\neducation the success depends in greater part on the leadership, on the\npersonality of the teacher.\n\nIf the latter\n\nhas not the talent to make a\n\nlesson interesting, he will fail to do so, whatever system of gymnastics he\nuses.\n\nBesides\n\nit is\n\noften thought that Swedish gymnastics\n\nmean calis-\n\nthenics; but we must not forget that jumping and vaulting, balance exercises\n\nand\n\ndifferent\n\nhanging exercises form an essential part of every\n\n\" Swedish \" lesson.\n\nToo often it is thought that an introduction of Swedish\ngymnastics would mean the abolishing of all the recreative features of\ngymnastics.\n\nBut even if it were true that the average boy and girl prefer the\n\n\"German\" or \"American\" lessons to the \"Swedish\" lessons, this may not\nkeep us from substituting the latter for the former if, for reasons which the\nchild is unable to judge, the latter are more beneficial.\n\nIt is more valuable\n\nfrom an educational point of view to bring the child to do things and to\nexecute exercises for the mere reason that he ought to do it, for his own\nbenefit, than to allow him to do what he likes best.\n\nThere is no educational\n\nvalue in allowing a child to eat candy, but there is a great educational\nvalue in persuading him to finish his regular dinner.\n\nThe fact that the\n\nperformance of the exercises makes him feel well, on one hand, and the\nrealization of doing something useful, of doing his duty, on the other hand,\n\nmust and will give the child satisfaction.\neducation ?\n\nIs it not the same in intellectual\nNot all the pupils enjoy the writing of papers and the solving\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": "712", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n712\n\n[Physical\n\nof problems, and still many of them feel satisfaction after having written\n\na paper without many mistakes or having found the solution of a problem,\nand this in spite of the fact that they realize only later in life the necessity\nof this kind of intellectual training.\n\nI did not enjoy the study of English,\n\nFrench, and German while at school, and did not realize the necessity of\nthis study;\n\nat present I thoroly appreciate the ability to read, study, and\n\nyou in a language which is not my own.\nBut just as the lesson in geography, languages, etc., ought to be made as\npleasant and interesting as possible, the teacher of gymnastics must know\nto deliver even this paper to\n\nhow to make his lesson attractive without, however, decreasing its beneficial\ninfluence on the physical development.\nIt has been said also that the American boy does not like discipline and\n\norder and that, therefore, he ought to be taught in another way than the\n\nway in which the Swedish boy is taught.\n\nIt\n\nwould seem that, since a\n\ncertain sense of discipline and order is a valuable quality for the American\ncitizen as well as for anybody else, this quality ought to be developed, and\n\nthe gymnastic lesson gives us a good opportunity to do this.\nIt is clear that the favorable or injurious influences resulting from the\ndifferent kinds of exercises will be most pronounced during the years passed\n\nThe use of apparatus exercises as practiced in German and\nAmerican gymnastics in the lessons for children cannot be defended by the\nmere fact that the most skilful among the boys enjoy this kind of exercises,\nin the school.\n\nsince it is likely to produce harmful results on the hearts of the majority\n\nof the pupils.\n\nIt is just the much-praised competitive element which, in\n\nGerman gymnastics, causes the child to do his utmost to perform a certain\nexercise, and, especially in the case of a strength exercise, this is not without\n\ndanger.\n\nTrying to \"chin\" may put the same strain upon a child's heart as\n\nholding a lever for a trained gymnast.\n\nThe particular attention given in\n\n*'\n\nSwedish\" gymnastics to a slow pro-\n\ngression gives the best guaranty that the heart will not be overstrained.\nIt has been said that the introduction of a more strictly corrective type of\nexercises would not succeed, because of the fact that the children \"do not\n\nwant that kind of stuff.\"\n\nThis argument, however, is of no value.\n\nWhy should the physical director make, during several years, a thoro\nstudy of anatomy, physiology, psychology, etc., if he is not to apply his\n\nknowledge on the gymnasium floor, the only place and the only moment\nthat this knowledge can and ought to be of practical use ?\n\nWe must give\n\nthe children the exercises that they need, not that they want;\n\nour study\n\nenables us to judge right— the children cannot do this themselves.\nI am exceedingly sorry that the time is too short to give you a complete\n\nand to show you that its\nharmony with the latest theories and with the\n\noutline of the Swedish system of gymnastics\nprinciples are in perfect\n\nresults of the latest experiments in the line of physical education.\nAll I\ncan do at present is to give you my strong conviction, based on a thoro\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": "713", "text": "THE HEART VOLUME IN MAN\n\nDepartment]\n\n713\n\nstudy of the diflferent systems of physical education, that whatever may be,\nor may be claimed to be, wrong in the Swedish system of gymnastics, its\nprinciples are\n\nsound and true.\n\nI sincerely hope to see these principles\n\nadopted before long as the basis of physical education in American schools\n\nand universities.\n\nTHE HEART VOLUME IN MAN— THE NITROUS OXIDE METHOD\nAND THE RESULTS OF PROFESSOR FRANZ MULLER\nELMER BERRY, PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTLA.N ASSOCLA.TION COLLEGE, SPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nThe question of heart volume in man has recently been investigated\nby new methods and with fresh enthusiasm. It is the purpose of the\nfollowing paper to report briefly on this recent work, particularly that of\n\nProfessor Franz Muller, of the University of Berlin, with whom the writer\n\nhas had the privilege of working as a student of his method and as a subject\nfor experimentation in the Tierphysiologisches Institut der Landwirtschaf t-\n\nlichen Hochschule under the auspices of Geheimrat N. Zuntz.\n\nReports on\n\nthe nitrous oxide method have already appeared in German physiological\npublications,'\n\nand Professor Muller demonstrated the improved form of\n\nthe method at the International Congress of Physiology held in Groningen,\n\nHolland, September 2-6, 1913.\n\nTo the student of the physiology of exercise, no question is of more\nsignificance than that of the heart volume and the effect of exercise upon\nit.\n\nIn the past the circulatory changes caused by exercise have been\n\nstudied chiefly from the point of view of blood pressure and pulse fre-\n\nquency, tho some work has been done with the cardiograph, with the\nRoentgen rays, and on the circulation time. The real work done by the\nheart, however, must remain a supposition until the actual amount of\n\nblood delivered per beat or per unit of time is determined.\n\nThe desire to\n\nmeasure the work of the heart has led to many attempts to estimate the\nheart volume.\ntions upon dogs.\n\nThese attempts were at first based largely upon observaVierordt,* in a series of experiments on more than twenty\n\ndogs ranging in weight from 5 to 35 kilos, concluded that the output of the\nleft ventricle per kilo of body weight diminishes as the size of the animal\n\nIf this same relation holds for man,\n\na 70-kilo man would dis-\n\ncharge about 80 cu. cm. of blood per heart beat.\n\nConsidering this together\n\nincreases.\n\nwith the circulation time, the conclusion is drawn that the average amount\nof blood thrown out by each ventricle at each beat is between 70 and 80\ncu. cm.\nZuntz, calculating from the quantity of oxygen absorbed by the\nblood in the lungs, has estimated the output at 60 cu. cm. He believes\n\nthat this may be greatly increased during muscular work.\n* ZeUschriftfiir\n\n» Stewart,\n\nIn the middle\n\nBalneologie und Klimatologie, Vol. IV (igii), Nos. 14 and 15.\n\nPhysiology, p. 127.\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": "714", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n714\n\n[Physical\n\nof the last century Passavant calculated the output at 46.5 cu.\n\ncm.\n\nIf\n\nthese varying estimates, which are at best but rough approximations, differ\n\nso much for rest, what must the uncertainty be regarding the output during\nmuscular work the condition in which the physical director is primarily\n\n—\n\ninterested ?\n\nGENERAL HISTORY\n\nA brief review of the older work may be helpful in showing the steps\nwhich have gradually led to the nitrous oxide method. First came the\ndetermination of the circulation time by Hering' and von Kries* by introducing potassium-ferrocyanide into the central end of a vein and finding the\ntime when it appeared in the peripheral end of the same vein. Frick devised\n\na method of calculating the respiratory exchange, and from this the heart\nvolume, by determining the difference in oxygen content of arterial and\nvenous blood, the latter taken from the right auricle of the heart, making\nat the same time a determination of the total oxygen consumption of the\n\nanimal.\n\nFollowing this method Grehant and Quincaud carried out obser-\n\nvations on dogs, and Zuntz with Hagemann' made an extended research\n\nThe results of this work agreed well with direct determinations\nmade by Tigers tedt,^ who, following Ludwig, introduced a \"Stromuhr\"\non horses.\n\ndirectly into the ascending aorta of rabbits.\nBohr and Henriquez,^ however,\nshowed that considerable oxidation might occur in the lung tissue itself and\nthis oxygen would then appear in the arterial blood in a stable compoimd\nwhich could not be pumped out, thus invalidating the results.\nThis objection, tho disputed,^ made it desirable to find a method less\nopen to criticism and applicable to man. Loewy and von Schrotter^\ndevised a method of calculating the tension of the gas in the blood indirectly from the gas tension in the lungs.\nFor this purpose it was necessary\nto close a bronchus and give the air in that lung section time to acquire the\nsame gas tension, as the venous blood. Knowing this tension and the dissociation curve, the oxygen content of the venous blood could be calculated.\nThis could then be compared with air from the free bronchi, giving the\noxygen content of the arterial blood. The difficulty of the technic, however,\n»\n\nHering, Tiedemann, and Treviranus, Zeitschr.f. Physiologie, III, 85-1829.\n\n'\n\nvon Kries, VerhUltnis der maximalen zur mittleren Geschwindigkeit bei dem Stromen\n\nvon FlUssigkeit in Rohren.\n»\n\nSep.-Abdruck.\n\nZuntz and Hagemann, Untersuch. Uber den Stofwechsel d. Pferdes (Landro), Jahr-\n\nbuch XXVn, Supplement I, p. 371.\n< R. Tigerstedt, \"Bestimmung der vom linken Herzen herausgetriebenen Blutmenge,\"\nSkand. Arch.f. Phys., Ill (1891), 145; \"Die Geschwindigkeit des Blutes in den Arterien,\"\n\nErgebn. d. Physiol., IV (1905), 481.\ns\n\nBohr and Henriquez, Arch, de Physiol., mm. et pathoL, V, Part IX, 459-74.\nHaemodynamische Studien (Berlin, 1909), pp. 130 ff.; Zuntz, Pflilgers Arch.,\n\n' Plesch,\n\nLV, 521.\n\n'Loewy and von Schrdtter, Blutzirkulation beim Menschen (Berlin:\n1905).\n\nHirschwald,\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": "715", "text": "DepartmentI\n\nTHE HEART VOLUME IN MAN\n\n715\n\nand its application only to therapeutic cases requiring bronchotomy made\nthe method of no general use.\nPlesch,' however, ingeniously modified this\n\nby a normal breathing man.\n\nmethod so as to be usable\n\nHe used a gas bag and allowed the subject to\n\nbreathe, for about thirty seconds, a gas mixture of low oxygen content so\n\nthat its oxygen percentage after mixture with the residual air of the lungs\nwould correspond approximately to the oxygen tension of the venous blood.\nIf the oxygen tension of the mixture was above that of the blood going thru\nthe lungs, oxygen would be absorbed; if lower, oxygen would be given up\nto the gas mixture. With the dissociation curve, the oxygen content could\nthen be calculated. The dissociation curve of the oxyhaemoglobin, however, is not constant for all men.\nBarcroft' has shown that dyspnea and\nchanges in CO2 content in the blood may have a great influence on the dissociation curve, thus rendering the method unreliable, especially where\nwork is concerned.\nIt remained, therefore, still to develop a method applicable to working-\n\nmen.*\n\nNITROGEN METHOD\nBornstein,-* taking his cue from the work of Zuntz, hit upon the simple\nand ingenious idea of using an indifferent gas, choosing nitrogen. His\n\nprinciple is to breathe for a given time a gas of low nitrogen content (practically pure oxygen).\n\nAs a result, nitrogen will be given off from the blood\n\nto this nitrogen-poor gas according to the relative nitrogen tension in the\n\nKnowing these tensions, the time of breathing, and the\namount of nitrogen given off from the blood, the quantity of blood itself\npassing thru the lungs in the given time may be calculated and so the minute\nvolume determined, and thus, knowing the pulse frequency, the pulse\nvolume itself. The method is simple, requires comparatively little apparaThe chief objection lies in the possitus, and seems to give good results.\nblood and gas.\n\nbility that as the nitrogen disappears from the blood other nitrogen will be\n\ndrawn from the tissues to the blood and so into the gas under observation.\n\nThe nitrogen content of different tissues varies, Vernon^ having shown\nthat fatty tissue may shelter even six times as much nitrogen as the same\nweight of blood or muscular tissue.\n\nBornstein's method then furnishes\n\na good means for comparative measurement on the same individual at rest.\n»\n\nPlesch, op, cit., pp. 83 flF.\n\n'Barcroft and Camis, \"The Dissociation Curve of Blood,\" Journal of Physiology j\n\nXXXDC (1909), 118; same with OrbeU, \"Influence of Lactic Acid upon the Dissociation\nCurve of Blood,\" ibid., XLI (1910), 355; same, \"Effect of Altitude on the Dissociation\nCurve of Blood,\" ibid., XLII (191 1), 145.\n3\n\nBohr, CentralbLf. Physiol, XVII (1904), 689.\n\n*A. Bomstein, \"Methode zur vergleichender Messung des Herzschlagvolumens\nbehn Menschen,\" PflUgers Arch., CXXXII (1910), 307.\n5\n\nVernon, Proceedings of the Royal Society, LXXDC (1907), 366.\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": "716", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7l6\n\n[Physical\n\nIt can be used for absolute measurements if the gas is not breathed longer\n\nthan one circulation time.\ncoefficient of o 205 cu. cm. of\n.\n\nAccording to Bohr, blood has an absorption\nfor 100 mm. tension of pure N; 100 divided\n\nN\n\nby 0.205=488 cu. cm. of blood = amount of blood used for i cu. cm. of\nnitrogen.\nIf we find per minute and 100 nmi. Hg. tension, a difference say\nIf the pulse is 62, the\nof 10 cu. cm. of N, it equals 4,880 cu. cm. of blood.\n\n—\n\n4,880\no\n= 78.7\ncu. cm.\npulse volume=-^^\n\nThe objection to Borastein's method lies in the leakage of nitrogen from\nthe tissues.\n\nA further objection is the unreliable results reported in work,\n\nwhere in some cases five to ten times as large a heart volume is found as in\nrest, while the oxygen consumption remains practically the same,^ an\nobvious impossibility.\n\nNITROUS OXIDE METHOD\n\nThe nitrous oxide method as used by Miiller obviates this difficulty and\ngives absolute results in work.\n\nNitrous oxide is a gas with a high absorption\n\ncoefficient and follows the Boyle-Mariotte law in the body.\nit is\n\nConsequently\n\nnecessary to breathe it only a short time to get good results (20-60\n\nseconds)\n\n—an obvious advantage in work experiments. The\n\nfirst work along\n\nthis line may be said to begin with an article published by Markoff, Miiller,\n\nand Zuntz' in 1910.\n\nKrogh and Lindhard,^ after extensive study, have\n\nadopted nitrous oxide and independently, tho later than Muller,\n\nalso\n\nworked out a method for determining the heart volume. In general their\nmethod is similar to that used by Miiller but apparently not so well worked\nout and not so free from technical errors.\nPRINCIPLE\n\nIn principle the nitrous oxide method is exceedingly simple.\n\nA gas\n\nmixture containing known percentages of nitrogen, oxygen, and nitrous\noxide is breathed for a given time.\n\nAfter the experiment, the resulting gas\n\nmixture is analyzed and the amount of nitrous oxide absorbed by the blood\ndetermined.\n\nKnowing the nitrous oxide absorbed, the absorption coeffi-\n\nand the time of the experiment, the amount of blood passing thru\nthe lungs in this time may be calculated and so the minute volume determined. Then knowing the pulse frequency the pulse volume itself is given.\nIn practice the experiment is divided into two parts: a preparatory\npart in which the subject breathes about 10 seconds, 2-4 breaths,\ncient,\n\nfrom a spirometer containing about 25 per cent of nitrous oxide,\nand a principal part in which the subject breathes about 35 seconds,\n3-5 breaths, from a spirometer containing about 18 per cent of nitrous\n' Zeitschrifl\n\nd. FortschriUe der Medicin, January, 1912.\n\n»\n\nVeroffenllichungen der Zentralstelle fiir Balneologies IV, 1-16.\n\n»\n\nKrogh and Lindhard, Skand. Arch.f. Phys., XXVII (191 2), 100-125.\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": "717", "text": "THE HEART VOLUME IN MAN\n\nDepartment]\n\noxide.\n\n717\n\nThe purpose of the preparatory period is to determine the lung\nFrom the\n\nspace and to saturate the lung tissues with nitrous oxide.\n\nanalysis of the end gas in the preparatory spirometer the tension of the\n\nnitrous oxide at the beginning of the principal part of the experiment is\n\nknown.\n\nThe tension at the end of the experiment is secured from the\nThe\n\nanalysis of the alveolar gas drawn at the end of the last expiration.\n\nmean nitrous oxide tension is thus determined.\nAPPARATUS\n\nThe apparatus^ itself is a marvel for convenience and adaptation to its\npurpose.\n\nIt consists of the two rhomboidal spirometers mentioned above\n\nmounted on a base.\n\nThese spirometers partly overlap each other and\nstand at a slight inclination, being slightly tipped forward at the top.\n\nTubes from each spirometer join to a main tube leading to the mouthpiece.\nAt the joining is a two-way cock which may be turned to connect instantly\n\nNear the mouthpiece is another junction with\nanother two-way cock, and a side tube connecting with the outer air.\nwith either spirometer.\n\nBetween this cock and the mouthpiece are two exit tubes to which tubes\n\nmay be attached for taking samples of the alveolar air if desired for chemical\nanalysis.\n\nIn the tube leading to each spirometer is a set of valves, inspira-\n\ntory and expiratory way, forming a circuit which allows the admission and\n\nvery slight resistance. The gas here also passes thru a\nU-shaped tube containing natron calk for absorbing the CO2. To each\n\nexit of gas with\n\nspirometer is attached a registering apparatus which makes possible the\naccurate preparation of any desired gas mixture.\n\nThese registering devices\n\nalso make a graphic record of the respiratory changes on a smoked paper\n\ndriven by clock work which records time in half-seconds.\n\nOn this tracing\n\nthe pulse rate may also be recorded by an ordinary tambour, thus giving\n\na complete graphic record of the whole experiment.\nPROCEDURE\n\nTo conduct a rest experiment the subject is comfortably seated in a\nchair after the mixtures are prepared in easy reach of the mouthpiece.\n\nAfter sitting quietly for at least fifteen minutes, the pulse is taken, a nose\n\nclamp is adjusted, and the subject is given the mouthpiece with the first\ntwo-way cock (next the subject) turned to the open air. The second cock\nis\n\nturned to the first spirometer.\n\nAfter a few breaths from the outer air\n\nthe clock work is started and the subject exhales to a given position, which\n\nmay be either a maximal expiration to the residual air, or, by using a pneumograph connected to a tambour with a writing point and scale, may be\nto any partial expiration. When the expiration has reached the indicated\nposition, the subject signals by raising his finger.\nThe first tap is instantly\nturned connecting with the first spirometer.\n»\n\nThe subject takes three or\n\nFurnished by the E. Zimmennan Company, of Berlin.\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": "718", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7i8\n\n[Physical\n\nfour rather quick deep breaths, finishing by exhaling exactly again to the\ngiven position. At his signal a sample of alveolar air is drawn if desired,\n\nand the second cock turned to the second spirometer; three to five breaths\nare taken from this, the subject exhales to the given position, signals, a\nsample is drawn, and the second cock closed, while the first cock is turned\nto the outside air. During the experiment, an assistant has taken the\npulse unless it has been recorded on the tracing. The actual experiment\nthus occupies approximately sixty seconds. Experiments have also been\ntaken with the subject reclining in a hammock chair, lying in a bath, and\nworking on a stationary bicycle ergometer.\nANALYSIS OF THE GASES\n\nImmediately following the experiment the gas mixtures in the spiromAnalysis of the gases before the experiment is not\neters are analyzed.\nnecessary because of the accuracy of the registering apparatus.\n\nProfessor\n\nMiiller, however, has greatly simplified this part of the work by adopting\n\nthe method of optical gas analysis\ndevised\n\nby Professor Haber^ for\n\nby means of the \"intereferometer\"\nand industrial gas analysis.\n\ntechnical\n\nThis instrument has been recently described in several publications.\nIt enables one to read off at once, by turning a screw and adjusting the\n\ninterference spectrum of the gas against a spectrum of air, the percentage\nof gas present.\n\nFor nitrous oxide readings the CO2 is removed in the natron\n\ncalk tubes referred to above and by passing the gas thru a\n\nKOH solution.\n\nThe CO3 in the expired air is measured by noting the reading of the registering scale imimediately at the end of the experiment and again after thoroly\n\nThe oxygen is removed\nfrom the mixture by drawing off into a \"kugel\" and shaking with sodium\nmixing the air driving it thru the natron calk tubes.\nhypophosphite.\n\nThis gas is then driven thru the intereferometer and the\n\nThe difference between this reading and the reading for\nthe total gas gives the N2O determination. The instrument gives results\n\nreading taken.\n\npractically identical with those secured by chemical analysis, which is a very\n\nsmall error, 1-3 per cent of the total value.\n\nFifteen per cent N30=o. 15—\n\n0.45 cu. cm.\nCALCULATION\n\nPerhaps the most complicated part of the whole experiment is the calculation of the results.\n\nFor the calculation it is necessary to know the\n\nfollowing:\nI.\n\nThe lung space.\n\n—Obviously since the body neither takes up nor gives\n\nmade between the nitrogen contained in the lungs and spirometer before and after the experiment.\noff nitrogen in the experiment an equation can be\n\nLetting X=the lung space and reducing all gas volumes to normal (0° and\n\n760 mm.), the value of\n*\n\nHaber, Intereferometer.\n\nX can be found from the equation.\n\nThis is done\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": "719", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE HEART VOLUME IN MAN\n•3\n\n^\n\n..g\n\n1^^\n0,44\n\nw «o to o» i'i\n\n*b \"w *M %•%\n\nH\n\n1^\n\nlo Tf ti-> Th\n\nto\n\nC4\n\n?\nw\n\n« 5 <<^\nH M M H H\n\nCO\n\nM H CI\nN «i- 0^*\nH M H H\n\n63i\na\n\n£\n\n«\nH\n\na\n\n1\n\ncooo eo t^ cs\n\na\n2^\n\nH t^ « 10 C\n\n* Ov Os^\n\nv/^\n\nt^ t^ « f*^\nCO 10\nCN\n\n00\n\nd M 00 vC\nM\nH\n\n00\n\n« c\nM CO+J\n\nd\n\ntJ-\n\nH\n\n«0\n\nH\nH\n\nS\nli\n\n'.\n\n•\n\nQ\n\n•^\n\n-i-\n\n1\n2.2.2.^1\n\n5^s\ndo a\n\n1\n\nh\n«\"\n\n00 t^oo\nCOOO\nON\nto Tj- rt -«*•\n\n-S\n\nCO\n-«*•\n\nw\n\n00 <S 00\nVO «> t* t^\n\nt^\n\nH •*\n\nVO\n\n^<^iv§\n\nvd\n\n00\n\nt^\n\nIs\n&i\n\nIs\n\nVONOOO !>.\n\nCO *0 fO M\n\n10\n•*\n\n•s3\n\nlOVO Tf Tf\n\nto\n\nd 0« M W\n\ni\n\na\n\n«o\nM\no>\nM\n•J-\n\nP\n\nN\n\niil-lH-»l—»H-*>—\n»\n\n1\n<\n\n1\n\n719\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": "720", "text": "—\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n720\n\nfor the preparatory\n\n[PhysicaJ\n\nwork and for the principal part of the experiment.\n\nThe two values should agree closely and the average may then be taken.\nA balance can be made between the\n2. The nitrous oxide consumption.\n\n—\n\nnitrous oxide at the beginning of the principal part of the experiment and\n\nat the end, according to the volumes and percentages as shown by the gas\nanalysis, showing how much N2O has been absorbed.\n3.\n\nAbsorption of nitrous oxide by the lung tissue,\n\n—\n\n^This must be added\n\nto or subtracted from the nitrous oxide consumption according to whether\n\nthe nitrous oxide tension rises or falls during the principal part of the\n\nOr it may be included in the balance struck in No. 2.\nThe mean nitrous oxide tension. ^This is best taken from the end of\nthe first inspiration to the end of the experiment.\nexperiment.\n\n—\n\n4.\n\n5.\n\n6.\n\nThe time of the principal part of the experiment.\nThe absorption coefficient for nitrous oxide.\n\nThen if 2=c, 3=^, 4=/>, 5=/, and 6=a, the minute volume =\n,\n\n.\n\n.\n\nand pulse volume\n\n\\^^\n\n= mmute vol.\n—\n-\n\n-,\n\npulse rate\nRESULTS\n\nIn the table is given the results of four rest and five work experiments\n\nThe table gives the minute volume, the pulse volume, the pulse, and the oxygen consumption. In the\nwork experiments, the length of work done and the kilograms of work per\nminute are given. The work was done on a stationary bicycle weight\nergometer and the subject continued working during the experiment.\ntaken by Professor Miiller on the writer.\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nThe study of heart volume is not yet advanced to a point where absolute\nconclusions can be drawn,\n\nand the present series of observations is not\n\nextended enough to be at all final.\n\nThe nitrous oxide method, however,\nwe may\n\nfurnishes a practical and reliable method of research from which\n\nhope shortly to secure facts of extreme importance regarding the work of\nthe heart, important alike to the physician, the athletic trainer, and the\n\nstudent of the physiology of exercise.\n\nThe effect of work, speed resistance,\n\ntemperature, altitude, air pressure, bathing, drugs, etc., should be studied.\n\nTo these and similar questions Professor Miiller and his students are\ndevoting themselves. The pioneer work has been done.\nThe present study seems to indicate an increase in the minute volume\n(S 45 to 8 18 liters) and a decrease (76 6 cu. cm. to 67.5 cu. cm.) in the\nheart beat volume with moderate work. In other words, as the heart beats\n•\n\n.\n\n.\n\nfaster it fails to completely empty itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": "721", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident\n\n—George R. Twiss, high-school\n\nVice-President\n\n—\n\nSecretary\n\nvisitor, Ohio State\n\n—Charles E. Siegerfoos, professor\n\nUniversity\n\nColumbus, Ohio\n\nof animal biology, University of\n\nMinnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\n^A.\n\nA. Upham, normal school\n\nWhitewater, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, July 7, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order in the Madison School by President Twiss at 9 10 a.m.\nIn the absence of the secretary, J. A. Randall, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y., was\n:\n\nappointed secretary pro tempore.\nVice-President Siegerfoos took the chair during the reading of the president's address\n\non \"The Outlook for the Application of the Scientific Method to the Problems of Science\nTeaching.\"\n\nA paper was read entitled \" Co-operation by Teachers for the Improvement of Science Teaching,\" by John A. Randall, department of physics, Pratt Institute, Brookl}^!,\n\nN.Y.\nDiscussion: Professor Zoleny, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; L. A.\nRobinson, Bay Ridge High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.; and Julia B. Clifford, East High\nSchool, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nThe following papers were then presented:\n\n—\n\n\" Basic Principles for the Control of the Science Curriculum\" George Herbert Mead,\nprofessor of philosophy. University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\"Geography in Secondary Schools\":\na) \"In the Large High Sdiool\"\nR. H. Whitbeck, professor of geography, University\n\n—\n\nof Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nb) \"In Village and Rural Schools\"\nSchool, Platteville, Wis.\n\n—^William\n\nJ. Sutherland, president, State Normal\n\nAfter a general discussion, the meeting adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\nThe department met at 9:00 a.m., in the Empress Theater, with J. A. Randall, Pratt\nInstitute, Brooklyn, N.Y., presiding.\n\nThe following program of motion-picture lectures was given:\n\n—\n\n—\n\n\"Steel Tube Production From Ore Bed to Customer\" B. S. Bart, engineer,\nNational Tube Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"The Use of Lantern Slides in a Course in Electrical Measurements\" Charles P.\nFrey, engineer, Weston Electrical Instnunent Company, Newark, N.J.\n\"Motion Pictures as an Aid to Education\" Alfred H. Saunders, manager, educational\ndepartment. Colonial Motion Picture Corporation, New York, N.Y.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston,\nH. Beveridge, superintendent of schools. Council Bluffs, Iowa; Hugh M.\nGilmore, superintendent of schools. Mason City, Iowa; Nathaniel M. Graham, superintendent of schools. South Omaha, Nebr.; and Peter Olesen, superintendent of schools\nCloquet, Minn.\nDiscussion:\n\nMass.;\n\nJ.\n\n721\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": "722", "text": "—\n\n722\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nUpon motion, a vote of thanks was unanimously tendered to Messrs. Sullivan and\nConsidine for their courtesy in providing the department with a theater; to the National\nTube Company, of Pittsburgh, Pa.; to the Weston Electrical Instrument Company, of\nNewark, N.J.; and to the Colonial Motion Picture Corporation, of New York, N.Y., for\nsending to us their lecturers.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914\nPresident Twiss called the meeting to order at 9:10 a.m., and announced that the\nbusiness meeting and election of officers would precede the formal program.\n\nThe motion contained in Mr. Randall's paper was again read and unanimously\nThe nominating committee, which had been previously appointed, presented the\nfollowing list of officers:\n\n— —\nJimior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nFor Secretary—Emma Conley, state inspector of domestic science, Madison, Wis.\n\nFor President J. A. Randall, department of physics, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford\n\nMotion was made and passed that the department president appoint a committee\nof not to exceed eight or ten members to investigate the educational uses of the motion\n\npicture and to take such steps as seem appropriate to guide its introduction.\n\nThe following papers were then read:\n\n—\n\n\"Biology in the Secondary Schools\" ^James E. Peabody, head of the department of\nbiology, Morris High School, New York, N.Y.\n\"Physics in Secondary Schools\":\na) \"A Lecture on Fluid Motion with Experiments and Hints on Teaching\"\n^W. S.\nFranUin, professor of physics, Lehigh University, South Bethlehem, Pa.\nh) \"Physics for Girls by the Scientific Method\"\nJ. Fordyce, head of the\ndepartments of physics and chemistry, high school. Cedar Rapids, Iowa.\n\n—\n\n—Emma\n\nOwing to the lateness of the hour it was agreed by common consent to hear the\nremainder of the program at the afternoon meeting.\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, July 9, 19 14\nPresident Twiss called the meeting to order in the Wilder Charity Building at 2 30\n:\n\nP.M.\n\nThe business session of the morning was continued. \" The Preliminary Report of the\nCommittee on the Improvement of Physics Teaching\" was read by J. A. Randall, Pratt\nInstitute, Brooklyn, N.Y., chairman, as follows:\n\nFor the purposes of this report we are continuing last year's plan of discussing the\nwork under three headings or sections.\n\nSection i\nBlueprints and laboratory direction sheets showing methods of building new objects\nof instruction and suggestions as to how to use them have been distributed to the number\nof about twelve thousand.\nIt is proposed to continue this work for the coming year.\n\nSection 2\nAdditional monographs are being prepared showing how schools are successfully\nusing commercial articles as objects of instruction. Monograph 5\nThe Mechanics of\nthe Sewing Machine, Singer Sewing Machine Company, New York, N.Y., will accompany\nthe Proceedings. Others may be had free upon application to the chairman.\nAn\nannouncement and return postal card will accompany the Proceedings for the convenience\nof those interested.\nThe Weston Electrical Instrument Company, Newark, N.J., has\nprovided us with two very valuable charts for classroom use which the committee is also\ndistributing free upon application.\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": "723", "text": "PRESIDENrS ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n723\n\nSection 3\n\nAn exhibition by your committee at the Panama Pacific International Exposition was\nproposed. Funds and labor for this are not at our command. We, therefore, propose to\nask commercial exhibitors to show, especially during the time of our convention, all the\nmaterial possible illustrating how their product is being used in schools to aid instruction.\n\nOn motion, it was voted to continue the work according to the plan outlined by the\ncommittee.\n\nA paper on \"The Teaching of Chemistry,\" by Louis Kahlenberg, professor of chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., was read by G. W. Walker, superintendent\n\nof schools, Mayville, N.Dak.\n\nDiscussion followed.\n\n\"The Report of the Committee on Janitor Service\" was then given by George R.\nTwiss, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, member of the committee, in the absence of\nthe chairman, Helen C. Putnam, M.D., Providence, R.I.\n\nFIFTH SESSION—Friday Forenoon, Judy 10, 1914\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Vocational Education\nand Practical Arts and the Department of Secondary Education and was called to order\nby Arthur L. Williston, principal, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass., in the Madison\nSchool, at 9 30 a.m.\n:\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n\"The Adjustment of the High-School Curriculum to Modern Needs\" ^John H.\nFrancis, superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"The Tendencies and General Status of Courses in General Science\" ^William H.\nTimbie, head of department of applied science, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass., and\nFred D. Barber, professor of physical science. State Normal University, Normal, 111.\n\"Applied Science Its Relationship to Shop Work and the Rest of the Curriculum in\nan Up-to-Date Technical High Sdiool\" Adelbert H. Morrison, head of science department. Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDiscussion:\nton,\n\n—\n\nP. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washing-\n\nD.C.\nJ.\n\nA. Randall, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\n\nTHE OUTLOOK FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC\nMETHOD TO THE PROBLEMS OF SCIENCE TEACHING\nGEORGE R. TWISS, HIGH SCHOOL INSPECTOR, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY,\nCOLUMBUS, OHIO\nAre the methods of teaching which largely prevail at present effective\nin securing for the pupils the great benefits that we believe should accrue\n\nWe do not know.\nWe have many decided opinions on the subject, but no decisive evidence.\nWhy has so little been done toward applyuig the scientific method to the\n\nto them as results of scientific study, or are they not ?\n\ntask of finding out the real truth about it ?\n\nIs it not passing strange that\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": "724", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n724\n\n[Science\n\nwe who profess knowledge of the scientific method of study have not applied\nthat method to the solution of some of our pressing pedagogical problems ?\n\nThe items of educational value that we have claimed for science study\nare: first, that the pupils get useful information out of it;\n\nsecond, that it\n\ncauses them to acquire habits of careful and intelligent observation; third,\n\nthat it teaches them efficient habits of thought; and, fourth, that it awakens\nand fosters in them a permanent interest in scientific information and study.\nNow of those science teachers who may hear or read what is said here,\nthere are probably three classes. First, there are those who have always\ntaken it for granted that the results of their teaching would be what they\nare generally assumed to be and have never given the opposite possibility\n\nany serious consideration. I fear that a representative sampling would\nshow that this class far outnumbers all the others. Second, there are those\nwho are convinced and frankly admit that in the case of a large majority\nof their pupils the results of their teaching are not what should be hoped\nfor, and who seriously question the efficacy of the prevailing subject-matter\nand methods, but who as yet have made no important departures, either in\ntheory or in practice, from the procedure that is established by authority\nand sanctified by tradition. Third, there are a few who have cast off the\nshackles of hoary traditions and dogmatic syllabi, have freed their minds\nand speech from the false inferences and misleading terminology of the\ndogma of formal discipline, and are experimenting empirically with subjectmatter and methods that differ in some essential ways from the old.\nIt is from the two latter classes only that we may hope for progress thru\nthe application of the scientific method to the problems of science teaching.\nTeachers of the third class are already making some experiments in choice of\nmatter and variation of methods, and believe that they have made some\nprogress. Teachers of the second class are in a state of mind favorable for\ndoing so if they can be brought under effective leadership and direction.\n\nThe greatest difficulty of the situation lies in the wide variety of conditions under\n\nwhich different teachers work.\n\nThis variability of basic\n\nconditions makes it very unsafe to draw general conclusions from the results\n\nobtained by any one or two teachers, and makes it imperative for each\nteacher, so far as he is able to do so, to make a careful scientific study and\n\nrecord of the materials which he is handling, of the conditions under which\n\nhe is dealing with it, of just what he is doing with it, and of the effects pro-\n\nduced by each step of the procedure when he has completed it.\n\nIn other\n\nwords, we science teachers can never claim professional standing or prefer-\n\nment comparable with that enjoyed by engineers or physicians until a considerable number of us, each in his own place, find ways of measuring and\n\nrecording the status of our pupils as to their interests, capacities, and abilities;\n\nof appraising the various factors in their environment and the con-\n\nditions under which we are teaching; of standardizing the various steps in\n\nour pedagogical procedure; and of measuring after each step the improve-\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": "725", "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n725\n\nment in the pupils that results from it. Until we have made some progress\nin this direction and can draw conclusions from the results of measurements\nthat are in some degree standardized and on an objective basis, instead of\nfrom counting noses and finding percentages of opinions and counteropinions, we can never claim rank with real scientific workers.\nLet us suppose it to be agreed that progress must begin with scientific\nstudies by individual teachers of their own pupils, their own environmental\nconditions, and their own pedagogical procedure under these conditions.\nLet us suppose also that the results can be measured with some degree of\nobjectivity; that is, stated in figures as to the exact meaning of which a large\n\nmajority of competent observers would agree.\n\nThen obviously the first\n\nquestion for each teacher who undertakes such scientific study of his own\n\nwork is, \"Am I really failing or succeeding in my attempts to realize the\nfour kinds of educational values of science that have been enumerated?\"\nIf any teacher can prove to himself and others by objective tests of their\nperformance that his pupils are realizing some or all of these values to a\nsatisfactory degree, then the methods he is using are good methods. If such\ntests show that they are failing to realize most or all of these values, the\nmethods must therefore be bad; and other methods should be tried and\ntested until with the given pupils and under the existing or necessary conditions such methods are found as result in a reasonable amount of those kinds\nof progress, as revealed by the appropriate tests.\nFor many years we have been using tests in the form of written examinations.\nFrom the standpoint of school administrators these tests have been\nfairly satisfactory in whole or in part; but from the standpoint of scientific\nmeasurements of the status and achievements of pupils, they are far from\n\nThey consist mostly of questions that test ability to respond,\nwhen certain familiar schoolroom cues are given, with verbal statements or\nsatisfactory.\n\nformulas representing condensed and abstract bits of information, or of\nmade-up school problems most of which are never met with in daily life.\nThere are notable exceptions, but this is true of a large majority. Thus,\nwhile information and ability to think are tested to a certain extent by the\nordmary examinations, the grades given mainly represent ability to respond\nwith certain answers to a limited variety of schoolroom cues and the ability\n\n—\n\nto respond with appropriate behavior to the real situations of life, wherein\nscientific information and scientific observing and thinking are required, is\n\nfor the most part not tested at all.\n\nAnalysis of the first factor of the problem, that of testing information,\nleads to\n(i)\n\ntwo propositions which\n\nI shall here state without\n\nargument:\n\nInformation is useful to any individual only when it has in it elements\n\nthat belong to the life-situations in which he is placed, or is likely to be\nplaced, and that are significant to some real present or future need that is\n\napparent to him.\n\n(2)\n\nInformation is useful to an individual only when\n\nthat individual has acquired it in such a way that when he is placed in\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": "726", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n726\n\n{Science\n\nsituations where it is significant and is needed he will be able to recall and\n\napply it.\n\nWith reference to scientific testing of useful and usable information,\nwe want first a great multitude of questions calling for the kinds\n\nthen,\n\nof scientific information that one needs to\n\nhave in solving the problems\n\nthat present themselves to children in school and to all kinds of people in\n\nthe adult industrial, social, and civic life under urban, village, and rural\nconditions.\n\nThese will have to be collected by science teachers with the\n\nhelp of farmers, merchants, manufacturers, physicians, nurses, public-service\n\nemployees, architects and builders, mechanics and artisans, householders,\nand the children themselves. Secondly, these questions will have to be\nassorted according to their relations to the principles of the various sciences\n\nand tested out and arranged in grades with reference to their relative difficulty to high-school students. Thirdly, these questions will have to be\nframed in such a way that they can be presented to the pupils as nearly as\npossible in the forms that they take when they present themselves in the\nactivities of daily life.\n\nThey must not be presented exclusively in the form\n\nof conventional schoolroom activities.\n\nFourthly, in order to afford objec-\n\ntive measures of the pupils' stocks of information, such questions must be\n\nso arranged that their answers may be easily scored, that so far as possible\n\nthe scores are of equal values, or multiples of equal values, and that com-\n\npetent judges would agree fairly well on these values.\n\nIf this can be done,\n\nthe scores could be handled in accordance with the simpler modes of statistical treatment and would be in some degree objective and quantitative.\n\nOn account of the great variability in the performance of the same individual at different times and of different individuals at the same time,\n\nthe results should be expressed in distributions, or tables of frequencies,\n\nand illustrated by curves, or surfaces of frequency. For each distribution,\nthe most appropriate central tendency, such as the average, the median, or\nthe mode, or, if need be, all three, should be given, and the variabilities,\nsuch as the average or median deviation from the central tendency, should\nalso be given.^\n\nA great deal of valuable information can be extracted from ordinary\nschool marks, if they are thus treated;\n\nand it is particularly desirable that\n\nteachers should get into the habit of listing their pupils' school marks in the\n\norder of their numerical values or ranks, or as deviations from the average\nor median, as well as in the alphabetical order of the pupils' names.\n\nFor experimentally testing habits of observing, we want a great variety\nof easily arranged situations in which the pupils will have to observe certain\n\nthings in order to find the answers to questions about which their curiosity\nis\n\naroused.\n\nSuch situations are afforded by any really good laboratory\n\nexperiment, but in order that our classroom and laboratory experiments\n\nmay be used as real scientific tests, instead of as formal exercises, experiments\n* Of.\n\nE. L. Thomdike, Mental and Social Measurements, chaps, i-iii.\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": "727", "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENrS ADDRESS\n\n727\n\nmust be chosen that involve problems or questions to which the pupils\nreally want to find answers.\nNot only must the customary experiments\nbe recast or replaced so that they represent real, concrete, problematic\nwhich the pupils will react in a vital way, but the things\n\nsituations to\n\nto be observed must be listed and evaluated so that the performances of the\n\nstudents can be scored objectively and the scores treated statistically as\n\nhas just been suggested for items of information.\n\nWith regard to thinking ability and to possible methods of testing it\nwould suggest this proposition: that no one ever thinks\nunless he is up against a problem of some sort that he wants to solve; and\nhis thinking is more likely to be vital and educative if he wants to solve\nobjectively, I\n\nit because he is interested in it rather than because he is interested merely\n\nin satisfying the teacher or escaping the disagreeable consequences of not\n\nsolving it.\n\nHence if we are to make scientific tests of thinking ability, or ability\nto use the scientific method, we must seek out and collect a great number and\n\nvariety of concrete interesting problems that the students will take hold of\n\nwith enthusiasm and try to solve.\n\nWe must find ways of splitting up these\n\nsituations so as to score the pupils' performances in analyzing a problematic\n\nsituation to find out what factors in it are significant to its solution, in\n\ngetting appropriate hypotheses and in testing out these hypotheses one by\n\none by deduction and experiment, and in reaching conclusions from them.\n\nMany of the school problems now in use call out and employ the pupils'\nabilities to do these things;\n\nbut we need more and better problems than we\n\nhave; and we need also to analyze and arrange them so that the pupils'\n\nperformances with regard to these factors of the scientific method of thinking\n\nand investigating can be scored objectively and subjected to simple statistical treatment.\n\nFor testing permanent interests it must be evident that only one path\nopen. The students must be followed up after they leave the class,\nand such evidences of permanent interest as experiments made, books and\narticles read, scientific information used, and so on, must be obtained from\nlies\n\nThe well-known \"recognition tests\" now used so widely in experimental psychology could easily be used in this field also, employing adverthem.\n\ntisements, pictures, objects, or short magazine articles representing things\nof scientific nature.\n\nWith such methods of testing results at hand, we shall be able to prove\nwhat now we may only surmise and to state some things as facts which are\nnow mere matters of opinion. When we are able to do this, I believe we\nshall find that we must proceed in accordance with educational principles\nthat are quite different from the theory of formal discipline which still so\nlargely prevails.\n\nAs a basis for experimentation by those who are already convinced that\nthe prevailing formal methods and disciplinary theories are inadequate.\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": "728", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n728\n\nI propose the following as working hypotheses.\nest manner at\n\n(Science\n\nThey represent in the clear-\n\nmy command the inferences from the results of experimental\n\nand educational psychology and may be taken as a fair statement of the views\nof the most advanced students in psychology and pedagogy of the sciences.'\n1.\n\nChildren can be trained into efficient habits of thinking only by being made to\nand they can be made to think only by placing\n\nthink under guidance day after day;\n\nthem in problematic situations.\n2.\n\nThe problems presented to them must be within the range of their needs and\n\ninterests, of their concrete\n\nknowledge, and of their powers of abstraction at the par-\n\nticular stage of their development at which the teacher finds them.\n3.\n\nCommand of the technic of effective, rational thinking can be gained only by much\n\npractice in connection with\n\nnumerous and varied problems in which the methodical\n\nprocedure of scientific problem-solving is used.\n4.\n\nIn order to develop concepts of method, attention must be directed to the method\nand the conunon elements of method in the various modes of attack\n\nin every problem;\n\nmust be pointed out. In connection with each problem attention must always be called\nto nmnerous other problems among the various activities and processes that are going on\nwithin the scope of the children's knowledge and to which a similar method is applicable.\n5. Since the solution of every problem requires a certain amount of knowledge of the\ncontent of the subject its facts, laws, concepts, and principles this subject-matter must\nbe acquired along with the methods, thru the mental work done in solving the problems.\nAnd thus acquired, under the spur of immediate interests and immediate needs, this content is learned under the circumstances of attention, association, and repetition that are\nmost favorable for its retention, organization, and availability for later use.\n6. The ability to recall and apply such information when needed will be in proportion\nto the number of times and the number of ways that it has been interestedly associated by\nthe learner with the situations and activities of everyday life, and in proportion to the\namount of elements that it has in common with them.\n7. In all this work the advantages of methodical procedure and accurate knowledge\nshould be pointed out and emphasized wherever it can be made apparent to the pupils,\nso that they may become inspired with an ideal of methodical procedure, correct thinking,\nand accurate, organized information, which may be carried over into all their other work.\n\n—\n\n8.\n\n—\n\nIn order to teach pupils how to organize acquired information for present or\n\nfuture use, they must be led, mainly in connection with frequent reviews, to arrange facts,\nlaws, and principles in logical ways, particular cases under general laws, and these in turn\n\nunder more general, so that all may be more surely retained and more easily recalled when\nneeded.\n\nSo far as possible, several different motives of organization should be used, so\n\nthat habits of organizing information with reference to various motives and needs may be\n\nformed.\n\nThese propositions represent the theoretical basis for the heuristic or\nproblem method of teaching.\n\nFellow science teachers,\n\nit is\n\nup to you.\n\nShall we listen silently to the papers presented during these sessions, return\n\nto our homes without discussing them, and continue blindly to do the things\n\nwe have always done ?\n\nOr shall we begin forthwith to apply the scientific\nmethod to our teaching problems and carry on a process of evolution in\nmethods, not by the slow method of trial and error, as of yore, but by a\nconsciously directed process of variation, testing, and selection ?\n'For an elaboration of these hypotheses consult the chapter on \"The Teaching of the Sciences\" by the\n\nwriter in The Principles of Secondary Education, edited by Paul\n\nMonroe (New York: The MacmiUan Co.,\n\n1914), and the^writer's Principles of Science Teaching (The MacmiUan Co.), which will appear in 1915.\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": "729", "text": "Department!\n\nCO-OPERATION FOR IMPROVING SCIENCE TEACHING\n\n729\n\nCO-OPERATION BY TEACHERS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF\nSCIENCE TEACHING\nJOHN A. RANDALL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, PRATT INSTITUTE,\nBROOKLYN, N.Y.\n\nA co-operative plan which is simple, which will work, and of which all\nscience teachers will gladly approve\n\n—that\n\nis\n\nwhat we all desire.\n\nPro-\n\nfessor Judd and Professor Suzzallo read papers on this general subject at\n\nPhiladelphia at the 1913 meeting of the National Council and of the Depart-\n\nment of Superintendence. In recalling their papers to you, I want to\nimpress upon your minds with what intense insistence they urged our\nentrance upon a constructive program of organizing the half-million teachThey have said\ners of this country into a professionally co-operating unit.\nthat it is the responsibility of the teachers of this coimtry as a body to\nsolve the problem of a public-school education better adapted to fit Young\nAmerica for his life's work. They have said that it is the Association's\nduty to establish a code of professional ethics. They have said that the\nAssociation should muster such strength as to enable\n\nit\n\nadequately to\n\nchampion the best interests of public education before legislatures and to\noppose the interference of politicians in the purely professional field of the\nteacher.\n\nThese authors have broadly outlined the ideal and future field\n\nof the National Education Association as a whole.\n\nLet us see where we stand in this department.\n\nWe elect a new inexperienced body of ofiicers each year and they prepare for us a program.\n\nThe speakers are chiefly selected for their repu-\n\ntation as educators and orators, for their interest in some live problem, and\nfor their availability.\n\nEach year about seven papers, very general in\n\nstatement, appear in the proceedings of this department.\n\nThey range\n\nfrom such broad topics as eugenics and conservation to technical and\nspecialized subjects such as janitor service and the technic of classroom\nIn the last four years, two of the speakers\nhave successfully urged the appointment of committees. The speakers\nthemselves have acted as chairmen of the committees, and, from resources\nsupplied outside of this body, the two committees have collected educational data and performed a large service. They have distributed more\npages of valuable technical data among the teachers than has this department thru its proceedings. They have gone to teachers and helped them\nwhen they needed help, instead of filing the results of a post mortem. Out\nof twenty-four papers presented in this department during the last four\nyears, only six pretended to give scientific data and all of the facts upon\nwhich the authors based their conclusions. And let me tell you that four\nof these six papers were the result of the activities of one of these committees.\nIt looks to me as if we could well have some more real live committees.\nWhv don't we have a committee to look over some of the facts recorded\npresentation of each science.\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": "730", "text": "NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n730\n\nin the last census ?\n\n[Science\n\nIt contains facts worthy of careful analysis by school\n\nmen. Have you weighed the significance of the fact that in the last ten\nyears the value of the energy sold by central electrical power plants has\ngrown to be more than the value of the output of the general chemical\nindustry ?\n\nHave you sensed the truth that the curves of growth of vari-\n\nous industries as shown by the census point to the automobile industry as\nhaving a rate of growth so much more rapid than the other large industries\nthat it has already outstripped the general chemical and is fast overhauling the electrical industry ?\n\nWhy don't we take a sharp look at the direc-\n\ntion in which our industrial growth is carrying us and put the information\n\nbefore teachers in a way to make them realize that this world does move\n\nand to make them realize in what direction it is going ?\nSome of us are beginning to wonder if we have not been doing a foolish\nthing in the last few years. In our meetings we have presented the latest\ntheory and generalizations relating to education, confident that once the\nfundamental principles were stated all teachers would successfully apply\nthem. Let us look at one of these new, fully accepted, fundamental\nprinciples:\n\nIn teaching we must go from particular to general, from concrete to\nabstract, from here, now, and the real to the tomorrow, or yesterday, and\n\nthe hypothetical.\n\nWe have made a really great discovery about the way\n\nthe human mind efficiently works, but we have expected teachers to reverse\nthe universal process by going from theory to practice, from the general with\nunerring certainty to the particular details of good educational practice.\n\nLet us consider what would happen to a live suggestion in the business\nSuppose a telephone inspector wishes to bring forward a new\nDoes he publish it in technical literature and is it at once\nadopted? No! He reports it, with detailed drawings and all the other\ndata and computed results obtainable to his district inspector. If the disworld.\n\nlogical idea.\n\ntrict inspector thinks well of it, he adds any suggestions and comment he\n\nmay have and sends it, if it is an equipment improvement, to the plant\nsuperintendent.\n\nIf it is acceptable to this officer, it is revised, further\n\nelaborated, and probably sent to the plant engineers.\n\nThe plant engineers\n\n\"set up their case,\" work out all costs and economic data for both a trial\nof the improvement and for a complete installation of the improvement.\n\nThe papers then travel to the chief engineer and, in the case of expensive\noperations, to the board of directors for approval. With ojfficial approval,\nthe engineers get orders to try it out in one exchange or more, in a small\nway, and make a study of its eflficiency and economies. Only after the\n\nstudy has \"proved in\" the innovation as a saver of money or an improve-\n\nment in service does the matter appear in technical literature and become\na part of the standard practice. Under this system the American telephone exchange has become the marvel of the world. The engineer or the\nphysician leans heavily on records of experience and scientific data. We,\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": "731", "text": "Department]\n\nCO-OPERATION FOR IMPROVING SCIENCE TEACHING\n\n731\n\nwho deal with that most complex and unknowable thing, the mind, seem to\nthink that we can help one another most by passing on a priori generalization and high-sounding logic.\n\nWe do not overestimate the value of the proceedings of the Department of Science when we say that they contain contributions of great and\nindisputable worth. Yet it is clear that only a pitiably small service is\nrendered in view of the need.\n\nSpeaking in round numbers, there are at\n\nleast fifty thousand teachers of science in the United States, and at least\n\nten thousand recruits are added to the number annually. About two\nhundred people, presumably science teachers or school administrators,\npassively listen to each of these papers of their department, elect a new\nroster of officers, and go away.\n\nDo you imagine that up to this time the\n\nscience department of the National Education Association has directly\n\nreached even i per cent of these teachers ? All that can be said is that we\nhave given a restricted publicity to a few advanced theories and practices.\nProfessor Judd and Professor Suzzallo have, on the other hand, urged the\nneed of a professional organization and pictured the opportunities for\nestablishing a true technical literature such as has already been produced\nin the legal, medical, and engineering profession.\nAccordingly, it does not seem improper to suggest that this department undertake a program of reorganization to better fulfil the purposes\nset forth in our Act of Incorporation and to test out the practicability of\na plan which, in the light of our experience, may be used later to serve as\na pattern for the other departments.\n\nIn presenting any plan it must be remembered that anything really\nworth doing takes time time measured not in years but often in decades.\nThis fact alone demands that this department should have a permanent\npolicy, that the department should avail itself of all the widsom it can get\nand proceed with plans which will be adhered to so long as their wisdom\nis not disproved.\nIn getting permanency of policy we must not shut out\nthe influx of new leaders who will bring fresh ideals and enthusiasm with\ntheir young blood.\nWe must adhere to an organization that is representative and democratic.\nWe have within our Association a precedent to guide us, in the history\nof the National Council.\nCan we not form a science teachers' council\nassociated with the science department which will guide and direct educational experiments and the accumulation of a truly technical literature\non science instruction ?\n\n—\n\nI, therefore, offer the following motion:\n1.\n\nI\n\nmove that the present officers be empowered and directed to proceed in the\n\norganization of a science teachers' council.\n2. That the purpose of this body shall be to promote the application of the scientific\nmethod in the collecting of data on scientific education, to promote scientific methods of\n\neducational experimentation, to take measures to unify the efforts of local science teachers' associations,\n\nand in other ways to \"elevate the character and advance the interests\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": "732", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n732\n\n[Science\n\nof the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of education\" in so far as it relates\n\nto science instruction.\n3.\n\nThat the members of this coimcil shall be:\na) All past presidents of this department except as provided in {d).\nb)\nc)\n\nThe other active ofl&cers of this department during term of office only.\nOne accredited representative of each local science teachers' association and of\neach science section of a state teachers' association which shall maintain active\nmembership in the National Education Association, provided that there shall\nnot be more than one such representative for each state.\n\nAbsence from three consecutive meetings shall be considered as a resignation\nfrom membership.\n4. That the presiding officers of the science council shall be the retiring officers of\nthe department unless otherwise arranged by a vote of the science council.\n5. The meeting shall be on call of the retiring department president except that no\nd)\n\nmeeting shall conflict with a department meeting.\n\nThe annual meeting shall be held\n\nwithin twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual department\nmeeting.\n\nToday there is a nation-wide desire to see this body get down to business\nand really do something. If you adopt this plan I believe that the forty\nand more organizations which are eligible to send delegate members will\ngladly welcome the opportunity to co-operate with us in perfecting plans\nwhereby we can imite the efforts of all progressive science teachers.\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\nR. H.\n\nGEOGRAPHY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nGEOGRAPHY IN THE LARGE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nWmXBECK, PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nWhat is the present situation in this country with respect to geography\nin the high schools ?\n\nNinety per cent of the students who enter normal schools and colleges are deficient even in the elements of general geography, a condition\n1.\n\nwhich has no adequate defense.\n2. Geography is discontinued too soon in the grades.\n\nSt. Louis, for\n\nexample, reports that only 4.8 per cent of the recitation hours of the ele-\n\nmentary schools are given to geography.\n3. The physical geography of the high school does little to improve\nthis condition so far as a knowledge of general geography is concerned.\n4. The physical geography of the past generation has not proved\nwholly satisfactory and is being replaced by the so-called \"humanized\"\ngeography.\n\nIt is feeling the effect of the socializing of the curriculum.\n\nOn the other side of the situation appear the following facts:\nI.\n\nGeography as a college study is developing rapidly, and trained\n\nteachers for the high schools are becoming available, a condition which\n\nhas only lately existed.\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": "733", "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY IN THE LARGE HIGH SCHOOL\n\n733\n\nThere is a growing interest in geography among educated people\n\n2.\n\ngenerally, both\n\nevidenced and helped by the great circulation of the\n\nNational Geographic Magazine (350,000) and shown\ngeographical societies and in their activities.\n\nby the increase in\n\n3. Textbooks in humanized geography have already been issued and\nhave been heartily received, and there is a demand for even a further\nemphasis upon applied geography in high-school texts.\n\nThe geographical element in other branches of learning is receiv-\n\n4.\n\ning increased recognition.\n\nFor example, the United States Department\n\nof Agriculture has trained geographers at work on the preparation of an\n\nagricultural atlas of the United States.\n\nThe Carnegie Foundation has\n\nand geographers at work on an atlas, The Historical Geography\nUnited States. The geological surveys of Wisconsin, Illinois, and\n\nhistorians\nof the\n\nsome other states are issuing geographical as well as geological reports,\nespecially for educational purposes.\n5. Geographical knowledge is an essential part of an education and\nupon its own merits will command and hold a place in the schools. But\nbehind any study there must be an organized body of teachers to guide\nits development and maintain an esprit de corps.\nThe conviction is growing\nthat there must be a national organization of geography teachers as there\n\nis of\n\nhistory teachers, English teachers, Latin teachers, etc.\n\nFOUR AIMS OF HIGH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY\nThere are at least four things which must be accomplished by a highFirst, it must give the pupil a fund of useful\ngeographical knowledge, the kind that will serve him in the various activities\nWe shall find it difficult\nof life where intelligent citizenship is required.\nschool course in geography.\n\nto defend the teaching of the causes of the Peloponnesian War, the details\nof the Amphictyonic Council, and scores of similar matters of ancient and\n\nmediaeval history, which we drill into school children, and then excuse\na school which makes no serious effort to give its pupils an understanding\nof modern Germany, Japan, or Argentina.\n\nThe life and industries of the\n\npeople of Babylon and Thebes is a proper subject of study, but it is not a\nsubstitute for a knowledge of modern Mexico, Canada, or Russia.\nfacts are not worth more, they are as a rule worth less,\n\nFossil\n\nthan living facts.\n\nBefore an impartial jury what defense has the study of the two-thousandyear-old struggle between Sparta and Athens or between Persia and Greece\n\nan adequate treatment of\nThe geography which\nis going to be demanded tomorrow is the geography which makes people\nreasonably intelligent about the cities and countries and peoples of their\n\nfor crowding out of our schools anything like\n\nthe countries which dominate the world today?\n\nown day.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\npolitico-economic geography.\n\nIt is a social science,\n\nbut it will, I hope, be built upon a knowledge of the principles of physical\ngeography.\n\nIn Germany, France, Holland, Austria, Switzerland, and\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": "734", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n734\n\n[Science\n\nScandinavia, geography is nearly always closely afl&liated with history and is\noften taught by the same teacher.\n\nSecond.— If the first requirement placed upon the study of geography\na knowledge of the facts about the peoples and nations of today, the\nsecond requirement is acquainting students with standard sources from\n\nis\n\nwhich such facts may be gleaned.\n\nThe textbook is normally the main\n\nWe\n\nsource of the facts studied in the class, but that is not enough.\nshall miss our duty if we do not teach pupils where these and additional\nfacts, frequently revised,\n\nmay be found.\n\nThe course in geography should\n\ntrain the pupils to use the atlas, the encyclopedia, the gazetteer, the statistical abstract,\n\nthe census reports, the Statesman's Year Book, and the\nIf these sources are consulted\n\nWorld Almanac.\n\nfrom time to time\n\nin\n\nthe regular routine of study, their use grows into a habit, and it is a\n\ngood habit.\nThird.\n\n— The constant use of maps, the careful study of maps, and the\n\noccasional making of maps is an integral part of a course in geography.\n\nOne of the very most valuable assets which we may derive from geography\nstudy is a collection of clear mental pictures of the map of the world and its\nmental map pictures which we may call up at will. If\n\n—\n\nprincipal countries\n\ngeography does not give us those pictures it has failed at one of its critical\npoints.\n\nGeography teachers, if you have not a collection of wall maps for your\nclassroom, give your principal no peace until you get them.\n\nAs well try\n\nto teach literature without books as geography without wall maps.\nis one greater sin than not having wall maps;\n\nThere\n\nthat is not using them when\n\nyou have them. Out of this map study grows a knowledge of locational\ngeography. At present this is a vulnerable spot in the high-school student's\nmental equipment. Yet there is probably no one phase of geography\nwhich is so useful as map knowledge— knowing where places are. The fact\nthat our fathers and mothers had to learn three hundred capes and bays\nis scarcely a reason why their grandchildren should not learn any.\nEvery\ngeography teacher should make a list of countries, cities, rivers, seas,\nmountains, and other geographical features which she deems of real importance,\n\nand she should then see that no pupil escapes from her custody\n\nuntil he knows where those places are and at least one good reason why\n\nevery item in the list deserves a place there.\n\nThe Springfield, 111., schools\n\nD. C. Ridgley, of the Normal\nUniversity of Illinois, is working on such a list. The Springfield list was\n\nhave adopted such a list for the grades.\n\npublished in the June, 1914, Journal of Geography (Madison, Wis.).\nFourth.\n\n—So much for the knowledge of\n\nfacts, of sources, and of maps.\n\nA fourth purpose must be to impart a knowledge of, and an appreciation of,\ngeographical causes or influences.\n\nraphy.\n\nThis is the substance of rational geog-\n\nIt has appeared so constantly of late in the literature of geographical\n\npedagogy that I need say little more about it.\n\nThe causal idea is recog-\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": "735", "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY IN THE LARGE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nnized as the keynote of modern scientific geography, but\n\n735\nits\n\nemphasis\n\nbelongs more to the advanced than to the elementary stages of the study.\n\nWoven into the very warp and woof of good teaching will be this causal\nrelation which pervades geography;\n\nyet it is also well to remember that\n\ngeographical causes always work in conjunction with many other causes.\n\nThe location and growth of New York or Minneapolis are due partly, not\nwholly, to geographical influences. Pupils should know that geographical\ninfluences are real, and that they often determine men's decisions in locating\n\nbut that, after all, men, not geographical\n\nfactories or railways or towns;\n\nIndians and Eskimos do not react to\n\ninfluences, are the active forces.\n\ngeographical suggestions as Anglo-Saxons do.\n\nTHE COURSE IN HIGH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY\nIn this country we are already committed to a type of geography\nwhich is a combination of physical and applied geography. Geographers\nare practically agreed that the first half-year of the course must teach the\n\nThey are not a unit, however, regarding\n\nessentials of physical geography.\n\nthe most appropriate phase of applied geography for the second half-year.\n\nOf the two most recent textbooks, one has adopted regional geography of\nthe world for the second half-year's work; the other devotes its latter chapters to such topics as:\ntion,\n\n'^Inland Waters as Related to Navigation, Irriga-\n\nPower, and Water Supply\";\n\nRelations to Life\";\n\nand Harbors\";\n\n\"Mountains and Plateaus and Their\n\n\"Plains and Their Relations to Life\"; \"Coast Lines\n\n\"The Industries of the United States\";\n\nof Population and Cities.\"\n\n\"Distribution\n\nA still different arrangement consists in using\n\na textbook in physical geography the\n\nfirst\n\nsemester and a textbook in\n\ncommercial geography the second.\n\nWhile not strongly favoring one of these plans above another, I am\nconscious of a preference in the matter.\npreference but\n\nit\n\nIt\n\nmay be only a temporary\n\nhas been growing upon me.\n\nMy leaning is toward a\n\ncourse which combines some things from each of the plans just mentioned.\nI cannot get away from the conviction that the high-school pupil ought to\nhave a chance to study, in a more mature way than he can do in the grades,\nthe politico-economic geography of the nations which today dominate\nthe world's affairs. In a sense this is regional geography, but the regions\nto be studied are nations, rather than physical or climatic provinces. The\n\nphysical or climatic province\n\nis\n\npossibly a\n\nmore logical, more scientific\n\nunit, but it is not much used outside of school books.\n\nIn the world of men\n\nand affairs, Russia, for example, is a single geographical unit, Germany\nanother, and France another. Everybody thinks of them as units quite\nirrespective of the climatic or physiographic provinces which they may\ninclude or which may include them. Everywhere in real life, the political\ndivisions are the ones that count in our thinking, our reading, and our\nloyalty.\nVirginia includes parts of several physiographic provinces—\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": "736", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n736\n\n[Science\n\nthe Coastal Plain, the Piedmont, the Blue Ridge, the Great Valley, and\nthe Allegheny Plateau, yet, to the Virginian, the thing that counts is VirThe Canadian or the Mexican boundary lines and most\nginia, his state.\nof our state lines are more significant boundaries than are the boundaries\nof the Coastal Plain or of the Great Basin or of any other physiographic\n\nIn regional geography, the study of the political\ndivisions of the world is at the present time my preference. This does\nor climatic provinces.\n\nnot preclude the recognition and the study of natural divisions quite\nirrespective of political boundaries. He who prefers a different plan has\nthe same right to his preference.\n\nDETAILS OF THE COURSE\n\nHad I Aladdin's lamp with its power to smnmon up the genii, that is,\nin general plan, the sort of course I think I should command\n\nmy genie to\n\nprepare for a class in geography in the city high school (I reserve the priviThe course should provide for a maplege of changing my mind, however).\n\nstudy review of the essentials of the locational geography of the world. It\nshould devote from one-third to two-fifths of its time to those parts of physical geography which time has shown to be of real interest and of practical\n\nvalue.\n\nGeography, by conmion consent, is not the study of the physical\n\nand untenanted earth, nor is it the study of contemporary history; but it\nThe textbook\nis the study of the physical earth inhabited by people.\nshould contain problems calling for thought, questions for testing, and\n\nThe great majority of teachers who use our highmany of them have never studied\nThey need all of the help the book can\nit beyond its elementary phases.\ngive them. I never knew a teacher who felt insulted because the author\nquestions for review.\n\nschool texts are not trained in geography;\n\nplaced questions in the book.\n\nReviewers sometimes say they are an insult\n\nThe experienced teacher need not use them unless she wishes.\nThey do her no harm and they do help the other teachers. There should\nto the teacher.\n\nbe some sort of practical exercise or laboratory exercise in every chapter\nThere should be a section devoted to the industrial geography\nif possible.\nof the United States;\n\nand the final two-fifths of the book should treat of\n\nthe countries, the nations of the world, working under the limitations\n\nimposed by their physical environment and actuated, at least in the present\nage, mainly by economic motives.\nGeography in its modern sense consists, then, of (a) a study of the\nphysical conditions and resources of those parts of the globe which the\nleading nations occupy;\npolitical\n\n(b)\n\ngroups or nations;\n\nthe study of\n(c)\n\nmankind acting as organized\n\nthe interaction of the people and their\n\nenvironment— the nations working for political and economic advancement but mainly concerned with the development of industries and commerce.\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": "737", "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY IN THE LARGE HIGhIsCHOOL\n\n737\n\nCONSIDERATION OF METHOD OF TEACHING\n\nBut what of the method of teaching high-school geography ?\nSome years ago when we were teaching only the physical aspect of the\nsubject, we classed geography with physics, chemistry, and biology, and\nregarded it as a laboratory science.\n\nLaboratory manuals were published,\n\nand, in a considerable number of large cities, school buildings were equipped\n\nwith geographical laboratories.\n\nIn the relatively few schools which had\n\nteachers prepared to carry on formal laboratory work, a reasonable degree\nof success was attained.\n\nBut the movement did not gain headway and\n\nseems to have lost ground with the growth of the demand for humanized\ngeography.\n\nLaboratory work in college geography is, on the other hand,\n\nincreasing in its effectiveness.\n\nFriends of physical geography have always\n\nheld that it is essentially a field study and that the laboratory is a very\nunsatisfactory substitute for the field.\n\nGeikie has said that oiie hour of\n\ninstruction in the field is worth twenty hours of listening to lectures.\n\nHis\n\nratio of 20 to i is pretty high, but the general principle no one can deny.\n\nWe all recognize how hard it is to do field work with city classes.\n\nThere\n\nare a dozen genuine difficulties, yet field work can be done and is done.\n\nNot long ago John Mellish, a farmer boy in Cottage Grove, Wis., wanted\nto study astronomy.\n\nand no observatory.\n\nHe had had little schooling, and he had no telescope\nYet under difficult conditions he acquired the knowl-\n\nedge; he actually made a highly effective telescope, grinding the lens himself,\n\nand with it made discoveries of such importance that they brought him in\none year two American medals and one foreign medal; which merely suggests that difficulties are designed to deter the timid and half-hearted, but\n\nnot the resolute.\n\nWith the increasing emphasis which is now being placed upon geography\ndemand for formal\nlaboratory and field work. This does not mean that practical exercises,\nproblems, map work, drawing, and plotting are not an essential part of\nhumanized geography, for they most emphatically are.\nas a social science, there is usually a decline in the\n\nIn addition to the preparation of textbook assignments, each pupil\nought to work out with care two or three special topics; this is a work\nwhich not only acquaints him with sources where materials are to be found,\n\nbut it gives him training in the organization and presentation of topics, a\ntraining which often proves more beneficial than the knowledge itself.\nThis independent, constructive work ought not to be omitted.\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": "738", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n738\n\n(Science\n\nGEOGRAPHY IN VILLAGE AND RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n5.\n\nWILLIAM J. SUTHERLAND, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nPLATTEVILLE, WIS.\n\nThe treatment of the assigned subject seems to suggest a firstly and a\nStandards of geographical values, however, are not so flexible\n\nsecondly.\n\nas to permit entirely different ends and aims in shifting from one phase of\npublic-school education to another.\n\nThat is, the ends and aims of geo-\n\ngraphical instruction in a village school are essentially the same as in a rural\nschool.\n\nThe same can be said concerning geography instruction in city\n\ngraded and high schools. The difference in aim is a difference in degree\nto which instruction can be carried, rather than a difference in fundamental\nprinciples.\n\nTherefore any change in passing from a firstly to a secondly\n\nis not a change that grows out of different aims or ends, but rather a change\n\nthat is necessitated by the administration of instruction under different\nconditions.\n\nWhat a teacher might do in a closely organized and well-\n\nsupervised city graded school or high school may be quite different from\n\nthe work possible of accomplishment by a teacher in a village school where\nthree or four grades are placed under the tuition of a single teacher.\n\nMethod of teaching geography, then, is modified more by the conditions\nand advantages under which the teacher works than by any inherent\ndifferences in aims and ideals.\nSufficient progress has been made in the new geography to establish,\n\nin the minds of progressive teachers, higher educational standards in this\n\nsubject.\n\nFurther progress and improvement in geography instruction\n\ndemand a more universal establishment of rational aims and ideals. It\nwould seem that this end is possible of attainment. That the great mass\nof teachers may become very proficient in the knowledge of geographical\ninstruction can hardly be hoped.\nBut it would be pessimistic, indeed, to\nassert that improvement in geography teaching is impossible.\nBut how\ncan advancement be made? True it is that the most genuine progress\ncomes as a result of advanced scholarship and a genuine appreciation of\ngeographical science;\n\nyet ludicrous would be the proposition that every\n\nteacher shall first be transformed into a geographer.\n\nThe wheels of educa-\n\nmachinery must continue to turn; there must be less friction; the\nteacher's time must be conserved; to this end educational architects\nmust lay out the work so clearly and so systematically on the trestle-board\nthat even the novice will be guided toward the accomplishment of more\ntional\n\nreasonable ends.\n\nIn the light of the foregoing statements, and the further consideration\nthat geography is the most mixed and composite of all the school subjects,\nis it\n\nnot apparent that a change in the mode of attack, a new method of\n\nstudy, lies at the very basis of improvement and progress ?\n\nThe method\n\nof study must be shifted at once from the dogmatic to a problematical or\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": "739", "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY IN VILLAGE AND RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n739\n\nThe adoption of such method of study immediately\nand definitely demands a consideration of aims and values of geographical\nstudy. And right here is found the strongest argument for the introduction\nand establishment of this new method of study in all departments of geoheuristic treatment.\n\ngraphical instruction.\n\nBefore proceeding farther it would seem well to give concrete illustra-\n\nSuppose the following to be a lesson selected\nand planned for grammar-grade pupils to prepare:\n\ntions of the proposed method.\n\nWhat Conditions Have Contributed to the Development of Minneapolis\nAS THE Greatest Flour-Milling Center in the World?\n1.\n\nMake one sketch which will show the outlines of the three states, North Dakota,\n\nSouth Dakota, and Minnesota.\n2.\n\nOn this map draw the Mississippi, Missouri, Minnesota, and Red rivers.\n\nShow\n\nthe exact locations of Minneapolis and St. Paul.\n\nRead your text carefully to see if there is mention made of \"falls\" in any of these\nWhere ? What are the names of these falls ? What advantage to manufacturing\ndo water falls offer? Make a check in your map to show where each of these falls is\n3.\n\nrivers.\n\nlocated.\nIs any\n4. Read your text to learn especially what is given concerning Minnesota.\nmention made of old Lake Agassiz ? A considerable strip of land on each side of the Red\nRiver was once covered by this lake. On your map shade the Red River Valley in light\nyellow. Consult your text to find a statement describing the soils now found in this old\nlake bed. Write a sentence or short paragraph telling how these soils were formed.\nIn what part of the United States\n5. What crop is largely grown in these states?\nIn what general direction will a food produced here be\nis the population densest?\nshipped? Would wheat shipped from the Northwest be likely to go thru the Twin\n(Consult a railroad map to note the general direction of the railroads.)\nCities ?\n6. Consult your text to find out the head of navigation of the Mississippi River.\nWhere is it ? How are navigable waters southward an advantage to the milling industry ?\n7. Name three ways that the natural conditions at Minneapolis have favored the\nmilling industry. Write each in a terse sentence.\n8. Two of the great milling companies are located in Minneapolis.\nFind out the\nnames of these two firms.\n\nEfl&ciency and economy in teaching demand the most definite aims and\n\nthe most rational methods of realization.\n\nPerhaps no subject in the elementary curriculimi has been subject to greater looseness of treatment\nthan has geography. It seems to have been a sort of \"time-killer,\" which\nhas served as pointless \"busy work\" for children and a semi-rest period\nfor the teacher.