{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "%^C\\>.^^j^^j<^\n\n"} {"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin\n\n2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1913natiuoft\n\n"} {"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\n"} {"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "K\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\n'\"'\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF THE\n\nFIFTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING\nHELD AT\n\nSALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\nJULY ^-11\n1913\n\n1913\n\npubltsbee be tbe Hesociatlon\nSECRETARY'S OFFICE, ANN ARBOR, MICH.\n\n"} {"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n13\n\nMi3\n\nComposed and Printed By\nThe University of Chicago Press\nChicago, Illinois, U.S.A.\n\n"} {"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nPAOE\n\nAct of Incorporation\n\ni\n\nBy-Laws\n\n5\n\nCertificate of Incorporation\n\n^2\n\nCalendar of Meetings\n\n13\n\nOfl&cers for 1912-13\n\n15\n\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\n\n19\n\nGENERAL SESSIONS\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI.\n\nII.\n\nSpry\n\n25\n\nNelson\n\n27\n\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome\nPresident's Address\n\nJohnson\n\n29\n\nFairchild\n\n31\n\nWhatShall We Do with the Single-Room School ?—5Aawifeey\nMoral Values in Pupil Self-Govemment\n\n38\n\nNeumann\n\nThe Personal Element in Our Educational Problems\nThe High-School Period as a Testing-Time\n\n41\n\nCampbell\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nKingsley\n\nTeaching and Testing the Teaching of Essentials\n\n49\n\nThompson\n\n55\n\nThe Schoolhouse Evening Center—What It Is, What It Costs, and What It Pays—\nHanmer\nMeasuring Results\n\nAlderman\n\nEducation as the Interpretation of Life\n\n67\nBradford\n\nSome Social Uses of Education according to Nature\n\nThe School Plant as a Public-Health Asset\n\nChancellor\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n70\n\n.\n\n72\n\nCrane\n\n78\n\n82\n\nZuehlin\n\nThe Teaching of Civics in Elementary and Secondary Schools\nThe Advance Movement of Teachers of English\nThe High School and Democracy\n\n58\n\n64\n\nThe New Rutal School—AfociowaW\n\nEducation for Freedom\n\n45\n\nBarnard\n\nHosic\n\nJones\n\n84\n91\n\n95\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE (Philadelphia Meeting, 1913)\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nTorreyson\n\n99\n\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI.\n\nBlankenburg\n\n104\n\nII.\n\nBrumbaugh\n\n105\n\nV\n\n"} {"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "— — ———— ——\n\n— ——— ———\n\n— ———\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nvi\n\nPAOX\n\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome\n\nCorson\n\n107\n\nTeam Play between City Superintendent and City Cary\nTeam Play within the System Horn\nUniformity of Standards in School Administration\n\niii\n\n116\n\nFinegan\n\nThe Uniform Minimum Curriculum with Uniform Examinations\nDeveloping the Co-operation and Initiative of Teachers\n\nThe Need to Dream\n\nJiidd\n\n....\n\nLee\nSchaefer\n\n169\n\nSome Experiments in School Systems and Their Outcome\nMeek\n\nA.\n\nDeveloping a School System\n\nB.\n\nSchool Credit for Home Industrial Work\n\nC.\n\nThe Home-School\n\nD.\n\nThe Cincinnati Continuation Schools\n\n172\n\nAlderman\n\n178\n\n—An Experiment in Household Education Condon\n\n184\n\nRoberts\n\n190\n\nThe Mechanical Mind—Hibhen\nThe Heart of the Educational Vrohltm—Bradford\nTopic:\n\n131\n\n149\n\n159\n\nThe Unmeasurable in Teaching\nTopic:\n\n122\n\nMcMurry\n\n198\n\n200\n\nReports of Committees on Education\nI\n\nA.\n\nReport of the Committee of the National Education Association on\nUniform Nomenclature in English Grammar Rounds\n\n202\n\nB.\n\nReport of the Joint Committee of the National Education Association,\nthe Modem Language Association of America, and the American\nPhilological Association, on Grammatical Nomenclature Hale\n\n205\n\nII\n\nSummary of the Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost\nof Living\n\n208\n\nBrooks\nIII\n\nEconomy of Time in Elementary Education\nA. A Report on Progress by the Committee on Economy of Time in\nElementary and Secondary Education\n\nWilson\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nB.\n\nA Seven-Year Elementary School—/m\n\nIn many schools it happens that the teaching staff as a whole is not\nespecially interested.\nMay not one reason be that teachers themselves\nare not given sufficient chance for self -government ?\n\nThey are members\n\nof their community with gifts to contribute to the whole; but too commonly\n\nthey are treated as if they had no other function than blind obedience to the\n\nThey have little voice in shaping the curriculum\nThe weekly conference\ngives an opportunity for every member of the faculty to contribute his\norders of higher officials.\n\nor fashioning the other policies of the school system.\n\nshare to the solution of the common problems; but is it always so considered ?\n\nHow frequent it is for so-called conferences to be only an assem-\n\nblage of mute drillmasters summoned by the chief drillmaster just to listen\n\nCan we expect teachers to appreciate what democratic living\nwould mean for their pupils when they themselves are not permitted so to\nlive? Can the spark of enthusiasm be kindled by those in whom it is\ndead?\nto his orders!\n\nWe shall never attack the root-problems of character-building until\nAmerica spells opportunity, we are\ndemocratic character, that is, in both its immense staff of teachers and its millions\nof boys and girls.\nNo graver responsibility has ever rested upon a people\nthan the task of our beloved country to show that ethically democracy is\nnot an idle dream. To help equip all our sons and daughters in howsoever\nslight a degree to bear their share in that responsibility is worth every bit\nthe teaching force as a whole is aglow.\n\nfond of saying.\n\nIts grandest opportunity is to liberate character\n\n—\n\nof effort that it takes.\n\nTHE PERSONAL ELEMENT IN OUR EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS\nWILLIAM H. CAMPBELL, PRINCIPAL, D. S. WENTWORTH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\n\"The man behind the gun\" became a popular phrase during recent\nmilitary experience.\n\nIt suggests that the personality of the soldier is more\n\nIt is an epigrammatic statement of the law, as old as the human race, that man was\nmade to dominate the material forces by which he is surrounded.\nEveryone who is worth while feels this force of dominance struggling\nwithin him striving to reach a realization. It is the instinctive hunger of\n\nto be reckoned with than weapon, drill, or defensive armor.\n\nthe soul that has created its idea of a deity and can never be satisfied until\n\nhas itself attained the stature of that ideal.\n\nit\n\nThere can never be rest in\n\nthe world, for as the individual rises to a higher plane, his ideals rise to\ngreater heights, luring him to more strenuous endeavor.\n\nIt is this unsatis-\n\nfied hunger of the soul that keeps the world constantly advancing.\n\nWe are often blinded and confused by the astonishing material accessories\n\nthat gather about a great institution.\n\nThe casual observer sees only\n\n"} {"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n46\n\n[General\n\nthese things, the framework, the grossly tangible objects of sense. But to\nhim who reflects, these tangible evidences pass from thought and there\nsettles upon him a consciousness of a work created by the power and genius\nof a human soul; a visible presence and manifestation of the dominating\nforce of man.\nObserve this great arched roof, one of the most daring pieces of\narchitecture ever attempted\nMade, fitted, and erected without the use\nof nails; stretched over this vast amphitheater which can accommodate\nI\n\nten thousand people; a creation in wood in a land almost barren of trees;\n\na product of genius equalled in the building, by men out of the ranks, of\nthis magnificent organ, which for a generation has challenged comparison\n\nwith the finest product of our best equipped factories!\n\nBack of it all was\n\nthe native power and personal force of that massive character and constructive genius that could venture the transplanting of a whole civiliza-\n\ntion from the banks of the Mississippi to these desert wastes, leading one of\n\nthe most unique and tragic migrations recorded in all history.\n\nIn the midst of the busy life of Paris stands the Hotel des Invalides,\n\none of the most striking mausoleums ever erected to perpetuate the\nmemory of man. In a splendid casket, surroimded by the memorials of\nhis\n\nbattles, rest the\n\nremains of the\n\nlittle\n\nCorsican soldier.\n\nEuropean\n\nsovereigns overturned his throne and attempted to stay the tempest he\n\nThe map of Europe has been remade. The\nconsciousness of personal value and the demand for political recognition\nhad ridden; but in vain.\n\nhave permeated all classes, and there remain only the relics of monarchy,\nwhile constitutional government is as much the pride of European peasants\nas of American farmers.\nAt the capital of my own state, sealed in cement and surmounted by a\nnoble monument, rest the bones of our martjnred president, Abraham\nLincoln. What board of qualifications would have passed him on from the\npoor lawyer's office to the White House ? Tested by scholarship, he was\nan ignoramus; tested by social codes, he was a pariah; tested by the rules\nBut\nof statesmanship, he was absolutely untried and apparently limited.\nhe\npotential\noutcomes;\nvision\nof\nhe believed in himself; he had faith in his\nhis\ncarry\npersonal\nforce\nto\nrelations\nand\nthe\nhad a grasp of fundamental\nviews to fruition.\nBefore such men as these, how petty the mechanical barriers we erect\n\nabout our sacred places!\n\nHow insignificant the throng we pass on bear-\n\ning the tags of our coveted examinations! These men stand out in the great\n\npanorama of events like the tall peaks of yon serrated mountain ranges.\nThey rise above all compeers, looking down upon all beneath the skies;\nabout them are hundreds and thousands of others who have not attained\ntheir greatness but by the same forceful characteristics have broken from\nthe level of the plain and have risen to eminence and leadership.\nI am pleading for the recognition of inherent power and for a system that\n\n"} {"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nwill\n\nPERSONAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS\n\nencourage and develop it\n\n47\n\n—for a broad and generous recognition of\n\npersonal qualities that come by virtue of blood and peculiar environment.\n\nIn a few large city school systems the practice still obtains of selecting\nsupervisors, and, so far as possible, teachers,\n\nby having their work and\n\npersonal qualities observed in the fields where they are engaged, and, if a\nfavorable report is made, asking them to apply for admission to the city\n\nsystem.\n\nThis is a recognition of the personal element, a basing of future\n\nBut in most of these great systems the policy is followed of seating the candidates who may desire admis-\n\npossibilities upon definite present results.\n\nsion at desks in numerical order, giving them numerical names, and turning\n\nnumbered papers over to unknown markers who place\nThe number set opposite the\nhighest percentage with the oldest date becomes the first initiate to the\nsystem. A course more ridiculous and unjust to the children and the homes\nof our great cities could hardly be imagined.\n''How many eligibles for\nprincipalships [those holding certificates] have you on yoiu: list ?\" was asked\nof a superintendent in one of our large cities.\n\"About 140,\" he replied.\n\"How many of these are desirable material for appointment ?\" \"Oh, some\nten or twelve,\" he replied. Yet in that same system the list is being ground\nout on the plan of first come first served in the order of dates and percentages\nand the endless succession shows no improvement. Think of a great business establishment spending millions of dollars upon its salary schedules\nselecting its supervisors and foremen upon such a plan!\nIn the endeavor to secure an adequate mental equipment and discipline upon the part of the teacher, raising the profession above the biting\nridicule that has followed it from the days of Socrates, we have swung far\ntoward the extreme of regarding the sole necessary equipment certain\nacademic knowledge, or its equivalent, a diploma. Far be it from us to\ntheir numerically\n\ncertain percentages over against them.\n\ndecry the demand for academic culture or for evidences of scholarly discipline.\nParaphrasing the words of the great teacher, these should we\ndemand, not neglecting the weightier matters of personal character, force,\nand ability to impress. We are lifting one side of the teaching profession out\nof the range of ridicule, but it is toppling over on the other side and we are\nmet upon every hand by the charges impractical, pedantic, and bookish.\nToo many of the teachers in our schools are but college and university\ndiplomas on legs, stripped of all human attributes and sympathies, holding\n\nthe terrors of the written law over the heads of their helpless victims. They\nneed to be supplied with flesh that can bleed, and nerves that can thrill,\nand emotions that will enable them to feel joy and sorrow in the common\naffairs which make up so large a part of the pupils' lives.\n\nThe personal element and activities should not be limited to the merely\npedagogic side of educational movements. Every teacher should be thoroly\nalive to the ever-changing conditions that are going on about him.\nWe\nhave been tempted to shut ourselves up, after the manner of hermit crabs,\n\n"} {"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n48\n\n[General\n\nwithin our thin pedagogic shells, trusting that the winds and waves would be\n\nThe\n\npropitious, wafting us to abundant food and pleasant surroundings.\n\ngreat world is going on without bothering very much about us.\n\nIn the town\n\nfrom which I come there are probably a hundred department managers and\nassistants, to say nothing of the larger business agents, who receive from\n\nBut when the superintendent\n\n$10,000 to $50,000 per year for their services.\n\nof schools was given $10,000 we listened to the tale with bated breath and\n\nthe story was told all over the country as a marvelous act of appreciation or\ngenerosity or extravagance, as the case might be.\n\nBut this is not all. Indeed it is the least of our evils. If the government, the state, or the community decides upon the desirability of a material\nimprovement, be it canal, or railroad, or subway, the cost is a secondary\nconsideration.\n\nWe carry on war, buy islands, build battleships, or enter\n\nupon vast\n\ninternal\n\nthe cost.\n\nBut we sit down before an educational problem, such as estab-\n\nimprovements without counting or complaining\n\nof\n\nlishing a national bureau of education, adequately providing for judicious\nclassification in our schoolrooms, making provision for the various types of\n\nour cosmopolitan population, caring for the delinquents and truants, housing the rural schools in central buildings where the child of the farmer may\n\nhave advantages equal to those of his city cousin, and throw up our hands\nin despair because it adds to the cost and increases taxation.\n\nThe most perplexing problem before us at the present time, affecting\nboth the city and the rural school, is that of vocational training. Its solution would not be so difficult were it not for the financial outlay involved.\n\nWe are trying to figure out how this may be added and something else subtracted so that no more money need be taken from the public purse.\nstate and the nation deal with no other subject in this way.\n\nThe\n\nIt is time for\n\nan educational propaganda that shall echo and re-echo the needs for these\nimprovements and innovations, regardless of cost, until the whole people\nare alive to the situation and the schools are brought up to the advance\nlines\n\nof\n\nour twentieth-century standards.\n\nThe vocational\n\nquestion\n\nis\n\nundoubtedly revolutionary in its aspect but not more revolutionary than\n\nhave been the innovations in business and in political and social affairs\nduring the past few years.\nA corollary naturally grows out of the discussion I have attempted to\nlead which is more important to us than any statements I may have made.\nIf it be true that the personal quality, the self of manhood or womanhood,\n\nstands over and above all material constructions and institutions;\nindividual character\n\nand\n\nforcefulness\n\nof\n\nexpression are of\n\nif\n\nthe\n\nparamount\n\nimportance in the world; then all things educational should be turned to the\n\ndevelopment of this personality.\n\nIt is high time to question the wisdom\n\nand economy of classifying our children by herds and grades.\n\nmen never constituted anything but a machine.\n\nA herd of\n\nIt is only when individuals\n\nhave broken loose from the formal herd, refusing to be confined by regula-\n\n"} {"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE HIGH-SCHOOL PERIOD AS A TESTING-TIME\n\nSessions]\n\n49\n\ntions made for large groups, and have found means for individual develop-\n\nment that we have had outbursts of genius.\n\nThe child is not a piece of inert material that can be corded up and estimated at so much per unit of measurement. He is the essential element in\nall processes, and one piece can never be substituted for another without\naffecting the character of the output.\n\nIt is this individuality of the child,\n\nthe strong personal characteristics, that the schools should foster.\n\nThere\n\nis danger in these days of gigantic trusts and aggregations of forces that the\n\nindividual shall be submerged by the group spirit and that men shall lose\n\nthemselves in the great flux of associated interests.\n\nThe schools are the one\n\nforce that can stand like guardian spirits over these embryonic men and\n\nwomen, clearing the way and giving opportunity for the coming into life\nand activity of those forces and personal qualities that have ever been the\nuplifting and inspiring elements in our civilization.\nEvery school officer, every supervisor, every teacher that comes into the\npresence of the children in these schools should hear that voice from Sinai,\n\n\"Take thy shoes from off thy feet for the place whereon thou standest is\nholy ground\"; not because he is in the presence of the raw material out of\n\nwhich factory and shop operatives are to be made; not because the voters\nand office-holders and legislators shall come thence and go to their places\nlike cattle to the shambles; not because from them shall come the multitude\nthat shall fill our colleges and universities and medical schools and law\nschools and theological seminaries, but because in them is the germ of life\neternal for the nation.\n\nTHE HIGH-SCHOOL PERIOD AS A TESTING-TIME\nCLARENCE D. KINGSLEY, HIGH-SCHOOL INSPECTOR, MASSACHUSETTS BOARD\nOF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS.\nHeretofore education has been conceived almost entirely in terms of\ntraining, and the schools were content to offer only one kind of training.\n\nThis kind was devised for the education of men in the learned professions,\n\nand afterward was proclaimed to afford the best kind of intellectual discipline and consequently the best training for everyone.\nWhen, however,\nthis discipline theory was questioned and abandoned, the way was opened\nfor the next step, vocational training, which means specialized training,\ntraining for industries, for commerce, and for agriculture, as well as for\nthe professions.\n\nThe work of the schools is not completed, however, simply by offering\nmany kinds of training. The school must assist the pupil to discover\nwhich kind will meet his needs. The school must assist in the whole\nprocess of adjusting the pupil to life. Whatever else education may conseems to me that these three phases are essential; namely,\na conception of the variety and significance of the world's work;\n\nsist of, it\nfirst,\n\n"} {"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n50\n\niGeneral\n\nsecond, the discovery of aptitudes, largely thru the process of testing\naptitudes;\n\nand third, training.\n\nThe adjustment of the individual to life\n\nis broader than the adjustment to vocation.\n\nIt includes also the selection\n\nof avocation, the enlargement of interests, and the preparation for citizenship.\n\nFor\n\nall\n\nwork and\nOur conception of\n\nthese ends a broad knowledge of the world's\n\nthe discovery of personal aptitudes are necessary.\n\neducation must therefore be broadened so as to include testing as well\nas training, and the schools must be reorganized so as to afford an oppor-\n\ntunity for each individual to test his aptitudes in as wide a variety of\n\nwork as possible.\n\nFor some the period of testing must be short, for others\nit may be longer, but for all it is highly important.\nIt is my purpose to sketch very briefly certain methods whereby the\nhigh-school period may be made a testing-time, and to indicate how this\nconception of secondary education calls for cosmopolitan, or composite,\n\nhigh schools and for broader college-entrance requirements.\n\nMr. Jesse B. Davis, principal of the Central High School, Grand Rapids,\nMich., has devised a notable plan for vocational and moral guidance\nthru English composition. Under the direction of the teachers of English\nthe thoughtful attention of all pupils of the high school is directed each\n\nyear toward some phase of adjustment to life's duties.\n\nThis plan worked out by Mr. Davis commends itself for many reasons.\nIt reaches all pupils in the high school and encourages a thoughtful attitude\n\ntoward life's problems thruout the entire high-school course.\nthe interest in a subject already in the school.\n\nIt adds to\n\nIt brings the teachers\n\nnormally into the relationship of guide and counselor to pupils.\n\nTo give the widest possible knowledge of the vocations themselves\nand of the kind of aptitudes needed, a number of high schools are conducting a survey of vocations.\n\nIn one year the pupils gather all the\n\ninformation they can about a large number of vocations.\n\nMr. William\n\nA. Wheatley, superintendent of schools in Middletown, Conn., has for a\n\nnumber of years conducted such a course. About fifty vocations are\nHe reports that the pupils are interested in the\nstudied by each class.\nstudy, that it appears to be of value in helping them choose a vocation,\nand that it convinces many that it is worth while to secure adequate\nThe great difficulty in this work consists in\ntraining for life's duties.\nsecuring reliable information.\nsists of\n\nhis\n\nSo much of the literature available con-\n\nthe opinion of some one man, generally an enthusiast regarding\n\nown vocation.\n\nHowever, those who are inclined to be overcautious\n\nshould remember that the light which the school can give is pretty sure\nto be clearer than that which otherwise would be obtained by the pupil\nfrom chance acquaintances and miscellaneous reading. Valuable information is now being gathered by such agencies as the Vocation Bureau\nof Boston under the direction of Mr. Meyer Bloomfield, and by the\nHigh School Teachers Association of New York City.\n\n"} {"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE HIGH-SCHOOL PERIOD AS A TESTING-TIME\n\nSessionsl\n\n51\n\nEvery subject in the high school should be utilized to a certain extent\nto aid in the testing process, either by enlarging the vision of the world's\n\nwork or by testing aptitudes.\n\nIn the newer textbooks in natural science\n\nattention is given to the industries in which scientific processes are used.\n\nWhen\n\n—\n\nthe social sciences\n\n^history,\n\ncivics,\n\n—are better\n\nand economics\n\nadapted to the needs of high-school pupils, they will teach more about the\nhistory of industries, the social significance of commerce, and the newer\nvocations connected with public utilities and social service.\n\nThe testing process should not be confined to the schoolroom.\nbest the schoolroom has an artificiality which prevents\n\nAt its\n\nfrom revealing certain aptitudes. Activities such as the following when conducted\nby the pupils themselves imder the guidance of teachers are of much value\nit\n\nin this process:\n\nDebating\n\nsocieties,\n\nespecially\n\nwhen organized as city council, state\nIt is important, however,\n\nlegislature, or congress, test powers of leadership.\n\nthat such societies shall be under the guidance of teachers who have a clear\n\nconception of new ideals in democracy so that the aptitudes revealed shall\n\nbe those of the true leader rather than those of the poUtician.\nThe school paper affords an opportunity for testing aptitudes for\njournalism. It should be borne in mind, however, that we are not interested in fostering yellow journalism, but instead in discovering the qualities\n\nthat have made certain journals powerful in forming sound public opinion.\n\nThe dramatic society reveals aptitudes that may find expression in the\npulpit quite as likely as on the stage.\n\nThe management of the baseball team often exhibits managerial ability\nnever once called into play in the classroom.\nPupils upon entering the high school may be divided into two groups,\nthose who have not decided upon their future education or their future\nvocation,\n\nand those who have.\n\nFor those who have not decided, there\n\nneeded a general course which will provide a broad outlook upon the\nworld's work and afford an opportunity to test aptitudes in a variety of\nis\n\nlines.\n\nProfessor Hanus in the report of the Committee on School Inquiry,\n\nNew York City, recommends that such a general course be provided. It\nis my impression that very few high schools have as yet satisfactorily\ndevised such a course, partly because they have been handicapped by the\ntradition that regards training as the sole\nespecially\n\nby college-entrance requirements.\n\naim of education, and more\nIt\n\nis\n\nevident that testing\n\nshould be the controlling factor in the general course, and that\n\nwhen\n\npupils discover aptitudes and develop motives that make continued education desirable, no arbitrary barriers should be placed in their way.\n\nFor those, who upon, entering high school have decided upon\n\ntheir\n\nfuture education or their future vocation, specialized courses are offered\nin\n\nwhich the idea\n\nof training is emphasized.\n\nThe traditional college-\n\npreparatory course is one of these specialized courses.\n\n"} {"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n52\n\n[General\n\nThe idea of testing should not, however, be absent from specialized\ncourses.\n\nIt is worth while to ask: \" Should these early choices be regarded\n\nWhen we remember that these choices have\nbeen made by pupils of about fourteen years of age, it is evident that their\nas final or as provisional ?\"\n\nknowledge of their own aptitudes is necessarily very limited, as they have\nhad opportunity to test their powers in only a few lines and even in these\nlines only in an elementary way.\nThese children of fourteen have very\nlittle conception of the real significance of various vocations and their own\npersonal ideals have had little opportunity to imfold. If these early choices\nare regarded as final by parents, teachers, and school authorities, and\ncourses n^rowly organized, there is comparatively little likelihood that\nthe pupil will revise his choice.\n\nIf, however, these early choices are regarded\n\nas provisional by parents, teachers, and school authorities, and some study\nis\n\nmade of the world's work, the number of pupils who discover some\n\ncourse better suited to their needs will undoubtedly increase.\n\nThe notion prevails in some quarters that a transfer from one specialized\nis undesirable even when the pupil is actuated by a\n\ncourse to another\n\nseriousness of purpose.\nlittle\n\nIt is argued that the work already done becomes of\n\nvalue and therefore represents sheer waste.\n\nThis argument has\n\nfoundation when specialized courses are narrowly organized, when technic\nis overemphasized,\n\nand when no effort is made to give the pupil an under-\n\nstanding of underlying principles and appreciation of the social significance\nof the work.\n\nIf,\n\non the other hand, the course is broadly organized to\n\ninclude both technic and appreciation of some large and worthy field of\n\nhuman endeavor, then the value of this work is permanent even to the\npupil who transfers to another course.\n\nThe distinction between the general course in which testing is emphasized\n\nand the\n\nspecialized courses in\n\nwhich training is emphasized will\n\ndoubtless raise the question whether the instruction for these two groups\n\nmust be conducted\n\nentirely in separate classes.\n\nEvidently the small\n\nhigh school with five or six teachers would find this absolutely impossible.\nNor indeed does it seem to be necessary that separate classes should be\n\nmaintained in a large number of subjects. The work in English, history,\nFurthermore, it\ncivics, and economics rarely calls for such distinctions.\nis\n\npossible to organize certain introductory courses in practical arts so as\n\nThe Massachusetts Board of Education,\nrecommends that schools offer as electives\na course in introductory agriculture and a course in introductory business.\nto be of value to both groups.\n\nin a bulletin recently issued,\n\nThe purpose of the course in introductory agriculture is stated as follows:\nTo give the boys and girls an appreciation of the interrelations of agriculture and\nscience, to develop a love of country life, and to reveal the opportunities now afforded\n\nin farming and in related occupations and professions.\n\nRegarding introductory business the bulletin states:\n\n"} {"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE BIGB-SCBOOL PERIOD AS A TESTING-TIME\n\nSessions]\n\n53\n\nThis course is intended to enable the pupil to discover whether he has aptitudes\niox clerical work or for business, and at the same time to furnish such knowledge of busi-\n\nness practice as will be of general value.\n\nThis work must afford a real test of ability in\n\nthis particular field.\n\nThe conception of the high-school period as a testing-time calls for high\nschools of the cosmopolitan, or composite, type, that is, schools that offer\n\nthe widest possible variety of instruction.\n\nFor pupils in the general course\n\nthe need of a wide variety of work to test aptitudes is evident.\n\nAs the\n\npupil progresses in the general course he may begin to specialize and the\nschool should at every step aid him in a wise choice of work.\n\nFor pupils\n\nin specialized courses, intimate association with pupils in other specialized\n\ncourses\n\nis\n\nhighly desirable, as these early choices should be regarded as\n\nprovisional.\nall\n\nThe cosmopolitan school assists teachers in understanding\n\ntypes of secondary education, thus making them better counselors of\n\nyouth.\n\nIt does not seem necessary to me that a large cosmopolitan school\n\nshould conduct all its activities in a single building.\n\nWhen separate build-\n\nings prove desirable as contributing to efficient management and definite-\n\nness of aim, these buildings may be located near together and placed under\n\none supervising principal.\npupil\n\nis\n\ntransfer\n\nnot called upon to\n\nThe school is then one institution and the\nsacrifice school loyalty in order to secure\n\nfrom one specialized course to another.