\nThe results have been commensurate with the meager\ninterest and the passive and vacillating attention of the old dogmatic\nmethod of study. The situation demands new methods, new aims, new\nactivities— a renaissance familiarly referred to as the\n\n\"new geography,\"\n\ntho the term is yet little more than a \"by-word and a hissing.\"\n\nThere are two guiding principles relating to the teaching of geography\nboth especially applicable to the theme in hand:\n\n(i)\n\nThe highest interest\n\nand maximum functional value of geography reside in the study of the\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": "740", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n740\n\npupil's own environment.\n\n[Science\n\n(2) From a psychological point of view the pupil\n\nshould be introduced to the subject-matter of geography thru the study of\npertinent problems. In no phase of geography teaching do these principles\n\napply more directly than in village and rural schools. Let us see why!\nThe village teacher usually handles several grades. She is often over-\n\nworked and generally has insufficient time, energy, and geographical insight\nto select subject-matter and to organize it into problematical units for her\npupils to study. The only remedy is a workable manual to guide pupils\nin their study and to assist the teacher in the now laborious task of prepar-\n\ning lessons that promise to bring better results. The manual, in the mind\nof the author, will be as pointed and definite as a well-written manual in\n\nEvery lesson will develop a very particular geoActivity will be imperative on the\nThe\nprocedure\npupil.\nwill be sequential and inducand\nteacher\nboth\npart of\nthink,\ncompelled\nto\nbe\nto\nreason, and to infer as truly\nwill\npupil\nThe\ntive.\nrequired\nto\ndo\nin\nnow\narithmetic.\nis\nThe exercises must\nhe\nas\ngeography\nin\nchemistry or biology.\n\ngraphical consideration or principle.\n\nbe workable and within the range of the pupils comprehension. They will\nrequire pupils to record results, to tabulate, graph, draw, and model. They\n'\n\nwill require a high degree of rational thinking.\n\nFacts, items, and details,\n\nnow regarded as so essential in geographical knowledge, will be subordinated and made reasonably familiar to pupils in an incidental manner,\nthru their use as mere data in reaching the real Q.E.D. of the geographical\n\nproblem.\nis\n\nAnd best of all, while the busy village or rural school-teacher\n\nconducting her reading classes or correcting her spelling papers, the\n\npupils will find in their geography manuals a lesson that leads them to a\nparticular conclusion, a lesson that is sufficiently disentangled and definite\nto hold their attention, and a lesson they will enjoy because it makes them\nthink.\nIf,\n\nthen, genuine educational results are ever attained in country and\n\nvillage schools, methods must be adopted that will insure independence and\n\non the part of pupils in working out well-planned geographical\nTeachers in rural and village schools are so busy with numbers\nof things that serious study of subject-matter with a view to selections and\norganization is rather difficult; while a thoughtful study of method, with a\nview to whipping it into a form of presentation that will challenge and interinitiative\n\nproblems.\n\nest the child mind,\n\nseems quite impossible.\n\nTo meet these needs, an\n\nelementary geographical manual for the upper grades seems to be the only\nsolution and, until some student of science and pedagogy contributes this\n\npiece of constructive work, geography teaching in\nwill slide along in the\n\nall\n\ngrades of schools\n\nsame old channels.\n\nAgain, if better results are attained, lessons in geography must relate\nto the environment of particular classes of pupils in particular environ-\n\nments.\n\nAs already asserted, this is not because, fundamentally, the aims\n\nare variable, but rather because local environment should form the intro-\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": "741", "text": "GEOGRAPHY IN VILLAGE AND RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n741\n\nductory and later the unifying element in the study of general science of\n\nwhich geography is the principal representative in the elementary schools.\nIn the rural school, especially, geography lessons should often be the\noutgrowth of community industries, and, if presented ideally, the generalizations will later function in community life. In rural schools the study of\ntopography, drainage, rainfall, temperature, soils, and, until agriculture is\nbetter established, even the study of cultivation and farm crops are of first\nvalue.\n\nThe same is true, also, of geography in village schools, inasmuch\n\nas a country village represents no new interest or industry, but is simply\n\na sort of local clearing-house for community activities.\n\nIf a locality repre-\n\nsents any typical industry, certainly such industry should be studied in its\n\ncompleteness and should eventually become the organizing thread by which\n\nmany geographical considerations can be held together.\n\nAs already illus-\n\ntrated in the suggested problem, the flour industry in the Twin Cities, meat-\n\npacking in Kansas City, wheat culture in the Red River Valley, iron-mining\nin the Mesaba Range, etc., are pertinent topics.\n\nA careful and compre-\n\nhensive study of almost any carefully selected problem will involve not only\n\na large amount of vital geographical material, but, if treated with wisdom\nand from the human point of view, will have a true social bearing. Life\nresponses together with inorganic resources determine the industries of\nregions.\n\nIndustry\n\nis\n\nthe secondary response to physical environment.\n\nEventually the prosperity, temperament, impulses, culture, and ideals of\npeople are social responses to the larger environment made up of physical,\nindustrial,\n\nand economic elements.\n\nThis argument holds that there is no special aim of geography in rural\n\nand village schools that warrants special consideration. However, the\ndifferences in conditions under which the teachers of geography in these\nschools are forced to work, together with the lack of geographical apparatus,\n\nmake their problem of teaching geography more difficult than it is in the\ngraded school, in which the teacher has but a single grade under her instrucThen, too, the teacher in the village school, having under her managetion.\n\nment three or four grades of pupils, finds it especially difficult to take the\ngeography class on excursions. The same difficulty obtains in a large rural\nschool.\n\nOfttimes these schools are poorly equipped with maps, charts,\n\nglobes, and illustrative materials, hence the teacher works at the maximum\n\ndisadvantage.\n\nEvery geographical help should be furnished the teachers\n\nin these schools if excellent results are to be obtained.\nis\n\nThe writer, however,\n\nconvinced that a well-written geography manual, outlining the lessons\n\nfor the\n\nupper grades with precision and accuracy, is the only way that\n\ngeographical instruction can really be transformed from the dull lifeless\ngrind, now so common, into a genuinely vitalized school exercise.\n\nSuch a\nmanual is not to replace the textbook, but rather to accompany it and point\nout the topics and problems that are pertinent, purposeful, and genuinely\neducational in character. The advantages of such problematical methods\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": "742", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n742\nare apparent.\n\n[Science\n\nFirst of all, probably, should be mentioned the help afforded\n\nthe teacher in assigning and directing the work;\n\na heavy load would at\n\nonce be lifted from her shoulders by the use of such a manual.\n\nThe second\n\nbenefit would probably come to the student, who would learn to be an inde-\n\npendent and thoughtful worker.\na thing of the past.\n\nMere passive work would soon become\n\nInitiative would be cultivated on the part of the pupils.\n\nThe study hour would,\n\nas the result of thought-provoking problems,\n\nbecome a period of mental activity rather than of the listless passivity now\nso characteristic of this period.\n\nSo long as the old-fashioned dogmatic or empirical method of teaching\ngeography continues, just so long will there be dissatisfaction concerning\nLong enough has this method obtained, and the time has come\nresults.\n\nwhen entirely new methods must enter the schools.\n\nParticularly helpful\n\nand especially necessary is the problematical or heuristic method of teaching\nin graded and village schools, if we would secure genuinely educative results\nthru the teaching of geography.\n\nTHE USE OF LANTERN SLIDES IN A COURSE IN ELECTRICAL\nMEASUREMENTS\nCHARLES P. FREY, ENGINEER, WESTON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT\nCOMPANY, J^WARK, N.J.\n\nWe have been informed that, before long, moving-picture machines\nwill be\n\nused extensively in schools for educational purposes.\n\nWhen this\n\nbecomes a fact, we shall take steps to supply instructors with films relating\nto electrical apparatus.\n\nWe do not question the utility of moving pictures as aids to the educator,\nbut at present very few high schools are equipped with a machine and\nusually rent one for special occasions, which is operated by a professional\nexhibitor.\nSchools which can afford such expenditures are, of course, to\nbe congratulated, but we believe that, in the teaching of physics in the aver-\n\nage high school, students can get more benefit from slides than from fihns,\nfirst because each picture\n\nmay be exposed on the screen as long as may be\n\nnecessary to fully explain it, and secondly because the instructor may exercise his own judgment in arranging the sequence of his illustrations.\n\nnot, however,\n\nIt is\n\nmy intention to invite inmiediate discussion on this subject,\n\nbut rather to take advantage of the present opportunity by displaying a\nfew slides which may be of interest.\n\nWe plan to supply instructors with a set of slides at the actual cost of\nproduction and to issue another monograph, in which forty or fifty slides\nwill\n\nbe reproduced as illustrations.\n\nThis publication will be distributed\n\ngratis to all science teachers and will give them an opportunity to decide\n\nwhether the slides to which the text refers will be of service to them.\n\nAs\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": "743", "text": "MOTION PICTURES AND EDUCATION\n\nDepartment]\n\n743\n\nalready said, we plan to do this, but whether we go on with this work\n\ndepends upon the approval of the National Education Association and the\nco-operation we receive from science teachers.\n\nWe therefore exhibit some\n\nof these slides for your consideration, invite criticism, and extend a general\n\ninvitation to visit our booth at the Armory, and our works at Newark, where\n\nwe shall endeavor to entertain you.\n\nWe shall thankfully receive any sug-\n\ngestions you have to offer.\n\nMOTION PICTURES AS AN AID TO EDUCATION\nALFRED\n\nH.\n\nSAUNDERS, MANAGER, EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT, COLONIAL\nMOTION PICTURE CORPORATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThere are on the market at the present time four machines for pronamely, Edison's Kinetograph,\nmanufactured by the Edison Company at Orange, New Jersey; Enterprise\nOptical Company's Motiograph, manufactured in Chicago; the Power's\nCameragraph, manufactured in New York City; and the Precision Machine\nCompany's Simplex, manufactured in New York City. While I have\nmentioned these machines in this order, I do not want it to be understood\nthat one has any priority over the other. All are of equal value and are\nperfect in their work. I cannot undertake to recommend specially or\nI shall only raise a note of warning at this stage\nspecifically any machine.\njection that have stood the test of time:\n\nand say that the first outlay should always be for the best, and, if the auditorium of the school can be used for this purpose, the outlay is one that\nwill\n\nprove very remunerative for future work.\n\nOther machines besides\n\nthose mentioned are on the market, but they are not so well known as\nthese.\n\nThe cost of the Edison machine is $250, that of the Enterprise is\n\n$250, that of the Power's Cameragraph is $260, and that of the Precision's\n\nSimplex is $300.\n\nIn addition to the expenditure for the machine it will be\n\nnecessary in all instances to provide for the construction of a booth, of\neither sheet iron, asbestos, or brick.\n\nThe cost for this varies from $50 mini-\n\nmum to $150 maximum.\nTHE RESTRICTION UPON THE MACHINE\n\nOwing to gross carelessness in the past, thru the employment of operators\n\nwho have in many instances been irresponsible boys, fires have occurred,\nhence it is well at this point to speak at length of the situation. Because of\nthese fires, boards of fire underwriters have tried to place the cinematograph\nin the \"extra hazardous\" class, an attempt which, in\n\nmy opinion, is a gross\n\nIn the state of New York for the year 191 2-13, out of some\n7,800 odd fires, only four were cinematograph fires, and the damage done by\n\ninjustice.\n\nthese fires was a fraction of i per cent.\n\nFor the same period in the city of\n\nNew York, there were recorded 11,400 odd fires, one of which was caused\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": "744", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n744\n\n[Science\n\nby cinematography; the damage in this instance was very small, only •\nthe reel of film being destroyed, tho the hands of the operator were burned\n\nNo loss of life is recorded in any of these fires.\n\nin putting out the fire.\n\nIf the operator is careful and properly trained (preferably, if possible,\n\nthe engineer of the school or his assistant), there should never be any fires\nAll machines are now constructed so that in case\n\nexcept thru accident.\n\na fire occurs at the point of contact between the focus of light and the\nfilm, it is impossible to burn more than six or seven inches at the most.\n\nSome insurance companies try to put prohibitive rates of insurance upon\nbuildings where projectors are used.\n\nUnder proper conditions, if the pro-\n\njector is fully equipped with safety devices, according to the requirements\n\nno extra insurance should be forced upon the\n\nof the various localities,\nschools.\n\nIllustrating the confidence that is now rapidly growing in various sec-\n\ntions of the country, the state of Wisconsin is sending lecturers with outfits\n\nto the various schools, and an experiment is being made in Brooklyn and\n\nNew York City by allowing lecturers connected with the board of education\nto use the cinematograph.\n\nIt is\n\nmy opinion, moreover, that in a very short\n\nperiod every locality will learn the absolute safety of the machine as at\npresent constructed.\n\nThe machine, I think, will even be allowed to stand\n\nin the midst of the spectators, so that\n\nby seeing it operating.\nfrom $75 to $150.\n\nthey may gain greater confidence\n\nProjectors are on the market at prices ranging\n\nI do not advise the use of these machines; they are at\n\npresent only mere toys, suitable for use in drawing-rooms and small circles.\n\nPICTURES AVAILABLE FOR THE CLASS\n\nThere are on the market quite a large number of subjects available,\nbut the difficulty has been to gather these into one center. Many of them\nwill require some elimination to make them suitable for the class.\nOthers\nhave been specially prepared and will give great assistance in presenting\n\ncertain subjects, especially geography and biology.\n\nact\n\nThe corporation which I have the honor to represent is preparing to\nupon the suggestions of members of the advisory board, who have\n\nstudied this question in the various universities, colleges, and schools, to\nillustrate textbooks that are household works, if I\n\nmay use the term, to the\n\nFor instance, I may mention such books as\nFrye's Geography^ Forman's American History, Thorndike and Strayer's\nladies and gentlemen present.\n\nSchool Administration, etc.\n\nTo the educators who are allied with me on the advisory board, I am\nindebted for many admirable suggestions of great value to the teacher.\nThese suggestions, coming from men who know (including professors of\nuniversities and colleges and your state and district superintendents), are a\nvaluable source of information, and it will be the endeavor of the corporation\nto put these into practical form.\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": "745", "text": "Department]\n\nMOTION PICTURES AND EDUCATION\n\n745\n\nThey include many suggestions for pictures illustrating:\nAgriculture\n\nIndustrial Subjects\n\nAmerican Literature\nAnimal Habits and Behavior\n\nLife in Foreign Lands\n\nLiterature\n\nBiology\nCivics\n\nChemistry\n\nDrawing\nEnglish\nEvolution of the Rural School\nFeeble-minded Children at Work and at Play\n\nGeography\n\nMathematical Construction\nMorals and Manners\nMachinery\nMechanics\nMetallurgy\nPhysics\nPhysiology\nPupil Government\n\nHistory\n\nPhysiography\n\nHygiene\n\nTheory of Trades\n\nHOW AVAILABLE PICTURES MAY BE OBTAINED\nIt has often been said that the supply will always create the demand, but\n\nthe modern business man wants the demand before he will create the supply.\nIt will need a little patient work\n\nand co-operation of teachers with the\n\nmanufacturers before this matter can be decided in a manner suitable to\nboth; but, judging from what has been done in the past, films could be\n\npurchased by the state boards of education and used in circulating-library\nfashion, so that schools specially equipped which need the films in their\n\nclassrooms may always be sure of securing them.\n\nThese films will cost\n\n10 cents per foot, or $ioo for a roll of i,ooo feet.\n\nSpecial facilities are\n\nnow given by the government to educational institutions whereby all films\nfor their exclusive use are allowed to\n\ncome into the country duty free.\n\nThis reduces cost to 9 cents per foot on all imported fihns.\n\nArrangements\n\nmay be made to rent the films (according to the present prices) at from $3 00\nmaximum down to $1 .00 minimum a reel of 1,000 feet for each exhibition.\nThis may appear a large outlay to some. The appropriations of the\nschool boards are not always sufficiently large to cover what may seem\nluxuries, but a way out of the difficulty may be devised by a little successful\n.\n\nmanagement.\n\nIt is\n\nmy opinion that the time is rapidly approaching when\n\nevery school that is equipped with a projecting machine may cover the cost\nof it by allowing the parents to attend exhibitions in the evening.\n\nNot\n\nfor the purpose exactly of competing with the local exhibitor, one or two\n\nnights a week might be set aside to exhibit to the parent the films shown\nto the children during the day.\n\nIf\n\na small admittance is charged this\n\ncould be put into a special fund to cover the cost of the machine and films\nas well as to provide for the purchase of other films in the future.\n\nIn\n\nfact a hundred and one ways may be devised whereby the cost can easily\n\nbe covered without in any way taxing the local citizens.\nFor the benefit of those who wish a more extensive study of educational\nsubjects, I would refer you to an article written by myself for the government\n\nand published in the Annual Report of the United States Commissioner of\nEducation for 1913 (Vol. I, chap, xxvii).\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": "746", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n746\n\n(Science\n\nDISCUSSION\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\nIt is now clear, beyond any question, that the motion picture is destined to be an educational agency of first-rate importance.\n\nThe public schools, owing to their usual, and\n\nperhaps natural, conservatism, have been slow to recognize both the importance and the\nplace of the motion picture as a means of instruction. There is a strong prepossession\nin the public school, owing to tradition, to make instruction abstract rather than concrete,\n\nand, as a result, so relatively concrete an agency as the motion picture receives, as yet,\nscant consideration.\n\nFurthermore, the motion picture has early been subjected to abuses.\n\nIt has been\n\nmade not only a plaything but, in many instances, a somewhat mischievous plaything,\nespecially in smaller communities.\n\nBecause of this cheapening and vulgarizing of the\n\nmotion picture, schools and other educational agencies have been loath to attach to it\nthe importance which it deserves.\nThe time has arrived, however, when all educators shoidd frankly recognize in the\nmotion picture an agency of great importance, providing it is used to proper ends.\n\nIt\n\nshould, therefore, be urged upon school authorities, among other things, that new buildings\n\nshould be provided with suitable equipment for the use of the moving picture, including\na fireproof cabin for the machine and a vibration-proof pedestal for its support. School\nprincipals should be encouraged to study available supplies of motion-picture material,\nwith a view to introducing such as may prove profitable in various lines of work. A\nsharp distinction should be drawn between pictures designed primarily to furnish recreation\nor general culture and those designed to give specific insight and information. Without\nthis distinction, there is danger of permanent confusion between the diverting and the\ninforming. Diversion will naturally be an important by-product of informing pictures,\nand information a by-product of diverting, or entertaining, pictures. Nevertheless, the\nfunction of each is quite distinct from that of the other.\nFurthermore, careful attention should be given to the kinds of instruction which the\nmotion picture can offer. For example, geography might be very methodically reinforced by the use of motion pictures as a systematic means of instruction.\nSimilarly, the\nvarious science subjects can be illustrated and made clear in this way. It is questionable\nhow far the motion picture should be used in the study of history unless evidence can be\npresented that the pageants or other dramatic presentations used in the making of pictures faithfully adhere to historical standards. Again, in such a subject as geography,\nit is essential to repeat that, for example, a travel trip taken with the moving-picture\nmachine, however valuable it may be as diversion and for the giving of general information,\ndoes not constitute a study of geography.\nIt must be remembered that no very effective demand has yet been made upon the\nmakers of moving pictures for strictly educational presentations. Let such a demand as\nthis once arise, on a generous commercial scale, and, without doubt, there will be a large\nresponse to it, and we may expect a considerable amount of inventive genius to devote\nitself to the making of pictures which are, in the highest and truest sense of the word,\neducative.\n\n—\n\nNathaniel M. Graham, superintendent of schools. South Omaha, Nebr. ^It is the\nhim to think and to\ntrain him to express his thought.\nAgainst the old school with its course of uninteresting\nabstract principles, there has been a revolt. Gradually we have been enriching this\ncourse, making it more concrete and humanistic by utilizing various means of appealing\n\nbusiness of the school to give the child impressions which cause\n\nto the child's interest.\n\nImpression and expression very exactly epitomize the field of\n\neducation from the kindergarten to the university.\nPictures are a universal language.\n\nThey are regarded as an essential accessory to\n\ngaining information in every field of knowledge.\n\nPictures have always been used to\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": "747", "text": "Department]\n\nMOTION PICTURES AND EDUCATION\n\n747\n\nconvey information, and picture language preceded the alphabetic. In this modern age\nthe two are supplemental. No text is considered complete without illustrations. But\nat best pictures in books are necessarily limited. Only a single scene can be given at a\ntime.\n\nfold.\n\nThe motion picture multiplies the advantages of the ordinary picture a thousand\nIts benefits\nIt is the means of the greatest possibilities in the way of information.\n\nare incalculable.\n\nIt may be regarded as a great educational lever whereby a very great\n\nportion of our present-day schoolroom work may be lifted out of the shadows of the\nvalley of the abstract into the clear sunlight of human interest.\nI verily believe that our failure in language work, both oral and written, is due to the\n\nConsequently we have faulty and poor\nBut how great the contrast between the possibilities of the motion picture\nand of those projected on the screen by the lantern! The usefulness of the motion picture\nlack of information and haziness of impression.\n\nexpression.\n\nis\n\nrecognized as potential in every branch of instruction.\n\nmanufacturers to produce practical films for the schools.\n\nIt simply remains for the\n\nWe all believe that encourage-\n\nment by this body of educators will result in motion pictures being made available for\nevery department of school work.\n\nWho can tell in how short a time motion pictures will\n\nbe as great an accessory to education as is the printed text ?\n\nPeter Olesen, superintendent of schools, Cloquet, Minn.\n\n—In\n\nless\n\nthan twenty\n\nyears, the motion-picture business has secured a hold on the minds of people which is\n\nalmost equal to that of the school and the daily press.\n\nJust how far its influence does\n\nreach we cannot say, but this we know, that in this country, each day, from seven million\nto twelve million people find their way to the moving-picture theaters, and spend in them\n\neach year, of their own free will and accord, approximately three hundred million dollars.\n\nThe \"movies\" have not been helpful to the schools, for the reason that by far most\nI believe that one reason why it is\n\nof the pictures shown are for idle amusement only.\n\nhard to interest some children in school today is that their minds have been filled and their\nimagination thrilled with too vivid motion pictures, and, when these children come to\nschool, they are disappointed because the teacher cannot make the subject as interesting\nas a motion-picture show.\n\nBut if it be true, as many believe, that today the movies do more harm than good,\nit\n\nshould be borne in mind that pictures are only inanimate objects, that they are man-\n\nmade, and that if they are not an influence for good it is because the saying of the Great\nTeacher that the children of this world are sometimes more shrewd in their business than\nthe children of light is still true. I fear that as educators we have been too slow to recognize the value of the movies.\n\nWe may as well make up our minds that they are here\n\nto stay, that they are now and always will be potent factors in American life.\nis not to\n\nOur business\n\ncondemn them, but to enlist them for human service.\n\nIt is the twofold function of education to impart information and to train the mind to\nbecome strong, active, quick, and obedient to the will. Of the two, the latter function is by\nIt demands serious wrestling with difficult problems. To this end\nfar the greater.\nmotion pictures can be no help. Their value is for information. But here their value\nThey may be used for this purpose from the kindergarten to the graduate\nis great.\nschool, and the teaching for information in geography, history, agriculture, and many\n\nother subjects may be either simplified or amplified thru the movies.\n\nBut some will say there is no place for moving pictures in our already crowded curricuTo this I simply answer that moving pictures save time. A business man told me\nthis morning that he always took a car for even a short distance because it saved time,\nand to him time was money. It is so with the movies. They can save time for the\nCertain information may be had in one-quarter the time by means of the movies\nchildren.\nand learned more correctly than thru a lecture or a book; and some things can be taught\nthru them that could not be taught in any other way. I feel that, when Mr. Saunders\n\nlum.\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": "748", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n748\n\n[Science\n\npresented the day-by-day, yes, the hour-by-hour development of the prenatal existence of\nthe chick, information was presented which up until now has been called mysterious.\n\nAgain, I repeat that it is our business to enlist the movies for human service and to\nmake them willing servants of knowledge, and I predict that, if the educators neglect their\nuse, the people will, within a few years, demand that the movies be used in the schools\nin the daytime to instruct the children and in the evening to impart information to the\n\nparents.\n\nBIOLOGY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nJAMES EDWARD PEABODY, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, MORRIS\nHIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y.\nI believe I can epitomize most of what I wish to say this morning in a\nsort of cabalistic formula\n\nwhich would read C+C>C.\n\nThis formula I\n\nshall interpret in a few moments.\nFirst,\n\nhowever, may I give utterance to a heresy most unorthodox in\n\nsuch a conference as this?\n\nIt is\n\na heresy, however, to which twenty\n\nyears of observation and experience in high-school teaching have compelled me most reluctantly to subscribe.\n\nnot\n\nmaking good— or, at\n\ntheir\n\nleast,\n\nHere it is.\n\nScience courses are\n\nthey are far, far from measuring up to\n\neducational opportunities.\n\nI shall not attempt to defend these\n\npropositions, but instead let me briefly state some of the reasons why we\nscience teachers are so frequently,\n\nand it seems to me so justly, put on\n\nthe defensive.\n1.\n\nScience is, relatively speaking, one of the newest subjects to demand\n\nrecognition in the high-school curriculum.\n\nLatin, mathematics, English,\n\nand history have been taught for centuries, science for scarcely decades\nat least this is true of biology. And, if I mistake not, we are far from\nknowing just what we are driving at or what methods to adopt in order\nto reach a desired goal.\n2.\n\nThe choice of subject-matter in our science courses too often has\n\nlittle or no relation to the life of the average boy or girl.\n\nWe try to present\n\ntoo many abstract principles, do we not, and too few applications of these\nprinciples.\n\nThe average science teacher is not well prepared to present his subject\nIn biology, at least, we\nare still far too much under the domination of Huxley's Crayfish, Sedg3.\n\neither in its scientific or in its pedagogic aspects.\n\nwick and Wilson's Fern and Earthworm, and Gray's Structural Botany and\nPlant Classification.\n\nIn physics, if I mistake not, the college-entrance\n\nrequirements have squeezed about all the juice out of an otherwise most\n\nWhat we most need is a crop of science\nwho have been\ntrained by college and university professors who bow somewhat less rever-\n\ninteresting and profitable subject.\n\nteachers with a large fund of constructive imagination,\n\nently before the shrine of research and realize rather that the kingdom of\n\nheaven can be found in the lives of growing boys and girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": "749", "text": "BIOLOGY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n749\n\nI am now ready to return to the formula which I placed before you\nat the beginning of\n\nmy address and to consider the fourth and fifth reasons\n\nwhy so much of our science teaching is more or less futile.\n\nBoth these\n\nreasons are the exact opposite of the two Cs I have put at the left of the\nsign of inequality.\n4.\n\nPerhaps our greatest handicap in teaching the sciences is the lack of\n\ncontinuity (this is the word I would substitute for\n\ntime allotment and subject-matter.\n\nmy first C), as to both\n\nThe claims made for the educational\n\nvalue of English, the foreign languages, mathematics, and history can be\n\ntwo or three years in\nand the cumulative value of\nthis training, at least at the end of the course, usually becomes apparent.\nSo convinced am I of the truth of this statement that I am planning for my\nlargely substantiated because of the fact that for\n\nsuccession each of these subjects is studied,\n\nown children who are now in high school, regretfully it is true, the conventional classical course in preparation for college.\n\nHow different as to continuity is the high-school work in the sciences!\nPoint to a school, if you can, where a well-organized course in science is\noffered a student during three successive years.\n\nOn the contrary, is it not\n\nthe common practice to teach a science for a single year or for half a year\n\nWhat training can be expected from such fragmentary and discon-\n\nonly ?\n\ntinuous treatment of any one of the great fields of scientific knowledge ?\n5.\n\nThis leads me to a brief consideration of the final objection I have\n\nmethods of science instruction, namely, the want of cothe various sciences, and the lack of\nco-operation between most science teachers and teachers of English, civics,\nhistory, and mathematics.\nIf our high-school boys and girls are to be\ndeveloped most effectively, we must make a profound study of this principle\nof co-operation, and we must substitute this attitude in our teaching for\nthe competition among courses which too often prevails in our school\nto our present\n\noperation\n\namong the teachers of\n\nsystems.\n\nInstead of being so anxious to secure our rights, let us rather\n\nseek more earnestly to perform our duties to the child and to the com-\n\nmunity.\n\nThe formula, then, in its completed form, will read something as follows:\nContinuity in science instruction, plus co-operation in the various science\ncourses and with those in other subjects, will yield far greater returns than\nwill competition.\n\nNote.\n\n—The preliminary report of the Biology Committee of the Com-\n\nmission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education was then read.\n\nThis report is published in the January, 1914, number of School Science,\nChicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": "750", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n750\n\niSciencc\n\nPHYSICS FOR GIRLS BY THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD\nEmfA J. FORDYCE, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY,\nHIGH SCHOOL, CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA\n\nThe scientific method of teaching physics to girls includes \"applying\nobservations of principles and deductions from facts\" to the girls themselves\nas well as to the subject.\n\nIn working out the teaching of physics in this\n\nway it has been shown:\n1.\n\nThat girls reason as well as boys, but the material must be interest-\n\ning to them.\n2.\n\nThat exemplifications of scientific principles worked out in the labora-\n\ntory interest girls more if they are from the household, from everyday life,\n\nfrom out of doors, and from those fields in which many people are directly\nconcerned.\n3.\n\nThat girls work better in divisions by themselves than in mixed\n\ndivisions of girls and boys, because they are not embarrassed by lack of\n\nknowledge which the boys have of common things and because their applications of laws and principles are different.\n4.\n\nThat girls like to think better in personal terms than in general\n\nterms.\n5.\n\nThat girls did not like, in the laboratory, the very fiine measurement\n\nwork.\n6.\n\nThat special applications which the girls enjoyed and for which they\n\ndid fairly good work were:\n\nstudies of the city water plant, gas, electric\n\nlighting, disposal of garbage, location of wells, fire protection, street cleaning, ice manufacturing.\n7. That girls displayed special interest in studies of the home plumbing\nand machines, lighting, heating, cooking devices, fireless and waterless\n\ncookers, ranges, ice chests, electrical appliances,\n\neconomy in using gas,\n\nventilation of home, music reproducers.\n8.\n\nThat girls were interested in calculating percentage of moisture in\n\nthe air of the schoolroom and the amount of air entering with the percentage\nof needed air that is supplied.\n9.\n\nThat, in teaching physics to\n\ngirls,\n\nemphasis is to be constantly\n\nplaced upon the soul power which comes thru knowledge of, and obedience\nto, law; upon the capacity it gives for service to city, state, and nation;\nupon the greater life to which it opens the gates.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON JANITOR SERVICE\nThe Committee on Janitor Service, whose recommendations last year\nwere adopted by the department, was continued for the purpose of promoting the establishment of pupil-health officers.\n\n\"To standardize janitor\n\nservice, or school housekeeping,\" as stated in its report,\n\n\"the first step is\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": "751", "text": "'\n\nREPORT ON JANITOR SERVICE\n\nDepartment]\n\n751\n\nEvery building, as every room in it, has its own conditions\nThis can be done with least expense and\ngreatest effectiveness by enlisting pupils' co-operation. Expense is neglito get the facts.\n\nto be learned and controlled.\n\ngible.\n\nEffectiveness is along three lines:\n\n(i) practically\n\nconstant super-\n\nvision which good housekeepers find indispensable;\n\n(2) permanent records\n\nof sanitary details in place of guesses and opinions;\n\n(3) interest of future\n\nvoters and homemakers in such details by practice in regulating them.\"\n\nA gratifying amount of success has followed the year's efforts.\n\nThis has\n\nbeen accomplished chiefly thru two channels: co-operation of the press and\nthe traveling exhibit of the American Academy of Medicine.\n1.\n\nThe\n\npress.\n\n—Various educational periodicals have published the\n\nrecommendations, some of them assisting in other ways, notably the Journal\nof Education, the American School Board Journal, and the Educational News\n\nby the state superintendent of Wisconsin; also several\nand special periodicals, as the Journal of the\nAmerican Public Health Association, the Bulletin of the American Academy\nBulletin issued\n\npublic-health, medical,\n\nof Medicine, the Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association, the\n\nChild-Welfare Magazine, the Springfield Republican, and other newspapers,\nsome of the latter running daily articles supplementing the traveling exhibit\nin cities where it was being used.\n2. The traveling exhibit.\n^The American Academy of Medicine, thru\nits committee on school hygiene, exhibited at the Fourth International\nCongress on School Hygiene at Buffalo. A cabinet 9J feet high by loj\nfeet wide was built, the five folding panels containing statements, statistics,\nand cartoons of sanitary conditions reacting between school and society.\n\n—\n\nFrom small cases on the middle panel folders are distributed entitled\n\"Summary of Recommendations by the Committee on Janitor Service,\nDepartment of Science Instruction, National Education Association.\"\n(One hundred of these are inclosed for distribution at the session.)\nThis traveling exhibit had an excellent position in the exhibition of the\nInternational Congress in early September. Since then it has been shown\nin several normal and high schools, offices of boards of education, teachers\nTwenty-five\ninstitutes, lecture halls, show windows on public squares, etc.\nthousand copies of the summary have been distributed by this means.\nThe rates for renting are planned to cover insurance, damages, wear and\nThe folders are\ntear, expressage, and to include one thousand folders.\nalso purchased by the thousand and by the hundred; but the exhibit cannot\nbe loaned without the folders.\n3. Results.\n\n—The results following announcement of these recommenda-\n\ntions, that have come incidentally to the knowledge of the chairman, are\n\nencouraging.\n\nnow\nThey are,\n\nPupil-health officers, sometimes called monitors, are\n\nappointed in several large\n\ncities\n\nand in several small ones.\n\nhowever, with a few exceptions, concerned chiefly with reading ther-\n\nmometers, not reporting on relative humidity, air currents (\"ventilation\").\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": "752", "text": "752\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\ncleanliness, etc.\n\nIn some schools the work is not done as systematically\n\nas it is necessary for efficiency.\n\n[Science\n\nPupil officers in numerous open-window\n\nschools are doing good work in making known actual facts existing in these\nschools, thus showing what others might have with benefit to both scholarship, health,\n\nand future citizenship.\n\nIn addition to all\n\nthis,\n\nboth educational and popular literature are\n\nmentioning, with growing frequency, school housekeeping, janitor service,\n\nand related details, showing the increased focusing of attention on definite\npoints that mean progress in health matters.\n4.\n\nIn conclusion.\n\n—For reasons given in\n\nthis and in former discussions,\n\nthe conunittee strongly urges the department to continue to present to\nteachers of the sciences the importance of systematically utilizing the\n\nopportunities of school premises in problems of practical sanitation.\n\nThese\nwork and methods in studies of dust and\nits removal; of micro-organisms on cups, towels, and other objects used in\ncommon of air currents and systems or methods of ventilation of humidity\nand temperature; of various instruments such as thermometers, hygromoffer exercises for laboratory\n\n;\n\neters,\n\nanemometers, etc.;\n\n;\n\nof\n\ndisinfectants, soaps, plumbing,\n\nand other\n\nsanitary details that depend on the sciences of biology, physics, and chemistry.\n\nSuch adaptation would strengthen and popularize the teaching of\n\nscience to a degree it has not hitherto experienced.\n\nThere is in the schools no instruction with greater possibilities for service\nin solving present problems in school sanitation and child hygiene, and for\n\nimproving homes and citizens in consequence, provided pupils are trained\nin systematically applying their principles to details of environment, with\n\naccurate record-keeping.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n(\n\nHelen C. Putnam\nCowan\n\nCommittee I Fred H.\n(\n\nGeorge R. Twiss\n\nTHE TENDENCIES AND GENERAL STATUS OF COURSES IN\nGENERAL SCIENCE\nI.\n\nWILLIAM H. TIMBIE, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE,\nWENTWORTH INSTITUTE, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nLet US consider for a moment, as we begin the discussion of this subject,\nthe history and development of general science teaching in the high school\n\nand other departments of education.\nIt is comparatively easy to trace this development and to appreciate\nthe influence of science instruction in the field of higher education. We\n\nhave merely to glance at any college catalog of fifty or sixty years ago.\n\nWe all are familiar with the curricula there outlined— philosophy and pure\nmathematics, heaped upon course after course in ponderous succession of\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": "753", "text": "TENDENCIES OF GENERAL SCIENCE COURSES\n\nDepartment]\n\nLatin and Greek.\n\n753\n\nContrast this old-time catalog with this year's catalog\nIt is now filled from\nNote the array of botany, biology,\n\nof even the most conservative college in the land.\n\ncover to cover with science courses.\n\nchemistry, physics, physiology, hygiene, astronomy, geology, meteorology,\n\ngovernment, and economics\n\n—\n\nall\n\nThe spirit of modern\nNot only have\n\nscience studies.\n\nscience has completely revolutionized higher education.\n\nmethods and the scientific spirit crept into and permeated all\n\nscientific\n\nthe older forms of education, but they have so impelled, and so guided, and\nso generously given a new keenness of interest to the ever-increasing amount\nof study and investigation of the modern university that the terms \"higher\n\neducation\" and \"scientific thought\" are practically synonymous.\n\nNow let us look at the other end of the educational ladder, the field of the\nelementary school.\n\nHere in the very beginning of a child's school life,\n\nscience and scientific methods are quickening and directing his powers, and,\n\nwith habits of accurate observation, are laying the broad foundation for his\nsuccess in his future studies.\n\nAll these benefits are the results of science\n\nteaching and of its introduction into the elementary schools.\n\nhas given life, interest, and zest to the whole curriculum.\n\nThe science\n\nIt has changed\n\nthe listless, unwilling schoolboy into an alert, eager seeker after knowledge,\n\nand the very atmosphere of the schoolroom seems charged with the spirit of\ninquiry and investigation.\n\nNow we turn to the history of science in the high school, and we cannot\nhelp contrasting its record here with its brilliant achievement in higher\n\neducation and with its equally great success in the elementary schools.\n\nNo\n\none can seriously question the statement that the results of science teaching\nin the high schools have been most disappointing\n\n— especially disappointing\n\nto those pioneers who prophesied such great things for it.\n\nIt hasn't grown\nand parents. On\nthe one hand, it has failed to attract the multitudes of boys and girls into\nour high schools as it has drawn men and women to institutions of higher\neducation, and, on the other hand, it has not added the absorbing vital\ninterest to the high-school work that it has added to the work in the elementary schools. It should have done both. It has failed to do either.\nSo far indeed has it failed to do these things which everybody said it was\n\nin favor or responded to the hopes of teachers, pupils,\n\ngoing to do that there has existed of late years a serious discussion as to\n\nwhether or not science courses should be dropped from the high-school\ncurriculum.\nIf science\n\nhas done so much for the elementary schools and has in\n\nhigher education so far exceeded the wildest expectations of the most\nenthusiastic pioneers, why has it not been able to do this in the high school ?\nI shall try to suggest a few reasons.\nFirst,\n\na\n\nfew\n\nlet\n\nus take, for example, the subject of physics.\n\nsamples of the subject-matter which\n\nis\n\nbeing\n\nHere are\n\nserved\n\nthirteen- or fourteen-year-old boys and girls in the United States.\n\nup\n\nto\n\nThese\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": "754", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n754\n\n[Science\n\nsamples are taken from the four textbooks in physics which are in most\ngeneral use.\nInertia is the property which all matter possesses of resisting any attempt to start it if\nat rest, or to change either the amount or direction of its motion.\n\nThe author must consider this very important because he puts it in\nitalics, and probably most pupils are compelled to learn it by heart.\n\nsurely is a most alluring introduction to the study of physics.\n\nThis\n\nCompare\n\nthe stupefying effect of such dead material upon a high-school pupil with\nthe quickening influence of the real live garden upon the primary pupil.\n\nFrom another popular text:\nWe can measure three fundamentally different kinds of quantities—^length, mass,\n\n—and we\n\nand time\n\nshall find that all other measurements\n\nmay be reduced to these three.\n\nThen follow nine pages describing the C.G.S. and other units.\nOf course you can choke all this down the throats of high-school boys\nand girls and call it science. Do you wonder that we are disappointed at\nthe results of such science teaching ?\n\nPicking up another textbook, we find:\nThere are three classes of levers which are distinguished by the relative positions\nof the fulcrum and the points of application of the applied force (power) and the resistance\n\n(weight).\n\nThere must be a fearful dearth of physical material that we have to\nmake all of these artificial distinctions and fill up the pages of the textbooks\nwith descriptions of bygone appliances which at the best did not find a\n\nwide use except in old-time physics laboratories.\nIn a fourth textbook we find the following definition:\nIf in one second a force gives a velocity of i cm. per second to a mass of i gram, it is\n\nsaid to act with a force of i dyne.\n\nIt seems to be a mania with physics textbook writers to search out\n\nunfamiliar and impracticable units and either use these to the exclusion of\nall units with which the student is familiar or base all demonstrations\nand derived units upon these. Now a dyne is so small that a five-cent piece\n\nweighs about 4,900 of them.\nphysics or in daily life.\n\nIt has absolutely no practical value either in\n\nThe electrical units, to be sure, used to be referred\n\nback to the dyne as their basis, but, if the authors would only get up-todate information in their science, they would know that even the legalized\n\nWe have such a\nEvery boy is familiar with weighing\nthings in pounds. But I suppose it's too well known and altogether too\ncommonplace for a textbook, so we have introduced the extremely exclusive\nelectrical units no longer depend upon this absurd unit.\n\ncommon and useful unit in the pound.\n\nunit of the dyne.\n\nThe success of science in the primary schools is due in a large measure\nto the fact that it deals entirely with commonplace things, commonplace\n\nphenomena, and common-sense explanations.\n\nPhysics textbook writers\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": "755", "text": "Department]\n\nTENDENCIES OF GENERAL SCIENCE COURSES\n\n755\n\nshould take the hint from the primary schools and not despise material\n\nwith which the boy is already familiar, phenomena which he can comprehend, and explanations which appeal to his comimon-sense.\n\nLet us leave\n\nour abstractions and inject subject-matter into the course which will contain\nthese enlivening elements.\n\nSome of you will say that the textbooks in physics nowadays contain\nmuch that is practical and that they are filled with familiar applications\nof these abstract principles.\n\nThat is true, and I am glad to say that textBut the trouble is, all of the\n\nbooks are improving a little in this respect.\n\npractical material and all of the commercial applications are put secondary\n\nto the abstract material.\n\nEvery book is confessedly and manifestly written\n\nfor the sake of the abstract and theoretical and is therefore abstract and\n\ntheoretical in spirit from cover to cover.\n\nThis brings me naturally to my second point.\n\nThe method of presenta-\n\ntion of the subject is pedagogically incorrect.\nIf so much of the subject-matter is ridiculous, how shall we characterize\n\nthe method of presentation ?\n\nWhere did we ever learn anything thru such\n\npedagogy as is practiced in our physics courses? From a study of the\nmethods we use, one might logically infer that we are so ashamed of our\nsubject-matter that we are actually trying to sneak as much as possible of it\n\nby the student without contaminating him with it.\n\nIf that is our aim, we\n\nare certainly a highly efficient group of teachers.\n\nWe say rightly that our aim is to teach the student the fundamental.\nAccordingly we state for him a law which we know is fundamental.\n\nAfter\n\nthis we may demonstrate it experimentally for him; or, worse yet, prove it\n\nalgebraically.\n\nThen, in order to fix it in his mind, we often cite numerous\n\napplications of the law, and we may even send him into the laboratory to\n\nconfirm what we have just told him.\n\nprocedure ?\n\nIsn't that a fair statement of our\n\nAnd Ws all wrong from start to finish.\n\nA few years ago the Westinghouse Manufacturing Company decided\nthat it would train its own salesmen.\n\nSo it started a salesmanship school.\nEach year a large number of college graduates came to this school and for\nnine months or a year studied the fundamentals of salesmanship. If any\nbody of men ought to be able to learn the fundamentals of salesmanship,\nit ought to be this carefully selected group of college graduates.\nYet the\nresults proved to be very unsatisfactory.\nThe men, when they went out\ninto the field, proved that they did not know the fundamentals of selling,\n\noften after a whole year's study.\n\nSince the position and salary of the\n\ndirectors of this school depended upon its success, these men immediately\nset to work to remedy these defects and finally evolved the method which is\n\nNow, when the young college graduate\ncomes to them, they do not place him in the classroom to learn the fundamental theories of selling, but send him immediately into the field and\ntell him to sell.\nHere for a month or two, or sometimes three, he tries\n\nin successful operation today.\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": "756", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n756\n\nhard to make sales.\n\n[Science\n\nHe is getting experience and gathering selling data.\n\nAfter a while he himself sees the need of knowing the principles of his business, and then, and not until then, the company puts him into the school.\n\nHere his experiences are interpreted and his data are correlated for him.\n\nHe now can learn the principles of selling because he knows the facts of\nselling experience.\n\nThe Vhole thing is no longer a theory to him but a living\n\nreality.\n\nIn sending this student first into the field to gather experience and then\ninto the school of salesmanship, the Westinghouse\n\nCompany was merely\n\nsending him first into the laboratory with no further instructions, mind you,\n\nthan to perform certain experiments.\n\nThen he was taken into the classroom,\n\nand the results of his experiments were discussed and interpreted for him.\nAgain, we can all learn a lesson from the methods of any successful\nThis coach must somehow teach the candidates the\nfootball coach.\ntheory and the principles of the game. Does he get his men together in a\nclassroom and explain to them the theories and the fundamentals before he\nsends them out to practice? I never knew one to proceed in this way.\nRather, he sends them out into the field to practice punts, tackling, and\nsignals, puts them thru a scrinmiage, and then gets them together occasionally in the clubhouse and pounds in the lessons which their experience of the\nfield practice warrants.\nIf you please, he puts them first into the laboratory\nto get experience and data; then into the classroom to discuss these experiences and data and to learn from them the fundamental principles upon\nwhich the game depends.\nThese two illustrations show that whenever a group of persons have\nbeen trained to meet real competition, and also when the position or pro-\n\nmotion of the men who do the training depends upon the success of that\ncompetition, this laboratory-first, classroom-afterward\nfollowed.\n\nmethod is always\n\nResults from this method are satisfactory because the method\n\nis pedagogically correct.\n\nThis order is the order of evolution.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nthe\n\norder by which the race has learned every lesson since the world began.\nIt is the order of self-instruction.\n\nThe material in our science courses, we have said, is improving in spots.\nBut the method of instruction has from the beginning gone from bad to\nworse. To correct this, a right-about-face movement must be executed.\nIt must be reorganized so that no fundamental principle can be taught in the\nclassroom before the student has secured experience and data relative to it\nin his daily life or in his laboratory experience.\n\nThis is the way we learn\n\nWe learn to talk first by talking, and then\nwe learn the principles of granomar by study of our practice. We are made\neverything that we really know.\n\nto conduct ourselves properly from the first.\n\nLater we are taught the ethical\n\nand religious principle upon which proper conduct is based.\nThere are also minor ways in which we can strengthen science courses.\n\nMost of these improvements, however, will take place automatically if we\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": "757", "text": "Department]\n\nTENDENCIES OF GENERAL SCIENCE COURSES\n\ncorrect our method.\n\nFor instance,\n\n757\n\nmy third criticism would be: The\n\ntime allotted to science is far too short.\n\nThere is a decided reluctance on\n\nthe part of school authorities to allot enough time from the curriculum for\nthe successful learning of physics; or, for that matter, of any other science.\n\nThe student should be in the laboratory at least three times a week for\nat least two consecutive periods each time and in the recitation room three\nperiods a week. This is the absolute minimum. The main objection that\nI have heard advanced against this arrangement is that it upsets the established schedule.\n\nI know that some educators have been accused of putting\n\nthe good of the course above the boy's good, but it seems that there are some\n\nwho even put the convenience of the schedule above both.\nAnother cause of unsuccessful teaching is the lack of laboratories:\n\nA\n\nteacher is just about as much justified in attempting to teach physics without\n\na laboratory as he would be in attempting to teach swimming without water,\nnavigation without a ship, milking without a cow.\n\nIt can't be done.\n\nA\n\npupil may go thru the motion of study, may memorize page after page of\ntextbooks, but please don't call this instruction in science, or scientific\n\nmethods, or scientific thought, or anything scientific, except unscientific\n**\n\ncramming.\"\n\nAs a final point: We are making improper use of the laboratories that we\nMost of us, I am glad to say, have some laboratory facilities and a\nlaboratory equipment of a sort. It is the same old cry of ''Our duty is to\nteach the students fundamentals only and these in their simplest forms.\"\nhave.\n\nAccordingly our laboratories are built with the fundamentals of an equip-\n\nment instead of a real equipment. We have weightless levers, weightless\nand a lot of senseless toys, instead of life-sized\nblock and tackle, machine-like gears, working cranes, roof trusses, arches,\nboilers, pumps, motors, and generators of practical size and capable of\npulleys, frictionless cars,\n\ndoing a real job.\n\nThese are the pieces of equipment from which a boy or a girl can obtain\na physical experience and physical data out of which he may construct his\n\nfundamental law.\n\nTo be sure, the fundamental laws apply just as much\n\nto the toys and imitation apparatus as they do to the real things, but a\n\nboy's mind cannot derive the laws, assimilate them, digest them, and apply\n\nthem when they are given to him in this way.\n\nIt would be just as sensible\n\nto argue that, because a child needs to assimilate certain fundamental\n\nelements into his system in order to grow, it would be just as wise to feed\n\nhim on just the right quantities of these fundamental elements in their\nsimplest form. We should, therefore, feed the baby so many ounces of\noxygen, so many of hydrogen, and so many of carbon, so many grains of\nsodium, so many of iron, etc., instead of good plain food, and then expect\nthe child's system to digest and assimilate them by a sort of synthetic\nprocess.\nThis plan won't do. We don't know why it won't, but we accept\nthe fact. That is, however, the way we are actually feeding the minds of\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": "758", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n758\n\nScience\n\nour boys in our laboratory and expecting their minds to do the assimilating\nand digesting. No wonder they don't like the flavor of the dose and long\n\nNo wonder the teachers get tired of forcing this diet,\nor rather lack of diet, upon their unwilling patients. No wonder parents\nfor a little solid food.\n\nmarvel at the emaciated and starved minds of their children; and at their\nignorance when it is a question of any practical and scientific knowledge\nwhich they know and which we know the children ought to be getting.\nTherefore, instead of being so careful to put into our laboratories bare,\nuninteresting, uninviting, and \"dinky\" apparatus, designed to teach some\nspecial principle only, let us\n\nfill\n\nthe space allotted to us with attractive\n\nmachinery which is large enough to command the student's respect, commercial enough to stimulate his imagination, and familiar enough to arouse a\nThis is what I mean by \"food\ndesire on his part to handle and study.\nfor his mind\"; real growth will result from such a diet.\n\nIn the lantern slides which follow are some inviting meals of the right\nkind of brain food which have been picked up in different parts of the\ncountry.\n\nThere are nearly enough of these here, if they were all brought\n\ntogether in one school, to make a good year's nourishment.\n\nThere is no subject that has more natural fascination than the physical\nsciences which explain all the mysteries of nature and the workings of all\n\nthe inventions and the industrial developments of man.\n\n— old or young— who\n\nchild\n\nis\n\nThere is not a\n\nnot eager for real information that will help\n\nhim to understand these wonderful things, and, when we have learned to\nmake our courses in science simple, direct avenues to this kind of information,\nour problem will be solved.\n\nn.\n\nFRED\n\nD.\n\nBARBER, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE, STATE NORMAL\nUNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILL.\n\nOne characteristic marks off the nineteenth century from all preceding\nThat characteristic is the achievements of\nscience and man's mastery over the forces of nature.\nThe nineteenth\ncentury opened with about such means of transportation and communication as were enjoyed by Abraham when he journeyed out of Ur of the Chaldees unto the land of Canaan. Under such conditions man for forty\n\ncenturies in the world's history.\n\ncenturies perforce led an isolated life.\n\nWithin one century, thru the influ-\n\nence of the railroad and the trolley line, the telegraph and the telephone, the\n\nocean cable and the ocean greyhound, the wireless and the newspaper,\ntime and space were all but annihilated and the whole civilized world became\n\na single social unit.\n\nA second phase of the achievements of science was the recasting of all\nthe activities of daily life.\n\nThe achievements of science during the last\ncentury completely revolutionized the home, the school, and its surroundings,\n\nevery phase of country, town, and city life, all methods of heating and light-\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": "759", "text": "TENDENCIES OF GENERAL SCIENCE COURSES\n\nDcpartmentl\n\n759\n\ning, of ventilation and sanitation, of obtaining food and clothing.\n\nTo fit\n\nunderstandingly into this modern world anywhere, some knowledge of the\nliving\n\nworld and the physical forces about us is necessar>\\\n\nThe social\n\nsignificance of science in modern life gives it ever-increasing importance as\n\na subject in our public-school curriculum.\nAgain, the content of our knowledge concerning the natural world and\nphysical forces is increasing with a rapidity and a certainty almost beyond\n\nthe comprehension of the\nscientist,\n\nhuman mind.\n\nFor convenience, the mature\n\nviewing this new world of knowledge philosophically, divides it\n\ninto many so-called sciences; and the mature student aspiring to do research\n\nwork and make some contribution to our fund of knowledge necessarily\nMoreover,\nconfines his study to some small portion of a single science.\nhe can hope to succeed only by acquiring the technic of the specialist.\nThe great mass of humanity, however 'those engaged in the world's\nwork laboring in the humbler walks of life, in production, as in agriculture, horticulture, gardening, stock-raising, or mining, or in the manufacturing industries, or in trade and commerce, or even in many of the\nprofessions— these people have little or no need of such special training and\nThey need an insight into the broad general principles of science,\ntechnic.\nand, above all, to see clearly and to comprehend the significance of science\nas it molds and remolds the social fabric.\nTo neglect the training of research workers in the field of science would\nbe fatal to further progress in man's control of nature and her forces.\nIt would mean stagnation in material progress and that must ever mean\nstagnation in mental, moral, and spiritual progress. But, on the other\nhand, to neglect the interpretation and dissemination of scientific knowledge\nand the training of the masses of common people in scientific thinking is to\n\n—\n\n—\n\nrob humanity, in a large measure, of the fruits of scientific research.\n\nIt is\n\nto the interest of all humanity that even the humblest laborer toiling with\n\npick and shovel shall have some knowledge of the laws of science as related\nto his labor and his living.\n\nModern civilization and all that is most signifi-\n\ncant to the common people in the wa}^ of improved living conditions, of\n\nmore efficient labor, of shorter hours of labor, and of greater facilities for\nrecreation and pleasure depend largely and primarily upon, first, the achievements of the research worker in revealing the truths of science, and, second,\nupon the dissemination of those truths and the training of the masses in\nthinking scientifically.\n\nWe are confronted today with no danger of neglecting the training of\nresearch workers in the field of science.\nis chiefly engaged in this work.\n\nEvery great university in the land\n\nThe ablest men in their science departments\n\nare spending their energies in training research workers in their graduate\n\nThe undergraduate departments of these universities and\nmost of our colleges are largely engaged in preparing students to enter\n\ndepartments.\n\nthese graduate schools, while the science courses in our high schools are\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": "760", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n76o\nlargely shaped\n\nand determined by college-entrance requirements.\n\n[Science\n\nOur\n\nhigh schools are vestibules to the college; our colleges are vestibules to the\ngraduate schools of the university. From top to bottom and from bottom\nto top the science work in our educational institutions is so shaped and\n\nplanned as to furnish a direct path for the training of research workers.\nBut we must not lose sight\nIt is necessary that such a path be provided.\nof the fact that it is equally necessary that the needs of the masses of young\n\npeople preparing, not for research work but for the ordinary activities of\nlife,\n\nreceive\n\nsome consideration.\n\nScience\n\nfalls far\n\nshort of fulfilling its\n\nmission unless the fruits of scientific research fall upon fertile soil and take\nroot in the daily life-activities of the masses.\n\nAre our educational institutions preparing the masses to appreciate\nand to utilize the products of research work? This can be done directly\nand effectively only thru science instruction in our public schools where\nthe masses of young people should learn to interpret and to understand the\nsignificance of science as it affects their life-work\n\nas they work.\n\n— to think scientifically\n\nAnd where are our great educational institutions which\n\nstand out conspicuously for their efforts and accomplishments in the\ntraining of science teachers for our public schools ?\nuniversities\n\nWhere are our great\n\nwhich emphasize the art of interpreting and disseminating\n\nthe fruits of scientific research as they emphasize the art of research itself ?\n\nWhere are our institutions of higher learning which enjoy renown because\nof their own skilful teaching of the significance of science in modern life\nto their undergraduates ?\nIt is a fact well known to students of education that the percentage\n\nof students studying science in our public schools is on the decline and has\n\nbeen on the decline for twenty years.\n\nLeading educators have from time\n\nto time called attention to this fact.\n\nThe commissioner of education has\n\nrepeatedly shown it in his reports.\n\nAnd yet, the rank and file of public-\n\nschool superintendents, principals, and science teachers have until recently\nsat idly by, alternately boasting of the triumphs of science and lamenting\n\nthe slowness of the farmer, of the laboring classes, in fact, of the masses\n\neverywhere to avail themselves of the fruits of scientific research in their\ndaily life-activities.\n\nIn commenting upon the tendencies in our high schools the commissioner\nof education, in his report for 191 1, reviewing the educational progress of\n\nthe decade, says:\nLatin is holding its ground; French and Gennan are gaining; algebra occupies a\nlarge share of time and is steady;\n\nmaterially;\n\nall\n\ngeometry is gaining; English and history have gained\n\nthe older sciences, rather strangely, are relatively falling ofif.\n\nAt last we are waking up to the situation. We are beginning to realize\nradically wrong with our public-school work in\nscience.\nWhat is the trouble ? Have you diagnosed the case ? Have you\na remedy to suggest ?\n\nthat something is wrong\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": "761", "text": "Departmentl\n\nTENDENCIES OF GENERAL SCIENCE COURSES\n\n761\n\nFrom careful study some of us are convinced that the malady with\nwhich public-school science is suffering is directly traceable to an overdose\nThe needs of the research specialist are dominating and\nof specialization.\ndetermining largely the college courses in science; college-entrance require-\n\nments ahnost completely determine the character of our high-school courses\nin science.\nWe have built our science courses from the top downward.\nWe have attempted to start every fourteen-year-old boy and girl entering\nthe high school upon the path laid out for the benefit of the exceptional\nboy or girl who may become a research worker in the university. We have\npresumed that every fourteen-year-old youth is eager and ready to think\nWe have attempted to feed him on abstract principles\nin abstract terms.\nand generalizations, never pausing to inquire about his likes and dislikes or\nto study the fundamental characteristics of the adolescent mind. We have\nfailed to note that boys and girls of fourteen are chiefly interested in learning things for the sake of knowing those particular things. The adolescent\nis\n\nnot yet a philosopher seeking the unity of the universe.\n\nAbstractions,\n\ngeneralizations, and type studies are foreign and distasteful to the normal\n\nadolescent mind.\n\nYouth is ambitious, but it ever seeks the short cut.\n\nNecessity also plants its iron heel firmly down upon the ambition of the\n\nyouth from the laboring classes.\n\nThe wail and clamor from hungry mouths,\n\nthe pleadings for the necessities of life are ever ringing in his ear and in the\near of his parent.\n\nIf he enters the high school at all, it is generally for the\n\npurpose of spending one, two, possibly, in exceptional cases, three, or four\n\n—\n\nyears in better preparing himself for life's work\n\nfor the struggle of earning\n\nThe boys and girls from the laboring classes, indeed, from the\nmasses of the common people ever)rwhere, as well as their parents, have a\nright to demand that they be shown the worth-whileness of the tasks set\nbefore them. Can our high-school principals and science teachers do this\na living.\n\nsuccessfully while following the usual courses in special science shaped and\n\nmolded, as I believe, for a different purpose ?\n\nThe disregard of the nature and character of the adolescent mind,\ntogether with the failure of the high school to offer subject-matter which\n\nappeals to the boys and girls from the masses as being worth while, largely\n\naccounts for the fact that only about 30 per cent of the boys and girls of\nhigh-school age ever enter the high school and that 40 per cent of those\n\nwho do enter quit the first year.\n\nEducators are beginning to realize this\n\nfact and to study the causes of this elimination of pupils from our public\nschools.\n\nThe widespread conviction that our science courses in the high\nThe experi-\n\nschool must be revised is one of the results of this awakening.\n\nment of putting general science in the first high-school year is a part of\nthis movement.\nThe task assigned me was to discover whether general science is making\nIn attempting an answer, I endeavored to ascertain where and in how\nmany high schools courses called general science were being taught, and later\n\ngood.\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": "762", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n762\n\n(Science\n\nto obtain from the principals of some of those schools information as to what\n\nthey were attempting to do and with what measure of success their efforts\nwere meeting. From the investigation, I conclude that not fewer than 250\nor 300 schools in the United States have attacked the problem of revising\ntheir science courses by ofifering a course which they call general science,\nwhile a large number of other schools seriously contemplate doing so soon.\n\nThis movement is most pronounced in Wisconsin, Kansas, and California,\nbut it is to be seen in spots in most of the states of the Union.\n\nAbout June i a questionnaire was sent to 180 of the schools reported as\nWith few exceptions these were addressed to the principals. Up to June 25, replies from 73 schools had been\nreceived.\nNo course in general science was reported from 6 schools.\nReplies from 67 schools indicate that they have seriously attempted work\noffering a course in general science.\n\nin general science as they understood the term.\n\nA few replies to the\n\nquestions of opinion were received from schools not giving a course in general\nscience.\n\nAll the questions were framed with the idea of stimulating thought\n\nrather than obtaining ease of tabulation.\n\nSome of the replies were con-\n\nsequently rather diflScult to tabulate, but it is the belief of the writer that\n\na truer expression of ideas was obtained.\n\nA complete analysis of this report is unnecessary and would be unprofitable.\n\nFacts,\n\nif\n\ncorrectly reported, are facts\n\nand therefore undebatable.\n\nThey are, nevertheless, of the greatest value, since they furnish the only\nreliable basis for opinion.\n\nquestions of fact.\n\nI shall call attention to but two items under the\n\nFirst, in replying to the second question (concerning the\n\nlength of the general science course), but one school reports a course in\ngeneral science more than one year in length.\n\nI will predict that a similar\n\ninvestigation ten years hence, possibly five years hence, will reveal many\n\nschools offering such courses two years in length.\n\nSecond, in reply to the\n\nsixth question (concerning texts used), the replies indicate that eleven\ndifferent texts were used in giving so-called general science courses.\n\nTo one\n\nat all familiar with the science texts now available, the answer to this question indicates that up to the present date no generally satisfactory texts have\n\nmade their appearance.\n\nI am also convinced that for some years to come,\n\nat least until there is available a supply of teachers especially trained to\n\nteach general science, textbooks will be as necessary in general science as\nin special science.\n\nPassing to the questions of opinion: Opinions are always debatable,\nbut the answers to the first and second questions indicate clearly, to my\n\nmind, that thus far the experiments with so-called general science have\ngenerally met the approval of the principals of the schools in which they\n\nhave been tried.\n\nIt was most interesting to me to discover that the only\n\n\" Has the work in general science been\na success?\" in the negative answered the second question: \"Has it been as\n\nperson answering the first question\n\n:\n\nsuccessful as special science under the same conditions ? \" in the affirmative.\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": "763", "text": "TENDENCIES OF GENERAL SCIENCE COURSES\n\nDepartment]\n\n763\n\nIn my judgment the most significant question in the entire set was the\n\n\"Should the units of instruction in general science\nAnd yet there were fewer\nanswers to this question than to any other. The term \"units of instruction\" seems not to have been understood and yet from the replies one is\nwarranted in concluding that many of the correspondents have no clearly\nformulated ideas regarding the real nature and real significance of the general\nscience movement.\nScience organized and developed into units of instruction not materially differing from the units of instruction in special science\ncan be nothing other than special science. To attempt to organize science\nmaterial without recognizing the fundamental difference in the organization\nof special science and general science is certain to result, it seems to me,\nin a mere collection of loosely related principles picked from the various\nThose principles may be the most interesting and striking\nspecial sciences.\nprinciples of the special sciences and yet such a course might easily have\nconsiderably less significance as educative material than any course in\nsixth in the second list:\n\ndiffer materially from those in special science ? \"\n\nspecial science.\n\nGeneral science as conceived by its leading advocates is quite as much\n\na new mode of organization and a new mode of attack as it is a new and\ndifferent selection of material.\n\nMuch of the material which has thus far\n\nappeared in texts called general science consists of clippings from the special\nsciences.\nTo a less extent the same is true of the outlines received. In\nmany cases there is evident little or no imifying idea giving significance to\n\nthe unit of instruction.\n\nIn my judgment, the advocates of special science,\n\nwith justified reverence for logical thinking, may well call such a course\n\n\"hodgepodge\" and dub it a \"spineless wonder.\"\nIf general science is to be a success, it must consist of well-organized\nunits of instruction. These units must be as definite and as well organized\nas are the units in special science. They will differ, however, from the units\nof special science in the fact that\n\nthey are units of practical science, or\n\napplied science, instead of units of theoretical science.\n\nThe core of the\n\nunit in general science will be some process, or some device, utilized by the\nindividual or by society in the ordinary activities of modern life.\ntrate:\n\nTo illus-\n\nIn special science, physics, under \"Light\" we find such units as these:\n\nLight; Its Rectilinear Propagation;\n\nShadows; Photometry and the Law\n\nof Reflection; Mirrors and the Formation of Images;\n\nRefraction of Light;\n\nThe Formation of Images by Lenses; Optical Instruments; Color and Spectra; Nature of Light; Interference and Polarization.\nIn marked contrast,\ngeneral science, adapted to the ninth grade will, in my opinion, be developed\n\nthru units of instruction somewhat of the following character: Primitive\n\nLamps;\n\nCandles;\n\nKerosene Lamps;\nDistillation;\n\nHow the Candle Burns; Discovery of Petroleum;\nHow Kerosene Burns; Evaporation, Boiling-Point and\n\nCrude Petroleum;\n\nWhy Gasoline Is Dangerous;\n\nDistillation\n\nof\n\nPetroleum;\n\nInspection of Oils;\n\nGasoline;\n\nCautions in Using\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": "764", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n764\n\n(Science\n\nKerosene and Gasoline; Gasoline Lamps; Gasoline Gas; Uluminating Gas;\nCoal Gas; Water Gas; Acetylene Generators and\n\nDistillation of Coal;\n\nAcetylene Lighting; Electric Lights and Electric Lighting; Natural Lighting of Rooms; Direct and Diffused Light; Importance of Diffused Light;\nIntensity of Light Required; Cost of Artificial Lighting.\n\nA course in general science, properly conceived, has unity and logical\ndevelopment.\n\nIt has educational value of the highest order.\n\nIt is adapted\n\nto the adolescent mind and at the same time it appeals to the pupil as\n\nworth while. It trains in scientific thinking and deals with material with\nwhich the pupil is already somewhat familiar. It starts with the known\n\nand proceeds to the related unknown. It is concrete thruout because it\nwhich is significant to the pupil. It gives the\npupil control of his environment and an appreciation of the significance\nof science in modern life.\nSuch a course in science study is general science\ndeals only with material\n\nbecause it disregards the artificial boundaries of special science.\n\nTo study\n\ntallow and paraflSn candles, how they are made, how they burn, and their\nsignificance in the development of civilization involves material from several\ndifferent special sciences.\n\nSuch material as this is adapted to the adolescent\n\nmind and at the same time it appeals as worth while to the pupil whose\nschool days are numbered.\n\nWhen we recognize the value of these two principles in dealing with the\nadolescent, and so adapt all our high-school courses that they conform to\n\nthem; when we recognize the needs of the millions of young people who\nwill never see the inside of a college or university;\n\nwhen we give up the\n\nidea that we must attempt to make profound scholars out of all the boys\n\nand girls of the generation or, failing in this, crowd them from the high\nschool; when those in charge of our public high schools come to recognize the\nfact that the greatest service they can render is to make their high schools\n\nof such a character that they will attract and hold the great mass of young\n\npeople till they can be trained into fairly intelligent, self-supporting, and\nself-respecting citizens, then and not until then may we hope to see high-\n\nschool mortality lessen and science study in the high school again assume\n\nthe relative position which its importance in modern life justifies.\n\nAPPLIED SCIENCE— ITS RELATIONSHIP TO SHOP WORK AND\nTHE REST OF THE CURRICULUM IN AN UP-TO-DATE\nTECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL\nADELBERT H. MORRISON, HEAD OF THE SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, MECHANIC\nARTS HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS.\nIn the following paper it is assumed that it is no part of the purpose of a\ntechnical high school to prepare pupils for a technical college.\n\nSome of you\n\nmay be disposed to argue this assumption, but I think experience has\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": "765", "text": "APPLIED SCIENCE AND SHOP WORK\n\nDcpartmentl\n\n765\n\nshown that better preparation for such a college is obtained in the nontechnical high school. The type of mind that is best adapted for advanced\ntechnical training is the one capable of dealing with abstract problems,\nwhich is not the type usually attracted by a technical high school; while\nthe time spent in shop work and drawing constitutes a handicap which puts\nsuch a school at a decided disadvantage in the preparation for college-\n\nentrance examinations.\n\nThe aim of a technical high school, as it seems to me, should be to prepare pupils to enter the industries with mental equipment and knowledge\nof commercial processes that will greatly increase their chances of advance-\n\nment over those persons not so trained.\n\nThe attainment of manual skill\n\nin mechanical processes, on the other hand; seems to be no part of the legiti-\n\nmate aim of such a high school, but is the particular province in education\nof the trade school.\n\nThe object, then, of the science course in a technical high school is to\nacquaint its pupils with the applications of science to the industries and not\nto prepare them to pass examinations upon abstract scientific principles.\n\nThis means that the application should be made the starting-point in the\nscience teaching and that the theory should be of secondary importance.\n\nSuch a procedure reverses the ordinary method, but I am convinced by\nexperience that it is good pedagogy and the correct method to follow.\nI have\n\nhad an opportunity during the past four years, in teaching\n\napplied science to senior boys, to experiment along this line and have been\n\nmuch pleased with the results.\n\nThe interest manifested by the boys has\n\nbeen one of the most gratifying features of the work and has been far\ngreater than any that I have ever been able to arouse in courses conducted\nalong orthodox lines.\n\nIn fact, the interest has been so great at times as\n\nto become embarrassing, on account of the desire of boys to spend study\n\nperiods in the laboratory rather than in the preparation of other lessons.\nI am tempted to give a little local history, because the character of the\n\nwhole course of study in the school in which I am teaching is to be completely changed in such a way that it will be, I believe, unique among technical high schools.\n\nLast spring the Boston School Committee invited C. A.\n\nProsser, secretary of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial\n\nEducation, to outline a new course of study for the Mechanic Arts High\nSchool, which should prepare boys to enter the industries on the productive side and eventually become non-commissioned officers, that is, foremen,\n\nmanagers, superintendents, etc., just as the commercial high schools supply\nthe minor officers on the distributive side.\n\nThe plan submitted by him is to\n\nbe put into effect beginning with the incoming class in September, and we are\nabout to try an experiment that will, I believe, be watched with the keenest\ninterest\n\nby educators all over the country.\n\nThe school authorities of\n\nBoston hope that this will prove to be another long step toward the articulation of education and the industries, and that it will help materially in\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": "766", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n^66\n\n[Science\n\nbuilding up a system of technical training that will enable us to regain\nthe productive\nthe ground lost to Germany, England, and France\n\nm\n\nindustries in which we were once without dangerous rivals.\n\nThe science work is to give a working knowledge of the uses of physics,\nchemistry, and electricity as a branch of physics, in their applications to\nstrength and properties of materials; design, construction, and operation\nof tools, machines,\n\nsumption of power;\n\nand engines;\n\nthe generation, distribution, and con-\n\nthe construction, sanitation, heating, lighting, and\n\nventilation of buildings; the utilization of by-products and waste;\n\nmodern\n\nmeans of transportation and communication; the properties, production,\nand use of fuels like coal, oil, and gas; the manufacture, distribution, and\nconsumption of light; the properties, production, and use of building\nmaterials like cement, concrete, tiling, stucco, brick, stone, and structural\nsteel.\n\nThe science work is to extend thruout the four years of the course, in\nperiods of ninety minutes each every other day.\n\nThese periods may be\n\ndevoted entirely to laboratory work or partly to laboratory work and\npartly to lectures, recitations, or study, as occasion demands. No home\nstudy will be required in this or any other department, as the school day\nis to extend from 8:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m.\n\nThe first year will deal in general with the properties of materials and\nthe second, with the development of heat, light,\nand power, including steam, electricity, and gas; and the third, with indusThe fourth year is to be\ntrial chemistry and the strength of materials.\ndevoted to unifying and organizing more practical experience of the previous years and to work of a more intensive and quantitative character in\nmechanics, industrial chemistry, and power. It is in this year that the\nemphasis is to be laid more particularly on the theory and law underlying\nthe physical and chemical phenomena with which the pupil has been\n\nelementary mechanics;\n\nbrought into contact in the previous years.\n\nIn general, it may be said\n\nthat the work of the first three years is to be qualitative and practical and\nof the fourth year quantitative and theoretical.\n\nIn the early part of the course, the applications of science to industry\n\nand to everyday life are to be made the starting-point in the laboratory\nwherever possible. The apparatus used will be entirely of a conunercial\ntype rather than the variety made by apparatus companies and suitable\nonly for school purposes. Especial attention will be given to efficiency\nimder working conditions, original cost, and the cost of maintenance and\nrenewal. The customary problems in which pupils are told to disregard\nfriction or heat losses will be eliminated.\nSuch topics as falling bodies,\nfrictional electricity, practically all of sound, and most of light will also be\nomitted.\n\nNo textbooks will be used, for the reason that none that are at all\nsuitable for such a course have ever been published, but each laboratory\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": "767", "text": "APPLIED SCIENCE AND SHOP WORK\n\nDepartment]\n\n767\n\nwill be amply supplied with reference books, handbooks, charts, catalogs,\n\ntrade publications, and periodicals.\n\nSheets will be prepared for each\n\nexercise and printed in the school printing plant, giving any information\n\nthat will be necessary to complete the so-called apperceptive basis for the\nexercise, the directions for\n\nperforming the work, a number of questions\n\nintended to bring out the purpose of the exercise, and a list of references to\nbooks, pamphlets, or magazines where additional information\n\nmay be\n\nobtained.\n\nIn the laboratory, pupils will be divided into groups of two to four\nboys, working, especially in the later years of the course, on as\ndifferent exercises, possibly, as there are groups in the laboratory.\n\nmany\nThe\n\nbe limited to twenty-six pupils, in charge of an instructor\nand a laboratory assistant, making it possible to maintain effective supervision over the work of each group.\nIn the first year's work, the following topics will give an idea of the\nnature of the work as it will be put into operation in September, but experience will undoubtedly lead to many changes and additions. It should\nbe noted also that the order in which the topics are given has no significance,\nas this order may be changed at any time at the request of any of the other\nclasses are to\n\ndepartments.\n\nUnder the general heading \"Properties of Materials\" will come a consideration of:\n\nWoods: Kinds,\n\ndistribution,\n\nlumbering, transportation, grain, weight, strength,\n\nhardness, shrinkage, suitability for particular uses.\nIron: Distribution of ore, kinds, mining, reduction, uses and properties, structure,\n\nweight, etc.\nSteel:\n\nKinds, manufacture, composition, properties, and special uses.\n\nCopper: Distribution, mining, reduction, properties, and uses\n\nespecially in the\n\nelectrical industries.\n\nBrass and other alloys: Their composition, properties, and uses.\n\nLead: Particular attention being paid to its use in paints.\nZinc: Especially for galvanizing purposes.\n\nEmery, corundum, carborundum, and other abrasives.\nSolder and fluxes.\nGlass, putty, glue, and sizings.\nPlaster, mortar, cement, and asphalt.\nSand and sandstone.\nClay, brick, and tiling.\nCrude oil and its products, especially gasoline and lubricating oils.\nGraphite and lampblack.\nAsbestos, celluloid, rubber, leather, paper, etc.\n\nThus far there is very little that bears much resemblance to the science\nwork that is usually taught in such courses, but it all has a definite purpose,\nnamely, to supplement the work of the shops and drawing-rooms. Some\nof the topics do not lend themselves readily to laboratory work, and for these\nuse will be made of the stereopticon, lectures, and supplementary reading.\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": "768", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n768\n\nrsdence\n\nUnder \"Mechanics\" will come:\nMeasuring devices: Scales, micrometer, calipers, caliper rule, gauges, and the vernier.\nDetermination of weight: Spring balance, beam balance, platform scale.\n\nUse of plumb line and level.\nSimple lever: Kinds and applications, laws, efficiency; the idea of moment of a force,\nmechanical advantage, displacement, and velocity ratios.\nBlock and tackle, and chain hoist, espedally with regard to efficiency imder varying\nloads.\n\nThe jackscrew, winch and derrick, and other compound machines, including a study\nof friction.\n\nThe construction and operation of water and gas meters, speed coimters, tachometers,\nand clocks.\nReading meter dials.\nPressure and vacuum gauges.\nPressure and head of water.\nHydratdic press and elevator.\nPumps and syphons.\nSpecific gravity, especially the use of hydrometers.\n\nCompressed air: Air blasts and brakes.\nConvection currents in air and water.\nExpansion and contraction of heat.\nHeating and ventilating systems.\n\nThe second year will be devoted to the construction and operation of:\nThe gas and gasoline engine.\nDifference between two- and four-cycle engines.\n\nFunctions of the carburetor, clutch, and ignition system.\nTransmission, differential, muffler, and cooling system, as applied to automobile\nengines.\n\nThe steam boiler and engine.\nPumps, injectors, super-heaters, and condensors.\nSlide valve and rotary valve engines.\nIndicators and indicator cards.\nCare and operation.\nThe dynamo, motor, and transformer.\nPrimary and secondary batteries.\nThe telephone and telegraph.\nWiring systems for light and power.\nCost of light from gas and electric lamps.\nEfficiency of electrical appliances.\n\nCost of nmning lathes, planers, milling machines, etc., with individual motor drive.\nWaste and running shafting, pulleys, and belts in a shop where power is obtained\n\nfrom a single motor.\n\nThe third year will deal partly with the strength of materials and the\ndesign of trusses and compound machines and partly with the chemistry of\nair,\n\nwater, soaps, lubricating oils, dyeing, tanning leather, etc., while the\n\nfourth year will include more work in industrial chemistry and a review\n\nupon earlier in the\nupon the theory and mathematics of\n\nof those portions of the subject of physics touched\n\ncourse, but with greater emphasis\n\nthe subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": "769", "text": "APPLIED SCIENCE AND SHOP WORK\n\nDepartment]\n\n769\n\nThruout the whole course pupils will be given considerable practice\nin making freehand sketches and diagrams involving the use of the various\n\nconventions in common use on drawings to be found in the industries, and\nthese sketches and diagrams will be submitted from time to time to the\ninspection of the drawing department for criticisms and suggestions.\n\nThe close correlation between the mathematics and other departments\nhas been provided in this course by allowing the mathematics a much\nsmaller proportion of the time on the program than is usually given to the\nsubject.\n\nThis necessitates teaching in the shops and laboratories much\n\nof the mathematics needed in those places, and this will naturally be done\n\nat the time when the necessity arises.\n\nThe mathematics department will\n\nbe kept informed of such work as it is taken up, and sufficient drill will be\ngiven to make sure of its permanence.\nClose co-operation, too, between all the other departments must be the\nparticular business of the heads of all the departments, and it would seem\nto be one of their most important duties to create and foster such correlation,\n\nnot by decree but by patient and persistent constructive work and guidance.\n\nDISCUSSION\nPhilander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington,\nI am very glad to be here and to have an opportunity to say just a word about\nscience teaching. My mind runs back to my early manhood when I began life in a\ncountry school, teaching, among other things, natural science. I love nature; and I\nrecall the difficulties that I encountered in trying to arouse in my classes the same affection\nThese difficulties, I recall, created an early desire for more rational\nfor it that I had.\ntextbooks, and, for some time, it was a cherished ambition of mine to write a more practical series of science textbooks than was then in common use.\nInterest in practical\nthings attracted me to Johns Hopkins University, where I trained myself to become an\nD.C.\n\n—\n\nelectrical engineer.\n\nI\n\nknow,\n\ntherefore,\n\nfrom\n\nmy own experience, that the practical\n\napplications of science have a strong appeal to the young mind.\n\nThe strongest force that\n\nhas come into the world is the scientific mind.\n\nWe need to have enough science put into our curriculum for children to learn that\nthis world is ruled by laws and to make them look for the laws that explain what is going\n\non about them.\n\nWe must teach enough science, not only that children will observe all\n\nthat is going on, but that they may be able to interpret the things that they see.\n\npeople go about seeing things only, they are blind.\n\nWhen\n\nScience is needed to open their eyes\n\nto the significance of things and to give a full understanding of how things and events\n\nare molded by the application of laws.\n\nAmong the subjects that I should include in the course, that everybody in high\nschool should study, would be astronomy.\n\nThe interpretation of the grandeur and mag-\n\nnitude of natural laws, as they appear in astronomy, and as they were revealed to me thru\n\nmy study of astronomy, have made an indeUble impression upon my life. As I think of\nthe textbook which we used, Steele's Fourteen Weeks on Astronomy, I cannot but feel that\n\nour modern textbook writers have much to learn from the example which this book set.\n\nAnyone who can write a modem series of science textbooks, and who can put into them\nthe charm and point of view which was put into this book of Steele's, will win great honor,\nand, also, a fortune that will enable him to endow institutions of learning.\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": "770", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n77©\n\n(Science\n\nMost of us have not the ability to give the children a genuine love of learning science,\nbut it is an ideal toward which we should continually strive. I found, when I first studied\nscience in a disconnected and probably superficial way, that after a while there would\nsuddenly come over me an appreciation of the fuller significance of what was being taught.\nIn the meantime, I had been in contact with the things under discussion, the natural\nobjects or events upon which the teaching was based, and my science course was correlating\n\nand interpreting these things, of which I had only been partly conscious.\n\nAll\n\nscience teaching must grow out of contact with real things and from the casual and dis-\n\nconnected observation and study of nature.\nThe boy or the girl needs to be made to discover that he knows already what is being\ntaught.\n\nHe needs to be made to go farther on to appreciate the value of correlating his\n\nknowledge and of cultivating the abiUty to apply it to his future experience. As a boy,\nI have, myself, seen my father at his grindstone, and as he held the axe, and I supplied\nthe power to turn it and poured the stream of water over the stone, I have watched the\npecuUar smooth way in which the water flowed over the edge of the axe; I have swung a\npail of water at arm's length; and I have listened to the whistUng sound as I twirled a\nhorse-chestnut at the end of a string. It is out of such experiences as these that the\nteacher should build a science course and develop a child's appreciation and love of science.\n\nThere is another thing that I must say at this time.\n\nThe science teacher and every\n\nhigh-school teacher should forget that there is such a thing as a college.\nis\n\nI beUeve that it\n\ntrue now as it used to be some years ago, when I was in more intimate contact with\n\nthe details of college requirements in physics, that the specific requirement for entrance\nis\n\n—sixty mystic units\n\nsixty laboratory experiments\n\nlike the chips\n\nwith which a child\n\nplays and builds one on top of another until the last chip is put in place and the whole\nstructure tumbles and falls into an incoherent mass;\n\nand I suppose that year after year\nwe have been trying to build up this tottering pile of sixty units without the reinforcement\nof contact with real things and without any reference to what is in the minds of the\nchildren.\n\nGo out and bring together a few things that have reality and let the pupil see if they\nare in harmony and conform to some fundamental laws;\n\nand then teach them to apply\nAnd then I would have\n\nthese new laws or principles to a thousand and one situations.\n\nyou go one step farther and point out to them how these principles may be put to practical\nThere may be persons who are interested in learning things for the sake of knowluse.\nedge; but I cannot see why we should learn anything unless we purpose to put it to some\nsort of practical application.\nI\n\nam interested in the plan that is being put into operation by the University of\n\nCincinnati, where the young men work in the shops and factories for a week and then\n\ngo to the university and learn the theory that makes significant the experience that they\n\nhave had in the shops. I look forward to the time when everywhere in all schools we may\nhave students who, for a few hours a day, work at some gainful occupation and for the\nremainder of the day attend a school where the full significance of their experience may\nbe brought out. It may be true that for all communities this may not be practicable.\nIf this is so, we must have, instead, schoolrooms, shops, and laboratories in which the\neconomically valuable products are made and later are put to their full economic use.\nWe have talked about schools as being somewhat apart from Ufe. We have talked\nabout culture and cultural education, until we have, by unfortunate association, come to\nthink that the attainment of culture as a process is apart and removed from the realities\nof Ufe.\nI want to say to you that culture is not that, but it is that intangible something that\ncomes only from intelligent labor rendered in the service of our fellow-men. Then get\ntogether and work out a form of science teaching which would take one-third of the time\n\nof a six-year high-school course.\n\nThis science course which is to take a third of the\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": "771", "text": "APPLIED SCIENCE AND SHOP WORK\n\nDepartment]\n\n771\n\nstudent's time should be based upon ordinary experience which the boy or girl has had\n\nor is having.\n\nBut in whatever direction this course may travel, it should finally lead to\n\nworking out an appUcation of this science into a training for some definite vocation.\nSuch a science training should result in emancipation of our working people and our\nartisans from the slavery of the \" rule-of-thumb \" methods.\nI hope that you may\neffectually co-operate in the working-out of such a science course; in the rebuilding of\ntexbooks; and in all other needful things necessary to bring about this desired end.\n\nAs I look at such beautiful objects of nature as Niagara Falls and listen to the outcry that is made concerning the secretion of the supply of water which constitutes its\n\ngrandeur, I cannot find myself entirely in sympathy with the agitation.\n\nTo be sure, the\n\nwater is being put to a noble use in creating such a magnificent attraction, but to my mind\nit is\n\nput to a more noble use when its power is made to feed and clothe and aid in the\n\nlabors of the people.\nIt may be hard for a teacher of English to make his instruction lead from the experi-\n\nence of the child to a greater vocational power.\n\nIt may be hard for the teacher of history\n\nto associate present thought with practical application, but it will always be easy for a\n\nteacher of physical science to keep the student traveling from a point in his past or present\n\nexperience to such applications as he will need to make for the rest of his life.\n\nI can\n\nscarcely find words of sufl&cient emphasis to state that it is not a non-ethical thing that\nI here propose to do;\n\nit is\n\nnot a non-cultural thing;\n\nit is\n\nnot an unmoral thing.\n\nIt is\n\nthe most religious thing that we can do, for have we not been told that we can best serve\n\nHim by serving our fellow-men ?\n\nI believe that if the author of the quotation to which\nhave just referred were writing instructions now he would urge that we give as the\ngreatest preparation for service the knowledge of nature and its laws. Those men who\nhave been teaching science, not as a beautiful thing, but as an aid to service, have been\ndoing more to educate and assist than any single group of persons that I know.\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": "772", "text": ""}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": "773", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—^W. R. Hodges, president, Associated Minnesota School Boards. .Sleepy Eye, Minn.\nSanta Fe, N.M.\nVice-President —^Jose D. Sena, president, Board of Education\n\nPresident\n\nSecretary—FsAKK M. Bruce, publisher, American School Board Journal\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 1914\nThe meeting of this department was called to order in Arcanum Hall, Lowry Building,\nby the secretary at 2:35 p.m. In the absence of the president, who was detained at\nhome because of illness, L. N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.,\npresided.\n\nThe first in the order of business was the appointment of a nominating committee,\nto which the chair named:\n\nT. J. Jones, superintendent of schools, West Allis, Wis.\nTheodore Hanson, principal. Valley City, N.Dak.\nD. H. Painter, principal, Seward School, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nThe first paper on the program was read by Frank Henry Selden, director, department of mechanical science, State Normal School, Valley City, N.Dak., on \"Problems\nin the Successful Teaching of Mechanical Science.\"\n\nThis was discussed at some length by Wilson H. Henderson, director of industrial\neducation, Hammond, Ind.; and Frank H. Ball, director of industrial education, Pitts-\n\nburgh, Pa.\n\nThe next paper was on \"The Heating, Lighting, and Ventilating of School Buildings,\"\nby James M. Ingold, secretary, Board of Education, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, which was\ndiscussed by S. A. Challman, state commissioner of school buildings, Minneapolis,\nMinn.\nJ.\n\nM. Malmin, secretary. Board of Education, Blue Earth, Minn., read a paper\n\nentitled\n\nment\n\n\"A State Teachers' Employment Agency under the Supervision of the Depart-\n\nof Public Instruction.\"\n\nE. T. Critchett, assistant inspector, state high and\n\ngraded schools, and director, State Teachers' Employment Bureau, St. Paul, Minn.,\nthen discussed\n\n\"The Success of a State Teachers' Employment Agency Law after\n\nTwo Years.\"\nThe nomination committee reported as follows:\n\n—\n\nFor President O. M. Plummer, director, Board of Education, North Portland, Ore.\nFor Vice-President Edward C. Elliott, professor of education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nFor Secretary Frank M. Bruce, publisher, American School Board Journal^ Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nMotion made and seconded to adopt report.\n\nFrank M. Bruce, Secretary\n\n773\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": "774", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n774\n\n(Administration\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPROBLEMS IN THE SUCCESSFUL TEACHING OF MECHANICAL\nSCIENCE\nFRANK HENRY SELDEN, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL\nSCIENCE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, VALLEY aTY, N.DAK.\nBriefly stated, the difficulties of introducing mechanical science courses\n\nare the same as those attending the introduction of any improvement.\nis\n\nIt\n\nthe tendency of the established order to interpret the improvement in\n\nterms in harmony with itself and to make it in reality nothing but a changed\n\nform of something in the old order, and then, after having taken all the\nnewness out of it, to discard it as being no improvement and of no value.\nIn tracing the school-shop movement, we learn that this is exactly what\nthat of attempting\n\n—\n\nhas been done and that we are now in yet another stage\n\nto find some new material after the original movement has been rendered\n\nabortive and set aside.\n\nTo state the principle concretely, the school-shop\n\nmovement has been robbed of its vitality, and now attempts are being\nmade to gain the values that should have resulted from the original movement by the establishment of all sorts of trade, continuation, vocational,\nand similar schools. It is not my purpose to name any specific remedy\nfor the present condition, but rather to point a sure method that will\nlead, not only to finding the remedy, but also to a certainty of its being\n\napplied.\n\nI believe you will not object to the ideas I advance, simply because they\n\nare new, or because, from a superficial consideration, they may appear to\n\nbe the same as have been considered in times past.\n\nthem\n\nless\n\nNor will you give\n\nattention because they appear to be at variance with the\n\ndoctrines of some of our most esteemed leaders of educational thought.\nI can do no more than suggest some plan of action that will lead to the\ndeterminmg of what is best; for the duty of bringing the best out of these\nconditions rests upon the administrative part of the educational machinery.\nHowever much we may wish to shift some of this responsibility to superintendent or teacher, yet in the final analysis the board is responsible. Many\na superintendent would do more effective work if he knew that his board\nmembers were so thoroly informed of what was being done that they were\ndefinitely in sympathy with his work.\nMany teachers wduld work harder\nand get far better results did they know that the details of improvements\nwere known and appreciated by those in authority. When, by such a\nsearching mquiry as I suggest, the administrative factor is thoroly informed,\nthere can be no doubt as to what action will be taken, for the great majority\nwish our schools to yield the largest possible returns in good to all. Last,\nbut not least, the whole educational machinery would run smoother and\naccomplish far more if every imit felt that there was such a definite knowl-\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": "775", "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS IN TEACHING MECHANICAL SCIENCE\n\n775\n\nedge of what was being done that tliere would be no mistakes in rewarding\nthe efficient and in eliminating the inefficient.\nIt has\n\nbeen my opinion for some time that the most urgent need in\n\nsolving the present problems in education\n\nis\n\na more extensive study of\n\nthese problems on the part of school-board members.\n\nAs I have listened\n\nto the many eloquent addresses at this meeting, this need has been greatly\n\nemphasized, and I have been compelled to add to the list of serious difficulties that of the great power of the highly trained intellect to enforce with\n\ngreat appearance of wisdom the most ill-advised theories in regard to the\n\nschool-shop movement.\n\nThis appears to\n\nresult,\n\nnot from any lack of\n\ndesire to say and do that which is best, but rather from the difficulty of\n\ngetting a proper grasp of a movement that is based upon subject-matter\n\nwith which these people had no experience as they passed thru their school\nwork.\n\nTo gather the necessary information on which to base judgments is not\neasy.\n\nMay I encourage you to take up this important task with a con-\n\nviction that nothing but first-hand facts are to be used by those in administrative positions.\n\nMay I also suggest that there is sometimes a vast\n\ndifference in the conclusions that are drawn from casual observation and\n\nfrom the searching inquiry. We have in our administration of schools too\nmany judgments formed upon casual observation and hearsay testimony.\n\nWe see men in these positions deciding important questions on information\nof a kind that\n\nwould be given no weight whatever in determining their\n\nbusiness activities.\n\nProbably the most conunon error in judging of any part of school work\nis\n\nthe neglect to consider the personal factor.\n\nWe should consider not\n\nwhat the pupil is on leaving school, but rather to what extent and in what\nmanner the school has worked a change. This is especially true in determining the school value of any mechanical or industrial work. We need\nto make a close inspection to determine how many pupils are helped by the\nschool shop and how many simply survive it. To know that certain boys\ngo out from the school shop into industry and succeed is of no consequence\nwhatever in determining the value of the shop work; because there are\nin every community boys who will succeed in spite of bad schooling.\n\nThat\n\nwhich must be determined is the actual effect of the work by tracing the\n\nAs has been said,\nwe must count the failures, we must determine the number who have been\nhelped and also those who have fallen out by the way, and then we must\nvarious pupils thru the school and out into industry.\n\ndetermine if in any school or by any system of work these failures could\nhave been avoided or to any extent lessened.\nIt is \"dead easy\" for a teacher to point to a few successes and then lay\nthe blame for the failures to the lack of ability on the part of those who\nfail.\nIn any American community there are both boys and girls who can\ndo most excellent work in wood and metal if provided with tools, materials,\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": "776", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n776\n\n[Administration\n\nand a place in which to work. Therefore if the teacher can point only to\nsome nice finished projects as the result of his work it is quite possible that\nthe money spent for that teacher has been wasted. The pupils who have\nnot achieved success, those whose work usually is not shown, are the ones\nwhose records should be most thoroly scrutinized. It is the special duty\nof the administrative part of education to determine with certainty whether\n\nthese failures are due to the pupil or to the mistakes of the administration\nin selecting\n\nan incompetent teacher or an incompetent superintendent\n\nwho is not getting the best out of the teacher.\nFrom a somewhat extensive study of this particular question in regard\nto shop work, I can say that with pupils of similar talents attending various\n\nschools the proportion of failures to successes varies from nearly all failures\nin some schools to nearly all successes in other schools.\n\nThis means that\n\nthe administrative part of the educational machine is badly out of repair\n\nmeans that those in authority are being satisfied with\nAnd I may add that I have\nsometimes found those who are the most deserving of censure to be those\nwho are most outspoken in their certainty that their shop work is of the best.\nBut this is not all. The pupil of limited talent is the very one who\nneeds help, and, however limited his talent, if he is above idiocy, the greater\nis the necessity of raising his level of industrial efficiency, for he is certain\nin some cities;\n\nit\n\nresults far below that which should be gained.\n\nto join the ranks of industry, while the one of large constructive talent, tho\n\nmaking a record in the school shop and helping out on exhibition day, is\nalmost certain to enter some other line. For the constructive faculty that\nmay shine in industry is the same as that which makes the great business\nman and the great professional man.\nNow why this great difference? For neither the efficient nor the\ninefficient teaching is confined to any particular class or type of schools\nor to any particular geographical area. I think you will find, if you\ninvestigate with proper care and thoroness, that it largely depends upon\nwhether we teach principles or processes. It matters little by what name\nthe work is called or in what kind of school it is given. You will find many\ngradations from the all-process to the largely-science teaching in schools of\nall grades, and sometimes great variations in the same school system, even\nin the same building.\nI have seen excellent instruction in science in the\ncommon graded schools and the merest sham at teaching processes in keeping\nwith the methods of bygone ages in nationally known trade and industrial\nschools.\n\nThis could not be were the administrators doing their duty.\n\nThe fundamental principles of working solid materials may be taught\nsuccessfully and thoroly by the use of wood alone in the one-room country\nschool, in the consolidated school, in the regular high school, and in the\n\ntechnical school.\n\nOn the other hand, pupils may spend long hours in the\n\nmaking of things from toy doll houses to real dwellings, from the useless\nsloyd models to sets of furniture;\n\nthey may work every material from\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": "777", "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS IN TEACHING MECHANICAL SCIENCE\n\n777\n\nplastilina to steel, and yet thru all this extensive course in either common\n\nor special schools they may not learn one single principle of working solid\n\nThey then go out into industry with the ideals and mental\nequipment of the ancient EgyptisLU craftsman rather than with those of the\n\nmaterials.\n\nmodem scientific workman.\n\nIt therefore is not safe to judge of the work\n\nof any school by the magnitude of the institution, the extent of the equip-\n\nment, or the credentials of the instructors or the principal.\n\nThe cause of all this interminable discussion, this ever-increasing demand\nfor efficient workmen, lies not in the fact that young men as they enter\n\nindustry cannot make things and make them so they will be salable at some\nprice, but rather in that these young people have been trained to be crafts-\n\nmen rather than modern scientific workmen, and therefore are unadaptable,\nincapable of grasping modem ideals of workmanship, and cannot produce\n\nwork on a profitable basis. How may we expect to remedy this condition\nunless those in authority have a sufficiently definite knowledge of what is\nbeing done to distinguish between the craftsmanship of bygone days and\nmodem scientific workmanship ?\n\nWe may build industrial, special, continuation, or what-not kinds of\nschools until we have duplicated our present system, and we shall yet be\n\nas far from solving this question of efficiency as we now are, except in so\nfar as we teach in those schools the science of working solid materials rather\n\nthan the processes.\n\nWhat then are we to do ?\n\nSimply get right down to a thoro study of\n\nthe problem from this standpoint and determine what is essential to the\nteaching of the science and also determine what forms of work lend themselves to the illumination of the study of this science.\n\nThere should not be\n\nthe least objection raised by anyone to such an inquiry, altho there are\n\nmany reasons for objecting to a superficial or partial investigation. For one\nnot an expert in this line to make a proper study of the shop work of any\nand it will be found far better to\nthe actual knowledge of what is\nbeing accomplished than to rush thru many schools and form erroneous\nconclusions, which I know to have been often the case.\nWe must not go into this study with our heads set in favor of some\nspecial method or model and dead set against some other.\nThere is no\nschool will require considerable time;\n\nvisit a few schools and come away with\n\nquestion but that the set of models usually thought of as representing the\nRussian system was originally used to teach tool processes to the entire\nneglect of the science.\n\nYet some of those models have been used with\n\ngreat success in teaching the science.\n\nPermit me to make a few suggestions in regard to what constitutes\nauthority in an investigation of school-shop work.\n\nIf one wishes informa-\n\ntion in regard to teaching Greek, he goes to one who both knows\n\nand knows how to teach it.\n\nGreek\n\nIf one wishes to know how to teach mathe-\n\nmatics, he goes to one who both knows mathematics and also knows how\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": "778", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n778\n\nto teach that subject.\n\n(Administration\n\nThen may I ask you, as you pursue your mvesti-\n\ngation of school-shop work, to take with great caution the advice of those\n\nwho neither know the subject-matter of school-shop work nor have shown\nany evidence of being able to teach even the most elementary lessons in\nthis work.\n\nI care not who they are nor how eminent are their positions as educators, if they wish to establish their ideas in regard to teaching this subject\n\nwe must ask them to prove by some means that they have the requisite\nmaterial from which to formulate such theories; and, when they wish us\nto accept their theories in refutation of demonstrated success by those\nactually engaged in this work, I caution you to hesitate before permitting\n\nthe assumption of authority to override actual demonstrations.\nthis very point that most of our troubles entered.\n\nIt is at\n\nTrace the early work,\n\nand we will find that it is largely because of accepting the advice of those\nnot familiar with the school-shop movement that the work lost its value,\n\nand we are by no means away from this same difficulty.\nToday we hear much said about educational shop work in our regular\npublic schools under the name of manual training, manual arts, and similar\nappellations.\nUsually the advocates of these kinds of work claim for them\ngreat educational values and also claim that they have not and ought not\nto have any industrial value.\nIf we trace the history of this kind of work and these claims, we shall\nlearn that this work is simply the shadow of the real educational and\nindustrial shop work as at first established, and that only after the utter\nworthlessness of this shadow as a preparation for industry had been demonstrated did its advocates crawl under cover by claiming that it was purely\nfor educational values and that it should not be expected to yield industrial\nvalues.\nI for one most seriously doubt the statement that there is educational\n\nvalue worth while in such work.\nall,\n\nIf\n\nmy experience counts for anything at\n\nthe industrial value of school-shop work will keep pace with the educa-\n\nand when the industrial value ceases all values worth the\nTo say that the work is educational is to attempt\nto cover up a failure. There is no such thing as educational manual training apart from industrial manual training. The very elements that are\ntional value,\n\nexpense have ceased.\n\nessential to give educational value are the very foundation values of indus-\n\nPut these values into the work and you have the very best\nit may be given in a regular school.\nOmit them and you have only educational bluff no matter by what name\nthe instruction is called or where it is given.\nMy final message which I wish to leave with you is no longer to take\nthe word of anyone in this matter but to make for yourselves the most\nthoro inquiry in regard to the values of the school-shop work as at present\ngiven in your own schools and also in other schools.\ntrial efficiency.\n\npossible industrial education, tho\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": "779", "text": "Department]\n\nHEATING, LIGHTING, AND VENTILATING OF SCHOOLS\n\n779\n\nTHE HEATING, LIGHTING, AND VENTILATING OF\nSCHOOL BUILDINGS\nJAMES M. INGOLD, SECRETARY, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA\nLet me bring to your attention some palpable errors in school-building\nconstruction.\n\nThe outside appearance of the school building has perhaps received an\nundue amount of consideration. The architectural schools have taught\nschoolhouse planning from the outside-in instead of from the inside-out.\nExterior decorations and embellishments have dominated, irrespective of\ninterior results.\nThe subjects of fenestration and orientation have been\nconfused and windows, chimneys, vent flues, cloakrooms, sanitary equipments, heating and ventilating apparatus, etc., have not been placed and\n\n—\n\noperated in accordance with natural laws.\n\nA few years ago some well-meaning individual announced that every\nschoolroom should receive sunlight at some time during each day.\nfirst\n\nAt\n\nthought the theory sounded plausible, and many buildings have been\n\ndesigned accordingly.\n\nIn order to obtain the proposed\n\nresults, it\n\nwas\n\nstipulated that the main corridors should extend north and south, being\n\nThe assumption was that the\nrooms east of the corridor would receive the sunlight in the forenoon while\nthe rooms west of the corridor would receive the afternoon sun. The actual\nworking of these buildings is somewhat as follows: In the first place, every\nwindow in a building so designed would necessarily have to be equipped\n\nflanked with study rooms on either side.\n\nwith unsanitary dust-catching window shades.\n\nOn the east side of the\n\nbuilding, these shades must always be drawn in the forenoon to prevent\n\nthe sun shining in the faces of the pupils occupying this portion of the\nbuilding, while the same^ precaution\n\nmust be taken in the afternoon to\nCon-\n\nprotect the teacher and pupils in the west half of the building.\n\nsequently, we find that direct sunlight has actually been excluded from the\n\nbuilding entirely and that the only direct sunlight which has been permitted\nto enter the buildings during the entire day is the infinitesimal quantity\n\nthat enters the windows at the south end of the corridor, and this during\nthe noon hour when the building is vacated.\n\nIt is a fact that the light\n\na building planned in this manner are perhaps better on a\ncloudy day than on days of sunshine because of excluded light on other\neffects in\n\ndays.\n\nThere is no single element connected with schoolhouse construction\nthat plays so important a part as light.\n\nThe work of the school calls for\n\nconstant and strenuous use of the eyes, and this takes place during the\n\nformative period of the child when the overtaxing or abuse of the eyes\n\nworks irreparable injury.\n\nImperfect and unnatural lighting of schoolrooms\n\nhas impaired the vision and destroyed the health of millions.\nthese mistakes be continued ?\n\nWhy should\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": "780", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n780\n\nlAdministration\n\nIt has been demonstrated that disinfectants will not take the place of\n\nan intelligent practical system of continuous sanitary ventilation. The\nneglect properly to take care of these and of many other features of schoolbuilding construction amounts to criminal negligence as well as civic disgrace.\n\nWe believe that most pronounced steps have been made in school\nA new type of building is taking\n\narchitecture within the past five years.\n\nthe place of the hit-and-miss variety, even tho the latter is still being adopted\nin\n\nsome localities.\n\nThis new type of structure has been styled the unit\n\nsystem of school-building architecture and has been indorsed by educators\nand teachers who have investigated the merits of this better type of building.\nIn general terms, the plan recognizes the individual schoolroom with its\naccessories (cloakroom and sanitary equipment) as a unit complete within\nitself.\n\nTherefore, if ideal conditions have been obtained in a single unit,\n\nthe problem of a more perfect or larger building becomes simply a matter\nof duplication.\n\nIn the assembling of these units, a certain classification of the school\n\n—simplicity, proportion, standardiza-\n\nbuilding as a whole gives this result\n\nand utility thruout the building. The fundamentals of the unit\nsystem are applicable to every kind and any capacity of school building,\nfrom the one-story rural school up to the hundred-room five-story city\nThis type of building permits of the same diversity of architectural\nschool.\nembellishment to both interior and exterior as do any of the old types of\nstructure.\nEntrances may be located on one or all of the four sides, so that\nbuildings can be designed to front toward any desired point of the compass,\nconforming to any local conditions.\ntion,\n\nSCHOOLROOM VENTILATION UNDER THE UNIT SYSTEM OF CONSTRUCTION\n\nThe program for ventilation adopted by the unit-system type of building is one in which the circulation of the air is not confused with the heat\n\nprogram, and whDe all of the advantages of forced draft and compressed\nair are retained, yet the superheating coils in the basement plenum chamber\n\ntogether with\neliminated.\n\nits\n\nbattery of deadly mixing dampers has been entirely\n\nThe fan and tempering coils are retained and assigned to the\n\nproblem of circulation only.\n\nWe believe that the theory of a maximum\n\ndistribution of heat thru the medium of wall radiation located against the\n\nouter walls under the windows gives the most practical results.\n\nThis wall\n\nradiation is divided into sections and controlled automatically.\n\nThe fact that we regard the subject of heat and ventilation as a part\nof a great architectural problem is emphasized by double windows with dead\n\nThe insulating value of dead air is well known, and double\nwindows, besides effecting a saving in the quantity of fuel consumed, con-\n\nair space.\n\ntribute to the more important feature of health\n\nheating of the air to the least possible\n\nby making possible the\namount above the 70 degrees\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": "781", "text": "HEATING, LIGHTING, AND VENTILATING OF SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n781\n\nrequired in the breathing-zone of the schoolroom so that the air may not\n\nbe vitiated and the moisture extracted.\n\nThere is little need of humidifiers\n\nor moistening devices if the natural laws pertaining to heat distribution\n\nare followed.\n\nThe unit system stipulates that in every instance the main corridor\nshall\n\nextend east and west and that the study rooms, which comprise\n\napproximately 60 per cent of the school building, shall be located north\nof the corridor.\n\nThe remaining portion of the building, such as recitation,\n\noffice, and rest rooms, auditorium and gymnasium, kindergarten, domestic-\n\nscience, manual-training,\n\nand all other special rooms are located south of\n\nthe corridor, where they may receive the advantages of direct sunlight.\n\nThe auditorium, gymnasia, or the community-center feature, with ceiling\nusually one and a half or two stories in height, is provided with a generous\n\nsystem of skylights which parallel the corridor, admitting the direct rays\n^of sunlight\n\nthru glass doors or partitions directly into the corridors on\n\neach floor.\n\nBy this system of fenestration, the direct rays of sunlight are\n\npermitted to enter the very heart of the building and to flood all corridors\n\nwith sunshine regardless of whether the building is one or five stories in\nheight.\n\nNo attempt is made to supply direct sunlight to the study rooms\n\nnorth of the corridors, but these rooms receive the steady uniform north\nlight unhampered by window shades.\n\nIt will be observed that all pupils in the study rooms face toward the\n\nThus we have the maximum\namount of north light, and at the same time have provided for the admission of direct sunlight in every portion of the building where it is most\neast and receive light over their left shoulders.\n\nneeded.\n\nTHE SANITARY FEATURES OP THE UNIT SYSTEM\n\nThe best effects in sanitation and hygiene have been reached thru the\nThese results have been obtained thru the\nemployment of a very simple and practical system of sanitary ventilation\nunit-system plan of sanitation.\n\nThe cloakrooms are located between\nThe upper portion of both the north\nand south walls of the cloakrooms is composed of glass partitions. The\nin conjunction with individual toilets.\n\nthe study rooms and the corridor.\n\nentrance to each schoolroom from the corridor is thru a vestibule.\n\nThis\n\nvestibule is a part of the schoolroom proper and is designed to avoid con-\n\ngestion and to reduce the floor space of the schoolroom unit.\n\nThe individual toilet rooms occupy a corner of the cloakrooms adjoining the ventilating ducts.\n\nAsperating\n\ncoils are located in\n\nthe sanitary\n\nvents in such a manner that an equal amount of air is exhausted thru the\n\nbaseboard of each individual toilet.\n\nIn the larger buildings, an exhaust\n\nfan may be used for this purpose, but in every instance the method of circulation employed for the sanitary system\n\nmust be separate and apart\n\nfrom the forced draft in the schoolroom.\n\nThe pull principle should be\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": "782", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n782\n\n[Administration\n\nemployed for the sanitary equipment, while the push system should be\nretained for the schoolrooms, each acting supplementary to the other, yet\n\noperating absolutely independent of each other.\n\nThe advantages of the individual toilet in the cloakroom under the\ndirect supervision of the teacher are\n\nnumerous.\n\nI will mention only a\n\nfew: (i) segregation in the toilet room is secured; (2) marking on the walls\nis\n\na thing of the past;\n\nall\n\ntimes is secured;\n\ndiscipline instead of\n\n(3)\n(4)\n\nabsolute control over pupils by the teacher at\n\nthe sanitary equipment becomes a promoter of\n\nan agency of discord;\n\n(5)\n\nthe elimination of mock\n\nmodesty and the substitution instead of culture and refinement is obtained;\n(6) the individual toilet is more isolated in the cloakroom than in the stack\narrangement on each floor level, or in the basement.\nIn the general plans of a variety of unit-system designs ranging from\none room to eighty rooms, it will be seen that no excavation is contemplated\nexcept for boiler installation and air tunnels under the sanitary equipment.\nIt will be at once apparent that we design no basements unless at request.\nIf our entire layout is to be above ground it will be conceded that\n\nevery\n\npart of the structure is capable of the highest possible development, and\nthat the greatest latitude is allowed, thereby promoting a logical classification of the building as a whole.\n\nThe ample, spacious, sun-lighted corridors in the very heart of the\nbuilding are an innovation which will meet the approval of every student\nof sanitation and hygiene.\n\nThe compactness cf the study-room units, taken\nand\n\ntogether with the system of vestibule-alcoves, gives a convenient\n\neconomic layout that merits the approval of all.\nall special\n\nThe recitation rooms and\n\nrooms covering every phase of educational activities may be\n\nlocated in the wings projecting toward the south, where every department\nis\n\nsusceptible to direct sunlight\n\nand may receive its full quota.\n\nThis\n\nportion of the structure as well as the combination auditorium-gymnasium-\n\nassembly with stage, dressing-rooms, and galleries may be of any stipulated\ndimensions.\n\nThe flexibility of the sunshine portion of our building must\n\n—\n\nappeal to everyone who appreciates the value of conamunity work\n\nlike-\n\nwise the ease with which the classrooms can be thrown together either in\nthe original plan or later on so as to conform to changing school conditions.\n\nThe most popular school building of the future will be the one that will\nmost readily adjust itself to the needs of the community which it serves.\nIf there is any one thing in the unit-system theory of design that is empha-\n\nsized more than another\n\nit is\n\nthe fact that every feature of the modern\n\nschool has been brought to the highest degree of efficiency in this adaptation\nto varied needs.\nThere was a time when no kindergarten was required.\nThe unit-system design accords the most scientific treatment to the kindergarten and its requirements. There was a time when no gymnasium was\nrequired. The unit system provides the widest possible latitude for the\nspecial uses which the gymnasia of the future will require.\n\nThere was a time\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": "783", "text": "Departmentl\n\nHEATING, LIGHTING, AND VENTILATING OF SCHOOLS\n\n783\n\nwhen the school building was not burdened with the housing of mechanical\ndrawing, manual training, domestic science, and other branches of vocational work.\nThe modern school building must needs meet all these requirements and in addition must meet the requirements of community interests\nand social club life.\nThere must be a best way of doing everything. Why should not the\nstatutes stipulate that certain things must be done and unless they are done\nthen contractors and others cannot collect money for their work? Is\nthere any reason why a school-board building committee should not be\nheld liable on its bonds for moneys paid on buildings not constructed\naccording to law ? Is there any good reason why the general fundamentals\nnecessary to produce a desirable school building should not be defined by\nstatute ?\n\nThe time has arrived when the use of combustible materials in schoolThe excess in cost of fireproof construction is so small that when the cost of upkeep and years of\nbuilding construction should be discontinued.\n\nincreased\n\nfire\n\ninsurance premiums\n\nis\n\nconsidered, to say nothing of the\n\nadvantage of the elimination of the fire hazard and the imperiling of innocent lives, we are forced to the conclusion that fireproof construction is a\n\npermanent investment and should not become an item of recurring expense.\nEconomy and utility should be the keynote for the modern school\nbuilding, which should lead in the architecture of the community, in the\nelements of simplicity, dignity, and art, and in the aesthetic education of\nthe public at large.\n\nDr. Kepford, the well-known white plague and health expert, has, after\na thoro inspection of the unit-system buildings, estimated the increase of\ndaylight efficiency to be at least 25 per cent in excess of the old type of\nstructure.\n\nDr. Kepford adds that the efficiency of the school as to sanita-\n\ntion and hygiene has received an increase in a ratio probably equal to or\n\ngreater than that of light.\n\nConsider with me, in closing, the possibilities of the individual, the\ntrue worth of the child, each without its dupUcate in nature, each unique\nShall we hamper one of\nwe handicap them in the responsiShall we minimize their possibilities of achievement by not\n\nin itself, each a creature of vast possibilities.\n\nthese lives in development?\nbihes of life ?\n\nShall\n\nthem good physical conditions under which to prepare for the\nIt is the will of\nI can hear you all say \"No!\"\nevery teacher, it is the yearning desire of every father and mother,\nit is the wish of every good citizen that a better type of school building\nbe given the child in order to give to the community and nation a better\ntype of manhood and womanhood, for the generation of the future will be\naccording to the advantages given to this present generation, and edu-\n\ngiving\n\nhigher functions of life?\n\ncation is never complete that does not bring out all as well as the best that\nis in\n\nthe child.\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": "784", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n784\n\nlAdministraUon\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nThe\nS. A. Challman, state commissioner of school buildings, Minneapolis, Minn.\npaper just read emphasizes tlie desirability of a few well-founded and generally accepted\nstandards as to schoolhouse construction.\n\nThe writer of the paper has well said that\n\neconomy and utility are the two main factors to be considered in the planning of a\nschool building. I am inclined to reverse the order of these factors and consider utility\nof first importance.\n\nEconomy is essentially a relative factor, since that which affords\n\nthe greatest service is, after all, the most economical.\n\nThese factors, however, need not\n\nexclude the attractive, for a pleasing exterior and a cheerful interior are more a matter of\ntaste and design than of increased cost.\n\nWe must not forget that our public-school buildings leave an indelible impress upon\nthe minds of the children who attend them.\nitself,\n\nTheir very appearance is an education in\n\nwith which each community and the nation at large must reckon.\n\nWe speak\n\nrightly of school architecture and must not forget that architecture is one of the fine arts.\n\nWe have no more right to violate the established principles of architecture than we have\nto violate the principles of hygiene or pedagogy.\n\nOur duty is to harmonize the various\n\nfactors which enter into the problem and out of the whole produce a result which shall\n\nembody all that is true with respect to hygiene, mental growth, and aesthetic values.\nThis can be done only by recognizing certain estabUshed essentials. These essentials must be the outgrowth of intelligent observation.\n\nTheir value will depend upon the\n\nrelative importance of the advantages to be secured and the disadvantages which must be\n\nNo one man is likely to possess the wisdom which such selection entails. This\ndepartment of the National Education Association is the natural sponsor for a movement\nendured.\n\nlooking forward to the ultimate establishment of such essentials as should be incorporated\nin all our school buildings.\n\nAt present we are pursuing a policy of local and occasionally\n\nstate direction of our school-building projects, and the results are about as harmonious\n\nas the results of our various marriage and divorce laws.\nsunders.\n\nWhat one judge seals the other\n\nWe conclude to agree but find that we must disagree. The writer of the paper\n\nhas made a very emphatic statement as to the advantages of north light in the school-\n\nroom, and still many of us must disagree with him when all the factors of the problem\n\nhave been considered.\n\nLet us have a commission which will go into this problem of\n\nschoolhouse construction with a view to winnowing the chaff from the wheat and then\naccept the findings of the commission until it reverses\n\nitself.\n\nThe fire insurance com-\n\npanies have found this to be a happy solution of many of their difficulties, and the rules of\n\nthe National Board of Fire Underwriters are generally accepted by architects and men\nin the building trades.\n\nSome states have already enacted laws in regard to construction of schoolhouses.\nThese laws vary considerably in detail, from Minnesota's simple statutory provision,\nwhich empowers the superintendent of education to make all rules in regard to schoolhouse\nconstruction, to Indiana's and Ohio's comprehensive codes, which include many details,\n\nthe wisdom of which can be determined only by the actual results of a strict compliance\n\nwith the law as enacted.\n\nPersonally, I cannot help but feel that, until the essentials have\nbeen agreed upon, little can be expected from legislation which enters into details that\n\nmay or may not be found ultimately to be of prime importance.\nThe present unrest as to the proper methods of ventilation would indicate that it is\nunwise to incorporate into the code of any state definite provisions as to the particular\n\nOn the other hand, a rule which\nmay be altered in accordance with scientific deductions will have all the force of law, if\nfeatures which a system of ventilation must contain.\n\nauthorized by statute, and still be elastic enough to allow for such modification as condi-\n\nTo some this may seem as allowing too much power to individuals\nor boards, but after all the administration of law is seldom more exacting than the per-\n\ntions will warrant.\n\nsonal convictions of the man or men charged with their execution.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": "785", "text": "DepartmeQtl\n\nA STATE TEACHERS' EMPLOYMENT AGENCY\n\n785\n\nThe problems connected with schoolhouse construction depend primarily upon school\norganization.\n\nDefinite class units affording maximum efl&ciency of instruction and units\n\nof floor space for the various subjects need careful consideration and should be fixed, not\n\nby academic discussion, but by scientific deduction. Every foot of space not required\nby the organization of the school is an economic waste and every needed foot denied is an\nindefensible blunder. The two factors of school organization and physical equipment\nare interdependent upon each other and must be harmonized in order to secure the proper\nresults.\n\nA STATE TEACHERS' EMPLOYMENT AGENCY UNDER THE\nSUPERVISION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION\nJ.\n\nM. MALMIN, SECRETARY,\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION, BLUE EARTH, MINN.\n\nWhen I first became interested in school management, back in the\nnineties, the secretary of the board of education received vast numbers of\n\napplications direct from teachers seeking positions, but in later years these\ndirect applications to the secretary have been very few.\n\nI began to\n\nwonder if this decrease in applications was due to the\n\nscarcity of teachers or if some other course had been taken by them to\n\nsecure positions.\n\nUpon investigation I found that the teachers' agencies\n\nhad prevailed upon many teachers thruout the state to enrol with them\nupon payment of a registration fee, while in addition a cash commission or\nnote settlement was made with such agencies for 5 per cent of the entire\nfirst year's salary.\nA particular case that interested me was one in which\nwe had secured a teacher in the middle of the school year at a salary of\n$75 per month. To my surprise the teacher so employed was asked to\npay 5 per cent commission for the following one-half school year, upon\nThis made a commission of $37.50 net to the\nre-election by our board.\nagency, besides the regular filing fee. In our opinion, this was an unjust\ncharge as all the agency did in the case under discussion was to notify the\nteacher of the vacancy.\n\nPayment of such commission works a hardship upon the teacher and\neventually increases the expense of the district. Some may ask, \"What\ninterest have the districts in the private expenses incurred by the teacher,\nwould say that most assuredly\nthe teacher's interests are our interests. He or she becomes a part of our\ndistrict and should be considered one of us and anything that tends to\n\nand are the teacher's affairs ours?\"\n\nI\n\nincrease high cost of living or causes additional expense to the teacher\n\nmust eventually be borne by the districts thru increase in salaries which\nare in many cases insufficient.\n\nSo long as the teachers' agencies keep within their sphere and do not\ninterfere in legislative affairs or school management, there can be no serious\ncomplaint to enter against them except as to their exorbitant charges.\nfact that the teachers\n\nThe\n\nhave listed with them, knowing the terms of the\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": "786", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n786\n\n[Administration\n\ncontract, proves conclusively that agencies are necessary as a\n\nmodern\n\nconvenience in order to secure positions.\nIt does not seem good policy, however, from an economical standpoint,\nfor a community or state to expend large sums preparing people for work\n\nso valuable to society as that of teaching, and, after their education is completed, to turn the finished product or the person so educated, principally\n\nat the expense of society, over to private institutions for profit to them,\n\nwhen the state without great expense to itself or to the community can\nconduct its own agency, as has been proven by the Minnesota Teachers'\nEmployment Bureau established in 1913. In order that the proposition\nof establishing an agency should not meet with opposition from the Legislative Appropriation\n\nCommittee, wherein most conflicts are centered, no\n\nprovisions were made to finance the agency when the bill was passed.\n\nNevertheless it has prospered beyond all expectations and,\n\nif the $3.00\nused\nfor\nexpenses,\nthe\nagency\nwill\ncan\nbe\nbe\npractically\nselffiling fee\n\nsustaining.\n\nAmong the advantages of a state agency, the following items may be\ncited:\n\n(i)\n\nEconomy, as previously mentioned.\n\n(2)\n\nNo frequent changes\n\nin positions are suggested in order to gain additional fees and commissions.\n(3)\n\nThe manager is an experienced teacher, with knowledge of local con-\n\nditions, and his recommendations may be taken safely without any addi-\n\ntional expense of investigation.\n\n(4)\n\nThe agency is conducted to promote\n(5) The\n\nthe interest of the teacher and the district and not for private gain.\n\napplicants are not considered a commodity sold on conmiission basis, as\n\nstocks and bonds.\n\nJudging from the many favorable comments from persons who are in\na position to judge and from the director's report of the work of the state\n\nbureau and its still greater prospect for the future, it would appear that no\nstate could well afford to neglect the opportunity of establishing an agency.\n\nWhat has been done along these lines in Minnesota may be done in other\nstates.\n\nA failure can come only thru poor management or by the supporting\nWe have no fear\n\nof private interests rather than the interests of the state.\n\nof this in our state, however, but if any report reaches you of the failure\nof any state agency you may lay the blame to the management or to lack\nof co-operation on the part of school authorities.\nIt is not a small matter, however, to secure the passage of such a bill,\n\nas the private agencies, like other private institutions, will do all in their\n\npower to retain their position and patronage.\nmust be put forth by all interested.\n\nConsequently united efforts\n\nIn our case the president of the School Board Section of the Minnesota\nEducational Association was asked to appoint a committee of three to act\nas a legislative committee.\n\nAs chairman of the committee, the first step I\ntook was to secure able members who would draft and introduce the bill\nand do their utmost for its passage.\n\nTwo senators were secured, one from\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": "787", "text": "Department]\n\nSTATE TEACHERS' EMPLOYMENT AGENCY LAW\n\n787\n\nthe city districts and the other from the county districts. The same plan\nwas applied to the members of the House of Representatives. The next\nstep was to confer with the state superintendent, the state inspectors, and\nthe leading county and city superintendents having the welfare of the state\nat heart. Influential board members who were not present at the Minnesota Educational Association were also consulted. All did their part to\naid in procuring the passage of the bill. In this connection, I must not\nforget to mention the press of the state, which so kindly advocated the\npassage of the bill by printing articles favorable to its passage. The legislators are in most cases fair and anxious to work for the advancement and\ninterest of their constituents and the state at large, but we must not expect\nthem to be as well posted on questions of school management as we who are\nConsequently their attention must\nin closer touch with the minor affairs.\n\nbe called to such matters.\nCopies of the bill may be had at any time and I am also sure that the\nMinnesota department of education will be pleased to aid you in every way\npossible, should you, in your respective states, imdertake the passage of a\nsimilar bill.\n\nTHE SUCCESS OF A STATE TEACHERS' EMPLOYMENT\nAGENCY LAW AFTER TWO YEARS\nE. T.\n\nCRITCHETT, ASSISTANT INSPECTOR, STATE HIGH AND GRADED SCHOOLS,\nAND DIRECTOR, STATE TEACHERS' EMPLOYMENT BUREAU,\nST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nAt the outset I wish to correct any false impression that may have\nbeen given from the topic assigned to me upon the program, to the effect\nthat our States Teachers' Employment Bureau has been in operation for\n\ntwo years. The fact is that the act authorizing the establishment of this\nbureau was approved April 25, 1913, and about the first of June the first\nsteps were taken toward the organization and operation of such a bureau.\nThe first registration was received June 23, 1913. Previous to this time,\nmuch interest had been shown by school boards, superintendents, and\nteachers, and many inquiries had been made as to the time when we could\nbegin to serve them by naming teachers available for positions in various\nlines of work.\nThis co-operation on the part of school authorities and\nteachers has been continued thruout the year during which we have been\noperating, and we feel that we have the good-will and support of all those\nwhose co-operation is necessary in order to make successful a bureau of this\nkind.\n\nUp to the present time, our total registration numbers eight hundred,\ndivided as follows: rural, 61; grades, 305; high school, 230; special, no;\n\nOut of this total of teachers registered with us,\nwe have placed, directly, in the neighborhood of four hundred. One of\n\nsupervisory positions, 94.\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": "788", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n788\n\n[AdministraUon\n\nour greatest difficulties arises from the fact that after teachers register with\nus, altho at the time of enrohnent they specifically agree to notify us when\n\nthey have accepted a position, they fail to give any dejSnite information\nas to the positions which they have accepted and such information does not\n\nreach us until some time after such acceptance.\nit is\n\nThus it will be seen that\n\nexceedingly difficult to state the actual number of teachers we have\n\nplaced.\nIt certainly is of value to teachers that statements regarding their\n\ncredentials and their success in teaching should be collected and kept on\nfile\n\nat a well-located central point and that this information should be\n\navailable at any time to those seeking teachers.\n\nWe are ready at all times\n\nto furnish, to those employing officers who may ask for the same, copies of\n\nWe have a definite\nand distinct understanding with those who give us this information that\nimder no circumstances shall such information be given to the person about\nstatements on file regarding teachers registered with us.\n\nwhom it is written.\nThe salaries of the teachers whom we have placed during the first year\namount to at least $250,000, at the minimum estimate, and it will be seen\nthat thru our service a considerable amount of money has been saved those\nteachers who have made use of our bureau.\n\nBy law a registration fee of $3 00 is payable at the time of registration,\nand payment of this fee entitles the person so enrolled to the services of our\nbureau for twelve months from the date of registration.\nDuring the first year, receipts from this source have amovmted to\n$2,400. Our expenses may be summarized as follows:\n.\n\n'\n\n—\n—\n\n$100 a month\n50 a month\n\nClerical work\n\nPostage\n\ntotal $1,200\n\n600\n\ntotal\n\nPrinting and supplies\n\n200\n$2,000\n\nIt will be seen that our receipts are amply sufficient for the running\n\nexpenses of the office.\n\nThe director is listed as state school inspector and\nOur office is located in the depart-\n\nhis salary is drawn from another fund.\n\nment of education and for that reason no rental expense is involved.\nOur sole purpose at all times has been to serve the schools, and if we\nwere unable to name a teacher whose qualifications seemed to meet the\nneeds of the school where the vacancy occurred we did not hesitate to state\nthat such was the case. During the fall of 1913, we could have placed at\nleast one hundred and fifty teachers in the rural schools if such teachers\nhad been registered with us. At no time during last fall were we able to\nfurnish all the teachers needed for upper granmiar-grade work.\nIt seems that this bureau can be of service to the state in estimating\n\nthe needs of the public schools of the state, so far as the different classes\nof teachers are concerned.\n\nFor example, we should state from our expe-\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": "789", "text": "Department!\n\nSTATE TEACHERS' EMPLOYMENT AGENCY LAW\n\n789\n\nrience during the past year that at the present time there is in Minnesota\n\na surplus of teachers who are prepared to do high-school work, and there\nis\n\nno doubt that many such teachers in the secondary-school field will be\n\nunable to find satisfactory positions in Minnesota for the coming year.\n\nThere is an apparent surplus of teachers for the primary and lower intermediate grades, but the same does not hold true in the upper intermediate\ngrades and the grammar grades. For the past two or three years a shortage\nhad existed in the supply of teachers in several lines of industrial work, but\nthe supply is now ample for all industrial lines and teachers can be furnished\nfor all vacancies that are reported.\n\nThe question has frequently been asked whether this state bureau\ndiscriminates in any way in favor of the graduates of certain institutions.\nI wish to state emphatically that we have tried to carry out impartially the\n\nprovisions of the act under which our bureau operates, which states that\n\n\"any person having a certificate to teach in this state, or who has completed a course of study as required for the issuance of a certificate, or who\n\nmay be found entitled to receive such certificate, and who is deemed to be\na fit and capable person for teaching, shall be entitled to enrol with said\nState Teachers' Employment Bureau, and shall be entitled to the privileges\nand services of said bureau for the term of one year.\" Graduates of all\nof the normal schools in the state and from accredited courses of similar\nschools in other states, as well as of the smaller Minnesota colleges and\nof the University of Minnesota, have been registered and the majority\nof those so enrolled have been placed in satisfactory positions.\n\nThe question has also been asked whether the charge of favoritism\nmight not arise when two teachers having the same or equal qualifications\nfor a position are recommended by this bureau.\nIn reply to this question,\nI would state that no such complaint has reached us and if such had been\nmade undoubtedly we should have received such information.\nIn view of the number of teachers enrolled in our bureau and the number who have been located in satisfactory positions during this, our first\nyear of service, we feel that this department has shown ample justification\nfor its existence, and that it has been of great service to the schools of the\n\nstate by bringing well-qualified teachers into communication with employ-\n\ning officers who desire to fill vacancies in their schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": "790", "text": ""}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": "791", "text": ":\n\nLIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—^Wniis H. Kerr,\nEmporia, Kans.\nState Normal School\nWashington, D.C\nVice-President—Mrs. P. P. Claxton\nLibrary Association of Portland. .Portland, Ore.\nSecretary — Harriet A. Wood, school\nPresident\n\nlibrarian,\n\nlibrarian.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\nThe Library Department met in joint session with the National Council of Teachers\nof English, in Elks Hall, St. Paul, Minn.,\n\nand was called to order at 9:00 A.M., with\n\nPresident Kerr in the chair.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, Mary C. Richardson, librarian. State Normal School,\nCastine, Me., was appointed secretary pro tempore.\n\nMatthew S, Dudgeon, secretary, Wisconsin Library Commission, Madison, Wis.,\nread a paper on \"The Library's Debt to Culture.\"\n\nWilliam B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111., read a paper\nentitled \"The Cultural Possibilities of School and College Libraries.\"\n\nA Symposium on \"Successful Experiences with Home Reading-Lists\" followed.\nPapers were read by the following: Helen M. Baker, high school, Brownton, Minn.;\nMinnie E. Porter, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.; and FrankUn K. Mathiews,\nlibrarian, Boy Scouts of America,\n\nNew York, N.Y.\n\nDiscussion: E. H. K. McComb, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind.;\n\nMiss Andrews, St. Paul, Minn.; Miss McBride, Worthington, Minn.; Miss Webster,\nNorth Yakima, Wash.; Miss Ritchie, West Texas Normal School, Canyon City, Tex.;\nO. S. Rice, state library clerk for Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Miss Meyers, Sheboygan,\nWis.; Mr. Hibbensteel, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis.; E. R. Barrett, State\nNormal School, Emporia, Kans.; and Martha Wilson, supervisor of school libraries,\nState Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 19 14\nThis session of the department was in charge of the Committee on Rural-School\nIt was held at the University Farm, and was called to order at 2:30 P.M., by\nMartha Wilson, St. Paul, Minn., chairman of the committee.\nThe following program was given\n\nLibraries.\n\nTopic:\n\nRural-School Libraries\n\n—\n\n\"The Country Child\n\nin the Rural Library\"\nJosephine Corliss Preston, state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.\n\"Rural Schools in Maine\" Mary C. Richardson, librarian, State Normal School,\n\n—\n\nCastine, Me.\n\n\"Making the Library Earn Its Salt\"\nEmporia, Kans.\n\n—\n\nWiUis H. Kerr, librarian. State Normal School,\n(Printed in Public Libraries, Chicago, April, 19 14.)\n\nThe Committee on Rural-School Libraries presented its report in three parts: The\nBook, the Teacher, and the Community. Martha Wilson, chairman of the committee,\npresented the first part, which was entitled \"A Standard Foundation Library for a Rural\nSchool,\" and was prepared by Harriet A. Wood, school librarian, Library Association of\nPortland, Portland, Ore., and Walter Barnes, State Normal School, Glenville, W.Va.,\n791\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": "792", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n792\n\n(Library\n\nmembers of a subcommittee. The second part of the report was prepared and presented\nby Delia G. Ovitz, librarian, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., and was entitled\n\"Training of Rural Teachers in the Use of Books.\" The third part of the report, entitled\n\"Community Service from the Rural-School Library,\" was prepared by a subcommittee\ncomposed of Elizabeth B. Wales, secretary, Missouri Library Commission, Jefferson City,\nMo., and T. N. Carver, rural specialist. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. This part of the report was presented by Martha Wilson.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 9, 1914\nThe Library Department met in joint session with the Minnesota Library Association and was called to order at 9 00 a.m., with Martha Wilson, president of that association,\n:\n\nin the chair.\n\nGeorge B. Utley, secretary, American Library Association, Chicago, 111., brought the\ngreetings of that association to the department and to the Minnesota Library Association.\n\nHe told of the advances in general library organization and referred especially to the many\nhelpful school-library publications of the American Library Association Publishing Board.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n\"The Newspaper Morgue, the Library, and the School\"\nlibrarian, public library, St. Paul, Minn.\n\n—\n\n^W.\n\nDawson Johnston,\n\n—\n\n\"Libraries and Schools: Educational Co-operation\" Willis H. Kerr, librarian. State\nNormal School, Emporia, Kans.\n\"Normal-School Training in Library Methods\" ^Delia G. Ovitz, librarian. State\nNormal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n—\n\nMiss Ovitz recommended that a committee be appointed by this department to\nco-operate with a similar committee appointed by the School-Library Department of the\n\nAmerican Library Association on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruction in Normal Schools.\n\nDiscussion:\n\nWillis H. Kerr, librarian, State\n\nNormal School, Emporia, Kans., and\n\nO. S. Rice, state library clerk for Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\nA motion was carried to appoint a Committee of Three, including Mr. Kerr, as\nrecommended by Miss Ovitz.\nThe following conmiittees were appointed by the president:\nCommittee on Resolutions\n\nW. Dawson Johnston, librarian, public library, St. Paul, Minn.\nDelia G. Ovitz, librarian, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nAlice N. Farr, librarian. State Normal School, Mankato, Minn.\n\nCommittee on Nominations\nMartha Wilson, supervisor of school libraries, State Department of Education,\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nMary C. Richardson, librarian, State Normal School, Castine, Me.\nMarie A. Newberry, reference assistant, public library. New York, N.Y.\n\nA delegate from the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, O. M. Dickerson,\nState Normal School, Winona, Minn., told of a Conmiittee of Seven authorized by that\nassociation to standardize library work in connection with the teaching of history and\nasked that one member from this department be appointed to serve on that committee.\n\nFlorence M. Hopkins, librarian, Central High School, Detroit, Mich., was appointed.\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July 10, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order by the president of the department at 2:30 p.m.\nTopic:\n\nHigh-School Libraries\n\nMarie A. Newberry, reference assistant, public library. New York, N.Y., read a\npaper on \"A Normal Budget;;for the.High-School_Library.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": "793", "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nDepartment]\n\n793\n\nDiscussion.\n\nThe Committee on High-School Libraries was requested to continue its investigation\non the subject of more definite knowledge of what it costs to start and maintain a highschool library.\n\n\"High-School Branches of Public Libraries\" was the subject of a paper presented by\nPurd B. Wright, librarian, public library, Kansas City, Mo.\n\"The Report of the Committee on Normal-School Libraries\" was read by Mary C.\nRichardson, librarian, State Normal School, Castine, Me., as follows:\n\nThe work of the Committee on Normal-School Libraries for this year has been to\nprepare an exhibit on library work with schools and with children in all parts of the\nLTnited States. This has been done largely by Ida M. Mendenhall, chairman, as she was\nthe only member of the committee who could go to Washington and give her time to the\nwork. The exhibit was collected thru the co-operation of the United States Bureau of\nEducation and is in the permanent care of the Bureau. It may be borrowed for exhibit\npurposes by any educational organization. The committee expresses its appreciation to\nMiss Mendenhall and to all who have helped by sending material for this exhibit which\nwe consider very illuminating and destined to have a far-reaching influence.\n\nA rising vote of thanks was given Ida M. Mendenhall, library school. New York\nPublic Library, New York, N.Y., chairman of the committee, for her work in preparing\nthe school-library exhibit.\n\n\"The Report of the Committee on High-School Libraries\" was then read.\n\nA vote\n\nof thanks was given to the chairman, Mary E. Hall, librarian. Girls High School, Brooklyn,\n\nN.Y., and her committee.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report:\n1. Resolved, That we record our appreciation and thanks to the American Library\nAssociation PubUshing Board for its encouragement of the school-library movement by\nthe publication of several school-library documents.\n2. Resolved, That we record our conviction that as a part of their educational equipment and staff, all schools should avail themselves of the same highly efficient library\norganization and service with which the general public is served.\nregard the properly\nequipped and administered school library as fundamental in modern educational work;\nit facilitates, applies, and enriches the whole process of education.\nWe therefore adopt\nthe statement adopted by the American Library Association, as follows:\n\"In view of the rapid growth of the school Ubrary and the importance of its function\nin modern education, the following statement is presented for the consideration and\napproval of educational and civic and state authorities:\n\"First, Good service from school libraries is indispensable in modem educational\n\nWe\n\nwork.\n\" Second, The wise direction of a school library requires broad scholarship, executive\n\nand other high-grade qualifications, together witJi special competency for\nthe efiFective direction of cultural reading, choice of books, and teaching of reference\n\nability, tact,\n\nprinciples.\n\n\"Third, Because much latent power is being recognized in the school library and is\nawaiting development, it is believed that so valuable a factor in education should be\naccorded a dignity worthy of the requisite qualifications. Further it is believed that in\nschools and educational systems the director of the library should compare in scholarship,\ntalent, and teaching power, equally with the head of any other department of instruction\nin the same school; should be enabled, by having necessary equipment and assistants,\nto do progressive work; and should be recognized equally with the supervisors of other\ndepartments as an integral part of the educational system.\"\n3. Resolved, That we extend our heartiest thanks to the St. Paul and Minneapolis\nlibrarians for their generous hospitality during our stay among them, and especially that\nour appreciation be extended to the Minnesota Library Association for the dinner given\nthe members of the Library Department.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations recommended the election of the following officers\nfor 1914-15:\n\n—\n\nPresident Harriet A. Wood, school librarian, Library Association of Portland,\nPortland, Ore.\nVice-President ^W. Dawson Johnston, librarian, public library, St. Paul, Minn.\nSecretary ^Lucile Fargo North Central High School, Spokane, Wash.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": "794", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n794\n\n[Library\n\nThe report was unanimously accepted and officers declared elected.\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Standardizing the Course of\nStudy in Library Instruction in Normal Schools to co-operate with a similar committee\nof the American Library Association:\n\nJames F. Hosic, head of the English department, Chicago Normal College, Chicago,\n111., chairman.\n\nMartha Wilson, supervisor of school libraries, State Department of Education,\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nWillis H. Kerr, librarian, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.\n\nA motion was carried that the newly elected officers be requested to give careful\nconsideration to the matter of holding a session of this department at the meeting of the\n\nDepartment of Superintendence or of obtaining a place for a paper on the school-library\nquestion on the program of that department.\n\nThe meeting was adjourned.\n\nMary C. Richardson, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE LIBRARY'S DEBT TO CULTURE\nMATTHEW\n\nS.\n\nDUDGEON, SECRETARY, WISCONSIN\n\nLIBRARY\n\nCOMMISSION,\n\nMADISON, WIS.\nIn discussing the library's debt to culture we define the cultured person\nas one who is sensitively appreciative of, and actively responsive to, the\n\nbeauty and virtue which is within one's world. We assume that such\nculture makes men, makes them \"capable, high-minded men,\" who will\n\n\"make of themselves capable and sensible lawyers, merchants, politicians,\nartisans.\"\n\nWe believe that a wide familiarity thruout life with the best\n\nliterature is inconsistent with an entire absence of culture.\n\nWe urge that all children, in city and coimtry alike, should have access\nto books, and that the book-hunger of rural\n\ncommunities calls aloud to\n\nall libraries and to all librarians.\n\nWe maintain that the book work must begin with the lowest grades\nthru which all children go when their minds are prehensile, before competing\ninterests have appeared, when they are greedy for good books;\n\nthat the\n\nchild must be kept thruout his school life in close contact with what is\n\nWe insist that to give any but the best to a child\nWe urge that the school and the library owe it to every pupil\n\nworth while in literature.\nis a crime.\n\nto fix upon him reading and library habits that will follow him when he\n\nleaves the schoolhouse for the factory or shop.\n\nWe hold that the librarian\n\nor teacher who knows not good books is impotent to impart the love of\n\ngood books.\nIn considering the cultural possibilities of the\n\nlibrary,\n\nunmindful, however, of the value of the strictly utilitarian.\n\nwe are not\n\nIf the library\n\ncan aid in teaching the world's workers to do the world's work more effectively, it is a most important function.\n\nIt is, of course, perfectly true that\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": "795", "text": "——\n\nDepartment]\n\nif\n\nEXPERIENCES WITH HOME READING-LISTS\n\n795\n\nthe pupil now in school grows into an adult unable to earn his living\n\na non-productive, non-earning individual\n\n—-such cultural tastes or tend-\n\nencies as may be his are of no use either to him or any one else.\n\nNeither\n\ndo I fail to recognize the principle that to learn to do the simplest utilitarian service with complete thoroness and understanding has a distinct\ncultural value.\n\nBut, granting this, it is still true that \"men are men before they are\nlawyers, or physicians, or merchants, or manufacturers, or mechanics;\n\nand, if you make them capable and high-minded men, they will make themselves capable and sensible lawyers, merchants, politicians, artisans.\"\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nSYMPOSIUM: SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCES WITH HOME READING-LISTS\n\n—\n\n^Miss Baker told how as teacher\nI. Helen M. Baker, high school, Brownton, Minn.\nand librarian in a small town she had been able to give aid to pupils on Fridays after\nschool.\nBy informal reports upon reading from printed lists furnished by the Ubrary\nshe kept in touch with the reading of pupils. Extra credit was allowed for such reading.\nEach year the English teachers made a new reading-list of books easily and certainly\n\naccessible to the pupils.\n\nAt first these lists were given out with only general suggestions,\n\nbut later special suggestions to individuals were made in the Ubrary. The lists included\nfiction, poetry, and biography, with the greatest number of titles in the first class.\nII.\n\nMinnie E. Porter, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.\n\n—Miss Porter de-\n\nscribed the experiment in home reading that she had carried out with success, aided by\n\nMiss Gretchen Flower, school department librarian in the library of the Kansas State\nThe basis of her report was \"A List of Books Recommended by Our\nClass for Reading by Our Class,\" copies of which were distributed to the audience. Most\nof the young people in this first-year high-school class were from the country and had\nlittle background of reading.\nSome came from homes where there were genuine scruples\nagainst the reading of fiction by young people. The recommendations made by the\npupils to each other are the result of four months' use of the books and facilities of the\nschool department of the normal-school Ubrary, under the direction of Miss Porter and\nMiss Flower. The comments were selected by a committee of the class and were printed\nverbatim. By following the successive recommendations of these boys and girls as they\nlearned to read books, a growing change in their taste may be detected. Miss Porter\nemphasized the need of fitting the reading to the class and the home environment of the\nindividual pupil. Four girls recommended Anne of Green Gables as a \"story of a smaU\ngirl whose imagination was so great that it some times got the best of her; it is very\ncomical and amusing.