\n\na\n\nA high-school system\n\nthat consists entirely of separate specialized schools, such as technical,\n\ncommercial, and college-preparatory schools, totally ignores the needs of\npupils who, at fourteen years of age, are unprepared to choose a specialized course and it gives an unwarranted finality to early choices.\n\nThe conception of the high-school period as a testing-time calls for\nthe abandonment of traditional college-entrance requirements.\n\nThese\n\nrequirements are based upon the conception that the only function of\nthe high school\n\nis\n\ntraining.\n\nUnder these requirements the pupil must\n\ndecide upon entering the high school whether he will prepare for college\nor not.\n\nIf he takes the college-preparatory course, he has no opportunity\n\nto test aptitudes except in a very few lines and is likely to come up to college\n\nwith a very vague conception of his aptitudes.\n\nAs Abraham Flexner says\n\nin his book, The American College:\n\nThe motive on which the college vainly relies, self-reaUzation, has got to be rendered\noperative at the earlier stage\n\nAs a matter of fact, the secondary period is far more\n\nfavorable than the college to the free exploration of the boy.\n\nIn a recent study of the entrance requirements of 203 colleges of liberal\narts that I made for the United States Bureau of Education, I found that\nfor admission to the A.B. course four colleges give no credit whatever for\n\nnatural science.\nsignificant\n\nOne of these colleges in its catalog for 191 1 has this\n\nstatement:\n\n''Students deciding\n\nto\n\nenter Hamilton\n\nCollege\n\nshould waste no time on subjects outside our entrance requirements.\"\n\n"} {"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n54\n\n[General\n\nAccording to this statement any study in the high school regarding the\n\nman to utilize natural forces is a\n\nlaws of nature and the attempts by\n\nwaste of time for a boy who is to enter the A.B.\n\ncoiu-se in\n\nHamilton\n\nCollege.\nis less common, and yet Princeton\nnew plan annoimced only last year, devised a special\nsystem of points in order to discourage the study of history by those who\n\nDiscrimination against history\n\nUniversity, in a\n\nAccording to this plan, 15 units are accepted if\nthe applicant offers a certain combination in which history is omitted.\n\nare to enter Princeton.\n\nIf,\nis\n\nhowever, he offers one imit of history, 15 J units are required and if he\nso imwise as to study two units of history in the high school, 16 units\n\nare required.\n\nOf twenty colleges for women, only three give any credits for household\narts.\n\nIn a recent article in the Outlook on \"The High School and the College,\"\nTheodore Roosevelt cites the case of a girl in the William Penn High\nSchool of Philadelphia, who has maintained a record of \"A\" thruout her\nhigh-school course and is president of the Student-Government Association\nin that school of two thousand girls.\n\nWhile in high school, she has become\nShe cannot afford,\n\ninterested in social work and desires to go to college.\n\nhowever, to go away from home and the college in her own city requires\n\ntwo foreign languages.\nsequently is shut out.\n\nShe has had but one foreign language and conHer case is not unique. Similar cases occur by the\n\nhundreds and thousands.\n\nIt is useless to contend that she should\n\nhave\n\ntaken the college-preparatory course, for that course with its rigidly prescribed subjects would have offered\n\nlittle\n\nopportimity for self-discovery.\n\nFortimately a new articulation seems to be coming.\n\nAt least eighteen\n\nmargin of four or more imits\nfor any subjects whatever that an approved high school coimts toward\ncolleges of hberal arts allow a substantial\n\ngraduation.\n\nOne of the most interesting plans of college admission is the plan of\nReed College, Portland, Ore. This college is not concerned with the\nsubjects which the pupil\n\nmay or may not have pursued provided only\n\nthat the work has been well taught and thoroly mastered.\n\nThis college\n\nmany applicants who could pass the traditional college-entrance\nrequirements. It admits many applicants that other colleges would\nreject.\nAn important feature in the entrance requirements of Reed College\nis the requirement that the appUcant state why he wants to go to college\nand why he selects Reed College. Thus Reed College has recognized\nrejects\n\nthe principle that the high-school period ought to be a testing-time in which\nthe pupil shall formulate some kind of a purpose.\n\nIn conclusion, therefore, the enlargement of the idea of education to\ninclude testing as an important factor demands a high-school course which\naffords a broad survey of the world's\n\nwork and the opportunity to test\n\n"} {"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEACHING AND TESTING TEACHING OF ESSENTIALS\n\naptitudes in many lines.\n\n55\n\nIt also demands cosmopolitan high schools and\n\nbroader college-entrance requirements.\n\nMuch of the charm of youth, like the charm of the frontier, lies in the\nsense of potentiality, undiscovered possibilities, latent aptitudes.\n\nEvery\n\ninstitution that would do justice to youth must not content itself with the\n\nmust maintain the expectant\nEvery teacher of youth\nand exploration calls for alertness, vision, and\n\ntraining of powers already revealed but\nattitude.\n\nPassive expectancy is not sufficient.\n\nmust be an\n\nexplorer,\n\nimagination.\n\nTEACHING AND TESTING THE TEACHING OF ESSENTIALS\nTHOMAS E. THOMPSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LEOMINSTER, MASS.\n\n\"Minimum Essentials\" is the topic most discussed in the educational\nworld today.\n\n\"Efficiency\" is the slogan of the world of business and of\n\nBoth have arisen out of the desire to avoid waste, to make\nThe movement seems so reasonable and so necessary that we are likely, imless we stop\nto consider carefully, to impose it upon phases of activity to which it cannot\npossibly be applied. In purely mechanical processes waste in any form is\nundesirable and should, as far as possible, be eliminated. In growth, in\nachievement.\n\nevery motion, every minute, and every bit of material count.\n\nlife-processes,\n\nin\n\nthe development of\n\nhuman personality,\n\nthere must,\n\nhowever, always be more or less of what seems to us waste.\n\nalways wasteful.\n\nNature is\n\nHer methods are not direct and simple, but round about\n\nand complex.\nIn a recent article in the Atlantic Monthly, John Burroughs says:\n\nMan plans and builds and plants by method, order, system; he has eyes to see and\nhands to guide and wit to devise; nature builds and plants blindly, haphazard, all aroimd\nthe drcle; her handmaidens are industrious but undirected\nThe sun itself is a type of nature's wholesale spendthrift method. It radiates its light\nand heat in every possible direction and if we regard its function as the source of light and\nheat to the worlds revolving around it, what an incalculable waste goes on forever and\never.\n\nThe account of this life-giving solar radiance that falls on the planets is a fraction\n\nso small that it is like a grain of sand compared to the sea-shore\n\nYet thru this hit-and-miss method of nature, things have come to what they are; life\nhas come to what we behold it; the trees and the plants are in their places; the animals\nare adjusted to their environments; the seeds are sown, fruits ripen, the rains come, the\nweather system is established, and the vast and complex machinery of the life of the\nglobe runs more or less smoothly;\n\nnon-directed, in the human sense. Blind, groping,\nexperimenting, regardless of waste, regardless of pain, regardless of failure, circuitous,\nfortuitous, ambiguous, traversing the desert and the wilderness without chart or compass,\n\nbeset by geologic, biologic, and cosmic catastrophes and delays, yet the great procession\nof the life of the globe, with man at its head, has arrived and entered into full possession\nof the inheritance prepared for it.\n\nThe school concerns itself with both kinds of work, that which is, or\nshould be, purely mechanical, and that which is not or should not be in any\nsense or degree mechanical but which stimulates and nourishes life-processes.\n\n"} {"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n56\n\n[General\n\nThe multiplication table, for example, should be learned mechanically.\nMachines are made to multiply. The more machine-like a pupil in his\nThe same is true of spelling,\nmultiplication, the better he has been taught.\npenmanship, correct usage, reading, as far as it consists of recognizing\nwords, and certain forms of drawing and manual training.\nBut the school has another duty: to build character, to stimulate and\nSuch growth is never mechanical and must always\nfoster growth in life.\ninvolve what seems like waste. The stimulation and direction and nourishing of the growth of the higher powers of the individual, his reason, and his\nemotion, must always be the most important duty of the school, even of\nthe elementary school. Knowledge of the world today, of how people live\nand work and govern, and of what is going on that is of vital interest to\nthose even remote from us; knowledge of the past, of how ideals and institutions and governments have developed, all knowledge that builds up in\nthe individual mind and heart a world like the real human world of striving,\nsuffering, rejoicing; that opens and enlarges the mind and broadens the\nsympathies, that makes him a better citizen; the teaching and experience\nthat enables him to appreciate the beauty of God's handiwork in nature,\nand of man's ideals and aspirations in music and art none of this must\n\n—\n\nbe neglected.\n\nFor more than a generation now, however, the work of the school has\nsuffered because of a confusion of methods and because nature's \"hit-and-\n\nmiss method,\" as John Burroughs calls it, has been followed in teaching\npurely mechanical processes.\n\nTo a certain extent the reverse is also true\n\nand the method of teaching mechanical processes has been followed in those\nsubjects that are in no sense mechanical, but are nourishment for the\ngrowing feelings and reasons.\nSome educators have declared that the chief reason for teaching a fact,\nsuch as 5X7 equals 35, was not the fact itself but the development of the\npupil's character which would result from the proper teaching of the fact.\nBecause her class studying multiplication knew the facts of that table, and\ncould always give the product of any numbers less than twelve instantly\nand correctly, it did not necessarily follow in the teacher's mind that her\nwork had been successful. So she lost, and her pupils lost, much valuable\ntime over \"the process.\" Alice Freeman Palmer used to tell of a little girl\nwho was struggling one evening over a simple problem in arithmetic. Mrs.\nPalmer offered to help her and said, after looking the problem over, \"Why,\nthis is simple.\nDon't you see what the answer must be?\" \"Yes, yes,\"\nthe child replied, \"I know what the answer is. It's the process that\ntroubles me.\"\nNow in elementary education, and by that I mean such education as is\nsupposed to be imparted in the grades below the high school, the number of\nfacts which the pupil completing the grades must know at once, without\n\nhesitation, almost if not quite automatically, is astonishingly small.\n\nThese\n\n"} {"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nfacts\n\n—\n\nTEACHING AND TESTING TEACHING OF ESSENTIALS\n\n—I\n\nthis body of knowledge\n\ncall\n\nthe minimum essentials.\n\n57\n\nThe sum\n\nof any two figures when the sum is not more than twenty, the difference\n\nbetween any two figures when the larger is twenty or less, multiplication\nthru the table of twelve, and the reversal of the same in terms of division,\n\n—many would\n\ndenominate numbers, and aliquot parts of one hundred\naccept these as the minimum essentials.\n\nEven to satisfy the most exacting we should be obliged to add but little\nIn Leominster we have separated these facts from the larger\nbody of arithmetic with its definitions, rules, and problems, and put them\nin simple systematic form on sheets of paper, a study and oral test sheet,\nand a written test sheet for each grade, and the arrangement is such that\npupils attain 100 per cent in the essentials and do the work in one-fourth of\nto the list.\n\nFor illustration, all the facts in subtraction thru\n\nthe time usually given.\n\nthe number twenty are printed on a single sheet of paper.\nthis for study and the teacher for the oral drill tests.\n\nThe pupil has\nThe pupils study and\n\nthe oral drill in no way prevents the teacher from making sure that the child\n\nhas a clear and definite idea of numbers and that he is not reciting names\n\nand symbols that have no meaning to him.\n\nA similar paper, but with the\n\nfacts differently arranged, is printed for a written test paper.\n\nAll the\nanswers to arithmetical questions in subtraction that a child is expected to\n\nknow mechanically can be given orally in three minutes or less, in some\ncases in one minute, if the pupil knows them thoroly; this includes all facts\n\nthru twenty.\n\nThe answers can be written in on the written test sheet in a\nThe time element is very important and teachers keep\n\nvery short time.\n\nrecords of the time taken.\n\nfound together.\n\nKnowledge and rapidity are almost invariably\n\nIn a similar manner, correct usage, including words\n\ncommonly mispronounced and the principal parts of verbs like \"lie\" and\n\"lay,\" the ignorance of which causes confusion and error in our speech,\n\nWe are gradually\nextending the work, intending to cover all the facts that should be known,\nare arranged and printed both for study and for test.\n\nin this manner.\n\nBecause of the extensive additions of the past generation to the\nelementary-school curriculum, the teacher of today finds the amount of\ntime and effort that she can give to teaching the child these essentials\nmaterially diminished.\n\nAltho the essentials in any given subject are com-\n\nparatively few, yet because they have not been definitely and carefully\n\nseparated from the large number of other facts of less importance, they are\noften, indeed usually,\n\nno better taught than are those that are of little\n\nimportance.\n\nm\n\nWhen I. studied arithmetic\nthe grades, aside from the number facts\nnecessary to perform the four fundamental processes, there seemed to be no\nrecognition of the relative importance of arithmetical facts.\n\nTho I lived\n\nin Illinois, the Vermont rule for partial payments was taught to me with as\n\nmuch zeal and persistence as simple interest and mensuration.\n\nAlligation*\n\n"} {"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n58\n\n[General\n\nduodecimals, and compound proportion were as eagerly and enthusiastically\nimparted to me as were percentage and common fractions. The same is\ntrue today, only not true to such a degree. The facts about number are\nalmost innimierable, but the facts of number known to and necessary to\n\nthe average American citizen are limited, and can be acquired in a com-\n\nThe same is true of every subject in the school\nThe number of facts that one might find available for learning,\n\nparatively short time.\n\ncurriculum.\n\nand, I am very sorry to say, also for teaching, about North America, is\ntruly imlimited, but the number of facts that the average educated American\ncitizen knows about his own continent is not large.\n\nThe teacher, very often, in fact usually, a yoimg woman with little\nexperience with either life or knowledge, faces this great body of knowledge,\nthis imposing array of facts, and usually feels that she must teach it all, or\n\nat least all that part of it dealing with the section her class is studying.\n\nThere is not today, in either textbook or course of study, the definiteness and limitation that we should ask for imder minimum essentials.\n\nBoth\n\nthe textbook and the course of study include a great deal more, and very\nproperly, for beyond the minimum essentials we should come in contact\n\nwith many facts that we may not be required to master as we do the truth\nthat two and two make four.\n\nThe school reflects today, as it always has, its environment.\n\nWe are\n\nconmianded upon all sides to submit to tests for efficiency and to show\nefficient work as teachers or explain the reason why.\n\nOnly weakness seeks\n\ncover under the cry that educational results cannot be tested.\n\nDoubtless\n\nthe highest, the noblest, the most important work of the teacher can be tested\n\nonly by the life that his pupils live, and the complete answer be given only\nby the next generation. Let us recognize, however, that the common tools\nof book-learning are of great importance, can be easily separated from those\nof less or of no importance, and welcome the testing of our teaching of them.\n\nTHE SCHOOLEOUSE EVENING CENTER—WHAT IT IS, WHAT\nIT COSTS, AND WHAT IT PAYS\nLEE F. HANMER, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF RECREATION, RUSSELL SAGE\nFOUNDATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe three questions that the topic presents for consideration are pracWhat is a schoolhouse evening center, what does it cost, and what\n\ntical ones:\n\ndoes it pay ?\n\nI shall endeavor to be as brief and concrete as possible.\n\nIn\n\norder to get clearly in mind the thing itself about which we are talking, I\nshall ask you to come with me, in imagination, to a city out in Massachu-\n\nsetts and see a schoolhouse evening center in actual operation.\n\nThe early\n\ntwilight of a\n\nNew England winter evening has already\n\ndeepened into night; the shops and markets have pulled down their shutters\n\n"} {"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEE SCHOOLHOUSE EVENING CENTER\n\n$9\n\nand barred their doors, the hum and bustle of the day's business has subsided, and an air of relaxation pervades the neighborhood.\nBut the schoolhouse windows are aglow, and the doors, swinging outward, are admitting an intermittent stream of neighborhood folk, chatting\nin groups and couples or hurrying along singly as tho some pressing engagement were at hand.\nInside the entryway the stream breaks up as the people distribute\nthemselves among classrooms, assembly hall, gymnasium, laboratory, and\nkindergarten, manual-training, and domestic-science rooms. In the kindergarten room, a dramatic club is assembled to rehearse The Snow Queen,\nwhich is to be given in the assembly hall the following Saturday night as a\nneighborhood afiFair. The secretary of the club has just announced that\nthe committee having in charge the sale of tickets desires six more volunteers to help in canvassing the neighborhood, as the sales thus far have not\nbeen sufficient to cover the expense of the new stage decorations for William\nTelly which they are planning to give at the end of the next quarter.\n\nUp in the science-room on the third floor the orchestra is putting the\nfinishing touches on its part of next Saturday night's program, and later,\n\nat a business session, the members grapple with the problem of securing two\n\nmore violins, a cello, and a cornet, which all agree are greatly needed to give\nthe proper balance to the combination.\n\nA class in mechanical drawing is hard at work in the room just off the\nmanual-training shop, and the shop itself, by this time a hive of industry,\nis filled with a medley of whistled tunes mingled with the music of hanmiers,\n\nsaws, and planes.\n\nIn the eighth-grade room a class in bookkeeping is in\n\nsession, and across the hall the members of the stenography class are trying\n\nto adjust themselves to the seats and desks of the seventh-grade room.\n\nThe\n\ninstructor has just announced, however, that the school board assures\n\nhim that the new movable furniture will be in place next month and that the\nnew desks are possible of such adjustment as will accommodate the typewriters, which thus far they have been unable to use to good advantage.\n\nDown in the gymnasium the members of the Monday, Wednesday, and\nFriday study classes are having an evening of social dancing, the music\nfor which, in addition to the piano, they themselves provide by weekly dues\n\nof fifteen cents.\n\nOn Tuesday evenings the young men of this group have\n\nathletics in the basement, next to the shower baths and the swimming-pool,\n\nand the young women have an equally good time with games and folk\ndances in the upper hall.\n\nThe men's civic club, meeting in joint session with the women's civic\nclub, is using the assembly room for a special meeting\n\non street lighting,\n\na matter that has been the source of indignant protests from individual\nresidents of that section for a long time.\n\nNow the civic club has been\n\nformed, largely for the purpose of seeing what can be done to secure the\n\nproper lighting of the streets, and tonight the conmiissioner of public works\n\n"} {"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n60\n\nis to address them.\n\n[General\n\nAfter the chairman of the special committee has placed\n\nthe situation clearly before the meeting, the commissioner is called upon.\n\nHe explains the difficulties that have been in the way of this improvement,\nwhich he frankly admits is much needed, and points out the steps necessary\nIf the civic club would organize the neighborhood sentiment on this subject and present to the city authorities a united demand in\n\nto bring it about.\n\nthe form of a well-supported petition, together with a specific statement of\nexisting conditions, he feels confident that the needed improvements would\n\nHe promises, at any rate, to use his good offices toward that end.\nDown in the domestic-science room that has been created out of a\n\nbe made.\n\nformerly little-used corner of the sub-basement, a cooking class for young\n\nwomen is in session.\n\nThe click of spoons in stirring dishes blends har-\n\nmoniously with the orderly hum of conversation that pervades the room.\n\nThe daily grind of shop, store, office, and factory, for the moment is forgotten and the delightful task of homemaking absorbs and refreshes them.\n\nIn the day-school teachers' restroom, another group of girls is gathered\ndiscussing with the director's assistant ways and means of establishing a\nclass in\n\nsewing and millinery.\n\nThe school furniture in the only rooms\n\navailable is not at all suitable for this purpose,\n\nand there seems to be a\n\nquestion whether or not the school committee will find it possible to provide\n\na teacher.\n\nSomeone proposes that the boys in the manual-training classes\n\nbe asked to build tables for them and that permission to use the room in\n\nwhich they are now meeting be requested. A committee of three is\nappointed to wait upon the boys, and the assistant director promises to\nsee what can be done about using the room and securing a teacher.\nThis is a glimpse of a schoolhouse evening center. There were four\nsuch centers in Boston last winter, as reported by Miss Mary FoUett at\nthe National Recreation Congress in Richmond a few weeks ago. In those\nfour centers there were twenty-nine musical clubs which included orchestras,\nbands, glee clubs, mandolin clubs, and mixed choruses; also fourteen\ndramatic clubs; eleven plain sewing, novelty sewing, and Irish lace clubs;\none millinery; eight folk dancing; one social dancing; four young men's\ncivic clubs; one young women's civic club; one men's civic club; eight\nathletic clubs;\n\none printing;\n\nnine art clubs;\n\nfour boys'\n\ngames clubs;\n\nfour girls' games clubs (not only for the playing of games, but to prepare\ngirls from seventeen to twenty to tell stories to children and to teach them\ngames and songs); and four mothers' clubs: in all loo groups meeting in\n\nthese four evening centers.\n\nHer report says:\nThe young people of each neighborhood have been steadily encouraged to do someIf someone had a wish to play the violin, that was discovered, and he was shown\nsome way of learning how, so that he could join the neighborhood orchestra. If a young\n\nthing.\n\nman wished to learn to debate or to know something of civic affairs, every opportunity\nwas given him. Dancing was favored as being as valuable in its way as civic training.\n\n"} {"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE SCHOOLHOUSE EVENING CENTER\n\n6l\n\nAll who wished some form of activity were cordially welcomed at the centers. They did\nhave moving-picture shows, it is true, once a week or once a fortnight, but all who came\nto these were encouraged to join some club and take some active part in the center.\n\nJust now we are gathering information about the extent of this work\n\nthruout the United States in 1913.\n\nWhat growth it will show cannot be\n\nforecasted at this time, but we do know that in 1912, loi cities carried on\n\nsome form of evening-center work and used 338 school buildings for that\npurpose. In 84 cities the school board furnished light and heat, in 72 of\nthese cities janitor's service was also furnished, and in 15 cities the total\nexpense was paid from school funds. Trained workers were employed in\n44 cities, and in 19 of these some of the workers were paid by the school\nboard. Ten states have amended their school laws during the past two\nyears so as to provide for the maintenance of this work at public expense.\nThe total amount of money reported as expended both by school boards\nand volunteer agencies in the maintenance of these 338 evening centers was\n$139,535.73; an average of about $412.00 per center. This average\ndoes not mean much, however, for some centers are large and some are\n\nsome are open six evenings a week, and some one; some continue\nfrom October i to June i, and others run for three months only.\nWhat we can get at that is concrete and to the point is that the present\ntendency is clearly for school boards to furnish the building and equipment,\nalso heat, light, and janitor's services, and a director at each center with\nsuch corps of assistants as the extent of the work may require. In reality\nhe is an evening principal with his faculty, extending the community's\neducational, recreational, social, and civic facilities to those who are engaged\nsmall;\n\nin business pursuits during the day.\n\nThis work should have the full-time services of at least the principal,\nso that he may seek out during the day the groups and individuals in the\n\nneighborhood who might well be brought into the center, and study and\n\nkeep in close touch with the needs and possibilities of the community.\n\nA degree of self-government and self-support is injected into the plan\nby the various civic and social groups that naturally come together in the\nneighborhood, using these evening\n\nfacilities in\n\ngroups or clubs, electing\n\ntheir representatives on the central council or board, and bearing the special\n\nexpenses incident to the activities that they carry on.\n\nThey pay for special\n\nmusic, stage decorations for their dramatics, instruments for their orchestras,\ndecorations for their meeting-places, refreshments for their social occasions,\n\nand sometimes for motion-picture films, lecturers, and entertainers.\nSuperintendent Maxwell, of the New York City schools, who has made\nremarkable progress in the development and extension of his evening schools\nand recreation centers, is planning to create five or six full-time positions\nfor evening-center directors, so that the possibilities of this larger community work may be thoroly demonstrated.\nAn evening-center director receives from four to six dollars per day for\n\n"} {"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n62\n\n[General\n\nhis services, and his assistants are paid from two to three and a half dollars.\n\nIn addition to the heat, light, and janitor's service, an evening center\naccommodating two hundred people per night, and reaching probably four\ntimes that number during the season, would cost about ten dollars a day\nfor salaries plus its share of the expense of general supervision from head-\n\nquarters\n\n—a grand\n\ntotal of approximately twenty dollars a day.\n\nWhat does it pay ? I cannot tell, nor can you.\nWhat we can do is to point out some of its products, the value of which to\nthe individuals concerned and to society, everyone may judge for himself.\nThis is what it costs.\n\nA tough dance-hall in an eastern city was gathering in the young people\nof the neighborhood in which it was located.\n\nThe board of education of that\n\ncity opened an evening recreation center in one of its near-by school build-\n\nings and sent trained recreation leaders there to organize and promote its\nactivities.\n\nAfter the center had been in operation for some time, the super-\n\nintendent dropped in one evening when a social afifair for young people was\nin progress.\n\nHe foimd about three hundred young men and young women\n\nhaving a most delightful time under wholesome and elevating conditions\nusing their own schoolhouse.\n\nOn leaving the center he stopped in at the\n\nnear-by dance hall that had been the neighborhood menace and found,\ninstead of a crowded ballroom, just fifteen couples on the floor.\n\nThe young\n\npeople go to the undesirable places, in part at least, because nothing better\nthat is really attractive and that meets their social needs has been provided.\n\nMen and women who have been all day under the direction of other\npeople, or who are boimd by the thongs of necessity to iminteresting and\n\nmonotonous\namusement.\n\ntasks,\n\nneed in the evening something more than passive\n\nActive participation is what furnishes recreation charged with\n\nlife-giving power.\n\nMiss FoUett says of her mothers* clubs in the Boston\n\ncenters:\n\nThey enjoyed seeing their children do folk dances, but it was on the occasion when\nthey danced the \"Virginia Reel\" themselves that they went home with their faces aglow\n\nand with the quickened heartbeat which meant a lifting of burdens and an easier facing\nof the problems of tomorrow.\n\nFor the thousands and thousands who toil during the daylight hours at\ntasks in which they have little interest except that these tasks afford the\n\nmeans of providing food, shelter, clothing, and a bit of freedom in the\n\"margin of the day,\" the evening hours are the only time for self-expression\nand real living. During their working hours their thoughts and acts are\ncontrolled by their tasks; but in their free time they do what they like.\nThis may or may not be what is best for them or best for society. What\nmanner of men and women, as factors in their community life, they are to\nbe, is largely determined by the use, or the misuse, of this free time. Those\n\nwho have to do with corrective agencies tell us that 80 per cent of the\noffenses against society occur between the hours of 6 and 11 p.m.\nis true,\n\nIf this\n\nand there is reason to believe that it is, the schoolhouse evening\n\n"} {"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE SCHOOLHOUSE EVENING CENTER\n\n63\n\ncenter has an unparalleled opportunity of playing an important part among\n\nthe forces that make for order, decency, and social welfare.\n\nIn his book on Wider Use of the School Plant, Mr. Clarence Arthur\nPerry points out that:\n\nThe schoolliouse civic club, by affording a neutral meeting-ground for citizens,\nbecomes a place for the open discussion of municipal affairs and enables the constituents\nto become better acquainted with their public servants. The city ofl&cial who describes\nthe work of his department at a neighborhood civic club meeting not only gives pertinent\ninformation, but deepens in his own conscience the sense of his accountabihty to the people.\n\nThe keynote of the twentieth century is organization, co-operation, and\nTo train people for real democracy, to help them to learn how to\nlive and work and play together, is the new and vital task in public educasolidarity.\n\ntion that the schoolhouse evening center, properly conducted, is destined\n\nto perform.\n\nA playground was much needed in one of the crowded sections of\nAmherst, N.S.\n\nPublic-spirited citizens\n\nhad personally urged the\n\nauthorities to provide it, but without success.\n\ncity\n\nThe director of the com-\n\nmunity center that was just being formed there took up the matter and presented the situation to the several men's clubs affiliated with the center. A\ncommittee of one of these clubs organized and carried out a campaign of\nletter-writing by the children of the neighborhood, so that every city official\n\nand every citizen of influence received a considerable number of letters\nfrom the children requesting his assistance in their cause. In addition,\nthe clubs passed resolutions and sent committees to present them to the\nmimicipal authorities. The result was that, when the playground question\ncame up for consideration, the necessary fimds were secured. What the\npeople working singly had been unable to do was easily accomplished by\nunited, organized effort.\n\nIn the days of ancient warfare each man with his spear and shield did\nbattle as best he could individually against the opposing forces.\n\nIt was a\n\nhand-to-hand, personal encounter, in which man matched strength with\n\nman. Then came organization, and out of it the renowned Greek \"flying\nwedge\" was evolved in which the whole army, massed in the form of a\ngreat wedge, the men shoulder to shoulder and stride with stride, would\nsweep across the plain and hurl itself with irresistible force upon a single\npoint in the enemy's line. The \" flying wedge \" became in warfare a mighty\nco-operative machine against which nothing could stand.\nToday in the struggle for civic and social betterment men and women\nare discovering that progress comes slowly when one fights alone. Therefore they are uniting their forces, and the schoolhouse evening center,\nfurnishing wholesome recreation, establishing right ideals, organizing,\nvitalizing, and focusing, is becoming the \"flying wedge\" of educational,\ncivic, and social progress.\nThis is a suggestion of what the schoolhouse\nevening center pays.\n\n"} {"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n64\n\n[General\n\nMEASURING RESULTS\nL.\n\nR.\n\nALDERMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, PORTLAND, ORE.\n\nThose who in any endeavor have reached their goal must first of all\nAll admit the great need of having a\n\nhave had a goal at which to aim.\n\nMost of us agree that our real object is effectually to\nThis can be done by establishing\nhabits, and by measuring habit formation we measure our real results.\nThe things that coimt in childhood are the habits established plus the ideals\ngoal in education.\n\nfit the child for the best life he can lead.\n\ngained.\n\nIn teaching we must give our pupils practice in the things they are going\nto do in life, and see that these things are practiced, so far as possible, in\n\nthe way they are to be done.\n\nThus right habits may be established, and\n\nright action becomes almost involuntary.\n\nHow is one going to make the aim in education the forming of habits ?\nAre not these too elusive? Can they be measured? It is difficult to\nmeasure any of the results of education, yet there is a possibility of\nour being able to measure habit formation as accurately as we measure\nknowledge.\n\nDuring the past year we have tried an experiment in some of the schools\nof Oregon which, I think, is worth calling to the attention of the National\n\nEducation Association. We do not claim for it that it is the solution of all\nour educational problems, or that it is new or original. It was suggested by\na chapter in W. G. Bagley's Classroom Management. We have long felt the\n\nneed of some scheme whereby we might measure our work.\n\nThe proceed-\n\nings of this Association for the last few years show clearly that educational\n\nleaders are trying to find\n\nsome meter that can be fitted to our educa-\n\nIn order that the teachers of Oregon might have in mind\nthe things they wish to accomplish, we made an observation chart, on which\ntional pushcart.\n\nthey might mark the pupils in their progress in forming habits.\n\nThe pupils\n\nmarked on the following habits: good posture and voice quality;\nhealth; industry; neatness; elements of leadership and self-control;\nare\n\nform true judgments; frugality;\nIt may be argued that\nthese are not the most important things, yet they all have their place in the\n\nwillingness to co-operate;\n\nability\n\naltruism and helpfulness at home;\n\nto\n\nscholarship.\n\nmake-up of a successful man or woman.\nA good posture adds to one's self-respect, and the respect one can command from others, as well as to one's health. Yet good teachers every day\nare allowing pupils to acquire the habits of lounging and stooping.\n\nThe quality of voice is partly a habit.\n\nHow much voice quality affects\n\nour early impressions of a person is realized when we meet someone for the\nVoice quality may be improved. I have\nfirst time over the telephone.\nvisited schoolrooms where the pupils all had pleasing voices just as a result\n\nof a little attention to this during the year.\n\n"} {"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEASURING RESULTS\n\nWe mark pupils on state of health.\neffort on the part of a teacher\n\n65\n\nI have found that a little conscious\n\nmay often prevent what might have proved\n\nserious trouble in the health of a pupil.\n\nI have heard other teachers say\n\nthey did not have time to give attention to the health of their pupils, because it was not in the course of study.\n\nThen let us put it into the course\n\nof study, and teachers will find time for it, because it is there.\n\nAgain, the people who really succeed in life, by method and not by accident, are those who know how to work.\n\nAbility to work is a habit.\n\nHow\n\nmany young people do we see going thru school, who get over, or under, or\naround their lessons, and yet do not really learn to apply themselves.\n''Happy is the man who has to work, and in working finds the thing he\nI pity the young person who has reached the age of twenty\nand has not learned to apply himself. His efforts are spasmodic, and he has\na handicap that only the heroic can overcome. The habit of work must\nbecome so fixed in us that it will be woven into the very fiber of our being,\nand become as natural to us as breathing. The worker wins.\nNeatness is a habit. The pupils who come to school day after day with\ndirty finger nails, whose coat collars are turned up, and ties are crooked, will\ngo thru life with crooked ties and coat collars disarranged. But more than\nlikes to do.\"\n\nthat, they will go thru life missing opportunities, because of untidy habits\nof work and appearance.\n\nThe elements of leadership can be developed while the boy is in school.\nThe basis of leadership is self-control. Self-control is a habit. Make it\nimportant by emphasizing it in the course of study. And with the habits\nof self-control and leadership goes the habit of willingness to co-operate.\n\nHow many communities are handicapped because the good people have not\nlearned to work together.\nif\n\nChildren love to help.\n\nthey feel they are helping.\n\nThey love to co-operate\n\nThese qualities can be cultivated, if attention\n\nis directed to them.\n\nHow many of our schools put a premium on guessing! \"Who can give\nWe have seen over and over again\n\nthe answer first ? \" is the question asked.\n\na pupil being asked to guess at an answer to a question.\n\nWhile quick\n\nthinking is to be cultivated, we as teachers must be careful lest we carry\nthis too far, and encourage guessing.\n\nOnly that attitude of mind that can\n\nhold judgment in abeyance until all the facts are at hand upon which to\n\nform a true conclusion will win the confidence of others.\nFrugality is a habit. Yet how many business failures do we see,\nhow many divorces are sought, because people are spending more than\nthey are earning! If we can clearly show the moral wrong of spending\nwhat is not ours to spend, if we can make the satisfaction of a dignified\neconomy seem greater than the satisfaction of possession, if we can make\nthis a fixed attitude of mind on the part of our pupils, we shall be reinforcing\n\nthem against some of the temptations they will meet later.\nAltruism, unselfishness, of course, includes every other moral quality.\n\n"} {"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n66\n\nIGeneral\n\nI am^not afraid that too much consideration for others will be developed\n\neven if we do make a point of it. Public spirit is a part of altruism that\nmay be made a habit. If the individual is inclined to think that society\n\nowes him a living, the schools must combat this idea, and show him that he\nowes something to society. Each child should do something for the school.\nEach child should feel some responsibility toward the school. Loyalty and\nconsideration are thus developed.\nIf habit-building becomes the aim in education, education will not con-\n\nAnything that affects a child's habits\n\nsist merely of work done in school.\nis part\n\ntution.\n\nof his education.\n\nThe home at once becomes an educational insti-\n\nThe school is really only the helper of the home.\n\nestablish habits of industry with the hands, the home must\n\nwhich it will gladly do.\n\nIn order to\n\ndo its part,\nThis\n\nIn every home there is work to be done.\n\nhome industrial work brings back to the school the home atmosphere, and\nenables the teacher to get an insight into the home conditions. It gives\nthe teacher a talking acquaintance with home duties, and thus makes her\na real individual to the pupils. It also enables the teacher to know what\npupils are overworked at home.\n\nI think some of the greatest injustices\n\nin this world are wrought by teachers who do not know the home conditions\nof the pupils.\n\nOne thing everyone must keep in mind in school work is that with\nany real education the student must have a purpose, as well as the teacher.\nAs soon as a teacher has discovered the bent of a child, has found what\nthings that child likes to do better than anything else, she has gone a long\n\nway in establishing a purpose for his being in school;\nthe means of reaching the child's inner life.\n\nto teach until she has found the pupil's bent.\nof his development has some interest.\n\nshe has discovered\n\nA teacher has not begun really\nEach child at each stage\n\nIt may not be a permanent one, but\n\nat the time it is the motive power that propels the ship.\n\nThe real teacher\n\nadds fuel to the flame of his interest. A boy did not like mathematics.\nHis teacher discovered he wanted to be a steamboat engineer. On his\nuncle's boat he had taken trips to Alaska.\n\nHe had watched the engineer\n\ncontrol the throbbing engine that propelled the ship for hours at a time.\n\nHis teacher told him he could be a great engineer some time on a great ocean\nAn ambiliner, but in order to do so he must imderstand mathematics.\nhe\ncoaching\nBy a little\ntion was awakened and a determination formed.\n\nwas able to make up a year's work in half a year, and it was not long before\nhe was leading his class.\nThe first difference that definiteness of aim will make in our educational\nsystem will be a closer co-operation between the parent and the teacher,\nand a fuller realization of the influence of the community. When you have\nas the only aim in education the giving of knowledge out of books, there\nwill be little real co-operation between teacher and parent, nor is there much\n\nneed of the interest of the conamunity.\n\nWhen the aim is to establish habits\n\n"} {"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NEW RURAL SCHOOL\n\nSessionsl\n\n—concrete,\n\ndefinite habits\n\n67\n\n—there must be the co-operation\n\nof all these\n\nforces, and the teacher must realize that she is teaching a live, sentient\n\nbeing,\n\nwho is influenced by all things with which he comes in contact.\n\nIt will\n\nbe discovered that the schoolroom is not the only place to impart\n\nkiiowledge, but that the critical moment and the most sacred time is when-\n\never the child is in action, whenever he is doing the thing he wants to do,\n\nthe thing that he finds worth while doing.\n\nThe habit-building plan will\n\nlead to taking excursions with the child, and entering into the child's labors.\nIt will mean going into situations with the child where sympathy is devel-\n\noped, and quick action is required.\n\nIt will mean placing the child under\n\nsuch circimistances that his ego is for the time lost amid the multiplicity\nof impressions that flood in upon him.\nis hot.\n\nIt is striking the iron while the iron\n\nIt is living with boys and girls, teaching by example as well as by\n\nIt will\nIt will mean that every parent will become a teacher.\nmean that every teacher will be, at least in some measure, in loco parentis.\n\nprecept.\n\nTHE NEW RURAL SCHOOL\nNEIL C. MACDONALD, STATE INSPECTOR OF CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS,\nVALLEY CITY, N.DAK.\n\n{An Abstract)\nIn order to develop the new rural school, we must be fully informed as\nto what the one-room school in the open country really is, and then we must\n\nThere never can be any progress worthy\n\nreorganize this old rural school.\n\nof the name in any line except where all the conditions, both adverse and\nfavorable, are\n\nknown and appraised at their full value.\n\nIt is never a\n\npleasant task to recognize this fact and particularly is this so in the case of\n\nthe rural school where the adverse conditions so dominate the situation.\nThis, however, I shall try to do at this time.\n\nThe praises of the little\n\ncoimtry school have been sung for more than a hundred years in every\nsection of the land.\n\nWe have been taught to look upon it as a school\n\nwithout fault and without blemish.\nIt\n\nis\n\nAnd it has been a great institution.\n\nyet the greatest socializing and Americanizing agency in the rural\n\nconomimity today.\n\nHowever,\n\nit\n\nhas most serious faults which I shall\n\nproceed to name and describe.\n\nThis old rural school has been aptly described by our honored president.\nDr. Fairchild, as \"the one laggard in the educational procession.\"\n\nSome\n\nforty years ago it competed successfully witii the town school, and it con-\n\ntributed its pro rata share toward American civilization, but it does neither\n\nthing today.\nfields of\n\nFor in the wonderful progress that has been made in all\n\nhuman activity, it has failed to keep pace.\n\nWe live in another\n\nday with vastly more complex duties to perform, and our nation needs not\nonly an improved rural school, but a reorganized rural school a new\n\n—\n\nrural school.\n\n"} {"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6S\n\n(General\n\nTHE NEW RURAL SCHOOL\n\nThe creation of the new rural school most needed to meet the demands\ntoday calls for reorganization along two principal lines, viz.: (i) bettei*\nschool organization, which means consolidation; and (2) better attendance,\n\nof\n\nwhich means longer terms and the daily presence of all available pupils.\nIt is true that we need reorganization which would give us better financial\n\nsupport, better teaching, and better supervision which includes administration;\n\nbut these will come largely as a part of the development of this tiew\n\nrural school.\n\nBetter school organization calls for consolidation.\n\nOne of the two most\n\nserious defects to be found in the one-room rural school is the problem of the\n\nmany grades and therefore too many classes per teacher, which, unsolved,\nlargely nullifies the good effects of properly built and equipped buildings,\n\nand the best efforts of the best-trained teachers and supervisors. Consolidatiotn, however, remedies this, for by the employment of two or three\nteachers the number of grades and classes per teacher is reduced. Experience has also shown that consolidation will in part overcome the most\nserious defect of the old school in the matter of poor attendance,\n\nwhich\n\nincludes the short term, for consolidation is followed by better attendance,\n\nincluding longer terms.\n\nConsolidation makes it possible to secure better-\n\npaid and better-trained teachers and better supervision than under the\npresent system.\nwhile he\n\nis\n\nIt provides high-school privileges for the country youth\n\nunder the parental roof.\n\nThis is cheaper and safer for all\n\nconcerned, and it lays the foundation for rural leadership right at home.\nIt provides the opportunity for the proper teaching of agriculture, house-\n\nhold arts, and other subjects, and for the organization of civic-social centers\n\non a scale that would make them more useful in every way.\nTo hasten and extend the growth of consolidation, we must have better\nlaws to facilitate its organization, and in any case, we must have abundant\nstate aid. This, too, like other reforms in rural-school education should be\nnation-wide. Consolidation is growing, for already thirty-two states have\nBut experience has shown that where the initiative for its\nit in operation.\norganization is given largely to county or state authority, rather than to\nlocal,\n\nand especially where liberal state aid is provided,\n\nits\n\ngrowth\n\nis\n\nphenomenal.\n\nThe matter of poor attendance which includes the short term is the\ngreatest defect in the rural school as we know it, and it presents the greatest\n\nproblem in rural-school organization. An analysis of available statistics\nshows that the average term for the one-room rural school in the open\ncountry is less than seven months, the percentage of attendance is less than\n60, and as a direct result the percentage completing the eighth grade is less\n\nthan 25, the boys falling below 15 per cent.\n\nThis means that the average\n\ncountry boy can hope to complete the eighth grade only in about seventeen\nyears, or when he would be about twenty- three or twenty-four years old;\n\n"} {"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NEW RURAL SCHOOL\n\nSessions]\n\n69\n\nwhile as a matter of fact, only one country boy in seven of any age completes this grade.\n\nHerein lies the damning tale in rural-school admin-\n\nistration.\n\nFrom this poor attendance have ensued many serious evils, such as high\nrural illiteracy, rural-to-urban migration, loss of rural national leadership,\n\nand the evils of rural child labor which are shown largely in the small\nnumber of boys who complete the eighth grade.\nThe causes of this poor attendance as related to rural child labor are\ndue mainly to the practice of petty politics and mercenary greed. The new\nrural school costs more money both to build and to operate. This means\nthat that kind of politician who is by turns a political jacksnipe and a\npolitical pirate would of necessity oppose it; for he thrives upon cheap\nmoney and much ignorance of his fellow-man, that is, upon the evil results\n\n—\n\nof child labor on farm or in factory.\n\nAnother cause of this poor attendance\n\nin relation to child labor is \"commercialism,\" that is, greed on the part of\n\nthe rural resident.\n\nThis is a tale of sordid greed and criminal thoughtless-\n\nThe poor attendance including the short term costs little and so is\nfavored by the mercenary rural resident. Then, too, children out of school\nand at work lessen the cost.\nness.\n\nTo improve the poor attendance and thus remove the evils of rural child\nlabor, rural illiteracy, urban congestion, and loss of rural national leadership,\n\nthere should be legislation establishing a minimum term of at least nine\nmonths and compulsory attendance until the eighth grade is completed or\n\nthe sixteenth year is attained.\n\nThis, like other reforms of national need,\n\nshould be taken up by all states in order to give it greater force, effect,\n\nand following.\nThis new rural school, so greatly needed in every part of the Union,\ndemands for its development, (i) improved organization, that is, consolidation, and (2) better attendance, which includes longer terms. These call\nfor a campaign of investigation, publicity, and education to furnish new\nideas and to create higher ideals among the rural population concerning their\nduties to their schools and country.\nTo hasten and extend this campaign\nthere ought to be greater co-operation among school officials of at least\n\nadjoining states.\n\nFor instance, it is very difficult indeed for school officials\n\nin North Dakota to contend for a nine-month term with a strict enforce-\n\nment of a compulsory attendance law, if over in Minnesota little or nothing\nis being\n\ndone in this matter, or if the reverse be true.\n\nIt requires united\n\naction of a group of adjoining states and that supplemented by all the\nstates, in order to carry on this campaign to a successful issue.\n\nI wish now to conclude with a picture of the new rural school, that\n\nalready exists in some states, which fact gives us faith to believe, hope to\nendure, and courage to contend that this school shall finally be established\npractically everywhere in the\n\nopen country. This school is housed in a\ncommodious building that is modern in all its appointments. It is equipped\n\n"} {"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nwith splendid library and laboratory facilities.\n\nIt is surrounded with a\n\nbeautiful campus and well-planned experimental fields.\n\nthing of joy, for it is a thing of beauty.\n\nIt stands there a\n\nIn itself, it beckons and commands\n\nthe youth of the community to enter its portals.\ntrained, well paid, and well content.\n\n[General\n\nThe teachers are \"vrell\n\nThere is a home upon the grounds\n\nfor the principal and his family, and for the teachers also.\n\nAll available\n\nboys and girls attend regularly nine months, and they complete the eighth\ngrade and high school with the same degree of regularity and efficiency that\nthey do in the average town school. This school is more than a civic-social\ncenter, for it is an educational center in the best sense of that term.\n\nFor\n\nhere come young and old to consult with the instructors in agriculture,\n\nmechanic and household arts, literature, hygiene, and other subjects, to\nread in its splendid library, to see good works of art, to listen to inspiring\nlectures, to take part in literary and athletic exercises, to learn best how to\n\ngrow old and yoimg in a wise way.\n\nEDUCATION AS TEE INTERPRETATION OF LIFE\nMARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nDENVER, COLO.\n\n(An Abstract)\nIt has been well said that almost all the battles of the world have been\n\nfought for the sake of so soulless a difference as that lying between conflicting definitions.\n\nAnd yet there is reason in this strenuous advocacy of one or another\nkind of definition, for, if we may define a definition, it may be done in some\nsuch phrase as the following: A definition is a condensation in words of a\nIt is, or should be, the verbal expresprinciple, a thought, or a movement.\nsion of essential truth.\n\nWhen we concede this, it is not strange that the leaders of thought in\nthe school world have long been seeking a definition of education that should\nbe at once exact and expressive; that might contain the divine fire of educational inspiration in a form both logical and lucid.\n\nbeen almost as many\n\nAs a result, there have\n\ndefinitions of education as there are distinguished\n\nleaders of educational thought, and, tho not ranking myself in that goodly\n\ncompany, perhaps I may be pardoned if I venture to give the definition of\nthe august science and beautiful art, in whose service we are all enlisted,\nthat has proved most helpful to me.\n\nTo my thinking, education is the interpretation of life in the terms of\ntruth, beauty, efficiency, and service.\n\nAnd the application of this interpretation should be the widest possible.\nTo confine it merely to classroom problems is to limit and emasculate a vital\nphilosophy, to cut off the power and purpose of a great profession from\n\n"} {"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nEDUCATION AS THE INTERPRETATION OF LIFE\n\nSessions]\n\nvivifying the life of the\n\nhome and the community.\n\n71\n\nSocial unity\n\nis\n\nthe\n\nprerequisite to social regeneration, and the surest way to effect the social\n\nhome, the\nand the newspaper; treating all these\ninterpretations of life as educational agencies and uniting them in the\ntransformation\n\nis\n\nto realize actual co-operation between the\n\nschool, the club, the labor union,\n\n—the\n\nservice of truth\n\neffort to see the thing as in itself it really is;\n\nbeauty\n\nthe expression of harmonious relation in color, form, and sound; efl&ciency\n\nsuch an adaptation of means to end as will produce an adequate result;\nservice\n\n—the consecration of each\n\nlife to the fullest individual development\n\nin order that the common interest may be served with power and blessed\n\nwith love.\n\nIn the schoolroom our interpretation of truth comes largely thru the\nstudy of science, the exact and classified knowledge of the way in which\nnature works.\n\nOur touch with beauty is effected again thru nature\n\nthe color and form and sound to whose loveliness we respond with the thrill\nof worship and the power of expression that we call art.\n\nTo the studies that\n\n—the\n\nfoster truth and beauty we add those that make for bodily efficiency\n\ntrained hand, industrial arts, with vocational guidance as a preparation,\n\n—\n\nplayground activities, and general athletics these all make for efficiency;\nwhile every study should have as its keynote the idea of service.\n\nFrom the humanities to domestic science; from the mastery of language\nto the manipulation of wood; from algebra to agriculture, and all wrought\n\nthru logic and love, educational interpretation should be in terms of service.\n\nThis includes\n\nall\n\nIn the educational beatitudes \"the\nIn education as applied to life the \"Quest\n\nthe rest.\n\ngreatest of these is service.\"\n\nof the Grail\" brings us to a conception of the truth that brotherhood is a\n\nfact in nature and that only he who lives in the community welfare can\n\nwork out his own salvation.\nThis general thesis may be applied to every phase of education, to every\ntype of school.\n\nRural education, with which this session is chiefly con-\n\ncerned, and with which department of education lies my own most direct\n\nconnection, must concern itself with translating the work of the school into\n\nthe language of the home and the commimity.\n\nThe classroom work of the\n\ncountry child should be such as to give a meaning, a purpose, and a imity\nto the hours spent in the farmhouse\n\nand in the field.\n\nAnd when this\n\nclarified vision has become his, the work of the school should lead him to see\n\nand feel the vital connection between his own environment and opportunity\nand the enlarged environment and opportunity of his commimity, state, and\nnation.\n\nThe contribution of the American public school to the world has been\nthe production of a type of citizenship that will some day make possible\nthe establishment of a righteous government and a true civilization; a\ngovernment that shall demonstrate in truth, beauty, efficiency, and service\nthe art of living together in organized communities so that the best may pre-\n\n"} {"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n72\nvail;\n\n(General\n\na civilization that shall mean the realization in human institutions of\n\nthe highest ideals of all the citizenry living in any given time, in any given\nplace.\n\nTo demonstrate such a government, to realize such a civilization, is the\ngreat task set the teachers of America by the mighty nation whose high\npriests they are.\n\nSo to interpret life that the home and the school and the\n\nclub and the labor union and the newspaper may become conscious of their\n\n—\n\nessential unity in the service of the supreme educator, responsibility\nis\n\nthis\n\nthe thing that is set us to do.\n\nMay we have power, single-heartedness, clear vision, and loving conseMay we be worthy inter-\n\ncration in the prosecution of this high endeavor.\n\npreters of \"the mighty power that makes for righteousness,\" so that the\nlittle child, being lifted up,\n\n\"may draw all men unto him.\"\n\nSOME SOCIAL USES OF EDUCATION, ACCORDING TO NATURE\nW. E. CHANCELLOR, EDITOR, \"SCHOOL JOURNAL,\" NEW YORK AND CHICAGO\n\nThe uniform common school is growing wider and higher into the various\nimiversal school.\n\nIn social and institutional relations, the history of man\n\nhas always been a history of conflict between social regimentation and\n\nOne ideal has been social solidarity, the other\nOne practice has been uniform schooling; the other\n\nindividual self-realization.\n\npersonal freedom.\n\npersonal development.\n\nTHE DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF LIFE\nPlato, immortal for his previsions of truth, said in The Laws:\n\nAs the shipwright first lays down the lines of the keel and draws the design of the\nship in outline, so do I seek to distinguish the different patterns of life and to lay down\ntheir keels, according to the natures of the souls of different men; seeking truly to consider\n\nby what means and in what ways we may best go thru the voyage of life.\n\nTHE THREE NATURES OF MAN\nUntil, however, to an extent, science had revealed the several natures\nof man, education according to nature could not be secured.\n\nThese several\n\nnatures are those of himself as a human being, of his habitat with its climate\nand resources, and of his community with its races and society. Science\nis\n\na rigid, uniform, universal method of fact-gathering and collating, of\n\nqualitative analysis upon principles involved in the field of the facts under\n\nreview, of quantitative measuring, and of statistical computing with a final\n\nand recording. Whatever is dim, complex, vague, and\nunnumbered; whatever is obscure, mixed, boundless, and not yet \"down\nin the books\" is an open invitation to science and challenges investigation,\nanalysis, measurement, and recording.\ninterpretation\n\n"} {"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME SOCIAL USES OF EDUCATION\nSCIENCE AND EDUCATION;\n\n'\n\n73\n\nORIGIN OF MAN\n\nSuch science has given to us political economy, sociology, anthropology,\nphysiology, somatology, psychology, and psychophysics for the interpretation of man as a physical creature, as a mind, and as a social factor.\nIt is\na scientific hypothesis that man originated in a conflict between the Asiatic\ngreat apes, the orang and the gibbon, which are red haired and yellow\nskinned, and the African great apes, the gorilla and the chimpanzee, which\nare black haired and brown skinned. By this hypothesis, the conflict\nproceeded while the ancient Mediterranean Ocean was drying up to leave\nremnants in the present Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.\nOut of that conflict, Adam, made \"of the dust of the earth,\" emerged as\n\"a living soul,\" and \"eating of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil\"\nbecame man, the same in natural character thru all generations. Whether\nthis hypothesis be true or not, the animal instincts, either derived from\nanimal ancestors or imitated and acquired by training from them, are\nalmost ineradicable in man, who to this day is the scene of warfare between\nflesh and spirits.\nPerhaps Satan is a magnificent and terrible figure of\nspeech by which man has personified the carnal depravities of his animal\ninstincts.\nPerhaps Lucifer is a figure of speech personifying the depravities\nof his psychical powers.