\" College Years was recommended by two boys: \"Three men on\nbases, two out, three balls, last half of ninth inning.\"\nTreasure Island was recommended\nby a boy and two girls: \"A story of buried treasure and brave men who go to seek it but\ndiscover that six-sevenths of the men on board are pirates and bad ones at that.\" The\nSky Pilot was favored by a girl whose home was a lonely prairie farm: \"About the western hiU country and a little girl who always wanted to be outdoors; she loved to drive\n\nNormal School.\n\ncattle.\"\nIII. Franklin K. Mathiews, librarian, Boy Scouts of America, New York, N.Y.\nMr. Mathiews related that the leaders of the scout movement, in their effort to bring\nback the spirit of the old-time home and to magnify the work of the child, had found it\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": "796", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n796\n\n[Library\n\nnecessary to arouse parents to be concerned in the outside activities of the child.\n\nThese\n\nleaders also found that to make their organized work more effective they must influence\n\nthe home-life of the scouts.\n\nThus came about their offer to parents to furnish reading-\n\nlists for individual boys to fit the boy according to an analysis of the boy furnished by the\n\nparents.\n\nTo counteract the influence of the trashy fiction for boys which still exists but\n\ndisguises its harmful nickel quality under an attractive binding and a higher price, some-\n\ntimes using the scout name, the Boy Scouts organization has established the Everyboy's\nLibrary, a growing collection of well-selected and approved books, sold at the imiform\nprice of fifty cents per volume. The first twenty-five titles are fiction, but the list will\ngrow into other fields. Thus the boy-scout list, selected wisely by experts, can be relied\nupon by all purchasers, and this list will offer a very successful and practical solution of\n\nthe problem of selecting home reading.\n\nTHE COUNTRY CHILD IN THE RURAL LIBRARY\nJOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC\nINSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH.\n\nThe country child to me means the child of isolation, because the\ntwentieth-century country school is, in many instances, a school with few\npupils.\n\nIsolation is the dreaded problem in country life today.\n\nThe city\n\nand the large land holdings have brought us a nation-wide\nstay-on-the-farm movement. It was my privilege to work for a number of\nyears as county superintendent of schools, and I made many visits to the\nisolated rural schools and thus personally met the country boys and girls.\nI remember one morning in visiting a country school I listened to an\ninteresting reading-lesson on Hawthorne's The Great Stone Face. The\nboy who read this lesson, with his teacher, enjoyed and manifested a deep\ninterest in the picture of the boy growing up under the influence of a high\nideal.\nThe granite profile on the mountain side, which he sees each morning from his cottage door, expresses to him what is best in human character.\nHe comes to love it, and loving it grows to be like it. The country boy,\nwho was the only one in his class, seemed to forget his isolation and lack\nof classmates in his intense interest in learning of the boy in the story.\nHe\nfelt inspired as the result of the companionship with the great and the\ngood as he and the teacher took turns in reading paragraphs from this\nbeautiful story.\nThe Great Stone Face^ with its underlying allegory, is an\nincentive not only to the young to seek that which is noble, but to those\nwho are responsible for the training of the young to see that a right environment is provided for these charges.\nOur country schools especially need a library of the world's best literature, because in these books we find a world full of boys like Robinson\nCrusoe, with whom we may build a stockade, or our boys may care to roam\nin the woods with Hiawatha, or sail the seas with Sindbad, or play at football with Tom Brown.\nThe city boy's mother spends much thought on\nattractions\n\nthe associates for her son or daughter.\n\nMany times the neighbor's children\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": "797", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE COUNTRY CHILD IN THE LIBRARY\n\n797\n\ndo not seem quite good enough. One is polite but untruthful, another\ngood-natured, another rowdy, still another has no visible virtue, but a\n\nEach neighbor is, in turn, equally\nsin.\nand many times thoughtful mothers and fathers come to realize\nthat there are no ideal children from whom to choose companionship.\nThey look to books to guide and overcome the evil influence of intimate\ngenerous allotment of original\ncritical,\n\ncity companionship.\n\nThe country boy's mother does not need this world of books and boys\nbecause of the many playmates who claim so much from her boy, but because,\nif\n\nshe has neighbors, they are usually of such a distance that, except thru\n\nthe school recess or noon intermission, or trips going to and from school,\n\ncountry children are not thrown much in contact.\n\nIn fact, our twentieth-\n\ncentury \"little red schoolhouse\" is not crowded with pupils, and we find\ntoo often a few boys and girls with little to develop a school spirit.\n\nIn this\n\ntype of school the teacher needs to give the best that is in her, because she\n\nmust make up to the boy and girl much that they lack thru a larger association with the boys and girls of their own age. The mother and father\nrealize this, and, in their effort to supply their boy and girl, they turn to\nthe same books that help the city father and mother, and they encourage\nassociation with Hiawatha, Tom Brown, Robinson Crusoe, Sindbad,\nGalahad, and other notable youths in the world's literature.\nFrom these boys and girls in our best books, the country child will\nreceive lessons in though tfulness, bravery, manliness, and straightforward-\n\nThe country child finds comfort in these books of noble companionThe country child depends on the school library, then, very largely\nThe environment is not attractive\nfor companionship and inspiration.\nness.\nship.\n\nin many parts of our rural communities,\n\nand the isolation of the farm\n\nfurnishes an opportunity for wider reading if it is properly guided.\n\nIn\n\nthis day, when our counties are furnishing circulating libraries, our state\nlibraries carrying\n\non extension work, and even our city centers planning\n\nto carry out a county-wide extension library movement, no boy need live\n\nwithout his playmates or his boon companions, for he finds them in Hiawatha, in Robinson Crusoe, in the Swiss Family Robinson, the Knights of\n\nKing Arthur, and in many other books of standard worth.\nSome believe that the taste for reading comes as a gift of the gods.\nThis is only partly true.\n\nIt is true just as far as that a generation of\n\nculture may be expected to produce in the child an aptitude, which, under\n\nfavorable conditions, will develop into taste; but the corollary is not true,\n\nthat the child who is born without this gift is doomed to barbarism.\n\nHe\n\nsimply must work harder and will be in the end stronger for the effort.\n\nWe who are interested in the country child must see that he becomes\nfamiliar with the best literature adapted to his widening range of thought\nin the early years of his school life;\n\nand despite his ancestry we shall find\n\ntaste for the best that the world has to offer him.\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": "798", "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n798\n\n[Library\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\nMARTHA WILSON, SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES, STATE DEPARTMENT\nOF EDUCATION, ST. PAUL, MINN., CHAIRMAN\n7.\n\nA STANDARD FOUNDATION LIBRARY FOR A\nRURAL SCHOOL\n\n(prepared by HARRIET A. WOOD, SCHOOL LIBRARIAN, LIBRARY ASSOCIATION\nOF PORTLAND, PORTLAND, ORE., AND WALTER BARNES,\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL, GLENVILLE, W.VA.)\n\nThe committee has compiled a list of 122 titles because it seemed that\na short list would be most helpful to the average country-school teacher.\nIf he has no library, he can start one with this list better than with a longer\none, since only the choicest books are given. If he has a small library, this\nlist will surely suggest\n\nadditions.\n\nIf he has a large library, he will need a\n\nlonger list than the conmiittee can compile as a foimdation.\n\nOf the 122 titles, about 60 are \"literature\" books, 40 are \"information\" books for the children's reading, and about 20 are reference books,\nmost of them suitable for both pupil and teacher. The fear that the price\nwould prevent the purchase of important titles has led to the reluctant\nselection in some cases of inexpensive editions.\n\nThe books are graded according to the reading interests of children:\none to three, primary; four to six, intermediate;\n\nand seven and eight,\n\nadvanced.\n\nIn general, all the children within a section\n\nsame book.\n\nAn exception to this rule is made in regard to the first-grade\n\nwill\n\nenjoy the\n\nThe mechanical difficulties of learning to read make it necessary\n\npupils.\n\nto select books for them that third-grade pupils would consider too infantile.\n\nYounger pupils will listen with interest to older books if read aloud, and\nupper-grade pupils will find much of value in the simpler books.\n\nGeneral\nAuthor\n\nBryant\nCabot\nChamplin\n\nChamplin\n\nChamplin\n\nEvans and Duncan\n\nPublisher\n\nTitle\n\nHow to tell stories to children\n\nHoughton\nHoughton\n\nEthics for children\nfolks' cyclopedia of common\nthings, 3d ed\nJHolt\nYoung folks' cyclopedia of literature\nand art\nHoltYoung folks' cyclopedia of persons and\nplaces, 6th ed\nHolt\n\nm\n\nFarm life readers, vol. 4\nEveryman\n\nencyclopedia,\ninforced cloth\n\nWaUace\n\n$1.00\n1.25\n\nYoung\n\nSilver\n\n12\n\nvols.,\n\n300\n3.00\n•45\n\nre-\n\nArbor day\nChristmas\nThanksgiving\nUncle Henry's letters to die farm boy.\nWorld almanac (paper), edition for current year\n\n3.00\n\n.50\n\nvol. 5\n\nSchauflBer\nSchauffler\nSchauffler\n\nPrice\n\nButton\nMoffat\nMoffat\nMo£Fat\nMacmillan\nPress Pub. Co.\n\n8.00\n1. 00\n1. 00\n1. 00\n•50\n•30\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": "799", "text": ". .. .\n\n..\n\n.\n\n.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartment!\n\n799\n\nBooks for First Grade\nAuthor\n\nPublisher\n\nTitle\n\nBlaisdeU\n\nBoy Blue and his friends\n\nLittle\n\nBryce\nFree and Treadwell\nFree and Treadwell.\nLucia\n\nChild-lore dramatic reader\nReading-literature: primer\nReading-literature: first reader\nPeter and Polly in summer\n\nScribner\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nPrice\n\n$0.40\n\nRow\nRow\n\n•30\n.32\n.36\n\nAmer. Bk. Co.\n\n•\n\n35\n\nFairy and Folk Tales, Fables, Myths, and Legends\n\nAuthor\n\n4-8\n4-6\n4-6\n4-6\n4-6\n\nAesop\nAndersen\nArabian Nighti\n\n4-6\n1-6\n7-8\n4-6\n7-8\n4-6\n7-8\n4-6\n4-6\n\nCollodi\n\nJacobs\nKingsley\nKingsley\n\n1-3\n\nPerrault\n\n4-6\n4-6\n4-6\n\nPyle\n\n1-3\n7-8\n\nBrown\nCarroll\n\nGrimm\nHawthorne.\n\nMacmillan\n\n$1.50\n\nStories\nStories from the Arabian nights\nIn the days of giants\nAlice's adventures in Wonderland and\nThrough the looking-glass\n\nHoughton\nHoughton\nHoughton\n\n.40\n.40\n.50\n\nGrosset\n\nSO\n\nPinocchio\nGerman household tales\n\nGinn\n\n.40\n\nJacobs\nJacobs\n\n1. 00\n\nBurt\nGinn\nButton\n\n1. 00\n\n.\n\n.\n\nEnglish fairy tales\nThe heroes\nWater babies\nAdventures of Ulysses\n\nLamb\nLang\nMulock\n\nBlue fairy book\nLittle lame prince\nTales of Mother Goose\nSome merry adventures of Robin Hood\nKing of the Golden river\n\nRuskin\nScudder\nScudder\n\nPrice\n\nFables; selected by Jacobs\n\nWonder-book and Tanglewood tales\n\n.\n\nBook of legends\nBook of fables and folk stories\n\nHeath\nLongmans\nHeath\nHeath\n\n1. 00\n\n.30\n•SO\n.25\n1. 00\n\n30\n\nHeath\nHoughton\nHoughton\n\n.20\n•SO\n.20\n.25\n•45\n\nHoughton\nHeath\n\n.40\n•30\n\nScribner\n\nStevens and\n\nAUen\n4-6\n\nPublisher\n\nTitle\n\nKing Arthur stories\n\nSwift\n\nGulliver's travels.\n\n.\n\nPoetry\n\nAuthor\n\nPublisher\n\nTitle\n\n7-8\n\nBryan\n\nPoems of country life\n\nSturgis\n\n4-8\n\nChisholm\n\nGolden staircase. School ed\nThree years with the poets\nNonsense books\nComplete poetical works. Autograph\ned\n\nPutnam\n\n1-3\n\nHazard\n\n4-6\n\nLear\n\nRef.\n\nLongfellow.\n\n7-8\n1-3\n\nMontgomery.\nMother Goose\n\n7-8\n1-3\n1-3\n\nShakespeare.\nStevenson\n\nWaterman.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nHeroic ballads\nMother Goose,\n\nillustrated\n\nGreenaway\nMerchant of Venice.\n\nHoughton\n\nPrice\n\n$1.00\n1. 00\n•SO\n\nLittle\n\n2.00\n\nHoughton\nGinn\n\n1. 00\n\n•SO\n\nby Kate\n\nWame\nBen Greet ed.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nDoubleday\n\nChild's garden of verses\n\nRand\n\nGraded memory selections\n\nEduc. Pub. Co,\n\n.60\n.60\n.50\n.25\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": "800", "text": "...... ...\n\n.\n\n,\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8oo\n\n[Library\n\nStories\n\nTide\n\nAuthor\n\nPublisher\n\nLittle\n\nAndrews.\n\nLittle women\nStory of a bad boy\nPerfect tribute\n\nBlackmore.\n\nLoma Doone\n\nCrowell\n\nPilgrim's progress\n\nGinn\n\n7-8\n4-6\n7-8\n7-8\n7-8\n\nBunyan\n\n7-8\n\nCooper\n\nLast of the Mohicans, illustrated by\n\nDefoe.\nDickens.\n\nHolt\nBoyd Smith\nRobinson Crusoe\nJacobs\nChristmas carol and Cricket on the\nMacmillan\nhearth\n\n4-6\n7-8\n\n4-^\n4-6\n4-6\n7-8\n7-^\n4-6\n7-8\n4-6\n4-6\n7-8\n7-8\n7-8\n7-8\n4-6\n4-6\n\nAlcott\nAldrich\n\nDodge\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nEggleston\nGreene.\n.\n\nHoughton\nScribner\n\nHans Brinker\nHoosier school-boy\n\nGrosset\nScribner\n\nPickett's gap\n\nMacmillan\nGinn\nHarper\n\nHale\nHughes.\nPage\n\nMan without a country\nTom Brown's school days\nTwo little confederates\n\nScott\n\nIvanhoe\nJolly good times\n\nSmith. .\nSpyri....\nStevenson\n.\n\nWiggin.\n\nLittle\n\nHeidi\nTreasure island\nThe prince and the pauper\n\nTwain ...\nTwain\n\nTom Sawyer\nRebecca of Sunnybrook farm ....\nSwiss family Robinson\nWidow O'Callaghan's boys\n\n.\n\nWyss\nZollinger.\n\nScribner\nLippincott\n\nPrice\n\nSi. 35\n.50\n•\n\nSO\n\n•30\n1. 35\n1. 00\n\n.25\n•SO\n•SO\n.50\n.25\n\nISO\n150\n1.50\n1. 25\n\nGinn\n\n.40\n\nJacobs\n\n1. 00\n\nHarper\nHarper\n\n1-75\n1-75\n\nGrosset\nJacobs\n\n1. 00\n\nMcClurg\n\n1. 25\n\n.50\n\nAnimal and Nature Stories\n\nAuthor\n\n1-3\n7-8\n\n4-6\n7-8\n7-8\n4-6\n4-6\n1-3\n\n4-6\n4-6\n4-6\n\nPublisher\n\nTitle\n\nBrown\nBrown\nEddy\nHarris\nKipling. .\nKipling ....\n.\n\nLong\nPotter\nSeton\nSewell\n\nWeed and\nMurtfeldt\n\nPlant baby\n\nSilver\n\nRab and his friends\n\nHeath\nGinn\nHoughton\n\nFriends and helpers\nNights with Uncle Remus.\nJungle book\nJust so stories\nWood folk at school\nTale of Peter Rabbit\n\nWame\n\nLobo, Rag and Vixen\nBlack Beauty\n\nJacobs\n\n.\n\nStories of insect-life, vol. i\nvol. 2\n\nCentury\nDoubleday\nGinn\nScribner\n\nGinn\n\nPrice\n\n$0.48\n.20\n.60\n\n1.40\n1.50\n1.20\n.30\n.50\n•50\n•30\n.25\n•30\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": "801", "text": ".. .. ... .\n\n.\n\n.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n8oi\n\nArts and Sciences\n\nTiUe\n\nAuthor\n\nBancroft.\nBarstow.\n\nGames for the playground\nFamous pictures\nLittle folks' handy book\n\n.\n\n.\n\nBeard ....\nBenton.\nFairbanks\n\nForman\n\n.\n\nMacmillan\nCentury\nScribner\n\nLittle cookbook for a little girl\nHome geography for primary grades\nStories of useful inventions.\nSchool ed\nEssentials of woodworking\n\n.\n\n.\n\nPublisher\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nGriffith...\n\nHolden ...\nMcGlauflin\n\nReal things in nature\nHandicraft for girls\n\nMiller\n\nFirst book of birds.\n\nPage\nEduc. Pub. Co.\nCentury\n\nPrice\n\n$1 SO\n\n60\n.75\n•75\n\n.60\n.60\n\nManual Arts\nPress\n\n1. 00\n\nMacmillan\n\n.65\n\nManual Arts\nSchool ed\n\nPress\n\n1. 00\n\nHoughton\n\n.60\n\nGeography\n\nTide\n\nAuthor\n\nAUen\nAllen\nCarpenter.\nCarpenter.\nCarpenter.\nCarpenter.\nCarpenter.\nCarpenter.\nCarpenter.\n\nIndustrial studies: Europe\nIndustrial studies: United States\n.\n\nEurope\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nChamberlain\nChamberlain\nChamberlain\nHall and\nChester.\n\nAsia\n\n.\n\nHow the world is clothed\nHow the world is fed\nHow the world is housed\nNorth America\nSouth America\n\nHow we travel\nSouth America\nNorth America\n\nPanama and the canal.\n\nSchool ed\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nFour wonders: cotton, wool, linen, silk.\n\nShillig\n\nPublisher\n\nPrice\n\nGinn\nGinn\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nMacmillan\nMacmillan\nMacmillan\n\n$0.80\n\nNewson\nRand\n\n.65\n.60\n.70\n.60\n.60\n.60\n.60\n.60\n.40\n.55\n•55\n\n.60\n•\n\n50\n\nHistory and Biography\n\nTiUe\n\nAuthor\n\nPromised land\n\nAntin\nBaldwin.\nBaldwin.\n\nAbraham Lincoln\n\nBrown\n\nEpoch making papers in United States\n\nFifty famous stories retold\n\n.\n\n.\n\nEggleston\nEggleston\n\nhistory\nFirst book in American history\nStories of great Americans for\n\nElson\nFranklin\n\n.\n\nAmericans\nHistory of United States\nAutobiography\n\nGulliver.\n\n.\n\nHaskin.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n,\n\nPumphrey,\n\nTappan\n\n.\n\nWarren.\n\n.\n\nPublisher\n\nPrice\n\nHoughton\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nAmer. Bk. Co.\n\n$1-75\n\nMacmillan\nAmer. Bk. Co.\n\n.25\n.60\n\n•35\n\nlittle\n\nFriendship of nations\n\nAmer. Bk. Co.\nMacmillan\nHoughton\nGinn\n\nAmerican government.\n\nLippincott\n\nSchool ed\nPilgrim stories\nOld world hero stories\nStories from English history\n\n.60\n\n.40\n\n1.75\n.40\n.60\n.80\n\nRand\n\n.45\n\nHoughton\nHeath\n\n.70\n.65\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": "802", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o2\n\n[Library\n\nTRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS IN THE USE OF BOOKS\n\n//.\n\nDELIA\n\nG.\n\nOVITZ,\n\nLIBRAMAN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nThe school library presents three problems: first, the organization and\nsecond, the training of pupils to know and love good\nThe\nliterature; third, the training of pupils in the effective use of books.\nadministration;\n\nthird of these problems should, I believe, be given first place in importance.\nWhile it is necessary for a large library to be cataloged, if a choice had to\n\nbe made between a teacher who could catalog and one who knew books,\nOnce teach a pupil to use books\n\nI should unhesitatingly take the latter.\n\nas tools and you have given him a good start on the road to knowing and\n\nloving good literature.\nI have been asked to discuss the training which rural-school teachers\n\nshould have in the normal school, county training school, agricultural high\nschool, or teachers' training department of the high school that will enable\n\nhim to train the pupils of the rural community in the effective use of books\nas tools.\n\nIn his essay on \"Books and Libraries,\" James Russell Lowell writes\nwith cheerful optimism: \"All that is primarily needful in order to use a\nlibrary is the ability to read.\"\nit is a pity that,\n\ntrue\n\n—as\n\nThe phrase is so neat and so plausible that\n\nfor practical purposes, it is more likely to prove false than\n\nfalse, let us say, as that knowing\n\nhow to drive a nail is all that is\n\nnecessary to make a good carpenter.\n\nAs a matter of fact, there are a good\nmany people who never have learned and never will learn even the rudiments of the art of using a library\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\nof so using it as to get from it\n\njust the special knowledge that they are seeking, and, what is more, getting\nit in a\n\nminimum of time.\n\nLowell, of course, was speaking purely from the\n\nstandpoint of the man of letters: he was thinking not of any one kind of\nlibrary, public or private, general or technical, but just of libraries in the\n\nabstract.\n\nBut it is not at all in this sense that the phrase \"how to use a library\"\nemployed in the present paper. Our schools and colleges have kept\npace with educational progress in almost every line of work except that of\n\nis\n\ntraining pupils to find and use intelligently the material that is all about\n\nthem.\n\nBut it is never too late to learn.\n\nI quote from John Cotton Dana\n\non the subject:\nIn our colleges and technical schools little is taught of the world of print, very little.\n\nMost colleges spend more on gymnasiums than on print, and far more on machines,\nchemicals, retorts, and dynamos than on any laboratory of printed things. This seems\nincredible but it is true.\nThe printed record of man's thoughts and deeds in every field\nnothing is more important in the world. How to use the world's accumulated knowledge\ndown to and including what was learned and printed yesterday no learning can be as\n\n—\n\nimportant as that.\n\nIt is not even in the\nOf course, if the colleges do\nnot teach all this, the graduates do not when they in turn become teachers in high and\n\nYet, this is not taught well in the colleges.\n\ncurriculum, save in rare cases and in minute quantities.\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": "803", "text": "COMMITTEE ON RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartmemt]\n\n803\n\nnormal schools; and, therefore, the common-school teachers, coming from the normal\nschools, do not; and, therefore again, the boy is not taught it when he goes to school;\nand, therefore, once more, when the boy gets into business, he does not readily learn that\nin the world of print must be the very information that will help him, that will shorten\nhis processes, prevent foohsh experiments, and guide him straight to the end he wants\n\nto reach.\n\nIf it is important that high-school teachers receive this instruction, it is\n\na thousand-fold more important that the rural teacher receive\n\nit.\n\nThe\n\nhigh-school teacher will usually have a well-equipped public library at her\ndisposal;\n\nwhen questions come up which she cannot answer, she can turn\n\nher unsuspecting pupil over to the librarian.\n\nIn the rural community,\n\nhowever, in which there is no other source than the school from which\nparents and children may secure information, it is most important for the\nteacher to have a broad knowledge of books, magazines, and pamphlets, and\nto know where to get all material on any subject that might come up for\n\ndiscussion either in the school or in the community.\nis the library of their own school a closed book.\n\nof them read for entertainment only.\n\ncommunity\n\nTo too many teachers\n\nTeachers read, but many\n\nThe teacher who goes into the rural\n\nan intensely practical class of people, who as a rule\nIt is her great privilege to bring to these farmers and their\n\nwill find\n\nread very little.\n\n—\nexplain—books that make\n\nchildren the books that will make them better farmers\n\ning how to make all farm operations more profitable\n\nthem masters of their problems.\n\n^bulletins\n\nwill\n\nBut all too often the teacher's training\n\nhas not been such that she can render this service.\n\nFor the sake of getting at something definite as a basis for discussion,\nI have outlined a ten weeks' course in the use of books which I think should\nbe required of every rural-school teacher: this has been tried out with\nsuccess for several years:\nFirst, a general talk on the importance of training in the use of books\n\nand on the scope of library work, with special emphasis on the helpfulness\nof a library in continuing the education of the individual;\n\nexplanation of\n\nthe scheme of classification showing the main classes with some of the\nsubdivisions used in our library; study of the floor plan of the library with\n\nattention to the location of the different classes of books.\n\nThen follows an explanation of the card catalog with the various forms\nstudy and comparison of the dictionaries, encyclopedias,\nand special reference books; periodical literature, its value and importance;\nthe value and use of the magazine indexes; public documents, value in\nschool work, sources, methods of filing; children's books, what constitutes\na good edition (paper, printing, binding, illustrations) the parts of a book,\nof cards used;\n\n;\n\ntheir uses, their position in the book, abbreviations used in books; helps\nin book selection;\n\nvalue of a course in reference work for the grades and\n\nhigh school.\n\nWork is outlined for each grade, lesson-plans written, and practice in\npresenting the work is given.\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": "804", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o4\n\niLibrary\n\nFinally all the agencies that stand ready and willing to help the teacher,\n\nsuch as library commissions with traveling libraries, the university extension\ndivision with its package library designed to meet the demands of students\n\nalong all lines, state libraries, experiment stations, and public libraries, are\ndiscussed.\nWe have a traveling library at the school for the purpose of\n\ndemonstrating the manner of obtaining the library, how it may be used,\n\nand how the books are charged.\nIn connection with this work, a rural-school library, not a model one,\n\nbut a real one, is being cataloged. We are fortunate in being able to secure\nat any time a library in the county that needs cataloging; the county\nsuperintendent conveys\n\nit\n\nto\n\nour school.\n\nAll\n\naccessioning, and cataloging is done by the pupils;\n\nbest practice possible.\n\nthe mending, labeling,\nthis, I feel, is the very\n\nThe \"Township Library List\" of our state is used\n\nas a textbook for this work.\n\nSo much for the outline.\n\nIt is impossible in this limited time to go\n\ninto detail as to the method of presenting the various topics.\n\nAfter each\n\nnew subject is discussed, a set of problems is assigned the student;\nproblems necessitate the handling of the tools discussed.\n\nthese\n\nIn the\n\ndis-\n\ncussion of reference books, I invariably start out with a set of questions,\n\nthe answers to all of which may be found in the dictionary.\n1.\n\nFor example:\n\nWho was Becky Sharp?\n\nWhen did Bismarck die ?\n3. When was Oklahoma admitted as a state ?\n4. What is the meaning of the phrase, \"Esprit de corps\" ?\n5. What is the Monroe Doctrine ?\n2.\n\nI say to the class, \"I do not care for the answers, but where would you\nrefer a seventh- or eighth-grade pupil for the answer, should he ask you\n\nany or all of these questions?\" The fact that not more than 10 or 15\nper cent of the entire class ever receive a passing grade shows very clearly\nthat the graduates of high schools are not familiar with the resources of the\ndictionary.\n\nThe next day another set is given, to be reported on the\n\nfollowing day, which probably necessitates the use of the Statesman's\n\nYearbook the World's Almanac and possibly a book of quotations.\neach day's work adds a new book of reference.\ny\n\n,\n\nThus\n\nWe endeavor to make our questions such that they dovetail into the\nwork being done by the teachers in the other departments, in order that\nfrom the start the students may be able to see the practical value of the\nwork. Sometimes the students are required to write up the answers, but\nmore often only to name the sources; it is always the source that we\nemphasize. This is training that will make the student alert and able to\nstand on his own feet and answer his own questions for himself.\nSometimes the problems are all based on current events; again a set\nis given, \"Who's who and why,\" consisting of a list of prcxtninent men and\nwomen of the present day. Much interesting and amusing information\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": "805", "text": ":\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n805\n\nFor example, P. P. Claxton is a novelist, author of Little\nWilliam Chandler Bagley, keeper of curios, London;\nM. V. O'Shea, an Irish dramatist— all this and much more from high-school\ngraduates. Plainly their education has not acquainted them with the men\nand women who are today doing constructive work in education.\nis brought here.\n\nLord Fauntleroy;\n\nWhen I am sure the students are fairly familiar with the resources of\nthe dictionary. Statesman's Yearbook, World's Almanac, Bartletfs Familiar\nQuotations,\n\nBrewer's Handbook, the Blue Book, the Reader's Guide, and\n\npossibly two or three others, we begin to get acquainted with the reference\n\nbooks in the particular field in which the student is to teach.\n\nThose who\n\nintend to teach in a rural community are introduced to Bailey's Cyclopedia\nof Agriculture\n\nand Cyclopedia\n\nof Horticulture, yearbooks of agriculture,\n\nfarmers' bulletins, publications of experimental stations,\n\nand a group of\n\ninspirational books such as Field's The Corn Lady, Carney's Country Life\n\nand Country School, Eggleston's Hoosier Schoolmaster and Hoosier School\nBoy, Grayson's Adventures in Contentment and Adventures in Friendship,\nand others adapted to the community needs and bearing upon the farm\nand the farmer, upon his occupations, his home, and his daily round of\nduties.\nAlways we emphasize the fact that the teacher must study the\ncommunity and be of practical service to the people in it. A set of questions similar to these is then given:\n\nWhere will you find material on\n2.\n\nHow to raise alfalfa\nHow to build a silo\n\n3.\n\nRotation of crops\n\n1.\n\nSweet clover\nCanning fruit\n6. Tobacco-curing and marketing\n7. Means of improving the soil\n4.\n\n5.\n\n8.\n\nSpraying\n\n9.\n\nBabcock test\n\n10.\n\nWeeds\n\n11.\n\nBirds of value to the farmer\n\n12.\n\nUse of concrete on the farm\n\n13.\n\nGood roads\n\n14.\n\nDraining wet places\n\n15. Poultry-raising\n\n16.\n\nBread and bread-making\n\n17.\n\nModern conveniences for the farm home\n\n18.\n\nPreparation of vegetables for the table\n\n19.\n\nCare of eggs\n\nSome fifty or more subjects are listed, students suggesting subjects\nin\n\nwhich they are interested.\n\nAfter a general discussion as to possible\n\nsources for material, each student is asked to select any one of these in\n\nwhich he is the most interested and write a long theme on it, at the close\nof which he lists all the sources consulted. As much of this material is\ntreated in public documents, the student begins to realize the value of these\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": "806", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o6\n\n[Library\n\npublications and gets his first practical lesson in how and where to procure\nthese documents, as well as other inexpensive reference material.\n\nRural-school teachers above\n\nall\n\nmust become acquainted with the\n\nmaterial which will enable them to keep their libraries up to date with the\nToo much emphasis cannot be placed on the value of public\nleast expense.\n\ndocuments, national,\n\nstate,\n\nand municipal, the value\n\nof bulletins\n\nand\n\nmonographs from educational institutions, and pamphlets from big manufacturing concerns. These last, while sent out as advertising, are valuable\nFor example, the International Haracquisitions to the small library.\nvester Company sends out a little bulletin. For Better Crops, in which\nappear splendid chapters by experts on \"Care and Protection of Farm\nEquipment,\" \"Wheat Crop,\" \"Com Crop,\" and others. Another pamphlet by the same firm, called Golden Stream, gives the leading dairy breeds,\ntells\n\nhow to care for dairy products, etc.\n\nProctor & Gamble Company\n\nsend out a bulletin on Approved Methods for Home Laundering, which is\nvery valuable in a rural community where the laundering is done at home.\n\nRaihoad and steamship guides are another valuable source.\nrial which it will pay the teacher to\n\nknow about.\n\nThis is mate-\n\nWe supply students with\n\nmimeographed lists of such material which may be had for the asking.\nOf course every teacher will not want all of the material we discuss.\nWe always try to impress upon them the importance of getting acquainted\nwith the farmer, of studing the community, and of knowing the needs, and\nalways and forever trying to co-operate with agencies, which are already\nestablished, such as farmers' clubs, boys' and girls' clubs, of trying to forward the cause of good farming, and of being constantly on the alert to see\nwhat other teachers have found successful.\nFrankly, if I were a rural-school teacher I should not be so much\ninterested in whether or not a child read the classics, but I should be\ntremendously interested in finding out every child's hobby, whether it\nwere poultry or orchards, bees or dairying, and, having found out, I should\nhelp him to all the books available on that subject, so that when he leaves\nschool he may have enough interest and enthusiasm for that one thing to\nbe able to make more of a success along that line than his father did before\nhim.\nIf we want the library to be the great continuation school for boys and\ngirls\n\nwe must early acquaint them with its resources.\n\nLast winter I had\n\nAt first the men\nand boys looked askance at the library and passed by the door to go to the\nthe opportunity of working in a social-center library.\n\npoolroom, billiard-room, and any one of the several other activities in\noperation.\n\nGradually, however, they began to drop into the library to\n\nlook at the daily paper.\n\nWe set about to discover the various occupations\n\nof these men and the next time they came in had books relating to their\n\nwork for them to examine.\n\nIn two short months we had between thirty-\n\nfive and forty men coming regularly once a week for technical books.\n\nOne\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": "807", "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RURAI^SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\n807\n\ncarpenter said to me, \"I didn't know a library had books on carpentry,\nI thought they were all love story books.\"\n\nAnd another man said he had\n\nfound out that the \"library ain't only to brag about.\"\nAs soon as the teachers realize how tremendously the library can sup-\n\nplement and vitalize their teaching, the libraries in the rural school will\n\ngrow and the right use of the material will follow.\nHow shall this training be given in the rural schools ? The geography,\nhistory, and language classes offer splendid opportunities for the work.\nThe opening exercises may be utilized. The old game of \"stand up and\nspell down\" may furnish the model on which to conduct an exercise in\nreference work. After a pupil has had the various tools explained to him\nhe must learn to use them by being referred to them not once but many\ntimes. Let the teacher begin referring to them the first day of school and\nkeep it up every day of the year.\nWe follow a hard-and-fast rule in our library: we never answer a\nquestion for a student that he can answer for himself. Many times when\nstudents apply for help and we are driven just at that minute, the easiest\npossible means of getting rid of them would be to answer their questions;\nbut we want our students to have the ability to stand alone and help themselves when there is no one at hand to help them.\nOur question to an\napplicant for help is, \"Where have you looked?\" We do this to familiarize him with authors and get him out of the red, blue, and green book\nhabit. Many times he is on the right track. If he is not, we set him aright\nby giving suggestions as to the particular book in which an answer might\nbe lurking, and always we try to keep an eye on him until he has finally\nfound the information desired. The next time a similar question comes\nup, it will be solved with less effort, and the next time almost automatically.\n\nThe teacher will soon discover that these lessons are time-savers rather\nthan time-consumers, and the pupils will be forming library habits which\nwill hold them after their school days are over.\n\nThe teacher should be so thoroly saturated with her subject that the\nminute a question comes up she will know whether the card catalog, the\nreference book, or the magazine will be her surest source, and she should\n\nendeavor to transmit that power to her pupils.\n\nMany of you here have\n\nspent hours in searching for a bit of information you might have found in\nfive minutes if you had been trained in school to know your tools.\n\nWithout this training, the librarian, teacher, and pupils are handicapped in their work and the library fails of its greatest usefulness. Such\ntraining is infinitely more valuable in later life than knowing a few textbooks from cover to cover.\n\nMy plea in closing is that rural teachers be so trained in the use of\nbooks that the rural library will be the true center of the community.\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": "808", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o8\n\n///.\n\n(Library\n\nCOMMUNITY SERVICE FROM THE RURAL-SCHOOL\nLIBRARY\n\n(prepared by ELIZABETH B. WALES, SECRETARY, MISSOURI LIBRARY COMMISSION, JEFFERSON CITY, MO., AND T. N. CARVER, RURAL SPECIALIST,\nUNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D.C.)\n\nYour committee approached the subject first from the point of individual service and endeavored to secure data for gauging the possibility\nof present service in the issue of books to adults in the community from the\n\nlibrary of the school.\n\nTo do this the old method of a list of questions was\n\nfollowed.\n\nThis list of questions was sent to the state superintendent in every\nstate in the union and a supplementary request was sent to each library\n\nconunission.\n\nUp to June 20 answers had been received from twenty-\n\neight states.\n\nThe tabulation of the returns showed most inadequate records\nThree superintendents frankly wrote that\n\nof the rural-school libraries.\n\nthey had no records that would give the information.\n\nMany estimates\n\nwere given and in states from which two reports were received the opinions\nof the library\n\nvariance.\n\ncommission and state superintendent were frequently at\n\nThe states answering indicated that the rural problem as such\n\nand southern states. Conshow special\nfeatures which bear differently upon the problem of the rural-school library.\nexists largely in the northwest, middle-west,\n\nditions on the Pacific Coast and in the northwestern states\n\n(See appendix for tabulated statement.)\n\nIn answer to the question regarding the number of books in rural-school\nlibraries suited to adult circulation,\n\na percentage was shown, from one-\n\ntenth to one-half of the schools having enough books; out of twenty-one\n\nanswers to the questions concerning the kind of books, only six believe\nthe rural schools are likely to have the books needed; two say the books\nhave been selected with too much reference to the adult reader (New York\nand Virginia). The question of management evoked twenty- three answers,\ntwenty of which mentioned the teacher as the distributing oificer. In most\ncases, it was held the teacher should do the work out of school hours.\nThe\nconamon opinion seems to be that the school board would be justified by the\nopinion of the conmiunity in encouraging such work by the teacher; two\nstates thought the board might object to such use of the school library\n(Missouri and South Dakota) two others thought the community opinion\nwould not justify such work at present (Minnesota and Virginia).\nOn account of the small proportions of the answers received, your\ncommittee does not believe that satisfactory conclusions can be drawn\nfrom the questionnaire regarding the ability of the rural school to undertake\n;\n\nthe work.\n\nIt appears, however, that the present condition of the rural\n\nschools does not fit them to be the center of this extension work if it is to\n\nbe done efficiently.\n\nThe constant tendency, however, to better the rural\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": "809", "text": "COMMITTEE ON RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartment!\n\n809\n\nschool, to secure a more permanent teacher for the rural school, as well as\n\nto develop the consolidated school for the rural district, holds out con-\n\nand we hold the ideal condition in mind\nmaking the following suggestions.\nAn effort should be made to develop this service from the rural-school\n\nsiderable hope for the future,\nin\n\nlibrary along definite conmiunity lines rather than in the direction of indi-\n\nvidual culture.\n\nLet the teachers get in touch with the county agricultural\nA good consulting committee\n\nagent and the state college of agriculture.\n\nmight be made up of the county superintendent of schools, the county\nagricultural agent, and the secretary of the local farmers' association.\n\nGet some of the free bulletins concerning agricultural problems.\n\nGather\n\nthe district school families at the schoolhouse and read from one of these\nbulletins of\n\nmethod.\n\nCases have been known where much interest has\n\nbeen taken in such reading by those who heard it.\ndiscovered and discussion may be encouraged.\n\nDisagreement may be\n\nOften it is not the high\n\nrailroad rates but the expense of hauling to the railroad station which\n\nproduces the undue cost of transportation; often the farmer does not know\n\nwhat it costs him to raise crops. Questions like these will assist in withdrawing the attention of the community from the national questions to a\nconsideration of its own economic welfare. Many a company of people\nwill enjoy a book if it is read to them better than if they had to exert themselves to read it.\n\nThe organization of consolidated schools and county or township high\nschools forms an excellent nucleus for this progressive conmiunity work.\n\nWherever possible an agricultural library should be collected under the\nsupervision of the school and county agent.\n\nFurther work is suggested as follows: Select a few states that are now\ndeveloping under the county agricultural agent and keep in touch with\ntheir experience.\n\nFrom the state superintendent of schools learn the names of the county\nsuperintendents where community work is being done; ask the names of\nteachers whose schools are doing this work.\nfrom these counties and schools.\n\nWrite for personal experience\n\nWe have plenty of individual instances where good service is done by\nthe rural-school library.\n\nIn each case the initial effort has come from the\nSuch work should\n\nteacher or some progressive member of the community.\n\nbe encouraged by all possible influence from outside but can better be done\nby local enterprise. L. H. Bailey has said, \"I can picture to myself a\nrural library so alert as to give advice to its constituency where and how\nit\n\nmay get in touch with new methods and discoveries.\"\n\nThis is the ideal\n\nrural library for which we hope and toward which we work.\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": "810", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8io\n\n[Library\n\nTHE NEWSPAPER MORGUE, THE LIBRARY, AND THE\nSCHOOL\nW. DAWSON JOHNSTON, LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, ST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nThe scrapbook is one of the most honored of all books in the library,\nbut the \"morgue\" as a department of the library has not as yet received\nthe attention which it deserves. It was established in the St. Paul public\nlibrary as early as 1892, but it was not until the American Library Associa-\n\ntion conference of 1909 and the discussion excited by the description of the\n\nYouth's Companion reference library in the following year that it received\nserious consideration from librarians.\n\nThe present condition of historical science, the present condition of the\nliterature of current questions,\n\nparticularly journalistic literature,\n\nand\n\nthe experience of librarians in this new department make a review of the\nsubject desirable on this occasion.\n\nRecent criticism indicates that our historical literature must be classed\nwith fiction, that the study of history must be delegated to specialists, and\nthat historical method, while of the greatest value in scientific research, is of\nless value in instruction than the method of observation.\n\nThis change in the attitude of the scientist and educator toward history\nmust be accompanied and is in fact being accompanied by a change in the\nrelation of the librarian to this subject.\nIt is more and more widely recognized that good material relating to the history of the twentieth century is\nof greater importance to a community than material relating to the sixteenth century, and material relating to local affairs more useful than the\nmost valuable histories of the greatest cities of antiquity.\nPerhaps the most important factor in establishing these new standards\nof intelligence is the newspaper.\nThe newspaper has created a demand\nfor current and local information and has done much to satisfy the demand\nwhich it has created, but it has not done everything. In order to secure\nas large a circulation as possible, the newspaper confines itself largely to the\n\nnews and gives as large a variety of news as p>ossible.\nCareful discussions of current problems are left for the most part to\nwriters for the metropolitan magazines, and the study of these discussions\nis left\n\nto the readers of these magazines.\n\nThe domination of Wall Street\n\nin finance is as a consequence paralleled in a measure by the domination of\n\nGrub Street in the world of ideas.\nA partial remedy for this condition of affairs has been found in a few\nplaces in the publication of local magazines. These are issued either by a\nmunicipal bureau or by a civic organization and are of the greatest value\nto the conununities in which they are published.\n\nIn communities where no such publications exist, the library is doing\nsomething to meet this need and will, I believe, do more and more. In\nthe first place, it must preserve local news after it has ceased to be news and\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": "811", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE NEWSPAPER, THE LIBRARY, AND THE SCHOOL\n\n8ll\n\npreserve it in such a form that it will be as accessible as it is in the newspaper\n\nmorgue. In the second place, it must cull from non-local sources all the\nmost important material relating to questions of local interest and make\nthat equally accessible. In other words, it must preserve the best in the\nIt must furnish information of interest to the\nlocal press as far as it can.\nmasses and also information of interest to the specialist only. It must represent not only the opinion of the majority but also that of the minority.\n\nThe material in this new department of the library is unbound.\n\nIt\n\nconsists of pamphlets, booklets, circulars, broadsides, magazine excerpts,\n\nnewspaper clippings, letters, manuscript memoranda, maps, views, plans,\nadvertising literature, institutional announceportraits, and cartoons;\nments, trade catalogs, and the literature of propaganda.\nIt comes from such sources as those described by\narticle\n\nMiss Booth in her\non \"Material on Geography Which May Be Obtained Free or at\n\nSmall Cost,\" published in the Journal of Geography for January, 1914\n(reprinted by the American Library Association Publishing Board, 19 14,\nten cents).\n\nIt is taken from duplicate magazines which have been either\n\npurchased for circulation or presented to the library by subscribers who do\nnot wish to preserve files.\n\nIt is taken also\n\nfrom discarded or duplicate\n\nnewspapers (New York public library. Report for 19 13).\n\nPREPARATION OF MATERIAL FOR FILE\n\nThe importance of making this material immediately\n\naccessible, to-\n\ngether with the fact that it has for the most part mere fugitive value,\n\nmakes it undesirable that time and money should be spent in accessioning\nor cataloging it. It is essentially material received on approval.\nThe aim being to make this material as accessible as possible, and as\nsoon as possible, it is desirable to eliminate cataloging altogether, to post-\n\npone it, or to abbreviate it.\nIn the District of Columbia public library, the rule is to catalog a\npamphlet if printed cards are obtainable and enter it in both official and\npublic catalogs by author and subject. The cards are stamped \"Pamphlet collection consult assistant in reference room.\"\nOther material is referred to, as in the Harvard University library, by\nmultigraphed cards on which the subject is typewritten and the following\nis printed, \"For pamphlet material and clippings on this subject consult\nassistant in reference room.\"\nIt is certain that the latter practice is to be preferred except for special\nNeither the use of library\nclasses of literature and in special libraries.\ncatalogs nor the use of this material warrants the expenditure of time and\nmoney involved even in temporary entries, or even the expenditure involved\n\n—\n\nin filing cards already prepared.\n\nThe absence of a record in the catalog will, however, make careful\nmore essential. In the St. Paul library, a\n\nclassification of the material\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": "812", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8i2\n\n[Library\n\nmuch modified dictionary plan of arrangement has been found most satisfactory despite the fact that the decimal system of classification is used in\n\nshelving the book collections.\nindividual institution\n\nis filed\n\nFor example, literature relating to an\n\nwith the literature of other institutions of\n\nthe same class, and excerpts relating to an artist are filed with excerpts relating to other artists of the same school.\nlist\n\nThis practice makes desirable a\n\nof subject headings and cross-references used.\n\nThe heading is written\n\non the left margin of the pamphlet.\nIt is possible to mount the material thus collected and classified or to\ninclose it unmounted in envelopes or folders.\n\nThe New York public library, which has only recently been able to\ninaugurate such a collection, mounts pamphlets and clippings alike on\n\nmanila backs 7 J by 10 J inches. Material which extends beyond the\nmounts is folded to a convenient size and clips used to preserve the folds.\nIn the District of Columbia library, manila envelopes without flaps large\nenough to hold typewriter paper, i.e., 9 by iij inches, are used. In other\nlibraries, the more accessible folders of the same size are used also, mounts\nbeing used only for pictures and similar material and envelopes for the\nsmaller formats and large collections of loose material.\nIn St. Paul, the newspaper clippings have been preserved in a separate\nfile mounted by means of round-head paper fasteners on cover paper cut\n9 by 12 J inches and folded in three to form a case 9 by 4. Other libraries\nkeep newspaper clippings in envelopes, size 4 by g\\ inches.\nThe collections are kept in vertical filing cabinets and guide cards are\ninserted to facilitate the use of the more useful material. The cabinets\nare installed in the reading-room with other reference material.\n\nAs rapidly\n\nas envelopes or folders become filled, or as the material in them becomes\n\nantiquated, they are withdrawn from the vertical files in the reading-room\nand placed in pamphlet boxes in the stack, a dummy card being inserted\nin their place, which reads, \"See shelves.\" Whether the pamphlet boxes\nshall be shelved in that part of the stack nearest the reading-room or with\n\nthe other literature of the subject,\n\nand how long it shall be preserved\n\ndepends altogether on its use.\nIn the larger libraries, it has been found desirable to divide the collection,\n\nkeeping material of general interest on current questions in the\n\ngeneral reading-room\n\nrooms.\n\nand sending other material to the special reading-\n\nIn the District of Columbia library, for example, material on\n\nindustries is sent to the industrial department, and in the Chicago public\nlibrary current material on theatrical and dramatic subjects is kept in the\n\nstudy room for women.\n\nThe importance of having this kind of material readily accessible and\nthe diflSculty of replacing it make it unwise to circulate it with the same\nfreedom with which books are lent.\nsota Library Conunission\n\nThe package libraries of the Minneand of the University of Wisconsin Extension\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": "813", "text": "LIBRARIES AND SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment!\n\n813\n\nDivision are, however, suflficient evidence that the material should circulate,\nand, if urban communities are to enjoy the privileges which rural communities possess, it must circulate with the greatest freedom possible.\n\nIt is not enough, however, that the librarian make better use of news-\n\npaper and other material on current questions. Teachers also must study\nnewspapers and newspaper methods and give instruction to their pupils in\n\nThere can be no better\nthere can be no\nbetter exercise in the art of reading than that which is necessary in skimming\na newspaper; and there can be no better introduction to library methods\nthan that involved in deciding on subject headings for material which is\nto be filed.\nThe newspaper is the truly common school.\nthe use of newspaper and newspaper methods.\n\nmaterial for the study of civics, as\n\nmany have found;\n\nLIBRARIES AND SCHOOLS:\n\nEDUCATIONAL CO-OPERATION\n\nWILLIS H. KERR, LIBRARIAN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, EMPORIA, KANS.\n\nA compilation of the landmarks in the history of co-operation between\nlibrary and school, edited by A. E. Bostwick, librarian, St. Louis Public\nIt is a most inspiring summary\nFrom an examination of the table of\n\nLibrary, is being published this summer.\nof developments from 1876 to 191 1.\n\ncontents, however, one gains an impression that the co-operation has been\n\nalmost solely on the part of the libraries.\n\nNow you can't co-operate with\n\na man who does not know and understand you.\n\nmust know and understand your man.\n\nEqually, to co-operate, you\n\nMoreover, you can't co-operate\n\nwith a man who does not co-operate with you.\n\nWithout being alarmists and without reflecting upon anyone, let us face\n\nHow many state superintendents of public instruction really\nknow and value the school library ? How many county s uperintendents in\nyour state adequately know and value the school library? Is it the\nthe facts:\n\nmajority or the minority of cities and towns in your state that have school\nlibraries worthy the name ?\n\nof your state.\n\nAnswer the same question for the rural schools\n\nHow many of the 190 odd public normal schools of the\n\nUnited States have adequate library facilities ?\n\nAnswer the same question\n\nfor the small colleges and for the universities known to you.\n\nIn the struggle for adequate libraries in all schools, we have touched\nonly the outer edge of the field.\n\nour co-operation educational.\n\nand method.\n\nThe problem before us now is to make\n\nWe must maintain the teacher's attitude\n\nWe must have frequent contact with teachers like the power-\n\nful meeting yesterday morning with the National\n\nEnglish.\n\nCouncil of Teachers of\n\nThe Library Department of the National Education Association\n\nmust continue to attract teachers, as it did yesterday afternoon out at the\nUniversity Farm. We shall not get at all parts of the field until there are\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": "814", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8i4\n\n[Library\n\nwell-supported library sections in connection with professional bodies of\nteachers such as the Central Association of Teachers of Science and Mathematics, the Classical Association of the Middle West, the Modern Language\nAssociation, the Mississippi Valley Historical Association.\n\nWe shall thus\n\nmake progress from the top downward till the whole educational field is\npermeated by the library idea.\nThe Library Department of this Association might well adopt a permanent policy or program of work to be accomplished, the various steps to be\noutlined clearly and to be kept before us until finished.\n\nProbably most of\n\nthe committees should be permanent, or nearly so, in membership and\nfunction.\n\nat least.\n\nThe office of secretary might well be permanent, for long periods\nThe advisability should be considered of holding at least occa-\n\nsional meetings of this department at the same time with those of the\nDepartment of Superintendence— fully as much in order that the superintendents may get at us as that we may influence the superintendents. In\nboth cases there should be progress from the top down.\nWhat should be the relation of these various library departments?\nOne answer is: Make the School Library Section of the American Library\nAssociation the organization for the discussion and accomplishment of professional library interests in the educational field.\n\nMake the several library\n\ndepartments, and especially the Library Department of the National Education Association, the co-operating points.\n\nAnd let the co-operation be\n\nmutual and real.\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING IN LIBRARY METHODS\nDELIA G. OVITZ, LIBRARIAN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nWhen I was invited to discuss the subject of \"Normal-School Training\nMethods,\" I was asked to outline the following: How much\n\nin Library\n\nshould be attempted according to the periods allotted?\n\nWhich are the\n\nmost important things, and what is the order of their importance ?\nSo much has been said and written on the subject jof library methods\nin schools during the past ten years, and the reasons for giving these courses\n\nhave seemed so apparent, that it would appear unnecessary to discuss the\nsubject again.\n\nBut when we read the report of the Library Department\n\nof this Association of last July, we see that, as yet, there i^ no uniformity\nof requirement in the\n\nnormal schools, and, until the normal schools and\n\ncolleges adopt some sort of standard for these courses, the library instruc-\n\ntion in the grades and high schools will continue to be given in the hit-\n\nand-miss fashion in which it is being given today.\n\nFor a number of years it has been my privilege to give to teachers in\ntraining courses in library methods.\n\nWhat I have to say, therefore, tho\n\nnot new, will be based directly on experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": "815", "text": "NORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING IN LIBRARY METHODS\n\nDepartmentI\n\n815\n\nMy plea, then, is for a required ten-weeks course in reference work in\nevery normal school.\nview:\n\nfirst,\n\nThis course should be planned with two objects in\n\nthe value of the work to the student himself; and, second, the\n\nThe course\n\nvalue of the work to the children the student is to teach.\n\nshould teach the student the intelligent use of all library tools such as the\ncard catalog, periodical indexes, and bibliographies.\n\nIt should make him\n\nfamiliar with a group of books of ready reference: the Statesman's Yearbook,\n\nthe almanacs, the encyclopedias, dictionaries, books of quotations, debating\naids,\n\nnewspapers and periodical\n\nliterature,\n\nand public documents; the\n\nmaterial that may be secured from various manufacturing concerns, rail-\n\nroads and steamship lines, and educational institutions.\n\nIt should acquaint\n\nthe student with the various institutions to which he may apply for aid in\ncase the school library is lacking the material he needs.\n\nAnd special\n\nemphasis should be put on the value of the course in library work for the\n\nThis latter work should be further emphasized\nby requiring students to do practice work in connection with the points\ngrades and high school.\n\ndiscussed.\n\nSome there are who think this work may best be taught by the individual teachers in connection with the special subjects taught.\n\nI disagree\n\nmost heartily.\nIn the words of J. Cotton Dana:\nThere are still those among the teaching force who cannot see clearly the place of the\nlibrary in the educational field; there are others who are so interested in their own special\nfield of teaching and so thoroly satisfied with just what they have been doing along their\n\nown line that they do not care to go out of well-worn paths. There are others, however,\nand happily this is the larger number, who do realize the place and the value of the library.\nBut some even of these feel that there is so much ground to be covered and so little time\nin which to do the work that anything not actually required by the course of study will\nhave to be excluded or their classes will not measure up to the final test at the end of the\nterm.\n\nOn the other hand, the librarian's training has emphasized the use of\nbooks as tools; she is peculiarly fitted for the task. It therefore appears\nbest to me that the librarian give this work.\n\nThe course will fail, however, of its greatest usefulness unless the\nlibrarian plans the course so that it will correlate with the work being done\n\nby the other teachers; all problems assigned must have immediate bearing\non the work being done in the school.\nAgain the librarian seems to be the one best fitted to do this work,\nbecause she is in direct touch with all departments as no other member of\nthe faculty.\n\nIn the school with which I am connected, after the lectures on\n\na certain phase of the work are given— for example, the lecture on reference\n\nbooks\n\n— each student\n\ncussed.\n\nis given a set of problems bearing on the subject dis-\n\nThe English department the following day or days will use these\n\nproblems as a basis for their oral and written themes.\nin geography, botany, history;\n\nOther sets are given\n\nthe student in these specia^subjects selects\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": "816", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8i6\n\n^\n\n[Library\n\none of the problems in either or both of these sets as a basis for a long theme\nand is given credit for it by the geography, botany, or sociology department as the case may be. In like manner when the magazine indexes are\ndiscussed, sets of problems\n\non current events are given, each student\n\nselecting a topic and either compiling a bibliography or writing a short\n\ntheme.\n\nCredit for this is given in the civics class.\n\nThus the student begins\n\nto feel that this work is of inamediate practical value to him in his work.\n\nWhile the librarian gives the course, therefore, it is in the interest or indifference of the teachers that the success or failure of the work lies.\n\ngreat cry is for the practical;\n\nThe\n\nas soon as you convince teachers and pupils\n\nthat the work is of immediate practical value your battle is won.\n\nThe comparison of the relative merits of the magazines forms a most\nAs a result of the work along\nthis line started in the reference course, the members of a class in civics\nsubscribed for The Survey for three months; members of a history class\ninteresting and profitable part of the course.\n\ntook either Current Opinion, Review of Reviews, or The Literary Digest for\nthe same length of time;\n\nand a class in English subscribed for the Atlantic\n\nMonthly for three months for their work on the essay.\n\nThe introduction of\n\nthese magazines as texts emphasized as nothing else could the value of the\n\nmagazine in current history as supplementing and bringing up to date the\nmaterial in the textbooks.\n\nThe course in reference work is required of all students who enter the\nMilwaukee Normal School and is given preferably the first quarter so the\nstudent may have this introduction to all his tools at the very beginning\nof his work.\nThe verdict passed by teachers and students is that this work\nis most valuable.\n\nNo teacher should be permitted to teach till she has taken a course\nthat gives her such an acquaintance with children's books as will enable\n\nher to direct wisely the reading habits of her pupils.\nwell consist of the following:\n\nSuch a course might\n\nhistory of bookmaking;\n\nearliest records;\n\nand famous manuscripts; origin and development of\nprinting; early printers; noted modern presses; book illustration; growth\nof the book trade; principles and aids in book selection; study of types of\nthe best children's books; story-telling, what stories to tell and how to tell\nthem; also how to arrange stories from the classics for dramatization; the\nliterature of knowledge, including books on science, history, geography,\nhistory of writing\n\nshould be included.\n\nA course as mapped out above would take at least ten weeks. This\nwork should be given by someone in the English department with the proper\nqualifications for the work.\n\nAnd lastly there should be in at least one normal school in each state\na course designed for teacher-librarians with the aim of preparing a few\nteachers to organize\n\nand administer small school libraries. Admission\nwho have taken the other\n\nto this course should be granted only to those\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": "817", "text": "Department]\n\nA BUDGET FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY\n\n817\n\ntwo courses and should include the following: helps in the selection of\nguides to the choice of books for individual\nreading; school and public-library interrelations; ordering of books;\nmechanical preparation of the book for the shelf; classification of books;\nbooks for school libraries;\n\ncataloging;\n\nadministration;\n\ncare of\n\nmaterial\n\nother\n\nthan\n\nbooks,\n\ni.e.,\n\npamphlets, public documents, clippings, pictures, educational exhibits,\netc. ;\n\nhow to make the resources of the public and school library available\n\nto pupils in school; library lessons in the grades.\nIf the school library is to come into its own and be the laboratory for\n\nstudents while at school and the continuation school for all after leaving\nschool, it is very necessary that this instruction be given in all schools.\n\nA NORMAL BUDGET FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY\nMARIE A. NEWBERRY, REFERENCE ASSISTANT, NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nWhy do we need a normal budget for the high-school library ? To show\nschool superintendents, school boards, and taxpayers just what the probable\nfirst cost will be and what to expect as the cost of maintenance.\n\nNot only\n\nmust we be prepared to prove that the library is of great value in the high\nschool, but we must also be ready to state the cost and show that it is a\nwise investment of public funds. Here is our work. We who have been\nadministering high-school libraries under various conditions and situations\nmust pass on the knowledge gained as to primary cost and maintenance\nand incidentally help and be helped in the discussion of the problem.\nThere are many conditions affecting the budget: the size of school,\nsize of library, and the existence of a public library in the town come immediately to mind.\n\nLocation of the library in the school building lessens the\n\ncost materially, because heat, light, janitor service,\n\nand possibly part of\n\nthe equipment, such as chairs, tables, and cases, come from the general\nschool fund in such instances.\n\nAnother important element is the existence\n\nof the school library as a part of the public library system or as an inde-\n\npendent institution.\n\nIn the first, the cost of certain routine work, as cata-\n\nloging, could be defrayed from the general library fund.\n\nHowever, many\n\nfeel that the cataloging of the high-school library is far more satisfactory\n\nwhen done under the direction of the high-school librarian who knows the\ndemand made upon the catalog from day to day. When the high-school\nlibrary is an independent institution, it is more easily adapted in administration and form to the needs of the school than when it has also to maintain itself as a part of another system with different ideals and needs.\n\nThe amount of money available has also been a factor.\n\nMany a school\n\nlibrarian is told how much she may have and with this she does the best\n\nshe can, be it little or much.\n\nThe preparation of the normal budget would\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": "818", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8i8\n\n[Library\n\nenable her to test her work, and would also provide a standard for the\nschool authorities to determine whether or not adequate results are attained\nfor a stated expenditure.\n\nNot long ago a high-school librarian said that \"socials\" were the means\nby which her library was financed, and we all know how uncertain that is.\nYet this librarian has displayed remarkable ability in winning the co-\n\nThe manual-training department of this school made\n\noperation of others.\n\nand equipped the library while\nSuch co-operation might make the\nfurniture less expensive and would tend to decrease its defacement and so\nfiling-cases for pictures\n\nand\n\nclippings,\n\nobtaining training in the use of tools.\n\nbe an aid to discipline.\n\nWhat are the necessary initial expenses of a high-school library ? First\nYou would not think of installing expensive\nphysical laboratory apparatus without having a teacher who knows and\nof all, salary of the librarian.\n\nunderstands its use in education.\n\nIt is more necessary to have a librarian\n\nwho knows and understands the use of the library in education, because\nmore pupils are directly affected thereby. The salary of this librarian will\nvary with salaries in the school system, but in any case should equal that\nof the head of any other department, and her qualifications should be as\n\nhigh.\n\nLibrary schools are refusing to send out graduates to positions pay-\n\ning less than eight hundred to a thousand dollars per year;\n\nif this\n\namount\n\nis above the salary of a department head in a given school system, recourse\n\nmay be had to the sunmier library schools.\n\nBut for this important posi-\n\ntion keep the standard as well as the salary as high as for your best teachers\n\nand see in addition that the person selected has had some special library\ntraining.\n\nAn ineflScient librarian with fine library equipment will do less than a\ncapable person with poor equipment.\n\nTherefore, I say, first the salary of\n\nthe librarian; and, second, equipment, room, books, chairs, tables, cases,\nlibrary supplies.\n\nThe cost of this equipment, as in the rest of the school,\n\nwill vary with the quality chosen.\n\nThe items to be considered in arriving at the cost of maintenance are:\nfirst, salary increases;\n\ning;\n\nfifth.\n\nsecond, book funds; third, periodicals; fourth, bind-\n\nLibrary of Congress cards,\n\nif\n\nused;\n\nsixth, supplies\n\nand new\n\nJust what these amounts will be under the varying conditions\n\nequipment.\n\n—\n\ngiven above\n\nviz., size of school, size of library, its location\n\nand unit of\n\nadministration— remains to be determined, and also the proper proportion\nof the funds expended for the items under maintenance.\n\nWe need a statement of the probable cost of necessary equipment, of\nthat desirable but not required, of the supplies needed for one year, and of\n\nthe proper relative amount to be recommended for books, periodicals, binding,\n\nand\n\nsupplies.\n\nI\n\nunderstand that the Committee on High-School\n\nLibraries is now at work upon this and will report when the investigations\nare completed.\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": "819", "text": "A BUDGET FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY\n\nDepartment]\n\n819\n\nDuring the past year, the New York High-School Librarians Association has been working on the normal budget for the high-school libraries\nof\n\nNew York City;\n\nthe figures quoted below are taken from the report\n\ngiven by the association to the board of education.\nbered,\n\nif\n\nIt must be remem-\n\nthe figures seem large, that they apply only to the very large\n\nschools in the very large cities.\n\nLiBEARY Expenses for School of:\n\nBooks\nPeriodicals\n\"RinHing\n\nL. C. cards\nGeneral supplies\nTotals\n\n1,000 Pupils\n\n2,000 Pupils\n\n3,000 Pupils\n\n$350.00\n50.00\n60.00\n\n30.00\n\n$500.00\n75.00\n80.00\n25.00\n45.00\n\n$750.00\n100.00\n100 00\n36.00\n60.00\n\n$505.00\n\n$725-00\n\n$1,046.00\n\n1500\n\n'\n\nThe association recommended also that a fund of from fifty to one\nhundred dollars, according to the size of school, should be placed at the\ndisposal of the librarian for library purposes without ordering thru the\n\nboard of education.\n\nThis is very necessary where action thru the board\nwould delay purchase of books and supplies needed immediately.\n\nThe result of an examination of figures supplied by a superintendent of\nschools in a\n\ntown of about seven thousand, where a school library was\n\nestablished fifteen years ago, with an experienced librarian in charge ever\n\nmay be of interest. The library serves not only the high school, with\nabout three hundred pupils, but also four graded schools, and is just now\nsince,\n\ncramped both in growth and work by its crowded quarters. It contains\nnow nearly 8,000 volumes. In 1899, $576.94 was expended for library\npurposes, $300.00 of which went for salary. In 1913-14, $959.33 was\nexpended, of which $675.00 was for salary. The cost of maintaining the\nlibrary in the fifteen years has not quite doubled, while the salary has more\nthan doubled. Three hundred dollars seems a very small beginning, but\nthe high-school library fifteen years ago was in the experimental stage, and\nthe fact that this school has been willing to raise the salary so much proves\nthat the eflScient librarian has made the library a success and an active\nforce in the school life.\n\nIn fact, the superintendent says, \"I can hardly\n\nconceive of maintaining a school system without a well-organized library\nin the hands of skilful librarians.\"\n\nIn 1 899-1 900, the cost of maintenance\n\nwas $267.94; in 1913-14, $284.33; ^.nd the average for the last four years\nis\n\n$294.03; so that for the maintenance of the library in the small high\n\nschool an annual appropriation of $300.00 seems to be sufficient.\n\nAt least,\n\nthis is a starting-point for discussion.\n\nThere\n\nis\n\nan old adage which seems particularly appropriate to the\n\ninvestment of school funds in a high-school library, where after a period of\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": "820", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n820\n\nfive years not only does the equipment remain and\n\n(Library\n\nmost of the books, but\n\nThis goes to\nthe high-school pupils have had the advantage of their use.\nprove that there is such a thing as \"eating one's cake and keeping it too.\"\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL BRANCHES OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES\nPURD B. WRIGHT, LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, KANSAS CITY, MO.\nhas been a failure in the proper development of the branch\nlibrary in connection with the high school, it has been brought about by\nIf there\n\na misunderstanding on the part of the librarian of the actual needs of the\nteacher, lack of sympathy on the part of the teacher for the work the\nlibrary is trying to do, or, perhaps, failure on the part of one or the other\nto co-operate in the work.\n\nThis is placing the blame where it belongs—\n\non the individual rather than on the idea.\n\nThe public library is one of the youngest of the great educational aids,\nbut it is developing rapidly and in no direction is it accomplishing more\nthan in the establishing of branch libraries. Some of these are in close\nproximity to high and grade schools;\n\nsome are conducted by separate\n\nboards under joint agreement as to support and maintenance; while here\n\none may be supported by the library for school use, and there an effort\nmay be made to serve both school and public in a limited way. All of\n\nwhich shows that the use of the book is making its way.\n\nmay seem, however, its progress is all too slow.\nthe following as applying today as well as\n\nStrange as it\n\nHow many will recognize\n\nwhen written in the School\n\nReview for February, 1906:\nThere is no problem relating to the equipment of the high school which is more\npressing than that of the library.\n\nSchool authorities have agitated the question of\n\nbetter buildings, better heating and ventilation, until conditions in larger communities\n\nTo those of us who went to school in the old barracks, the\nmodem structures seem almost palatial. Laboratories for physics, chemistry, botany,\nare generally very good.\n\nand zoology are being rapidly supplied. In many schools in the cities, they are far better\nthan those in the colleges of a score of years ago, or even better than those in all but a\nfew select colleges now.\n\nBut the library problem has scarcely been touched.\n\nFew\n\nbooks, few current periodicals, absolutely no bound files of the periodicals, and few of\nthe accessories of a good library, is the library story in practically all schools in small\n\ntowns and in most larger ones. I have visited a great many schools in various states,\nand the superintendents in piloting me about usually take me to the laboratories, the\ncabinets of fossils, the pickled frogs, the manual training and the writing and drawing\nexhibits.\n\nof work.\n\nI am glad to see them and have examined some splendid equipment and results\nBut seldom am I taken to a real library. Often when I inquire, I am conducted\n\nto a close, stuffy room, almost windowless, the books piled in confusion, at which I am\n\nnot surprised, for frequently most of them are musty, abandoned, dog-eared, out-of-date\ntextbooks.\n\nIntentionally planned and adequately equipped rooms are as scarce as suit-\n\nable laboratories were a quarter of a century ago.\n\nThere is an improvement over this occasionally, for here and there\nover the country, school and library authorities are striving to better condi-\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": "821", "text": "Department]\n\ntions.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL BRANCHES OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES\n\n821\n\nThe work in Cleveland, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Newark, Brooklyn,\n\nUtica, and some other cities shows a decided advance over the situation\n\nindicated by the editorial from the School Review,\n\nOne of the greatest difficulties to overcome has been that of different\nmanagement— the schools under one body and the library under another.\nThis is not always a source of trouble, but frequently is a cause for disagree-\n\nment if not real dissension.\nAt the risk of being accused of talking on personal matters, I shall\nattempt to outline the plan just put into operation in Kansas City. In\nKansas City the public library is supported by and under the control of the\nBoard of Education. For the purpose of the experiment, this makes for\nideal conditions.\n\nIn planning the high-school buildings, in addition to the\n\nstudy halls and school reference library, provisions were made for distinct\n\nbranch libraries.\n\nThe library quarters just completed have an actual shelf\n\ncapacity of i6,ocx) volumes, fully supplied with modern library equipment,\nsusceptible of enlargement.\n\nThe library is situated in the corner of the\n\nbuilding, with a main outside entrance, distinct from the school entrance,\n\nbut with a door leading to a main hall of the school proper.\n\nFor all intents\nand purposes, it is a complete branch library, while, at the same time, it\nwill answer every purpose of the special school library.\nIt was planned\nand will be operated to meet the requirements voiced by Mary.E. Hall,\nlibrarian, Girls High School, Brooklyn, in the Report of the Committee\non High-School Libraries, made to this section two years ago.\nIn the management of this branch of the public library, it is proposed\nduring school time to use the reading-room for student use from 8:30 a.m.\nto 12 130 P.M., in periods of 45 minutes, by classes of 50 pupils each, classes\nor pupils being assigned by the heads of the school departments.\n\nThus\n\n250 pupils will use the library daily, doing the work required as well as\nacquiring a knowledge of how to use a library.\n\nAnd as to the importance\n\nof this, let me quote the reflections of that eminent teacher-librarian, the\nlate Dr. Canfield:\nInstruction in the most efficient use of a library should form as important a part\nof the curriculum as instruction in language or in history.\n\nIt will exert more influence on\n\nthe pupils' career than any two subjects in the course of study.\n\nThe library, rather\n\nthan the school, makes possible and probable a continuation of intellectual activity and\nprogress after school life is finished.\n\nThis specific school service will in no way interfere with the use of the\nlibrary by the general public.\n\nSpecial tables will be reserved for the usual\n\nlibrary patrons, but little use will be made of these.\n\nAn investigation of\n\nbranch use in a number of cities shows that small demand is made for books\n\nby the general public in the morning hours.\nWithin easy walking distance of this building are located three large\ngrade schools, and it is the intention to give regular library service to these\npupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": "822", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n822\n\n[Library\n\nIn every other respect the branch will render the same service to adult\npatrons as does the general library, specializing in the actual needs of the\n\ncommunity.\nAside from rendering the cultural service required in the high-school\nwork, with trained library workers in charge, it is the fervent hope and\nbelief that still another good will come from the close co-operation— that\nof increasing the number of pupils attending the high school after grad-\n\nuating from the grades, thru familiarity with it from a frequent use of the\nlibrary.\n\nNo fear is felt of lack of patronage of the branch library by adults, as\nis\n\noften the case where libraries are located in school buildings, for the\n\nreason that the auditorium of the building is also being used as a social\ncenter.\n\nThe swinmiing-pools are now open three nights a week to the\nAs a broad result, the building is likely to become one of\n\ngeneral public.\n\nthe most used institutions in the city.\n\nNo fear is felt on the part of those\n\nconnected with the library but that results on broad lines will prove all\nthat could be wished.\n\nOn the score of economy and eflSiciency, much is hoped for the new\nThe pupils in the high school have at their service a much larger\ncollection of books than would otherwise be possible.\nMany titles are\n\nbranch.\n\navailable that would hardly be found on the shelves of a high-school library,\n\nbecause of their limited use— books which a general community use will\n\ndemand. Any high-school teacher or librarian can tell of many titles\nwhich are seriously needed in some studies for a week or two, the recommendation for purchase of which is withheld from the school authorities\nfor fear of the charge of extravagance.\n\nNaturally, many of this sort of\n\nbooks will be found on the shelves of the progressive branch.\n\nAnother value to the high school of this sort of a branch library, which\nshould not be lost sight of, is the broad, general interest of the public in its\n\nwork brought about by contact with its various activities. In this instance,\nit is hoped and believed that the old saying will be reversed, that \"familiarity will breed\" support and enlarged use.\n\nAll this\n\nmay sound prosaic or an overdevelopment of the utilitarian\nBut it is the most progressive age the world\nThe cultural side must keep in step, grasping at every\n\nside of the work-a-day world.\n\nhas ever known.\n\nchance offered, or there will be cause for grief over lost opportunities.\n\nA point which should receive passing consideration is the fact that four\nor five such branch library buildings may be erected at the cost of one\n\nseparate and distinct average branch building.\n\nThe cost of operation\n\nand service shows nearly the same economy. All of which means more\nand better books, more competent service, therefore more satisfactory\nresults and more lasting good.\nSo surely is the department of education of Kansas City of this belief,\nthat a second high-school building now under course of erection contains\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": "823", "text": "REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartment]\n\njust such a branch library as is herein briefly described.\n\nplan is\n\n823\n\nIn addition, the\n\ncarried still farther and three large grade-school buildings, to be\n\ncompleted within the year, provide for similar branches.\n\nOne of these,\n\nin a district peopled largely by foreigners, a thirty-room building, contains\n\na\n\nswimming-pool,\n\nauditorium, and\n\nlibrary has a good corner,\n\nroof\n\nand will have\n\ngarden.\n\nAnd\n\nof\n\ncourse\n\nthe\n\na share in the development of a\n\nnew brand of citizenship.\n\nYou will have noticed by this time that I have avoided touching too\nclosely upon the technical working and details of management of the high-\n\nschool library.\n\nAs someone else has truly said, \"There's a reason\"—\n\nindeed many of them, all patent.\n\nThese are to be found in the Proceedings\n\nof the National Education Association, in the Proceedings of the American\n\nLibrary Association, and in the columns of Public Libraries, and the Library\nJournal.\n\nFor a most readable article and a comprehensive bibliography of\n\nthe subject, those interested are referred to an able paper in the Library\n\nJournal of April, 19 13, by Edward D. Greenman, of the United States\nBureau of Education library, Washington, D.C.\n\nIn conclusion, let it be borne in mind constantly by both librarians and\n\nand only by their getting this viewpoint of each other, understanding the end sought by each, can satisteachers that their work is mutual,\n\nfactory results be obtained.\n\nThe school graduates its pupils, the library\n\nnever does.\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\nMARY E. HALL, LIBRARL\\N, GIRLS HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N.Y., CHAIRMAN\nThe past year has been a notable one in the development of high-school\nFrom all parts of the United States have come letters of inquiry\n\nlibraries.\n\nas to the best methods of reorganizing high-school libraries so as to put them\n\non an efficiency basis according to modern library ideals and methods.\nOf special significance is the fact that these letters come to the committee\nfrom school superintendents and members of boards of education— the very\npersons who have authority and power to suggest changes and bring them\nabout. Teachers of English and of history have shown especial interest,\nand librarians of public libraries have aided the movement by offering to\nestablish branches in high schools and place the high-school libraries in\ncharge of trained librarians.\n\nIn New England the events of chief importance are the establishment\nof public-library branches in the high schools of Manchester, N.H.,\n\nSomerville, Mass.\n\nand\n\nIn Somerville the same high standard for the librarian\n\nwas adopted as in the Barringer High School, of Newark, N.J., that the\nlibrarian should be a college graduate and a graduate of an approved\nlibrary school. These two cities, with Hartford and Winsted, Conn., are\nfar in advance of most of the cities in New England.\nAs far as can be\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": "824", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n824\n\n[Library\n\nascertained, the high schools of these four cities are the only ones in that\nsection of the country which have placed their libraries in charge of trained\nand experienced librarians who can devote their entire time to the development of the school library. Providence and Boston report an awakening\nof interest in the possibilities of the high-school library, and it has\nbeen proposed that there be appointed a committee on high-school libraries in the Massachusetts Library Club to help further the movement in\n\nMassachusetts.\n\nIn the middle states the events of importance are:\n1.