\n\nCertain, at least, is it that ideals fight daily with\n\nanimal instincts and with intellectual plans for their gratification and are\n\nMost men are not yet free.\n\nseldom perfectly victorious.\n\nTHE MISEDUCATED\n\n*\n\nFor a varied world of unnimabered opportunities and needs, education\noutfits all candidates in scarcely more than a half-dozen uniforms of\nideas and modes of conduct. Too much we deal with terms for which there\nare no correlates in reality. The school world is too much a world of illusions and of delusions.\nWe go on and on, setting the physical giant to\nselling buttons over a counter; making natural mechanics into lawyers;\nnatural housewives into teachers; natural sailors into clerks. Everywhere\nwe set men and women at tasks contrary to their natures. Everywhere\nare smash-ups and breakdowns. What with thin, nervous men for judges,\nwith big, cheerful men for directors, with young men who can neither see\nnor hear for reporters, with young women who are too weak for homekeeping to be wives and mothers, we make many sorry messes of courts,\nof business, of journaUsm, and of homes.\nWe most need these very men\nwho can see and create. We also need men who can establish and mainstill\n\ntain independent livelihoods.\n\nThere is but one way that we can follow so as to increase by education\nthe numbers of those\n\nwho are self-directive, and that is to educate all\n\naccording to their natures.\n\n"} {"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n74\n\n[General\n\nPHYSIOPSYCmC FACTS WANTED\n\nWe must know the natural energy of our boys and girls, and their\nmetabolism and blood-pressure, and how, by diet and other regimen imder\nthe prevailing climatic and social conditions, to increase this energy. We\nmust know their sense-powers of hearing, of sight, of touch; and wherein\ntheir natural motivation from sense-images is strongest, wherein weakest.\n\nWe should know the length of the memory-span and its strength; and the\nextent and intensity of the fields of imagination and of judgment. We must\nknow the dominant instinct and their other prominent instincts, chief\nof which are fear, curiosity, and hope; their habits; their ideals;\n\nand their\n\nenvironments.\n\nTHE FIRST BUSINESS OF EDUCATION\n\n—leading children. The\n—^making powers come forth, awaking\n\nThe first business of pedagogy is pedagogy\nfirst business of education is educating\n\nthe sleeping potentialities of children and youth. For some thousands of\nyears many have supposed that the first business of pedagogy and education was scholarship\n\n—^knowing\n\nall about reading or English, music or geog-\n\nraphy, Latin or philosophy or law, or any specialty or generaUty\n\n—^whereas\n\nin truth the teacher needs to know all about children and youth and adult,\n\nand can get along nicely with only the elements of so-called subject-matter.\n\nThe first business of education is to educate, the last business is to impart\nknowledge.\n\nOf course, boys and girls do not like to be educated; they wish\n\nto be as they are, unchanged in quality, but enlarged.\n\nThis pride, carefully\n\nconsidered, is a sufficient reason for educating them out of what they are\ninto the larger and better self which the educator believes they are capable\nof becoming.\n\nATTEMPTING THE IMPOSSIBLE\nStrange as it sounds upon first statement, only moderate powers need\nseriously to be worked upon by the educator.\n\nIt is criminal to try to make\n\nJohn Pierpont Morgan was eye-minded,\nloved pictures, was the first bookkeeper in the world; and hated to be talked\nAbraham Lincoln was ear-minded, loved conversation, was the best\nto.\nlistener in the world; and read but little, and most of that aloud to please\nthe non-ear-minded auditory.\n\nhis ear-mindedness.\n\nAll artists are eye-minded;\n\nall\n\npoets, ear-minded.\n\nAnd save for experts it is a work of supererogation to try to educate those\nwith congenital gifts.\n\nSome are born farther on in skill than others can\n\never get; the would-be teacher is behind the learner.\n\nOnce a little boy at\n\nhome said to his music teacher, \"Quit doing dat; hiurts boy's ears.\"\nwas born with absolute pitch.\n\nHe\n\nHis teacher slightly flatted, despite training.\n\nLONG TENURES NECESSARY\nBecause it is the duty of the educator to know every individual, it is\nnecessary for him to stay long in the community.\n\nIt is arch educational\n\nheresy, it is crime against the community, for its teachers to be pedagogical\n\n"} {"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSOME SOCIAL USES OF EDUCATION\n\nSessions]\n\n75\n\njourneymen, school txamps, vagrants, shopping about from state to state.\n\nEvery great school has had a relatively permanent set of teachers.\n\nA merry-\n\ngo-roimd school only amuses and cannot educate its scholars.\n\nSimilarly,\n\na kaleidoscopic school superintendency makes bedlam of the schools.\nEvery great school system was created by superintendents of long tenure.\nThis is not the notion of democratic rotation in oflSce, but it is historically\nderived good sense.\n\nLong tenure for supervisors and for teachers is the\n\nsalvation and permanent sanctification of American schools.\n\nTHE TEACHER AS COMMUNITY SURVEYOR\nOnly one who has lived in a community for many years really knows it;\nnor does even this one know it imless he has taken a deliberate survey of\n\n—^knows the number of persons engaged in the various occupations;\n\nit\n\ntheir incomes;\n\nthe strength and weakness of its social institutions, of its\n\nknows its associations and\nmovements, and its progressive and retrogressive tendencies. As the lawyer\nand the physician usually make a life-work of their professions in the same\norganizations, of its leading and lesser citizens;\n\nThe patient who does not wish\nwhen he falls ill, probably\ndie; and the student whose teacher does not know his family history must\ncommunities, so also should the teacher.\n\nhis physician to know his family history will,\n\nprobably miss an education according to his nature.\n\nMany a young educator, seeing a city full of enterprises of one kind,\nimmediately jimips to the conclusion that the school youth should be prepared for this kind of enterprise. But because a city is full of textile mills\n\nand of mill operatives may be a very good reason for not training the boys\nand girls as textile workers lest wages fall yet lower. Because the city has\nno farms and almost no gardens may be a very good reason for teaching\nits youth agriculture.\nAmerica has now twelve himdred gainful economic occupations and\nthree hundred non-gainful yet economic occupations. Inventive and\noriginal men and women pursue ten thousand economic enterprises not\nnimierous enough to be cataloged.\nETHICAL VARIETIES OF OCCUPATIONS\nEducators operate not only as teachers of individuals but also as social\nBecause a youth is interested and skilful in organic chemistry\n\nengineers.\n\nand because a brewery offers a good salary to him as a chemist of malt\nliquors, or a distillery for services as a chemist of alcoholic spirits\n\n—^perhaps\n\nso called because they awaken the demoniac spirits in the hiunan soul\n\neven taken together these do not constitute sufficient grounds for educating\nsuch a youth at any cost public or private as a malt-brewer or as a whiskeydistiller.\n\nthis would\n\nBecause a man has the various talents required of a card sharp\nnot constitute sufficient grounds for educating him as a poker-\n\nplayer for money stakes.\n\nStock-gambling, likewise.\n\n"} {"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n76\n\n[General\n\nOccupations may be classified as beneficial, as innocent, and as pernicious.\n\nThe educator as social engineer should train youth for vocations that\n\nare both fairly profitable and socially desirable and beneficial or at least\ninnocent.\n\nIn truth, vocational instruction halts upon our need and want\n\nof adequately prepared vocational instructors of many kinds.\n\nEspecially\n\ndo we need superintendents of schools and professors of education who\nknow something of the general meaning and local circumstance of vocational\nguidance.\n\nDEVELOPING THE RESOURCES OF THE HABITAT\nThis great West, with its agricultural and mining interests, needs local\n\nmarkets thru the spread of manufacturing and commercial enterprises.\nIt should sell its orchard and garden fruits, its cereals, its metals and\nminerals, its sugar and leather at home.\n\nTo develop local manufacturing\n\nindustries, develop in the schools youth who understand such manufactures.\n\nNature never intended all the children of the western plains to be ranchers\nor all the children of the eastern cities to be traders or factory hands.\nEverywhere human nature is polyphase and various. Every community\nshould be reasonably various even tho this temporarily reduces railroad\nfreight and dividends.\n\nTHE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSAL AND VARIOUS SCHOOL\n\nTo get the universal and various school, several changes are requisite.\nFirst, there is requisite a change of opinion and of tradition in the teaching\n\nprofession itself to the effect that each youth has the right to be developed\n\naccording to his aptitudes within the reasonably inferred limits of his\ncapacities in the direction of his norm.\n\nEducators need to see that in nearly\n\nall instances perforce the imiform school is crippling and stultifying.\n\nNearly every boy and girl should work at least part of the time in school\nfor their sakes and for our sakes\nlest they\n\nuntil twenty-one years old\n\n—\n\n—\n\nenter the world ill-prepared to serve and lest they lose their lives for want\nof\n\nknowing how to serve their day and generation.\n\nNo youth should be\n\ngraduated from school into the life of the economic world until educated\nas far as his original heritage of powers permits.\n\nThere is requisite, second, a change in the public conception of teachers.\nWe are not mere school-keepers and child-tenders. By education, youth\nare regenerated. Like irrigation, teaching turns many a desert into an\nBecause the teacher is an individual educator of talent and of genius,\noasis.\nhe is also a community-architect, a social engineer, a nation-builder.\nThird and last, there is requisite, at least in the East, a change in the\nopinion and tradition as to the nature of educational costs as investments\nof time and of funds in posterity.\n\nWe teachers could not, even if we would,\n\nstop the American people from spending ever more and more money for\n\neducation in a ratio faster than the increase of wealth, yet causing that\nincrease.\n\nWe double our total expenditure now with every decade.\n\nThis\n\n"} {"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME SOCIAL USES OP EDUCATION\n\n77\n\nstupendous fact, when wealth computed in money increases only one-quarter\nevery decade and population not quite one-fifth, must sink into the understanding of all teachers and become one of our canons of judgment.\n\nWe\n\npropose to get for teachers the best men and women, even if in some cases\n\nwe must take experienced mothers and still more experienced grandmothers\nout of their homes and reject both overtrained masculine mediocrities,\n\nand young girls who need the wages.\nLET us SAVE NEARLY ALL\n\nWe must find the way to end the oppression of the poor and the angering of the discontented thru forcing annually into overcrowded labor\n\nmarkets some three million youth of whom scarcely one in twenty is now\nfitted to the limits of his special capacity of social service and of personal\n\nsupport.\n\nWe must cut off at the sources in childhood and in youth the supplies\nfrom which are recruited annually some sixty thousand or more prostitutes\nwho are such usually because they know nothing of economic value and of\npersonal interest to do.\nare\n\nThere are more such women in America than there\nWe graduate into the world from school\n\nwomen school teachers.\n\nannually more than a himdred thousand other youth fated to steal, to defraud, to defile, to kill, to burn houses, to wander up and down workless and\n\nwageless, to enter our asylums and hospitals, our jails and penitentiaries.\n\nBy studying their natures in childhood, by studying their communities to\nsee where they will when educated fit in, by studying their habitats to see\nwhether farm or field, mine or river will receive them with welcome, we\n\ncan save every boy and girl who is not defective in high degree.\n\nLet no man who has secured self-realization and freedom thru large\neducational opportunities deny equal opportunities to the youth of this\n\ndecade now; equal opportunities, not the same but always such as are\naccording to the natures of the youth, of the habitat, and of the community.\n\nThe universal various school means the school adjusted to the powers,\nthe needs, and the interests of the flesh-and-blood different boys and girls\n\nwhom we know and love, for whom we labor, whom at last we are beginning to understand, and who will judge us when we pass from here.\n\nEACH BORN TO A SPECIAL SERVICE\nThere is no arguing over facts. Truth never retreats. False belief\ndies hard, but it dies.\nWe shall never regiment humanity into righteousness.\nNaked and alone the soul goes up to God. The school that conventionalizes warps nature; it is Egyptian, not American.\nHuman variety\nis compelling education to radiate as variously.\nThe wage scale is also a\nscale of human demand.\nThoroly considered, we all live by social favor.\nWe know the pit whence we were digged. To get us all out of it forever,\neach must be educated according to nature that he may render to all the\npeculiar service for which he was born into the world.\n\n"} {"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n78\n\n[General\n\nTHE SCHOOL PLANT AS A PUBLIC-HEALTH ASSET\nCAROLINE BARTLETT CRANE, SOCIAL AND SANITARY EXPERT, AND INVESTIGATOR OF MUNICIPALITIES, KALAMAZOO, MICH.\nThere is one elect place and matchless opportunity to lay the foundations of public health, and that is in the body, mind, conscience, and daily\n\nhabit of our future citizens while they are in the public schools.\nI wish to speak tonight of some overlooked opportunities for advancing\n\nstandards and practices of public health thru the building itself and its\n\nequipment and administration.\n\nOur cities \" grew \"\n\n;\n\nour schools were planned.\n\nIn the city each genera-\n\ntion bonds the next in an effort to remedy blimders of previous generations,\n\nwith the result that present achievement in public sanitation lags far behind\n\nBut each new school building is\nadvance of its population. It should\ninvariably express, in plan, equipment, and administration, the highest\nsanitary knowledge of the time, and should be utilized not merely as a\npresent health asset but as an activator toward improved public sanitation.\nThere are a good many new school buildings today which closely approxiour highest knowledge on the subject.\nlike a city planned and created in\n\nmate the ideal. They are the pride of the city and the pride of the teachers\nand children. They house from a few hundred to one or two thousand\n\nThey so obviously constitute a little city under one roof that it is\nno uncommon thing for the school to be completely organized on the municipal government plan, for improvement of present order, and for education\nand training for future citizenship.\nBut also it should be noted that in this school city are actually duplicated the more vital sanitary problems to be met in the surroimding city and\nin its individual homes.\nHowever, in the model school these problems have\nbeen anticipated and solved before the arrival of children or teachers on the\npupils.\n\nscene.\n\nFor example: housing is both a domestic and civic problem. So is\nIn the latter case, the fact i^s recognized and\nin scores of cities the schools are the centers of clean-up campaigns which\nextend from the school building and grounds clear to the home cellar and\nbackyard. Colonel Waring, when he undertook the Herculean task of\ncleaning up New York City, nearly twenty years ago came to the point\nwhere, in despair, he exclaimed: \"Nobody can give you a clean city if you\nwant a dirty one \" Then, thru the children of all nationalities in the public\nschools, he began educating the people not to want, and not to tolerate, a\ndirty city. Our improved outdoor sanitation is doubtless due in great\nmeasure to the movement inaugurated by this farseeing man in the New\nYork schools and extended by force of its excellence thruout the coimtry.\nWhy may not a sentiment and conscience for civilized housing be promoted by similar means ? Many of the principles of correct schoolhouse\nthe \"clean-city\" movement.\n\n!\n\n"} {"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nTHE SCHOOL PLANT AS A PUBLIC-HEALTH ASSET\n\n79\n\nconstruction, equipment, and administration apply with or without modification to private housing;\n\nfor example:\n\nsurrounding space, drainage,\n\ndryness, light, ventilation, pure water, adequate sewer service, and sensible\n\nmethods of cleaning.\n\nThese factors should be fully utilized in creating\n\nsentiment for healthful homes and a civilized housing code.\n\nInstruction\n\nupon the origin, safe conduct, and hygienic value of a glass of pure water\ndrawn from a school faucet is worth vastly more than a dissertation upon the\nRoman aqueduct; and to explain the importance of the school sewer system and the proper care of sanitary plumbing is much more worth while\nthan to explain the pictures on the walls. Methods of dustless cleaning may\nbe made to inculcate needed lessons in both household and street sanitation.\n\nA study of a scientific school-heating plant will bring conviction that a\nsmoke nuisance is no necessary evil in a city.\n\nEverything in the school\n\nkitchens, from the bottle of certified milk to the plan of garbage disposal,\n\nshould be made to yield its full hygienic value for instruction in both domestic and mimicipal housekeeping.\n\nWhen it comes to matters of personal hygiene, it is by no means enough\nto supply facilities and to indicate practices.\n\nPupils should be so unre-\n\nmittingly drilled in hygienic habits and so indelibly impressed with the\nvital \"reasons why,\" that this will become the one part of their education\n\nthey cannot lose.\nin\n\nYet some of our most palatial school buildings are strangely deficient\neven the facilities. I find bubbling fountains in cities whose water\n\nsupply is known to be unsafe; individual cups carried in caps and trouser\npockets, or dispensed with in favor of drinking directly from the faucets;\n\nswimming-pools in which the water is far too seldom changed; where the\nrule of soap and shower bath before\n\nand after is not enforced; where a\nBut most frequently of\nall do I find an absence of proper provision for washing hands and an\nabsence of insistence on the part of instructors that hands should be washed.\nIn a state as rich in school funds as any in America, I found the school\nbuildings in only two out of seventeen cities properly supplied with facilities\n\ncomb on a chain adorns the girls' dressing-room.\n\nfor washing hands.\n\n1,325 pupils,\n\nIn one magnificent high-school building, housing\n\nwho study, handle school materials, visit toilets, and eat\n\nluncheons, I found\n\n—exclusive of the manual-training department—three\n\nwash sinks, cold water only, no soap, and roller towels changed every third\nday! Sometimes there are no towels, and teachers have gravely informed\n\nme that children use handkerchiefs or petticoats;\nfor children to wash their hands is at home.\"\n\nof the origin of disease\n\n—\n\nalso, that\n\n\"the place\n\nWith our present knowledge\n\n— should hardly\n\nespecially sewage-bred diseases\n\nit\n\nbe necessary to instruct teachers in the sanitary, any more than the aesthetic,\nreasons for washing hands. And the children we have here are the future\n\nmen and women who will handle our foods in bakeries, markets, dairies,\nand kitchens. Surely, the much- vaunted \"training of the hand\" should,\ninclude training of the hand to keep itself clean.\n\n"} {"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o\n\n[Genera^\n\nTo teach hygiene out of books and give the lie to it in daily practice\nis likely\n\nto break\n\ndown the best home-training which individual parents\nThe \"model building\" will not accomplish\n\nbestow upon their children.\n\nmuch unless it is headquarters for model living.\n\" There is no time or money.\"\n\nIt must never be said,\nThese things are what time and money were\n\nmade for.\n\nA city, however unfortunate its heritage in public sanitation, which\ndoes its duty toward its school children thru model buildings and model\ntraining in their use, will presently find its own sanitary problems fading\n\naway. The school becomes the municipal experiment station. The new\nknowledge, habits, and conscience of a new generation will look thru new\neyes upon the unsewered, unwatered, unswept, soot-grimed areas of our\ncities;\n\nupon the untidiness and squalor of village and countryside; upon\n\nthe stinginess of public-health appropriations and the dear penalties we\n\npay in health, happiness, efficiency, and human lives.\nBut not all the \"model\" buildings are really models. In a certain city\nof 300,000, which spends lavishly on its schools, I foimd no really satisfactory lighting, either in quantity, direction, or control.\n\nThe wings of\n\ntwo new palatial high schools were in each case so disposed as mutually to\ninterfere with each other's light, and windows had actually been placed\n\"for the outside looks\" in the walls faced by pupils, and then imperfectly\ncovered by shades. Such things do not \"look\" to persons who know how a\nschoolroom should be lighted.\n\nSixty-five per cent of the days are cloudy in\n\nthis city, and more than half of these days fall in the school year.\n\nIt was\n\nexplained to me that the city had employed the exclusive services of one\narchitect for thirteen years, and I replied that the lighting was admirable\n\naccording to the standards of about thirteen years ago.\n\nIn a very ornate high school in another city, a costly covered veranda\nIn another marble-fagaded\n\ncuts off the skylight from four of the rooms.\n\nby the sculptured names of all the school board, the\nhad been left out of the floors to save expense; there were\nno self -opening exits; and the air was noticeably bad, while the ventilating\nfans were running at half -speed because there was a janitors' contest on to see\nbuilding, adorned\n\nfire-proofing\n\nwho could operate his building with least expense! How one regrets to find\na pretentious school building erected as a \"monument\" to anybody, and\nmaintained in part by means of \"economy\" in fire protection, piure air, or\nteachers' salaries!\n\nOr, economizing on the grade schools.\n\nThere are far too many cities\n\nwhich are bonding so heavily to build needlessly costly high schools that\nthey think they have no money to build new grade schools or even to keep\n\nYet scarcely more than one in ten of the grade\nAnd it is the young children who are the most susceptible to the evils of overcrowding, bad lighting,\nbad seating, bad air, and dirt. And they are in the habit-forming period\nthe old ones in decent repair.\n\npupils, the country over, reaches the high schools.\n\n"} {"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE SCHOOL PLANT AS A PUBLIC-HEALTH ASSET\n\nSessions]\n\n8i\n\nwhen the model school with model equipment would mean most to their\nfuture lives.\n\nYet it has been my far too common experience to go from a\n\nbeautiful modern high school, thru which I have been conducted by a proud\n\nschool board, into grade buildings with not only the defects indicated above,\n\nbut with such palpable fire dangers that I wonder their use is tolerated for a\nsingle day; buildings with defective furnaces and flues and defective wiring;\n\nwith closets under the wooden stairs for storage of brooms, oiled rags,\nwaste paper, and gasoline cans; no direct exits from basement school-\n\nrooms and\n\ntoilets;\n\nno\n\nfire\n\nfire\n\ndrill;\n\nwinter nor used in\n\nbeen added above\n\ninelastic\n\nescapes,\n\nor such as are never cleaned in\n\nbuildings to which an extra story has\n\nwalls\n\nand stairways and\n\nexits;\n\nbuildings\n\nthat\n\nknow no fire drill that would measure up to efficiency in case of\n\nfire;\n\nbuildings that shake most alarmingly in every high wind;\n\nbuildings\n\nthat, by example of the manufacturer who aims at efficient production of\n\nmere merchandise, should have been thrown on the scrap heap long ago!\nIf there is no better way, let us issue long-time bonds, and make these very\nchildren pay, thirty years hence, for decent schools now.\n\nI venture to\n\nsay it will not cost them more than a \"tithing\" of their added efficiency.\n\nBut there are many school buildings which, while far from \"model,\"\nneed not be thrown upon the scrap heap.\n\nThey constitute an inspiriting\n\nchallenge to the right kind of teacher.\n\nAltogether the highest sanitary\n\naverage I have found in inspections of public-school buildings in some fifty\ncities was in a city in\n\nmy own state where a teacher, having risen from a\n\ndesk in the primary grade to the superintendency of the city schools,\nsecured effective filtration for the polluted public water in each of the\n\ntook all the toilets out of the basements, put in more windows\nand fully utilized them for ventilation as well as light; secured the laying of\nnew hall floors and stairs; made floors, walls, windows, desks, and the\nfarthest corner of the cellar an eloquent, even fascinating, exposition of the\nbeauty and uses of cleanness, and elevated hygienic habits to a position of\npriority above everything else in the curriculum, tho in academic standing\nhis schools rank equal to any in the state.\nTrue, there was the help of a\nnon-political school board with women on it; but I almost regret to have\nto say that this wonderful superintendent is a man, and foreign born: Superintendent Phil Huber of Saginaw, West Side.\nThere is surely an inspiring call to every public-school teacher in\nAmerica whether at a city superintendent's desk or as head of the forlornest one-room country schoolhouse.\nAs the school becomes the social\ncenter, so the teacher must become the social leader in those things which\nmake for improved civic and domestic life. It is obviously the duty of\ntraining schools to bestow far more time and emphasis upon school planning\nand school housekeeping. Then, the properly informed and trained teacher\nwill assuredly not take what is set before him (or her) in school plant and\nequipment, and ask no questions; nor fear to open a window under the\n\nbuildings;\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n82\n\n[General\n\nfrown of an ignorant janitor. But then the janitors, too, will be trained to\nTeachers, and teachers' associations, will\ntheir highly important work.\n\nand boards of education;\nand we will have the \"model city'* of childhood everywhere laying the\nfoimdations of the model cities which today have their blest foundations\nforever be proposing better things to parents\n\nchiefly in our dreams.\n\nEDUCATION FOR FREEDOM\nCHARLES ZXJEBLIN, PUBLICIST, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nThe legacy of the nineteenth century was threefold;\nzation,\n\nthe democratic\n\nand the cosmic\n\nspirit,\n\nindustrial organi-\n\nsense.\n\nThe nineteenth\n\ncentury was appropriately called by Alfred Russell Wallace \" the wonderful\n\ncentury\";\n\nyet its greatest wonders were not its verities but its vistas.\n\nModern industrial organization has multiplied creature comforts beyond\nit has united workers on a scale before unknown,\n\nthe dream of earlier times;\n\nbut it has not made them happy; it has tried to exploit science, but it\nhas not become scientific. It has increased material wealth and sacrificed\nspiritual value by compelling uniformity.\n\nThe second factor in the heritage of today is the democratic spirit.\nThis has not yet expressed itself so fully in liberty and fraternity as in\nDespite the shameful extremes of luxury and poverty a super-\n\nequality.\nficial\n\nequality pervades contemporary life.\n\ntravels;\n\nEverybody reads; everybody\n\neverybody does what everybody else does because everybody else\n\nis doing it.\n\nMore people read than ever before in history.\n\nMost of them\n\ncannot yet want good things; hence the taste of the cultivated surrenders\nto the popular demand.\n\nJournalism is extravagant; fiction is journalistic;\n\nthe drama is sensational.\n\nThe democratic spirit holds latent the larger\n\nlife.\n\nIt is momentarily sacrificed to mediocrity.\n\nrise above the\n\nAudacity is required to\n\ncommonplace.\n\nIt is just beginning to dawn upon us that an even greater factor than\n\nthe democratic spirit for the life of tomorrow is the cosmic sense.\n\nThe\n\nfifteenth century knew a great deal about the remote heavens and nothing\n\nabout man. The nineteenth century has taught us about the man who\nis at hand, and thru knowledge of him we are beginning to get a vastly\nlarger grasp of the universe.\n\nPhilosophical, religious, and other specula-\n\ntions of the nineteenth century have steadily enlarged the boimds of himian\nvision.\n\nPositivism, sociaUsm, anarchism, new thought. Christian Science,\n\n—each suggests an endeavor to be\n\ntheosophy, and pantheism\n\nall-inclusive,\n\nto present a vision of the fullness of life.\n\nEducation cannot be adequate imless it takes account of this threefold\nwhich indeed is rudely done in the familiar educational trinity:\n\nlegacy,\n\neducation for occupation, for citizenship, and for character.\nculture\n\nis\n\nno longer\n\nsufficient.\n\nMediaeval\n\nThe college-entrance examinations will\n\n"} {"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION FOR FREEDOM\n\nSessions]\n\n83\n\nWe cannot train free men and women for the\n\nnot do as a standard of life.\n\nfimctions of tomorrow by a system of education designed for sequestered\n\nWe shall use our industrial organiza-\n\nmonks nearly a thousand years ago.\ntion,\n\ndemocratic spirit, and cosmic sense in preparation for occupation,\n\ncitizenship,\n\nand character when we give the pupil his trinity of creation,\n\nservice, and harmony.\n\nThe child cannot be fitted for occupation in the ever-bigger world if\nwe merely teach him a trade or a profession. He must have not only a\ndexterous hand and a trained eye, but the power of incorporating his\n\nMost of us need fewer and better\nby knowing how to make better if not fewer\nthings, whether we make pottery or poetry. The pupil must be taught\nservice that his occupation may have some other goal than money-making\nand that citizenship may be a serious accomplishment. Hence the school\nmust be co-operative, not competitive. The examination that reveals\nthe conventional mind of the teacher must be surrendered to the discovery\nof the unconventional mind of the child.\nThe school must become a workshop and a playroom instead of a prison or a hospital. Training for character will be secured not so much by catechism and discipline as by the\nimagination in the work of his hands.\nthings;\n\nall of us will benefit\n\nexposition of the meaning of harmony.\n\nThe whole nature of the child must expand by reaching out for the whole\ncontent of the imiverse. He must get a world-philosophy. He must come into\n\nharmony with nature, man, and God. He will reach nature thru science,\nman thru art, and God thru life. Science will mean to him not the laboratory but the world. He will live and learn and work out of doors. He will\ncome into assured harmony with nature if he has health, taken in its whole\nmeaning: physical, mental, and spiritual. Man is revealed by the work\nof his hands;\n\nthe history of civilization is written in architecture.