\n\nA conference of teachers, school principals, and librarians in Phila-\n\ndelphia to consider the problem of high-school libraries in the city.\n\nIt is\n\nhoped that this conference may lead to the introduction of a trained librarian\nin every school to make the library the educational force which it has become\nin the William Penn High School under the direction of Helen Hill, a\ngraduate of Drexel Library School and the only trained librarian in the\nPhiladelphia high schools.\n2.\n\nIn Olean, N.Y., where commission government has just been put\n\ninto force, there has been appointed a graduate of the\n\nLibrary School.\n\nSimmons College\n\nThis is probably the first city in New York state to take\n\nadvantage of the new state law passed this year by legislature, making it\npossible for the state to grant $ioo toward the salary of a librarian in a high\nschool, and to set up certain standards as to what the librarian should bring\n\nto the work in the way of professional training and experience.\n\nHeretofore\n\nthe only cities in New York state to place their high-school libraries in\n\ncharge of graduates of library schools have been Albany, Rochester, and\n\nNew York.\n\nThis state aid will make it possible for other cities to follow\n\nand we look for great advance in the state of New York as a result\nof the new law, which is the work of Sherman Williams, superintendent of\nsuit,\n\nschool libraries for the State Education Department.\n3.\n\nIn New York City there has been great progress in the high-school\n\nThe eyes of members of the Board of Education have been opened,\nand they are beginning to recognize the position of librarian as a teaching\nlibraries.\n\nposition rather than clerical. Resolutions have been passed to that effect,\nand the finance conmiittee has increased the salary of the head librarian\nof a high school so as to make it more or less commensurate with that of a\nteacher.\n\nAt the suggestion of Darwin L. Bardwell, district superintendent of\nNew York City, an effort has been made by a conmiittee on school\nlibraries of the New York Library Club to determine upon a proper budget\nschools.\n\nfor a high-school library in a school of a certain size.\n\nThis committee\n\ninvited the co-operation of the New York High-School Librarians Association, and statistics were prepared as to the cost of maintaining a high-school\n\nlibrary in schools having 1,000, 2,000,\n\nexpense determined upon were:\n\nand 3,000 pupils.\n\nThe items of\n\npurchase of books, binding, periodicals\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": "825", "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nsubscribed for, library supplies, incidental expenses.\n\n825\n\nThe report has been\n\nplaced on file in the Department of Education for reference in making out\nestimates for the Board of Estimate and Apportionment.\n\nIt is a first\n\nstep toward placing the libraries on an efiiciency basis.\n\nA second and most important event in New York City is the interest\nshown by the Board of Examiners in securing for the New York high schools\nthe best possible candidates for high-school library positions. In December, an examination was given for the position of high-school librarian, and a\nspecial letter sent out to every library school in the country which was of\nsufficient standing to be approved by the regents of the University of the\nState of New York. This circular letter outlined the work of the librarian,\nthe requirements of fitness as to executive ability, teaching ability, personality, and knowledge of boys and girls of high-school age.\n\nThe schools were\n\nasked to send their graduates to the examination, and as a result, the city\nof New York has a new eligible list for high-school library positions which\n\npromises unusually fine work in the future.\n\nOut of eighty candidates who\nOf these,\n\ntook the examination, sixteen were placed on this eligible list.\n\nmost were college graduates and also graduates of library schools.\n\nAlbany,\n\nUniversity of Illinois, Pratt Institute, Simmons College, New York Public\n\nLibrary School, and the Drexel Library School have graduates on the new\nlist.\n\nIn Kansas, an interesting and valuable investigation of high-school\nlibrary conditions was made, and it is to be hoped that a similar examina-\n\ntion of high-school library conditions can be made in every state in the\n\nUnion.\n\nThe committee feels that the Kansas report (Record^ State Normal\n\nSchool, Emporia, Kans., May 15, 19 14) should be read by all interested in\n\nthe movement and a similar investigation conducted by a conamittee on\nhigh-school libraries appointed by every state library or state teachers'\nassociation or the state education department.\n\nIn the West, California has made greatest progress in developing its\nhigh-school libraries.\n\nRiverside and Oakland report librarians appointed\n\nrecently and several other cities report progress.\n\nIn Canada, two cities have sent to the chairman of the committee for\nsuggestions as to the best methods of reorganizing their high-school libraries,\n\nwhat appropriations should be made for librarian's salary, for books, etc.,\nalso what standards as to qualifications of librarian, experience, etc.\nIn the National Council of Teachers of English, a Committee on HighSchool Libraries has been appointed, and the American Library Association\nconference on school library work has brought together the leading librarians\nin high schools to outline a policy for the American Library Association in\nthis movement.\n\nTwo publications of especial interest to those purchasing books for\nhigh-school libraries are the list of books for high-school libraries, compiled\n\nby Martha Wilson, of the State Education Department, St. Paul, Minn.\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": "826", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n826\n\n[Library\n\nby the American Library Association Publishing Board, Chicago,\nfifty cents), and another list compiled by the teachers in the high-school\ndepartment of the School of Education in the University of Chicago and\npublished by the Bureau of Education. Another publication of great importance is the pamphlet of the high-school branch of the Newark, N.J.,\npublic library, written by Elizabeth McKnight and John Cotton Dana.\nThis is most suggestive as to planning a library room for a high school and\nits equipment, what kind of work a high-school library should do for each\ndepartment, the qualifications for the librarian, an outline course of instruc(sold\n\ntion for high-school pupils in the use of a library, etc.\n\nWhat is needed now is an organized campaign for the appointment in\nevery state of a state supervisor of school libraries who can do for the\nstate such work as has been done in Minnesota by the supervisor of school\nlibraries, Martha Wilson.\n\nIn order to bring such appointments about, we\n\nurge that every state library association have a standing committee to\n\nwork with the state teachers' association in furthering the development of\nnormal-school, high-school, and rural-school libraries.\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": "827", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident—H. P. E. Groszmann, educational director, National Association for the Study\nPlainfield, NJ.\nand Education of Exceptional Children\n\n—^James\n\nVice-President\n\nJ.\n\nDow, superintendent. School for the Blind\n\nFaribault, Minn.\n\nSecretary—W. E. Taylor, superintendent, Idaho School for Deaf and Blind .. Gooding, Idaho\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\nThe Department of Special Education was called to order by President Groszmann\nat 9:30 A.M., in Arcanum Hall, Lowry Building.\n\nAfter an introductory address by President Groszmann, L. R. Alderman, superin-\n\ntendent of schools, Portland, Ore., read a paper on \"An Effort to Make the School Fit\nthe Needs of the Exceptional Child.\"\n\nA paper by Mabel Morrison Hawkins, San Francisco, Cal., entitled \"What to Do\n\n—An Attempt at Solution thru the Open-Air School,\" was\n\nwith the Exceptional Child\n\nread by the secretary of the department.\n\nIn the absence of Franklin W. Barrows, M.D., medical inspector of schools, department of health, Buffalo, N.Y., his paper on \"The Function of the Public School in the\nCare of Subnormal and Abnormal Children\" was read. This paper was formally discussed by W. E. Struthers, M.D., chief medical inspector. Board of Education, Toronto,\nCanada, and Samuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nAfter the discussion, District Superintendent Allison moved that a committee be\nappointed to act with a like committee from the National Association for the Study and\nEducation of Exceptional Children to consider the classification and terminology of the\n\nThis motion was passed and the president reserved the appointment\n\nexceptional child.\n\nof the committee until a later date.\n\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was appointed by the president:\nL. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore.\nCarrie B. Levy, supervisor of classes for the blind, Milwaukee, Wis.\nCatherine J. Tracy, Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y.\nW. E. Struthers, M.D., chief medical inspector. Board of Education, Toronto,\n\nCanada.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 1914\nThe session was called to order at 2:00 p.m. in the Madison School.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\n—\n\nFor President M. P. E. Groszmann, educational director. National Association for\nthe Study and Education of Exceptional Children, Plainfield, N.J.\nFor Vice-President L. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore.\nFor Secretary Samuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nIn the absence of L. Pierce Clark, M.D., New York, N.Y., his paper on \"The Organization and Workings of the Mental Clinic for Psychopathic Children in New York Public\n\nSchools\" was read.\n\nTom A. Williams, M.D., Washington, D.C., corresponding member. Society of\nNeurology and Psychology, Paris, France, read his paper entitled \"Fear and Its Cure.\"\n827\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": "828", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n828\n\n[Special\n\nMary R. Campbell, associate psychologist, psychopathic laboratory, municipal courts\n\nMakmg Surveys of Public Schools,\n\nof Chicago, Chicago, 111., read a paper on \"Methods for\nwith Suggestions to Principals and Teachers for Recordmg\n\nData on Subaverage, Sub-\n\nnormal, Backward, or Defective Children.\"\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, July 9, 1914\nThe department met in joint session with the National Society for the Study and\nEducation of Exceptional Children and was called to order at 2:30 p.m. by President\n\nGroszmann in the Madison School.\nMessages were read from a number of distinguished people.\n\nAmong them were\n\nSecretary J. P. Tumulty, for President Woodrow Wilson; Secretary of State William\nJennings Bryan; Harvey W. Wiley, M.D., director, Good Housekeeping Magazine,\n\nWashington, D.C.; William H. Smiley, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.; H. K.\nBush Brown, secretary, National Committee of Five Hundred to Establish the University\nof the United States; Lewellys F. Barker, M.D., president. National Society for Mental\nHygiene, Baltimore, Md.; Mrs. William Cumming Story, president, National Society,\n\nDaughters of the American Revolution, Washington, D.C.; Ben Blewett, superintendent\nof instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded\n\nNew York, N.Y.; Theodore Toepel, M.D., Atlanta, Ga.;\nand A. Emil Schmitt, M.D., medical director, Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y.\nThe first address was given by President Groszmann on \"The Work of the National\nAssociation for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children.\"\nThis was followed by a paper entitled \"Notes on Delinquent Children\" by George\nE. Judge, judge in the Children's Court, Buffalo, N.Y., which was read by the secretary.\nThis paper was discussed informally by Leonard P. Ayres, director, Division of\nclasses, department of education,\n\nEducation, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.; C. P. Cary, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Madison, Wis., and others.\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July 10, 1914\nThe Department of Special Education met in joint session with the Department of\nKindergarten Education and the Department of Elementary Education and was called to\norder in the Auditorium at 9 00 a.m.\n:\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n\"Standardizing the Work in the Kindergarten and Elementary Schools\" Georgia\nAlexander, supervising principal of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. (For this paper, see\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education.)\n\"A Practical Experiment with Backward Children\" ^John W. Carr, superintendent\nof schools, Bayonne, N.J.\n\"Reading and Arithmetic as Tests of Mental Ability\" Clara Schmitt, child study\ndepartment, public schools, Chicago, 111.\n\"The Montessori Message True Education the Basis of a New Civilization\"\nLouise Dixon Boyle, New York, N.Y. In the absence of the writer, this paper was read\nby the secretary of the department.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDiscussion:\n\nP. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington,\n\nD.C.; Catherine J. Tracy, Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y.;\n\nJoseph S. Gaylord,\n\nprofessor of psychology and pedagogy, State Normal School, Winona, Minn.;\n\nand others.\n\nThe president announced that the Committee on Resolutions appointed by the\nDepartment of Special Education had been unable to meet and that the same committee\nwould be continued to the Oakland meeting in 1915.\n\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Survey of the Public Schools\nwhich was authorized by motion:\n\nMary R. Campbell, associate psycho! ogist, psychopathic laboratory, municipal courts\nof Chicago, Chicago, 111., chairman.\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": "829", "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\n\n829\n\nJ. E. Wallace Wallin, professor of clinical psychology, School of Education, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nElizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes, department of education,\n\nNew\n\nYork, N.Y.\n\nSamuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nL. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore.\n\nBen Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nJohn W. Carr, superintendent of Schools, Bayonne, N.J.\nF. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\n\nJames Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C.\n\nThe following committee authorized by motion was appointed by the president to\nact with a like committee from the National Association for the Study and Education\nof Exceptional Children to consider the classification and terminology of the exceptional\nchild.\n\nCommittee on Classification and Terminology\nSamuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, HI., chairman.\nLeonard P. Ayres, director, Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, New\nYork, N.Y,\nrq^ Robert J. Aley, president. University of Maine, Orono, Me.\n'_^ J. Stanley Brown, superintendent. Township High School, Joliet, 111.\nJ^.M. V. O'Shea, professor of education. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nCarroll G. Pearse, president. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n^% M. E. Pearson, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Kans.\nII W. E. Taylor, superintendent, Idaho School for the Deaf and Blind, Gooding, Idaho.\nCatherine J. Tracy, Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y.\n.\n\nI\n_\n\n,\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nW. E. Taylor, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\nE. GROSZMANN, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY AND EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL\nCHILDREN, PLAINFIELD, N.J.\n\nMAXIMILIAN P.\n\nSpecial education covers a much larger field than had been thought by\n\nthose who first organized the Department of Special Education.\n\nHereto-\n\nfore, the discussions of the department referred exclusively to the mentally\n\ndefective or feeble-minded child and to the blind and the deaf.\n\nThese\n\ngroups form a relatively small portion of the large number of children\n\nThe upper end of the problem, namely, the\nproblem of the unusually gifted child, has received much scanter attention\nthan that of the feeble-minded. And yet from the ranks of the gifted are\nrecruited the leaders of society, in culture, in science, in art, in commerce,\nin invention, and in constructive work of all kinds.\nThe very strength of\nthe initiative power of the gifted may make them dangerous elements if\nthey are not imbued with right motives and social ideals at the start.\nThey, above all, need careful guidance and specially differentiated education.\nBetween the two ends of the line there are hundreds of thousands of\nchildren handicapped in one or another way. There are different types\nrequiring special education.\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": "830", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n830\n\n[Spedai\n\nof minds which are not reached by the average system of education.\n\nThere\n\nare children of impaired nervous constitutions and others who are disChildren's diseases play havoc with their progress\ntinctly psychopathic.\nin school, and medical inspection has revealed surprisingly large percent-\n\nages of ailments in children who are thus prevented from doing their best\nBackwardness is a condition caused by many factors of\nin school work.\n\nwhich economic pressure is certainly not one of the least. Then there are\nracial differences in our conglomerate population which do not yet receive\nsufficient recognition in\n\nour school education.\n\nThe problems of juvenile\n\ndelinquency and of prostitution are intimately associated with\nhandicaps.\n\nall\n\nthese\n\nThe aim of special education must be to prevent children from\n\ngrowing up to become misfits and failures in life.\nIn order to ascertain the differences in individual children, proper\nmethods of classification and diagnosis must be developed. The*Binet\ntests which have been so eagerly taken up and widely advertised have been\n\nshown to be quite insufficient and ofttimes misleading. It has, therefore,\nbeen considered helpful to have in connection with these meetings a series\nof clinical demonstration tests.\n\nIn addition to the Binet tests, systems of\n\nanthropometric measurements, the Giessen tests, and my own system of tests\nwill be demonstrated.\n\nThese latter comprise as minute a \"child history\"\n\nas can be ascertained; a schedule of medical examinations; and a series of\n\nphysio-psychological and mental tests quite different from the Binet schedule.\n\nThey differ also in this\n\n—they base the\n\nyears, but upon periods of development.\n\nclassification, not upon mental\n\nThe co-operation of several St.\n\nPaul physicians, psychologists, and social workers has been secured. It will\n\nbe well to consider in these meetings the desirability of some step toward a\ngenerally acceptable classification and terminology of exceptional children.\n\nThese meetings are notable also for the fact that for the first time in\nthe history of the department the meetings are held jointly with the National\nAssociation for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children.\n\nThis\n\ncirounstance has give^ us an additional meeting, inasmuch as that association holds its own meeting in the course of the week and our department\njoins in it.\n\nFinally we have a joint meeting with the Department of Kinder-\n\ngarten Education and the Department of Elementary Education.\n\nIn this\n\nmanner, we are exceptionally well represented on the program.\n\nAN EFFORT TO MAKE THE SCHOOL FIT THE NEEDS OF THE\nEXCEPTIONAL CHILD\nL. R.\n\nALDERMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PORTLAND, ORE.\n\nThe effort I am to speak of is the effort of one year in the Portland public\nschools.\n\nBy the exceptional child in this paper, I mean the child that is above or\nBy the exceptional child, however, many people mean\n\nbelow the average.\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": "831", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE SCHOOL AND THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD\n\nFirst of all, therefore, I shall tell what we are\n\nthe under-developed child.\n\ndoing for the slow pupil.\n\n831\n\nWe have a special school for the defectives, with\n\nThere are only two teachers, but\nWhile the results in this\nschool have been remarkable, yet we are sure that the present arrangement\nIn the first place, some of these children are not capable of\nis not ideal.\ntaking instruction except by long years of drill. Hence, we think they\nshould be in custodial institutions. The other pupils probably would\nfare better if they were not associated with children of so low a degree of\nmentality. We are planning to secure ground on the outskirts of our city\nwhere we can approximate farm home conditions. With the custodial\npupils segregated, we hope to gather up a larger number of pupils who are\nmentally slow, yet who are capable of receiving instruction, and thus extend\n\nan enrolment of about forty children.\n\nboth are specially trained for this sort of work.\n\nthe usefulness of this school.\n\nFor exceptional pupils who are not classed as defectives, we have in\nmost of our large schools ungraded rooms, where the teacher has on the\naverage about twelve pupils. These pupils may be in her room for only a\nmonth or so until they can be more properly graded. In a few cases, children in the ungraded room have made as many as three grades during this\nyear. In a number of cases a dominant interest has been discovered.\nIn\nall cases, the teacher has talked with parents and has received in many\ninstances much help from them in correcting bad habits and in forming\ngood ones. The ungraded room has met a real need and does give the\nteacher an opportunity to better know the child. Every teacher of the\nungraded rooms has found her work extremely interesting, and, while she\nsays it is harder, she prefers it to the regular schoolroom work.\n\nThe principals of our schools have been making a special study of the\nexceptional child and have reported children with special talent.\n\nThis,\n\nof course, has not been done very systematically, but enough has been done\n\nto show the importance of this kind of work.\n\nOne may ask what we do for the pupil with the special interest when he\nSo far, we have only reported cases to the special supervisor of\nthe subject in which the child is interested, who in turn reports the pupils\nto the organizations devoted to that subject and who are always on the\n\nis found.\n\nlookout to help children with\n\ntalent.\n\nFor instance, those interested\n\nmusic are reported to the musical clubs of the city; they have been\ninvited by these clubs to attend rehearsals; they have also been the guests\nin\n\nof these clubs when outside talent has appeared.\n\nThe Portland Symphony\n\nOrchestra has invited to its public rehearsals as many as fifteen hundred\nstudents at one time, and other musical organizations have given recitals\nat various schools for the pupils' benefit.\n\nCredit for music studied outside\n\nof school is now given by our high schools and will count toward graduation.\n\nWe hope to have next year at least one school in the city where special\nwork will be given in music. We hope also to have one where drawing will\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": "832", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n832\n\nreceive special attention.\n\n[Special\n\nWe have already a school where arts and crafts\n\nworks seem to be the dominant idea.\n\nIn all the schools in neighborhoods\n\nmany German people we are putting German into the\nWe are extending the German this year. To my mind all foreign-\n\nwhere there are\ngrades.\n\nlanguage study should begin in the grades. We have several schools in\nwhich gardening and nature study are given special attention. One school\nis making a specialty of the care of animals:\n\nalmost every child has its pet.\n\nI am inclined more and more to think that the care of animals is a very\n\nimportant factor in the education of children. The giving of one life into\nthe hands of another seems to develop a sense of responsibility and a degree\nof sympathy not secured in any other way.\n\nAs time goes on, we hope to specialize our schools so that the parents\nof each child may select some school that will fit the needs of the child more\n\nnearly than the present arrangement permits.\n\nWe have allowed parents\n\nthis year to select a school, and when there has\n\nbeen too much crowding\n\nwe have simply put on more portables.\n\nIncidentally, this has done away\n\nwith the old worry about boundaries and saved much time for administrators as well as for parents.\n\nWith our fifty-seven schools, which we call\n\nour fifty-seven varieties, the parent has had some choice as to what should\n\nbe the dominant note in the child's education.\nIn Portland, we have one of the few trades schools in the United States,\n\nand here many children with exceptional talent find the work they are best\nfitted to do.\n\nIn order to enter the school of trades, it is not necessary for a\n\nstudent to have passed the eighth grade, but more and more students are\n\ncoming in who have had the full grammar-school course, and some who have\nhad high-school work. This year the attendance at the school of trades was\nso large that we had to divide the school into two departments. In the girls'\ndepartment we teach millinery, dressmaking, cooking, general sewing, and\nhome economics. In the boys' department we teach electrical engineering,\nmechanical engineering, woodworking, plumbing, and blacksmithing.\nWe have our night school so organized that the work counts one-third\nas much as that of the day high school, and the student who studies during\nthe forenoon in school and works at some \"gainful occupation\" in the\nafternoon may, by studying at the simmaer school, graduate in four and\none-half years.\n\nOur health inspection is done by the board of health of our city. They\nhave four special doctors and one nurse. While these are not enough for\nour thirty thousand pupils, yet their work does a great deal of good, for\nat least it causes the teacher to feel that it is her duty to look after the health\nof her pupils.\nOne school has an open-air room for the benefit of those who\nneed it most, and we expect to have many such rooms next year.\nIn this same school we are using the \"half -day\" plan. We have\nmorning sessions for the \"regular\" work, and devote the afternoon to music,\ndrawing, sewing, playground recreation, gymnastics, and excursions.\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": "833", "text": "THE SCHOOL AND THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD\n\nDepartment]\n\n833\n\nI think the time is coming when our schools either will follow the Gary\n\nplan of much varied activity and long hours, or else they will have only\nthe half-day session with the activities of the rest of the day directed by\n\nthe parents.\n\nWith individual children all over the city we are now using a half-day\nplan.\n\nIn many cases the parents of nervous children have been advised\n\nto keep them out of school in the afternoon.\n\nFew of us are aware how such\n\nchildren are affected by being with a large number of people.\ninstance, is nervous when she comes to school in the\n\nJenny, for\n\nmorning and is made\n\nmore so by being with a number of children. She goes home at luncheon\ntime too highly keyed up to eat and to assimilate her food, partly because\nof her anxiety to get back on time to the afternoon session.\nThe afternoon\nstudy, and even the play with a large number of children, adds to her state\nof nervousness so that she is unable to eat the evening meal or rest at night.\nAs a consequence her health declines, and, of course, she falls behind\nin her school work.\n\nThe principal advises the parents to keep Jenny out\n\nin the afternoon, saying that the main studies will come in the forenoon.\n\nJenny goes home at noon with her school work over, her nerves calmed\ndown. She is able to eat luncheon in a normal state of mind; she takes a\nlittle rest;\n\nplays naturally by herself or with one or two little neighbors\n\nwhom she knows well; and comes back to school the next day in a much\nimproved condition. It is really remarkable how much some pupils have\nimproved by attending only half-day sessions.\n\nWe have reduced the nervous strain on all the pupils by doing away\nwith all uniform examinations.\n\nI\n\nmean by this questions made in the\n\nOf course, there have been examinations given by the\nteacher.\nPromotions have been made on the recommendations of the\nteacher and principal and are considered to be trial promotions, the test\nbeing ability to do the work of the grade. While examinations have\ntheir place and are of educational value, I think the uniform examination has done more to keep the teacher from studying every child and\nfrom meeting the needs of the exceptional child than any other one\nthing in our educational system. Instead of having the child in mind\nthe teacher has had the examination in mind, and with the fear of not\nhaving her class come up to standard has always been tempted to become\na mere drillmaster.\nThe first thing that we want of a teacher is that she should be a teacher\nof boys and girls, and after that a teacher of subjects.\nIn order that she\nmay better know the pupils, we aim to keep the classes small, and, instead\ncentral office.\n\nof having her change classes every year or half-year, we are encouraging\n\neach teacher to advance with her class, keeping the same pupils for three\nyears;\n\nthus we make the personal element as important as possible.\n\nA\n\nlarge majority of the teachers have chosen to take up the work of the next\n\ngrade for the sake of keeping the same pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": "834", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n834\n\n[Special\n\nWith the regular teacher, however many special schools there may be.\na great deal of the care of exceptional children. She \"sorts out,''\nin the first place, those who need extra care, and she still keeps with her a\nrests\n\ngreat many who are in one way or another exceptional. To help her in\nthis special work, we must give her few enough pupils so that she may\n\nknow them, time enough to get acquainted with them, and a great deal\nshe must have confidence that help is at hand when needed,\n\nof freedom;\n\nand be given a sympathetic appreciation of her work.\nnumber of our exceptional children.\n\nShe teaches the\n\nlargest\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. E. Struthers, M.D., chief medical inspector, Board of Education, Toronto,\n\n—\n\nCanada. In any discussion of the function of the public schools in the care of subnormal\nand abnormal children one is immediately at a loss to know what is meant by these terms\n\"subnormal \" and \"abnormal.\" Almost any individual who has made any study of children\nwho are not normal has his own idea of the meaning of these terms. I suppose we shall\nalways have difficulty until we have a generally accepted standard of terminology. We\nshall have to remember also that the different types are not separated by a marked and\n\ndistinct line, but gradually merge into each other.\n\nMost investigators admit that there\n\nare certain types of children who should not be in the regular grades in the schools, but\n\nthere is a truly wonderful variation of ideas about the types of children who should be in\nspecial classes.\n\nIt would seem that every teacher and every investigator has a somewhat\n\ndifferent opinion.\n\nThe usual reasons given why these types should not be in the regular\n\ngrades are: because it is harmful to the child itself, and because of interference with the\n\nwork of the normal child.\nThe abnormal child becomes discouraged in school work because he is competing\nwith children above his standard. This child requires more individual attention than\npossibly can be given in the regular grade. Because of the necessity to give more\nattention to these children, the normal child is retarded in his work. Again, the abnormal\nchild is not adapted by nature for normal social existence, and when placed in the social\nconditions of normal children is more or less unhappy. We are agreed, therefore, that\nabnormal children should be in special classes or special institutions.\nThe next point to agree upon is the types of children who should be in special classes\nin the public schools.\n\nI wish to disagree with the proposition that all children of higher\n\nmentality than the idiot should be organized into special classes in the public schools.\n\nIn my opinion it is diflScult to estimate the injury done to society and these poor, unhappy\nchildren themselves by the propagation of this idea.\n\nThe general public believes that all\n\nthat it is necessary to do for a child belonging to the imbecile or moron t)T)e is to get it\ninto a special class, and presto! the child shall come forth a normal individual.\n\nWide-\n\nspread discredit has been brought upon the efforts of earnest and painstaking investigators to bring about some really humane action on behalf of these children.\n\nI will not\n\nsay that these children have been deliberately used and deliberately exploited to create\nindividual reputations but little deserved.\n\nNevertheless the public and too often parents\n\nhave been cruelly deceived by the flamboyant public statements of the results of certain\nworkers in this field.\n\nToo often the public has thrust upon it reports that indicate the\n\nindividuality of the investigator rather than a sane effort on behalf of the child.\n\nThis\n\nfield of work too frequently furnishes examples of modern miracles, and it is to be regretted\n\nthat the public press so frequently presents this side of the work.\nof course, there is rarely, if ever, any truth in the\n\nmodem miracle.\n\nAs a matter of fact,\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": "835", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE SCHOOL AND THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD\n\n835\n\nSomething better than special classes in the public schools should be provided for\nIt has been said that \"the child who is subnormal or abnormal will\nremain essentially what he is today.\" I agree with the broad meaning involved in that\nstatement, but surely if this be true the public school is not the place for these children.\nAre we to train and develop the limited resources of these children to their highest degree\nand receive them into public society? We say that even their highest capabilities do\nnot fit them for an independent social existence. This is not so much a question of eduthese children.\n\ncabiHty as of responsibility.\n\nIf\n\nthey are essentially irresponsible, then we are com-\n\nmitting a crime against society by training and educating them and thrusting them upon\n\nthe world more acceptable to society.\n\nSuch efforts to improve the life-conditions of these\n\nchildren will simply result in the aggravation of the danger to the state.\n\nWe should keep\n\nconstantly in mind that the special class can fit only the subnormal child (I do not mean\n\nthe backward child) for a happier, wider, and more useful life under proper management\n\nand supervision. That means under custodial care. It is my opinion, therefore, that the\nhighest t5T)es of these children should be cared for in a special residential school, and when\nthese feeble-minded children reach adult age they should be passed along to government\ninstitutions for feeble-minded men and feeble-minded women.\n\nI am very strongly of the\nopinion that the public school as such is not in a strategic position to care for these children,\n\nand that its ftinction is to find them, not to care for them.\n\nThe large amount of money\n\nspent by American cities for special classes for children of the moron and imbecile type\nI consider a regrettable waste of public funds.\n\nIt is more than that.\n\nIt will, I contend,\n\nincrease, instead of diminish, the number of feeble-minded children, and we are there-\n\nfore in the serious position of increasing, instead of decreasing, the state burden.\n\nWe\n\nhave had in mind the helpless child, and we have desired to improve, if possible, its lifeconditions, to help these wrecks of society, but this is not a case of salvage.\n\ncase of making these children into normal children.\nthese children are happier with their own kind.\nsociety.\n\nIt is not a\n\nWe should remember, too, that\n\nIt is not a cruelty to separate them from\n\nNor is it a cruelty to separate them from their own families.\n\nIt has been said\n\nthat the feeble-minded child is very affectionate, but I think it is equally true that it will\n\nshower that affection upon any individual who is kind to it.\n\nMoreover, I have frequently\nhad mothers tell me of the great burden such a child is in a normal home, of the tremendous nervous strain on the mother to look after such a child without any of the\nfacilities or the opportunities of doing it properly.\nSuch a special school as I have mentioned could very reasonably, I think, also undertake the training and education of\nchildren who are very backward, whose minds will probably always be sluggish in action.\n\nThen if by any chance children of a higher grade or type were sent to this school they\nwould develop and before long be capable of returning to their regular grades.\n\nCare\n\nshould be taken that such a school should not be given a name that will attach a stigma\nto the child, such as \"School for the Feeble-minded,\" or even such a term as the \"Train-\n\ning School.\"\n\nI believe that such a consequence could be avoided by giving the school\na proper name, such as the \"Lincoln School,\" or the \"King George School.\" There\n\nwould be less danger of such a stigma being attached where it was known that children\ncame from this school again to the regular grades. It would be better, too, not to admit\nto such a school any child lower than a high-grade imbecile. Low-grade imbeciles and\nidiots should be in colonies apart.\n\nSuch a school should have ample grounds and should\nprovide all kinds of manual and agricultural work, physical culture and cadet drill, and\nthe different sports and games.\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": "836", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n836\n\n[Special\n\nFEAR AND ITS CURE\nTOM A. WILLIAMS, M.D., WASHINGTON, D.C., CORRESPONDING MEMBER,\nSOCIETY OF NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY, PARIS, FRANCE\nEvery teacher of young children must have encoimtered at some time\nwhat is commonly known as the *' nervous\" child, with whom all her efforts\nhave availed nothing. The real condition of the child may be apparent\nonly to an experienced observer, whereas to the inexperienced it may pass\nfor a natural twist in the character or disposition of the child.\n\nThe child\n\nmay receive severe reprimands or punishments for a physical condition she\nwould be to cure herself of measles\nFor the future well-being of the child the\n\nis as powerless to overcome alone as she\n\nor any other childish complaint.\n.\n\nfact that these conditions exist, and are by no means rare, should be fully\n\nrecognized by those undertaking the instruction of the young, so that they\n\nWith this knowledge the teacher\nnature and will realize that, when she finds\n\nmay know, at least, what to look for.\nwill better understand child\n\nherself unable to cope with certain situations, neither she nor the child is\n\nto blame, but that\n\nit\n\nmay have become a situation not for the school-\n\nteacher but for the psycho-pathologist.\n\nThe cause of the inefficiency may be the outcome of some long-forgotten\nevent in the life of the child, such as, for example, the recital of a terrifying\nstory.\n\nThe child is often ashamed of her fears, is afraid of being laughed\n\nmany cases to the detriment\nThe effect of emotions like fear has\nnow been studied by experiments in animals, by which it has been shown\nat, and so hides her terrors within herself, in\n\nof her mental and physical health.\n\nthat the secretions of the glands^ can be so changed as to cause even death.\nHowever, the effects soon pass away unless the emotion is kept in mind by\n\nan association\n\nof ideas connecting it\n\nwith some oft-recurring object or\n\nin these cases that the psycho-pathologist\n\ncan unravel the\n\noften complex conditions which keep in the patient's\n\nmind distressing\n\nevent.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nmental attitudes.\n\nThe cases related here are given as illustrations to show the great\nsociological importance of conditions purely psychological and to show that\n\nthese can be\n\ndoing so.\n\nremoved with precision by physicians who are trained in\n\nIn gaining the confidence of the ** difficult\" child, the teacher\n\nherself may find the cause of the trouble and help to bring about a more\n\nnormal condition of mind and body.\n\nThe following cases illustrate the\nThe\n\npersistence of such terrors when these are not adequately dealt with.\n\ncase which follows illustrates the persistence of such a night terror.\n\nA girl of sixteen was referred to me for examination by Dr. Lichfield, of\nPittsburgh, November, 1913. On account of great nervousness for years,\nshe had never been regularly to school until the fall, when she had been\n•\n\nSee the work of Pawlow on the digestive glands, of Cannon on the adrenal gland, and Crile on the\n\nthyroid gland.\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": "837", "text": "Department]\n\nFEAR AND ITS CURE\n\n837\n\nsent to boarding-school after convalescing from appendectomy, but had\nbecome so nervous that she had to return home after two days. Inquiry\nshowed that she would frequently wake in the night very much afraid\nunless she were soothed by someone sleeping with her, so that she could\nnever sleep alone. Further inquiries showed that a servant had told\nterrifying stories to her sister as a child;\n\nthe horrors this brought ran\n\nthru a family of three children, but they passed away from\n\nall\n\nof\n\nthem\n\nShe had been much indulged between the ages of\nthree and six, and had been somewhat spoiled since owing to a supposed\nweak heart, and had always been considered a weakly child. Her father\nand an aunt had been timorous as children; the latter for nine years had\nnot dared to be alone for a moment.\nExamination showed feeble reflexes becoming active on reinforcement;\nmuscle tone fair; weight 108 pounds; pulse 104 during examination, altho\npatient said she was not excited; cardiac sounds closed; chest expansion\nfree; appetite said to be good, with certain dislikes; walking tired her, but\ndancing and tennis did not. Glasses had been prescribed for heterophoria,\nbut she did not use them.\nPsychic functions were unimpaired, except that she just wanted someone with her when in bed. Her fears were either of fires or of burglars,\nand they occurred only when in bed or asleep. She whined when dreaming\nand would wake frightened, but she never screamed, only clutching her\ncompanion desperately for reassurance. She was sure she wanted to get\nrid of this trouble; she could not remember the first occasion of fear.\nNoises such as creaking floors made her think there was someone in the\nhouse.\nShe knew positively there was not, but she could not make herself\nbelieve it.\nShe was ashamed of the emotion and would go to bed alone\naltho terrified if there was not someone else upstairs. She imagined a\nburglar might hurt her if pushed to it. Analysis showed that there was no\ndefinite fear of what he might do to her, but that the fear was of the\nunknown, and, altho it might have helped her to know it, it might have been\ntoo terrible. Her agitation upon speaking of this she attributed to her\nexcept this patient.\n\nshame of appearing \"babyish.'' I explained that there is no shame in\nwhat one cannot help. She was not less frightened when away from home.\nBy touching any person in the room, her fear upon wakening would\nbe tranquilized. The night fear was quite different from any fears in\nthe daytime. Her dread was mingled with self-contempt at her \"silly\nbabyishness.\"\n\nThe first and second were of a burglar\nThe analysis showed only that the intruder aimed to\nshoot her sister, who was standing up behind her; a dream of fears of\nelevators led to no pertinent associations. As the dream analysis was so\nThree dreams were obtained.\n\nentering a window.\n\nunfruitful, I believed it best at once to proceed to reconditioning the\n\npsychological reactions.\n\nThis was attempted in the first place by studying\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": "838", "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthe child's power of understanding what I gave her to read about the\n\npsychology of fear, and by making clear to her what she could not understand alone. In the second place, she was given exercises in mental concentration, and, as she became more proficient in these, she was urged to apply\nthem to the study of her own feelings of nocturnal apprehensions. The\nprinciple she was made to grasp was that fear and shame of her fears prevented her from facing and examining them, which was the essential\npreliminary to the understanding which would make them disappear. In\n\nten days she returned home, not yet able to sleep alone but beginning to\nobtain mastery. A month later her mother wrote me that she was entirely\nwell and when she wakened in the night would quietly turn over and go to\nsleep without troubling\n\nanyone and was physically and mentally better\n\nthan at any time in her life. This condition still persists.\nA case where night phobia was prevented. The formation of a night\n\n—\n\nterror was nipped in the bud in the case of a boy aged three and three-\n\nfourths years. I shall try to explain the method. For several weeks he\nhad been visiting the zoological garden every afternoon, in the company\nof a French maid of exceptionally forceful character and apparently free\nfrom the superstitiousness of the average nurse. For a long time all went\nwell, until one evening he began to cry in bed soon after he was left for the\nnight.\nAt this imusual occurrence, I mounted the stairs and inquired the\ncause of the boy's trouble. He said there were lions in the house and that\nhe did not want to stay alone, as he was afraid they would eat him. The\nsource of the idea had been that the lions had roared more loudly than\nusual on that particular afternoon, and he had been much impressed,\nstanding for some time quite motionless before the cage, tho unterrified.\nI soon convinced the boy that the lions had to remain in their cages and\ncould not get out, hence there were none in the house, so that there was no\noccasion for fear. Of course, it was first necessary to give him the feeling\nof security gained by embracing me, and secondly to begin the conversation\nby talking of something else, I have forgotten what. In this way the state\nof terror was dismissed, and the feeling of protection was induced before\n\nwe returned to the subject of the lions; then we made rather a joke of the\nfunny roaring of the lions before we had finished, and he finally lay down\nwith the solemn purpose to go to sleep and think, as I proposed, of the\n\ntram cars and motors passing outside his open window.\n\nIt was all a very\n\nsimple substitution, but it was the prevention of what might have become\n\na serious fear-psychosis if injudiciously handled.\nIt should not be difl&cult to see that these night terrors are a product\nof a suggestion while awake, implicit or explicit.\n\nIt should not be difficult\n\nfor those who are forewarned to prevent morbid fears of this type.\n\nI may\n\ncite the case of a southern lady who could never enter a dark place without\n\nNo hereditary psychopathy could be invoked to explain her dread, for none of her three daughters had the least\n\nfeeling an indescribable horror.\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": "839", "text": "FEAR'AND ITS CURE\n\nDepartment!\n\n839\n\nfear of the dark, and, indeed, they used to be sent by their school fellows\n\ninto dark and eerie places without experiencing the least trepidation.\n\nThe\n\ndifference was that as children they were protected by their mother from\ntales told by the plantation negroes, who knew that dismissal would follow\n\ntransgression of the prohibition.\nIf I say to a small boy that a bear will eat him up, the effect upon his\n\nemotions depends upon whether I make the remark with portentous gravity\n\nand horror, or whether I say it with bubbling joviality, as evidently a huge\nIn the first eventuality, the boy will rush to my side in terror and\ntry to be saved from the bear, and a phobia is in course of construction.\nWith the latter proceeding, the boy will laugh, and it would not take much\nto make him enter the cage and strike the bear.\nBut even when terrified, a\nchild feels a refuge in the protection of his elders during the day when they\n\njoke.\n\nare rarely absent.\n\nAt night, however, the child is alone, and his little consciousness cannot\nfind the support of others.\n\nBefore the kaleidoscope of his dreams pass the\n\nvarious images and accompanying emotions of his waking life, so that, if any\nof these images has become linked with fear, it is certain to bring with it\nterror, as it surges into dream in the night, and the child jumps up, awak-\n\nened, in panic, finding no one near him upon whom to lean.\nIt must be remembered that explicit utterance is not essential for the\n\nconveyance of ideas; for in the child a vague general notion is quite as\nproducing emotion as a clear-cut concept.\n\neffective for\n\nThus in Henry\n\nJames's novel. What Maisie Knew, the whole suggestion conveyed by the\ngoverness to her two charges was implicit in her general attitude, for until\nthe end there was not one explicit statement of her fear.\n\nnation of this is very simple;\n\nit\n\nNow, the expla-\n\ndepends upon the fact that gesture pre-\n\ncedes speech as a vehicle of thought.\n\nThe infant comprehends the varying\n\nattitudes and vocal tones of its mother long before it can distinguish differ-\n\nent words;\n\nand in most people this channel of information remains an\n\nimportant mode by which they are influenced, often quite unconsciously.\n\nThose of us who have studied the psychology of crowds are well aware of\nthis, as likewise are the observers who compare nation with nation as\nregards gestural expression. Even adults of the same race, except the more\ncultivated, are swayed by a comedian much more thru his gestures and\nintonation than by his actual utterance. So with an orator or debator, or,\nindeed, with anyone who tries to persuade us even to purchase something\nfrom them. Our foolish minds are guided by the stress of an intonation,\nthe cut of the hair, the character of the clothing, the glance of the eye, far\n\nmore than by the arguments used or the words uttered; and with children\nthis is so to a much greater extent.\n\nefficiency from psychological causes is quite common in\nWhen a nervousness of this origin shows itself, a proper analysis\n\nImpaired\nchildren.\n\nof a child's mind is the first step toward its removal.\n\nA number of cases\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": "840", "text": "NATIONAL ED UCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n840\n\n[Special\n\nof this description, the first ever published, were reported by me to the\nAmerican Psychopathological Association.' In one of these, the ardent\naffection of a little girl was mistakingly repulsed by the parents.\n\nto melancholia.\n\nAfter one\n\nhour's analysis, she was cured in\n\nThis led\n\ntwo weeks\n\nand restored to the class of normal children. On account of the overanxiety of his mother, a little boy developed terrifymg hallucinations even\nin the daytime; and, of course, school was out of question as the boy was\nsupposed to be of a hopelessly nervous temperament. Half an hour's\nanalysis served to explain this condition; and a few weeks of special training enabled him to return to school quite well. All these were cases of\npoor adaptation, which was supposed to be due to inherent nervousness\nmore or less hopeless. They were really the results of faulty handling and\nrequired only a proper comprehension of their psychological constitution.\nAll were the children of people of superior attainments and conscience.\n\nMETHODS FOR MAKING SURVEYS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nWITH SUGGESTIONS TO PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS\nFOR RECORDING DATA ON SUBAVERAGE, SUBNORMAL,\nBACKWARD, OR DEFECTIVE CHILDREN\nMARY R. CAMPBELL, ASSOCLA.TE PSYCHOLOGIST, PSYCHOPATHIC LABORATORY,\nMUNICIPAL COURTS OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nV\n\nThe purpose of this monograph is not primarily to present the needs\nof abnormal children, but to indicate what types and varieties of children\nin the public schools should\n\nbe subjected to special examination and to\n\nsuggest methods for their observation.\n1.\n\nSuch a procedure will serve:\n\nFor the early identification of subnonnal, antisocial, and criminalistic children\n\nin the elementary public schools while still of teachable age.\n2.\n\nAs a means of ready classification of the subnormal and antisocial children into\n\nspecial classes without tedious psychological examination.\n3. As a preventive measure to reduce the number of the retarded but apparently\nnormal children in our schools.\n\n4. As an economic measure to reduce the enormous expense and burden to the taxpayer of caring for the dependent delinquent and criminal classes in the state charitable\n\nand penal institutions after they are beyond help and have seriously harmed society.\nI intend, first, to point out the imperative necessity of making use, and\n\nthat immediately, of the means already at our disposal, viz., our public\nschools, for the early identification of incipient mental and moral defects\nin individuals while still of school age,\n\nand secondly to submit to you a\n\npractical and economical method whereby this end may be attained.\n\nThe public\n\nschool is the logical clearing-house for detecting incipient\n\nsubnormality, insanity, and criminality.\n\nand operating.\n\n—^The machinery\n\nis\n\nalready there\n\nThere is no need of intricate laboratory tests, except for\n\n•See Journal of Abnormal Psychology, February, 1913; American Journal of Medical Sciences, December, 191a;\n\nPost Graduate, 1913;\n\nand Medical Annals, January, 1913.\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": "841", "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS FOR MAKING SURVEYS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n841\n\nHere we have a typical com-\n\nthe extreme problematic and obscure cases.\n\nmunity of future citizens, for we have \"all the children of all the people.\"\n\nSome may argue that we have no right to utilize the public schools as\nclearing-houses for such purpose; but since many of the individuals who\npass thru the school become public charges later on as adult delinquents\n\nand offenders, why not identify them, teach them, and help them while\nthey are of teachable age ? I shall present to you what I consider a feasible\nand easy method of preventive work along this line. It has a further value\n\n—that of being economical.\nIn order to illustrate the necessity of children, particularly those of\nimmoral or criminalistic tendencies, being identified early, cases are cited\n\nfrom the Milwaukee Industrial School for Girls, from the district attorney's\noffice in Milwaukee, from Coulter House, Chicago\na home for girls rescued\nfrom the vice districts and from the morals court and psychopathic labora-\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntory of the municipal courts of Chicago.\n\nThe average age at which the\n\nmajority of these girls and women left school was about twelve, thirteen,\nor fourteen years of age (the fourth grade was the average grade), at which\n\ntime they were already from three to five years retarded in their school\n\n—a pathologic retardation which should have been detected during\n\nwork\n\ntheir school days.\nif\n\nMany of these girls could have been saved morally,\n\nnot mentally, had proper educational work been given them so that\n\nThe downfall of these girls\n\nthey might have stayed in school longer.\n\nusually occurred from one to two years after they had left school, when they\n\nno longer had proper supervision.\n\nThe majority of the women brought into\n\nthe morals court, professional women of the street, who were tested by\n\nme during a period of two weeks. May 13 to May 27, 19 14, showed an\naverage mental age of nine and a half years, with the physical ages varying\nfrom ninteen to fifty- two years! With these figures to prove the necessity\nof a modified curriculum for the slightly subnormal girl, and also the necessity of having such individuals identified early so that they may be helped\n\nin time before they become a menace to society or are harmed by society,\nI shall demonstrate\n\nan extremely simple method of making a survey or\n\ninventory of abnormal children in the schools, in order to locate such individuals while they are of teachable age.\nI.\n\nAn extremely simple method based upon the age-grade scale plus\n\nrate of progress of children\n\nis\n\nsubmitted in this paper.\n\nThis age-grade\n\nestimate is the quickest, most suitable, and economical way of establishing\n\na norm for the pedagogical status of children.\n\nThe age-grade scale plus\n\na report on the rate of progress or attainment of a child quickly gives an\nindex to his mental caliber.\n\nThe only criterion upon which a child is\n\njudged should be his rate of attainment or progress in relation to his native\nability.\n\nWhat is his native ability in relation to his environment ?\n\nIs he\nhe reacting normally to his\nWould he progress more rapidly if he were transplanted ?\n\nliving down or up to his\n\nhabitat ?\n\n—or\n\nenvironment\n\nis\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": "842", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n842\n\n[Special\n\nA child's eligibility to public-school training can be quickly determined\neven during his life in the primary grades.\n\nBy means of this early identi-\n\nfication, whereby a moderately subaverage child need not be confused with\n\nthe definitely and permanently subnormal child, the ineligible child can be\nweeded out and sent, not to special classes, but to residential schools.\nEvery city should have not one but many residential schools for its markedly\nsubnormal children. Every city should have \"centers\" of three to four\nrooms each, properly equipped, so that the adolescent subnormal boys and\ngirls may work in separate rooms or classes, and so that the children requiring primary work need not be placed in with the older children and thus\nallowed to retard the older ones. With such centers properly equipped\nand with specialists as teachers, the progress of these children would be\ntwice as great. By having each teacher an expert in one line, more immediate results could be obtained for the children.\n2. Several valuable recommendations are as follows: Every six months\nspecial reports should be made by teachers and principals to superintendents showing children who are one or more years retarded and the cause\nor causes thereof. By having such reports showing when and why these\nchildren begin to retard, and when, why, and how they begin to regain, a\npermanent subnormality may be prevented, or at least a marked retardation may be arrested.\nThe point of departure from normal to subnormal\nmentality that is, the point where the retardation is sufficient to be considered pathologic will be noted.\nSuch reports would be a great help in\nstudying normal childhood, for they would show the actual individual\nneeds of growing boys and girls, and how such needs could be met by a\n\n—\n\n—\n\nvery necessary revision of the public-school curriculum.\nIn the many cases of border-line tj^es, where a mental arrest seems to\ntake place on or about the pubertal change, no records are available to\n\nshow whether, if these cases had been placed under an educational system\nadapted to their needs, they would have come out of this apparently temporary subnormal condition which has resulted in permanent arrest.\n3. Every public-school should have on its staff a clinical psychologist,\na physician, and a statistician, who, with the aid of a social worker and\n\na trained nurse, would be able to effect the proper co-operation between\nthe home, the school, and the abnormal, or refractory child who might\nlater\n\non develop into an adult delinquent to be cared for at triple the\n\nexpense.\n4. By keeping a record system in connection with every public school,\nand with a follow-up system carried into the Bureau of Municipal Statistics,\n\nthere could be established a plan whereby all individuals who are feebleminded or pathologically subnormal may be kept account of, so that\nmarriage at least may be prevented and so that society may lend them\na helping hand. They will then have the protection of the law and not\nbe subject to the punishments to be meted out to normal individuals.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": "843", "text": "Department]\n\n5.\n\nSTUDY AND EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN\n\nThe most precious asset the nation has is its children.\n\nstitute the capital of a nation.\n\n843\n\nThey con-\n\nWe conserve our forests and our rivers, our\n\nlake shores and even our wild animals;\n\nwe study the blind fish in Cuba and\n\nthe migratory geese of Florida, so as to protect the species; but the human\n\nyoung we do not conserve, in fact, we do not even protect it.\nEvery year the public schools produce human waste products, or byproducts, as is evidenced by those who pass thru our various courts and\npsychopathic laboratories.\n\nWhy not conserve the children in the public\n\nschools by having a special report every few months on those\n\nwho are\n\nslightly retarded and are beginning to lag behind, so that the deviations\n\nfrom the normal may be studied in time to prevent mental and moral\ndisaster later on ? Many an immoral act has its genesis in the discouraged\nboy or girl. By such a system as indicated, the \" soul value \" of our children\n\nmay be conserved.\nFrom one-fourth to one-tenth of the taxes in many of our states go to\nsupport the dependent, delinquent, and criminal classes after they have\n\nbecome charges of the state. Why not reverse our method of procedure\nand give all this special care to the young while their abnormalities are still\nin their incipiency? The amount thus applied to preventive work in\ndetecting the minor subnormalities of children and in identifying the\nslightly subnormal while still in the elementary school would soon be\nsaved to the state. The problem therefore is one of economics, one factor\nof which is prevention along the lines indicated.\n\nTHE WORK OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE\nSTUDY AND EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL\nCHILDREN\nP. E. GROSZMANN, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL\nASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY AND EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN, PLAINFIELD, N.J.\n\nMAXIMILIAN\n\nThe movement started by the National Association for the Study and\nEducation of Exceptional Children has assumed great influence since its\nBranch associations and committees of activity\nlast annual conference.\n\nhave been established in California, Oregon, Virginia, Georgia, and Washington, D.C. Pedagogical clinics and research work, under the auspices\nof the association, have been founded in several places.\n\nThe systems of\n\nexaminations and tests elaborated by the research clinic of the association\n\nhave been studied widely and have been tried out and approved of in\nmany places. Our classification and terminology have been steadily gaining\nground; they form the texts in many university courses, and have, in their\nessential features, become accepted as the basis of all attempts at classification.\nThe work of the association has been indorsed by a large number of\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": "844", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n844\n\n(Special\n\nprofessional men and women in the medical, educational, and social fields\nof work all over the country and also by a number of national, state, and\nlocal organizations.\n\nTwo presidents of the United States have expressed\n\ntheir appreciation and confidence; the national Bureau of Education is in\nfullest sympathy vith our efforts.\n\nThe influence of the association has extended far beyond the boundaries\n\nWe have been approached for advice and co-operation\nfrom such distant countries as far-off India and Australia. Correspondence\nand co-operation have been established with England, France, and Germany, and we have even been in communication with St. Petersburg,\nof this country.\n\nSofia, and various places in Italy and Switzerland.\n\nEver)rwhere it is con-\n\nceded that our association has reached down to the very foundation upon\n\nwhich civilized society is built, and that it has given the clearest perspective of the problem of differentiated education ever yet shown.\nIt has\nsounded the keynote of all educational reform.\n\nA PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT WITH BACKWARD CHILDREN\nJOHN W. CARR, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BAYONNE, N.J.\nIn the spring of 191 1, the New Jersey legislature passed a law requiring all pupils \" three years or more below the normal '* to be taught in special\nclasses.\n\nThe law provides that the number of pupils per class shall not\n\nexceed fifteen and that the commissioner of education shall prescribe the\nnecessary rules and regulations for carrying the law into effect.\n\nIn the fall of 191 1, the city of Bayonne established seven classes for\n\nbackward pupils, but as the commissioner of education had not yet interpreted the meaning of the expression, \"three years or more below the\nnormal,\" we placed pupils in these classes who were three years or more\nbelow grade and also those who were semi-incorrigible. Many of these\npupils proved to be backward, not on account of lack of mentality, but\n\nbecause they were of foreign birth and had not been regular attendants\nat school, or had not applied themselves, or for other reasons than low\n\nmentality.\n\nThe result was that many of these pupils did the work of\n\nnormal children;\n\nseveral, in fact, did\n\ntwo or more years' work in one\n\nThe experiment demonstrated that special classes for backward\npupils were helpful, but just how helpful we did not know.\nyear.\n\nBefore the close of the school year 1911-12, the commissioner of education\n\nhad interpreted the law of 191 1 and had formulated rules for the\n\norganization of special classes.\n\nBy his interpretation, \"three years or\n\nmore below the normal\" meant in mentality and had nothing to do with\nclassroom grading.\n\nHe also laid down rules for certificating teachers of\n\nspecial classes and for determining what pupils were \"three years or more\n\nbelow the normal.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": "845", "text": "Department]\n\nAN EXPERIMENT WITH BACKWARD CHILDREN\n\n845\n\nIn the fall of 191 2, our special classes were reorganized into groups.\n1.\n\nPupils who were three years or more below the normal in mentality\n\nAn expert was\nemployed to make the test. Five such classes were established.\n2. Pupils who were semi-incorrigible, but who were not three years\nor more below the normal in mentality according to the Binet test, were\nplaced in another group. One such class has been maintained. This\nclass is not considered in the discussion which follows.\n3. Pupils who were of foreign birth and unable to speak and to understand the English language were placed in a third group. These pupils\nwere in no way below the normal either in mentality or in conduct. Many\nof them have shown remarkable talent.\nI shall not consider this group\naccording to the Binet test were placed in one group.\n\nin the discussion given below.\nIf schoolroom facilities had been available, at least one other kind of\n\nspecial class would have been formed: namely, for pupils who are backward\nfor other reasons than those mentioned above, but who are not mentally\n\ndefective.\n\nOne of our difficult problems has been to secure suitable teachers for\nNone of our teachers had been specially trained for\n\nthese special classes.\n\nsuch work, but with one exception each has taken special courses since\nclass.\nThese courses consist of work in\nabnormal psychology, manual training suitable for defectives, and observa-\n\nassignment to teach a special\n\ntion and practice in teaching backward pupils.\n\nEach teacher had had a\n\nnormal-school education and, with a single exception, several years of\nsuccessful experience in teaching.\n\nThe course of study for subnormal children is necessarily very flexible.\nIn fact, each teacher has been given great latitude in selecting the work\n\nwhich the pupils seemed best able to do.\n\nAt least half of the time has\n\nbeen devoted to manual work of various kinds\n\n—sewing, crocheting, sloyd,\n\nand raffia work, painting, clay-modeling,\nhammered brass work, and the like. There is some differentiation of the\nwork of boys and girls, yet many of the boys have shown aptness in sewing\nand some of them may become tailors. Each class is not required to do the\nsame work that the other classes do, but great latitude is allowed. One\njoinery, basketry, caning, reed\n\nclass took the home as a center of interest.\n\nA miniature two-story house\n\nabout five by six feet was designed and built by the boys and equipped\nwith miniature furniture.\nelectric lights.\n\nThe boys even wired it and had it lighted with\n\nIn addition to making miniature furniture, the children\n\nmade many usable articles such as tables, benches, towel rollers, bread\nboards, broom holders, flower-pot stands, picture frames, tool boxes, stools,\ntool racks, and the like.\nSeveral boys made small express wagons. One\nboy was offered six dollars for his wagon. The boys were taught to paint\ntheir wagons as well as to make them.\nThe girls in the same class were\ntaught to sew, knit, darn, embroider, draw, and paint. They made caps,\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": "846", "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n846\n\naprons, simple dresses, slippers, and sewing-bags.\n\n[Special\n\nAnother year we hope\n\nto teach them how to cook.\n\nAnother class consisting entirely of boys did hand work as follows:\nwoodwork small articles, mechanical toys, footstools, taborets, sewingreed and raffia; sewing\ntables, picture frames, screens, etc.; basketry\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntailor work, making skirts, making curtains to darken assembly; home\ndecoration use of stencils, application on articles for home use, sofa pillows,\n\n—\n\ntable runners, screen panels, etc. ; gardening\n\n—\n\nknitting and crocheting\n\nuse;\n\n—\n\n^raising vegetables for\n\nslippers, bootees,\n\nhome\n\nbaby sacques, sweaters\n\nfor personal use, afghans, etc.\n\n—\n\nOnly about one-half of the time is devoted to academic work reading,\nwriting, spelling, the mechanical processes in arithmetic, and language\nwork. Most of these pupils do fairly well in writing, but many of them\nhave great difficulty with the academic work. Much time is given to\nphonics and word drills as reading\n\nis\n\nvery difficult for them to learn.\n\nstory-telling and the writing\nand short letters. Most of them learn how to write\nConsiderable\ntheir names and addresses, and how to address a letter.\ntime is devoted to sight spelling, only the most common words being\ngiven them to memorize. Even with the best of teaching, only comparatively few do good academic work.\nThese are placed in classes with\n\nThe language\n\nlessons\n\nconsist chiefly of\n\nof easy sentences\n\nnormal pupils.\nIn addition to manual and academic work, special attention is given\nto gymnastics and group plays.\n\nThey are taught games and folk dancing.\n\nSense training is also emphasized.\n\nExercises are given to train the senses\n\nof sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.\n\nBy means of games and other-\n\nwise, they learn to distinguish color.\n\nThe cost is more than three times as great per pupil in these special\nSpecial equipment\nmanual work, and much more material is used than is given\n\nclasses as it is per pupil in classes of normal children.\nis required for\n\nto normal pupils.\n\nLarger salaries are paid to teachers of these classes than\n\nto other elementary teachers.\nit is readily\n\nAs the maximum ntunber of pupils is fifteen,\n\nseen that the number of teachers per himdred pupils is nearly\n\nthree times that of normal children.\n\nThe cost could be diminished one-half\n\nby increasing the size of these classes to thirty, but the results would be\nmuch less satisfactory. The state allows five himdred dollars per teacher\nfor the special teachers of backward pupils, thus relieving the burdens of\nthe local taxpayer to some extent.\nWhat results have we attained for this increased expenditure of time,\ntalent, and money?\nIs the game worth the candle?\nWe have not conducted these special classes long enough to give a final answer. Some\ntentative answers follow:\nI.\n\nThe regular classes have been relieved of these backward pupils,\n\nthereby enabling teachers to devote their time and energies to the instruc-\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": "847", "text": "Departmentl\n\nAN EXPERIMENT WITH BACKWARD CHILDREN\n\ntion of normal children.\n\n847\n\nThis is of itself a matter of great importance to\n\nthe school and certainly compensates in part for the additional expense.\n2.\n\nFor the first time these backward children have been given a fair\n\nchance to develop the best that is in them.\n\nThey are not expected to reach\n\nstandards set for normal children, neither are they made the butt of ridicule\n\ndo not succeed as well as others do. But they are given something\nwhich they can do, and then they are encouraged to do their best. All\nif they\n\nhave shown marked\n\nability in\n\nsome lines.\n\nDuring the last two years,\n\nforty-two of these supposedly defective pupils have been transferred to\nregular classes; thirty-four of these, or 81 per cent, have been able to keep\n\nup with regular classes.\n\nProbably none of these would ever have done\n\nsatisfactory classwork if they had not been placed in special classes.\n3.\n\nThe pupils in these special classes are far happier than they ever\n\nwere before, and their attitude toward the school has entirely changed.\n\nThese children have not been accustomed to receive special attention,\nneither have they ever before been able to do things which would attract\nattention and call for conmiendation. Now visitors come to their rooms\nto see their work, and whenever an exhibition of school work is made, their\nexhibits are among the most attractive. No class of children are hungrier\nfor praise or appreciate it more.\n\nAs a result of being given hand work\n\nwhich they like and commendation for their efforts, their whole attitude\ntoward school has changed. Several of these pupils who had been confirmed truants are interested in their work and regular in attendance.\n\nIn\n\nfact, the attendance of the pupils of these classes surpasses that of the regu-\n\nOne class had perfect attendance for more than a month and\nsome others did nearly as well.\nAs a rule most of them\n4. As to discipline these pupils differ greatly.\nhave not been troublesome, yet some are extremely erratic and nondependable. One boy in particular often screams out without cause and\nbecomes for a time unmanageable, then quiets down again. Most of them\nhave weak wills and are extremely susceptible to example or suggestion.\nThey find it extremely hard to stick to any one thing or to do anything\non their own initiative. Weak wills and lack of initiative are likely to\nlar classes.\n\ncause their undoing in the future.\n\nBut what is to be the final result ? Will these children ever be able to\nbecome self-supporting and respectable members of society? No one is\nable to give definite answers to these questions. Time alone will tell.\nThe one best guess is that some will be able to be self-supporting, many\nwill not be.\n\nThirty have already been exempted from school attendance\n\nto go to work.\n\nExactly half of this number have been able to keep their\n\njobs.\n\nAll teachers give it as their opinion that about half of these children\nunder proper supervision may become self-supporting and that the other\nhalf will always be a burden to their family or to society.\n\nAs to what these\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": "848", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n848\n\n[Special\n\nchildren will become morally is still more problematic. The home surroundSome of the children are underfed. \" majorings of some are very poor.\n\nA\n\nThe\nity of these children,\" says one teacher, \"are fed on bread and coffee.\npicture\nshows\nMany\nare\nout\nto\nmeal.\"\nregular\na\nto\ndown\nnever\nsits\nfamily\nevery night.\n\nThey come home at all hours and their parents never ques-\n\ntion them.\n\nMany are suffering from physical ini&rmities—poor eyesight,\n\nbad teeth, adenoids, and the like. The mentality and will power of all are\nbelow par. Under such circumstances, it will not be surprising if many\nmeet with moral shipwreck.\nWhat are we going to do in the future? In the first place, we shall\ncontinue to study our problem. We shall endeavor to work out a better\ncourse of study and to improve our methods of instruction. We shall try\nto remedy more physical defects by closer medical inspection.\nalso strive to improve home conditions.\nall these children happier and to save\n\nWe shall\n\nBy so doing, we hope to make\n\nmany to lives of usefulness and honor.\n\nIn the second place, we hope to convince society that many of these children should be permanent wards of the state, kept at healthful occupations\n\"under proper supervision, and prevented from becoming alike a menace to\nsociety and the prey of society.\n\nREADING AND ARITHMETIC AS TESTS OF MENTAL ABILITY\nCLARA SCHMITT, CHILD STUDY DEPARTMENT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe reading process may be measured with reference to two things,\nThe term \"quantity\" relates to the pronunciation\nThe term \"quality\"\nof words from a purely mechanical standpoint.\nrelates to the ideas or complexes of ideas aroused in the mind of the\nquantity and quality.\n\nreader.\n\nThe reading tests were given to seventeen children of each grade from\nThe same tests were given at the same time in the\n\nthe first to the sixth.\n\nsame schools to forty-eight defective children between the ages of ten and\nsixteen, all of whom had been in a special room for defectives not less than\na year and many had been in such a room for several years. The defective\nchildren tested seven years of age by the Binet scale and had passed other\ntests showing good visual perceptive abilities.\n\nThe tests were the story of \"The Fox and the Grapes\" on p. 100 of\nthe Howe First Reader and the following paragraph:\n^\n\n\"It was a fine spring morning in the year of 1826 about ten o'clock, when Mr. Amos\nBliss, manager and one of the proprietors of the Northern Spectator, might have been seen\n\nin the garden behind his house planting potatoes.\n\nHe heard the gate open behind him,\n\nand, without turning or looking around, became dimly conscious of the presence of a boy.\n\nBut the boys of country villages go into whosesoever garden their wandering fancy impels\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": "849", "text": "READING AND ARITHMETIC AS MENTAL TESTS\n\nDepartment]\n\n849\n\nthem, and, supposing this boy to be one of his own neighbors, Mr. Bliss continued his\nwork and quickly forgot that he was not alone.\"\n\nThe data noted were: time for reading the selection, verbatim reproduction of each selection, the child's interpretation of the motive of the fox\nin saying that the grapes\n\nwere sour, and the number of words mispro-\n\nnounced.\n\nThe story of the fox and the grapes is a lesson given to the first grade\nabout the end of the year.\nthis lesson.\n\nAll the first-grade children of the test had had\n\nAll the children chosen for the test were average good readers\n\nThe defective children had had much experience with this\n\nfor the grade.\nlesson.\n\nThe reproduction of each selection was classified as scant, adequate, or\nfull.\n\nA reproduction which did not contain all the essential elements of\n\nthe story was classed scant; one which contained only the essential elements\n\nwas classed adequate; one which contained most of the details of the\noriginal story was classed full.\n\nThe following table shows the data for the first test.\n\nDATA FOR READING TEST I\n\nGrade\n\nNumber of\nChildren\n\n82 seconds\n62 seconds\n48 seconds\n48 seconds\n\n12\n\nI\nII\n\n17\n17\n17\n\nIll\n\nIV\n\nAverage\nTime\n\nReproduction\n\nAverage\n\nInterpretation\n\nNumber of\nErrors\n\n•5\n\nScant\n\nAdequate\n\n3\n\n9\n9\n\nFull\n\n8\n13\n12\n\n4\n5\n\n+\n\n-\n\n6\n6\n13\n\nII\n\nIS\n\n2\n\n6\n\n4\n\nThe following table shows the data for the second reading test.\n\nDATA FOR READING TEST II\n\nGrade\n\nII..\nIll\n\nIV\n\nV\n\nNumber ot\nChildren\n\n17\n17\n17\n17\n\nReproduction\n\nAverage\nAverage Time\n\nNumber of\nErrors\n\n194 seconds\n91 seconds\n74 seconds\n54 seconds\n\n7.8\n2.8\nI.O\n•5\n\nScant\n\nAdequate\n\n14\n\n3\n\n13\n6\n\n4\n\nFull\n\n7\n\n4\n\n9\n\n8\n\nThe errors in pronunciation made by the normal children were always\nin favor of a word which had considerable visual or phonetic resemblance\n\nto the correct word.\n\nThe errors made by defective children, in the first\n\nselection, which was very familiar to them in content at least, were phoneti-\n\ncally or visually absurd but were calculated to fill in a remembered context.\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": "850", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n850\n\n[Special\n\nThe reading of the defective children presents such irregular characteristics that averages which would present any meaning are difficult to obtain.\n\nTwenty-four of the forty-six defectives could read the first selection with\nless facility\n\nthan the first-grade children; twelve were graded as equal to\n\nthe first-grade children;\n\nten were graded equal to the second-grade chil-\n\ndren as regards the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the second test.\n\nTwo of the defective children who read the second selection gave adequate\naccounts of the selection;\n\nall\n\nthe others gave scant or no accounts.\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": "851", "text": ".\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident —TAxs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers\n\nChicago, 111.\n\n—^Mrs. L. L. Blankenberg, General Federation of Women's Clubs\n\nVice-President\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\n—^Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women\n\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nSecretary\n\nFIRST SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, July 9, 1914\nThe Department of School Patrons met in the Knights of Columbus Hall and was\ncalled to order at 2 30 p.m. by the president.\n:\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\"President's Report\"\nChicago, 111.\n\n—\n\n^Mrs.\n\nWilliam S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers,\n\n\"Summary of Reports of State Joint Committees and Affiliated Organizations,\n1913-14\" Mrs. W. S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers, Chicago, 111.\n\"Report of the Committee on School Health\" Mary Elizabeth Bates, M.D.,\nDenver, Colo., chairman.\n\"The Responsibility of School Patrons with Regard to School Questions\":\na) \"School Health\"\nMaggie W. Barry, head of department of English, North\nTexas College, Sherman, Tex.\nh) \"School Revenue\"\nFrancis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\nSpringfield, 111.\n\nDiscussion: Mrs. Clarence L. Atwood, president, Minnesota Federation of Women's\n\nClubs, St. Cloud, Minn.; and Margaret E. Schallenberger, commissioner of elementary\nschools, Department of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Cal.\n\nEdward J. Ward, Bureau of Social Center Development, University of Wisconsin,\nMadison, Wis., presented a resolution indorsing a bill to be presented to the Wisconsin\nlegislature to create the office of civic secretary for public-school social centers.\n\nThe\n\nresolution was adopted.\n\nMr. Ward also introduced a resolution to make the principal of the school the supervisor of elections when such elections take place using the public school as a polling-center.\n\nMuch discussion took place but the resolution was not passed.\nThe president of the department presented a vote of thanks to Mary Cunningham,\nchairman of the local Committee of School Patrons, and also to those who took part in the\nprogram.\nIt was moved, seconded, and carried that the executive committee of the Department\nof School Patrons be empowered to conduct the work of the department during the year\n\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\n—\n\nFor President Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women, San Francisco, Cal.\nFor Vice-President Mrs. Philip N. Moore, trustee. College for Women, University\n\n—\n\nof the South, St. Louis, Mo.\nFor Secretary Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, state chairman, Department of School Patrons,\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\n—\n\nSECOND SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July 10, 1914\nThe department met in joint session in the Auditorium with the Department of\nSecondary Education and was called to order at 2 30 p.m.\n:\n\n851\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": "852", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n852\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\n\"The Responsibility of School Patrons with Regard to the Teaching of Sex Hygiene \"—William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\n\"The Responsibility of the Teacher with Regard to the Teaching of Sex Hygiene\"\nRalph E. Blount, instructor in physiology, Waller High School, Chicago, 111. (For this\npaper, see Department of Secondary Education.)\n\"Some Experiments in Sex Education\" ^James E. Peabody, head of department of\n(For this paper, see Department of\nbiology, Morris High School, New York, N.Y.\nSecondary Education.)\nMrs. Louis Hertz, Secretary\n\n—\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENTS REPORT\nMRS. WILLIAM\n\nS.\n\nHEFFERAN, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF MOTHERS,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe Department of School Patrons, with the represented host of over\na million volimteer workers from the five great national women's organizations the General Federation of Women's Clubs, the Congress of Mothers,\n\n—\n\nthe Council of Jewish Women, the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, and\nthe Southern Association of College Women\n\n—\n\nfeels that the past two years\n\nhave meant much in positive results but more in the laying of foundations\nfor increased conmiunity co-operation with the schools.\n\nThe department plan, as tested, has shown the wisdom of those who\napproved its beginnings;\nis\n\nall educational work attempted or countenanced\n\nbody of\nand is to be desired expressly by the local school\n\nto receive previously the seal of approval from the national\n\nprofessional educators,\nauthorities.\n\nThe avenues of effort are everywhere\n\n—strong existing organi-\n\nzations uniting for this concerted and professionally guided effort.\npossibility of friction or waste is avoided.\n\nThe\n\nThus the wisdom of the highest\n\neducational authority and the enthusiasm of the most successful volunteer\n\ngroups are systematically transmitted to the entire circle.\n\nJoseph Swain, President of the National Education Association, says:\nI believe that the most important work can be done by the Department of School\nPatrons by focusing public attention in all parts of the country on school reforms pro-\n\nvided by the best expert knowledge.\n\nWork imdertaken the last year, as heretofore, has been the arousing\nof public opinion for desired legislation for the enforcing of existing provisions, for the increase of revenue for school purposes (bond issues and other\nmeans of financial support), for school health and all it means in the way\nof medical inspection, school nurses, proper ventilation and lighting of\nschools, and for rural-school improvement.\nIn general, by state-wide effort, the three lines of advance, school health,\nrevenue, and rural-school improvement, have been followed. Locally,\n\nthe joint committees in each state suggested not the immediate end to be\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": "853", "text": "—\nPRESIDENT'S REPORT\n\nDepartment]\n\n—at the\n\n853\n\ngained, but where to learn that end\n\noffice of\n\nsuperintendent, the principal, the teacher.\n\nThe means are any or all\n\nthe county or city\n\ngroups of public-spirited workers, including, whenever possible, the parents\nof the children in each school.\n\nAt present almost the whole burden of child direction is resting on the\nschools\n\n—the mind, body, morals, work, and play. This burden\n\nis heavier\n\nThere seems no wise solution except to secure direction from the schools for the parents until these parents can be trained into\nwisdom in regard to the welfare of their own children and of all children,\nwhich means universal parenthood. In this great co-operative undertaking\nthe Department of School Patrons hopes to be the useful channel.\nthan should be borne.\n\nSCHOOL HEALTH COMMITTEE\nThis coromittee has worked consistently for medical inspection in the\n\nThe conmiittee feels that the\nnew conception of school health involves the adaptation of the school to the\nschools, using the Colorado law as a copy.\n\nchild instead of vain attempts to force the child to fit the school.\n\nLeland Hoag, of Leland Stanford Junior University, says:\nThe modern school-health officer must be a specialist carefully trained in the problems of child hygiene, particularly as this applies to the school child.\n\nThe division of school hygiene should include in its functions not only the health\nsupervision of school children and maintenance of healthful school environment, but\nalso supervision of the teaching of hygiene, of the health of teachers, of physical education, and of a public lecture department for parents, where topics on the home and school\n\nhygiene of the child may be presented.\n\nSCHOOL REVENUE\n\nA great educator, in a recent address, said that the old education\n\n—\n\nwas inexpensive, as to both\nequipment and teachers, but that the new education with its very broad\neducation based on the textbook alone\n\ncurriculum was expensive\n\n—expensive as to equipment and as to the quality\n\nof teacher needed for its development.\n\nIt is interesting to note that school\n\npatrons are always clamoring for better schools, better equipment, and\nbetter teachers, but rarely concern themselves with the source from which\n\nthese\n\nmust come, namely, school revenue.\n\nIt is high time that school\n\npatrons bestir themselves to become better acquainted with the manner of\nobtaining funds for school purposes in each state and that they unite to\n\nobtain increased revenue thru intelligent legislation.\n\nFor instance, it takes no argument to prove that the state as a whole\nshould assume a fair share of the burden in educating its future citizens, and\nthat the annual appropriation made by the state should keep pace with the\nincrease in population and wealth and should parallel the ever-increasing\n\ndemands of the state for the greater efficiency of her citizens. The state\nshould provide at least one-eighth of the amount required for school purposes.\nNot more than a third of the states have enough revenue for their\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": "854", "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n8^4\n\n(School Patrons\n\nschools and less than one-fourth of the states make an annual appropriation\nof a fixed sum.\n\nAttention is drawn to the advantages of a fixed rate of taxation on\nproperty for educational purposes rather than an annual appropriation\nof a fixed sum.\n\nAs property values and the number of school children\n\nincrease, the revenue for schools increases if there is a fixed rate of taxation\nfor school purposes, whereas it remains the same if the annual appropriation\nis a\n\nlump sum.\n\nIn the latter case the amount is difficult to increase, while\n\nHere is\nin the former it increases automatically as property values rise.\nundertake.\npatrons\nmight\ngroup\nof\nwhich\na\nrevenue\nfor\nwork\nbit\nof\ndefinite\na\nPeople may differ as to how the revenue for school purposes is to be obtained,\n\nbut the fact remains that better schools and teachers will cost money.\nHow can this money be secured ? By every school patron taking an interest\nin school-revenue questions and working for helpful legislation in the matter.\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT\nP. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, sent the\n\nfollowing definite suggestions to the Department of School Patrons, which\n\nwere printed and circulated among the members:\nProbably the most important problem in education in the United States today is\nIn the very small towns, villages,\n\nthe improvement of public schools in rural communities.\n\nand open country nearly two-thirds of the total school population live—probably a larger\npercentage of the native school population. These children must be educated in these\nschools if at all.\nFor many reasons these schools have received less help from the state\nand the Union than the schools in the larger towns and cities.\nThe average length of term of the rural school of the country at large is less than 140\ndays. The average length of the schools in the open country is probably less than no\ndays. Most of the rural schools are one-room, one-teacher schools. Enrolment is comparatively large, but the attendance is much more irregular than in towns and cities.\nThe teachers are poorly paid and poorly prepared. Only a small percentage of them have\nany adequate professional training, and in many states more than half of them have had\nless\n\nMost of them are young women scarcely out\nThey teach only for a few years, the average length of teaching service\n\nthan a good high-school education.\n\nof their teens.\n\nbeing only about five years of six months each, or thirty school months.\nFully 25 per cent of all the teachersin rural schools at the beginning of any year have\n\nhad no previous experience in teaching. The teachers are migratory. They seldom\nremain more than two or three years at the same place. Statistics seem to show that more\nthan two-thirds of the teachers in any year are teaching at places where they have not\ntaught before. Rarely does a teacher remain at a place longer than four years. Frequently they are young men or women from the towns. They therefore know little or\nnothing of rural problems, and nothing of the life of the country child; they have no\nopportunity to build from year to year on their own work, nor have they the knowledge\nnecessary to adapt the work of the school to the out-of-school life of the child, either its\npre-school life or its contemporary life.\n\nThese young, inexperienced, uneducated, migra-\n\ntory teachers are without the supervision which better educated and better trained\n\nThe county superintendent frequently is not an educator, and\nseldom has time to spend more than a few hours a year in any school. Seldom are there\nteachers have in the city.\n\nsuperintendents for special lines of work.\n\nEverything, therefore, depends on the teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": "855", "text": "REPORTS OF STATE JOINT COMMITTEES\n\nDepartment]\n\n855\n\nI can think of no solution of the problem except to consolidate the schools so as to\n\nmake them large enough for at least two teachers, to build schoolhouses adapted to a\nricher course of study, including agriculture, domestic science, and such forms of industrial\n\nwork as are suited to the country, and to build a home for the teacher at each school.\nThis home should be accompanied by a plot of ground of not less than ten acres\nor thirty acres would be better.\n\n—twenty\n\nThe teacher should be required to live in this teacher's\n\nhome, to make it as nearly as possible a model rural home, and to cultivate the ground\nin such a way as to make it a practical demonstration of the best methods of cultivation\n\nThis any teacher could\nOf course he could easily have\nthe help of the state and federal Departments of Agriculture and of the state agricultural\ncollege.\nThe house and grounds should be given to the teacher in addition to his present\nsalary, and whatever he can make off the ground should be his.\nIn this way it would be\npossible to obtain as teachers in the rural schools men of ability and maturity who can\ncontinue in the work and who would remain from year to year at the same place. Of\ncourse the assistants should be women who know country life and have the ability to\nteach domestic science and arts adapted to country life.\nof the various crops that can best be grown in the community.\n\ndo who ought to be permitted to teach a country school.\n\nDuring the 1913 National Education Association Convention in Salt\n\nLake City, Commissioner Claxton, in his address before this department,\nasked that the department aid him in a nation-wide plan for helping\nthe schools thru home education.\n\nFor such nation-wide co-operation the\n\ndepartment is exceptionally well equipped, because of its state joint committees, which in each state unite the great women's organizations of that\n\nIn accordance with this plan of national\nCommissioner Claxton recently honored this department by\n\nstate for educational purposes.\nusefulness,\n\nappointing its president as a special collaborator in the Bureau of Education.\nI wish to acknowledge here and now the very great help that the Bureau\nof Education has been to me and\n\nmy colleagues in guiding and directing\n\nour work and in sending helpful literature of every sort to aid us in our\n\nThe bureau offers rare opportunities to\n\nattempts to reach the patrons.\n\npatrons to study school affairs thru the excellent reports on health, compulsory education, rural schools,\n\netc.,\n\nand I urge its use by all serious\n\nstudents of education among the patrons.\n\nSUMMARY OF REPORTS OF STATE JOINT COMMITTEES AND\nAFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS, 191 3-14\nReports have been received from the chairmen of State Joint Committees of twenty-four states.\n\nAlabama.\n\n—\n\n^Local taxation\n\nand compulsory education are Alabama's\n\ngreatest educational needs, so the committee's entire effort has been concen-\n\ntrated on these two measures.\n\nPublicity has been the keynote of the\n\nwork, and the main endeavor has been to reach the average citizen.\nI. A four-page pamphlet was published under the heading ''Facts\nEvery Alabaman Should Know.\" The facts herein presented were\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": "856", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n856\n\n[School Patrons\n\ncompiled from the reports of the state department of education, the Russell\n\nSage Foundation, and the United States Bureau of Education. A leading\nfeature of this leaflet was the pictorial presentation of the arguments by\n\nmeans of original charts based upon latest statistics as to attendance of\nAlabama school children, and white illiteracy in Alabama compared with\nother\n\nsections.\n\nTen thousand of these pamphlets were distributed at the two state\nfairs, at the State Convention of Women's Clubs, at individual club meetings, at conferences of teachers called by county superintendents, at a\nconference of Methodist preachers, at meetings of school-improvement\nworkers, and thru the state department of education.\n\nThis pamphlet was\n\nreproduced in full by the Educational Exchangey by the Birmingham\n\nNews\n\n(circulation forty thousand), and was copied by various papers thruout the\nstate.\n\nOn a conservative estimate this publication reached seventy-five\n\nthousand individual citizens even on a basis of only one person reading\nthe paper in which it appeared.\n2.\n\nAs part of its follow-up work the conmiittee has published a series\non compulsory education in the newspaper with the largest\nCopies of the series were sent to numbers of influcitizens and school-improvement workers and to every county\n\nof articles\n\ncirculation in the state.\nential\n\nsuperintendent with a personal letter requesting co-operation in the campaign.\n\nIt went to approximately one hundred women's clubs, with a per-\n\nsonal letter requesting that it be read in full before the club.\n\nIt also -went\n\nto thirty-five leading newspapers with a personal letter asking that it be\n\ncopied in full.\n\nIf only\n\na fourth of those approached complied with our\n\nrequest, the series has reached, on a conservative estimate, three hundred\n\nthousand citizens.\n3.\n\nThe conmiittee has complied with requests from numbers of organi-\n\nzations for speakers or written addresses for their open meetings, and has\n\nthus reached hundreds of club women, teachers, preachers, patrons, and\n\nThe chairman has personally addressed twelve organizaand is now preparing to fill out-of-town engagements. Thru an\naddress before the convention of the Alabama Sociological Congress, compulsory education was included in this organization's list of remedial\nlegislation.\nAfter an address before the Jefferson County Teachers Association, a resolution was passed by which that body requested of all county\ncandidates for the legislature a public declaration of their position on compulsory education and on local taxation. Most of the candidates declared\nsocial workers.\n\ntions\n\nin favor of the measures.\n\nOur method of financing this work may be of value to other states, so\nThe committee felt that if it would personally finance the\nwork until the movement was well started others would be willing to help,\n(i) The request that each committee member contribute five dollars brought\nenough to buy letterheads and to pay part of the first printing; (2) the\nit is here given.\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": "857", "text": "REPORTS OF STATE JOINT COMMITTEES\n\nDepartment!\n\n857\n\npamphlet was submitted to a printer known to be interested in education,\nand he not only made the lowest estimate on the job ($40), but, in addition, discounted the bill 50 per cent; (3) the series of articles was so prepared\nas to make good copy according to the newspaper point of view. As a\nresult the largest of the Alabama papers agreed, for the privilege of handling it exclusively, to send copies direct from the office to any list of names\nwe submitted. We were saved in this way an immense amount of clerical\nwork and also secured about $75 worth of papers. To finance the more\nextensive work necessary for next year, when our legislature is in session, the\n\ncommittee has already adopted its plan.\n\nCertain clubs and individuals,\n\nknown to be interested in such movements, have been invited to become\n\"contributing associates\" in our work.\n\nAll publications will continue\n\nto go out as the work of the conmiittee members, but those co-operating\nfinancially will also be listed under the above title.\n\nThe minimum con-\n\ntributions are one dollar for individuals and five dollars for clubs.\n\nA niunber\n\nof responses are coming in, so we hope for a most fruitful year in 1914-15.\n\n—\n\nwomen's organizations united to obtain compulsory\nAlso worked for\nmedical inspection in the schools and secured the establishment of a\ndomestic-science department in the University of Arkansas.\nDelaware. There has been united effort to secure a woman's affiliated\ncollege for the state, which effort was crowned with success.\nArkansas.\n\n^All the\n\nschool attendance in all the counties (nine have it now).\n\n—\n\nDistrict of Columbia.\n\n—Concerted\n\neffort\n\nhas been\n\nmade by all the\n\norganizations for better health conditions for school children, lunches for\nschool children, and the general improvement of school conditions.\n\nWork\n\nfor medical inspection in the schools has been pushed and a course of lec-\n\ntures in eugenics has been carried on.\nFlorida.\n1 91 5\n\n—The Joint Committee has been working to secure, in the\n\nlegislature,\n\na local option compulsory education law;\n\nit\n\nhas also\n\nworked for a girls' industrial school, and for a model home for the home\neconomics department of the Woman's College.\nIllinois.\n\n—^The Joint Committee made a comprehensive study of school\n\nboards in cities with a population of one hundred thousand or over, with\na view to preparing a law for the next legislature providing for small boards\nelected at large.\n\nIndiana.\n\n—Parent-teacher associations have been formed and such\n\n\"The Gang Problem,\" \"Sex Hygiene,\" and \"Playgrounds\"\nhave been considered by these clubs.\nKansas. There are two measures that will be presented to the next\nquestions as\n\n—\n\nlegislature.\n\nThey are of great importance to the educational interests of\n\nthe state, and every club is urged to study and discuss them thoroly.\nI.\n\nThe county unit will do more than any one thing to improve the rural\nA late report made by the superintendent of public instruction\n\nschools.\n\nshows that there are 7,877 one-room schools in Kansas.\n\nBy equalizing\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": "858", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n858\n\n[School Patrons\n\nthe taxes the school standards will be raised, and the boys and girls of the\nA recent\n\nrural schools will have an equal opportunity with those in town.\n\nsurvey in Kansas made by the superintendent of public instruction shows\nthat 80 per cent of the pupils living in urban communities finish the eighth\n\ngrade and enter the high school and only 20 per cent in the state as a whole.\n\nThis low average must be caused by the rural school. The young people\ndrop out because of lack of opportunity and incentive to complete their\neducation.\n\nOf equal importance to the state institutions of higher learning is the\nThis would supply a regular and adequate income that could be\ndepended upon, it would increase with the growth of wealth, and it would\nenable the schools to meet the new demands and increased expenses without\n2.\n\nmill tax.\n\nthe unrest and anxiety the present system entails.\n\nIf the state colleges\n\nwere put upon this basis, it would remove them largely from political\nToo often they are now made the football of politics and are\ninfluence.\nsubject to the caprice of legislatures.\n\nOur state institutions cannot reach\n\ntheir highest efficiency until they are established on a permanent and dignified basis.\n\n—\n\nwomen's organizations are endeavoring to lift\nthe stigma of illiteracy from the state. Night schools for adults have been\nestablished; these night schools are mostly in the country and the report\nis made that these adult pupils are enthusiastic and persistent in learning\nto read and write, using newspapers and the Bible as readers.\nMaine. The Joint Committee worked for a teachers' pension bill and\nKentticky.\n\n^All\n\nof the\n\n—\n\nfor better sanitary conditions in the schools.\n\n—\n\nMaryland. Successful work was done in increasing the scope of the\nMaryland Agricultural College. Efforts are being made to secure a state-\n\nwide compulsory school attendance law.\nMichigan.\n\n—Secured the local adoption of a measure made voluntary\n\nby the last legislature which provides for limited school boards elected at\nlarge.\n\n—\n\nMississippi. Legislative: (i) The child-labor law was strengthened\nby providing for a factory inspector to enforce the law; (2) the age of consent was raised to sixteen years; (3) the office of county agent of home\neconomics was created, the expense to be met by the boards of supervisors.\nThe specific duties of these county agents are to promote and supervise\ncanning and poultry clubs and other organizations for home improvement.\nThis places the demonstration work for girls and women on the same footing\nas that for boys and men; (4) the appropriation for conamon schools was\n\nincreased nearly $500,000; (5) the apportionment for county agricultural\nhigh schools was nearly doubled.\n\nHealth: The various women's organizations together with the AntiTuberculosis Committee of the state Board of Health and the School\n\nImprovement Association have formed an effective co-operative force to\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": "859", "text": "REPORTS OF STATE JOINT COMMITTEES\n\nDepartment]\n\n859\n\nimprove health conditions in the public schools and particularly in the\nPrizes were offered, health campaigns carried on, bulletins\nrural schools.\nissued,\n\nand special days observed.\n\nThe following report from Carroll\n\nCoimty, which won the grand prize for health improvement, gives an idea\nof the details of this work.\n\nCarroll County\nSchools in county\n\nS3\n\nSchools reporting\n\nS3\n\nMembers local associations\n\n2,448\n\nSanitary closets built and cared for in\n\n18 schools\n\nIndividual drinking-cups in\n\n53\n\nCovered water coolers in\nWells dug or cleaned in\n\n44\n\nBrooms in\n\n46\n\n31\n\nOiled floors in\n\n24\n\nOiled dust cloths in\n\n20\n\nGood ventilation in\n\n25\n\nMedical inspection or instruction in\n\nS3\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n**\n\n**\n\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\nDrills in care of teeth in\n\n38\n\nDrills in care of nails in\n\n31\n\nCorrelation of school work with health work in\n\n34\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\nEach school in the county was visited by R. N. Whitfield, M.D., in a\nhookworm campaign, and he delivered a lecture on hookworm, typhoid,\nand tuberculosis, giving suggestions on the prevention of those\nHe also inspected the buildings and grounds and offered many\nsuggestions on ways to improve the health conditions of the house and\n\nmalaria,\n\ndiseases.\n\ngrounds.\n\n\"Health Day'' and \"Clean-up Day\" and \"Beautify Day\" were each\nobserved very generally by the women's organizations as well as by the\nschools and the teachers' organizations.\n\nSpecial programs for these days\n\nwere furnished by the state department of education.\n\nThe women's organizations have encouraged the\nby offering handsome prizes, but best of all by pledging\nthemselves to buy and use the club products as long as they are available\nand satisfactory. The club girls in 1913 packed 210,000 cans of tomatoes\nand more than 6,000 gallons of other products for home use and for market.\nMontana. ^A vocational congress was held at Bozeman to promote\nvocational education in the state. The women's organizations helped raise\nsufficient funds to maintain the College of Montana at Deer Lodge.\nNew Hampshire. The Joint Committee worked under the direction of\nIndustrial clubs:\n\ngirls' canning clubs\n\n—\n\n—\n\nthe state superintendent of public instruction, holding a conference at\nwhich vital school questions were discussed and a \" declaration of principles\"\n\nadopted.\n\nThese \"principles\" put special emphasis on the necessity for\n\nthe immediate enactment of laws which shall make competent professional\nsupervision of schools universal thruout the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": "860", "text": "NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION\n\n86o\n\n(School Patrons\n\nNew Jersey.—\"Rtl^ public-health education meetings addressed by\nprominent physicians and educators on social, infant, and child hygiene.\nThere was general co-operation with the commissioner of education and the\nboard of education for better health conditions for children.\nOklahoma. ^A large number of scholarships are being maintained by\nthe club women. There are five such scholarships in connection with\nthe State College for Women at Chickasha. There is a strong interest in\n\n—\n\nrural-school improvement.\n\nOregon.\n\n—The women's organizations urged the use of the schoolhouses\n\nas social centers, with a view to provide night schools in manual training for\n\nboys employed thru the day.\nPennsylvania.\n\n—The work of the women's organizations includes cam-\n\npaigns for women on school boards, vocational guidance in the schools,\n\nimprovement of rural schools, and the encouragement of home and school\nleagues.\n\nTexas.\n\n—^The women's organizations represented in the Department of\n\nSchool Patrons have shown a marked unity of purpose and method in their\nactivities for the state's general educational advancement and for the enrich-\n\nment of the child's school life.\n\nEfforts have been directed toward adequate\ntoward the removal of the fifty-cent maximum\nlimitation of local school tax; toward the consolidation of rural schools and\nlocal school taxation;\n\nthe transportation of pupils at public expense; toward the giving of instruc-\n\nmanual training, and home economics in rural high\nand toward graded school libraries, the number of volumes in\nthese libraries having increased 23 per cent in two years. Pictures, pianos,\nvictrolas, stereopticon lanterns, and playground equipment were installed.\nBooks and clothing were supplied to children upon the recommendation\nof principals, and various means are being used to promote regularity\nand increase of school attendance.\ntion in agriculture,\nschools;\n\nOne\n\nof\n\nthe organizations\n\nis\n\ninvestigating teachers' pensions.\n\nThe\n\ncampaign for a suitable compulsory school attendance law, for adequate\nchild-labor legislation, and for school-health protective measures con-\n\nThru the efforts of the women another city incorporated the\nThe movement for the wider\nuse of the school plant is making rapid strides. The number of schoolhouses built during the year is probably not exceeded by that of any\ntinues.\n\nkindergarten in the public-school system.\n\nother state.\n\nWe are advancing and we look hopefully forward to the enactment of\ncertain legislation which will enable a still more rapid and enduring improve-\n\nment and development of the entire public-school system.\n\n—\n\nUtah. The Joint Conunittee established a central community club\nwhich co-operates with the schools. Various women's organizations se-\n\ncured the passage of a law by which cities of the second class were allowed\nto tax themselves by a raise of\n\ntwo mills, thus securing high schools to\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": "861", "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH\n\nsome localities.\n\n86l\n\nHome economic associations, covering large territory and\n\ncontributing to home improvement, have been organized.\n\nVermont.\n\n—Effort has been made to provide better\n\nsalaries for teachers,\n\nto secure medical inspection in the schools, and to establish a department\n\nof school hygiene.\n\nWashington.\n\n—A\n\nletter was sent to each parent-teacher club, collegiate\n\nalunanae organization, and the Jewish Council of Women, asking them to\ndiscuss school health, with the idea of securing a state school law.\n\nA\n\ncopy of the Colorado law was secured, with the view to working for a\nsimilar one in Washington next year.\n\nThe School Patrons' Committee has assisted in the work of improving\nthe rural schools, co-operating with the state superintendent.\ncontests were held,\n\nAgricultural\n\nand in many localities domestic science and manual-\n\ntraining contests were conducted.\n\nWisconsin.\n\n—^Recommended medical inspection in the schools, also\nWorked for one or more women on\nEmphasized the need of vocational training. Worked\n\nvisiting nurses, and fresh-air schools.\n\nthe school board.\n\nfor better conditions in rural schools.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH\nMARY ELIZABETH BATES, M.D., DENVER, COLO., CHAIRMAN\nThe increase in interest in the subject of school health in all of its\nphases during the past year has been notable and encouraging.\n\nSani-\n\ntation as applied especially to school buildings and premises has received\n\nmore and more attention from the women's clubs as being one field which\nis admittedly responsive to their best efforts, and one which they should\n\nmake peculiarly their own because their children's interests are closer to\nthem than they can be to merely delegated authority.\n\nTactful and intelli-\n\ngent help and co-operation will never be repulsed imkindly.\n\nThe question of medical inspection grows larger each year.\n\nIt is fast\n\nachieving the importance and dignity of a universal movement, meeting\n\nwith a more or less organized opposition.\n\nThe objections urged deal with\n\nnothing but remediable imperfections and constitute the most obvious\n\nFor example:\nits adequate development and perfecting.\nNo matter how much disease (or defectiveness) is discovered by the medical inquisi-\n\nargiunents for\n\ntion, the health of the child is not improved thereby, for the reason that diagnosis is not\n\ntreatment, and, tmless compulsory treatment follows compulsory diagnosis, no progress is\n\nbeing made toward the better health of the individual pupil.\n\n—^Anonymous\n\nWhat better argument for compulsory treatment ?\n\ncircular.\n\nWhat an arraign-\n\nment of parental care! Have parents done better when disease was not\ndiscovered ? What method will insure parental trustworthiness in matters\nof their children's health ?\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": "862", "text": "NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION\n\n862\n\n(School Patrons\n\nIn the last analysis, it must be admitted that the sole right to care for the child, to\nselect and provide treatment of whatever nature, rests with the parent or guardian.\nCompulsory treatment is unthinkable under a constitutional form of government such\nas ours. The inevitable conviction follows that the money spent by the state to examine\nschool children, merely to discover that many of them are defective, is wasted, since the\nstate has no moral or constitutional right to take the essential step to prescribe the method\nAnonymous circular.\nof eradicating these diseased effects.\n\n—\n\nWhat states have not exercised the right to step in between the parent\nor guardian and the child when the best interests of the child demand state\nCompulsory treatment is quite thinkable; it\ninterference and state care?\nexists in\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nColorado as clearly within the constitutional rights of the state\nprotection\n\nchildren\n\nof\n\nagainst\n\nabuse,\n\ncruelty,\n\nand\n\nneglect.\n\nFortunately for the children, there are parents, tho this critic of medical\ninspection does not admit the fact, who do give their children proper\nmedical\n\nattention\n\nwhen\n\ndisease\n\nand defectiveness are discovered by\n\nmedical inspection, and who are exceedingly grateful for the information,\nThe\nfor which, in comparison to its value, they have paid nothing.\n\n\"method of eradicating these diseased effects\" is not to be prescribed by\nthe state, but it is required that the parent shall take advantage of the\nbest light of today and \"deliver the goods.\"\n\nIn defatdt of that, shall\ncommunity, and nation suffer the consequences of such\nignorance, stupidity, and obstinacy? By all means, let us complement\ncompulsory examination with compulsory care, by parent if possible, by\n\nchild, parents,\n\nstate\n\nif\n\nneed be.\n\nMedical or other inspection of school children having for its object the\nphysical, mental, and moral betterment of school children is, as yet, in its\n\ninfancy.\nit fair\n\nHimdreds of thousands, even millions have been benefited. Is\nexamined have not benefited? Has any\n\nto condemn because all\n\nlaw, from the Ten Commandments to the latest municipal ordinance, ever\n\nbeen a \"success,\" if what the law aimed to prevent or cure must have been\nso prevented or cured without exception ?\n\nAs logical to declare all civili-\n\nzation a failure because boys and girls of six years of age cannot show the\n\n\"promised results\"\n\nof\n\nadult development and achievement.\n\nSo-called\n\n\"medical inspection\" has some undesirable but remediable features and\n\nsome that, being distinctly human in character, are not so readily corrected.\nBut let us have sane and sensible physical examination and care of publicschool children as nearly right, fair, and effective as possible.\nI am pleased to report that New Mexico is looking into the matter with\na view to passing such a law, and a campaign in Washington is assured\nin the early future.\nThe following excerpts from reports will be of interest:\nMinnesota. Mary A. Cunningham, St. Paul, Minn., reports: The\nwork of caring for the health conditions of children is progressing satisfactorily, properly lighted and ventilated school buildings are demanded\nof the authorities, and medical inspection in our large cities is doing much\n\n—\n\nto improve health conditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": "863", "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH\n\nWest Virginia.\n\n863\n\n—^Lucy E. Prichard, Huntington, W.Va., reports: The\n\nlaw concerning the common drinking-cup has been enforced this year for\nthe first time.\n\nNorth Dakota.\n\n—^Laura B. Sanderson, Le Moure, N.Dak., reports: State-\n\nwide campaign for the extermination of flies.\nrural school in county.\n\nHave sent fly posters to every\n\nMany counties have taken up medical inspection and\n\nthis is urged in every section.\n\nHave carried it out in this county this year.\n\nDay\" movement. Noticeable improvement in towns where there are clubs. I have in all my one-room\nschools a modern heating and ventilating system, and find that colds among\nschool children have materially lessened. Most of counties of state doing\nAll clubs are behind a \"Clean-Up\n\nlikewise.\n\nClubs are talking \"school health\" and are looking after the cleanliness\nand ventilation of schoolhouses.\nRhode Island. Mary C. Arnold, Crompton, R.I., reports: We have\n\n—\n\nonly the satisfaction of our earnest endeavors.\nDelaware.\n\n—\n\n^Lillian\n\nW. Hayward, Newark, Del., reports:\n\nEducational\n\ncommittees have co-operated with teachers and commissioners in securing\nbetter sanitary conditions.\n\nThe local work of individual clubs has included\n\nhelp for their own schools in a great variety of ways not particularly pertaining to school health but very valuable.\n\nThe state work of the federWoman's College.\n\nation educational committee has been chiefly for the\n\nThe Delaware club women are to be congratulated on this last achievement,\nwhich was made possible by legislative appropriation. They have reason\nto be proud of their work.\n\nWashington.\n\n—Mrs. C. E. Beach, Olympia, Wash., reports: The mem-\n\nbers of the School Patrons' Committee at a meeting in Seattle in March were\n\nunanimous in their decision that compulsory medical inspection for Washington was the thing we wanted, but some of the members felt that before\n\ngoing farther we should have the indorsement of the state superintendent\nof public instruction.\n\nThis I have been unable to secure, due to the fact,\n\nI think, that she fears the Christian Science opposition that such a measure\n\nwould bring out.\nLast year a letter was sent to each Parent-Teacher Association in the\nstate, of which we have 131, asking them to discuss medical inspection and\n\nreport the sentiment of their respective organizations in regard to it.\n\nI\n\nfind that in many of the associations very favorable action was taken and\nin the case of one town, Opportunity, they have decided to have medical\n\ninspection for their own town regardless of what is done over the state.\n\nIn a recent conversation with one member of the state Board of Health,\nI learned that we would have the very hearty co-operation of that body\nif\n\nwe undertake to force the passage of the bill, and I am very strongly in\n\nfavor of our Mothers' Congress Legislative Committee taking this in\n\nhand regardless of the action of the School Patrons' Committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": "864", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n864\n\n[School Patron\n\nMississippi— Susie V. Powell, Jackson, Miss., reports:\n1. The state Board of Health thru its special Anti-Tuberculosis Committee offered $ioo in prizes to the rural schools for health work. Cooperating with this committee were the various women's organizations\nand the Mississippi School Improvement Association.\n2.\n\n\"Clean-up Day\" and \"Beautify Day\" were observed generally by\nSpecial programs by the\n\nthe rural schools and the women's organizations.\nstate department of education.\n3.\n\n\"Clean-up Days\" were observed in\n\nall\n\nthe large towns, results\n\nachieved at Meridian, Jackson, and Oxford being especially noticeable.\n4. Vigorous health campaigns to inaugurate instruction and inspection\nin health conditions in the schools were carried out in about forty counties\n\nwith telling effect.\n\nThe eradication of hookworm, tuberculosis, typhoid,\n\nmalaria, and other preventable diseases was pursued with energy.\n5. Three thousand school canning clubs are studying questions of pure\nand wholesome food and are learning to utilize the tremendous quantity of\nfruits, vegetables, and other products that have been going to waste, by\n\ncanning these to furnish their families with balanced rations thruout the\nyear.\n\nThey are studying the physiological need for fruits and vegetables\n\nas a part of the daily bill of fare.\n\nIn addition, the work of the state Board of Examiners, the Federation\nof Women's Clubs, and the Mississippi Normal College, reported last year,\n\nhas been carried on faithfully.\n\n—\n\nNew Hampshire. Harriet G. Burlingame, Exeter, N.H., reports:\nDuring the years since our federation was organized, there has been a growing interest in educational matters thruout our state, in which we believe\nthe women's clubs have had a share in molding public opinion and securing\nfavorable legislation. We request our club members to attend school meetings, and we ask that women have a place on our school boards.\nWe urge\nour women to examine the conditions of the school buildings as to saniand ventilation.\n\nWe ask parents to make themselves\n\nfamiliar with all these essentials\n\nwhich affect so strongly the welfare of\n\ntation, lighting,\n\nevery boy and girl.\n\nMaine.—Maxy Perry Rich, Rockland, Me., reports: Our committee\nhas issued a questionnaire emphasizing the main points as you wished, and\n\nhas intensified the work, each member in her own county.\n\nIn Maine the\n\ntime is near at hand when communities will really comprehend that it is\n\nbad business and an absurdity to spend good dollars in educating pupils\nwho are sure to \"die young\" or to be incapacitated by illness. Consequently\nthey pay closer attention to conditions for school health, and to teaching\npupils the rudiments of hygiene. The number of school physicians, school\nnurses, and school dentists increases every year.\nNew school buildings are no longer thrown together \"any old way\"\nwithout thought for sanitation, lighting, heating, and ventilation. The\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": "865", "text": "SCHOOL HEALTH\n\nDepartment!\n\n86$\n\nwhole state is interested in every new schoolhouse and the schoolhouses\nyearly grow more up to date and attractive.\n\nThe state superintendent of\n\nschools is consulted, and modern scientific specialists in school architecture\n\nClub women are the source of much of this advanced public\nThey visit the schools wherever\nthey go and try to \"keep everlastingly at it.\"\nWashingtofiy D.C.— The National Congress of Mothers has made medical inspection a part of its working platform by adopting at the last meeting\nare employed.\n\nsentiment and community co-operation.\n\nthe following:\n\nWhereas, Medical inspection\n\nin\n\nschools\n\nby physicians and\n\nschool\n\nnurses has lessened the spread of contagious and infectious diseases, and\n\nhas led to the early discovery of physical defects and dental needs; and\n\nWhereas, Such inspection has resulted in the better health of the\npupils, and hence better attendance and higher scholarship; therefore be it\n\nResolved,\n\nThat the National Congress of Mothers and parent-teacher\n\nassociations urge upon superintendents, school boards, and school patrons\n\nthe necessity for expert medical inspection in the schools.\n\nTHE RESPONSIBILITY OF SCHOOL PATRONS WITH\nREGARD TO SCHOOL QUESTIONS\nA. SCHOOL HEALTH\n\nTOPIC:\n\nMAGGIE W. BARRY, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH,\nNORTH TEXAS COLLEGE, SHERMAN, TEX.\n\nThe responsibility of the school patron to the school grows out of two\nother responsibilities:\n\none developing out of the parental relationship to\n\nchildren in an individual home and another out of a relationship to that\nlarger community group into which modem ideals of service have projected\n\nthe home.\n\nHowever poorly he may have met it, man has long had a consciousness\nso long in fact that in his enthusiasm and\n\nof his responsibility in the home\n\n—\n\nactive realization of his long-neglected duties to the larger family, conscious-\n\nness of the older responsibility is in danger of being dimmed.\nas may be the possibilities for racial betterment in this newly\n\nWonderful\nawakened\n\ncommunity conscience that has put on the statute book wise sanitary\nlaws, child-labor laws, and many others too numerous to name, nevertheless\nit has its limitations.\n\nLegislative enactments and community co-operation\n\ncan never in themselves make better children.\n\nThey can only create better\n\nconditions under which better children can be more easily grown.\n\nTo grow better children in individual homes is unquestionably the first\nresponsibility of the school patron to the school\n\n—to send there a child\n\nsound in body, with senses alert, imagination responsive, and with wonder\n\nand curiosity still active and eager.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": "866", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ng56\n\n[School Patrons\n\nLast summer, whUe waiting for a train, I picked up a book and casually\nopening it my eyes fell on this sentence: \"I sometimes wonder how Jesus\nof Nazareth accomplished his great work without being a member of a\ncommittee.\" Naturally my first response was a smile, but the sentence\n\nMy\n\nstuck in my mind and the question came, \"How did he do it?\"\nanswer was, \"Because he was something bigger than a conmiittee, bigger\n\nthan the most perfectly working social-service system ever conceived.\"\nHe was a great personality with a perfect physical organ thru which to\nexpress itself and give its message to a world of men and women.\ndiffer as to his\n\nWe may\n\nmystical relationship to forces superhuman, but\n\nworld concedes him to be the one perfect human type.\n\nall\n\nthe\n\nIn our admiration\n\nfor the spiritual manifestations of Christ's life, we overlook how important\n\na part were the perfect body and mind in this perfection. So two thousand\nyears ago on the shores of the Galilean sea this young Nazarene set up a\nstandard for the threefold man ^physical, mental, and moral and all edu-\n\n—\n\n—\n\ncation of the individual is right just in so far as it approaches this standard.\n\nThe fact that it may not be possible to measure up to this ideal until after\nmany generations perhaps does not release us from our responsibility in the\nultimate achievement and should not diminish our zeal and enthusiasm.\n\nThe subject assigned to me as generally interpreted would limit this\n.paper to a discussion of the good body and good brain, but, like the artist\n\nand his medium, the personality and its organ are so interdependent that\nit is impossible to draw strict lines of demarkation if it were desirable to\ndo so.\nI cannot speak on this subject from the standpoint of the scientist and\nwould not if I could. In trying to help parents co-operate with teachers,\n\nwe sometimes forget that fathers and mothers are not generally scientific\nexperts and that it is well that they are not.\n\nTo have the scientific attitude\n\ntoward their children would be to lose something of that tenderer and more\nsubtle power that uplifts and upbuilds thru sympathy and personal relationship.\n\nThey should, however, have that kind of general knowledge of\n\nnatural and social forces and an open-mindedness that will enable them to\n\nco-operate with the expert.\nIf you should invest in an automobile with the expectation of running\nit\n\nyourself,\n\nyou would not think it necessary to know its mechanism so\n\nperfectly that you could make one, but you would consider it an obligation\nto know\n\nenough of its various parts to be able to run it with safety to\n\nyourself and others along the ordinary highways of the country,\n\nand to\n\nkeep it in order and make simple repairs.\n\nGranted a fairly good heredity,\nparents should know enough of the needs and functions of the child's\nphysique to enable them to keep the little machine in good working order\nand make simple repairs. They should also realize the limitations of their\nknowledge, that they may call in the right expert at the right time and give\n\nhim their intelligent co-operation.\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": "867", "text": "SCHOOL HEALTH\n\nDepartment]\n\n867\n\nSome very wise physician said that diseases that do not yield to properly\nproportioned amounts of fresh\n\nair,\n\nexercise, food,\n\nbelong to surgery, are practically incurable.\n\nand rest, unless they\n\nAdd to these personal habits\n\nof cleanliness, and we have the five essentials in developing a good physique.\n\nTo acquire a knowledge of these five things and their relation to each individual child is an obligation no parent can fail to meet who has the smallest\n\npart of a realization of the sacred obligations of parenthood.\n\nTo meet this\n\nresponsibility, it is not necessary to know the thousand kinds of bacilli that\n\nthreaten human life, all their lurking-places, and the percentage of people\n\nthat fall victims to them each year.\n\nSince it is an assured fact that these\n\nmultitudes of enemies of human life and happiness do not thrive in bodies\n\nand minds that are sound and normal, it is better to take out assurance in\nthat which teaches how to help children form\n\nanother kind of knowledge\nright habits of living.\n\n—\n\nThe basis of such habits in the child is a proper\n\nattitude toward life, and freedom of action.\n\nOne obstacle in the way of forming such habits is that parents too often\ntake care of their children instead of teaching children to take care of themselves and giving them an incentive that will add zest and enthusiasm in\n\nweeks once in a household where there was a\nThere were a grown nurse, a grandmother, and two\n\nI spent several\n\ndoing it.\n\nlittle girl of three.\n\naunts who devoted their lives to the care of this child.\n\nI remember how\n\nthe bath usually required the combined efforts of the entire household and\n\nwas followed by a period of exhaustion for everybody, including the child.\nIt was attended with such elaborate preparations and so many scientific\ndetails that the little tot was quite justified in the vigorous protest she\nmade. Occasionally, after being duly impressed with the fact that people\nwouldn't think she was \"nice\" if she had dirty face and ears, and that she\nmight catch some awful disease if she didn't keep clean, she would submit\nto the ordeal with patience. How much better to have approached the\nwhole subject from another side the beauty of cleanliness. Tho she lived\nin the country, she had never seen the birds refreshing themselves with a\nmorning dip. Nobody had ever told her that the beauty and freshness of\nthe trees and grass after the summer shower was because the generous\nheavens had given them a bath.\n\n—\n\nJust as early as possible in their lives children should be allowed to care\nfor their own persons, and ways and means should be provided for this in\n\nevery household.\naction.\n\nThis helps the child to independence in thought and\n\nIt not only establishes daily habits that keep the human machine\n\nin good working order but at the same time develops personality and builds\n\ncharacter.\n\nThe incentive for right physical habits should come first of all from a\ncarefully inculcated respect for the body as the means, the medium, the\n\ninstrument thru which all the purposes, the aims, and ideals of the personality have an outlet.\n\nThis I believe is the basis of personal hygiene\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": "868", "text": "868\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TJON ASSOCIA TION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nand a personal purity without which social vices can never be eradicated,\nThis idea presented to children in a simple way makes it much easier to\ninterest them in forming hygienic habits of living.\n\nThe imagination and\n\nthe emotions so dominant in the child are most powerful aids in forming\nany habit, and it is of paramount importance that they be utilized in\n\nforming good ones.\nEarly in life I had a decided tendency to turn my toes in and droop my\nI was put thru dancing and physical culture schools and long\n\nshoulders.\n\ncourses of physiology but with little result.\n\nEvery member of the family\n\nthought it a sacred duty to call \"Toes out\" and \"Shoulders up\" every\ntime I passed. When I was about twelve years old an aunt of my father's,\n\na stately dame of the old regime, came to visit us. One day in her presence\nan effort, picked up a heavy chair. She\n\nI bent over and, with quite\n\nalmost startled me with the severity of her tone as she said:\n\n\"How dare\n\nyou have so little respect for your back? It was not made for menial\nIt is the aristocrat of the body and must keep erect.\nservice.\nYour legs\nand arms are its servants.\" With that she came forward and in spite of\nher seventy-odd years easily bent her knees and with the strong muscles of\nher arms and legs lightly lifted that chair without apparent effort. The\nidea caught\n\nmy imagination at once, the stooping shoulders responded\n\nquickly to the thought of the dignity and purpose of the back, and I have\ntreated it with great respect ever since.\n\nFrom this one idea and that of the beauty of cleanliness can be developed\n\n—of\n\nright habits of posture\n\nsitting,\n\nwalking, stooping, and standing that\n\nmake up the daily routine of life. Such habits formed early do away with\nmuch of the corrective work so often found necessary in gymnasiums and\nphysical culture schools, with results varying according to the length of\n\ntime the bad habits have existed and the ability of the director to combine\nwith the work constructive methods of thinking and feeling.\nI do not believe parents and educators generally realize the great pos-\n\nphysical development in the stimulation of the imagination\nand emotional nature of the child. Pictures, poems, and music that call\nsibilities for\n\ninto play emotions of joy, love, patriotism, and devotion expand the chest\nand quicken all the functions of the body, making it alive, alert, and\nresponsive.\n\nIt is a real joy to see a class of tired relaxed little bodies sit\n\nup and throw back their heads in response to the stirring, vital qualities of\nfreedom and action in that fine old sea-song of Cunningham's:\n\nA wet sheet and a flowing sea,\nAnd a wind that follows fast,\nAnd fills the white and rustling sails\nAnd bends the gallant mast;\nAnd bends the gallant mast, my boys,\nWhile like the eagle free\nAway the good ship flies, and leaves\nOld England on the lee.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": "869", "text": "SCHOOL HEALTH\n\nDepartment]\n\n869\n\nIf you want a perfectly unconscious muscular freedom combined with\n\nlightness and grace, let two or three little tots join hands and fall into the\n\nrhythmic movement of\nSing a song of sixpence\n\nA pocket full of rye;\nFour and twenty blackbirds\n\nMade into a pie.\n\nA young minister with a thin, small voice came to the late Dr.\nChamberlain, of the University of Chicago, and asked what vocal and\nbodily exercises he should take to broaden and enrich his speaking tones.\n\nThe doctor told him to go out alone into the woods for thirty minutes each\nday and repeat the most sublime passages of Milton's Paradise Lost, giving\nAt the end of a year the\nyoung man started forth on his career as one of the most distinguished\n\nhimself up to the emotions of awe and reverence.\n\npulpit orators of his times.\n\nThe success of the Montessori method leaves little doubt as to the\nsupreme value of freedom of action in developing both the body and the\npersonality of the child. The whole subject is so comprehensively treated\nin her own exposition of this method that I need only to mention it here.\nIn the Montessori schools, the relation of teacher and pupil is reversed.\nThe child is in the foreground and the teacher in the background. Her\nduty is to observe and tactfully eliminate only those manifestations of the\nchild's personality that interfere with the rights of others.\n\ntion is paid to environment.\n\nMuch atten-\n\nThe child must be surrounded by things that\n\nstimulate his latent powers and left free to gratify his creative impulses.\n\nThis environment is, I believe, the most neglected factor in the develop-\n\nment of children in individual homes. Too often Midget finds herself\nsurrounded by objects that stimulate her wonder and curiosity with as\nlittle hope of gratification as Tantalus had to satisfy his hunger and thirst\nfrom the water around him or the fruit above him.\nIf children are given freedom and a natural environment, their love for\n\nnature, its colors, its fragrancies, its rhythms and melodies in sky, water,\nflowers, trees, and birds, together with the instinct for play, will make the\n\nproblems of air, exercise, and rest easy of solution.\n\nWholesome food taken\n\nat regular interv^als to gratify a normal hunger will be the best preventive\nof the formation of bad habits of diet.\n\nUnfortunately so many children are reared where there are such limitations of earth and sky that the natural environment is impossible and\n\nso it is necessary to create for them an artificial world as nearly like the\nreal one as possible.\n\nThis can best be done by the co-operation of all the\n\nparents in the community in securing wise housing laws, playground\nreservations, and parks.\n\nDuring the past hundred years, that powerful impulse of individualism\nthat swept over the civilized world and expressed itself in a reign of terror\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": "870", "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nin France and a great school of immortal lyrists in England has extended\nitself beyond the bounds of one's\n\nown soul and organized humanity into a\n\nThis larger consciousness of self and its relation\n\ngreat band of brothers.\n\nto other selves forms the basis of the second responsibility of the school\n\npatron to the school in matters of health.\n\nUnder this new social ideal, the\n\nschool becomes a projection of the home where\n\nis\n\nto be considered the\n\nwelfare of not two or three but hundreds of children.\n\nfamily is admitted a fourth member\n\n—the teacher—and\n\nInto this larger\n\nproblems can\nbe solved only thru the intelligent co-operation of parents and teachers.\nAs to what form this co-operation should take many suggestions have\nbeen made. The one that seems to me most simple and feasible in communities of all sizes is a kind of school clearing-house.\nin a school district,\n\nits\n\nAll organizations\n\nwhether they be social, political, philanthropic, or\n\nreligious, are directly or indirectly affected by the efficiency of the commu-\n\nnity school just as every individual is affected by it.\ntions, each in its appointed way,\n\nAll these organiza-\n\nmay be doing something for the betterment\n\nof the school, but the potential achievement of all working together is not\nrealized.\n\nA school may have a superabundance of books and pictures when\n\nit needs playgrounds\n\nor a ventilating system, but the literary club in that\n\ncommunity is interested in libraries and there is no health organization.\nThere should be a School Welfare League made up of the mayor, the\nschool superintendent, the president of the school board, and representatives from every kind of activity in the community, with headquarters in the\nschool building. Here the school could report its needs and here individuals\nand organizations should report their ability to help. This is the idea\nunderlying the State Joint Committees of the five women's organizations\nof the Department of School Patrons which are appointed in the interests\nof state-wide educational needs, and it is altogether practical for it to be\nadapted to any school community, rural or urban.. If the social-center\nidea could also be included in this, and if the entire community could come\ntogether now and then in free open discussion of the school and its wants,\nit seems to me we should have an ideal condition for carrying forward in\nthe school the work of parents in individual homes, and the responsibility\nof school patrons to the school would be met so as to assure perfect health\nfor the child in the broadest meaning of the term\na sound personality with\na sound body and brain thru which to give its message to the world.\n\n—\n\nB.\n\nSCHOOL REVENUE\n\nFRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nSPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nThe history of education shows a distinct movement from the haphazard, uncertain individual or group method toward a system of scientific\ncertainty.\n\nNo study of the revenue question is complete without a brief\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": "871", "text": "1\n\nSCHOOL REVENUE\n\nDepartment]\n\nsurvey of this development.\n\n87\n\nIn fact, school revenues have been both the\n\ncause and the result of this long-drawn-out attempt to take the question\nof the education of all the children of all the people out of the realm of mere\n\nchance and place it upon a foundation of certainty.\n\nWilliam Hawley Smith in a series of articles has shown how progress\nin all\n\nhuman affairs has been thru the substitution of the principle of\n\nthe principle of accident and chance. I wish to\nshow briefly that that has been the process of evolution in educational\nscientific certainty for\n\naffairs.\nCertainly in the beginning the question of whether children would\nhave a proper educational opportunity and would accept it was largely\n\na matter of chance.\n\nThe children of those parents who had the intelligence\n\nto see the need of such an education and the means to provide it would\n\nreceive it.\n\nWhere parents were lacking either in the intelligence or in the\n\nmeans, the children would not have the opportunity.\ncircumstance.\ncivic, or social\n\nIt was a matter of\nBut as certain large ideas came into the world religious,\n\n—certain groups, feeling the need of having\n\n—\n\nall\n\nthe people\n\nwithin their group know these things, began to organize a system whereby\nall the children within their group were assured, not only of the possibility\n\nof the opportunity, but of the certainty of it.\n\nThe great Christian ideals\n\nwere organized in this way thru the church, and all who came within the\nfold were required to learn the things which were considered essential for\ntheir Christian welfare.\n\nCertain civic and social groups began to organize\n\nsystems for the establishment of civic ideas and to enact definite require-\n\nments which would no longer leave it to mere individual preference or to\naccident whether the children within these groups should acquire these\nideals.\nWith the emergence of the nation and the state and with the consciousness that their perpetuity and safety depended upon the establishment and maintenance of certain standards of intelligence, morality, and\ncitizenship, these large group organizations saw that large areas, including\nthousands and millions of people, were untouched by the organized educational effort of the smaller groups. Then the state and the nation began\nto do away with this element of chance and accident, which yet remained,\n\nby requiring that all the territory within the state or within the nation\nshould be organized into educational districts within which the opportunity\nfor an education should be provided for every boy and every girl of a certain\n\nschool age.\n\nThis process of growth can as well be shown by the history of education\nin Illinois as in any other commonwealth or nation.\n\nIn the territorial days,\nwith our population gathered from north and east and south and with no\nlegal regulation, education was a matter of individual and local preference.\n\nChurch and private schools were maintained wherever the sentiment was\nstrong enough and the means were available, but not until 1827, nine\nyears after Illinois had become a state, did it set out upon a definite pro-\n\ngram of making certain that every boy and girl within the state should be\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": "872", "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nexposed to an educational opportunity.\nto be sure.\n\nIt\n\n[School Patrons\n\nbegan in a very timid way,\n\nThey passed laws for organizing the territory of the state into\n\nschool districts and permitting the levying of a tax which, supplemented\n\nby private subscriptions, would maintain a school.\n\nOf course, this was\n\na very definite step in the right direction, but it was soon discovered that\nthe same inequalities remained and the same elements of accident and\nchance were present,\n\nfor,\n\nin\n\nsome districts, whether thru ignorance or\n\nindifference or opp>osition, no tax was levied and no school was established.\n\nThe state, therefore, finally reached, after many partial advances, a conclusion that the permissive element did not accomplish the desired end,\n\nand that if these standards of intelligence and morality and citizenship\nwere to be secured by the state, the law must require the laying of a tax\nand the maintenance of a school. In 1855, Illinois took this step. But,\nagain, it was discovered that indifference, ignorance, or opposition in many\ndistricts led to a levy of a very small tax and the holding of a school for\na ridiculously short term so as to make the effort almost worthless.\nThen came the next movement to establish by law certain minimum\nrequirements and minimum terms and a minimimi number of subjects to\nbe taught. The state could well feel that it had thus assured to every\nchild a free school opportunity and made certain that he would acquire\nright standards of citizenship.\nBut it was quickly discovered that it was\none thing to offer these opportunities and another to get the children and\ntheir parents to accept them.\nThousands of children, either thru their\n\nown indifference or the ignorance or greed of their parents, did not attend\nThen came the most drastic\n\neither the private or the public schools.\n\n—\n\nthe comThere is only one other law which seems to me to\nrepresent such an arbitrary act on the part of government. That is the\nact by which men are drafted to go forth into battle, and I am persuaded\nthat in the beginning the state based its drastic measure of compulsory\nattendance upon substantially the same theory. It may be necessary to\ndraft men into service in order to save the state or the nation.\nIt may be\n\nmeasure which any state had ever enacted in public education\npulsory attendance law.\n\nnecessary to draft children into public education in order to save the state\n\nby the erection and maintenance of those standards of intelligence and\ncitizenship thru which alone a democratic state can hope to endure.\n\nThis\n\ncompulsory attendance was a long step toward making certain and sure\nthat these standards would be established.\n\nThere now began to appear another element of inequality and chance.\nThat was with regard to the length of the school life. We have seen how\nthe state had established a minimum length of school year. But it had\nleft somewhat indefinite the matter of how many years of school life the\ndistrict should provide.\nThe constitution of the state had said that the\nlegislature shall provide a thoro and efficient system of free schools whereby\nthe youth of the state may receive a good conmion-school education. The\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": "873", "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL REVENUE\n\n-\n\n873\n\nquestion began to arise as to what constituted a good common-school education.\nits\n\nThe phrase \"common school'' had originated in England, where\n\nprimal meaning was a school for the common people as distinguished\n\nfrom the upper classes or uncommon people. That definition could not\nsurvive, however, on this side of the Atlantic. Here, it came to mean the\neducational opportunity which should be in common for all the children\nof all the people. There were those, however, who sought to restrict the\nmeaning of a conmaon-school education to the \"common branches.\" But\nin certain favored localities where educational sentiment was strong and\nmeans were available, the elementary school was extended downward into\nthe kindergarten and upward thru the high school. Every attempt to\nmake these local extensions general thruout the state was resisted upon\nthe ground that the founders of the common school never intended it to\ncover at most more than the ground covered in the eight grades of the\nelementary schools. This question finally reached the supreme court of\nIllinois.\nIts decision was that the so-called high school was only the four\nupper grades of the common school. With that decision, it became necessary for the legislature to provide means by which all the children of the\ncommonwealth might secure a good common-school education. Three\nplans have been evolved. The first is the district plan. Wherever a district had sufficient local revenues to maintain a high school, the board of\neducation could make such extension without a vote of the people. Seven\nhundred high schools were established on this plan. It was found, however,\nthat many districts could not maintain both an elementary and a high\nschool on their local revenue. A new enactment made it possible for all the\ndistricts in one or more townships or parts of townships to establish a township high-school district to be maintained by a tax separate from the\nelementary-school tax and levied upon all the taxable property of the larger\nunit.\nUnder this new plan, over a hundred high schools have been established;\n\nand by this new revenue device the high-school opportunity has been\n\nextended to thousands of children who would otherwise have been denied.\n\nHowever, the eight hundred high schools which have arisen under these\ntwo plans did not make possible a free high-school education to all the\nchildren of all the people. Another plan had to be found. It is also,\nstrictly speaking, a revenue matter, called the free high-school tuition act,\n\nwhereby districts not maintaining high schools must pay the tuition of all\ntheir pupils who have graduated from the eight grades.\nAll of these extensions and modifications brought the question of\nrevenues more and more under careful consideration.\nIn all considerations of this movement from chance to certainty in\neducation with its consequent inlarged demands for revenues, there are\nthree other items which must be noted. So long as the course of study\ncontained only a few formal subjects, there was little of scientific certainty\nthat the multitudes of children coming down to the public schools would\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": "874", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n874\n\n[School Patrons\n\nfind there the kind of educational opportunity best suited to their needs.\n\nThere has been a very slow, but a very steady increase in the number of\nsubjects taught and in the richness and variety of the subject-matter\nAll of the formal subjects have been recast from a new viewpoint.\noffered.\n\nMany practical subjects reaching out into the vocational have been added.\nand additions require laboratories, benches, shops,\nand even new buildings. Much of the increased cost of public education\ncan be traced directly to this attempt to broaden and deepen the character\nof the educative materials and exercises within the public school.\nIn the old school little or no attention was paid to the health and comIt seemed to be a general idea that children would\nfort of the children.\nAll these extensions\n\nlearn\n\nand progress educationally in direct proportion to the discomforts\n\nunder which they worked.\nit a deeper\n\nThe new idea of education has brought with\n\nand larger concern for the health of the children who come into\n\nThe last twenty-five years has witnessed\nnew methods of heating, ventilating, lighting, and\n\nour public-school buildings.\nthe introduction of\n\nseating in our buildings. Any building which is constructed with all this\nmodem equipment for preserving the health of children must necessarily\ncost more per cubic foot inclosed than the plain, old-fashioned buildings.\n\nThe health movement has, also, brought along with it the gymnasiimis and\nplaygrounds with their expensive apparatus.\n\nNo one confronting the\n\nrevenue question can overlook these modern demands which have increased\nthe annual cost of public education.\n\nThe last item which I shall mention is that of the teacher.\n\nIn the\n\nolden days, it was the merest gamble as to whether a child, upon coming\ninto the conmion school, would find there a teacher competent to give him\n\nany value received for the time spent.\n\nThe method of selecting the teacher,\n\nthe requirements set, the pay offered,\n\nnarrow, dogmatic individual.\n\nall\n\ntended to secure a mediocre,\n\nMuch of the failure of boys and girls to have\n\nand to use an educational opportunity was due to the fact that poor, illtrained teachers offended them and drove them away from the schools.\nThe last quarter of the century has witnessed a marked movement toward\nthe preparing of teachers for their work. Normal schools, normal colleges,\nand schools of education have sprung up thruout the country. The demand\nis\n\nquite general on the part of boards of education that teachers shall be\n\nprepared specifically for their work.\n\nNot only shall they know the sub-\n\njects which are to be taught, but they shall be familiar with the psychology\n\nmind and the methods by which these subjects shall be\nThis required preparation on the part of a teacher, these higher\n\nof the child's\n\nimparted.\n\nstandards of selection, have increased greatly the cost of such preparation\nfor teachmg.\n\nThat, in turn, has helped to increase the salaries of these\n\nToday there is no more certain fact than that the men and\nwomen who are the most competent and capable in public education are\nleast adequately paid.\nWhile some are overpaid, the great majority are\nteachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": "875", "text": "SCHOOL REVENUE\n\nDepartmentl\n\nunderpaid.\n\n875\n\nWhen all this is said, however, the fact remains that the\n\nteachers' salary budget has increased with leaps and bounds.\n\nOut of a total\namount of $37,923,943 expended in Illinois in 1913 for the cost of public\neducation, $20,570,024 was expended for teachers' salaries.\nAll of these items and considerations have helped to bring before us\nthe great increase of taxation necessary to meet the demands of this program to giYe all the children of all the people of the commonwealth real\neducational opportunity. It soon became evident that the district alone\ncould not meet these revenue demands. In Illinois the public-school\nsystem has been handicapped and retarded in its development by the\ndominance\n\nof the local district.\n\nSlowly, however, there has arisen an\n\nincreased demand for state appropriations to supplement local appropriations.\n\nToday, after much agitation and\n\ntrial,\n\nthe state appropriates\n\nannually three millions of dollars, while there is raised by local taxation\n\nalmost thirty-five millions of dollars.\n\nThis parents' association can con-\n\nsider no more practical and no more important subject than ways and means\n\noi securing adequate revenues to meet the demands of modern education.\n\nWe must go before lawmaking bodies, before commercial clubs, and before\nbusiness organizations with clear and convincing arguments as to the\n\nneeds of larger revenues and the best methods of securing them.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Clarence L. Atwood, president, Minnesota Federation of Women's Clubs,\nSt. Cloud, Minn.\nI believe in a socialized, democratized school and community, in a\npaid supervisor of play twelve months in the year, in motion pictures, music, and drama,\nand in the school as a social center, but I am inclined to believe that the home does not\n\n—\n\nrealize that these social indulgences bring obligation to parents as well as to teachers.\n\nA dance beginning at nine and ending at midnight or later with a little supper or joy ride\nafterward and the parents home and asleep and ignorant of the hour son and daughter\n\nThe sunlight dance as conducted at\none state university is a very delightful affair preferable in many ways to the evening\nfunction, but, if we have the latter, it is incumbent on parents to go to it in large numbers,\nappear is a socialized school activity gone wrong.\n\nnot as censors but to have a good time visiting with each other, watching their children\ndance, and dancing with them.\n\nThen it will have the right spirit, be conducted with\n\ndecorum, and seasonable hours will be observed.\nCivic work has been standardized\n\ntill\n\neach little village is striving toward well-\n\nestablished ends in its garbage disposal, street-cleaning, market cleanliness, parks, and\n\nboulevards.\n\nThe activity of the school, while constantly broadening, is measurably definite and\nThe scope of the home, its place in the new social order, and the\n\nefficiently organized.\n\nduties of parents to their children outside the material realm of food, clothing, and shelter\n\nseem in a more hazy condition than the nebular hypothesis.\nThe strongest force in our lives, on which school and other organizations rest, is the\nlove of parent for child. Thru all the flux of individualistic and social modernity that\nhuman passion, parental love, endures. With this wonderful asset which the home\npossesses as does no other institution, if the homes would pull together as other special\ninterests we should soon find them occupying a well-defined sphere.\nWhy not parents'\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": "876", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nconventions as well as bankers', or lumbermen's, or Sunday school ?\n\nTheir efl&ciency is\n\n876\n\ndependent on their organization and solidarity.\nEach mother has individually felt her helplessness when, remonstrating with daughter\nabout transparent waists, narrow skirts, cosmetics, etc., she has been confronted with\nthat time-honored irrefutable argument, \"All the girls wear them or use them,\" or on\nrefusing son permission to go out of an evening she has heard the hoary reasoning, \"All\nthe boys go.\" Our daughters do not understand the sex appeal in many of the fashions,\n\nbut they can be made to perceive their unsuitability and inefl&ciency for school work, and\nif mothers in their clubs would unite on standards of dress, much simplicity could be\nbrought about for school girl and matron with a corresponding decrease in the tax on the\nfamily income and nerves and a corresponding increase in concentration on studies.\n\nMuch has been accomplished by domestic-science courses.\nLet me mention one simple obvious rule that the home should enforce.\n\nIt should\n\nset aside certain nights to be known as \"school nights,\" so that it would be regarded as\n\na breach of commtmity decorum for school boys and girls to be seen on the streets, at\nmotion-picture theaters, at parties, or visiting on these nights. There would ensue a\nhigher level of morals and of scholarship. Our children in this rushing age do their prescribed reading, whether it be The Tale of Two Cities or Macaulay's Essays in a superficial\nway as a task and a bore, with no reflection, no living over the scenes. They are satisThe community\nfied with \"pass,\" if only they don't miss an outing or a society affair.\nhas had to step in and pass curfew ordinances, appoint truant oflScers, and establish\n^\n\nmany other agencies for the care of school children because the home does not obligate\nitself in this matter.\n\nIf it did, there would be less need of sending children away to private\n\nschools where rules are enforced, and there would be fewer, far fewer, of these happenings\n\nin our high schools, an occasional exposure of which reveals the license the home permits\n\nmade of it.\nThe more complete the understanding of the responsibility respectively of community,\n\nits young and the sorrowful use too frequently\n\nschool,\n\nand home, the more perfect will be the adjustment.\n\nAn enlightened public\n\nsentiment that wiU exact from the home, as its Auty and privilege, supervision at definite\ntimes and on specified occasions will assist much in lessening friction where youth is\nproverbially headstrong and parents fondly weak.\n\nThere are no bodies so prepared to make this adjustment, so influential in creating\na compelling public opinion, as the teachers and school patrons. We all are expectant\nof great results from the social-center gatherings where these two forces meet to deliberate.\nI confidently look to them to conserve and organize the forces of the home.\nis crippled because of the failure of the\n\nThe school\nhome to fulfil its function in the education of the\n\nchild, and the homes are crying out for a recognized standard of requirements by which\n\nthey may dam the rising tide of social activity.\n\nWe\n\nmay help the pendulum in its backward swinging, may hasten the advent of\nthose precious home evenings when the family circle is no longer a memory but a living,\nvital fact, by a more light-hearted entering into our children's pastimes, a greater appre-\n\nciation of the simple joys of everyday life, a banishing at nightfall of that engrossing\n\nmaterial scramble that has enlisted our energy all the day.\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": "877", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nAmes, Iowa\nIowa State College\n—E. C. Bishop, schools\nVice-President— Daniel H. Hill, president, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts\n\nPresident\n\nsection,\n\nWest Raleigh, N.C.\nSecretary\n\n—M.\n\nS. McDowell, professor of agricultural extension, Pennsylvania State College\n\nState College, Pa.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 8, 1914\nThe opening meeting of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education was\ncalled to order in the Assembly Room of the\n\nY.W.C.A. Building, St. Paid, Minn., at\n\n2:30 P.M., by President E. C. Bishop.\n\nHomer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa, presented a paper on \"Rural Demonstration Schools and Study-Center Work for Rural\nTeachers.\"\n\n\"A\n\nBeginning in Rural High-School Work and Township Supervision\" was the subject of a paper read by Helene E. Glissman, principal of high school and supervisor of\ntownship schools, Doon, Iowa.\n\nThe United States commissioner of education, P. P. Claxton, was the next speaker,\ntaking for his subject \"The Rural High School.\"\nAlice Florer, county superintendent of public instruction, York, Nebr., whose name\n\nappeared upon the program, was unable to be present, but sent her paper on \"The Hot\n\nNoonday Lunch in Rural Schools.\"\n\nA general discussion followed.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, July 9, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 30 p.m.\n:\n\n\"The Use of Raw Materials in Teaching Agriculture\" was the subject of a paper by\n\nW.\n\nS. Welles, director. School of Educational Agriculture, State Normal School,\nRiver Falls, Wis.\n\"The Course in Agriculture for Training Teachers in Normal Training High Schools\"\nwas discussed by J. L. McBrien, specialist in rural education, United States Bureau of\nEducation, Washington, D.C., and A. V. Storm, professor of agricultural education,\nUniversity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nDiscussion.\n\nFollowing the regular program, a business meeting was held.\nIt was voted that the Committee on Courses of Study in Agriculture be continued.\n\nA. V. Storm, chairman of the Committee on Conditions and Needs in Rural and\nAgricultural Education, stated that the report of this committee had been presented before\n\nthe Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education and would be printed by\nthat commission.\n\nSuperintendent Evans, of Missouri, suggested that next year the program of the\ndepartment be offered in two sections in order to give those interested in particular phases\nof the work fuller opportunity for discussion.\n\n877\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": "878", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n878\n\n[Agricultural\n\nIt was moved and seconded that the necessary notice be given that an amendment\nwould be offered at the 1915 meeting making it possible for this department to have a\nprogram at the February meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National\nEducation Association. This motion was unanimously adopted.\nIt was voted that the president take up with the proper authorities the question of an\nagriciiltural and home economics exhibit from the nural schools at the Panama-Pacific\n\nInternational Exposition.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\nFor President E. C. Bishop, schools section, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nFor Vice-President M. J. Abbey, professor of agricultural education, University\nof^West Virginia, Morgantown, W.Va.\nFor Secretary F. L. Griffin, extension service, Oregon Agricultural College, Cor-\n\n—\n\nvallis. Ore.\n\nThis report was unanimously adopted.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July 10, 19 14\nRound-Table Conference with Boys' and Girls' Club Workers\nO. H. Benson, specialist in charge of club work, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., outiined \"The Federated Boys' and Girls' Club Work.\n\n\"What Recognition Should Be Given Vacation and Other Out-of-School Work?\"\nwas the subject of a paper presented by J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School,\nRiver Falls, Wis.\nFollowing these papers, five-minute reports of state and district club-work leaders\n\nwere presented.\n\nM. S. McDowell, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nRURAL DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS AND STUDY-<:ENTER\nWORK FOR RURAL TEACHERS\nHOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE,\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\n—\n\nThe larger problem. It is conceded that the preparation and the\nimprovement in rural-school teachers are today two of the larger problems\nof popular education.\n\nIt is assumed without argument that rural teachers\nmust be given special education and training for their work if this very\n\nimportant service for the rural community is to be improved and developed.\n\nIt is fully recognized that\n\nsomething more effective and more\n\ndefinite must be done for the encouragement and the development of the\n\nnow in service. These problems are huge because of the\nnumbers of such teachers in a state, because of the inability to reach them\nby present-day organized efforts, and because they are not in such financial\nrural teacher\n\ncondition as to allow them to give up their school-teaching and make suitable and necessary expenditures for their education and training.\n\nSo much\n\nso is this true that few, if any, of present-day undertakings are of sufficient\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": "879", "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS\n\n879\n\nsize or of sufficient importance to give promise of being able to meet the\n\nactual situation.\n\nThe preliminary undertakings.\n\n—For thirty-eight years, Iowa has granted\n\nstandard instruction of superior grade to elementary teachers at its normal\nAll of this time it has been assumed that the work\n\nschool at Cedar Falls.\n\nof elementary teaching in the town, in the city, and in the country was not\nessentially dilBferent, and that it was naturally to be expected that the rural\ndistricts were to be training-places for beginning teachers, and that as soon\n\nas these began to be efficient and progressive they would be employed in\n\nthe cities and towns as a matter of course.\n\nTheir acceptance of this con-\n\ndition has left the rural schools without hope or opportunity for betterment,\n\nand the situation imposed has grown to be more and more unsatisfactory,\nbeing recognized that, except in education, there was every kind of\nimprovement now expected in rural territory. The last Iowa General\nAssembly, hoping to relieve some of the untoward prospects, provided by\nlaw for wages to be paid teachers according to the standard grades recorded\non their certificates issued by the state Educational Board of Examiners.\nIt also decided to require agriculture, home economics, and manual training to be taught in all schools by 191 5, and to decline to admit candidates\nto the examination for teachers' certfficates unless they had had at least\ntwelve weeks of successful instruction at some normal school. In addition, there was offered a subsidy by the state as a permanent state appropriation for the successful consolidation of schools, and an enlargement\nin the financial help given to normal training in high schools if they would\nsuccessfully undertake to give instruction and training to such high-school\nit\n\nstudents as were willing to prepare to be teachers for the rural schools.\nThese new undertakings were to be supervised by inspectors appointed by\nthe superintendent of public instruction. Such preliminaries made possible\ncertain enterprises at the State Teachers College, at Cedar Falls, that could\nnot otherwise have been possible, and out of such legislation have come the\nnew activities mentioned in this address.\nThe demonstration schools. As a part of the training in the teaching\ndepartment, co-operation has been established with ten rural independent\nschool districts. These schools are to be conducted on the highest plane\n\n—\n\nof efficiency by placing them in charge of well-educated, trained teachers,\n\nand by putting them under the supervision of an expert educator, notably\nqualified to develop interest and to maintain enthusiasm in the industrial\nactivities among the people.\nThe instruction and the training given in\nthese demonstration schools are to be substantially different from the common curriculum, in their attitude toward rural life and home improvement.\nThe people composing these communities are to be as much a part of the\neducational propaganda for better schools and for a higher social and\nintellectual life as are the pupils in attendance at the schools, or as are the\n\nteachers in service.