\n\nThe\n\npupil will come into harmony with God, not by theological instruction,\n\nbut by entering into the universal and comprehensive, even if too young\nto grasp the riddle of the imiverse.\n\nHe will not be content with the knowl-\n\nedge of his own accomplishments or those of others;\n\nhe will desire to\n\npenetrate the mystery of the cosmos and discover the unity of all things.\n\nThus the heritage of the twentieth century will become the possession\nof all children, and they will be fitted in occupation, citizenship, and character\n\nto be conscious agents in the extension of the benefits of industrial organization, the democratic spirit,\n\nand the cosmic sense.\n\nsociety of free men and free women.\n\nThen we shall have a\n\n"} {"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n84\n\n[General\n\nTHE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN ELEMENTARY AND\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\nJ.\n\nLYNN BARNARD, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AtJD GOVERNMENT, SCHOOL\nOF PEDAGOGY, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nThe term \" civics,\" which the Century Dictionary inadequately defines\nas \"the science of civil government,\" has come much into disrepute these\nlatter days.\n\nAnd no wonder, when one thinks of the dry-as-dust stuff that\n\nhas so long masqueraded under that name in public and private schools\nalike.\nThe emphasis has usually been placed on the organization and legal\npowers of government, principally national, with no live discussion of what\n\neven the federal government really does, and still less as to state or local\ngovernment.\n\nIn fact, the pupil in the elementary school has been lucky if\nhe has escaped penal servitude for one awful winter, while he memorized\nthe federal Constitution.\n\nAnd when the secondary school was reached he\n\nprobably received another indeterminate sentence in the form of an encounter with an appalling array of juiceless facts about how we are governed,\n\nsacredly removed from practical application and carefully smuggled in\n\nwith an equally uninspiring survey of United States history.\n\nAnd was this\n\nutterly unpedagogical performance supposed to help make good citizens ?\n\nNot at all!\n\nIt\n\nwas supposed to be education\n\nwas, we are fast outgrowing it.\n\n—\n\ndiscipline.\n\nWhatever it\n\nAnd this leaves us free to fill up this fine\n\nold word \"civics\" with a splendid new content.\n\nTo do this intelligently, let us first ask ourselves, frankly, this question:\n\nWhy are we teaching any subject whatever in the elementary or the secondary school ?\n\nIs it for the sake of acquainting our pupils with a given\n\nnumber of facts, both new and strange?\n\nIs\n\nit\n\nwith the forlorn hope of\n\ncultivating a so-called \"faculty,\" or of instilling a special type of \"mental\ndiscipline,\" or of imparting a new flavor of \" culture\" ?\n\nOr, are we content\n\nto do the thing which Froebel told us to do, nearly a century ago, and which\n\nthoughtful parents are coming to demand of us as educators, namely, to\n\nacquaint the children with their varied environment during those impressionable years of childhood and early adolescence ?\nIf the latter, how delightful our task!\n\nAnd all of us may contribute.\n\nRelationships of time and space, rightly developed, will make mathematics\n\n—but most of the present textbooks\n\na feast\n\nwill have to \"go a-glimmering \"\n\nSimilarly, the possibilities of self-expression thru language\nwill render the class in English a joy\n\nand literature\n\n—but the \"factative complement\" and\n\nthe \"adverbial objective\" will lie beyond the reach of Gabriel's bugle-call!\n\nAnd when the wonderful world of nature lying all about us is revealed to\nthe enchanted eye and ear of the young explorer, who can picture his delight\nbut the bones of the human body will go uncataloged, and the Strait of\nBab el Mandeb will connect Great Salt Lake with Puget Sound for all the\nhappy youngster knows or cares! And when, finally, children's eyes are\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSessions]\n\nTEE TEACHING OF CIVICS\n\n8$\n\n—which in the\n\nand towns means\n\nopened to their social environment\n\ncities\n\nwell-paved streets, police and fire protection, schools, libraries, parks, and\n\n—\n\n—\n\nthey will experience equal pleasure and uplift but good old\nUncle Sam's vigorous Constitution will no longer be solicitously inquired\n\nplaygrounds\n\nafter: in fact, it will almost be forgotten that he has one!\n\nwe can agree that the immediate end of teaching boys and girls\nthem to their environment, can we come into like agreement as\nto the ultimate end of all our teaching below college grade ? Mr. Arthur\nW. Dunn, in the preface to his remarkable little textbook in civics, has given\nus the only answer that we shall dare to stand for. Says Mr. Dimn:\nIf, then,\n\nis to relate\n\nThe function of the public school is to produce a good type of citizenship. There is\nno other sanction for the existence of the public school. The entire course of study and\nthe whole round of school life should be directed to this end.\n\nThe very title of Mr. Dunn's book\n\nThe Community and the Citizen\n\n—\n\nis\n\nBy \"community\" he means a group of\npeople bound together by common interests and subject to common rules\nor laws. And any person, young or old, who shares in community benefits\nsuggestive of the newer viewpoint.\n\nand is subject to commimity responsibilities is a \" citizen.\"\n\nThe home, the\n\nschool, the church, the shop, the township, village, or city, the common-\n\nwealth, the nation\n\n—\n\nall are types of the community, and all\n\nwho participate\n\nin the life of each community are its citizens.\n\nOnce the child comes to grasp this idea of citizenship in the large, he\ncan easily be carried over to one particular type which we may term political\ncitizenship,\n\nand the study of which we term civics.\n\nSomewhat crudely\n\ndefined, civics is the study of man in his relation to his political environment\n\n—the\n\nstate; and it includes both what the government does for him and\nwhat he may do in return, either individually or in organized groups.\nNature's gifts are free and unerring, while the community's gifts are the\nTherefore, it\nresult of social sacrifice and are often blundering and faulty.\nis all the more important and difficult to teach the boy and girl to appraise\nthese latter blessings rightly, and to be willing to contribute their share\ntoward securing them. And we may add that one who is both willing and\nable so to contribute is the good citizen.\nThe qualities of good\nBut now comes the vital point of this paper.\ncitizenship cannot come from a mere accimiulation of dry and more or less\nunrelated facts, nor from abstract generalizing about these facts: they must\narise from a live, intelligent interest, which can be cultivated only by direct\ncontact with commimity action ^by enriching and capitalizing the child's\n\n—\n\nown social experience.\nLet us now consider a fairly definite program, especially for the elementary school, where the foundations must be laid for a structure that is to\n\nAnd this carries us back to the great\nand that wonderful educational tool, the kin-\n\ntake a lifetime in the building of it.\nmaster-builder,\ndergarten.\n\nFroebel,\n\nHere a splendid start is made in bringing the child into a\n\n"} {"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n86\n\nsympathetic understanding of his social environment.\n\n(General\n\nThe farmer, the\n\ncarpenter, the blacksmith, all are friends, doing for him interesting services,\n\nwhich he sees, sings about, and imitates.\n\nThis\n\n—for one or two blessed\n\nyears! and then, he is \"promoted\" into the first grade, too often a desert\n\nwaste where the real world disappears and the world of books takes its place!\n\nBy various means the idea of the interchange of services, acquired in\nthe kindergarten, must be developed thruout the primary years.\n\nThe child\n\nmust come to see that in return for the specialized service his father or\nmother is rendering to society, the family is receiving thru the medium\nof wages and salary the services of grocer, milkman, doctor, teacher,\npreacher. And the child should be encouraged to talk about and appreciate the character of these services, and his family's dependence upon them.\nEven the pupil who comes to the rural school has a backgroimd of home\nexperience to appeal to in enforcing this community idea.\nDuring the first half of the grammar-school period the child is still\nreveling in the hero-worshiping stage the idealizing of men and things.\nAnd just as this is the most valuable opportunity for taking the child thru\nthe realm of European and American biography carefully avoiding the\ncomplicated narrative history, for which he is not yet ready so is it the\ntime for helping him to understand, and hence to idealize, commimity\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nservice.\n\nThis we may term biographical civics.\n\n—\n\nIn the cities, especially,\n\nthere is a wealth of civic material, and even the small village is rich in such\nmaterial, if the teacher has the instinct for discovering it.\n\nRealizing fully\n\nthat the city of Philadelphia is unusually fortunate in this regard, and that\n\neach locality must solve the problem for itself\n\n—\n\nning to do\n\n—as some are already begin-\n\nI shall venture to give a brief outline of what we are trying to\n\naccomplish in the practice school (grammar grades only) of the Philadelphia\nSchool of Pedagogy, and, also, in one of the high schools for girls.\nleast,\n\nAt\n\nour experience may be suggestive and stimulating.\n\nLet me say, at the beginning, that this work in civics in our practice\nis under the immediate direction of my competent assistant,\n\nschool\n\nMr. E. W. Adams.\nIn the first half of the fifth grade a beginning is made with the child's\nThe topics taken up\n\ncommon experiences within his home and his school.\n\nduring the term (the order is not important) are: gas, electricity, water,\nsewage, and the telephone.\n\nAnd the method is about as follows, using the\n\nfirst topic, gas, as the illustration.\n\nThe teacher strikes a match and lights a gas-jet, looks at it a moment,\nand then turns it out. This bit of apparent idiocy catches the attention\nand excites the curiosity of the children to the »th degree, and this is\nexactly what the teacher is after. One question after another traces the\ngas into the ceiling, down the side walls to the basement, until the meter is\nreached.\n\nHow to read the meter is then explained, by diagram if necessary,\n\nand the fugitive gas is traced into the street.\n\nTte cover is then taken off\n\n"} {"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE TEACHING OF CIVICS\n\n87\n\nthe street and behold! there is exposed a perfect network of pipes and wires.\n\nOne particular pipe is followed till it enters a huge tank, and then the class\nhas arrived (in its mind's eye) at the gas works.\n\nAfter a brief discussion of\n\nhow the gas is manufactured, a visit to a convenient gas works is arranged\nand at the first class recitation after the trip interesting reports are\nOf course, this trip, like all the others\ntaken by the class, is carefully planned by the teacher, and the sort of\nthings to look for and inquire about are outlined with some care. A badly\nmanaged trip would be a waste of time, and bring the classwork into\nfor,\n\nmade of what was seen and heard.\n\ndisrepute.\n\nAll the topics mentioned above are taught in substantially the same\nfashion, taking care to begin each new discussion with a contribution by the\nclass from its own store of information, and following this up with the trip\nand the after-discussion. Of the five topics covered this first term, the\ntelephone is the prime favorite. And the amount of accurate knowledge\nand experience the average fifth-grade class discloses in the preliminary\ndiscussion ought to convince any wide-awake teacher that the schoolroom\nhas no monopoly of the educative process. Its function, at best, is and\nshould be largely one of direction and guidance. When the service of the\ncommunity to the child has been shown with each of the foregoing, the\nreciprocal duties of the child to the community are brought out by careful\nquestioning, which follows the lines of the pupil's own observation and\n\nexperience.\n\nIn the second half of the fifth grade, what the child sees by looking out\nthe window is drawn upon for material: such as the policeman, the fireman,\nthe street sweeper, the garbage collector, the ashes collector.\n\nEach of\n\nthese is taken up in the manner already described, never omitting a possible\ntrip or report or forgetting to emphasize the corresponding duties of citizen-\n\nship resting upon the young citizens of the class.\n\nDuring the early part of the sixth grade some of the educational institutions of the city are visited and reported upon: such as municipal play-\n\ngrounds (in Philadelphia these are distinct from the school playgrounds),\n\nFairmount Park,\n\nlibraries,\n\nmuseums,\n\nhistorical buildings\n\nand localities.\n\nLater in the year visits are made to various public buildings, such as city\n\ncustom house, mint, armories and arsenals, hospitals. It\nmust be kept in mind that not nearly all these trips are taken by the whole\n\nhall, bourse,\n\nclass, for this is obviously impossible, as well as unnecessary.\n\nNo regular textbooks are used in the fifth and sixth grades, but civics\nreaders like Richman and Wallach's Good Citizenship and Hill's Lessons for\n\nJunior Citizens add interest to the work.\n\nBy the close of the sixth grade the pupils have acquired a fund of\nfirst-hand civic information\n\nand experience of a concrete and practical\n\nnature, no attempt having been made to generalize or to discuss political\nrights or duties from a legal standpoint.\n\nIn fact, the word \"government\"\n\n"} {"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nSS\nis\n\n[General\n\nnot even mentioned: only the more general term \"commimity.\"\n\nBut\n\nduring the seventh and eighth grades more attention can safely be given\n\nand aim of governmental activity, and to the way in which\nDuring the entire\nseventh grade the emphasis is placed on municipal government, using\nto the end\n\npublic and private agencies unite to accomplish results.\n\nPhiladelphia as the basis of comparison\n\nwhile the eighth grade is\n\n;\n\nshared\n\nabout equally between conmionwealth and national government, with the\npupil's own state of Pennsylvania as the basis.\nHowever, this (to the child)\nartificial\n\nbetween\n\ndistinction\n\nlocal,\n\nstate,\n\nand national government\n\nis\n\nconstantly broken over in the discussion of governmental activities, and is\n\nused only enough to impress the bothersome fact that there is such a\nthreefold entity to be reckoned with.\n\nNo better introduction to the more serious study of civics (in the seventh\ngrade) can be found for Philadelphia boys and girls than the beginnings and\n\ngrowth of commimity action in their home city, as pictured so graphically\nin Franklin's autobiography.\n\nThey will see how various civic functions,\n\nsuch as street paving and cleaning, water supply, etc., at first performed by\n\neach householder, were gradually taken over by the municipality, and\n\nThe family and the home as factors in this community life are particularly dwelt upon, that the children may rightly\nappreciate the civic importance of the home.\n\nperformed for all alike.\n\nA series of studies is next undertaken to find out how their city—aided\nby state or nation\n\n—\n\nhelps the normal citizen in relation to life, health,\nworking and business conditions, transportation, education,\nAnd this is naturally followed by a brief\nrecreation, religious worship.\n\nproperty,\n\nstudy of how the city\n\n—again aided by larger\n\nits subnormal citizens:\n\npolitical units\n\n—takes care of\n\nthe dependents, the defectives, and the delinquents.\n\nThe idea of prevention is kept uppermost, or of restoration wherever\nHow the city gets the money to do all it does is briefly explained.\n\npossible.\n\nAs each function is discussed, the organization of the city government\ncommunity work is outlined, with occasional reference to the\nordinances of councils and to the Philadelphia charter. And careful\nto do this\n\nconsideration is given to the co-operation of private agencies with various\n\nmunicipal bureaus and departments, that the pupils may see how commimity and citizen work together. It is remarkable how the young lads\nare galvanized into alert, watchful guardians of their city's interests;\n\nquick to discriminate between good paving and bad, between clean streets\nand dirty ones, between law enforcement and law defiance. If this is not\nthe basis of good citizenship, what is ?\n\nVery much the same plan is followed during the eighth grade, in dealing\nTime forbids my entering into detail. As various\n\nwith state and nation.\nactivities\n\noutline\n\nare taken up, the governmental organization\n\n—executive,\n\nlegislative,\n\nis\n\nsketched in\n\n—never forgetting to find out\n\njudicial\n\nwhere the money comes from to keep the machinery going.\n\nIn studying\n\n"} {"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TEACHING OF CIVICS\n\nSessions]\n\n89\n\nabout federal activities a beginning is made, wherever possible, at the point\nwhere nation and city find visible contact: e.g., the post-office, the custom\nhouse, the mint, the navy yard.\nOf course, the touch has to be light during these last two years, or the\nyoimg people would be weighed down with confusing details. The process\nof selection and adaptation by the teacher must be continuous and xmsparing.\n\nBut please observe this all-important point: the order followed is\n\ninvariably that of the child's own interest and appreciation, namely, from\n\nfunction to structure, from the administrative department which does\nthings, to the legislative which plans the things to be done, and the judicial\nwhich interprets and helps enforce those plans; and then, if necessary, to\nthe charter or constitution which lays down legal powers and duties: never\nthe reverse, as has so long been the custom. Moreover, the possibilities\nfor co-operation between the community, acting thru government, and the\ncitizens yoimg or old, acting singly or thru voluntary associations, are never\nlost sight of.\n\nI have tried to show that civics is not one or more gobs (*'gob\" is a\n\nperfectly good word\n\n—^you\n\nwill find it in the dictionary) of cold\n\ngestible facts, imrelated to life.\n\nand indi-\n\n—a growth—a point of\n\nCivics is itself a life\n\n—\n\ndemocracy in the making! This means, first, that the work in civics\nmust be given adequate time in the school curriculum; and second, that the\nwork must be continuous, a little at a time thruout the first eight years of\n\nview\n\nschool life.\n\nWith this as the foimdation and substructure, what a splendid superstructure of effective citizenship can be erected during the high-school\nperiod, for the 20 per cent who are so fortunate as to reach the \"people's\n\ncollege\"!\n\nAnd this leads me to say something about the work in civics at\n\nthe William Penn High School for Girls, Philadelphia, where, under the\nenthusiastic direction of Miss Jessie C. Evans, head of the department, the\n\nhistory has been socialized and the civics humanized.\n\nNo more endurance\n\ntests for the memory on governmental anatomy, chiefly federal!\n\nThe brief time at the disposal of civics is taken up with a rather detailed\nstudy of the home city.\n\nAfter briefly tracing Philadelphia's growth as an\n\norganized community, the girls are directed into a most interesting study\nof the problems of health, sanitation, building regulations, water supply,\nsewage and garbage disposal, street cleaning, lighting, and paving, police\n\nand fire protection, transportation, education, city planning, contracts\nand franchises, municipal revenues.\nDoes this sound either formal or formidable ? In practice it is neither.\nLet me quote from a description I gave of it in the Saturday Evening Post,\nabout a year ago.\n\nNo longer are the girls asked \"elevating\" questions such as: \"How does the federal\nexecutive act as a check upon the legislature?\" \"What are the exclusive powers of the\nSenate and House of Representatives ?\"\n\nInstead, they are busying themselves with such\n\n"} {"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nQO\n\n[General\n\n\"commonplace\" queries as: \"Why do school children have to be quarantined when they\nhave the mumps, and what are the city regulations covering contagious diseases\ngenerally ?\" \"Why may there be legally only seven seats between aisles in our assembly\nhall, and what are the city ordinances about overcrowding, exits, and fire escapes?\"\nHow dreadfully commonplace such subjects as these are! What a waste of time,\nwhen the pupils might be communing with that noblest product of poUtical thinking,\n\nThe trouble with this viewpoint\n\nthe federal Constitution!\n\n— that in the old Constitution days the\n\nsome teachers\n\n—in\n\nrevolted\n\nis\n\nspirit, if not in action.\n\nin this new type of civics.\n\n—held, unfortunately, by\n\ngirls\n\ndid not commune, they\n\nOn the other hand, they are taking a keen interest\n\nStarting with things that are vital to them, with questions\n\nthey really want answered, they hunt anywhere and everywhere, even in the state or\nnational constitutions, till their human interest is satisfied.\n\nAnd this is not all.\n\n—the true goal\n\nThese girls become possessed by another motive\n\nof the educational process.\n\nIf they find that laws or ordinances passed for their protection\n\nare not enforced, or that further regulations are necessary, they feel a responsibiUty for\n\nAt last they have learned to think dvically.\nOne girl, after studying housing conditions, went to call on her washerwoman to see\nwhat life was like in one of the city's worst inclosed courts. She was taken about the\nneighborhood and shown all the things the landlord ought to have done, but had not.\n\"And the owner of the buildings is a good church member, too!\" commented the girl,\nthe righting of these conditions.\n\nindignantly.\n\nHow long will inclosed courts and narrow alleys and bad sanitary conditions\n\nprevail, once the citizens know the facts and learn to interpret those facts rightly ?\n\nEven\n\ngood church members will have to get busy if they are profiting in this imregenerate\nfashion.\n\nA second pupil spoke of the added interest she had in reading the daily papers.\nSince she had been studying civics she felt acquainted with the various officials and their\n\nwork, whereas before, the term \"city controller,\" for instance, had meant nothing to her.\nA third student had learned perhaps the most difficult lesson of all the evil of\n\n—\n\nindiscriminate giving, which pauperized the recipient of the bounty.\n\nHow long, think\n\nyou, will the gay and festive hobo continue in business once the backdoor \"handouts\"\nfrom generous but shortsighted women are stopped, and he is met by the unvarying rule,\n\"No work no eat\" ? This will have the proposed labor colonies beaten to a frazzle!\n\n—\n\nJust a few words in conclusion. I have tried to show that training in\ncivics is training for intelligent, conscientious participation in community\nlife;\n\nthat to make such training effective it must not only be practical,\n\nand language itself, it must be continuous, it must be\nThe need for such training was never more urgent. One\n\nbut, like music\n\ncumulative.\n\ndecade of rational civics teaching in our public schools, beginning with the\nhome environment and reaching out into the wider problems of govern-\n\nment, would put an end to boss rule in city, state, and nation.\n\nBoss rule is\n\nso costly and inefficient, and so utterly lacking in ideals, that the properly\ninstructed taxpayer would not tolerate it for a year.\n\nWherefore, it behooves\n\nus school men and women, who hold the key to the situation, in spite of\ntradition and the paralyzing fear of change that goes with it, to dare to\n\nimlock this door that leads to educational and social progress. We must\ncome to recognize both the educational value of a piece of instruction based\n\non interest rather than on compulsion, and the social value of a process of\ncivic education that alone makes possible the success of that hardest of all\npolitical experiments, a true democracy.\n\n"} {"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADVANCE MOVEMENT OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH\n\n91\n\nTHE ADVANCE MOVEMENT OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH\nJAMES FLEMING HOSIC, HEAD OF THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, CHICAGO\nNORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL., AND SECRETARY OF THE\nNATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH\n\nNew occasions teach new duties,\nTime makes ancient good uncouth;\nThey must upward still and onward,\n\nWho would keep abreast of truth.\nLowell's well-known lines perfectly express the spirit of the movement\nof which I speak tonight.\n\nFor the English teachers of America are rapidly\n\nawakening to the new demands of the new day and will rise to meet them.\nLong noted for their vagaries, their disunion, each an infinitely repellent\nThey have formed one\nparticle, they present today a fairly united front.\ngreat brotherhood and eagerly call to each other from the South and\nHow goes the battle, fellow-struggler ? How\nNorth, and West and East\nfare you in your assaults upon the fortresses of slovenly speech, and impotent\nthought, and ignorant taste ?\nSuch a spectacle is most enheartening. For education in the mothertongue remains and must always remain of transcendent importance to every\nchild.\nIt is necessary in order that he may think.\nIt is necessary that\nhe may make his thoughts known. It is necessary that he may share the\nthought and life of others. Any sign which augurs greater efficiency, a\n:\n\nhigher general level of instruction in English will be hailed by every man\nof judgment among us as due and ample cause for rejoicing.\nNot least\nhappy are those who, being actually engaged in the work, see just before them larger possibilities of achievement, more and sounder fruit of\ntheir labors.\n\nHow does it happen that teachers of English, who only yesterday\nwere notorious for vagary and disunion, should now be found united in\n\none great brotherhood ?\n\ncommon needs?\n\nWhat are their common purposes ?\n\nWhat their\n\nWe answer, they are actuated (i) by a sense of limita-\n\ntions which prevent the highest success and which must be overcome and\n(2) by a new and higher conception of their mission.\n\nUpon no subject taught in the schools, particularly the high schools,\nhas tradition hung more heavily than upon the subject of English.\n\nOrigi-\n\nnally no part of the curriculum for the adolescent years, it was introduced\nat the behest of higher institutions.\n\nHence, from the beginning, it was\n\ntreated from the point of view of preparation for the academic life.\n\nMore-\n\nover, being a language study, it must needs be pursued by those methods\n\nwhich had long been in vogue in the language field.\n\nbody of knowledge,\nMaster it for your own.\"\n\n\"Here,\" said the\n\nschoolmaster, \"is a\n\nfully formulated,\n\nassimilation.\n\nUnfortunately such a method\n\nwas ill adapted to the study of a living tongue.\n\nprepared for\n\nNevertheless, this method\n\n"} {"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n92\n\n[General\n\nhas persisted, and it is only with the astonishing growth of the public high\nschool that teachers and supervisors have become aroused to the necessity\nof sweeping aside this mass of pedantry and emphasizing in its place the\nessential language arts.\n\nThis has come about because the social has largely replaced the academic\nideal.\n\nFormerly the schools fitted for college.\n\nNow, since not more than\n\n4 per cent of those in high school ever go to college, the school very properly\nfits\n\nmore directly for life.\n\nBy life, it should be said, we mean the activities\n\nof business and industry, the associations of the family, the relationships\n\nand demands\n\nof the social\n\ncommunity.\n\nKnowing that tomorrow\n\nhis\n\npupils may be in the midst of such responsibilities, that they will be hearing\n\nthe call to service, that they must meet the test of efficiency, that they\nmust prove their personal worth, that they should be able to find within\nthemselves the possibility of the highest pleasures and of a deepening and\n\nbroadening intellectual life, the English teacher will strive with all the\nearnestness that in him lies to make his classroom a place of generating\n\npower, of expanding capacity, of storing-up of resources against the day\nof need.\n\nAnd what are the chief demands which life presses upon us ?\n(i)\n\na clear head, (2) the power of solving problems,\n\nI answer,\n\n(3) knowledge of self\n\nand of human nature, (4) ideals of conduct and strength to cling to them,\n(5) familiarity with the sources of culture, (6) standards of taste, (7) command of the vernacular. These, then, are the qualities and capabilities\nwhich the English teacher will seek to develop. Nor does any other have\na better opportunity. First and always the student of English must think\nstraight.\n\nHow else shall he learn to speak persuasively or write with\n\nclearness;\n\nhow else shall he read and get the sense ?\n\nare not confined to mathematics.\n\nProblems, moreover,\n\nEvery attempt to adapt certain means\n\nto a specific end is a problem-solving effort; likewise the discovery as in\nan argument, for example, of how another has done so. As for literature,\nit is the expression of human life, the embodiment of human nature.\nThru it the heart is revealed and by means of it we live vicariously in a\nthousand experiences and situations not possible to us otherwise, finding\nourselves more completely in a few hours of reading, it may be, than by\nyears of actual toil and pleasure. Thus, too, are built up by concrete\nexample images of what we should like to be and do and those strong\nfeelings of attraction and repulsion which determine our course whenever\nmoral issues confront us. Hence the sources of culture are found largely\nin libraries.\n\nIt is the poets that shall teach us to respond with sympathetic\n\nfervor to the appeals of truth and beauty in that world of art and nature\nin which we may be privileged to move.\n\nLastly, it is the supreme duty of\n\nthe English teacher to enable his pupils to use effectively the language of\n\nevery day.\n\nThus we run the gamut, striking one by one the chief notes\nEnglish may soimd them all.\n\nin the scale of life.\n\n"} {"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nADVANCE MOVEMENT OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH\n\nSessionsl\n\n93\n\nWhether it does so or not will depend upon the teacher's point of view.\nIf\n\ncomposition is taken to be a skillful treading among the eggs of our\n\nunphonetic English spelling, a judicious sowing of discourse with capitals,\nperiods, and commas, and a successful dodging of the pitfalls of an elusive\n\ngrammar\n\n—\n\nlike\n\nPeter Bell's yellow primrose, nothing more\n\n—and\n\nif\n\nlitera-\n\nture is treated as an opportunity for verbal inquisitions, untimely reference\n\nhunting, and petty pressing of noses against the author's private windowpanes, then indeed shall the tones be few and harsh which the player will\n\nevoke.