\n\nThe school buildings in these co-operating districts\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": "880", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n88o\n\n[Agricultural\n\nare now the customary one-room schoolhouses found in the state, but they\nare to be enlarged and reconstructed in the near future in order to provide\nfor the increased privileges and the greater opportunities that are found\n\nto be essential and successful in the development of the community and in\n\nthe improvement of country life.\n\nAll pupils who are enrolled under this\n\nsupervision will be given instruction and training in the different branches\n\nways that can be practically applied to the\nThis is done to\nincrease their interest in, and to enlarge their appreciation of, the work of\nof elementary education in\n\ndaily life and the actual experience of their environment.\n\neducation.\n\nIn addition, they will be instructed in such industrial lines as their\n\nand development may make practicable, while they will\nactivities by the undertaking of such\nresponsibilities and by the accepting of such duties in their homes and on\nthe farms as may be assigned them under the supervision of their parents\nand teachers. This industrial education and training is a part of their\nregular course of study, hence appropriate credit will be given for all these\nage, experience,\n\nbe trained in suitable industrial\n\nnew phases of education when they are satisfactorily completed.\n\nOn the part of the Teachers College, these demonstration schools become\ncenters for training teachers who are graduating from the special rural-\n\nteacher course maintained at the institution.\n\nThe students taking this\n\ntraining will spend at least a month in continuous employment in these\n\ndemonstration centers.\n\nThey will reside in the country, they will partici-\n\npate in the work done in all its phases, and they will acquire an experience in the many lines that are being conducted. The regular teachers\n\noccupy the province of critic\nand they will devote their time to improving the capability of\n\nin these rural demonstration schools will\n\nteachers,\n\nthe students in traming in their adaptability, spirit, and appreciation, as\n\nmuch as in the actual technic of instructing.\nPupils in these special districts who are advanced in scholarship,\nbeyond the class standards that it is desirable to maintain there, will be\ngranted admission to the training school on the campus including highschool grades, without any tuition being required; and those who graduate\nfrom the course of study maintained in these elementary schools will be\n\ngranted admission without tuition to the high-school department.\n\nThis\n\npolicy is inaugurated because it is intended to encourage these co-operating\ndistricts to\n\nbe liberal in their expenditures for the improvement of their\n\nown schools.\n\nTo insure strength to the co-operation thus established, the\nState Teachers College will appropriate the additional money that is needed\n\nto make these demonstration schools examples of efficiency and centers of\n\nachievement.\n\nImprovement of teachers in service.\n\n—In these days of larger things, the\n\nwork of teacher-training and improvement can scarcely be sufficient when\nits activities and undertakings are confined to the college campus.\n\nIt has\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": "881", "text": "RURAL DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n88i\n\nbeen definitely decided that a teachers' college should develop also an extension service which can improve the teachers who are regularly in employ-\n\nTo this end, during the past college year, teacher-study centers\n\nment.\n\nfor rural teachers have been organized in a number of the counties within\n\nreasonable railway distance from Cedar Falls, the regular members of the\nfaculty giving instruction on Saturdays to the teachers enrolled in these\ncenters.\n\nThis movement has proven decidedly acceptable to the teachers\n\nin service to such an extent that twelve hundred were enrolled and were\n\nundertaking systematic study under the direction of the faculty and the\n\nThese teachers assemble\nand instruction on Saturdays at least once a\nmonth. They have assigned to them, for preparation and for consideration,\nsuch work as meets their approval and that of their county superintendents.\nsupervision of their county superintendents.\n\nfor conference, recitation,\n\nAt each day's session of the study-center classes, at least three recitation\nperiods are given by each instructor in charge and a lecture on some special\n\ntheme suitable to the occasion is given by one of the instructors. In these\nwell-organized endeavors, serious work is undertaken and the most satisfactory results have been obtained. The Teachers College maintains supervision over these study centers for teachers thru a regular\n\nmember of\n\nthe faculty who organizes and conducts them with the co-operation of the\n\ncounty superintendents.\n\nThe Teachers\n\nCollege has provided for the\n\nexpense of the instruction; the members of the study centers have arranged\nfor places of meeting and for the traveling and hotel expenses of the instructors.\n\nIn some counties, this latter expense has been paid from the county\n\ninstitute funds.\n\nThis coming college year, the study centers will begin\n\ntheir year's work in September as soon as the schools are opened, and as\n\nmany centers will be organized as the faculty of the Teachers College can\nconduct.\n\nIt is the intention to expand this extension service so as to cover\n\nthe entire state, if the General Assembly approves and grants sufficient\nfinancial support so that as many instructors can be employed as may be\n\nnecessary to care properly for this work.\n\nAs experience gives opportunity, a more definite system will be adopted\nand complete outlines for guidance of study and instruction will be published.\nCredits will be given on some plan of examination, certificates of\nattainments will be awarded, and, by additional attendance at the twelve\nweeks' summer sessions to be inaugurated in 191 5 at the Teachers College,\n\ndiplomas and state certificates will be obtainable.\nfive thousand teachers in the service of the state\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nexpected that\n\nmay be receiving instruc-\n\ntion and training of this kind during the year 1914-15 under the auspices\nof the Iowa State Teachers College.\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": "882", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n882\n\n[Agricultural\n\nA BEGINNING IN RURAL EIGE-SCEOOL WORK AND\nTOWNSHIP SUPERVISION\nHELENE E. GLISSMAN, PRINCIPAL OF HIGH SCHOOL, AND SUPERVISOR OF\nTOWNSHIP SCHOOLS, DOON, IOWA\n\nO the rolling prairie—^broad and wild and free\nO the rolling prairie—that's the place for me!\nIn the northwestern comer of Iowa, in Lyon County, thirty-six square\nmiles of this beautiful rolling prairie have been designated as Garfield\n\nThere is no town, no railroad, not even a post-office, within\nbut there are some of the most prosperous and picturits\nesque farms of the prairie section of the United States, and there is a\ngrand opportunity for real country work. The following story is an\naccount of the work that has been carried on for the past five years.\nAfter the eighth-grade graduation had been quite firmly established,\nand the nine schools of the township had united in these exercises, someone\nTownship.\n\nboundaries;\n\nasked why these boys and girls could not have the advantages of higher\neducation and still stay on the farm.\n\nThe question of consolidating had\nby a large majority. The\n\npreviously been voted upon and defeated\n\nfarmers could well afford to send their children into the high school of the\n\nnear-by town, but most of the children objected.\n\nJust then one of the far-\n\nsighted teachers suggested a township high school\n\n—transportation, that\n\ngreat objection to consolidation, would be an easy matter for these older\nchildren.\nThe Board of Education finally agreed to a high school. A\nroom was built, but not by putting the question of a new building to a vote\nof the people, for this high-school proposition was carried thru by enlarging\nthe schoolhouse in the center district. The great hope and firm belief of\nthe interested ones was that, if a system of education beyond the eighth\ngrade were once established, gradually all would fall in line, the conmaunity\nspkit would grow, and finally consolidation of the nine district schools would\nbe brought about. So in September, 1909, the township high school was\nready for work with twelve pupils enrolled in two grades, the ninth and the\ntenth. The building was not all that could be desired, and the equipment\nwas far from being complete; but the spirit of determination to win and\nof loyalty to the farm was the prized possession of the dozen zealous students and their teacher. The very idea of a country high school surprised\nmost of the people, and some dared to prophesy that the attendance\ncouldn't possibly keep up during the blizzard season. A close record was\nkept, and, after one of the most severe winters Lyon County has known\nin years, comparisons were made, and it was found that the percentage of\nattendance and punctuality was even better than the town high schools of\nthe county. What fun it was to get thru those snow-blockaded roads\nThe\n!\n\nfarmers along these school routes actually waited for the high-schoolers\nto open the way.\nAfter these cold drives, the pupils always found the\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": "883", "text": "!\n\nDepartment]\n\nRURAL HIGH-SCHOOL AND TOWNSHIP SUPERVISION\n\n883\n\nschoolroom well warmed; and after their ride home how they hurried to do\nthe chores, to be ready for the supper that mother cooked!\n\nIn the face\n\nof this enthusiasm, step in, if you can, and talk town school\n\nLet the mighty and great\nRoll in splendor and state\nI envy them not, I declare it.\n\nI eat my own lamb,\n\nMy own chicken and ham;\nI shear\n\nmy own sheep and wear it.\n\nI have lawns, I have bowers,\n\nI have fruits, I have flowers;\n\nThe lark is my morning charmer.\nSo you Jolly ones now,\nHere's \"God bless the plow;\n\nLong life and content to the farmer.\"\n\nThe long winter evenings are devoted to study. This is the season to\ndo a great deal of home study and special reading, for in the spring and\nin the fall most of the time outside of school must be devoted to practical\nagriculture and domestic art.\nThis township high school uses the up-to-date booster method of\nadvertising.\nThe pupils attend the programs, the basket socials, and the\nliterary meetings.\nThe literary society is a neighborhood organization that\nhas been in existence for ten years. Here comes the scriptural query,\n\"Who is my neighbor?\" The high school answered this by making the\nwhole township one neighborhood. The students also attend the little\nsocial gatherings held in any district school.\nHere special efforts are made\nto become acquainted, for the eighth-grade graduates of these district\nschools must be enrolled in the high school next year.\nFive districts have\nthus far been represented. The high-school pupils usually take some part\nin the program; and then those wonderful yells ^how proud the farmers\nare!\nDo you realize that a township spirit is being launched, and that these\n\"hayseeds,\" as they call themselves, have something to which to attach\ntheir loyalty?\nGarfield pennants and Garfield colors are used instead of\n\n—\n\nthe banners of the near-by towns.\n\nWhat did the children study ?\nfarmers\n\ncourse of study was to be one for\n—\"as practical as possible,\" The\nthe board declared, and the teacher's\n\nplea combined with this \"as practical as possible,\" \"yet give the youth\n\nsomething to live for as well as to live on.\"\n\nThere was considerable trouble in pursuing the studies outlined due\nto the different standards adopted by the teachers under whom the pupils\n\nhad completed the eighth grade.\n\nThe high-school principal called a meet-\n\ning of the nine teachers from the district schools to discuss the possibilities\nof township uniformity.\n\nAt this first meeting, the teachers decided to\n\nform a township association, meetings to be held every fourth Friday after-\n\nnoon thruout the school year.\n\nThe aim of this association was to be the\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": "884", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n884\n\ndevelopment of the township spirit.\nis that during each\n\n[Agricultural\n\nAn item which might be of interest\n\nof the six years of this association the membership has\n\nbeen composed of nine women and one man.\nThe first work taken up was that of a general outline for a uniform course\nof study.\n\nThe manner in which this was done is most interesting.\n\nor possibly two subjects would be assigned for each meeting.\n\nOne\n\nIf the topic\n\nof arithmetic was to be considered, the teacher who was especially keen\n\nalong that line would act as chairman and conduct the discussions.\n\nThis\n\ndid not mean that the other teachers would come unprepared; they studied\nall\n\navailable material on the teaching of this subject.\n\nOne teacher went\n\nto Sioux City to see Fannie A. Foster, assistant superintendent of schools,\n\nand seciu-ed some valuable help.\n\nAnother teacher, who had been in Garfield\n\nthe year before but at the time was enrolled in the state normal, consulted\nseveral professors and sent some splendid suggestions.\n\nWhen the time for\n\nthe meeting came, each teacher had gained ever so much in such preparation, ideas\n\nwere freely exchanged, and an outline agreeable to\n\ndecided upon.\n\nall\n\nwas\n\nWhen drawing and construction work were assigned as\n\nsubjects, another teacher, who had taken some special primary work, had\n\nThis procedure was followed thru all the subjects,\nand even penmanship and spelling were not neglected. This course of\nstudy has since undergone many and varied changes; even at present it is\nnot the acme of perfection, and yet, when one considers the benefit that\neach school and every pupil in the school received from this special study\nby the teachers, it certainly must be declared worth while.\nThe following year special stress was placed upon meetings of parents\nand teachers. Reports of these meetings were sent to the local papers.\nFarmers in other townships became interested, and soon a similar organization sprang up in Cleveland Township, tho Cleveland hasn't a township\nhigh school. The Garfield Township High School is the only one in the\ncounty. This last year the Township Teachers' Association studied,\noutlined, and discussed one of the state reading-circle books.\nOccasionally\ncharge of the meeting.\n\nthe county superintendent is present, also some of our state workers have\nappeared, and we are most grateful for the inspiration and encouragement\n\nthus received, especially grateful to our State Agricultural College, at\n\nAmes, and to the state leader of junior work, E. C. Bishop, of Ames.\n\nThe new teacher, meaning the inexperienced teacher attempting her\nfirst\n\nterm, must be mentioned here.\n\nFor the past two years, the first\n\nteachers' meeting has been held the second Friday after school opened.\nSpecial efforts are made at these meetings to help the beginners.\n\nClass\n\ndemonstrations or model lessons are given by experienced teachers and,\n\nwhen a question of discipline is being discussed, it greatly encourages the\nbeginners to learn that older heads have had like difficulties to conquer.\n\nThe older students in the high school, who would probably soon enter the\nteachers world, have always been present and some of them are now among\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": "885", "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL HIGH-SCHOOL AND TOWNSHIP SUPERVISION\n\n885\n\nThat rural spirit for the rural teachers for which\nA most convenient way\nof answering these appeals is to train the farmer boy or girl to become a\nteacher in the little country school. One of Garfield's own sons, a graduate\nthe strong rural teachers.\n\nso many fervent and eloquent appeals are made!\n\nfrom a four-year high school, taught his first term last fall. He followed a\nteacher who was experienced and who had taught in the same school for\ntwo years successfully and successively; she was a town girl and town was\nuppermost in her mind. The director was asked at the close of the fall\nterm:\n\n\"What kind of a teacher does Ernest make?\"\n\nHe replied very\n\npromptly: \"The children learn more in one day from him than they did\nfrom the other teacher in a week.\" Shortly after I asked this young man\n\nwhat he thought of teaching: \"Well, I didn't intend to stay at it, but I'm\nafraid I'm going to like it.\"\n\nNow as to the question:\npath of work?\"\n\n\"Are there no obstructions in this glorious\n\nTruly there have been several difficulties both among\n\nthe teachers and among the farmers. Some of the teachers have resigned\nwhen they learned of the added duties brought upon them by our township\nassociation.\nThen Dan Cupid, that ever-welcome enemy, has whisked\nseveral of our best ones away. Most of the teachers, however, are hired\n\nsome stay two years; and a few have taught three years, or are\nAmong the farmers have been many\n\"honest doubters,\" who require much time for their many doubts, but when\nonce won over they become the strongest adherents. The president of the\nboard, a wide-awake and intelligent farmer, seemed to be against us, so it\nwas indeed a happy piece of news we learned last fall that he was merely\non the fence; and recently it has been discovered that he is for us and for\nus strong. Hard as it may be to believe, there are even yet some strong\nknockers, but we have tried to use them as spurs rather than as hindrances.\nThe average enrolment in the Garfield Township High School is twelve.\nThe lowest at any one time was five; the highest twenty-six. Most of the\npupils enrolled in this school are those who could not or would not go beyond\nthe eighth grade were it not for the fact that they can stay on the farm and\nThere are at least\nstill pursue the work of the ninth and tenth grades.\nthree very good reasons why the rural high schools ought not to attempt\nwork beyond the tenth grade: First, the lack of equipment properly to\npursue the higher branches; second, the small classes, since one or two\nstudents drop out each year; third, there is usually but one teacher, and\nto undertake four years of high-school work would mean a very heavy\nschedule, and would necessitate neglecting some of the subjects. A large\npercentage of the farmers have not been brought to see the necessity of\nfor a year;\n\nin the third year of work in Garfield.\n\n—\n\nhigh-school training, so the rural high school is performing a wonderful\n\neducational mission in its quiet and unassuming way\n\n— a mission that cannot\n\nbe estimated by a board of inspectors, whose solemn duty it is to examine\nthe course pursued and decide how much credit to give. These boards\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": "886", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n886\n\n[Agricultural\n\ncannot see the amount of practical agriculture the boys and girls learn\nwhile doing the chores; they cannot see the girls solving serious questions\nWhen once an efficient system of credit for home work\nof domestic science.\nis established, the farming done\n\nby the children on the farm will be recog-\n\nThis \"being kept busy\" outside of school hours is\nthe one great difference between farm and city life, and it must be granted\n\nnized and approved.\n\nthat the difference is in favor of the farmer boy.\n\nA quotation will probably\n\nillustrate the point in mind:\n\nHow few of us really use our senses! I mean give ourselves fully at any time to the\nWe do not expect to understand a treatise on economics without\n\noccupation of the senses.\n\napplying our minds to it, nor can we really smell or hear or see or feel without every faculty\nThru sheer indolence we miss half the joy of the world! The senses are the tools\nalert.\n\nby which we lay hold upon the world; they are the implements of consciousness and\nSo long as they are used upon the good earth used to wholesome weariness\nthey remain healthy, they )deld enjo3nnent, they nourish growth; but, let them once be\nremoved from their natural employments, and they turn and feed upon themselves, they\nseek the stimulation of luxury, they wallow in their own corruption, and finally, worn\nVice is ever the senses\nout, perish from off the earth which they have not appreciated.\n\n—\n\ngrowth.\n\ngone astray.\n\nSome of the other topics to be considered under rural high schools and\ntownship supervision are: the special class of older boys who can attend\nonly from November to March; the Dramatic Society with its amateur\nperformances; the Debaters' Club; the visits of the high-school principal\nto the district schools;\n\nand the township school picnics held at the close\n\nLast month, at the picnic, a pageant representing some\nof the historical episodes of Iowa was given.\nI am merely mentioning\n\nof the school year.\n\nthese things, for each is a topic large enough for an afternoon's consideration.\n\nThis organization, very likely, is far from being an ideal one, but it is\nan earnest endeavor on the part of the farmers to do something for the boys\nand the girls on the farm. In closing, listen to David Grayson in his\nAdventures in Contentment,\n\nHe says:\n\nBring out your social remedies.\n\nThey will fail, they will fail every one, until each\nMy wild plum trees grow in the coarse earth,\n\nman has his feet somewhere upon the soil!\n\namong excrementitious mold, a physical life which finally blossoms and exhales its perfect\nodor; which ultimately bears the seed of its immortality. Himian happiness is the true\nodor of growth, the sweet exhalation of work; and the seed of human immortality is\nSo many of us crave the odor without\ngrowth from which it proceeds; so many, wasting mortality,\n\nborne secretly within the coarse and mortal husk.\ncultivating the earthly\n\nexpect immortality.\n\nTHE USE OF RAW MATERIALS IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE\nW.\n\nS.\n\nWELLES, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATIONAL AGRICULTURE, STATE\nNORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS.\n\nBecause agriculture is such an important factor in the economic life\nof the nation, it furnishes the basis for a thoroly rational education for all who\n\ncome in contact with it, viz., an education for service.\n\nMen have spent\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": "887", "text": "RAW MATERIALS IN AGRICULTURE TEACHING\n\nDepartment]\n\n887\n\nthemselves without stint to enlarge the body of agricultural knowledge and\nto discover the principles of this important science for the benefit of the\nrace.\n\nIf the work accomplished by the investigator is to bear abundant fruit\n\nit must be given\n\nby instruction to the waiting multitude.\n\nThus the place\n\nof the teacher of agriculture has been made for him.\n\nis\n\nYou will agree with me when I say that today the teaching of agriculture\nThere is something lacking in the way it comes\n\nnot all we could wish.\n\nto our young people.\n\nIt interests them in a measure,\n\nbut does not grip\n\nThey like it in a mild way for the\nmost part, where there should be the most enthusiastic love for it. The\ntheir minds with tremendous power.\n\nwhole relation between the student and his study lacks a vital something\nto\n\nmake it virile and gripping and real. Where is the weakness ? The\nThe unrealized good that should\nit.\n\ndivining rod of experience locates\n\ncome from a study of agriculture lies buried under a mountain of poor\nteaching. This does not mean poor school management or wrong pedagogical ideas.\nIt means that the subject-matter of agriculture is not\npresented to the learner in a way to grip his attention and lead his interest\ncaptive.\n\nPoor teaching is common in this study, which, of all the studies\n\nin our schools, by its very nature demands the highest skill in presentation.\n\nLet not the passing-on of facts to a neighbor or to his child be called teaching.\nIt is not.\n\nMany think so and are satisfied. But teaching is a stimulation\n\nto self-improvement by some subtle power that pedagogy has been trying\nfor years to analyze and define.\n\nIt will never be reduced to set terms and\ncommunicated to men by words. It is something of the spirit, a gift of the\ngods. And whoever possesses this power to awaken the soul and start the\nwork of self-improvement is a true teacher. We have not reached that\nplace in agriculture where we have a body of such teachers.\nWhy not? Because agriculture is new? We know that it is as old\nas man himself. No, it is because we cannot teach it out of a book. Agriculture is not in books.\nIt is not reducible to book form.\nThis has been\ntried many times, but the soul of the subject escapes from the confines of\nthe book and we find it out on its native hills and in the tilled fields. Here\nis where it must be studied, and even here it flees the sight of a book.\nAgriculture must be taught thru its raw materials and in the field if possible.\nBut our teachers have learned to teach bookwise! They must learn to\nteach agriculture from the things of agriculture: To read in the soil the\nstory of the creation and support of living forms upon the earth, and the\nwork of all the forces that have made them; to search out from the ear\nof corn its\n\nown story of its present state of perfection with the reasons\n\ntherefore; to dig out the great truths of the potatoes from the potatoes\n\nthemselves; to learn to question nature's products and read correctly her\n\nanswers concerning their being. Whence ? How ? and Why ?\nthis, the greatest opportunity to\n\nUntil we do\n\nteach life lessons and educate for service\n\nthru service lies unused at our hand.\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": "888", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n888\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThis is no new thing! Teachers for centuries have made use of raw\nBut they have missed the power of its appeal.\nmaterial in their work.\nThis material has not been used as the means of instruction and the\nsource of inspiration to study. It has been simply illustrative to be\n\nand pom ted to and looked over in haste with whatever of inspiration or curiosity it might arouse. This illustration will say\n\nset out on the table\n\nwhat I mean.\nThe com plant grows up like a tall stalk of grass with long, graceful leaves, and a\nflower called a tassel at the top, from which comes pollen to fall upon the silks and make\n\nthe car of golden com.\n\nDid these statements of truth gush from a full heart and a throbbing\nbrain as so much of response to the study of the raw material ? Not at all.\nThere it lies cold and lifeless, on a page of a book. Was the raw material\npresent? Yes, it was. How was it used? Thus:\nHere, children, is a stalk of corn such as we read about. Notice that it is like the\nmy hand. See the leaves ? How tmly our book has described them.\n\nstalk of grass here in\n\nAnd there on the top is the tassel, and what was it that came from the tassel, did the\nbook say?\n\nWeak! flabby! insipid! words! words! words!\nI am not degrading the textbook.\nit is\n\na helper.'\n\nInstead, put into its rightful place\n\nThe author of the text studied the raw materials of nature\n\nto secure the information and formulate the principles which he gives.\ninterest was centered upon that material as he studied it.\n\nHis\n\nIt had power\n\nover him and gave him back strength and growth for his labor. The\nstudent of agriculture has the same life interest in the materials as did the\n\nauthor of the book.\n\nYet, we tie the student down to a text, put some\n\nillustrative material before him, and say, \"As you read about this now, look\n\nover this material.\"\n\nThe joy of exploration and original thinking gone!\n\nInspkation taken away and drudgery over a set of laboratory directions\nwith a mummy accompaniment substituted! I demand the same opportunity for the student to study the raw material as was enjoyed by the\nwriter of the texts, and I demand for him the sauce of a live teacher to\n\ngo with it.\n\nLet us not teach from the text with these things for illustration.\n\nLet us teach from these things and use the text as a source of help when\nwe need it. Instead of studying what somebody has written into a book\nabout potatoes, let us get it directly from the potatoes themselves.\n\nBut our teachers have not been taught in a way to do the kind of\nwork needed. In classes where most of our teachers of agriculture were\nprepared the subject-matter is all-important.\n\nIts relation to the student\n\notherwise than as a task to be accomplished is not considered.\nof classroom instruction as organized\n\nThe scheme\n\ntoday in public schools\n\ncalls for\n\nteaching that leads a student to make generalizations and formulate principles by his own investigation, experiences, and reasoning.\n\nIt is an exer-\n\ncise in the development of a topic or a point employing the experience and\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": "889", "text": "RAW MATERIALS IN AGRICULTURE TEACHING\n\nDepartment]\n\n889\n\nwork of the student. This secures his attention to the point, fixes his effort\nthere, and leaves him in possession of something which is his own product.\nHe has gained in power to approach another topic, since he can go back and\ntrace his progress at each step. The student here is of more importance\nthan the thing he studies, and this must be the point of view of the teacher\nin the public school.\n\nNow comes the test.\n\nTeachers of agriculture are trained to give sub-\n\nCan they make the transition in the public schools\nand put the student first ? To do this work successfully requires a skill all\nits own.\nSome skill is required in teaching by the book and by the guide,\nbut it is the skill of the driver. The teacher goes behind. Teaching a\n\nject-matter first place.\n\nclass from the raw materials of agriculture, going into a class and digging\n\nout the great truths of potato from the potatoes themselves, is powerful\nteaching and requires the\n\nskill of\n\nIt can be done, has been done.\n\nthe leader.\n\nThe teacher goes ahead.\n\nI know how the light breaks upon a class\n\nthat has been dreaming when one steps in and begins to draw out of the raw\nmaterial the deeper lessons it can give.\n\nI\n\nknow because I have seen it\n\ndone, and, if you will not think it egotistical, I know for another reason:\n\nFrom classes in the country schools, where we go\nand give the teachers demonstration lessons of this kind of use of raw\nmaterials, up to bodies of teachers of all grades two hundred strong, from\nteachers in rural schools to superintendents, from normal-school professors\nand school officers comes the same whole-hearted response to the stimulation of the raw materials of agriculture.\nAnd why? What makes a thing interesting to us? Because somewhere in our life experience it touches us. Our insulation is worn off in\nspots by life's experiences. We come in contact with some live wire of a\nI have done it myself.\n\nsubject in agricultural study, perhaps a dairy cow, perhaps a weed, or a fine\n\nWe work along beside that wire following another line when\nA flash of interest as the\ncurrent of life relation leaps across. We are thrilled and exalted! There\near of corn.\n\nsuddenly there is contact at this experience spot!\n\nno contentment now until the surge of questions about that particular\nWe must be able to produce at will\nthat contact of mind and material which makes complete the circuit of life\nrelationship between us and it. We cannot leave that to accident. And it\nis our business as preparers of teachers of agriculture to see that they have\nthis idea of the life relationship between what is studied and the student.\nIt is our business further to so teach them that that idea working out has\nbecome a part of their fixed mental procedure. And it is our business to\n\nis\n\nthing has been satisfied with answers.\n\nWe should teach in\nWe must all go to school to the\n\nprovide those necessary experiences when lacking.\nthe field by actually doing work there.\ncornfield,\n\nand the pasture, and thru actual service behind the plow learn\nWe must develop\n\nthe lessons, not of school, but of life in school time.\npoints of contact with our world.\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": "890", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n890\n\n[Agricultural\n\nEvery subject of study has wrapped up in it somewhere a point of\nThere is something there which\nvital interest to each of its students.\nmust have. Then there is for\nwe\nwhich\nrelationship\nlife\nthat\nestablishes\nof us that will unlock the whole\neach\nfor\nquestion\nkey\na\nstudy\nof\ntopic\nevery\nThere is some vital,\nsecrets.\nhidden\nits\nminds\nour\nto\nopen\nand\nsubject\nessential question in each case that will form the bond, make the contact,\n\nbetween the mind and the material. Find that question! And when\nyou have found it, follow it. I have found it sometimes. Those were\nthe days when a spirit of exhaltation seemed to take hold of the class and\ninterest and enthusiasm ran riot.\n\nI can give but little suggestion of value in the way of specific direction\nfor such work.\n\nIt is not reducible to rules of procedure.\n\nFirst, get the\n\nidea that the use of the raw products as teaching material is the open door\nby which the student of agriculture comes into his world of a realized\nagricultural\n\nself.\n\nSecond, put in the hardest thinking you are capable\n\nof in shaping your course for the time when you come before your class to\n\nmake every step and every minute big with results for your students.\nSearch out that key question that opens up the subject and arrange your\nBe prepared to accept the\nline of questions and suggestions to follow it.\nsuggestions of the students as their minds work, and on all build the struc-\n\nture of a great lesson.\n\nThird, see someone teach in this way if possible.\n\nFourth, if successful in the last, imitate that teacher and improve upon his\n\nwork.\n\nTHE COURSE IN AGRICULTURE FOR TRAINING TEACHERS\nIN NORMAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOLS\nI.\n\nJ.\n\nL.\n\nMCBRIEN, SPECIALIST IN RURAL EDUCATION, UNITED STATES\nBUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nThis is a subject in which a little learning is a dangerous thing, and in\n\n—\n\nwhich much learning often makes mad over-enthusiasm at the expense of\nother equally important subjects in the high-school course. There is a\ngolden mean between these two extremes.\nI shall not attempt to say anything\n\nnew on this question.\n\nI shall\n\nendeavor, rather, to place before you the opinions of those interested in\nthis important topic in various sections of the country.\n\nYou may draw\n\nyour own conclusions.\nPresident Seerley, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa,\nsays:\n\nThe chief trouble with agriculture for training teachers in normal training high\nIn fact it is too brief to have any\n\nschools lies in the fact that the course is so brief.\n\nmarked effect.\n\nI do not know any remedy for the\n\nrequired for college work\n\nmust still stand.\n\nsame as the other subjects that are\nAs a consequence the normal training high\n\nschools are obliged to give a very limited course.\n\nI doubt very much whether the course\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": "891", "text": "Department]\n\nCOURSE IN AGRICULTURE IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\n891\n\nwill be of very much use to teachers who will go out of high schools and who expect to\n\nbe teachers in the country, as they will not know enough to compete with the average\n\nfarm boy.\n\nCharles R. Weeks, professor of agriculture and director of extension\n\nwork, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C., says:\n\nA successful agricultural teacher is not measured by grades made in a few agriculA suc-\n\ntural subjects in college, nor is he a farmer's boy with no agricultural education.\n\ncessful agricultural teacher in a high school must possess the knowledge of the student\n\nin agriculture as well as the experience of the farmer boy, and then have the ability to\n\nmix with, and command the interest and confidence of, farmers and town people alike.\nHe must have a sincere interest in the work and an enthusiasm that will carry him thru\nmany hours of unexpected work and difficulties. No matter what the lack in school\nequipment, or farm plot, such a teacher will get results in agricultural education anywhere.\n\nUntil a high school is sure of getting the right teacher, it is vastly better that\n\nagriculture be left entirely out of its school curriculum.\n\nTo avoid aimless drifting in the\n\nextended field of agriculture, to assure the adapting of material to the pupils, to the\n\ncommunity, and to the season of the year, we should use only the topic method of teaching\nagriculture.\n\nJ.\n\nC, Muerman, specialist in rural education, United States Bureau of\n\nEducation, Washington, D.C., says:\n\nAny course in agriculture for training teachers in normal training high schools should\nemphasize home agriculture, almost to the exclusion of the present plan followed by so\nmany schools in attempting to do so much in a school garden.\n\nThe teacher should\n\ndevelop home plans for the boys, using the school garden only as a propagating plan.\n\nAnother phase of the work is greatly neglected, and that is the preparing and marketing\nPacking, shipping, and pre-cooling are essential, and yet I find\nmany teachers absolutely ignorant of the importance and meaning of these terms. The\nstudy of markets, with special reference to a public market and its use and abuse, of home\nconsimiption, of consumers' tastes, acquired and cultivated, is essential to those who\nreceive instruction from teachers who go from high schools that are supposed to have a\nof all kinds of produce.\n\ncourse in agriculture.\n\nHarry E. Bradford, professor of agricultural education, and principal\nof the School of Agriculture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr., says:\n\nThe problem seems to me to be one of reorganization.\n\nThe present course of study\nNormal\n\nin the average high school still clings too much to the old idea of classic training.\n\ntraining in the high schools has been of inestimable benefit to the rural schools, but\n\nanother step is necessary before the average girl teacher gets the viewpoint which makes\nher valuable from the standpoint of the open country.\n\none of two courses.\n\nThis reorganization may take\n\nWe may add another year to the high-school curriculum, especially\n\nfor normal training preparation.\n\nThis will allow sufl&cient time for the work which is\n\nnow being given and for additional work in agriculture, home economics, and pedagogical\ntraining in both of these lines.\n\nIf the extra year does not seem feasible, then the reorgani-\n\nzation should come from within, and all thought of preparation for the university should\n\nbe omitted in planning the course for rural teachers.\n\nMy thought is that the teacher who\n\nwould be truly a rural teacher should have a good training in home economics and agriculture and possess a considerable fund of information concerning rural conditions and\ncommunity service. This means eliminating a number of subjects from the regular highschool course, which, up to the present time, have been considered quite necessary for\ngraduation. It means also foregoing all thought of preparation for college until the\ncollege recognizes the value of this kind of preparation, and accepts it as entrance credit.\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": "892", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8^2\n\n(Agricultural\n\nFred L. Mahannah, state inspector of normal training high schools,\nDes Moines, Iowa, says:\nThe agriculture that we are offering in the nonnal training high schools differs radically\nfrom what should be offered in a high school where the object is to train scientific farmers.\nWe require but a half year's work, tho a number of schools offer a full year. As a general\nrule, the teacher in charge is the regidar science teacher, who has had a summer school's\n\nwork in the special phases of the subject.\n\nWe have been trying to raise the qualifications\n\nas rapidly as possible, and, by 1915, our requirements will be that the teacher of agriculture must have at least twenty-four semester hour credits in agriculture, unless more\n\nthan a year's work is offered, in which case graduation from an agricultural college will\nbe required. Our normal training classes in agriculture are made up largely of girls who\nare prospective teachers, and we feel that the great need in their case is to give them\n\nenough knowledge of agriculture to enable them to enter more intelligently and sympathetically into the life of the rural community in which they are engaged as teachers.\nWe have found it extremely difficult to get teachers of agriculture who have had any\nspecial training, but we feel sure that the work we have been offering normal training\nstudents has been of great value to prospective rural teachers, particularly to those who\n\nhave been bom and raised in town.\n\nW. E. Larson, rural school inspector for Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., says:\nIn Wisconsin the teachers' training course is given in connection with the regular\nhigh-school course, that is, those who are taking the training are also taking a regular\n\nIn this way the Wisconsin method is different from that found in\nThe teachers' training course is, in as many respects as possible, like a\n\nfour years' course.\nseveral states.\n\nr^ular English course. A special teacher is employed to teach the professional subjects.\nAll that this teacher can really do is to take charge of the professional work and reviews.\nThis teacher is not allowed to take any of the other classes in the high school, unless these\nclasses\n\nbe considered a part of the professional work.\n\nThe teaching of agriculture is\n\ntherefore a part of the regular high-school course, and not necessarily a part of the work\nin teacher training.\n\nI believe that if the high schools are to train teachers for coimtry-\n\nschool work, considerable of the work that we are now trying to include must be eliminated\n\nand certain other fundamental branches must be taken up. Chief among these branches\nare agriculture and domestic science. The coimtry-school teacher needs to be master of\na certain amount of knowledge that is directly needed in the teaching of a country school.\nThe idea of having a high-school teachers' training school and a college preparatory school\nmust be given up, unless the colleges are willing to accept the work done in the teachers'\ntraining course as sufficient preparation for the work in the college.\n\nL. S. Ivens, director of agricultural education for Ohio, says:\nIt is\n\nmy opinion that teachers who expect to teach in the rural schools should study\n\nagriculture at least one year before they take the work in the normal training high school.\n\nThey should also have agriculture thruout their one-year course in the normal.\ncourse should be half professional and half academic.\n\nThe\n\nIn other words, half of the time\n\ndevoted to the study of the subject should be on methods of teaching it.\n\nThe first term\n\nof nine weeks' time should be given to nature-study agriculture; second term to elemen-\n\ntary agriculture; third term to advanced agriculture; and the last term to rural organization.\n\nThe last term should include all kinds of contest work, the organization of\n\nfarmers' institutes, schools, rural fairs, Chautauquas, granges, clubs,\n\nand co-operative\n\nThe future rural teacher and superintendent must become a rural leader\nand this will require him to have a better knowledge of the methods of rural organization.\nOur future rural teachers must make better use of the state's agricultural institutions.\nIn our normal courses that are now in preparation in Ohio, we have set apart special time\n\nassociations.\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": "893", "text": "Department]\n\nCOURSE IN AGRICULTURE IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\n893\n\nfor work to be done by men and women from the agricultural college, experiment station,\n\ndomestic science school, and medical schools.\n\nbut will be mostly demonstration work.\n\nThis work will not be merely lectures,\n\nThe state medical association will send us men\n\nwho will demonstrate to the teachers better methods of rural sanitation, not only for\nMethods of heating and ventilation, what to\ndo in emergencies, how to maintain sanitary kitchens, and other health rules will be\nexplained and demonstrated by members of the state medical association. Members of\nthe state dental association will explain their work in each county normal training high\ncattle and hogs, but also for the children.\n\nschool.\n\nRufus W. Stimson, agent for agricultural education, Board of Education, Boston, Mass., says:\n\nWe have in Massachusetts no agricultural teacher who has been trained for his work\nOur agricultural teachers either are self-made men,\nwho are thinkers and observers, and have demonstrated their ability to conduct the kinds\n\nin a normal training high school.\n\nof farming they are called upon to teach profitably, or they are graduates of agricidtural\ncolleges who have also been able to establish a strong presumption of ability to teach\n\nfarming in such a way as to make it profitable.\nchusetts, be possible to secure\n\nfarm-bred\n\nIt will generally, we believe in Massamen who have added to their practical\n\nexperience the training afforded by one or another of our state agricultural colleges.\n\nConsiderable attention is being paid to the correlation of the instruction of pupils in\nrural schools with country life and labor.\n\nThe state normal training schools of MassaEven\n\nchusetts are the sources from which are drawn most of the teachers for this work.\n\nin our normal schools, however, there is no absolute uniformity in the courses of study.\n\nBiology, plant and animal life, with considerable productive effort in the form of home\n\ngardening, are perhaps the main factors in the teaching in which the prospective teachers\nare trained.\n\nIn Massachusetts, we are unequivocally committed to the value of pro-\n\nductive effort carried on in connection with formal schooling.\n\nWilliam P. Evans, state superintendent of public schools, Jefferson City,\nMo., says:\nInasmuch as the state is providing aid based on the teaching of agriculture in the\nhigh schools, and in view of the fact that many teachers have been trying to teach agriculture this year with inadequate training, this department issues the following require-\n\nments which will be insisted upon as the minimum preparation for such teachers next\nFor the teacher of agriculture in a third-class high school, five hours of college\nwork in agriculture will be required. Teachers in first- and second-class high schools must\nhave had seven and one-half hours of college work in agriculture. No teacher who has\nhad less than this amount of study of agriculture can do satisfactory high-school teaching\nin the subject, unless he has had previous first-hand knowledge of farm work\nAll of this required work in agriculture may be done by a student in one summer at a\nnormal school or at the state university. It is proper to state that these requirements\nare higher than previously maintained in Missouri, but are much lower than those in\nother states north and east of us.\nyear.\n\nC. J. Brown, state supervisor of rural elementary schools, Department\nof Education-, Baton Rouge, La., says:\n\nSuch a course should be established only in rural high schools or in small towns where\nThere should in every case be parallel courses in: (i) General\nscience, including those phases of physics, chemistry, and biology which relate in a practical way to agricultural operations; (2) Rural economics and sociology, without which the\nsubject of agriculture, however well known, does not assume its due importance or proper\nthe rural idea prevails.\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": "894", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n894\nsetting;\n\n(3)\n\n(Agricultural\n\nFarm shop and machinery, where practical experience may be had in the\nThe aim of such a program should\n\nmost common and important phases of such work.\n\nnot be to give a comprehensive course, but should be to stimulate such an interest in\nagriculture as will cause the prospective teacher to continue learning. Two years should\n\nbe the maximum time devoted to the subject until the agricultural work in public schools\nhas become fixed and more extensive than at present. The first step should be a survey\nof the community in which the school is located, touching all phases and conditions of\n\nthe commimity; work should then be studied in the light of the principles evolved from\n\nsuch survey.\nof work.\n\nObservation trips in the community should form a very important phase\nIn many activities observation\n\nActual field work should be insisted upon.\n\nmight serve fairly well, but a certain amount of actual work is necessary. There should\nbe much experience with machinery. The shop will not offer nearly enough, so pupils\nmight assist in assembling parts of machines for farmers. The course would be quite\nincomplete unless it informed students as to progressive agricultural movements operating\nin their territory, the relative importance of such movements, how and what the teacher\n\nmust become as a factor in them.\n\nIt would seem almost necessary in the present stage\n\nof the subject in the public schools to give student teachers a definite idea of just what\n\nshould be taught in certain grades, of how to teach it, and of the actual apparatus and\n\nequipment essential.\n\nE. C. Bishop, schools section, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, says:\n\nThe old-line college professor thinks that the teacher of agriculture in the rural\nschools ought to be a specialist in either farm plants, farm animals, soils, or other topics,\n\nrather than that he ought to have a general knowledge of fundamental principles as\n\napplied to the common things concerned in plant and animal life and farm management.\n\nWe have a few of those people who think that the normal training course in high schools\nought to specialize in one or two of these topics if time does not permit a thoro training\nin all of them,\n\nand they would turn this teacher loose trying to teach farm crops very\n\nthoroly, when anyone who has been thru the mill knows that even the elemental phases\nof soils, farm crops, farm animals, or other subtopics cannot be successfully taught with-\n\nout at least a speaking acquaintance with the elementary phases of the other related\ntopics.\n\nThey are related in the home, and the teacher cannot make a close division, for\n\nthe reason that her training was in one topic only.\n\nThe late Seaman A. Knapp, of the United States Department of Agriprobably did more for the cause of agricultural education, espe-\n\nculture,\n\ncially in the southern states, than any one man in this country.\nI quote\nfrom his paper before this department in- 1909, which, in my opinion, is the\n\nbest statement yet made for agricultural education in the public school:\n\n—\n\nThe public demand for agriculture has made this error a lack of definiteness. It\nwould have been much better had legislatures simply demanded the teaching of two or\nthree things, which are universally required and which would have given some greatly\n\nneeded information to the people.\n\nInstead of agriculture, there should be substituted\n\nthe vegetable and fruit garden, the cow and her products, and poultry.\n\nThese three lines\nwould give definiteness to what is required. As it is now, teachers are\nperfectly at sea, and there will be an attempt to teach almost everything, from pure science\n\nof instruction\n\nremotely to agriculture to the purely mechanical methods of the farm.\n\nIn the family\n\nvegetable and fruit garden would be included all the instruction in soil, in seed selection,\n\nhow plants feed, how they grow, and in methods of cultivation necessary for the rural\ntown and the country in an elementary form. Practical lessons about the cow and her\nproducts and poultry would give the knowledge required in every household in regard\nto such common food supplies as milk, eggs, veal, beef, and the flesh of fowls; how to\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": "895", "text": "COURSE IN AGRICULTURE IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n895\n\nproduce economically; their value; and the offices they perform in the human system\n\nwhen used for food.\n\nInstruction of this character is along the line of the people's neces-\n\nand gives the kind of knowledge required by the toiling masses. There is little\ndanger of teaching incorrect theories or methods upon these subjects, because the objectlessons are at hand for correction.\nIn most schools it would be better to give instruction\nin only one of these at a time, commencing first with the market garden; second, poultry;\nand third, the cow and her products. No one should be considered educated who is\nignorant of the economic production of these and their great value in the food supplies\nthat must form one of the chief sources of sustenance for the human race.\nsities\n\nThe foregoing opinions make, as it were, a symposium on the subject\nThe following points stand out prominently in these state-\n\nassigned me.\n\nments:\nFirst, the elimination of some subjects from the old traditional high-\n\nschool course in order to give sufficient time in which to teach manual\ntraining, domestic science, and agriculture to the prospective rural teachers\nin our normal training high schools.\n\nSecond, in order to give agricultural education and rural economics\n\nproper dignity in the high-school course of study, our colleges and universities must give due entrance credit therefor\n\nwhen properly taught in the\n\nhigh school.\nThird, the most available agencies for training teachers for the rural\nschools are our public high schools that are qualified to give normal\ntraining.\n\nFourth, the proper agencies for training the directors of the normal\ntraining work in our high schools, including the work in agricultural education, are our state normal schools.\nFifth, the greatest problem in agricultural education is the training of\n\na sufficient number of teachers qualified to give such instruction in the\nrural schools.\n\nThe Country Gentleman, in a recent issue, declared that the\n\ngreatest problem in agricultural education for the next ten years will be the\ntraining of teachers for this work; that if the course of study and equipment\n\nare valued at 20 per cent, the qualified teacher should be valued at 80 per\ncent.\n\nAs in every other subject to be taught in our public schools, so it\n\nis in agriculture\n\n— as\n\nis the teacher,\n\nso is the work.\n\nTherefore, let us urge\n\nupon our state normal schools, our agricultural colleges, and all institutions\nqualified to give teacher training to begin here and now a crusade for the\npreparation of teachers, not only in our normal training high schools, but\nin our rural schools as well.\n\nII.\n\nA. V.\n\nSTORM, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY\nOF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nEducation has become greatly extended and widely differentiated.\nWith this has come a great divergence of opinion among even the leaders\n\nwhich of the many phases of our public education is\nmost important, and consequently entitled to the most attention.\nin education as to\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": "896", "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nOne of the most prominent city superintendents in America once assured\n\nme that if he had to abandon either his high schools or his kindergartens\nthe high schools would have to go.\n\nYesterday you heard from this plat-\n\nform one of the accepted leaders in present-day public education make an\neloquent appeal for a recognition of the supreme importance of the American\nhigh school. A popular vote would probably indorse by a good majority\nthe statement that the grade schools are the most vital in our system, while\nthere are those of unusual acumen who maintain that the college ^where\n\n—\n\nj)eople of vision are prepared for leadership\n\n— of greater significance in\nis\n\nadvancing civilization than is any other one factor. Parallel with this\ncontention as to which is the most important part of our educational\norganization (which when finally solved will probably reach the same conclusion as did the famous argimient begun by the discontented pendulum)\nis the contention as to\n\nwhich is the more important purpose of education,\n\nthe attainment of culture or the attainment of vocational efficiency.\nInextricably involved in the above discussion is the rural school.\n\nThe\n\nrural school is rapidly coming into its own in the amount and kind of atten-\n\ntion it is receiving.\n\nHaving successively served as the object of our blind,\n\nbombastic faith, our ridicule, and our pity, it has now come to be a matter\nof greater concern to more people and to more classes of people than has\n\nany other feature of education. The place where the great masses of our\nconservative and conserving population receive their entire education is\nnow acknowledged to be worthy of the most careful thought of the best\nmen and women of the times.\nThere are many causes for this deepening interest in rural schools.\nThe development of scientific and practical sociology, economics, science,\nand agriculture; the lack of free land; the rush to the cities; the practicability of elementary work in home economics and agriculture; the dependence of urban upon rural progress and success all these and many others\nhave called with a loud voice for a better rural school. \" As is the teacher so\nis the school \" has lost none of its truth in the passing years.\nA better rural\nschool, then, means a better rural teacher.\nWhere and how shall she be\nprepared ? Two years ago I studied the normal training situation in the\nUnited States and found that in no state replying to inquiries can the state\nnormal schools furnish an adequate supply of teachers for the schools.\nBecause of many conditions, the rural schools were the ones to feel the\nlack first and to the fullest extent. The logical conclusion is that the rural\nteacher must be prepared largely by the local high schools.\nHow are they to be prepared ? The di£ference in organization will cause\nthis to vary.\nIn most states the high-school normal course is four years\nlong and includes general as well as normal preparation. In Iowa, the\nspecial normal work is distributed thru the last two years.\nIn Vermont, it\nconsists of one year of normal work after graduation from the high school.\nIn Minnesota, it has a special year of exclusively normal work which may\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": "897", "text": "Department]\n\nCOURSE IN AGRICULTURE IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\n897\n\nconstitute one of the four years of high-school work of which one, by statute,\nand sometimes two or three, by local board authority, must precede the\nnormal year.\nIcpsome states, as Vermont and Minnesota, a special normal teacher\nis employed who teaches nothing else and from whom normal students\nreceived practically all their instruction, excepting that in agriculture and\n\nhome economics, these being taught by the special teachers.\nAs the investigation showed that over 90 per cent of the students in\nhigh-school normal classes in the United States were girls, the topic assigned\n\nme resolves itself into a question of how to prepare a high-school girl of\nthe normal class to teach agriculture in a rural school.\n\nThis is very difficult.\n\nIf she takes the regular high-school course, she\n\ncan take her agriculture in the regular high-school agriculture class.\ncould be one year of work of the kind indicated below.\n\nThis\n\nIf the high school\n\nhas a widely differentiated course in agriculture extended over four years,\nas Minnesota has, either a special normal class can be organized, or the\nnormal class may take the agronomy year as a part of the regular high-school\ncourse.\nIf the high school has no regular high-school agricultural course, steps\n\nshould immediately be taken to improve that high school before it be\n\nAs a temporary expedient, a\n\nallowed to prepare teachers for rural schools.\n\nspecial class in agriculture may be organized for the normal class to be taken\n\nduring the normal year.\n\nWhere shall the emphasis be placed ?\n\nThere are four great phases of\n\nagriculture, viz., plant industry (including soils), animal industry, rural\n\nengineering, and farm business.\n\nSince agriculture is to be studied in the seventh and eighth grades\n\n(under certain conditions also in the sixth), the teacher needs to be taught\nthe things these grades of students need to\n\nmost successfully learn in a country school.\n\nknow and which they can\n\nIf I were compelled to make\n\na fractional division of the four topics outlined above for the rural school,\nit would be to spend half the time\n\nupon plant industry and half upon the\n\nother three.\n\nA much-mooted question is whether this teacher should know much\nabout one thing or a little about many things. The answer is \"Neither.\"\nShe should know enough about the things most important to the agriculture\nof the community and to the children at that time to enable her to teach\n\nthe same in a sound and interesting manner.\n\nFrom one subject so prepared\n\nshe should increase the number of topics at her conmiand, the breadth of\n\nher knowledge upon them, and the vitality of their interrelation.\nshall she find time ?\n\nHow\n\nIf necessary, by omitting some other studies usually\n\nprescribed for her course but much less likely to function in the few years\n\nshe will teach in the rural schools.\n\nShe must be taught her agriculture (as\n\nshe must be taught much of her academic work) in the same manner in\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": "898", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n898\n\n(Agricultural\n\nwhich she will be expected to teach it to her pupils. Elementary agriculShe should so teach it, hence\nture is more a study of things than of books.\nshe should be so taught.\n\nShe may have a good elementary text as a guide,\n\n—\n\nbut she should be taught mainly from real things real corn, real soils, real\nweeds. Laboratory and field work of a practical nature should pre-\n\nThe approach should be concretely pedagogical, not abstractly\nThe seasonal sequence should be followed where possible since\n\ndominate.\nlogical.\nit\n\ncoincides largely with the pupils'\n\nand the parents'\n\ninterest.\n\nIn this\n\napproach we must not forget that the interest of child, parent, and community is first an economic interest. Other interests will follow.\n\nThere must be plenty of observation and actual teaching work by\nMany schools that have high-school agriculture\n\nnormal-class students.\n\nhave also agriculture in the seventh and eighth grades.\nclass should observe and teach here.\n\nIf so, the normal\n\nA real rural school is better and some\n\nA particularly good opportunity is offered\nwork in those states, such as Minnesota, that have associated\nschools.\nIn such schools the normal students may be taken to the rural\nassociated school or the pupils from the associated school may be brought\nclasses have this opportunity.\n\nfor this\n\nto the central school once or twice a week.\n\nIn training this rural teacher, we must be sure that she knows enough\n\nabout real agriculture, both practical and scientific, to feel safe in attempting to teach it to farm boys and girls.\n\nOtherwise she will fail to attempt it\n\nor will attempt it and fail.\n\nTHE FEDERATED BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK\nO. H.\n\nBENSON, SPECIALIST IN CHARGE OF CLUB WORK, UNITED STATES\nDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nLike the county agent work, the boys' and girls' club work began in\nthe North and West less than three years ago.\n\nIt has been conducted largely\n\nwith the colleges of agriculture thru their extension departments, thru\n\nwhich it has been closely co-ordinated with the public schools.\n\nWithin the\n\ncounty, the aim is to secure club organization thru the leadership of the\n\nThe county agent supports the club\nmovement as one of the important agricultural activities of the county,\nadvising the teachers in their club work in such ways as seem desirable.\nHis chief support is given thru his sympathy with the work, his technical\ncounty superintendent of schools.\n\nknowledge, his assistance in the follow-up work, and his general guidance\nof the movement within the county.\n\nLeadership in country life.\n\n—The country needs leadership and recog-\n\nThe country has the men and women\nwith the unrecognized gifts of local leadership. Club work will find these\n\nnized opportunities for leadership.\n\nundiscovered leaders, and will give them opportunity for congenial work\n\nand for development thru their interest in the children, and their work\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": "899", "text": "Department!\n\nFEDERATED BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK\n\n899\n\nwith them and their partnership with state and national leaders of large\nexperience.\n\nThus the country's own resources will be utilized for the\n\nbenefit of the country.\n\nWhat is club work ?\n\n—Club work\n\nis\n\nthe performance of a definite farm,\n\ngarden, or farm-home interest enterprise, and is based on the best economic\npractice of the farm and home.\n\nture and home economics.\n\nIt aims to teach better methods of agricul-\n\nWhen co-ordinated with school work, it serves\n\ngreatly to increase interest in all of the school studies and other activities.\n\nChildren from ten to eighteen years old are organized into local clubs, and\nthese clubs are federated into a county, state, and national organization.\n\nThe work of the clubs,\n\n—Club projects are usually outlined to cover a\n\nseason's work of from four to ten months.\n\nThe club work may be closely\n\ncorrelated with school exercises and made to cover the entire year.\n\npotato, alfalfa,\n\nCorn,\n\nhome garden, and canning clubs represent some of the\n\nvarious projects of club work.\n\nWhen possible, the members of the clubs\n\nare allowed to receive and keep the net profits resulting from club work.\n\nThe work requires careful study of instructions, the making of observations, the keeping of accurate records, the making of exhibits at fairs, and\n\nthe grading, crating, and marketing of the product.\nObjects of club work.\n\n—The principal objects of club work may be\n\nlisted\n\nas follows:\n1.\n\nTo offer to the young people careful guidance which will lead to a better type of\n\nfarmers and home builders.\n2.\n\n3.\n\nTo demonstrate thru the boys and girls the best farm and home practices.\nTo enlist the interest and efforts of the boys and girls in problems of efficiency\n\nand economy.\n4.\n\nTo illustrate the best methods and to prevent waste in orchard, field, and garden\n\nthru canning and better systems of marketing.\n5. To offer to young people the proper incentive for their own personal conservation\nand the conservation of American country life.\n6. To establish in boys and girls habits of industry and thrift.\n\n—\n\nEssentials of club work.\nIt has been found that schools can make their\nown classroom and home-study work more interesting and more effective\nby giving credit for kinds of farm and home work that have a real appeal\n\nto boys and girls and also a genuine economic value to the farm and the\nhome. In handling the club work, the following points seem to be the\nchief essentials of a permanent and workable plan:\n1.\n\nA plan that provides for the demonstration of approved farm and home practices\n\nthat will result in a net profit at the end of the club season.\n2.\n\nWell-prepared leaders whose duties are to inspire, organize, instruct, and lead\n\nthruout the year.\n3. A well-prepared system of follow-up instruction for each club, the instructions to\nbe sent at seasonable times and in small instalments.\n4. A system of instruction in bookkeeping that will teach farm accounts and at the\nsame time will provide accurate records for the annual reports.\n5. A local club fair or festival, where the products of club work may be exhibited and\n\nwhere play contests related to club activities may be conducted.\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": "900", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n900\n\nEvidences of good club work.\n\n[Agricultural\n\n—Club work, however interesting to the\n\nand however excellent in itself, is not the object of club work.\nThe club idea includes the interests of the children as children and the\ninterests of their parents, and it includes the future of the children; so it\nchildren\n\nbecomes a valuable part of the system of education that aims to use the\nchild's play interests and his work interests and all his activities in forming\nhabits of learning, thinking, and working that will be of the greatest service\nto the grown-up child.\nwill\n\nIn time the following evidences of good club work\n\nbe apparent— indeed, are now apparent in most of our states:\n1.\n\nIncreased enrolment from year to year.\n\n2.\n\nIncreased acreage, yields, and profits per member.\n\n3.\n\nIncreased numbers of club members retaining their Interest thru longer periods.\n\n—in club\n\nactivities, at home tasks, and in the schools.\n\n4.\n\nBetter work\" by club members\n\n5.\n\nLarger attendance at the agricultural colleges of young people ambitious to\n\nreceive training for the rural occupations.\n6.\n\nIncreased financial support\n\n—\n\n^this is\n\nthe final evidence of a real appreciation of\n\nthe service of the club projects to the country.\n\nSchool extension.\n\n—^The essence of the extension idea\n\nis that the agencies\n\nprovided for the education of the people shall not confine their work within\nthe walls of schoolhouses and colleges. The school and the college should\nwork for all persons who need the knowledge which school and college can\nimpart, the training which they can give, and the inspiration which comes\nfrom the living presence of the gifted teacher. The common school is\nresponding to this new and enlarging idea of service; and this response\nis finding its outlet in efforts to connect the school work directly with what\nwe sometimes call real life. That is, the life that is lived by men and\nwomen and children in the homes, doing the homework, and the tasks of the\nfarm and of the shop and, indeed, of every other industry. The school\n\nmay well feel that it has continuing relations with its pupils, that it has\nduties to them and to their parents wherever they may be, whether at\nschool, at home, in study, and in work and play.\nSo the common school\nhas its \"extension'' functions, which it can perform more effectively thru\nclub-work interests and activities, which can be made most efficient for\nusefulness and for educational guidance during the long summer vacations.\n\nSchool credit for club work.\n\n—It has been discovered in a number of states\n—the\n\nthat the schools can wisely give school credit for work done at home\nuseful tasks of farm and household.\n\nIt is possible for superintendents and\n\nteachers to recognize club work by giving school credit to all pupils who\nenter clubs, follow instructions, keep complete records of work done, and\n\npresent final reports showing all items of cost and income.\n\nEvery alert\n\nteacher will quickly recognize the educational value of the reading and\n\nthinking which will be necessary to prepare a report of a club project\nrequiring a whole season for its completion. The boy who raises an acre\nof corn or manages a small market garden, doing all the work, selling all\n\nproducts, and keeping a complete record, will learn more agriculture than\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": "901", "text": "FEDERATED BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK\n\nDepartment!\n\n901\n\nusually learned by the boy who devotes a year to the study of an elementary textbook in the average school. When the school recognizes the\nvalue of this kind of study, and then offers school credit, there will be a\nnew feeling in the country that the school has a real mission to farm life as\n\nis\n\nwell as to \"education.\"\n\n—\n\nPoint of view and teamwork. The secret of success in club work may be\nsiunmed up in two words, point of view and teamwork. Without vision and\nthe will and the power to work together to accomplish what is worth doing,\nthe large tasks must remain undone. The policy of the department from\nthe beginning of the boys' and girls' club work has been to recognize and\nwork with the extension department of the state agricultural college, this\ninstitution, in turn, to recognize the state\n\ndepartment of education, the\n\ncounty superintendent of schools, and the local teachers. The farm bureau,\nif there is one, working thru the county agricultural agent, can be a strong\ninfluence for the federation of such local organizations as granges\n\nand\nWith the help of these organizations, the coimty superintendent will find his work much easier. Thru the agent, he will find it\npossible to get scientific instruction and help in carrying out his followup plans.\nwomen's clubs.\n\nLocal organization.\n\n—^The best time to form the\n\nlocal clubs is in the late\n\nThe most important unit for club organization is\nthe school district or conmiunity center. The club work should be preor early winter.\n\nfall\n\nsented to prospective members and their definite enrolment secured.\n\nA\n\nlocal organization should then be formed, with a president, vice-president,\n\nprogram committee, exhibit committee, bookkeeper,\nand local supervisor of the home gardens. This supervisor should be an\nolder person if possible, the local school-teacher or an interested man or\nsecretary, treasurer,\n\n—\n\nwoman of the neighborhood who will agree to visit the club plats at least\ntwice during the season and report to the county superintendent or county\nagriculturist,\n\nwho will report to the state leader in charge of club work.\n\nArrangements should be made to hold meetings of club members each\nmonth during the year, with well-planned programs related to the club\n\nwork and other country-life interests.\n\n—\n\nSince the organization of the boys' and girls'\nwork the plan of the department of agriculture has been to invite\nall of the state and district leaders in charge of club work to a conference at\nWashington or some other convenient center. At this conference, the\n\nDetermining club policies.\n\nclub\n\ngeneral policy for the ensuing year is determined.\n\nThe particular things\n\non which the leaders agree are the following:\n1.\n\nThe club projects to be undertaken.\n\n2.\n\nRules to govern club projects and contests.\n\n3.\n\nThe use of labels, trademarks, emblems, premiums, and prizes; fairs and festivals,\n\nand means of conducting them.\n4. Best method of organization, follow-up work, financing projects.\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": "902", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n902\n\n[Agricultural\n\nOnly a few club projects should be undertaken in any district or community center, their number to be determined largely by the following\nconsiderations: (ij adaptation and profitableness; (2) interest and cultural\nvalue;\n\n(3)\n\ncharacter of club membership;\n\nproducts.\n\n(4)\n\nmarketableness of the\n\n—\n\nFinding hearings in cltib work, Many good ideas fail to develop as they\nshould because of hazy thinking and indifferent planning. The club idea\nmay become a mere show or fad, but it can and should be worked out so\nclearly and definitely into genuinely useful industry that it will appeal to\n\nthe most matter-of-fact farmers and business men, as well as to our best\neducators.\n\nMuch depends upon the spirit and intelligence of the local\n\n—^more, perhaps, on their willingness to do the hard work of think-\n\nleaders\n\ning and planning and consulting with the county superintendent and state\n\nand national leaders of large experience.\nSchool garden and home garden. ^The school garden has its place in\neducation; but the home garden can be made to have a much more important place in the activities of the conamon school, and, at the same time,\n\n—\n\ncan be made of increasing value as a contributor to the food supply of the\nhome and to the family income. The teacher, working with the county\nagent and with the children and their parents, can be of great service to\nthe coimtry community\nprojects;\n\nby promoting and leading in the garden-club\n\nand, at the same time, he can increase his power to make the\n\npurely educational or instructional work of his school appeal to pupils and\nparents with a new force and a more definite meaning.\n\nThis kind of work\n\ngives the school a consciousness of power and gives to its patrons a new\n\nappreciation of the school's fitness and purpose to give to book-learning\n\nand classroom instruction a real and vital relation to the things of the\nworkaday life of the people.\nWanted county club leaders. ^The county agricultural agent, as a\nrepresentative of the United States Department of Agriculture and the college extension service of the state, should be both interested and active in\nboys' and girls' club projects; but he cannot give to this work the time and\nthe close personal attention it needs. It is important, therefore, to have\nspecial leaders who can work with the county superintendent and the\nagent in securing the co-operation of granges, women's clubs, and other\norganizations.\nConstructive club work includes a recognition of the\nimportance of vocational training for the farm and the home. So the\nteachers can work with special interest and intelligence with the county\nagent and the club leaders, and together they can save our country population from the tendency to become a peasant class.\n\n—\n\nClub work requirements.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n^Large cash and other valuable prizes will\nneeded when we have more fimds and more leaders, and when\n\nbe\n\nless\n\nit\n\ncomes to be understood that the best reward for intelligence and\n\nindustry in club work is the reward of net profits actually earned by the\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": "903", "text": "Department]\n\nFEDERATED BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK\n\n903\n\nWith real profits as a result of the work, every club\n\nclub members.\n\nmember becomes a prize-winner; and the best of it is that he earns\nhis own prize money and definitely establishes his rank by his own\nintelligent planning and his own diligence in using his opportunities.\nOrdinarily, the age limits should be ten and eighteen years, and the club\nmembers should be divided into two classes one to include those from\nten to fifteen years old; the other, those fifteen and over. Prizes should\n\n—\n\nbe awarded within these separate classes, so that ten-year-old children\nwill not be in competition with others eighteen years old.\nFollow-up work: its importance. ^It is not enough to secure a large\nenrolment of club members. The important thing is to arouse such intelli-\n\n—\n\ngent and purposeful interest in the work that those who join the clubs will\n\ndo the work planned and continue to be active members until they are too\nFollow-up work keeps the leader\nin touch with his members, so that he can encourage those who need\nold to remain in the club organization.\n\nencouragement, help those who need help, and keep all concerned awake\nto the importance of the systematic carrying-out of plans carefully laid.\n\nField meetings and demonstrations are important elements of a good follow-\n\nup system.\nThe club and the consumer.\n\n—It\n\nis not\n\nenough, in club work, to grow a\n\ncrop, even when the grower wins a prize worth much more than the cost\n\nof his crop.\n\nThe crop itself, as a result of labor intelligently planned\n\nand systematically done, should find its way to an open market or\ndirect to consumers and should bring real profit to the grower in addition to fair wages for the labor necessarily and efficiently applied in its\nproduction. There should be instruction in the proper methods of preparing, grading, and crating, or otherwise preparing products for the\nmarket, and study should be made of the best markets and the best\nmeans of reaching these markets. All members should be taught how to\n\n—^how to turn to profitable uses the products that so\n\nprevent waste\n\ngenerally are lost.\n\n—\n\nResults of club work.\nDuring the first cropping season, we had a total\nenrolment of 60,000 boys and girls in the various club projects, and during\n\nthe second cropping season, 1913, our enrolment was 71,407.\nseason, we have an enrolment of 103,000.\n\nFor the 1914\nEnrolment and organization\n\nwork was from twenty-seven of the thirty-three states in our territory.\nOf these twenty-seven states, only six had paid leadership in charge of\nthe club work in 1913, while in 1914 we have paid co-operative leadership\nin all but six of the states in the Union.\n\nDuring the past two years or since the organization of the work in\nthe North, 32 corn-club members made over 140 bushels to the acre, 108\n\nmade over 120 bushels, and 463 club members made over 100 bushels to the\nacre.\nThe lowest net profit made on any of these yields was $5 84. The\n.\n\nhighest was $64 80 per acre.\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": "904", "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n904\n\n[Agricultural\n\nDuring the past year, an effort was made in some of the states to get\nthe older club members to operate more than the one acre as required for\nclub membership. In Illinois, 13 club members managed from 2§ to 47\nacres each. The average acreage of each was 17I acres. The crop reports\nsubmitted, their accuracy being attested by two disinterested witnesses,\n\nTABLE SHOWING RESULTS ATTAINED BY BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUBS\nCorn Club\n\nIllinois\nIllinois\n\nIndiana\nIndiana\n\nAddress\n\nLoren Hoffman\nGeorge H. Grosse\nEarl Sowder\n\nWaynesviUe\n\nEverett Schlenker\n\nGaston\nReinback\nCooper\n\nIowa\nIowa\n\nArthur W. Runft\n\nMassachusetts\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\n\nWalter T. Clark\nJohn E. Devine\nGrant Winters\n\nNebraska\nNebraska\n\nJesse Correll\n\nHeltonville\n\nGranby\nNorth Bradley\nKewadin\nCambridge\n\nWalter Plug\nOrmsby Scudder\nRobert Mack\n\nPapUlion\n\nCharles Yohe\nWallace Mitchell\nLeonhardt Weidenheft\nErnest Strohmeyer*\n\nTower City\n\nNew Jersey\nNew Jersey\nNew Hampshire .... Hoyt Quimby\nCharles Waters\nNew York\n\nCost\nper\nBushel\n\n117.00\n113.00\n100.03\n113 10\n136.70\n123.00\n82.50\n117.42\n87.07\n88.00\n84.00\n102.00\n102.82\n124.00\n40.00\n110.86\n73 50\n^40.50\n*38.i4\n\nDesPlaines\n\nEarl Zeller\n\nPennsylvania\nSouth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nColorado\n\nTotal\nYield in\nBushels\n\nPost-Office\n\nName\n\nState\n\nTitusville\n\nRobbins ville\nWindson, Vt.\nCuyler\n\nHecla\n\nMcintosh\nPeetz\n\nProfit\n\nKind of Corn\n\nIS.\n% SI. 75\n64.3s\n45.60\n\n.17\n.10\n\n64. 01\n\nIf\n\n101 80\n.\n\nReid's Yellow Dent\n\nGolden Beauty\nYellow Dent\nFunk's Dent\nReid's Yellow Dent\nReid's Yellow Dent\n\nFlmt\n\n.58\n\n67.57\n53.65\n\n.324\n.21\n.27\n\nFlint\n\nMurdock's\n\nYeUow\nLegal Tender\n\n.163\n.21\n.38\n\n;i\n.145\n.367\n.26\n\n65.65\n62.97\n20.00\n18.70\n79 57\n101.05\n55.38\n33. IS\n\nWhite Cap\nYellow Dent\nYellow\n\nWhite Flint\nNative Dent\nMinnesota No. 13\nYellow Dent\nWhite Dent\n\nRecord of Ernest Strohmeyer established by dry-land farming.\n\nGarden and Canning Cltjb\n\nNew Jersey\nNew Jersey\n\nAgnes Friddell\nLucy Bale\nJane Stickle\n\nOhio\nOhio\n\nAlberta Curtis\nMUdred Tuttle\n\nIowa\n\n.\n\nPounds\n\nPost-Office\n\n\\ram»\nName\n\nState\n\nof\n\n^^^^^\n\nTomatoes\n\nCedar Falls\nAugusta\n\nCost of\nProduction\n\nChardon\n\nThompson\n\nProfit\n\nVegetables\n\n$100.88\n\n$25.26\n52.67\n23.42\n11.90\n6. 95\n\n3.403\n3.080\n3.060\n1.736\n1,434\n\nNewton\n\nReceipts\n\nfrom Fresh\n\n6.00\n17.10\n\n9.20\n\n11.75\n\n7.92\n\nPotato Club\n\nName\n\nState\n\nMassachusetts\nMassachusetts\n\nWilliam Peirce, Jr.\nCleon Hammond\nMerle Hyer\nGeorge Cannell\n\nUtah\nUtah\n\nshow that\n\nall\n\nof\n\nthese\n\nPost-Office\n\nAddress\n\nTotal\nYield in\nBushels\n\nLincohi\n\nclub\n\nper\n\n$0.40\n\nAbington\nLewiston\nSmithfield\n\nCost\n\n.26\n.07\n\n1%\n\nVariety\n\nProfit\n\nBushel\n\n.094\n\n$162.80\n186.00\n308.40\n321.60\n\nmembers made a net\n\nGreen Mountain\nGreen Mountain\nEarly Eureka\nEarly Eureka\n\nprofit\n\non\n\ntheir\n\ninvestment.\n\nThe best report along this line from any of the states in the corn-club\nwork was submitted by E. C. Bishop, state agent in charge of club work for\nIowa.\n\nSeventy of his corn-club members managed from i\\ to 60 acres\n\nof com with an average of 12J acres to each member.\n\nThe reports clearly\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": "905", "text": "RECOGNITION OF OUT-OF-SCHOOL WORK\n\nDepartment!\n\n905\n\nshow the influence of the boys' and girls' club work toward the larger farm\nproblems when the club work has been properly organized and supervised,\nand when the young people have been given a chance to conduct their\nwork on a practical business basis.\nIn the awarding of prizes for achievement in boys' and girls' club\nwork, it has been the custom for the past two years to recognize the\n\nchampion of the state in a club project by giving him an educational\ntrip.\n\nThe most important educational prize award made in the northern,\ncentral,\n\nand western states during the past two years is that of offering\n\nfree tuition and free expense to the champion of each district or county\n\nto attend the short course at the state college of agriculture.\n\nDuring\n\nthe past two years 1,137 club boys and girls attended these short courses,\n\nout of which 984 regular club members were sent for the season, with all\nexpenses paid, because of achievement in club work.\n\nWHAT RECOGNITION SHOULD BE GIVEN VACATION AND\nOTHER OUT-OF-SCHOOL WORK?\nJ.\n\nW. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS.\nI believe that school credit for vacation and other out-of-school work\n\nsecures the following results:\n1.\n\nIt increases the interest in doing this outside\n\nwork and brings about a better\n\ninterrelation between the school and the home.\n2. It dignifies labor and causes pupils to take pride in doing chores and homely tasks\nand in doing their school work.\n3. It attaches double importance to the virtues of economy, industry, and thrift.\n4. It naturally leads to better effort and efficiency in the school tasks as well as in\n\noutside tasks.\n\nI believe that the school is justified in allowing school credit for these\n\nreasons:\n\n(i)\n\nBecause the pupil gains in mental attainment from doing\n\nthese purposeful things, fully as much as from equal time spent on the\nregular lessons of the school;\n\n(2)\n\nbecause this work better fits the pupil\n\ninto the actual conditions of the home and the community, which is a most\nessential part of an education;\n\n(3)\n\nbecause this work increases the pupil's\n\ninterest in his lessons, thus adding to thoroness and giving a higher type\n\nof general scholarship.\n\nThere is no doubt as to the value of this outside work to the pupil, the\nhome, the school, and the community. Does anyone question whether\nThen\nthis work has an educational value as well as a vocational value ?