\n\nBut if the better view obtain, that composition is thinking and\n\nthat literature is life, the teacher will guide the activities of his class into\nthose channels which lead directly into the experience beyond the school.\n\nNor will he fail to exact the faithful performance of every essential detail,\nmaking the student feel how these contribute to the end he has in view.\nThis is why we hear so much nowadays of oral expression; of attempts\nto use the newspapers, the magazines, the newer books; of student criticism;\nof school papers;\n\nof interschool correspondence;\n\nof the acting of plays,\n\nand of various other departures from the beaten track. These are experiments in reality attempts to direct boys and girls in doing precisely\nthose things which they will most insistently continue to do all their days.\nFor the mere conning and saying of lessons is at best very like a tread-\n\n—\n\nmill, a performance not easily duplicated outside the school.\n\nIt certainly\n\ndoes not enlist the whole-hearted earnestness of the pupil, and hence often\nsignally fails to produce any deep or lasting ejffect.\n\nBoys and girls must\n\nenter into their speaking and reading with that zest and purpose which\n\nThey must care to win, must study\nThey will do so if their school life is real\nlife.\nThe resourceful teacher will make it so.\nSuch is the spirit which animates the leaders of the new English movement. They are not mere iconoclasts. They do not favor anarchy or\nwelcome chaos. They are not unmindful of the values which the methods\nin vogue for several decades are capable of unfolding.\nThey are not\nactuate them in their clubs and games.\nto win, must rejoice in winning.\n\nBut they would infuse the\nEnglish work of the time with the best educational ideals of the time.\n\nwillfully ignoring the excellent traditions.\n\nThey would keep abreast of progress, would walk in the van.\nThey are aware that conditions seemingly beyond their control render\ntheir task appallingly difficult.\nThe country as a whole has indifferent\nstandards of linguistic culture.\nall.\n\nOften there seem to be no standards at\nIn many communities less than 10 per cent of the children may be said\n\nto receive any favorable linguistic or literary influence whatever in their\nhomes, while on the street they are laughed at for their pains when they\n\nThe fathers read\nThe mothers read the lighter maga-\n\nspeak as in the school they have been taught to speak.\nthe newspapers and nothing better.\nzines or nothing at all.\n\nAt the best, the school can never raise the English\n\nof all the boys and girls far above the commimity level, and that is often\n\n"} {"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n94\npainfully low.\n\n[General\n\nThe wonder is, not that we do so badly in our English\n\ninstruction, but that we produce any visible effects at all.\n\nThe situation in the school itself is not always favorable.\n\nOther\n\ndepartments fail to support by example and precept the efforts of the\nEnglish teachers.\n\nThe pupils are required to take too many hours of\n\nwork and have not time for thoroness or ripening. The English teachers\nare overwhelmed with pupils and slight the work or destroy their health\nand energy in an heroic attempt to do justice to individuals where only\nmass instruction is possible. Actual statistics show that the mortality\n\namong composition teachers is in many instances actually greater than at\n\nAnd yet it is a useless and unnecessary\nnumber of English teachers in the high schools of the\n\nthe bloody field of Gettysburg.\nsacrifice!\n\nIf the\n\nUnited States were doubled, the total expense of this all-important subject would not far surpass that of the sciences, while if it were computed\n\nwith relation to the actual time given to it, far less.\n\nNo reasonable man\n\nwill deny that the intolerable and unfortunate conditions to which I have\n\nreferred could and should be removed.\n\nThe actual facts are at hand in the famous Hopkins report and will\nThey should be urged upon the attention\n\nsoon be given to the country.\nof all supervisors\n\nand all boards of education.\n\nFor the sake of results,\n\nfor the sake of precious human life and strength, they should be acted upon\n\nwithout delay.\n\nAlong these\nteaching.\n\nlines,\n\nthen,\n\nlie\n\nthe possibilities of advance in English\n\nA unity of purpose, reassuring in its depth and strength, seems\n\nto pervade our ranks.\n\nThe social character and social activities of the\n\nschool begin to bulk large in our conception of what English training may\n\nand ought to do. Not forgetting that life is more than meat and culture\nmore than industry, to life itself we look for those aims which shall direct\nour efforts. Nor will we hope to work miracles and heal multitudes when\nwe know quite well that upon each separate head must hands be laid.\nWe respect our high calling. Our land is one of many interests, many\noccupations, many religions, many races even.\n\nWhat shall constitute us\n\nAmericans? What, indeed, but pride in our conmion country, its\nhistory, and its free institutions; love of the Stars and Stripes which\nsymbolizes them; knowledge of our common language by means of which\nwe share the common life; and familiarity with our nation ^s literature,\nwhich reflects our history, which embodies our spirit, and disseminates\nour ideals. This language and this literature it is our privilege to teach.\nThis we would do with an eye single to the making of competent and useful\ncitizens, ready and able to serve others, and possessed of the means of\never widening and enriching their own intellectual lives.\nall\n\n"} {"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE HIGH SCHOOL AND DEMOCRACY\n\nSessions]\n\n95\n\nTHE HIGH SCHOOL AND DEMOCRACY\nTHOMAS JESSE JONES, SPECIALIST, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C.\nSociety is now undergoing a very rapid process of evolution. Everywhere the insistent demand is for more democracy democracy in\ngovernment, including popular election of all officials and the subordination\nof government interest in war to government activity for soil, industry,\n\n—\n\nand education; democracy in courts, judges who do not consider\nand legal tradition more important than the welfare of\nthe boy and the girl and more binding than the sacred ties of home\nlife;\ndemocracy in industry, workshops in which the employee is more\nthan a tool and the employer is always a brother; democracy of art,\nthe beautiful and artistic of the world made common to all and the common\nin life transfigured in art for its very simplicity and universality; democracy\nof recreation, buildings and open parks in our cities for the laughter\nand the pleasure and the play of all the people, and for farmers and\nlaborers of the open country liberal allowances of regular time for healthful\nfun and joyful appreciation of nature's handiwork; democracy of health,\nGod's fresh air and pure food for the children of all men and a death-rate\nthat draws no unfair line against the infants of the laborers: and most\nimportant of all, a demand for a democracy of education.\nDemocracy of education is just beginning to be realized. As to\nthe classes of people who shall receive education, we have long been\ndemocratic. Civilized people are now almost unanimous in their belief\nthat all the people must be educated. While, however, we have proclaimed\nhealth,\n\nlegal precedent\n\nwith almost boastful pride our belief in the education of all the people,\n\nwe have been clinging with bhnd tenacity to a form of education that is\nboth traditional and aristocratic. The subject-matter of education has\nbeen largely the conventional knowledge demanded by a people who had\nmore leisure than responsibility.\n\nWe have been content to accept this\n\ndecorative or \"disciplinary\" idea of education devised for the independent\nclasses of a very simple form of society now practically out of existence.\n\nThe high school has now the opportunity of the century to lead in the\ngreat tide of democratization now moving as never before.\n\nIt can,\n\nif it\n\nwill, not only lead the school system, but it can guide and direct more largely\n\nthan any other social group every phase of democracy as it reaches out into\nthe home, the church, the playground, the field, the shop, and the legislation\nhalls.\n\nThis tremendous possibility is claimed for the high schools of the\n\nland because of their strategic position in our civilization.\n\nWhat then are the educational elements which the high school must\nrecognize if it would live up to its wonderful opportunity to assist in the\ngreat movement for a real and active democracy in education and in life ?\nFirst of\n\nall,\n\nteachers must catch the spirit of the twentieth-century\n\ndemocracy and learn of the great movements for the improvement of man-\n\n"} {"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n96\nkind.\n\n[General\n\nThey must know enough of the ills of our democracy to feel a right-\n\neous and intelligent indignation that so fair a land should be so easily beset\n\nwith difficulties.\n\nThey must know, too, the inspiring crusades of public-\n\nspirited men, rich and poor, to rid the land of these evils and to make it\n\na land fair in reahty as in name.\n\nWhy must the nation suffer the appalling loss of 650,000 persons every\nA multitude of men, women, and children,\n\nyear from preventable causes ?\n\nalmost twice the population of the capital city of our nation, practically\n\nthrown away with scarcely a tinge of regret from even the best-educated\npeople of the land!\n\nWhy should the electrocution of a miserable murderer\n\nattract the attention of the public more than the death of 300,000 infants\n\nevery year from preventable causes?\n\nIs it not possible to improve con-\n\nditions causing a divorce rate of one in twelve marriages in the United\n\nStates as compared with a rate in France of only one in thirty marriages\nand in Germany of but one divorce in forty-four marriages? Shameful\n\nhousing conditions of the working classes, the prevalence of poverty, the\n\nnumber of youthful lawbreakers, the impulsive radicalism of mob rule,\nthe selfish conservation of tradition and privilege, the reckless destruction\nof the natural resources to swell the fortunes of the few, the depopulation\nof rural areas and the increasing congestion of the cities\ncall of society for a imiversal democracy.\n\n—\n\nall these are the\n\nThey call to the teachers of the\n\nland, and above all to the high-school teachers.\n\nLikewise do the great crusades for hiunan betterment call to the public\nschools.\n\nThe national and international organizations for the study and\n\nprevention of disease; the conservation congresses to save the soil and the\nforests\n\nand the minerals and the\n\nwaterfalls\n\nand the animal\n\nlife;\n\nthe\n\nprogress of political rights and social justice so rapid as to be almost\n\n—these and many more inspiring\n\nrevolutionary\n\nefforts for\n\nhimianity await\n\nthe foundation work of the teacher, for it is only the school that has the\n\nmachinery for teaching \"all the children of all the people,\" that it is wiser\nto correct the sanitary condition than to spend the energy in healing pre-\n\nventable sickness; that it is wasteful to build strong jails and permit the\nsaloon, the brothel,\n\nand the gambling-den to flourish;\n\nthat the most\n\neffective foes of poverty are not the almsgivers but the schools preparing the\n\nboys and girls as workers in the shop, in the field, but most important of all\nas fathers and mothers in the home and as patriots in their community.\n\nThe church some time ago tried to save itself by what it called the instiit was soon found that church kitchens and gym-\n\ntutional church, but\n\nnasiums and nurseries and recreation rooms are not enough. These are\nbut the machinery ^good in their place, but by themselves ineffective. The\nchurch needs men and women filled with the spirit of service; the school\nneeds teachers imbued with the spirit of democracy. I am pleading for an\nattitude of mind and will and not for a program. The great discovery of\ndemocracy will be made by the individual teacher when he or she approaches\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE HIGH SCHOOL AND DEMOCRACY\n\n97\n\nthe task in the spirit which dominates the scientific discoveries of the\nnineteenth and twentieth centuries.\n\nIt is the willingness to learn everyone\n\nand everything. It is the proper valuation of the small things of life. The\ninductive method of approach weighs every particle of evidence whether\nsmall or great. Dr. Trudeau is checking the ravages of the great \"white\nplague\" because he was open-minded enough to appreciate the value of\nsuch simple elements as fresh air and pure food. Dr. Knapp became the\nbenefactor of southern agriculture because he was wise enough to see that\nthe boll weevil could best be combated, not by chemicals, but by oldfashioned thrifty farming with deep plowing and early cultivation.\nThe most impressive commencement exercise that I have ever witnessed\nwas that of a farmer boy at Tuskegee last May. He stood upon the platform of the beautiful church surrounded by the common tools and the common animals and common foods without which we could not live. There\nwere the stove, the bed, and the table; the plow, the spade, and the hoe;\nthe saw, the hammer, and the plane; the horse, the cow, and the pig.\nSurrounded by these evidences of a democratic education, he stood erect,\na splendid specimen of young manhood entirely unconscious of his uniform\n\n—the simple blue overalls\n\nof a farmer.\n\nHe explained in dignified clear\n\nEnglish a scientific chart showing exactly how to obtain the greatest possible\nreturns from an acre of soil and still leave that soil ready for other crops.\nIt was all most interesting\n\nand impressive, but to me the climax of his\n\nsplendid efforts came when quite imconsciously he lifted from the platform\n\na box containing what he described to be the farmer's best ally.\n\nHis simple\nwords were eloquent with meaning as he showed that out of that box of\nbarnyard manure came prosperity and comforts and pleasures and education and reUgion to the man who\nvalue.\n\nis democratic enough to recognize its\nThose are not meaningless words which Christ spoke when he said,\n\n\"Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the earth.\"\n\nAnd now let us imagine the teacher all a-tremble with the spirit of democawed it may be by the responsibility; humble in the search for\n\nracy;\n\ntruth; but eager and ready to do and to dare whatever her hands or her\nmind or her soul may find to do. Again we warn that she is not to reform\nthe world nor her community nor yet her pupils; she is not to await big\nbuildings or elaborate plans; she is not even to obey all of the commandments herein urged. In the humble spirit of science and democracy, she\nis first of all to consider well her community and her pupils.\nNo part of the\nlife of the pupil and no section of the community must be despised.\nThe\n\nvocational outlook of the pupils, their homes, their recreations, their health,\ntheir morals, their disposition\n\nmust be carefully considered from every\n\npossible angle which the time, energy, and ability of the teacher will permit.\n\nLikewise there must be a study of the natural resources of the community,\nthe human groupings, the roads, the sanitary arrangements, the pleasure\ncenters, the schools, the churches, and the industries.\n\n"} {"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nSecond, the school and its teachers must agree to adapt every study\nand every activity of pupil, school, and teacher to the improvement of the\nconditions which their community study has revealed. Any study or\nportion of study, any activity or school machinery not contributing rather\nAn\ndirectly to social welfare of pupil and community must be omitted.\nhonest application of this test to the present high-school courses would\nwork many much-needed improvements.\nIf Miss vSmith, teacher of Latin, wishes really to help direct the great\n\nwave of democracy, she must follow Mary to her mother's home and see\nthe mother battling bravely to feed, clothe, and educate her family of five\nShe must\nchildren and father and mother on ten or fifteen dollars a week.\nlearn what is Mary's attitude toward her hard-working father and mother.\nShe must ascertain Mary's pleasures and evening companions. She must\nstudy the relation of housing and food to the death of Mary's baby brother.\nShe must determine in her own mind and, if possible, help Mary to determine what useful sphere in life Mary is going to fill. These various excursions into Mary's life will probably lead Miss\n\nSmith to the study of her\n\ncommunity and she will learn why the health oificer does or does not know\nthat William had diphtheria, why a city of 17,000 has no sewerage system,\nwhy their typhoid fever death list is twice what it ought to be, why there\nare so many beautiful homes, why the schools are so well constructed, and\nmany other conditions good and bad of which she had not dreamt. Finally\nat the end of the school year when her mind is full of this living information,\nMiss Smith, the Latin teacher, will decide to teach Latm in such a living\nstyle that it can no longer be called a dead language, or she will throw\nLatin overboard and teach another subject which Mary needs more in her\ndaily contact with a mother who slaves all day, with children who need to\nbe fed and clothed and washed, in a city that does not give anything away,\nin a democracy that only asks a man or woman to produce something useful, whether it is of matter, mind, or spirit.\n\nLi a word, the high-school teacher who would grasp the greatest opportunity for social service now open to any person must realize that education\nin life and that every activity in the high school must be an integral part of\nlife.\n\n"} {"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\nPHILADELPHIA MEETING, FEBRUARY 26-28, 1913\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST DAY\n\nMORNING SESSION—Wednesday, February 26, 1913\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in\nthe BaUroom of the Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, Philadelphia, Pa., at 9:30 a.m.. President\nFranklin B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass., presiding.\n\nThe session opened with an invocation by Rev. Floyd W. Tomkins, rector of Holy\nTrinity Church.\n\nAddresses of welcome were made by Rudolph Blankenburg, mayor of Philadelphia,\nMrs. Blankenburg, and Martin G. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia,\nPa., to which response was made by O. T. Corson, editor, Ohio Educational Monthly,\nColumbus, Ohio.\nThe program of the morning session was as follows:\n\n—\n—\n\n1. \"Team Play between Schoolmaster and Layman\"\nC. A. Prosser, secretary,\nNational Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, New York, N.Y.\n2. \"Team Play between City Superintendent and City\"\nC. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis.\nPaul W. Horn, superintendent of public\n3. \"Team Play within the System\"\nschools, Houston, Tex.\n\n—\n\nAt the close of the morning session the president appointed the following committees:\nCommittee on Nominations\n\nGuy Potter Benton, president. University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.\nS. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, Pittsburg, Pa.\nL. D. Harvey, president. Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.\nRobert H. Wright, president. East Carolina Teachers Training School, Greenville, N.C.\n\nGeorge B. Cook, state superintendent of public instruction, Little Rock, Ark.\n\nCommittee on Resolxjtions\nJ. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJ. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.\n\nW. McK. Vance, superintendent of public schools, Delaware, Ohio.\nJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.\nPayson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me.\n\nW. S. Sutton, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 00 p.m. in the Ballroom of the Bellevue-Stratford\nHotel by President Dyer, and the following program was presented:\n:\n\n—\n\n1. \"Uniformity of Standards in School Administration\"\nThomas E. Finegan, third\nassistant conmiissioner of education of the state of New York, Albany, N.Y.\n\n—\n\n2. \"The Uniform Minimum Curriculimi with Uniform Examinations\"\nFrank M.\nMcMurry, professor of elementary education, Teachers College, Columbia University.\n\nNew York, N.Y.\n99\n\n"} {"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nlOO\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nDiscussion: A. B. Poland, superintendent of schools, Newark, NJ.; E. C. Moore,\nprofessor of education, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Ella Flagg Young, superin-\n\ntendent of schools, Chicago, Dl.;\n\nI. B. Bush, superintendent of city schools, Parkersburg,\nW.Va.; Edward C. Elliott, professor of education. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\nEVENING SESSION\nAfter music by an orchestra and a brass band composed of boys from the Philadelphia\n\nhigh schools. President Dyer called the meeting to order at 8:00 p.m. in the Assembly\n\nHall of the William Penn High School, and the following program was presented:\n\n—\n\n1. \"Developing the Co-operation and Initiative of Teachers\"\nCharles H. Judd,\ndirector, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, HI.\nJoseph Lee, member of the school committee, Boston,\n2. \"The Need to Dream\"\n\n—\n\nMass.\n3.\n\n\"The Unmeasurable in Teaching\"\n\n—Nathan C.\n\npublic instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nPhilander P.\n4. \"Attainable Ideals\"\neducation, Washington, D.C.\n\n—\n\nSchaeflFer, state superintendent of\n\nClaxton, United States commissioner of\n\nSECOND DAY\nMORNING SESSION—TmrnsDAY, February 27, 1913\nPresident Dyer called the meeting to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Ballroom of the\nBellevue-Stratford Hotel.\n\nSamuel Hamilton, superintendent of county schools, Wilkins-\n\nburg, Pa., was called to the chair, and the following program was presented:\nTopic:\n1.\n\nSome Experiments in School Systems and Their Outcome\n\n\"Developing a School System\"\n\n—C.\n\nS.\n\nMeek, superintendent of schools, Boise,\n\nIdaho.\n1,. R. Alderman, state superin2. \"School Credit for Home Industrial Work\"\ntendent of public instruction, Salem, Ore.\nAn Experiment in Household Education\" Randall J.\n3. \"The Home School\nCondon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n4. \"The Larger Use of the School Plant for School Purposes\"—J. H. Francis,\nsuperintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nEdward D. Roberts, assistant super5. \"The Cincinnati Continuation Schools\"\nintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe annual business meeting followed the program.\n\nOn resimiing the chair. President Dyer called for the report of the Committee on\nNominations.\n\nL. D. Harvey, president. Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis., chairman of\n\nthe committee, submitted the following report:\n\n—\n\nFor President Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St.\nLouis, Mo.\nFor First Vice-President ^W. E. Ranger, state commissioner of public schools,\nProvidence, R.I.\nFor Second Vice-President ^A. S. Cook, superintendent of Baltimore county schools,\n\n—\n—\n\nTowson, Md.\nFor Secretary\n\n—^Anna E. Logan, Ohio State Normal School, Oxford, Ohio.\n\nOn motion of the chairman,the report of the committee was adopted and the secretary\ninstructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the department for the persons named for the\n\nvarious positions.\n\nThis was done and the persons named were declared duly elected.\n\nInvitations to hold the meeting of the department for the year 1914 were presented\n\nfrom Palm Beach, Fla.; Chicago, 111.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Memphis, Tenn.; Milwaukee,\nThe first ballot resulted as follows: Palm Beach, 103;\nWis.; and Richmond, Va.\nChicago, 72; Cincinnati, 187; Memphis, 28; Richmond, 287. By vote of the department,\nthe choice in the next^ballot was confined to Cincinnatijand Richmond. Before the ballot\n\n"} {"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nlOI\n\nwas completed, Cincinnati was withdrawn, and Richmond was declared to be the place\nof meeting for 1914.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION\nThe afternoon session was given to round-table conferences, as follows:\n(a)\n\nround table of supemntendents of larger cities\n\n—Andrew W. Edson, associate city superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y.\n\"How to Measure the Efl&ciency of Teachers\" —^W. M. Davidson, superintendent\n\nChairman\n1.\n\nof schools, Washington, D.C.; and Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public\nschools, St. Louis, Mo.\n2. \"Differentiation in the Courses of Study for Children between Twelve and Sixteen\nYears of Age\" C. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.; and S. L.\nHeeter, superintendent of schools, Pittsburg, Pa.\n\n—\n\n(b)\n\nChairman\n\nround table of superintendents of smaller cities\n\n—\n\nEllis U. Graff, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr.\n\nTopic: The Most Efficient Service Which Assistant Superintendents or\n\n1.\n\nSupervisors Can Render\n\"The Relation of Supervisory Assistants to the Superintendent\"\n\n—Milton C.\n\nPotter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn.; and J. J. Keyes, superintendent of\npublic schools, Nashville, Tenn.\n2. \"How Can Supervisors and Assistant Superintendents Render the Most Efficient\nService in Their Relations to Principals and Teachers\" Frederick M. Hunter, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr.; and Bettie A. Dutton, principal, Kentucky Street\nSchool, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\"\n3. \" The Selection and Tenure of Office of Assistant Superintendents and Supervisors\nM. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La.; and M. G. Clark, superin^J.\ntendent of city schools, Sioux City, Iowa.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n(C)\n\nROUND table OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n—Francis G.\n\nChairman\n\nBlair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\n\nTopic i: The Best Form of National Aid to State Systems of Instruction\n\n—\n\n1. \"From the Viewpoint of the National Commissioner\"\nP. P. Claxton, United\nStates commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n2. \"From the Viewpoint of a State Commissioner\"\nC. G. Schulz, state superintendent of public instruction, St. Paul, Minn.\n3. \"From the Viewpoint of a County Superintendent\"\nE. M. Rapp, superintendent\nof Berks County schools, Reading, Pa.\n\n—\n—\n\nTopic 2: The Best Method of Apportioning and Administering State Aid\n\nA paper on this topic was presented by David Snedden, commissioner of education\nfor Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\n\nEVENING SESSION\nThe meeting was called to order by President Dyer at 8:00 p.m. in the Metropolitan\nOpera House.\nAfter music by a glee club from the Philadelphia high schools, an address of welcome\nwas given by the president of the Philadelphia Teachers' Association, Louise M. Haeseler,\nto which President Dyer responded.\nThe following program was presented:\n1.\n\n\"The Mechanical Mind\"\n\nPrinceton, N.J.\n\n—John Grier Hibben, president, Princeton University,\n\n2. \"The Heart of the Educational Problem \"—Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo.\n3. \"The Reaction in College Education \"\n^Alexander Meikeljohn, president, Amherst\n\n—\n\nCollege, Amherst, Mass.\n\n"} {"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\"\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI02\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nTHIRD DAY\nMORNING SESSION—Friday, February 28, 1913\nThe session took the form of a joint meeting with the National Council of Education\nand was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Ballroom of the Bellevue-Stratford Hotel.\nPresident Charles H. Keyes of the National Coimcil presided, and the following program\nwas given:\nTopic: Reports of Committees on Education\n\n—\n\n\"Reports on Grammatical Nomenclature\" C. R. Rounds, West Division High\nSchool, Milwaukee, Wis.; and William G. Hale, head of the Department of Latin,\n1.\n\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n2. \"Summary of the Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of\nLiving\" Robert C. Brooks, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.\n\n—\n\n3.\n\n\"Economy of Time in Elementary Education\":\n\na) \"A Report on Progress by the Committee on Economy of Time in Elementarj'\nand Secondary Education\" H. B. Wilson, superintendent of city schools, Decatur, 111.\nFrancis, superintendent of schools,\nb) ''Some Los Angeles Experiments\"\n^J. H.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nCharles H. Judd, director, School of\nc) \"A Seven-Year Elementary School\"\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nEducation, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.\nd) \"Mobility of the Teaching Population in Relation to Economy of Time\"\nLotus D. Coffman, professor of education. University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\ne) \" The Economy of Time thru Testing the Course of Study and Time Allotment\n^Leonard P. Ayres, associate director. Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage\nFoundation, New York, N.Y.\n\n—\n\nAt this time, Superintendent C. E. Chadsey, of Detroit, made the following motion:\nI move the continuance of the Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary\nEducation for another year, and that it may be enabled to continue its work on the\nproblem in a thoro and extensive way. I move that this department request the National\nCouncil of Education to recommend to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations the setting apart of $500 00 to meet the necessary expenses of this committee.\n.\n\nThis motion was adopted.\nPresident Dyer now resumed the chair and called for the report of the Committee on\n\nThe following report was presented by Superintendent J. H. Francis, of\nLos Angeles, chairman of the committee:\nResolutions.\n\nWe, your Committee on Resolutions, beg to submit the following report:\n1. Resolved, That the Department of Superintendence of the National Education\nAssociation recognizes the vital importance of raising the efl&ciency of the rural schools and\nstrongly urges their supervision by expert, non-political county or district superintendents\nappointed by non-political educational boards or commissions.\n2. Resolved, That we favor the continued agitation, discussion, development, and\nextension of industrial, agricultural, and vocational training and guidance for both boys\nand girls in the schools of this country, and believe such work should have the encourage-\n\nment and financial support of national, state, and local governments.\n3. Resolved, That we indorse differentiation in courses of study in the last two years\nof grammar-school work.\n4. Resolved, That we hold the logical and sane education for the American girl of the\ntwentieth century to be fully as important as is that for the twentieth-century boy, and\nbelieve that the making of courses of study to meet her special needs is of sufficient\n\nimportance to enlist the best thought and effort of the most earnest and efficient school\nmen and women of our day.\n5. Resolved, That we advocate the wider use of the school plant for educational, social,\nand civic purposes up to the point of diminishing returns.\n6. Resolved, That we believe there is urgent need for fuller development and better\nsupport of night and vacation schools.\n7. Resolved, That we urge our national Congress to give the fullest possible recognition\nof, and financial support to, the Bureau of Education now doing such excellent work under\nthe supervision of Commissioner Claxton.\n8. Resolved, That we recommend expert surveys and investigations of school systems\nas helpful and valuable, when made by broad-minded, constructive committees, inspired\n\n"} {"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nIO3\n\nby right educational motives, working under properly constituted authority, and wholly\nfree from commercialism.\n9. Resolved, That we commend the action of the Department of Superintendence in\nappointing a Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education, and recommend\nthe continuance of such committee with adequate financial support to prosecute its work.\n10. Resolved, That while we believe uniformity in clerical, administrative, and\nbusiness phases of school work would increase efficiency, we advocate such liberality and\ndiversity in strictly educational phases as to encourage initiative upon the part of superintendents, principals, and teachers in studying their particular problems and in providing\nfor the complex and varied needs of individual pupils and communities.\n11. Resolved, That the educational interests of this country are under deep obligation\nto President Dyer and his coworkers for the broad, comprehensive, truly educational and\ninspirational program of this, one of the best meetings in the history of the organization.\n12. Resolved, That we express our sincerest thanks for the genuine courtesy and\nhospitality extended to the school people of the^ nation by Superintendent Brumbaugh,\nthe committees, and other citizens of Philadelphia.\n13. Resolved, That, recognizing the tremendous power of the press in molding public\nopinion, we regard with deepest appreciation the publicity given by the newspapers of\nPhiladelphia to the affairs of this meeting.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. H. Francis, of California\n\nW. Carr, of New Jersey\nW. S. Sutton, of Texas\n\nJ.\n\nJ. H. Phillips, of Alabama\n\nW. M. Vance, of Ohio\nComntUtee\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nEdward Hyatt, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal., presented a set of resolutions adopted by the legislature of California calling upon Congress\nto aid public schools and the National Bureau of Education. The resolution was amended\nso as to exclude the word \"California\" and by vote of the department referred to the\nCommittee on Resolutions.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:00 P. m. in the Ballroom of the BellevueStratford Hotel, President Dyer presiding.\n\nThe following program was given:\nTopic: Improving School Systems by Scientific Management\n1.\n\n\" Underlying Principles \"\n\nversity, Cambridge, Mass.\n\n—Paul H. Hanus, professor of education. Harvard Uni-\n\n—\n\n2. \"Their Application\"\nF. E. Spaulding, superintendent of Newton schools,\nNewtonville, Mass.\nW. C. Bagley, director, School of Education,\n3. \"Investigation Instruction\"\n^\nUniversity of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n4. \"The Determination of the Relative Value of Details within the Course of Study\"\n^A. D. Yocum, professor of pedagogy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nAt the conclusion of the program, Walter D. Hood, principal of Gilbert High School,\nWinsted, Conn., offered the following resolution:\nResolved, That the Department of Superintendence appoint a committee on the\nUnited States Bureau of Education, and that this conmaittee co-operate with the Commissioner of Education in his efforts to secure adequate support for the bureau and an\nenlargement of its activities.\n\nThe resolution was duly seconded and carried by unanimous vote.\nAfter introducing President-elect Ben Blewett, of St. Louis, President Dyer declared\n\nthe meeting of the department adjourned.\n\nB. W. ToRREYSON, Secretary\n\n"} {"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI04\n\n(Phfladelphia\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS OF WELCOME\nRUDOLPH BLANKENBURG, MAYOR, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nAt all times it is a great pleasure for me, acting as chief magistrate of\nPhiladelphia, to extend a heartfelt welcome to gatherings of men and women\n\nand\nBut in welcoming this\ngreat Department of Superintendence in its individual capacity, and as\nassociated for the purpose of bettering conditions in the Republic\n\nmaintaining or elevating the ideals of the people.\n\nrepresentative of the National Education Association of the United States,\nit is\n\na special privilege to stand face to face with a great formative force\n\nin the Republic.\n\nThe impression that your meeting has substantial claim to the special\nconsideration of the citizenship of Philadelphia rests\nFirst,\n\nupon two reasons:\n\nyour organization stands for leadership in the greatest guiding\n\nforce known to modern times\n\n—education, as\n\ndestiny of 95,000,000 free people.\n\nit\n\ninfluences and directs the\n\nSecond, you come to the mother-city\n\nof the Republic, to the birthplace of the Declaration of Independence, in a\n\nYou reaUze that to be eternally free we must be eternally\nYou have faith in your own ability and your own sincerity of\n\nmilitant spirit.\nvigilant.\n\npurpose to provide for the future of your pupils those educational sinews\nof war that will be their safeguard and guide in the stress and strain of life.\n\nThe\n\nfathers of our country\n\nwon independence because they had an\n\nand a wise and effective\nYou meet in the spirit\nof the founders of the Republic; you realize changed conditions; you know\nthat we have outgrown much that, in times past, was regarded as suitable\nand satisfactory, and that the duty rests upon each individual, whether\nwithin or without your association, to investigate fearlessly, to advocate\nintelligent idea of their rights and their needs\n\nplan whereby they could be obtained and satisfied.\n\nneeded changes energetically, but, with equal energy, to defend old practices,\nif old practices prove in line with\n\nnew ideas.\n\nwould leave any particular thought with you, aside from the\nexpression that you are doubly welcome to the city which has been the\nmother of universities as well as of liberties, that thought would be that\nour public schools are the finest, most profitable investment that a people\ncan make an investment which has already declared untold dividends,\nnot only in a better type of citizenship, but thru an intelligently directed\nindustrial development which has added to the wealth of the nation a\nIf I\n\n—\n\nhundred fold the nation's investment in education.\nIt is from my heart, and in all sincerity, therefore, that I welcome you\nto Philadelphia; welcome you as an echo of that splendid spirit which\ncharacterized the men of 1776, men who dreamed dreams, saw visions\n\n"} {"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "j\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nADDRESS OF WELCOME\n\nlOS\n\ndreams and visions which have come true. You are the representatives\nof an irresistible power in the nation which makes for increased comfort,\ngreater wealth, and higher ideals, and for a more symmetrical development in the social, political, and economic Hfe of the Republic.\n\nADDRESS OF WELCOME\nM. G.\n\nBRUMBAUGH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nOn Tuesday, February 24,\n\n1891, just twenty-two years ago, this\n\ndepartment met in this city, the city in which the National Education\nAssociation had its birth more than half a century ago, and Hon. Andrew\nS.\n\nDraper, then as now superintendent of the schools of the Empire State,\n\npresided over its sessions, receiving at its closing session a rising vote of\n\nthanks for his \"prompt, efficient, and every way satisfactory\" services.\nSince that time this great educational body has passed to and fro\n\nupon the face of the earth but has not until now returned to the city which\nthen entertained the department \"with a cordiality and a warmth of hospiYou have been good enough\ntality almost, if not quite, unprecedented.\"\nagain to meet amid \"the inspiring surroundings in this historic place,\"\nand to test anew the hospitality of the great city of homes and of hearts\naglow with welcome. We trust and believe that your visit here will be\nas rich in pleasure to you as we know it will be in profit to us.\nThis city has been from its founding a center of education and of culture.\nIts pious founder, William Penn, was a firm behever in universal education,\nand made provision for its accomphshment equal if not superior to that of\nany other colony. Before the commonwealth was created, or ever the\nDeclaration of Independence or the federal Constitution had been framed\nand promulgated in this city, here lived and taught some of the greatest\neducators of colonial America. Here in 1770 Christopher Dock^s SchulOrdnung was published, the first American treatise on education; to be\n\nby Neef's Exposition of Pesialozzian Methods\nHere was founded the first\nAmerican schdol of medicine, now a part of the great University of Pennsylfollowed in a generation\n\nthe second American treatise on education.\n\nThere is no part nor parcel of our soil that is not rich in the history\nPennsylvania has recently enacted the most\nimportant, comprehensive, and progressive school code that ever was\nenacted by any sovereign state. Philadelphia, under this code, is rapidly\napproximating a position of commanding importance in the promulgation\nof the doctrine that \"the alphabet is the ally of liberty, and in the accurate\naccount of the forces that have made America, the public school must\n\nvania.\n\nof educational endeavor.\n\nstand first.\"\n\nWe would not be unmindful of the fact that the school of our childhood is frequently regarded as the basis of criticism of the school of today.\n\n"} {"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nio6\n\n[Pluladelphia\n\nThe school must always be a reflex of community purposes and activities.\nAs the community changes, the school must change. The real test of a\nschool system is not its passive adjustment to community standards, but\nits active advocacy in the community of such standards of life as will\nmake the school easily the champion of all that is best in the great economic,\nsocial, and civic atmosphere in which its pupils must hve and grow.\nThe\nschoolmaster of today, Uke the ancient watchman on the tower, is always\nlooking with sympathetic and unprejudiced eye over the whole activity\nof a people to see here and there signs of hopeful advance in the better\n\ncare and culture of a community.\n\nHe then turns his whole endeavor to\n\nthe incorporation of this into the forces at work in the school.\n\nThis criticism usually takes the form of a protest against the many-\n\nThe argument is made that we no longer\nsome specific endeavor. The school welcomes this protest.\n\nsided activities in the school.\nfit the child for\n\nWe do not profess to define the life-careers of our pupils. We do not intend\nto segregate the school's individual imits and by distinctive training limit\n\neach in his endeavor to participate freely and broadly in the whole industrial\n\nWe need in America not only trained workmen, but, quite as well, happy, contented workmen. We shall not rise\nto industrial supremacy until we have given to our pupils not only an\nunderstanding of specific industrial problems, but that wider and vastly\nmore significant equipment which will enable them to sense the relative\nvalue and meaning of things about them and easily to find a place in the\nsocial, civic, and economic environment into which they must enter.\nThe\nendeavor of the community.\n\nversatility of the mind is quite as important as the content of the mind.\nThe fundamental qualities of honesty, promptness, neatness, courtesy,\n\nand dependableness are quite as much an equipment for an\n\nindustrial\n\ncareer as is a knowledge of tools or the quotations of the market.\n\nMoreover, with the tendency well established to shorten the vocational\nhours of our people, there arises increasing need for an education that will\nfit\n\npeople for their avocational hours.\n\nIt is just as important, in the last\n\nsumming-up of the effectiveness of a citizen, that he should know how to\nspend his leisure profitably as it is that he should work acceptably. Likewise, it is not to be disputed that the child should carry into his mature\nactivities a body that is trained and conserved and is physically fit to carry\nthe stress and strain of his years of toil.\nFor these reasons, the school widens its scope, broadens its enterprise,\ndeepens its nutritional and suggestive values, and becomes in the last\nanalysis a fitting-place for life.\n\nNothing that bears specifically upon the\n\nvocational or recreational interests of a community is without significance\n\nand meaning in the scope and purpose of the school.\nIn passing to this newer concept of its function, the school is not unmindful of the fact that it is not and cannot be the sole agency at work in making\n\na stable citizenship for the Republic.\n\nWe do not wish the school to be a\n\n"} {"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n107\n\nWe do not believe it is the sole moral corrective of society.\nWe emphatically desire such a return to the simple responsibilities which\nday nursery.\n\nDivine Wisdom has placed upon parenthood as to make the home with the\nschool equally eflScient in the equipment of the individual for life.\n\nWe\n\nask that the child in our school shall have a home life and a church Ufe as\nrich in nutrition for the growing soul as modern wisdom can devise, to the\n\nend that these three great agencies, working in harmony, may give to us\nthe finest type of citizen that we can vision.\nIn planning for such ideals you are the nation's leaders.\n\nWe are con-\n\nfident that your wisdom and experience will give point and purpose to this\n\nhappy to welcome you, and\nimpetus and direction to\nthat system of training which best fits our pupils to live and which best tends\n\"to purify and to perpetuate the American republic\" the free American\n\ngreat convention.\n\nPhiladelphia\n\nis,\n\nindeed,\n\nrejoices that yours is the opportunity to give\n\n—\n\npublic school.\n\nRESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME\nO. T. CORSON, EDITOR, \"OHIO\n\nEDUCATIONAL MONTHLY,\" COLUMBUS, OHIO\n\nI thank you, Mr. President, for the privilege of representing the mem-\n\nbers of this association in an expression of appreciation of the opportunity\n\nwhich we enjoy of meeting in this historic city, the birthplace of our independence and national Ufe. For a year we have been looking forward\nto this hour with the most pleasant anticipations, and we assure you,\nMr. Mayor and Mr. Superintendent, that these anticipations are already\nmore than realized in the cordial welcome which you have extended, and\nwhich we are certain finds a grateful response in the hearts of all who are\npresent. We sincerely thank you for your gracious words which make us\nall feel at home in this \"City of Brotherly Love.\"\nIn this city, so full of historic interest, there are many hallowed spots,\naround which cluster many sacred memories, which appeal with peculiar\nforce to the minds and hearts of all who are connected with the great work\nof pubHc education, and who believe that it is the great mission of the\npubUc school to train a citizenship worthy of the heritage which has come\ndown to it from the past. Here in this city the patriots of 1776 declared\n\nto the world their conviction that it is self-evident that all men are created\n\nequal and endowed with certain inalienable rights including life, liberty,\n\nand the pursuit of happiness. Today we here express our conviction that\nthe pubUc school represents America's one serious attempt to make valid\nthe Declaration of 1776; for the pubHc school is the one place in all the\nworld where there is found absolute equaUty of opportunity to all, regardless of conditions of birth; the one place where \"jeans and broadcloth have\nto rub up together\"; where wealth and ancestry count for nothing in\n\n"} {"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nio8\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nthemselves; but where brains and character and hard work are certain to\nwin the recognition they merit.\n\nIn the public school the rights of the child are carefully guarded, his\nphysical, mental, and moral life conscientiously conserved, and his liberty\n\nmade possible and permanent by a training which teaches him to obey\nwholesome authority, kindly and firmly exercised, and to recognize the\nrights of others\n\n— training which\n^a\n\nis\n\nabsolutely essential to anyone who is\n\never either to pursue or to possess happiness.\n\nThe real worth of an institution can usually be determined by the\ndemands made upon it by its appreciative friends, and the fault found\nwith it by its unfriendly critics. Judged by this standard, the greatness\nof the pubHc school is pre-eminent in American Hfe.\nOn the one hand, there seems to be no Umit to the demands made upon\nthe school by the people, in whose appreciation and regard it stands next\nto the home, and the miracle of the age is the readiness with which the\nschool responds to these ever-increasing demands, and meets the everchanging needs of our modern life.\nOn the other hand, there is no Umit to the imfair, unjust, unreasonable,\nand untrue criticism of the school made by persons whose ignorance misleads them to wrong conclusions, or whose prejudice blinds them to the\nplainest facts.\n\nSome of this criticism comes from parents, who pay an imconscious\nand unintentional tribute to the teacher by their complaint of her success\nin securing such obedience and behavior on the part of their own children\nas they themselves have never been able to attain in the home.\nThen there is the wholesale denunciation of the work of the public\nschool, and its condemnation as a failure by papers and magazines of the\nLadies Home Journal type. Such criticism is sometimes the result of\nignorance or prejudice, but there is strong temptation at times to think\nthat it may be a part of a business policy, both keen and conscienceless,\n\nwhich recognizes that increased revenues\n\nmay result from sensational\n\nattacks upon an institution dear to the hearts of the people.\n\nThese attacks usually include the statement that the percentage\nis so small as to be insignificant.\nThis statement has been proven many times to be absolutely false and\nof\n\npupils attending the high school\n\nmisleading.\n\nSeveral years since, the late Hon. Frank Hill, at the time secretary of\nthe Massachusetts State Board of Education, conclusively answered this\nfalse\n\nstatement with his concrete illustration of an imaginary school with\n\nideally perfect attendance\n\nand results.\n\nThis imaginary school had the\n\nusual twelve years' -course of study with one hundred pupils entering each\n\nyear in regular succession, all remaining regularly in school and passing\nto an advanced grade at the end of each year.\nIt is evident that in such\na school at the end of twelve years there would be an enrollment of twelve\n\n"} {"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nRESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME\n\n109\n\nhundred pupils, with four hundred in the high school, and one hundred\nin the graduating class.\n\nAnyone who can understand \"figures which do not lie\" knows that\nthe high-school attendance in this imaginary school is perfect, or 100 per\ncent,\n\nand that all of the pupils, or 100 per cent, are graduating from the\nBut the \"liars who figure\" tell us that only one\n\nhigh school in due time.\n\npupil in every three in this imaginary school ever reaches the high school,\n\nand only one in twelve graduates therefrom, and, therefore, the public\nschool is a failure.\n\nPersons who persist in making such false statements must be either\n\"mental defectives\" or \"moral deviates, \" and should be carefully examined\nby some expert clinician who can recommend suitable treatment, provided\ntheir cases are not of the hopeless, incurable variety.\n\nAgain, some of the most inexcusable criticism of the work of the public\nschools comes from the\n\n\"men higher up\" in the educational world, who\n\ntell us that the \"greatest failure of the nineteenth century is public educa-\n\ntion,\" that \"the school is a momentous failure,\" that the \"lives of children\n\nare being wasted,\" etc.\n\nIt is encouraging to note that some of these critics\n\nare showing signs of repentance by hastening to explain that they did not\n\nmean all that they said when they made these statements.\n\nIt is hoped\n\nthat their future words and acts will show that their repentance is genuine\n\nand their reform permanent.\nIt might be well to institute a \"survey\" of the critics of the public\nschool with the purpose of determining the source of their opposition and\nof \"standardizing\" the falsity of their statements.\n\nThe proposal that the first reform necessary to turn the alleged failure\nof the school into assured success is to abolish all home study will appeal\n\nto that class of parents who, in the language of Dean Briggs of Harvard,\n\n\"regard school and college as far less serious in demands than business;\na place of delightful irresponsibility, where youth may disport himself for\na season before he is condemned to hard labor\"; but to the great majority\nof sensible parents and wise teachers who regard a reasonable amount of\n\nhome study on the part of grammar- and high-school pupils as both an\nintellectual necessity and a moral blessing, such a proposal is fraught with\n\ngrave danger to the welfare of the school and the mental and moral life\nof the pupils.\n\nit\n\nIf the day high school is to continue to be a success, those who attend\nmust have the seriousness of purpose and the readiness to work which\n\nusually characterize the thousands of earnest, industrious students\n\nwho\n\nattend the night schools of our cities, and who are willing, under the most\nadverse circumstances, to pay the price of the severe application which is\nnecessary to secure the education they crave.\n\nUnless our native-bom American boys and girls are willing to take\nschool seriously and work earnestly both in school and at home, they cannot\n\n"} {"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[PhUadelphia\n\nhope to compete with many of the boys and girls of foreign parentage,\nwhose industry and application are certain to win success.\nIs the public school a failure ?\n\nDo not ask the teacher in the private\n\nschool, whose failure as a teacher in the public school has absolutely dis-\n\nquahfied her to judge with accuracy and fairness; do not ask the aristocratic snob who is not in sympathy with the common school because he is\nnot in sympathy with the common people; do not ask the prejudiced editor\n\nwho, with predetermined opinion that the school is a failure, looks only for\nfaults and sees only what he is looking for.\n\nBut ask the millions of men and women, bom in America, who will\ntell you that their abiUty to read and write and to attend to\n\nthe ordinary\n\nbusiness of Ufe, and their ideals of right and duty were gained in the public\nschool;\n\nask the hundreds of thousands of foreign-born citizens who will\n\nyou what the open door of opportunity, made possible by the public\nschool, has meant to their children; ask the tens of thousands of earnest,\ntell\n\nconsecrated, successful teachers\n\nwho are Uterally giving their lives that\n\nthe boys and girls under their charge may be better prepared for Ufe and\nliving;\n\nask Mary Antin whose Promised Land is a magnificent tribute to\n\nthe opportunities offered the foreign-born child in the American public\nschool, and whose grateful recognition of these opportunities furnishes an\n\nunanswerable refutation to the false charge that the pubUc school is a\nfailure.\n\nIt must not be\n\nassumed that those who indignantly resent the false\n\ncharge that the pubUc school is a failure, beheve it is perfect.\n\nLike all\n\nother agencies for human betterment, in charge of human beings, including\n\nthe home, the church, and the state, the school has its faults, but it stands\n\ntoday as one of the mightiest factors for good in both individual and\nnational Ufe, and is deserving of commendation instead of condemnation.\n\nThe school of today is good.\n\nThe school of tomorrow wiU be better.\n\nbetter buildings and\nenough of them to meet aU the needs of all the children all the time; and\nit wiU have more money to employ and retain stiU better teachers.\nIts\ncourse of study wiU be enriched both by the emphasis placed upon essentials\nand by the eUmination of nonessentials. Its pupils wiU study more, not\nless, in both school and home.\nNotwithstanding a few critics who seem to revel in the hope that they\ncan produce a sensation by a false attack on the public school, this great\ninstitution wiU continue to respond to the highest and best needs of the\ncommon people, who know that it is the one hope of their children for an\neducation, and who wiU continue to give it their loyal support.\nWe sincerely thank you for the beautiful badge, a facsimile of the\nLiberty Bell, provided by your committee for the meeting.\nThe old Liberty BeU, whose home is in this city, is worthy of all the\nveneration bestowed upon it by patriotic souls. Nearly one hundred and\nIt wiU have larger playgrounds and more of them;\n\n"} {"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENT AND CITY TEAM PLAY\n\nsixty years ago, according to the official statement, it\n\niii\n\nwas \"raised and\n\nfixed\" in the steeple of the old state house, now Independence Hall, from\n\nwhich, in 1776, it rang out defiance to tyranny and independence to America.\n\nSeventy years ago last Saturday it sounded its last patriotic note in celeSince then its\nBut in our imagination we can hear its echo\ntongue has been silent.\nbration of the anniversary of the birth of Washington.\n\neach day in the school bells which ring thruout the length and breadth\n\nCanada to Mexico, and from Maine and Porto Rico to\nCalifornia and the Philippines, and as we listen to these echoes we feel in\nour hearts that the public school is indeed the hope of the nation, and that\nso long as it is permitted to do the work for which it is intended, untrammeled by political demagogs, sectarian fanatics, or prejudiced, pessimistic\ncritics, the motto of the bell will continue to be the motto of the school\nand the nation, and liberty will continue to be proclaimed thruout the\nof our land, from\n\nwhole land to all the inhabitants thereof.\n\nTEAM PLAY BETWEEN CITY SUPERINTENDENT AND CITY\nC. p.\n\nGARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nOne of the most significant sociological facts of modem times is the\namazing growth of cities.\n\nA world-wide tendency of this sort is observable.\n\nA recent writer refers to a student of the growth of cities, who declares that\nthe time will come when London will have a population of twenty millions.\n\nHe adds that New York and Chicago are likely to have more than double\nThere was a time when it\nwas thought that cities would reach their limit of population, beyond which\nthey could not grow. But with the development of transportation facilities, it would seem that the only limitation is the limit of space that can\nbe made available for building purposes, which with most cities is practically\nlimitless.\nEven where natural limitations exist, steel structures may be\nbuilt to almost any height.\nThe attractive power of the city seems to\ngrow constantly greater. Regret the fact or not, as we may, we must\nadmit that the city is the place of opportunity. Every new invention,\nevery new want developed by civilization calls for additional people in the\ncity to meet the demand of production.\nThe range of opportunity in the\ncountry, on the other hand, is comparatively limited; and with the increase\nin farm machinery the number of workers on the farm is all the while being\nthis population, or, say, forty or fifty millions.\n\nreduced.\n\nBut great as is the increase of population in our leading cities, the\nincrease in wealth far outruns it.\n\nThe city is a powerful magnet, drawing\n\nto it quantities of wealth never dreamed of by any Croesus of old.\n\nIn the\n\ngreat city is to be found not only wealth and a vast population, but there\n\n"} {"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n112\n\nIPhnadelphia\n\nalso are to be foiind the ablest physicians and surgeons, the most eloquent\n\npreachers,\n\nand the ablest leaders in industry and commerce the nation\n\nproduces.\n\nThe metropolitan newspapers,\n\nthe magazines, the fetching\n\nadvertisements that go from city to country are rapidly urbanizing the\n\ncountry population.\n\nThe extent to which we are all indebted for city\n\nideas, fashions, and customs, no matter where we may live, has been noted\n\nand commented upon by numerous students of society.\n\nThe advantages\n\ncities possess enable them to dominate the ideas and, to a large extent, the\n\ngovernment of the entire coimtry today, and, in the nature of the case, this\nprocess must continue.\n\nIt is a characteristic of city people to adapt them-\n\nNew ideas take root and grow at a rate\nWhile vice and disease are contagious, it is even truer\nthat in our cities civic ideas and the spirit of brotherhood and co-operation\n\nselves readily to rapid change.\n\nthat is magical.\n\nare even more contagious.\n\nMore and more dwellers in cities are coming\n\nto demand clean government, clean streets, clean morals, and a sightly city.\n\nSuch advances, however, demand on the part of our cities the expenditure of a vast amount of energy and the united efforts of all forces that\n\nmake for the betterment of society.\ndeterioration or degeneration.\n\nThere are powerful forces making for\n\nIn our cities criminals congregate; ignor-\n\nance, vice, crime, graft, and all the darker aspects of human nature flourish,\nfor the suitable soil is there\n\nfound for the development of the noxious\n\nThe forces of light and of\nAt times the victory seems to be\nwith one side and again with the opposite. A modern city is largely in a\nstate of flux, people are constantly coming and going. The vast majority\nrent their homes, and, from time to time, move from one portion of the\ndty to another. There is also a constant drift of population from city to\ndty. Class antagonisms are marked characteristics. Vice, graft, filth, and\n\nelements that constitute the seamy side of life.\ndarkness are pitted against each other.\n\na most unfortunate environment for the training of\nThousands in every great city are ignorant\nof our language, know little or nothing of our government, are clannish\nand difficult to assimilate, many are from countries having different ideals\nTo overcome the evil influences\nof government and different customs.\nevery large city has numerous organizations of an uplifting character.\nthe home, the\nFirst of all, there are the fundamental institutions\nchurch, and the school. Sad to say, the home, which has been for generations a haven of safety and a character-developing force, has, broadly\nspeaking, been losing in efficiency. The church has already lost its grip\nThere\nin many sections of the city where its influence is most needed.