\nwhy do we hesitate to give our pupils school credit on this work and to allow\nthese credits to count toward the completion of a course of study ? Because\nof tradition, because we fear what our associates or college professors may\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": "906", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n9o6\n\nlAgricultural\n\nThere are other reasons also. Any teacher can do things in the\nOnly resourceful, enterprising, industrious, and the most\ntraditional way.\nefficient teachers seem to take up this outside work and to carry it forward\nwith success. Only the teacher whose life is consecrated to the work of\ndoing good and of promoting the welfare of youth, the one who is so strongly\nfilled with the teaching spirit that he can see the larger purpose of teaching,\nsay.\n\nwill ever have a genuine interest in this outside vocational type of work.\n\nI have mentioned a few of the things in which I do believe.\n\nPermit\nnot\nbelieve.\nwhich\ndo\nin\nI\nI\ndo\nnot\nthing\nbelieve\nin\none\nmention\nme to\nunder\nsimilar\nwhich,\ncircumstances,\nthings\nI\nwould\ndo\nto\nnot\nothers\nasking\nactually attempt to do in my own school. We have done some of this work\nin our school.\n\nOur chairman has requested me to mention some of these\n\nthings.\n\nWhat would you think of a normal school's allowing credit on getting\none's own dinner and washing the dinner dishes ?\n\nLet me describe the plan.\n\nThe course is a three-hour course each semester, called \"Course on SelfBoarding.\"\n\nThe hundred girls boarding themselves register for the course on selfThe teacher of domestic\nscience meets these girls three hours each week, has the girls compare menus\nand results, gives suggestions on such points as how to buy wisely, how to\npare potatoes with the least possible waste, how to save gas or gasoline in\ncooking, how to beautify the study room, and so forth, but, instead of sending\nthese girls to the laboratory, the teacher sends them to their own rooms to\nget their own dinners and to keep their own rooms neat and clean. The\nboarding as a part of their twenty-hour program.\n\nteacher visits the rooms as often as possible.\n\nShe inspects the dinners every\n\nnow and then.\nOur worthy chairman has himself seen this plan in operation.\n\nHe took\n\nkodak pictures of the girls getting dinner, washing dishes, beating rugs,\nreceiving company, and doing other things, which he used in a farm magazine, giving the names of the girls.\nThat his article was read, we had evidence in certain proposals of marriage which came to some of these young\nladies from farmers of a practical turn of mind.\nCan there be any question as to the value of this work ? This course\ncounts in more ways than have been mentioned. It reduces the high cost\nof living, which means much to the girl and her parents financially. It\ngives practical proficiency in domestic science and in actual home-keeping.\nBecause of these many features of self-interest, this course appeals especially strongly to girls of limited means.\n\nAnother plan in actual operation is to allow from three to five hours'\ncredit on farm practice to boys who spend the vacation at work on the farm,\n\nat the dairy, in the creamery, in the canning factory, or in other acceptable\n\nAt the present time, over fifty of our young men, including\nwho are to complete the course which prepares teachers of agriculture.\n\nlines of work.\nall\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": "907", "text": "RECOGNITION OF OUT-OF-SCHOOL WORK\n\nDepartment]\n\n907\n\nare making college credits on the farm and in the factory during the summer.\n\nThe schools secured the positions for these young men, and the school\nrequires reports to be made by the students. Boys from cities who are\ntaking the agricultural course show the most genuine interest in this school\nwork on the farm. The boys receive from $30 to $60 a month, together\nwith room and board.\nThe department of manual training allows school credit on out-ofschool projects, such as making farm gates, building silos, making furniture\nfor the home, and carpenter work.\nOf course, credit is not allowed indiscriminately. The department assigns the work and gives directions or at\nleast knows that the work is done under proper direction.\nThe school of agriculture is to be open to women next year. The head\nof the department plans to allow credit on vacation work to young ladies\nin domestic science, gardening, etc.\nOur young ladies are taking greater\npride each year as this vocational work is developed and are helping with\nthe work in their own homes. The boys also are becoming more useful to\ntheir fathers on the farms and in the stores.\nWe are only getting started in our model school in this work. We have\nmuch industrial training running thru the grades. This outside work\nreceives credit for whatever it is worth, and applies on the required industrial work of this school.\nWe prefer allowing credit outright, tho the\n\n\"with-credit-and-with-honor plan\" in force at St. Cloud, Minn., appeals\nstrongly to us as a plan to use in the public school, especially at the\n\nbeginning.\n\nThe school-garden movement sweeping over the country is a\n\npart of a larger movement of connecting the school more closely with the\n\nhome and community.\nI would allow school credit on all kinds of useful labor.\n\nI would allow\n\nthis outside work during the school year to constitute one-fourth or even\n\none-third of the student's daily program, wherever possible.\n\nallow this credit in the high school and in the normal school.\n\nI would\n\nI would allow\n\ncredit for any and all the following and many other occupations:\n\nHouse-\n\nwork, nursing, taking care of children, dressmaking, clerking, reporting,\nbarbering, gardening, raising poultry, caring for a horse, driving an auto,\npainting, beating rugs, working in the creamery, cheese factory, or store,\n\ndoing janitor work, grading, and terracing.\n\nMany schools thruout the country are now doing something along this\nline.\n\nIt is a general practice to allow credit for private lessons in music.\n\nExtension work has had a tremendous influence in convincing teachers and\nothers of the value of vocational work where the shop or factory or farm is\n\nthe laboratory.\nI see no reason why any school should fear ridicule in the matter of\nallowing credit for this outside work.\n\nThe time is near at hand when one\n\nwill be subject to ridicule who refuses to allow school credit for all these\n\nforms of vocational work.\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": "908", "text": ""}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": "909", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—Florence Rood, kindergarten\nPaul Normal School\nVice-President—M.AR\\ O'Connor. Public School No. 52\n—\nHigh\nSchool\nSecretary Mary Adkisson, East Denver\nPresident\n\ndirector, St.\n\nSt. Paul,\n\n'.\n\nBuffalo, N.Y.\n\nDenver, Colo.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 8, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., in Knights of Columbus Hall, by the\npresident.\n\nIn recognition of the fact that this was the first session of the department,\n\nthe program was opened by Joseph Swain, President of the National Education Association, with \"Words of Welcome to the\n\nNew Department.\"\n\nThe program was then suspended and opportunity given Lolabel Hall, M.D., Minneapolis, Minn., to present a questionnaire, asking the co-operation of teachers in the col-\n\nlection of facts regarding the physical conditions and environment of children in every\n\nportion of the United States.\n\nMargaret A. Haley, business representative, Chicago Teachers Federation, and\n\nmember of the National Education Association Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure,\nand Pensions, Chicago, 111., spoke on \"Teacher's Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions.\"\nThe meeting was then open for general discussion, after which, on motion, a committee of five was appointed to compile suggestions developed in the discussion for the\nassistance of teachers interested in securing pension legislation, with instructions to report\n\nat the Friday session of the department.\nIt was moved and seconded that the chair appoint a nominating committee to report\n\nat the Friday session of the department.\n\nCarried.\n\nMeeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION—FRroAY Afternoon, July 10, 1914\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 30 p.m.\n:\n\nA. W. Rankin, College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.,\naddressed the meeting on \" Who Shall Administer Our Schools ? \" Following the address,\nthe subject was open for discussion.\n\nadvisory councils of teachers.\n\nThere was a call from the floor for a discussion of\n\nUpon request, the Chicago, 111., plan was explained by\n\nMargaret A. Haley; the New York City plan by Isabel Ennis; the Denver, Colo., plan\nby Mary Adkisson; and the St. Paul, Minn., plan by Florence Rood. Councils of\nteachers were reported as existing in Dallas, Tex., New Britain, Conn., and Boston,\nMass., but no member was present from these cities to explain the plans in operation. A\ncommittee was appointed, on motion, to draft a resolution indorsing the principles of teachers* councils, with instructions to report before\n\nthe close of the meeting.\n\nThe Committee on Pension Suggestions appointed at the Wednesday session reported\nas follows:\n\nThe Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association\nrecommends that wherever a teachers' pension or retirement law is enacted, such law\nshould contain the following fundamental provisions:\nBoard. A majority of the membership of the board of control should be selected\nby and from the contributing teachers.\n\n—\n\n90Q\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": "910", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n9IO\n\n(Classroom Teachers\n\n—\n\nFor the purpose of contributions or assessments teachers should\nContributions.\nbe divided into groups according to years of service. Contributions should be a fixed\namount based upon such group classification and not upon salaries or positions.\nAnnuities. Annuities should be fixed amounts and uniform for all teachers without\n\n—\nMembership. —Membership to be compulsory' and optional. It should be compulsory\n\nregard to salaries or positions.\n\nto teachers entering service after the adoption of the pension law. Teachers in the service\nat the time the law is passed should be given option, for a limited time, to pome imder the\nSuch applicant\nprovisions of the law with the obligation to remain after once entering.\nso entering should be required to pay such back dues as will entitle him to be placed in the\ngroup to which he belongs by years of service.\nFull annuity. The term of service for full annuity should be not less than twentyfive years.\nDisability annuities should be allowed after stated periods of\nDisability annuities.\nyears and should be such a proportionate share of the full annuity as the years of service\nbear to the years required for full annuity.\nNo person should become an aimuitant until he has contributed a specified amoimt\nto the fund, nor receive disability pension until he shall have contributed the required\nproportionate amount.\nService as teachers in the public schools outside of the city or state\nService counted.\nshould be counted, the amount of such service not to exceed a certain number of years or a\ncertain percentage of the total number of years required.\nTime for leave of absence for study, sickness, rest, or travel, not to exceed a certain\nfixed length of time, should be coimted.\nTenure of office. ^Teachers shall have a right to trial before dismissal.\nAll teachers shall be entitled to hearing on written charges before removal or discharge.\nRetirement. Retirement from public-school service should be a requirement for\neligibility to a pension.\nAppropriations. The law should provide for the appropriation of public funds and\nit should be the duty of the proper public officials to make provision for the amount\nrequired.\nNo annuity should be subject to sale, assignment, transfer, garnishment, or attach-\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nment.\n'\n\nCommittee\n\nEvARENA Mayne, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFrances E. Harden, Chicago, 111.\n\nMary A. Cunningham, St. Paul, Minn.\nMolly R. Hobbs, Baltimore, Md.\n\nNellie Minehan, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\n\n—Nellie Minehan, vice-principal, Jefferson Street School, Milwaukee,\n\nFor President\nWis.\n\nFor Vice-President—IdiHQ A. McCarty, elementary teacher, public schools, Brooklyn,\nN.Y.\nFor decretory—Lydia L. Hazelton, teacher, public schools, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nThe Committee on Resolution Indorsing Teachers' Advisory Councils reported as\nfollows:\nResolved, That the Department of Classroom Teachers, recognizing the benefit to the\npublic schools of utilizing the expert knowledge and the experience of the classroom\nteachers, recommends the establishment, in every public-school system, of official advisory\ncouncils of teachers, elected by the teachers to convey to the superintendent and board of\neducation this expert knowledge and experience on courses of study and all other interests\nvital to the children.\nRespectfully submitted,\nf\n\nMary O'Connor, Buffalo, N.Y., Chairman\nMargaret Haley, Chicago, 111.\n\nCommittee\n.\n\nMoNTA J. Boyer, Denver, Colo.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nIt was moved by Margaret Haley that this department petition the United States\nBureau of Education to co-operate with this department in securing information on the\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": "911", "text": "Department]\n\nWORDS OF WELCOME TO THE NEW DEPARTMENT\n\n911\n\nquestion of advisory councils of teachers and to aid in disseminating the same under the\ndirection of this department.\n\nMotion carried.\n\nMoved by Margaret Haley that if this plan be not feasible, this department instruct\nits ofl&cers to take steps to have some member of Congress make a speech on this subject,\nwith leave to print and distribute it by means of the franking privilege. Motion carried.\nMoved by Isabel Ennis, Brooklyn, N.Y., that a vote of thanks be given the officers\nof this department for the capable services rendered and that a copy of the resolution be\n\nplaced on the records of the minutes of the meeting.\n\nMotion carried.\n\nMeeting then adjourned.\n\nMary Adkisson, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nWORDS OF WELCOME TO THE NEW DEPARTMENT\nJOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE,\nAND PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nPA.,\n\nIt is a real pleasure to extend words of greeting to the new department\nof the National Education Association.\n\nI desire first of all to congratulate\n\nthe members of this department that you are teachers rather than executives.\nThe executive office exists to make the teachers' work effective.\nThe object of the school is to provide opportunity for the child to grow in\nbody, in mind, and in character. The teacher has the rare opportunity to\nThe executive must be consee this growth and to guide and nourish it.\n\ntent to be a helper of the teachers to this end, but the teacher directly helps\n\nthe children and has the happy consciousness of being a part of the divine\n\nplan of their growth.\nexecutive position.\n\nI have always believed that no one should seek an\nIf it\n\ncomes to you without seeking, as the logic of\n\nevents, then perform the service the best you can, but the live teacher will\n\nYou that are here today\nhave a special opportunity in this section. You are on the ground floor.\nYour usefulness in the National Education Association and your ability to\nfill places of importance depend on your coming every year, getting a wide\n\nonly leave the teaching work as a matter of duty.\n\nacquaintance, and accumulating a knowledge of the needs of the school.\n\nThe persons in general who fill positions of responsibility in the National\nEducation Association do so after years of devotion to its purposes.\nall\n\nNearly\n\nthe presidents have been active many years before they were made\n\nAs a majority of this section are women, permit me to say I\nam interested in the women filling their due share of positions. I hope\n\npresidents.\n\nthe time is not far distant when the question will be, not one of sex, but of\n\nYou can do the best service for yourself by getwomen in the educational work to come regularly to the\n\nfitness for a given service.\n\nting the best\n\nNational Education Association and take part in its deliberations from\nyear to year, and the problem of woman will take care of itself.\n\nI have the\n\nhonor of being president of a college where one-half the members of the\nboard, part of the faculty, and one-half of the students are women. In\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": "912", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nQI2\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nthe faculty we always try to get the best person for the place, regardless of\nThese things have been true from the foundation of the college in\nsex.\n1869.\n\nThe practice works well and there is no woman question with us.\n\nThis happy condition is due to the fact that Swarthmore was established\n\nby the Friends.\nI would suggest that you discuss here problems of special interest to the\nclassroom teachers, that your intent be, first, to clarify your own views,\n\nand, secondly, to invite principals and superintendents to hear your discussions that they may fully understand your difficulties and your point of view.\nI am one who believes that officers and teachers alike wish to do the best\n\nthing possible for the schools.\nteachers,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nWhen difficulties arise between officers and\n\nusually due to their not understanding each other.\n\nIf\n\nteachers look sympathetically on the difficulties of the officers, and the\n\nformer acquaint the latter with their difficulties, you will find that you\n\ncan educate them to your point of view. Teachers, superintendents, and\nboards of control need to study sympathetically the needs of each other and\nthen get good co-operation between all these forces. **In the interests of\nthe children\" should be the slogan of the new section. Again expressing\n\nmy gratification at being present at your opening session, and wishing\nyou the success which your cause justifies, I bid you Godspeed.\n\nWHO SHALL ADMINISTER OUR SCHOOLS?\nA.\n\nW. RANKIN, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA,\nMINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nThe administration of our schools is perhaps the most insistent problem\nrelating to modern education.\n\nWe are in the midst of a peaceful political\n\nrevolution, which has for its object the placing of power in the hands of the\n\npeople.\n\nAs political intelligence grows, we are of the opinion that we have\n\nnever experienced democracy in government, and we strive toward its\nrealization in this field.\n\nIn industry the same problems maintain.\n\nThe\n\naccumulation of wealth in the hands of a few, the enormously increased\n\nimportance of transportation, the concentration of industries, the individual\ncontrol of public utilities, all have vastly increased the necessity for the\n\ncommon man's taking part in the government of industry that he may not be\nWhat is happening in politics\n\ncrushed in the struggle for a decent existence.\n\nand industry illustrates the related problem in the educational world.\nThe nineteenth century handed over to the twentieth many questions\narising out of the establishment of free schools, unsolved by the fact of\ntheir establishment.\nTo decide what was to be done with this mighty\nengine of democracy was the task given our century. It is easily possible\nfor the school system to become a menace to our civilization.\nHow shall\nour schools be governed, and by whom? Like politics and industry,\neducation must achieve democracy in administration.\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": "913", "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nWHO SHALL ADMINISTER OUR SCHOOLS?\n\n913\n\nEducation has not turned out, so far, to be the salvation of a democracy,\nas the people who established free schools in the nineteenth century thought\nit would be.\n\nIn the beginning, the common people had a blind and childish\n\nThey saw that their rulers were educated, and they thought\nto escape political and other servitude by eating of the fruit of the tree of\nknowledge. But now when we have the school universal, there probably\nnever has been a time when the laborer complained so bitterly of his lot.\nfaith in it.\n\nThere is everywhere dissatisfaction and disappointment. Education has\nit has not prevented growing class distinctions; it\nhas not made our rulers honest; it has not made our people happy.\nnot banished poverty;\n\nMen who toil are beginning to ask questions as to school management.\nThey believe on the one hand that the orthodox, cultural type of education, handed down from the trivium and quadrivium of the Middle Ages,\nThat\nwhat education should be, they think, in order to make them efficient\n\ndoes not get anywhere with 90 per cent of the children in the schools.\nis not\n\nand happy.\n\nOn the other hand, they are beginning to realize that it is\n\npossible for selfish interests not only to hamper education in its attempts to\n\nmeet the needs of the people, but also to manipulate it for ulterior purposes.\nThe industrial training, from which so much has been hoped, seems but a\nscheme for insuring the status quo in the social scale by teaching the children\nthe uncreative occupations of their fathers.\n\nMen who toil say: \"The\n\nschools are not such that we can wisely keep our children in them.\n\nAre they\nAre they designed to make\nus more profitable to those who despoil us of the fruits of our labors ?\"\nto be instruments to educate our oppressors ?\n\nToday the individual teacher as a factor in the management of the\nschools is lost.\n\nAdministrative power belongs primarily to the legislatures\n\nof the several states.\n\nAmong many provisions, these authorize the organi-\n\nzation of local boards of control.\n\nThese boards, in their power over local\n\nconditions, have control of the matter and methods of an educational sys-\n\ntem to an almost unlimited extent.\n\nFor the most part, however, having\n\nlittle or no personal experience in educational administration, they delegate\n\na portion of their authority to superintendents, principals, and supervisors.\nThis delegated authority is largely by sentiment, has no uniform action or\ncustom, and, moreover, may be revoked at any time, as is often seen when\n\nan officer is unfortunate enough to get into a disagreement with the board.\nThe differing conditions of today bring into the management of the\nschools many factors which were absent in other days. The clergy took an\nactive interest in the schools in times past. Today we have a new regime\n—that of the business man and of the captain of industry. And we have\nour industrial education, our technical elementary schools, and our continuation plans. These have not been established in harmony and unity. Warring\nfactions in communities and school boards have fought out the problem on\nmany an educational battlefield. These tend to agree in one point only\nthe tendency utterly to disregard the opinions of professional educators.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": "914", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n914\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nThe profession of school superintendent is of very recent origin, and\nIt is made\nup of men who have worked up to the positions of school control by devious\nThey have attained their supremacy by\nroutes. They are not experts.\nsuperior executive ability, by adroit manipulation of boards of education,\nby catering to important business interests, by subserviency to powerful\nschool-book houses, by fortunate church aflfiliations, by inoffensiveness,\nby political chicanery, by pretense of securing results which appeal to the\nhard-headed business man, and, fortunately for the schools, by real merit.\nMany men who are able and efficient continue to fill places as school superintendents. Their genius and love for children train them to become\nbenefactors of the race. Monuments should be built to the educator who\nits members are very largely untrained for their special work.\n\npersists in the service of the public school notwithstanding its perils and\n\ndisadvantages.\n\nan indisputable fact, however, that the administrative group is\nthe most unfortunate, the most inadequately trained for special work in\neducation, and generally the most unsatisfactory group, in the entire system.\nIt is\n\nIn an age of specialists, the school superintendent is left out entirely.\n\nColumbia University, Leland Stanford Junior University, and the University of Chicago offer certain special courses designed for those entering\n\nadministrative school work. These are not required and are taken mainly\nby persons preparing to be teachers rather than by those who could benefit\nmost by them. The state universities have such courses also, but here\nagain results are lacking on account of the absence of any definite organization or requirement. There is little wonder at the contemptuous attitude\nof school-board members, men who have made good in some special field\n\nand have received the requisite training, toward the man untrained in the\ntheory of education, a transient in the community, who is ordinarily without\n\nany real administrative or intellectual ability.\n\nIf the existence of the\n\nsuperintendent as a factor in our schools is to be permanent, there is a basic\n\nneed for specialized training in his field.\n\nThe question of the term of office is one that has been considered in\n\nmany places.\nyears.\n\nFrequently the superintendent is elected for a term of three\nIn Buffalo, the superintendent is elected by the people generally, and\n\nthis has been found to work out in the direction of conservatism as to length\n\nof tenure of office.\n\nIn some few cases, experiments are tried in the direction\n\nof doing away with the school board entirely and substituting a business\n\nmanager, commissioner of education, or other individual.\nnot yet worked without many flaws.\n\nThese plans have\n\nAnd any change usually means a new\n\nsuperintendent for the schools.\n\nThe superintendent cannot take an active part in the politics of his\nadopted and temporary home. He must have no prejudices, religious,\nIf he has them he must not let anyone know\nThis constant repression results too often in the development of a\n\npolitical, economic, or social.\nit.\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": "915", "text": ",\n\nWHO SHALL ADMINISTER OUR SCHOOLS?\n\nDepartment]\n\n915\n\ncringing spirit toward those who can injure him, and in a purely conventional\n\nattitude toward all questions which interest humanity.\n\nTo his sub-\n\nordinates he learns to copy the manner of the factory head toward the\n\nHe is an autocrat, an overlord, a taskmaster, to the teachers.\na monarch. His subordinates are quiet-loving women\nwho do not assert themselves. It is not good for man to have such under\nhis dominion.\nI need not say that there are exceptions, men who are true\nto all mankind; but the system is designed to develop such as those whom\noperatives.\n\nHe\n\nreigns\n\nas\n\nI have described.\n\nThe three vital needs of the superintendent, then, lie in the direction of\ntraining, tenure of office, and wide interests.\n\nThese are all three capable\n\nof attainment by the exceptional man, but we may hope for an arrangement\n\nsuch that they will all three be the rule and not the exception.\n\nThe needs of the school board, in connection with the problem of school\nThe board is wholly\nnon-professional, except in very rare instances. Its members generally\nadministration, are no less numerous and pressing.\n\nserve without pay,\n\nand this fact is a selective factor in their choosing.\n\nThe workingman does not give his meager leisure time to school matters.\nIt nearly always follows that men in the so-called upper walks of life are\n\nthose who make up the membership of the board of education.\n\nClass con-\n\nsciousness is bringing it about that those who toil with their hands demand\n\nand receive some arrangement by which their class will be represented.\nOur curricula, our administration, need the influence of such men as the\nlabor-union leaders of the early nineteenth century, who secured our free,\n\ntax-supported schools.\n\nIn some cities the members of the school board\n\nare given pay, either as a salary or in proportion to the\n\nthey spend on school affairs.\n\namount of time\n\nThis would be necessary only in large cities.\n\nIn the towns the business before the school board is not so great or their\nother interests so pressing as not to leave them plenty of time for both.\n\nMany of our school boards have fallen under the control of exploiters of\nAmerica has become a world power, and a competitor for the trade\nThe astonishing progress of other nations, notably Germany,\nhas aroused in us the instinct of emulation. Capitalists, merchants, and\n\nmen.\n\nof the world.\n\nmanufacturers are looking to the schools for help in the world-wide strife for\n\nsupremacy.\n\nNow that the organic and inorganic material resources of our\n\ncountry have been seized and are being exploited, the limitless field of\n\n'\n\nhuman efficiency is scanned with eagerness to find in it means of swelling\nfortunes already enormous. The result is the industrial education of today,\nThere are two possible points of view. One regards\nin many of its aspects.\nonly the producing power of the individual and neglects wholly his social\n\nThe other regards the pupil first as a future citizen in a democracy\nand then takes into consideration his earning capacity as an adjunct of his\n\nvalues.\n\nown well-being.\n\nThe one is selfish, the other altruistic. The one is the\nThe influence of the\n\nresult of ignorance, the other of enlightenment.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": "916", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ngi6\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\ncommon people on the school board would help in the realization of the\nsecond point of view, to say nothing of the growing influence of the active\nwoman of affairs on the school board, a tendency which may work out to\n\nvery good results.\nFinally, in the question of school administration, that most vital part\nof the teaching system, the teacher herself, is left out, because she is not\n\nseriously considered as a part of the governing body.\n\nIt would be well\n\nfor the entire school system if she were admitted to a large share in the\n\nmanagement of schools.\n\nDemocracy demands it, and, moreover, it would\n\nbe a great advantage to the superintendents, principals, and supervisors\nthemselves. Why does our President sit so much more securely in his\n\nand exercise so much more power, than do the crowned heads of\nEurope on their thrones? Kings and queens have had to resign nearly\n\nchair,\n\nall their functions as rulers, because they are not held in positions of leader-\n\nship by the suffrages of their people.\n\nOnly by slinking unobtrusive thru\n\ntime can they escape revolution, unless, as in the present instance, there is\na last desperate effort\nauthority.\n\nmade by autocratic rule to assert its vanishing\n\nOrdinarily, in return for loss of primitive power, kings\n\nqueens are given tinsel crowns and gorgeousness of apparel.\ngood, like that of the usual superintendent,\n\nis\n\nand\n\nTheir best\n\nnegative inoffensiveness,\n\nbecause they do not reflect the will of the people technically under their\nsway.\n\nIn a few of the cities of the United States, systems have been installed\n\nby which teachers themselves, or a representative council from their ranks,\nare permitted to consult directly with the superintendent or the school\n\nMost of these provisions are not in any way made permanent.\nIn Chicago, several years ago. Dr. Cornelia DeBey, then a member of the\nboard.\n\nschool board, formed and proposed a plan for a teachers' council, broad in\nits scope and interests.\n\nThis plan was not put thru at the time, but recently\n\nElla Flagg Young, superintendent of the Chicago city schools, has put into\n\noperation a somewhat similar plan, providing for a teachers' council by\ndistricts,\n\nwith direct connection with the superintendent herself.\n\nIn St.\n\nPaul, Minn., there is the only council of this sort which has been provided for\n\nby the city charter.\n\nIts powers are largely advisory, but its possible influ-\n\nence has no maximum limit.\n\nThe school is a realm. Were its leaders selected in whole or in part by\nthe votes of the rank and file, they would sit more securely in their seats\nand not be subjected to the caprices of the powerful.\n\nPermit teachers of\nthe classroom to help in deciding problems of school administration, and\n\nan influence for wise choice would be gained.\n\nWhen some methods are\ndevised to allow teachers to have a voice in selecting their principals and\nsuperior officers, they will begin to look upon\n\nthem as helpers and real\nco-workers, and the problem of democracy in school administration will be\nhelped toward solution.\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": "917", "text": "GENERAL INDEX\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.]\n\nAct of Incorporation, i\nAdaptation of the Work of the Kindergarten to the Needs of Individual\nChildren (M. P. E. Groszmann), 406\nAdaptation of the Work of the School to\nthe Needs of the People (James Y.\nJoyner), 129\n\nAyres, Leonard P.\n\nAddresses of Welcome (J. A. A. Burnquist), 25; (J. A. C. Chandler), 139;\n(C. G. ScHULz), 26; (Winn Powers), 27;\n\nBaker,\n\n(Dietrich Lange), 28\nAdkisson, Mary Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Classroom Teachers,\n909\nAgriculture, The Use of Raw Materials\nin Teaching, 886\nTeachers in\nAgriculture for Training\n\n—\n\nNormal Training High\nCourse in, 890\nAlderman, L. R.\n\nSchools,\n\nThe\n\n—\n\nAn Effort to Make the\nSchool Fit the Needs of the Exceptional\nChild, 830\n\nAlexander, Georgia\n\n—\n\nStandardizing the\nthe Kindergarten and Eleentary Schools, 415\nAley, Robert J. President's Address, 361\nSome Things Worth While\nAllen, E.\nin Industrial Education in Secondary\nSchools, 465\nApplied Science Its Relationship to Shopwork and the Rest of the Curriculum in\nan Up-to-Date Technical High School\n(Adelbert H. Morrison), 764\nApprentice Schools of the Santa Fe Railway System (F. W. Thomas), 175\nApprenticeship and Continuation Schools\nof Milwaukee, Wis. (R. L. Cooley), 614\nArithmetic, Economy of Time in, 209\nArt Appreciation for the Masses (Robert\n\nWork\n\nin\n\nm\n\nG—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nKoehler), 594\nArt as a Study in Secondary Schools, The\nValue of History of, 460\nArt Courses in Elementary, Intermediate,\nand High Schools (M. Emma Roberts),\n597\nArt Education as a Part of General Culture (Tyler McWhorter), 599\nArt Leaders and Designers of the Highest\nGrade, The Need in America for Schools\nof Applied Art and the Necessity in\nAmerican Industries for, 589\nAttitude of the Child in Learning (S. S.\nColvin), 677\nAtwood, Mrs. Clarence L. Discussion,\n875\n\n—\n\n917\n\n—Discussion,\n277\n—\n\nBaer, Clara Gregory ^The History of\nthe Development of Physical Education\nat Newcomb College, 701\n\n—\n\nBagley, W. C. Fundamental Distinctions between Liberal and Vocational\nEducation, 161\n\n—\n\nHelen M. Successful Experiences with Home Reading-Lists, 795\n\n—\n\nThe Tendencies and\nGeneral Status of Courses in General\nScience, 758\nBarnes, Walter A Standard Foundation Library for a Rural School, 798\nBarry, Maggie W. School Health, 865\nBates, Mary Elizabeth Report of\nCommittee on School Health, 861\nBaylor, Adelaide Steele Co-operating\nForces for the Improvement of RuralSchool Conditions, 340; Discussion, 308.\nBeginning in Rural High-School Work and\nTownship Supervision (Helene E.\nGlissman), 882\nBenson, O. H. The Federated Boys'\nand Girls' Club Work, 898\n\nBarber, Fred D.\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n—\nBerry, Elmer—^The Heart Volume in\nMan—^The Nitrous Oxide Method and\nthe Results of Professor Franz Miiller,\n713\nBiology in the Secondary Schools (James\nEdward Peabody), 748\nBishop Grundtvig and the People's High\nSchools (Edwin G. Cooley), 451\n\n—\n\nBlair, Francis G. Economy of Time\nin Education, 395; Interrelation of the\nOfl&ce of State Superintendent and That\nof County Superintendent, 257; School\nRevenue, 870\n\n—\n\nBlankenbiller, D. p. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business Education,\n649\n\n—\n\nBlijenburgh, W. p. Hubert von\nSwedish G)minastics in American Schools\n707\n\nBlount, Ralph E.\n\n—The Responsibility\n\nTeacher with Regard to the\nTeaching of Sex Hygiene, 470\nBooks, Training of Rural Teachers in the\nof\n\nthe\n\nUse of, 802\nBoys, Pre-delinquent, 289\n\n—The Health AdminBreckinridge, Sophonisba Preston—\nBracken, H. M.\n\nistration of Schools, 672\n\nSome Aspects of the Public School from\na Social Worker's Point of View, 45\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": "918", "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n9i8\n\n—\n\nBrister, J. W. How Can Nonnal Schools\nBest Help the Forward Movement in\nRural Life? 548\nBrown, J. Stanley Discussion, 323\nBaucE, Frank M. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of School Administration,\n\n—\n—\n\n^^^\n\nBryan, William L.\n\n—Common-Sense and\n\nBeyond, 94\nBuRNQUiST, J. A. A.\ncome, 25\n\n—Address of Wel-\n\nPreparatory Educational Requirements for CoUegiate Training in,\nwith Special Reference to Articulation\nbetween the High-School and College\nCourses, 657\nBusiness Education in the United States\nBusiness,\n\nand Some Recommendations, The Present Status of, 652\n\nBy-Laws, 5\nCalendar of Meetings, 13\n\n—\n\nSubstitution of Work of\nVocational or Prevocational Character\nin the Upper Grades, 274\nCampbell, Mary R. Methods for Making Surveys of Public Schools, with\nSuggestions to Principals and Teachers\nfor Recording Data on Subaverage,\nSubnormal, Backward, or Defective\nChildren, 840\n\nCammack, I. I.\n\n—\n\nCarr, John W.\n\n—A Practical Experiment\n\nwith Backward Children, 844; Superintendent Problems, 344; Discussion,\n92, 322.\n\n—\n\nCarrington, W. T. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Normal Schools (Richmond Meeting), 497; (St. Paul Meeting), 539;\n\nThe Training School, 537\nCommunity Service from\n\nCarver, T. N.\n\n—\n\nthe Rural-School Library, 808\nCary, C. p. Co-operating Forces for the\n\n—\n\nImprovement\nditions, 338\n\nChallman, S. A.\n\nof\n\nRural-School\n\nCon-\n\n—Discussion, 784\n—\n\nChildren, Methods for Making Surveys of\nPubUc Schools, with Suggestions to\nPrincipals and Teachers for Recording\n\nData on Subaverage, Subnormal, Backward, or Defective, 840\nChildren, The Work of the National\nAssociation for the Study and Education\nof Exceptional, 843\nCitizenship, The Relation of the Teacher\nto American, 29\nCivic Agencies, Constructive, 439\nClaxton, Philander P. ^Discussion, 769\nCleveland, Ohio, The Progress of Industrial\n\n—\n\nEducation in, 462\nClub Work, The Federated Boys' and\nGirls', 898\n\nClubs, The Mississippi Canning, 185\nCoffey, Roy V. Preparatory Educational\nRequirements for Collegiate Training in\nBusiness, with Special Reference to\nArticulation between the High-School\nand College Courses, 657\nCollege, The Media of Religious Impres-\n\n—\n\nsion in, 494\nCollege, The Purpose of the Liberal, 102\n\nCollege Professor and the Nation,\n\nThe\n\n(Charles William Dabney), 60\nColvin, S. S.—The Attitude of the Child\nin Learning, 677\nCommission on the Reorganization of\nSecondary Education, Problems Confronting the, 483\nCommittee on Economy of Time in Education, Report of the, 206\nConmiittee on High-School Libraries,\nReport of the, 823\nCommittee on Janitor Service, Report of\nthe, 750\nCommittee on Rural-School Libraries,\nReport of the, 798\nCoDMnittee on School Health, Report of\nthe, 861\n\nCommittee on Tests and Standards of\nEfficiency in Schools and School Systems,\n\nChamberlain, Arthur H. Co-operating\nForces for the Improvement of Rural-\n\nReport of the, 302\nCommittee on Vocational Education and\n\nThe Place of\n\nGuidance, Statement in\nRegard to the Work of the, 568\nCommittees and Affiliated Organizations,\n\nSchool Conditions, 327;\n\nEducation in a Rational\nSchool System, 586\nChandler, J. A.\nAddress of Welcome,\nIndustrial\n\nC—\n\n139\n\nH.—The Content of the\nCourse in Sociology in a Normal School,\n559\nChicago, Trade Agreements in Industrial\nEducation of Apprentices in, 607\nChild, An Effort to Make the School Fit the\nNeeds of the Exceptional, 830\nChild and His Individual Needs, The Individual; The Home Life of the Child, 430\nChild and His Individual Needs, The Individual: The School Life of the Child, 422\nChild in Learning, The Attitude of the, 677\nChildren, A Practical Experiment with\nBackward, 844\nCheever, W.\n\nVocational\n\n19 13-14,\n\nSummary of Reports of State\n\nJoint, 855\n\nCommon-Sense and Beyond (William L.\nBryan), 94\n\nCommunity It Serves, The Fimction of\nthe School to the, 264\n\n—\n\nOpportunity\nMusic An\n(Peter W. Dykema), 627\nCommunity Service from the Rural-School\nLibrary (Elizabeth B. Wales and\nT. N. Carver), 808\nCondon, Randall J. School and Shop\nWork and Study, 171\n\nCommunity\n\n—\n\nConstructive Civic Agencies\n\n(Edward J.\n\nWard), 439\nContent of the Course in Sociology in a\nNormal School (W. H. Cheever), 559\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": "919", "text": "—\n\nINDEX\nContinuation Schools of Milwaukee, Wis.,\nThe Apprenticeship and, 614\nCook, John W. Harmonizing Vocational\nand Cultural Education, 385; Professionally Prepared Teachers, 113; Some\nPositive Educational Gains in the Last\nDecade, 369; The Practice School and\nthe Work of the Heads of Departments\nin It, 541\nCooLEY, Edwin G. Bishop Grundtvig\nand the People's High Schools, 451\nCooLEY, R. L. ^The Apprenticeship and\nContinuation Schools of Milwaukee,\nWis., 614\nCo-operating Forces for the Improvement\nof Rural-School Conditions, A (Arthur\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nHenry Chamberlain), 327; B (Margaret E. Schallenberger), 332; C\n(C. P. Gary), 338; D (Adelaide Steele\nBaylor), 340; E (David B. Johnson),\n342\nCo-operation by Teachers for the Improvement of Science Teaching Qohn A.\nRandall), 729\nCorbly, Lawrence J. ^The Preparation\nof Teachers and Supervisors for the\nIndustrial Branches and Other Special\nLmes, 505\nCountry Child in the Rural Library, The\n(Josephine Corliss Preston), 796\nCourse in Agriculture for Training Teachers\n\n—\n\nNormal Training High Schools, A\n(J. L. McBrien), 890; B (A. V. Storm),\n\nin\n\n89s\n\n—\n\nCrabtree, James W. Harmonizing Vocational and Cultural Education, 384; The\nPreparation of Teachers and Supervisors\nfor the Industrial Branches and Other\n\nWhat Recognition\nShould Be Given Vacation and Other\nOut-of-School Work ? 905\nSpecial Lines, 509;\n\n—\n\nBeach A Psychological\nJ.\nAnalysis of the Basis on Which Credit\nfor the Study of Music Is to Be Placed,\n635\n\nCragun,\n\n—\n\n^The Media of\nJ. Forsyth\nReligious Impression in College, 494\nCritchett, E. T. The Success of a State\nTeachers' Employment Agency Law\nafter Two Years, 787\nCubberley, Ellwood p. Rural-School\nAdministration, 244\nCulture, Art Education as a Part of\nGeneral, 599\nDabney, Charles William The College\nProfessor and the Nation, 60\nDangers of Overorganization of the Rural\nSchools (Payson Smith), 253\nDemocracy, Education in a, 103\nDepartment of Business Education, 649;\nof Child Hygiene, 663; of Classroom\nTeachers, 909; of Elementary Education,\nof\nof Higher Education, 489;\n421;\nKindergarten Education, 405; Library,\n791; of Music Education, 625; National\nCouncil, 293; of Normal Schools, 497;\n\nCrawford,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n919\n\nof Physical Education, 683; of Rural\nand Agricultural Education, 877; of\nSchool Administration, 773; of School\nPatrons, 851; of Science Instruction,\n721; of Secondary Education, 445; of\nSpecial Education, 827;\nof Superintendence, 133; of Vocational Education\nand Practical Arts, 565\nDeterminants of the Course of Study (A.\n\nDuncan Yocum), 223\nEdward T. Education\n\n—\n\nDevine,\n\nand\n\nSocial Economy, 142\nDifferentiation in Course of Study in the\n\nUpper Grades, A (Herbert S. Weet),\nB (William A. Greeson and\n269;\n1. 1. Cammack), 272, 274\nDoyne, J. J. The Preparation of Teachers\n\n—\n\nfor Rural Schools, 532\n\n—\n\nDudgeon, Matthew S. The Library's\nDebt to Culture, 794\nDykema, Peter W. Community Music\n\n—\n\nAn Opportunity, 627\nEconomic Significance and Relationships of\nVocational Education (John A. Seeger)^\n569\n\nEconomy of Time in Arithmetic ^.Walter\nA. Jessup), 209\n\nEconomy of Time in Education, A (Frank\nStrong), 386; B (Harry B. Wilson),\n390;\n\nC (Francis G. Blair), 395; D\n\n(L. D. Harvey), 397;\n\nE (E. E. Scrib-\n\nner), 401\n\nEconomy of Time in Education, Report\nof the Committee on, 206\nEducation, Economy of Time in, 386\nEducation, Fundamental Distinctions between Liberal and Vocational, 150\nEducation, Harmonizing Vocational and\n\nCultural, 375\nEducation, History and Achievement of\nthe National Council of, 364\nEducation, Motion Pictures as an Aid to,\n743\nEducation, Principles and Aims of, 94\nEducation, Problems Confronting the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary, 483\nEducation, Report of the Committee on\nEconomy of Time in, 206\nEducation, Some Experiments in Sex, 475\nEducation, The Purpose of Elementary and\nHigh-School, 98\nEducation and Social Economy (Edward\nT. Devine), 142\nEducation for Political and Moral Service\n(William O. Thompson), 106\nEducation for Social Service (Edward A.\nRoss), 103\nEducation for Those Pupils Leaving School\nToo Soon, Systematic, 119\nEducation in a Democracy, A (Edward A.\nRoss), 103; B (William O. Thompson),\n106\nEducational Achievement, The Foundations of, 199\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": "920", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n920\n\nEducational Gains in the Last Decade,\nSome Positive, 369\nEfficiency, Testing Grade Teachers for, 283\nEfiFort to Make ^e School Fit the Needs\nof the Exceptional Child (L. R. Alderman), 830\nElementary Schools, Standardizing the\nWork in the Kindergarten and, 415\nElliott, Edward C. Rural-School Administration, 244\nEmployment Agency Law after Two Years,\nThe Success of a State Teachers', 787\nEmployment Agency under the Supervision of the Department of Public\nInstruction, A State Teachers', 785\nDiscussion, 278\nEttinger, W. L.\nEuropean Schools, Physical Care and\nTraining of Children in, 684\nExtension Work in Normal Schools, A (Edward T. Mathes), 513; B (Harvey C.\nMinnich), 516; C (Henry G. Williams), 519\nFairchild, Edward T. Progress of the\nRural Schools, 122; Response to Addresses of Welcome, 28\nFear and Its Cure (Tom A. Williams), 836\nFederated Boys' and Girls' Club Work\n(O. H. Benson), 898\nFellows, George E. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Higher Education,\n489\nSuperintendent ProbFet.mt.ey, David\nlems, 358; The Reorganization of the\nNormal-School Curriculum, 498\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nFlagg, Maurice I.\n\n—^The Need in America\n\nSchools of AppUed Art and the\nNecessity in American Industries for\nArt Leaders and Designers of the Highest Grade, 589\nFoRDYCE, Emma J. Physics for Girls by\nthe Scientific Method, 750\nFoimdations of Educational Achievement\n(Edward L. Thorndike), 199\nFrey, Charles P. ^The Use of Lantern\nSlides in a Course in Electrical Measurements, 742\nfor\n\n—\n\n—\n\nFuller, Robert J.\n\n—Statement\n\nin Regard\n\nto the Work of the Committee on Vocational\nEducation and Vocational\n\nGuidance, 568\nFunction of the School to the Community\nIt\n\nServes,\n\nA\n\n(J.\n\nM. Gwinn),\n\n264;\n\nB Qames M. Greenwood), 266\nFundamental Distinctions between Liberal\nand Vocational Education, A (David\nSnedden), 150; B (W. C. Bagley), 161\nGeography in Secondary Schools, A (R. H.\nWhitbeck), 732;\nB (William J.\nSutherland), 738\nGeography in the Large High School\n(R. H. Whitbeck), 732\nGeography in Village and Rural Schools\n(William J. Sutherland), 738\nGlade, Earl Jay—The Present Status\nof Business Education in the United\nStates and Some Recommendations, 652\n\n—\n\nGlissman, Helene E. A Beginning in\nRural High-School Work and Township\nSupervision, 882\nGraham, Nathaniel M. Discussion, 746\n\n—\n\n—\n\nGreen, James M. Professional Experimentation and Investigation, 537; Response to Address of Welcome, 140\nGreenwood, James M. History and\n\n—\n\nAchievement of the National Council of\nEducation, 364; The Kingdom of Little\nThings, 115; The Social Function of the\nSchool, 266\nGreeson, William A. Substitution of\nWork of Vocational or Prevocational\nCharacter in the Upper Grades, 272\nGroszmann, Maximilian P. E. Adaptation of the Work of the Kindergarten\nto the Needs of Individual Children,\nPresident's Address, 829;\nThe\n406;\nWork of the National Association for the\nStudy and Education of Exceptional\nChildren, 843\nGrundtvig (Bishop) and the People's\nHigh Schools, 451\nGuLiCK, Sidney Lewis ^The Responsibility of American Educators in the\nSolution of America's Oriental Problem,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—^The Scholastic Function\nHaaren, John H. —The Use of the Fac35\n\nGwinn, J. M.\n\nof the School, 264\n\ntory and Office Buildings in New York\nCity for Vocational Education, 602;\nDiscussion, 279\nHabit, Self-Protection thru Knowledge\nand, 435\nHall, Mary E. Report of the Committee\n\n—\n\non High-School Libraries, 823\nHamilton, Walter I. ^Teachers'\n\n—\n\nRe-\n\ntirement Allowances, 71\nHarmonizing Vocational and Cultural\nA (Josephine Corliss\nEducation,\nPreston), 375; B (Homer H. Seerley), 378; C (G. W. A. Luckey), 380;\n(James W. Crabtree), 384; E (John\nW. Cook), 385\nHarvest, Let Both Grow Together Until\nthe, 125\n\nD\n\nHarvey, Lorenzo D.\n\n—Economy\n\nof Time\n\nSystematic Edu397;\ncation for Those Pupils Leaving School\nToo Soon, 119\nHealth, Report of the Committee on\nSchool, 861\nHealth, School, 865\nHealth Administration of Schools (H. M.\nin\n\nEducation,\n\nBracken), 672\nHealth Problems in the American Public\nSchools (Thomas D. Wood), 294\nHealth Supervision of Schools, Some Phases\nof the, 663\nHeart Volume in Man—The Nitrous\nOxide Method and the Results of Professor Franz Miiller (Elmer Berry),\n713\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": "921", "text": "INDEX\nHeating, Lighting, and Ventilating of\nSchool Buildings (James M. Ingold),\n779\nHebden, Edwin Discussion, 170\n\n—\n\nHefferan,\n\nMrs.\n\nWilliam\n\ndent's Report, 852\n\nHenderson,\n\nWilson\n\nH.\n\nS.\n\n—Presi-\n\n—Secretary's\n\nMinutes, Department of Vocational\nEducation and Practical Arts, 565\n\nHertz,\nutes,\n\n—\n\nMrs. LoL^s Secretary's MinDepartment of School Patrons,\n\n851\n\nHigh School, Geography in the Large, 732\nHigh-School Branches of Pubhc Libraries\n(PuRD B. Wright), 820\nHigh-School Credit for Applied Music\nTaken under Special Teachers Outside\nof School (Osbourne McConathy), 634\nHigh-School Libraries, Report of Committee on, 823\nHigh-School Work and Township Supervision, A Beginning in Rural, 882\nHigh Schools, Bishop Grundtvig and the\nPeople's, 451\nHigh Schools, The Course in Agriculture\nfor Training Teachers in Normal Training High Schools, 890\nHigh Schools, The Preparation of Teachers\nfor, 529\nHines, L. N. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Child Hygiene, 663; Some\nPhases of the Health Supervision of\nSchools, 663\nHistory and Achievement of the National\nCouncil of Education (James M. Greenwood), 364\nHistory of the Development of Physical\nEducation at Newcomb College (Clara\nGregory Baer), 701\nHome Economics, The Renovation of the\nHome thru, 618\n\n—\n\nHome Life of the Child: The Individual\nChild and His Individual Needs, 430\nHopeful\nExperiments,\nA (Susie V.\n\nPowell), 185; B (Josephine Corliss\nPreston), 189;\nC (Cora Wilson\nStewart), 193\nHow Can Normal Schools Best Help the\nForward Movement in Rural Life?\n(J.\n\nW. Brister), 548\n\nHow May the General Aims of ManualTraining Courses Be Best Conserved?\n(Milton C. Potter), 622\nHow Secure More Effective Supervision?\n(Reed B. Teitrick), 286\nHow Shall the Superintendent Measure\nHis Own Efficiency? (William McK.\nVance), 279\nHow the Course of Study Should be Determined (John W. Withers), 235\nHumanities, Old and New, The (Emma\nM. Perkins), 51\nHygiene, The Responsibility of the Teacher\nwith Regard to the Teaching of Sex, 470\nHygiene and Vocational Education, Industrial, 668\n\n921\n\nIndividual Child and His Individual Needs:\nThe Home Life of the Child, A (Julia\nFried Walker), 430; B (Margaret\nE. Schallenberger), 435; C (Edward\nJ. Ward), 439\n\nIndividual Child and His Individual Needs:\nThe School Life of the Child, A (J. W.\nSearson), 422; B (Neil C. Mac-\n\nDonald), 427\nIndustrial Branches and Other Special\nLines, The Preparation of Teachers and\nSupervisors for the, 505\nIndustrial Education in a Rational School\n\nSystem, The Place of, 586\nIndustrial Education in Cleveland, Ohio,\n\nThe Progress of, 462\nIndustrial Education in Secondary Schools,\n\nSome Things Worth While in, 465\nEducation of Apprentices in\nChicago, Trade Agreements in, 607\nIndustrial Hygiene and Vocational Education (Louis W. Rapeer), 668\nIngold, James M. ^The Heating, Lighting, and Ventilating of School BuildIndustrial\n\n—\n\nings, 779\n\nInterrelation of the Office of State Superintendent and That of County Super(Francis G. Blair), 257;\nintendent,\n\nA\n\nB (Oliver J. Morelock), 260\nJanitor Service, Report of the Committee\non, 750\nJenkins, Frances Secretary's Minutes,\n\n—\n\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\n421\nJessup, Walter A. Economy of Time\nin Arithmetic, 209\nJohnson, David B. Co-operating Forces\nfor the Improvement of Rural-School\nConditions, 342; The Strength of the\nNormal Schools, 552; Discussion, 94\nJohnson, WiUis E. Discussion, 560\n\n—\n—\n\n— —\n\nJohnston, W. Dawson ^The Newspaper\nMorgue, the Library, and the School,\n810\n\n—\n\nJoiner, C. E. Pre-delinquent Boys, 289\nJournal of Proceedings of the General\nSessions, 19\n\nJoYNER, James Y.\n\n—^The Adaptation of\n\nthe Work of the School to the Needs of\nthe People, 129\nKeene, Charles H. Shall Sex Hygiene\nBe Taught in the Pubhc Schools? 695\nKendall, C. N. Discussion, 306\nKerr, Willis H. Libraries and Schools:\nEducational Co-operation, 813\nKindergarten, Adaptation of the Work of\nthe, to the Needs of Individual Children,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n406\nKindergarten,\n\nWhat the United States\nBureau of Education Is Doing for the,\n\n413\nKindergarten and Elementary Schools,\nStandardizing the Work in the, 415\nKingdom of Little Things, The (James M.\n\nGreenwood), 115\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": "922", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n922\n\n—\n\nKiNGSLEY, Clarence D. Minutes of the\nMeetings of the Commission on the\nReorganization of Secondary Education,\n481; Minutes of the Meetings of the\nConference of High-School Principals,\n488; Problems Confronting the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, 483\nKiNNAMAN, A. J. ^The Method, Scope, and\nValue of the Survey in Relation to the\nCourse of Study, 314\nKiNNEAR, William B. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Music Education,\n625\nKirk, John W.—The Twentieth-Century\nNormal School, 524\nKnowledge and Habit, Self-Protection\nthru, 435\nKoEHLER, Robert ^Art Appreciation for\nthe Masses, 594\nKreuzpointner, Paul Discussion, 184\nLange, Dietrich Address of Welcome, 28\nLet Both Grow Together Until the Harvest (Carroll G. Pearse), 125\nLibraries, High-School Branches of Public,\n820\nLibraries, Report of Conunittee on HighSchool, 823\nLibraries, Report of Committee on RuralSchool, 798\nLibraries and Schools: Educational Cooperation (Willis H. Kerr), 813\nLibrary, A Normal Budget for the HighSchool, 817\nLibrary, Qpmmunity Service from the\nRural-School, 808\nLibrary, The Country Child in the Rural,\n796\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nLibrary, and the School, The\n\nNewspaper\n\nMorgue, the, 810\nLibrary for a Rural School, A Standard\nFoundation, 798\nLibrary Methods, Normal-School Training in, 814\nLibrary's Debt to Culture (Matthew S.\nDudgeon), 794\n\nLogan,\n\nAnna\n\n—Secretary's\n\nElizabeth\n\nOsbourne\n\nMcConathy,\n\n—High-School\n\nCredit for Applied Music Taken under\nSpecial Teachers Outside of School, 634\nMcDowell, M. S. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation, 877\nMcWhorter, Tyler ^Art Education as a\nPart of General Culture, 599\nMalmin, J. M. ^A State Teachers' Employment Agency imder the Supervision\nof the Department of Public Instruction, 785\nManual Training and Technical High\nSchools Abandon Their General and\nCollege Preparatory Aims and Become\nEflScient Secondary Schools of Applied\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nScience, Should? 577\nManual-Training Courses Be Best Conserved, How May the General Aims of?\n\n622\n\n—\n\nMathes, Edward T. Extension Work in\nNormal Schools, 513\nMathews,\nLois\nKimball ^Training\n\n—\n\nWomen for Social Responsibility, 40\nMathiews, Franklin K.\n\n—\n\nSuccessful Experiences with Home Reading-Lists, 795\nMedia of Religious Impression in College\n(J. Forsyth Crawford), 494\n\nMeek, C. S.—The Public-School Survey,\n310\nMeetings, Calendar of, 13\n\nMeiklejohn, Alexander—The Purpose\nof the Liberal College, 102\n\nMethod, Scope, and Value of the Survey\nin Relation to the Course of Study (A. J.\nKinnaman), 314\nMethods for Making Surveys of Public\nSchools, with Suggestions to Principals\nfor Recording Data on\nSubaverage, Subnormal, Backward, or\nDefective Children (Mary R. Campbell), 840\n\nand Teachers\n\nMiller, Frank W.\n\n—Problems That Con-\n\nfront the State Superintendent in His\nRelation to the Rural Schools, 251\nMilwaukee, Wis., The Apprenticeship and\n\nService thru the School, 427\n\nContinuation Schools of, 614\nSanitary Requirements for\nRural Schools, 295\nMinnich, Harvey C. Extension Work\nin Normal Schools, 516\nMinutes of the Meetings of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary\nEducation, 481; Conference of HighSchool Principals, 488\nMississippi Canning Clubs (Susie ^V.\nPowell), 185\nMonroe, Edwin S. Superintendent Problems, 358\nMoonlight Schools of Kentucky (Cora\n\nof History of Art as a Study in Second-\n\nWilson Stewart), 193\nMoRELOCK, Oliver J. Interrelation\n\nMinutes, Department of Superintendence, 133\n\nLong, May G.—Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Physical Education, 683\nLucKEY, G. W. A.—Harmonizing Vocational and Cultural Education, 380;\nDiscussion, 588\nLuTKiN, Peter Christian—When Music\nFulfils Its Highest Function, 641\nMacDonald, John—Superintendent Problems, 356\n\nMacdonald, Neil C.\n\n—Preparation\n\nfor\n\nMacMurphy, Mary STUART^-The Value\nary Schools, 460\n\nMcBrien,\n\nJ. L.—The Course in Agriculture for Training Teachers in Normal\n\nTraining High Schools, 890\n\nMinimum\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nof\n\nthe Office of State Superintendent and\nThat of County Superintendent, 260\n\nMorrison, Adelbert H.\n\n—\n\nence\n\n—\n\nApplied SciIts Relationship to Shopwork and\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": "923", "text": "—\n\n,\n\nINDEX\nthe Rest of the Curriculum in an Upto-Date Technical High School, 764\nMotion Pictures as an Aid to Education\n(Alfred H. Saunders), 743\nMott, Thomas A. Discussion, 324\n\n—\n\nMiiller,\n\nThe Heart Volume in Man\n\n—^The\n\nNitrous Oxide Method and the Results\nof Professor Franz, 713\nMusic, A Psychological Analysis of the\nBasis on Which Credit for the Study of\nMusic Is to Be Placed, 635\nMusic, An Opportunity for Community,\n627\nMusic Fulfils Its Highest Function, When,\n641\nMusic Taken under Special Teachers Outside of School, High-School Credit for\nApplied, 643\nNational Council of Education, History\nand Achievement of the, 364\nNearing,\nPublic-School\nScott ^The\nTeacher and the Standard of Living, 78\nNeed in America for Schools of Applied\nArt and the Necessity in American Industries for Art Leaders and Designers\nof the Highest Grade (Maurice I.\nFlagg), 589\nNeeds of the Public Schools, A (John W.\n\n—\n\nCook), 113; B (James M. Greenwood),\n115; C (Lorenzo D. Harvey), 119;\n\nD\n\n(Edward T. Fairchild),\n\n122;\n\nE\n\n(Carroll G. Pearse), 125; F (James\nY. Joyner), 129\n\nNew York City, The Use of the Factory and\nOffice Buildings in, for Vocational Education, 602\n\nNewberry, Marie A.\n\n—A Normal Budget\n\nfor the High-School Library, 817\nNewcomb College, The History of the\nDevelopment of Physical Education at,\n\n701\n\nNorton, Alice P.\n\n—^The Renovation of the\n\nHome thru Home Economics, 618\nNotable Shortcomings of State Normal\nSchools (Alfred C. Thompson), 554\nOfficers of General Association for 1913-14,\n15; of Departments, 17\nOhr, Winifred Secretary's Minutes, Department of Kindergarten Education,\n405\nOld and the New, The (Oliver S. Westcott), 446\n.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nOlesen, Peter Discussion, 747\nOriental Problem, The Responsibility of\nAmerican Educators in the Solution of\nAmerica's, 35\nOutlook for the Application of the Scientific Method to the Problems of Science\n\nTeaching (George R. Twiss), 723\nOviTZ, Delia G. Normal-School Training in Library Methods, 814; Training\nof Rural Teachers in the Use of Books,\n802\nOwen, William B. Secretary's Minutes,\nNational Council of Education (Richmond Meeting) 293 (St. Paul Meeting)\n\n—\n\n—\n\n,\n\n;\n\n325\n\n—\n\nJames Edward Biology in\nthe Secondary Schools, 748; Some Experiments in Sex Education, 475\nPearse, Carroll G. ^Let Both Grow\nTogether Until the Harvest, 125; Sex\nHygiene ^What the Schools Can Do,\n318; The Twentieth-Century Normal\nSchool New Branches of Study, New\nProblems, and New Ideals, 527; Vocational Education Its Terminology, 582\nPensions, Teachers' Salaries and, 60\nPerkins, Emma M. The Himianities,\nOld and New, 51\n\nPeabody,\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\n—\nPerrine, Charles H. — Secretary's Minutes,\n\nDepartment of Secondary Educa-\n\ntion, 445\n\nNewspaper Morgue, the Library, and the\nSchool (W. Dawson Johnston), 810\nNitrous Oxide Method and the Results of\n\n—\n\nProfessor Franz Miiller ^The Heart\nVolume in Man, 713\nNormal Budget for the High-School Li-\n\nbrary (Marie A. Newberry), 817\nNormal School, The Content of the Course\nin Sociology in a, 559\nSchool, The Twentieth-Century,\n\nNormal\n524\n\nNormal School, The Twentieth-Century\n\nNew Branches of Study, New Problems,\nand New Ideals, 527\nNormal-School\n\n923\n\nCurriculum,\n\nThe Reor-\n\nganization of the, 498\n\nNormal-School\nTraining\nin\nLibrary\nMethods (Delia G. Ovitz), 814\nNormal-Schools, Extension Work in, 513\nNormal Schools, Notable Shortcomings of\nState, 554\n\nNormal Schools, The Strength of the, 552\nNormal Schools Best Help the Forward\nMovement in Rural Life, How Can? 548\n\n—\n\nPetterson, Gustav S. Discussion, 563\nPhysical Care and Training of Children in\nEuropean Schools (Carl G. Rathman),\n\n684\nCondition of the Child as a\nFactor in Determining His\nVocational Guidance (Margaret E.\nSchallenberger), 704\nPhysical Director in Relation to the School\n(Mary E. Samson), 691\nPhysical Education at Newcomb College,\nThe History of the Development of, 701\nPhysics for Girls by the Scientific Method\n(Emma J. Fordyce), 750\nPlace of Industrial Education in a Rational\nSchool System (Arthur H. Chamberlain), 586\nPorter, Minnie E. Successful Experiences with Home Reading-Lists, 795\nPhysical\n\nLeading\n\n—\nPotter, Milton C. —How May the Gen-\n\nAims of Manual-Training Courses\nBe Best Conserved? 622\n\neral\n\nPowell, Susie V.\nClubs, 185\n\n—Mississippi Canning\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": "924", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n924\n\nPowers, Winn—Address of Welcome, 27\nExperiment with Backward\nPractical\nChildren (John W. Carr), 844\nPractice School and the Work of the Heads\nof Departments in It Qohn W. Cook),\n541\nPre-delinquent Boys (C. E. Joiner), 289\nPreparation for Service thru the School\n\n(Neil C. Macdonald), 427\nPreparation of Teachers and Supervisors\nfor the Industrial Branches and Other\nSpecial Lines, A (Lawrence J. Corbly),\n\n505; B (J. W. Crabtree), 509\nPreparation of Teachers for High Schools\n(Homer H. Seerley), 529\nPreparation of Teachers for Rural Schools\n(J. J.\n\nDoyne), 532\n\nof Women for TwentiethCentury Life (Mary E. Woolley), 56\nPreparatory Educational Requirements for\nCollegiate Training in Business, with\n\nPreparation\n\nReference to Articulation bethe High-School and College\nCourses (Roy V. Coffey), 657\nPresent Status of Business Education in\nthe United States and Some Recommendations (Earl Jay Glade), 652\nPresident's Address (Robert J. Aley), 361\nPresident's Address (M. P. E. GroszSpecial\n\ntween\n\nmann), 829\nPresident's Address The Relation of the\nCitizenship\nTeacher\nto\nAmerican\n(Joseph Swain), 29\nPresident's Report (Mrs. William S.\n\n—\n\nHefferan) 852\n\n—\n\nPreston, Josephine Corliss Harmonizing Vocational and Cultural Education,\n375; Some Conditions in Rural Schools\nand Their Improvement, 189; The\nCountry Child in the Rural Library, 796\nPrinciples and Aims of Education, A\n(William L. Bryan), 94; B (Nathan\nC. Schaeffer), 98;\nC (Alexander\nMeiklejohn), 102\nProblems Confronting the Commission\non the Reorganization of Secondary Education (Clarence D. Kingsley), 483\nProblems in the Successful Teaching of\nMechanical Science (Frank Henry\nSelden), 774\nProblems That Confront the State Superintendent in His Relation to the Rural\nSchools (Frank W. Miller), 251\nProfessional Experimentation and Investigation (James M. Green), 537\nProfessionally Prepared Teachers (John W.\nCook), 113\nProgress of Industrial Education in Cleveland, Ohio (R. L. Short), 462\nProgress of the Rural Schools (Edward T.\nFairchild), 122\nPsychological Analysis of the Basis on\nWhich Credit for the Study of Music\nIs to Be Placed (J. Beach Cragun), 635\n\nPublic-School Survey, The (C. S. Meek),\n\n310\nPublic-School Teacher and the Standard of\nLiving (Scott Nearing), 78\n\nPurpose of Elementary and High-School\nEducation (Nathan C. Schaeffer), 98\nPurpose of the Liberal College (Alex-\n\nander Meiklejohn), 102\n\n—Testing Grade TeachPutnam, Helen C. —Report of the Committee on Janitor Service, 750\nRandall, John A. — Co-operation by\nPusEY, Edwin D.\n\ners for EflSciency, 283\n\nTeachers for the Improvement of Science Teaching, 729; Secretary's Minutes,\n\nDepartment of Science Instruction, 721\nRankin, A. W. Who Shall Administer\n\n—\n\nOur Schools? 912\n\n—\n—\n\nRapeer, Louis W. Industrial Hygiene\nand Vocational Education, 668\nRathmann, Carl G. Physical Care and\nTraining of Children in European\nSchools, 684\nReading and Arithmetic as Tests of Mental\nAbility (Clara Schmitt), 848\nReading-Lists, Successful Experiences with\n\nHome, 795\nReligious Education in Universities (Frank\nStrong), 489\nReligious Impression in College, The Media\nof, 494\n\nRenovation of the Home thru Home\nEconomics (Alice P. Norton), 618\nReorganization of the Normal-School Curriculum (David Felmley), 498\nReport of Committee on Economy of\nTime in Education (H. B. Wilson), 206\nReport of Committee on High-School\nLibraries (Mary E. Hall), 823\nReport of (Committee on Janitor Service\n(Helen C. Putnam), 750\nReport of Committee on Rural-School\nLibraries\n(Martha Wilson), 798;\nA (Harriet A. Wood and Walter\nBarnes), 798; B (Delia G.Ovitz), 802;\nC (E. B. Wales and T. N. Carver),\n808\nReport of Committee on School Health\n(Mary Elizabeth Bates), 861\nReport of Committee on Tests and Standards of Efl&ciency in Schools and School\n\nSystems (George D. Strayer), 302\nReports of State Joint Committees and\nAfl&liated Organizations, 1913-14,\n\nSum-\n\nmary of, 855\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome (Edward T. Fairchild), 28; (James M.\nGreen), 140\nResponsibility of American Educators in\nthe\n\nSolution\n\nof\n\nAmerica's\n\nOriental\n\nProblem (Sidney Lewis Gulick), 35\nResponsibility of School Patrons with\nRegard to School Questions, A (Maggie\nW. Barry), 865; B (Francis G. Blair),\n\n870\nResponsibility of the Teacher with Regard\nto the Teaching of Sex Hygiene (Ralph\n\nE. Blount), 470\nRevenue, School, 870\nSecretary's\nRichardson,\nMary\nMinutes, Library Department, 791\n\nC—\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": "925", "text": "—\nINDEX\nRoberts,\n\nEmma—^Art\n\nCourses\n\nIntermediate,\n\nand\n\nM.\n\nElementary,\nSchools, 597\n\nin\n\nHigh\n\n—\n\nRoberts, William M. ^Trade Agreements\nin Industrial Education of Apprentices\nin Chicago, 607\n\nRoss,\n\nEdward A.\n\n—Education for Social\n\nService, 103\n\nRound Tables\n\n—State and County Superin-\n\nSuperintendents in Cities\nwith 300,000 Population and Over, 264;\nSuperintendents in Cities with a Population of from 25,000 to 300,000, 269;\nSuperintendents in Cities with a Population under 25,000, 279\nRural Demonstration Schools and StudyCenter Work for Rural Teachers (Homer\nH. Seerley), 878\nRural High-School Work and Township\nSupervision, A Beginning in, 882\nRural Library, The Country Child in the,\n796\nRural Life, How Can Normal Schools Best\nHelp the Forward Movement in? 548\nRural School, A Standard Foundation\nLibrary for a, 798\nRural-School Administration (Ellwood P.\nCubberley and Edward C. Elliott),\ntendents, 251;\n\n244\nCo-operatmg\nConditions,\nRural-School\nForces for the Improvement of, 327\nRural-School Libraries, Report of Committee on, 798\nRural-School Library, Community Service\nfrom the, 808\nRural Schools, Dangers of Overorganization of the, 253\nRural Schools, Geography in ViDage and,\n738\nRural Schools, Minimum Sanitary Require-\n\nments for, 295\nRural Schools, Problems That Confront\nthe State Superintendent in His Relation to the, 251\n\nRural Schools, Progress of the, 122\nRural Schools, The Preparation of Teachers for, 532\n\nRural Schools and Their Improvement,\n\nSome Conditions in, 189\nRural Teachers in the Use of Books, Train-\n\n92s\nof Rural-School Conditions, 332;\n\nSelf-\n\nProtection thru Knowledge and Habit,\n435 ; The Physical Condition of the\nChild as a Leading Factor in Determining His Vocational Guidance, 704\nScHMiTT, Clara Reading and Arithmetic\nas Tests of Mental Ability, 848\nScholastic Function of the School (J. M.\nGwinn), 264\nSchool, Preparation for Service thru the, 427\nSchool, Self-Expression in the, 422\nSchool, The Function of the, to the Community It Serves, 264\nSchool, The Scholastic Function of the, 264\nSchool, The Social Function of the, 266\nSchool Administration, Rural, 244\nSchool and Shop Work and Study\n(Randall J. Condon), 171\nSchool and the Work of the Heads of Departments in It, The Practice, 541\nSchool Buildings, The Heating, Lighting,\nand Ventilating of, 779\nSchool Conditions, Co-operating Forces\nfor the Improvement of Rural, 327\nSchool from a Social Worker's Point of\nView, Some Aspects of the Public, 45\nSchool Health (Maggie W. Barry), 865\nSchool Health, Report of Committee on,\n861\nSchool Life of the Child: The Individual\nChild and His Individual Needs, 422\nSchool Questions, The ResponsibiHty of\nSchool Patrons with Regard to, 865\nSchool Revenue (Francis G. Blair), 870\nSchool Survey, The Public, 310\nSchool Surveys, A Brief Statement of the\nPurpose, Nature, and Conduct of\nReport of Committee on Tests and\nStandards of Efficiency in Schools and\nSchool Systems, 302\nSchool Systems, Report of Committee on\nTests and Standards of Efficiency in\nSchools and, 302\nSchool to the Needs of the People, The\nAdaptation of the Work of the, 129\nSchools, Art Courses in Elementary, Intermediate, and High, 597\nSchools, Biology in the Secondary, 748\nSchools, Bishop Grundtvig and the People's\n\n—\n\n—\n\nHigh, 451\n\n.\n\n.\n\n,\n\n,\n\ning of, 802\nSalaries and Pensions, Teachers', 60\nSalaries Based on the Position and Not\non the Sex of Incumbent (Grace C.\n\nSchools, Dangers of Overorganization of the\n\nStrachan), 66\nSamson, Mary E.\n\nSchools, Minimum Sanitary Requirements\n\n—The Physical Director\n\nin Relation to the School, 691\nSanitary Requirements for Rural Schools,\n\nMinimum, 295\nSanta Fe Railway System, The Apprentice\nSchools of the, 175\n\n—\n\nSaunders, Alfred H. Motion Pictures\nas an Aid to Education, 743\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C.—The Purpose of\nElementary and High-School Education,\n98\n\n—\n\nMARGARET E. Cooperating Forces for the Improvement\n\nScHALLENBERGER,\n\nRural, 253\nSchools, Health Problems in the American\n\nPubHc, 294\nfor Rural, 295\n\nSchools, Problems That Confront the State\nSuperintendent in His Relation to the\n\nRural, 251\nSchools, Progress of the Rural, 122\nSchools, Some Things Worth While in\nIndustrial Education in Secondary, 465\nSchools, The Health Administration of, 672\nSchools, The Needs of the PubUc, 113\n\nSchools and Study-Center Work for Rural\nTeachers, Rural Demonstration, 878\nSchools and Their Improvement, Some\nConditions in Rural, 189\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": "926", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n926\n\nSchools Can Do, Sex Hygiene—What the,\n\n318\nSchools of Applied Art and the Necessity in\nAmerican Industries for Art Leaders and\nDesigners of the Highest Grade, The\nNeed in America for, 589\nSchools of Kentucky, The Moonlight, 193\nSchools of the Santa Fe Railway System,\nThe Apprentice, 175\nScHULZ, C. G. Address of Welcome, 26\nScience, Problems in the Successfid Teaching of Mechanical, 774\n\n—\n\nShould Manual Training and\nTechnical High Schools Abandon Their\nGeneral and College Preparatory Aims\nand Become Efficient Secondary Schools\nof Applied? 577\nScience, The Tendencies and General\nStatus of Courses in General, 752\nScience (Applied) Its Relationship to\nShopwork and the Rest of the Curriculum in an Up-to-Date Technical High\nSchool, 764\nScience Teaching, Co-operation by Teachers for the Improvement of, 729\nScience Teaching, The Outlook for the\nApplication of the Scientific Method to\nthe Problems of, 723\nScientific Method, Physics for Girls by\nthe, 750\nScRiBNER, E. E. Economy of Time in\nEducation, 401\nSearson, J. W. Self-Expression in the\nSchool, 422\nSeeger, John A. ^The Economic Significance and Relationships of Vocational\nEducation, 569\nScience,\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nSeerley, Homer H. Harmonizing Vocational and Cultural Education, 378;\nRural Demonstration Schools and StudyCenter Work for Rural Teachers, 878;\nThe Preparation of Teachers for High\nSchools, 529\n\nSelden, Frank Henry\nSuccessful\nTeaching\nScience, 774\nSelf-Expression\n\n—Problems in the\nof\n\nin\n\nSociety\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nMechanical\n(Julia\n\nF.\n\nWalker), 430\nSelf-Expression\n\nSchool\n\n(J.\n\nW.\n\nSearson), 422\nSelf-Protection thru Knowledge and Habit\n\n(Margaret E. Schallenberger), 435\nService, Education for Political and Moral,\n\n106\nService, Education for Social, 103\n\nService thru the School, Preparation for, 427\nSex Education, Some Experiments in, 475\nSex Hygiene, A (Grace C. Strachan),\n317; B (Carroll G. Pearse), 318\nSex Hygiene, Shall It Be Taught in the\nPublic Schools ? 695\nSex Hygiene, The Responsibility of the\nTeacher with Regard to the Teaching\nof, 470\nSex Hygiene—What the Schools Can Do\n(Carroll G. Pearse), 318\nShall Sex Hygiene Be Taught in the Public\n\nSchools?\n\nA (Charles H. Keene), 695;\n\nB (Mabel M. Wright), 697\nShop, School and Work and Study, 171\n\n—\n\nShopwork and the Rest of the Curriculum\nin an Up-to-Date Technical High School,\n\n— —\n\nApplied Science Its Relationship to, 764\nShort, R. L. ^The Progress of Industrial\nEducation in Cleveland, Ohio, 462\nShortening the Course of Study in the\nUpper Grades (Herbert S. Weet), 269\nShould Manual Training and Technical\nHigh Schools Abandon Their General\nand College Preparatory Aims and\nBecome Efficient Secondary Schools of\nApplied Science? (Arthur L. Williston), 577\nSroERS, Walter R.— Superintendent Problems, 354\nSmith, Payson Dangers of Overorganization of the Rural Schools, 253\nSnedden, David Fundamental Distinctions between Liberal and Vocational\nEducation, 150; Discussion, 276, 746\nSocial Economy, Education and, 142\nSocial Function of the School (James M.\nGreenwood), 266\nSocial Relationships of Vocational Education, The, 572\nSocial Responsibility, Training Women for,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n40\nSocial Service, Education for, 103\nSocial Worker's Point of View, Some\nAspects of the Public School from a, 45\nSociety, Self-Expression in, 430\nSociology in a Normal School, The Content\nof the Course in, 559\nSome Aspects of the Public School from a\nSocial Worker's Point of View (Sopho-\n\nnisba Preston Breckinridge), 45\nSome Conditions in Rural Schools and\nTheir Improvement (Josephine Corliss\nPreston), 189\nSome Experiments in Sex Education\n(James E. Peabody), 475\nSome Phases of the Health Supervision of\nSchools (L. N. HiNEs), 663\nSome Positive Educational Gains in the\nLast Decade (John W. Cook), 369\nSome Things Worth While in Industrial\nEducation in Secondary Schools (E. G.\nAllen), 465\nSpaulding, Frank E. Discussion, 306\nStandard Foundation Library for a Rural\nSchool (Harriet A. Wood and Walter\nBarnes), 798\nStandard of Living, The Public-School\nTeacher and the, 78\nStandardizing the Work in the Kindergar-\n\n—\n\nten and Elementary Schools (Georgia\nAlexander), 415\nState Joint Committees and Affiliated\n\nOrganizations,\n\n1913-14,\n\nSummary\n\nof\n\nReports of, 855\nState Superintendent and County Superintendent, Interrelation of the Office of,\n257\nState Teachers' Employment Agency Law\nafter Two Years, The Success of a, 787\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": "927", "text": "INDEX\nState Teachers' Employment Agency under\nthe Supervision of the Department of\nPublic Instruction (J. M. Malmin), 785\nStatement in Regard to the Work of the\nCommittee on Vocational Education\nand Vocational Guidance (Robert J.\n\nFuller), 568\nStatus of Woman, The, A (Lois Kimball\n\nMathews), 40; B (Sophonisba Preston Breckinridge), 45; C (Emma\n\nM. Perkins), 51;\n\nD\n\n(Mary E. Wool-\n\nley), 56\n\nStewart, Cora Wilson—The Moonlight\nSchools of Kentucky, 193\nStorm, A. V. ^The Course in Agriculture\nfor Training Teachers in Normal Training High Schools, 895\nStrachan, Grace C. Salaries Based\non the Position and Not on the Sex of\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nIncumbent, 66; Wanted ^A TwentiethCentury Ideal, 317\nStrayer, George Drayton ^Report of\nCommittee on Tests and Standards of\nEfl&ciency in Schools and School Systems\n^A Brief Statement Concerning the\nPurpose, Nature, and Conduct of School\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSurveys, 302\nStrength of the Normal Schools (David B.\nJohnson), 552\n\n—Economy of Time in\n\n927\n\nHow Secure More Effective,\n286\nSupervisors for the Industrial Branches\nand Other Special Lines, The Preparation of Teachers and, 505\nSurvey, The Public-School, 310\nSurvey in Relation to the Course of Study,\nThe Method, Scope, and Value of the,\nSupervision,\n\n314\nSurveys, A Brief Statement Concerning\nthe Purpose, Nature, and Conduct of\nSchool, 302\nSurveys of Public Schools, Methods for\n\nMaking, 840\nSutherland, William J. Geography in\nVillage and Rural Schools, 738\nSwain, Joseph President's Address: The\nRelation of the Teacher to American\n\n—\n\n—\n\nWords of Welcome to\n\nCitizenship, 29;\n\nthe New Department, 911\n\nSwedish Gymnastics in American Schools\n(W. P. Hubert von Blijenburgh), 707\nSystematic Education for Those Pupils\nLeaving School Too Soon (Lorenzo D.\n\nHarvey), 119\nTaylor, W. E. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Special Education, 827\nTeacher and the Standard of Living, The\n\n—\n\nPublic-School, 78\n\nThe\n\nStrong, Frank\n\nTeacher\n\nEducation, 386; Religious Education in\nUniversities, 489\nStruthers, W. E. Discussion, 834\nStuart, M. H. Discussion, 279\nStudy, The Determinants of the Course of,\n223\nStudy in the Upper Grades, Differentiation\nin Course of, 269\nStudy in the Upper Grades, Shortening the\nCourse of, 269\nStudy Shoiild Be Determined, How the\nCourse of, 235\nSubstitution of Work of Vocational or Prevocational Character in the Upper\nGrades, A (William A. Greeson),\n272; B (I. I. Cammack), 274\nSuccess of a State Teachers' Employment\nAgency Law after Two Years (E. T.\nCritchett), 787\nSuccessful Experiences with Home Read-\n\nRelation of the, 29\nTeachers, Professionally Prepared, 113\nTeachers, Rural Demonstration Schools\nand Study-Center Work for Rural, 878\nTeachers and Supervisors for the Indus-\n\n—\n\ning-Lists,\n\n—\n\nA (Helen M. Baker), 795;\n\nB (Minnie E. Porter), 795; C (Franklin K. Mathiews), 795\nSummary of Reports of State Joint Committees and\n1913-14, 855\n\nAffiliated\n\nOrganizations,\n\nSumner, Helen L.—^Vocational Education—\nSocial Relationships, 572\nIts\n\nSuperintendent, Interrelation of the Ofloice\nof State Superintendent and That of\nCounty, 257\nSuperintendent Measure His Own EflSciency. How Shall the? 279\nSuperintendent Problems, A (John W.\nCarr), 344; B (Lloyd E. Wolfe), 349;\nC (Walter R. Siders), 354;\n(John\nMacDonald), 356; E (Edwin S. Monroe), 358; F (David Felmley), 358\n\nD\n\ntrial\n\nto\n\nAmerican\n\nCitizenship,\n\nBranches and Other Special Lines,\n\nThe Preparation of, 505\nTeachers' Employment Agency Law after\nTwo Years, The Success of a State, 787\nTeachers' Employment Agency under the\nthe Department of\nof\nPubUc Instruction, A State, 785\nTeachers for High Schools, The Prepara-\n\nSupervision\n\ntion of, 529\nTeachers for Rural Schools, The Preparation of, 532\nTeachers in Normal Training High Schools,\nThe Course in Agriculture for Training,\n890\nTeachers' Retirement Allowances (Walter\nI. Hamilton),\n\n71\nSalaries\n\nand Pensions, A\n(Charles William Dabney), 60; B\n(Grace C. Strachan), 66; C (Walter\nI, Hamilton), 71\nTeitrick, Reed B. ^How Secure More\n\nTeachers'\n\n—\n\nEffective Supervision, 286\n\nTendencies and General Status of Courses\nin General Science, A (William H.\nTimbie), 752; B (Fred D. Barber), 758\nTerminology of Vocational Education,\nThe, 582\nTesting Grade Teachers for Efl&ciency\n(Edwin D. Pusey), 283\nThomas, F. W. ^The Apprentice Schools\nof the Santa Fe Railway System, 175\nThompson, Alfred C. Notable Shortcomings of State Normal Schools, 554\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": "928", "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n928\n\n—\n—\n\nThompson, William O. Education for\nPolitical and Moral Sendee, io6\nThorndike, Edward L. The Foundations of Educational Achievement, 199\n\n—\n\nTiMBiE, William H. The Tendencies\nand General Status of Courses in Gen-\n\nWomen\n\nSocial\n\nfor\n\nResponsi-\n\nKimball Mathews), 40\nTwentieth-Century Normal School (John\nbility (Lois\n\nR. Kirk), 524\nTwentieth-Century Normal School New\nBranches of Study, New Problems, and\nNew Ideals (Carroll G. Pearse), 527\nTwiss, George R. The Outlook for the\n\n—\n\n—\n\nApplication of the Scientific Method to\nthe Problems of Science Teaching, 723\nUnited States Bureau of Education Is\nDoing for the Kindergarten, What the, 413\nUniversities, Religious Education in, 489\nUse of Lantern Slides in a Course in\nElectrical Measurements (Charles P.\nFrey), 742\nUse of Raw Materials in Teaching Agriculture (W. S. Welles), 886\nUse of the Factory and OflSce Buildings\nin New York City for Vocational Education (John H. Haaren), 602\nVacation and Other Out-of-School Work,\nWhat Recognition Should Be Given ? 905\nValue of History of Art as a Study in\nSecondary\nSchools\n(Mary Stuart\n\nMacMurphy), 460\n\n—\n\nVance, William McK. How Shall the\nSuperintendent Measure His Own Efficiency? 279\nVocational and Cultural Education, Harmonizing, 375\nVocational Education, Fundamental Distinctions between Liberal and, 150\nVocational Education, Industrial Hygiene\nand, 668\nVocational Education Its Social Relationships (Helen L. Sumner), 572\nVocational Education Its Terminology\n(Carroll G. Pearse), 582\nVocational Education, The Economic\nSignificance and Relationships of, 569\nVocational Education, The Use of the\nFactory and Office Buildings in New\nYork City for, 602\nVocational Education and Vocational\nGuidance, Statement in Regard to the\nWork of the Committee on, 568\nVocational Guidance, The Physical Condition of the Child as a Leading Factor\nin Determining His, 704\nVocational or Prevocational Work in the\nUpper Grades, Substitution of, 272\nWales, Elizabeth B. Community Service from the Rural-School Library, 808\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nF.\n\n—Self-Expression in\n\nSociety, 430\n\nWanted\n\n—A\n\nTwentieth-Century\n\nIdeal\n\n(Grace C. Strachan), 317\n\n— Constructive Civic\nHerbert\n— Shortening the\n\nWard, Edward\n\nJ.\n\nAgencies, 439\n\nWeet,\n\neral Science, 752\n\nTrade Agreements in Industrial Education\nof Apprentices in Chicago (William M.\nRoberts), 607\nTraining of Rural Teachers in the Use of\nBooks (Delia G. Ovitz), 802\nTraining-School, The (W. T. Carrington),\n537\nTraining\n\nWalker, Julia\n\nS,\n\nCourse of Study in the Upper Grades, 269\n\nWelles, W. S.—The Use of Raw Materials in Teaching Agriculture, 886\n\n—\n\nWestcott, Oliver S. President's Address: The Old and the New, 446\nWhat Recognition Should Be Given Vacation and Other Out-of-School Work?\nQames W. Crabtree), 905\nWhat the United States Bureau of Education Is Doing for the Kindergarten\n(Myra M. Winchester), 413\nWhen Music Fulfils Its Highest Fimction\n(Peter C. Lutkin), 641\nWhitbeck, R. H. Geography in the\nLarge High School, 732\nWho Shall Administer Our Schools?\n(A. W. Rankin), 912\nWilliams, Henry G. Extension Work\nin Normal Schools, 519\nWilliams, Tom A. Fear and Its Cure,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n836\nWiLLiSTON, Arthur L. Should Manual\nTraining and Technical High Schools\nAbandon Their General and College\nPreparatory Aims and Become Efficient\nSecondary Schools of Applied Science?\n577\n\n—\n\nWilson, H. B.\n\n—Economy of Time in\n\nEducation, 390; Report of Committee on\nEconomy of Time in Education, 206\n\n—\n\nWilson, Martha Report of Committee\non Rural-School Libraries, 798\nWinchester,\nMyra M. What the\nUnited States Bureau of Education Is\nDoing for the Kindergarten, 413\nWithers, John W. How the Course of\nStudy Should Be Determined, 235\n\n—\n\n—\nWolfe, Lloyd E. — Superintendent Problems, 349;\n\nDiscussion, 92, 272, 309\n\nWoman, The Status of, 40\n\nWomen for Social Responsibility, Training, 40\n\nWomen\n\nfor\n\nTwentieth-Century\n\nLife,\n\nPreparation of, 56\nWood, Harriet A. A Standard Foundation Library for a Rural School, 798\n\n—\nWood, Thomas D. —Health Problems in\nthe American Public Schools, 294\nWooLLEY, Mary E. —Preparation of\nWomen for Twentieth-Century Life, 56\nWords of Welcome to the New Department (Joseph Swain), 911\n\nWork of the National Association for the\nStudy and Education of Exceptional\nChildren (M. P. E. Groszmann), 843\nWright, Mabel\nShall Sex Hygiene\nBe Taught in the Public Schools? 697\nWright, Purd B. High-School Branches\nof Public Libraries, 820\nYocuM, A. Duncan The Determinants\nof the Course of Study, 223\n\nM.—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
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{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "£\\0\nL\n13\nN3A13\n1914-\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings.,.\n\nPLEASE DO NOT REMOVE\n\nCARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY\n\n"}
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