\nare many supplementary institutions and activities, such as the Young\nMen's Christian Association and the Young Women's Christian Association, social centers, and the like, that have been developed in recent years\nugliness constitute\n\nchildren into good citizens.\n\n—\n\nto aid in protecting, educating,\n\nand socializing the young.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nin the\n\nschool, however, that society must place its main reliance in the prepara-\n\n"} {"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENT AND CITY TEAM PLAY\n\n113\n\nYear by year it becomes more obvious\nmust assume larger burdens and must take upon itself\ngreater responsibilities. To the school, then, we must look as the one\nbroad, comprehensive institution, whose function it is to change all children\nfrom the condition in which it finds them into intelligent, fight-minded\ncitizens, capable of co-operating with others and willing to do so\ncapable\nWe must admit, if we are frank\nof earning a living and eager to do so.\ntion of the young for citizenship.\n\nthat the school\n\n;\n\nwith ourselves, that the school falls far below the ideal that we conceive it\npossible to reach.\nchildren;\nideals;\n\nit\n\nIt is run on too cheap a basis; it does not appeal to all\n\npays too little attention to character and the formation of\n\ntoo little attention to the work-side of the human being.\n\nIt is still\n\nlargely a device for dealing in an economic way with children in the mass.\nIt deals with them in a manner that is artificial, and by this I mean a\nmanner foreign to their daily experience. Our schools are, in spite of us,\nbookish, abstract, up-in-the-air sort of institutions. At best our city\n\nchildren are lacking in vital experience.\n\nTheir contact with the world is a\n\ncontact largely with city people and city streets.\n\nImmediate contact with\n\nthe grass, the flowers, domestic animals, the earth itself, the opportunity\nto plant things and see them grow, the opportunity to adapt means to ends\nin\n\nfundamental ways, are largely denied the city children.\n\nThey are\n\nfamiliarized with the noise and din, the rush and roar, the touch-and-go\n\nmethods of the city, all tending to exhaust nervous energy, and to stimulate\nTeachers herd children in rooms\nin numbers an)rwhere from forty to sixty, with little reference to the physiIt is true that we are\ncal or mental condition of those imder their care.\nmaking beginnings in the direction of improving these conditions, but thus\nfar in most cities we have gone no farther than to reach the consciousness\nof need; any adequate adaptation of means to ends for securing better\nstrongly in certain abnormal directions.\n\nthings is still in the period of discussion.\n\nSchools in the past have adapted themselves largely to the class of\npupils who take kindly to abstract subjects, in other words, the intellectual,\n\nmeditative type of children.\n\nThis type is not the normal, but rather the\n\nMost children are motor\nThey learn by dealing with things in the concrete\n\nabnormal, or at least the unusual type of person.\nrather than reflective.\n\nrather than by getting knowledge from the printed page or the voice of the\n\nAs a result children in vast numbers drop out of school. They\ndo not find in the school the sort of thing that appeals to them. They are\n\nteacher.\n\nlooked upon as dull and unpromising, and become accustomed to failure\nrather than success\n\n—a very serious matter in the\n\nlife\n\nof a child.\n\nwish to get away from the unpleasant environment of the school.\n\nThey\nUnless\n\nstrong pressure is exerted upon them in the home they drop out and engage\nat best in blind-alley occupations;\n\nat the worst, they\n\nbecome juvenile\n\ndelinquents and constantly degenerate.\n\nThe problem of the city school is,\n\ntherefore, one of the utmost difiiculty.\n\nHow shall the child's environment\n\n"} {"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n1 14\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nbe made more natural, less stimulating in abnormal directions, and more\nHow shall children be separated into\nstimulating in normal directions?\ngroups upon a natural basis of interest, desire, and capacity, as over against\nartificial and unnatural grouping to be found in the average city classes ?\n\nHow shall children and their parents be convinced that the school is really\nworth while in itself and as a preparation for life ? How shall the various\nbeneficent forces tending to improve the city and city life be brought into\n\nco-operation with the school ?\n\nMy reply is that these things depend mainly upon the city superinI know of no larger or more splendid field for service\nAmerica than the superintendency of a great city system of schools.\nThe opportunity is there to call forth to the utmost the abilities of the most\ncapable and most thoroly trained men in the nation. It is needless to\nsay that the superintendent must be a man of large native capacity, an\norganizer, a man well informed as to the best plan for rendering the city\nHe should underbeautiful, sanitary, morally wholesome, and progressive.\nstand racial differences in capacity and skill. He should be well informed\nwith respect to physical and mental weaknesses that manifest themselves\nHe should not be ignorant of sociology, political science, and\nin children.\neconomics. He should not be a stranger to the elements of law and the\nfundamental rights of man. He should be a social engineer for his city.\nHis work should be so organized, that under his general supervision may\nbe found a small army of highly trained specialists, such as medical inspec-\n\ntendent of schools.\n\nin\n\ntors, architects, business managers, statisticians, school inspectors, specialists in child\n\npsychology, nurses, and truant officers.\n\nHe should have an\n\nassistant of large capacity for such work, who would take the brunt of the\noffice business, the communications, interviews,\n\nand the burden of details.\n\nThe superintendent should have his reports from his field officers and his\nassistants generally, thus keeping him in constant touch with the vital\nphases of the educational situation. He should know the men and women\nwho are working in all the principal fields of human uplift and be familiar\nwith their plans.\n\nAll these forces should have the benefit of his suggestion\n\nand co-operation. His vision should be more comprehensive than that of\nany other single individual. He will not be so familiar with details as many\nothers are in special fields, but his views will be fundamental and constructive, and will tend to unify the efforts of many diverse elements into\neffective co-operation.\n\nYou may well wonder who is sufficient unto these things.\n\nNot many,\n\na population of one hundred millions. But the chances are\nthat there are enough to be found to meet the demands for all our great\n\nit is true, in\n\ncities, if the salary is one to compete with positions in great corporations\nand in great business enterprises, and at the same time the position is made\n\nsufficiently stable so that it\n\nmay serve for a life-career.\n\nThe position of\n\ncity superintendent has not in the past been attractive to most men of great\n\n"} {"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENT AND CITY TEAM PLAY\n\n11$\n\nability, for the reason that it has been a thankless job, subject to endless\n\nannoyances and frequent dismissals.\n\nThe city superintendent has been\n\nchecked up, harassed, and annoyed by petty politicians and by the evil\nThe city superintendent must be not merely\ninfluences common in cities.\na man of force, but a man of diplomacy and of skill in dealing with all types\nof men.\n\nA new day is dawning.\n\nTen thousand dollars a year for a city superBut even this is not half-pay for the\n\nintendent no longer causes surprise.\n\ntalent required for such a position.\n\nYou may think it visionary, but I\n\nbelieve there are young men in this association today who will within the\n\nnext two decades receive salaries of twenty-five thousand dollars a year in\n\nsuch cities as Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and Chicago.\n\nSuch posi-\n\nYoung\nmen who are looking forward to careers in such positions may easily make\nthe mistake of thinking that proper training for it is the work now offered\nfor a Ph.D. degree.\nNot so. What a city superintendent needs is tact,\ntions are now worth twenty-five thousand dollars if properly filled.\n\ndiplomacy, forcefulness, native capacity, and an all-round sort of education\nthat stops short of a high degree of specialization in any one field of knowledge, such as leads to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.\n\nA superintend-\n\nent need not be deeply grounded in the history of education, but he should\n\nknow the latest results in an educational way in such centers of investigation as the University of Pennsylvania\n\nand Vineland, N.J.\n\nHe should\n\nknow what such men as Giddings, Ross, Small, and EUwood have to say\nabout social psychology. He should know what such men as Suzzallo and\nDewey have to say about the school as a social institution. In other words,\na man in order to prepare himself for the superintendency of a great system\nof schools must today pick up his education in at least a dozen different\nplaces.\n\nHowever, the present city superintendent, who has capacity equal\n\nto that of a great corporation lawyer or a Napoleon of finance, may readily\n\nenough pick up, from his reading and his personal investigation, the needed\nknowledge to guide him in the selection of specialists, and in the intelligent,\nbroad-minded, official direction of specialists. No superintendent of a\ngreat city system should suffer himself to be cumbered with much petty\nserving.\n\nLike the great surgeon, he needs to limit himself by having others\n\ngive the preliminary diagnosis;\n\nand he needs to limit himself in the quantity\n\nof work, properly detailing the affairs that can readily enough be done by\n\nso that he may have freshness and vigor of mind to deal with\nproblems involving initiative and elements of novelty.\n\nothers,\n\nThe city superintendent, the social engineer of the city, will look forward to the elimination of poverty and the evils connected with it.\nwill look forward to the beautifying of the city;\n\nHe\n\nhe will look forward to the\n\ndevelopment of such ideals in the minds of all as will make for sociability\n\nand good will and co-operation.\n\nHe will put into his school curriculum and\n\ninto the training of children those things that will not merely make more\n\n"} {"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nIi6\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nintelligent citizens, but self-supporting citizens, and right-minded citizens,\n\nbearing in mind that as is the city, so will, in a large measure, be the country.\nThe magnitude and importance of the work of a city superintendent is of\na character to cause almost any other phase of human endeavor and human\nresponsibility to suffer in comparison.\nThe young man who feels himself\nequal to such a task and such an opportunity, and is moved by a high sense\nof social good will, should go forward with unremitting energy in his prepa-\n\nration for that largest and most promising of all fields, the city superin-\n\ntendency.\n\nTEAM FLAY WITHIN THE SYSTEM\nPAUL W. HORN, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEX.\n\nTeam play is the force which gives to an organization an effectiveness\ngreater than the combined forces of all the individual members of it.\n\nIt is\n\nnot democracy, but it is a product of democracy modified for the sake\nof efliciency.\n\nAnd as to team play \"within the system,\" where, indeed, can there be\nteam play, except inside the team? There may be a friendly feeling of\nco-operation between the team and the bleachers, or a feeUng of harmonious\nunderstanding between the players and box office; but team play in the\nstrict sense of the term is impossible except inside the team.\n\nTeam play is an important element in the winning of victories; yet it\nmay be at once admitted that victories can be won and have been won, after\na fashion, by organizations of individuals with little team play, or none at\nall.\n\nA ball game might happen to be won by a star pitcher and catcher with\n\nthe seven other places filled by dummies.\n\nThere is practically no true\n\nteamwork in a military organization where one general authority gives all\nthe commands and the rest do as they are told. There is no true team play\nin the convict camp, where the guards drive the men to and from their tasks\neach day.\n\nThere may even be a fairly successful system of schools where\n\nthere is little team play or none at all.\n\nTeam play does not consist in the giving and carrying-out of orders.\nNeither does it consist in a general\nincludes\n\nspirit of friendly co-operation.\n\nIt\n\nsome touch of each of these elements, and a great deal more\n\nbesides.\n\nTeam play, to be genuine, must be based upon the spirit of team play.\nIt is not a matter of legislative enactment, or of exact metes and bounds.\nIt deals much with duties and services and Uttle with rights and privileges.\n\nYou cannot secure team play by marking up the ball field into nine parts,\nevery part to be assigned to some one player, no player ever under any\ncircumstances to invade the territory of any other player.\n\nNeither is that\n\nsuperintendent or principal likely to secure teamwork who clamors loudly\n\n"} {"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "TEAM PLAY WITHIN THE SYSTEM\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n117\n\nfor his own rights to be clearly defined, and his own authority increased by\nlegislative enactment.\n\nIt is always hard to give an analysis of that complicated force which we\ncall the underlying spirit.\n\nof\n\nNevertheless, so far as we can analyze the spirit\n\nteamwork, it may be said to consist of individual efficiency, respon-\n\nsibility, co-operation, unity, and self-effacement.\n\nThe first requirement is that every individual member of the team be\nassigned some special place to play, and that it should be the place which\n\nhe can best fill.\n\nThere can be no team play of the highest type unless each\n\nmember can fill his own position better than any other member of the team\ncan fill it. The recognition of this fact is absolutely essential to that\nindividual efficiency which is at the bottom of all true team play.\n\nThe second requirement is that every individual member should know\nHe should especially know the general object of the\n\nthe rules of the game.\n\ngame.\n\nThis is necessary in order that there be individual efficiency.\n\nIf\n\nsome member of the football team believed the good lay to the east of them,\nwhile others thought it lay to the west, and still others to the north, or the\nsouth, the most conscientious efforts of the players would result only in\nconfusion worse confounded.\n\nWe have sometimes tried to organize our educational teams on the\ntheory that only a portion of the members need know the rules of the game.\n\nWe have assumed that if one or two minds in the school knew what they\nwant to do, the rest could all do as they were told. It is folly to expect\nuntrained individuals to develop on the team greater efficiency than they\nhave as individuals.\n\nBut while it is necessary that all members of the team should know the\nrules of the game, it is not necessary that all of them know the philosophy\n\nThey may win great victories when few if any of the members\nof the game.\nknow anything about the theory of curved lines, the law of permutation, the\ncalculation of chances, or the estimates of velocities.\n\nThe trouble with much of our training for educational work in the past\nSometimes we\n\nhas been that much of it has been either too far or too near.\n\nhave stressed educational philosophy which the teacher has been utterly\nunable to translate into practice in the actual schoolroom. We have\n\nThen again\nwe have sometimes stressed mere devices, which the teacher can use as\n\nconfused educational philosophy with educational training.\n\ndirected, and with little understanding of the principles on which they are\n\nSomewhere between these extremes there must be a middle\nground on which we can deal with those broad general principles on which\nthe entire educational process rests. In order that we may have real teamgrounded.\n\nwork within our educational system, every member of it must have training\nin these principles.\n\nThere are distinct limits, however, even to the appUcation of this\nwholesome doctrine. One of these is to be found in the general level of\n\n"} {"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n11\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nhuman ability.\n\nIn order that a school program be effective, it must be\nsuch that it can be carried out by men and women of average ability, or not\n\nThe all-star team is an aggregation gotten together at the\nend of the season, after the real victories have been already won. An all-star\nteam in a real contest is an unheard of thing. There are a number of reasons\n\ngreatly above it.\n\nwhy this is so, tho it may not be profitable to inquire into them now.\nIn a school of ten or a dozen teachers, with plenty of money behind it, it\n\nmay conceivably be possible to secure teachers, all of whom may be of\ndecidedly more than average ability. The school then may or may not be a\nsuccess.\n\nIn a school of a thousand or ten thousand teachers, it is practically\n\nimpossible to secure an all-star team.\n\nenough to go round.\n\nTo begin with, there are not stars\n\nIf there were, there would not be money enough to\n\nsecure them, nor, in view of possible piratical raids from other ambitious\nsystems and certain invasions by Cupid, would it be possible to retain them,\n\neven if they were once secured.\n\nWe have already suggested a second limitation upon the preparation of\nteachers for good teamwork; namely, the financial hmitation.\n\nThere can\nbe Uttle teamwork where most of the money goes to one member of the team.\nIt is true that some members receive larger salaries than others, and properly\nso, because some places are harder to fill than others, and yet other places\n\nare filled better.\n\nIt is neither just nor expedient to make heavy demands\n\nupon individuals whose salaries are low.\n\nPoor as the work undoubtedly is\n\nin many schools at present, it is probably better than the money paid for it\n\nwould call for.\n\nThe elements of individual responsibility and co-operation might at first\nglance seem almost contradictory.\n\nOn the contrary, they are supplemental.\n\nIt is needful, to begin with, that each worker shall understand distinctly the\nspecial duties assigned to him, and shall be held responsible for doing them.\nIt is equally needful that each member be willing and able to help the other\n\nfellow perform his duties, or, in case of necessity, to perform them for him.\n\nThe successful pitcher must be able to pitch.\n\nIn addition to this, he\n\nshould be both able and willing to cover first base in case the exigencies of\nthe game call the first baseman elsewhere for the moment.\n\nIn the ordinary system of schools, it is undoubtedly the business of the\njanitor to make the fires and sweep the floors in the morning.\n\nNevertheless,\n\nmade the fire, and if there is no one else who can make\nit, it would be a very poor superintendent or principal who would allow the\n\nif the janitor has not\n\nchildren to shiver in the cold merely because it is not one of his official duties\nto make the fire.\n\nSometimes official dignity enables one to dodge certain\nThe spirit of team\nplay, on the other hand, would lead any member of the team to do anything\nthat needs to be done when there is no one else to do it.\nschool duties fully as important as the making of fires.\n\nThen there is that other element of self-effacement.\nshould be subordinated to the good of the team.\n\nThe individual\n\nIt is here that the trouble\n\n"} {"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEAM PLAY WITHIN THE SYSTEM\n\n119\n\nThe recognized star sometimes lacks the\nThe best individual player does not always\ncontribute the most to the success of the team. The best individual teacher\ncomes in with the all-star team.\ncapacity for self-effacement.\n\nin the corps is not always the greatest factor in the success of the schools.\n\nRigid specialization is a dangerous thing in a school system.\n\nIt makes\n\nThe more elementary the work, the\ngreater the possible danger in the specializing. The specialist is almost\nalways an egoist at least potentially. He follows his own specialty\nagainst teamwork, rather than for it.\n\n—\n\nbecause he believes it more important than any other fellow's specialty.\n\nIf\n\nhe does not think so when he begins, he generally does before he conThe danger is that he may grow to think his own specialty more\ncludes.\nimportant than all the other fellows' specialties put together.\n\nStill worse is\n\nit for him to think his specialty more important than the welfare of the child.\n\nIn this case his attitude is that of the player who insists on making spectacular plays even when they endanger the winning of the game.\n\nSpecialization in our schools there\n\nindividual efficiency which is back of\n\nmust be, as prerequisite to that\ngood teamwork, but not over-\n\nall\n\nspecialization.\n\nThe danger of this is increased when the departmental\n\nsystem is used.\n\nThis system has demonstrated its rights to be carefully\n\nconsidered even as low down as our intermediate grades.\n\nIts use there,\n\nhowever, makes all the more important the most careful of team play.\nUnless the specialist who teaches the child arithmetic is careful to confer\n\nwith the other speciaUst who teaches him geography, and with that other\nspecialist who teaches\n\nhim reading, and with those other specialists who\n\nteach him other subjects, the child may be so loaded down by the aggregate\nof specialties that his mental, moral, and physical welfare may be wholly\nlost sight of.\n\nThe antidote for overspeciaUzation in our schools is not less of the\nspecialty but more of other things.\n\nIt calls for no less of depth but for\nmore of breadth. The man who is merely a mathematician is incapable of\nteam play, and hence has scant place in a modern school system. The man\nwho is more than a mathematician will have a broad view of the educational\nproblem, and then the more mathematics he knows, the better.\nThe spirit of teamwork in our schools demands the recognition on the\npart of all concerned of the fact that no department and no subject is in\nitself worth anything, but that the general welfare of the child is worth\neverything. The capacity for self-effacement is today more than ever\n\nbefore one of the qualifications of the successful teacher.\n\nWhat is known\n\non the ball field as the ''sacrifice hit\" never wins any victories, but it is\nfrequently an essential factor in winning them.\nOne of the places where the capacity for self-effacement is most fre-\n\nThe man who habituwho will receive credit for any given\n\nquently needed is in the matter of individual credit.\nally considers the question as to\n\neducational achievement is by that very fact incapacitated for teamwork\n\n"} {"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI20\nin the schools.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nThe schools have room for the biggest, most broad-minded\n\nmen and women that can be attracted to them; but they have no room\nwhatsoever for the man or woman so narrow as to hesitate to take a needed\n\"There is\nstep in advance for fear someone else may get the credit for it.\nFor broadminded men and women in the schoolroom there is always glory enough to\ngo round, even when there is none at all.\nThere still remains to be considered the element of unity. It is this that\nmakes the team a team rather than a mob or a gang. There is but one\npurpose and that is the success of the team. For the carrying-out of this\none purpose there must be unity of action. This means that for executive\npurposes the team must have a captain. On the field his authority must be\nunquestioned, no matter how much his decisions may be matters of subsequent discussion in the council chamber or elsewhere. However, the\nspirit of team play demands that the captain be a leader, not a boss, or even\na commander. Armies have commanders; convict camps have bosses;\nglory enough to go round,\" said the hero of Santiago Bay.\n\nschools need leaders.\n\nThis brings us back again to the original proposition that the efliciency\nof team play depends largely upon the efficiency of the individual members.\n\nAnything that cripples any individual cripples the team. Whatever\nsubtracts from the power of an individual member or stunts his growth\nsubtracts from the power of the team and reduces its efficiency. The\nwelfare of the team is in general best subserved by the fullest possible growth\n\nand development of each individual member. The efficiency of the leader\nshown by his power to develop efficiency in his team mates. Any\nsystem of supervision which tends to crush out spontaneity or individuahty\nThe chief problem\nis ruinous to the indi\\ddual, and hence to the system.\nis best\n\nof the supervisor is how to develop to the fullest the powers of the individual\n\nworker, and yet to develop them along such lines as will contribute most to\nthe individual good.\n\nTo this end, the supervision should concern itself\n\nchiefly with results, and only secondarily with methods.\n\nThe results to be\n\nreached should be clearly set forth, and methods should be suggested\nwhereby these results may be reached. Beyond this, however, the supervising power should hesitate to go.\n\nworker can reach the desired\n\nIf the\n\nresults by some other method than the one suggested, he should not only be\n\nallowed to do so, but should be encouraged to do so, and should be applauded\nfor so doing.\n\n—especially when\n\nThe arch enemy of team play is distrust\n\nit takes the\n\nform of jealousy. The object of the team is to make headway against some\noutside force. Every ounce of energy used in internal dissension is subtracted from the individual efficiency and from the power of the team.\nDistrust keeps one from leaving it to his team mate to do that which he best\ncan do.\n\nIf the\n\nsuperintendent of schools\n\nis\n\nafraid of the high-school\n\nprincipal, the two may possibly be individually efficient, but there is no team\n\n"} {"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "TEAM PLAY WITHIN THE SYSTEM\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n121\n\nNo man who is afraid of the man officially\n\nplay possible between them.\n\nunder him is fit to be an educational leader; and no man who is afraid of the\nman officially over him is worthy of any place on the educational team at\nall.\n\nThe spirit of teamwork is a spirit of \"all being in the same boat.\"\n\nIt is a spirit of mutual trust, of camaraderie, of good-fellowship.\n\nFrom this good-fellowship, the personal element cannot possibly be\nabsent.\n\nWe cannot be team mates with strangers.\n\nmanifests itself most easily thru the personal touch.\nis possible,\n\nbut difficult.\n\nTrue leadership\n\nLong-range leadership\n\nThe truth of the old saying that \"the eye of the\n\nmaster is worth a dozen men\" finds its parallel in teamwork, when the\ncaptain is not a master at all, but a leader.\n\nTeam play in general presupposes Umited numbers. There are nine\nmen on a baseball team and eleven on a football team. It is hard to conceive of a real team of a hundred men.\nof\n\none of a thousand men.\n\nIt is almost impossible to conceive\n\nThis limitation, however, depends as much\n\nupon the limitations of executive ability as upon intrinsic difficulties.\n\nIt is\n\nhard to assign to each one of a thousand men some special function to\nperform.\n\nIt is hard to conceive of a thousand men, each looking to the\n\nleader for personal suggestion as to the performance of his function.\n\nIn order that there be educational team play at its best, the school\norganization must either be small enough to allow the superintendent to\n\ncome into personal touch with every teacher, or else it must be organized in\nunits each so small that the leader in it can come into personal touch with\nall the teachers.\nIn a town or a small city, the entire system may be a unit.\nIn a large system, the district is the unit.\n\nIn a very large city, it is the\n\nindividual school.\n\nAs to the individual school, the ideal one is undoubtedly one not too\nHow large is too large is another question. It depends upon the\n\nlarge.\n\nsize of the\n\nman at the head of it. No school can profitably be bigger than\nTo secure true teamwork in a high school of\n\nthe man at the head of it.\n\nsixty teachers and two thousand pupils, is not impossible, but it is difficult.\n\nThere is no occasion to despair of the big school, but we do well to recognize\nthe complexity of its problem.\n\nThe Hmits of time do not allow a discussion of the exact assignment of\nknown as superintendent,\n\nduties to those officials in our school system\n\nThese titles must necessarily carry with\nthem different duties in different school systems and in communities of\ndifferent needs.\nThe duties of the superintendent of schools in New York\n\nprincipal, supervisor, or teacher.\n\nCity, for instance, bear sUght resemblance to those of the superintendent of\n\nschools in a town of five thousand people.\n\nSuffice it to say that in any city\n\nthe superintendent ought to come just as close to the schools as he can,\nwhile still preserving a view of the school system as a whole.\n\nYou cannot\n\ncome very close to Pike's Peak and still see the peak as a whole. The\nprincipal in the large place must do many of those things that the superin-\n\n"} {"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n122\n\ntendent does in the smaller place.\n\n[Phfladelphia\n\nThe supervisors in the larger places also\n\nperform for their especial subjects the duties which belonged to the superintendent in the smaller system.\n\nThe exact duties of each of these function-\n\naries should be as clearly defined as they reasonably can be;\nless,\n\nbut neverthe-\n\ntrue team play will depend, not upon legislative definition, but upon\n\nthe spirit of team play.\n\nThis spirit is possible, let it be said by way of\n\nrecapitulation, under the following conditions:\n1. When there is the greatest possible amount of individual efficiency\namong the members of the corps.\n2. When each member has a training sufficiently broad to enable him\n\nto see not only the good of his speciality, but its relation to the entire\n\nscheme of education.\n\nWhen the financial treatment of the ^tire corps is adequate and fair.\n4. When each member is willing, not merely to do the special duties\n3.\n\nassigned to him, but also to help with the other fellow's duty if need be.\n5.\n\nWhen there is no spirit of distrust or of jealousy within the corps,\n\nand no anxious seeking for individual credit, but rather a feeling of camaraderie and good-fellowship.\n\nWhen the personal touch is felt all the way thru the system.\n7. When the team works as a unit, not of compulsion, but by reason of\n\n6.\n\nloyalty to the leader and to the general good.\n8.\n\nWhen the system is either not a large one, or else is organized in units\n\nnot beyond the leadership of one man.\n9.\n\nWhen each member of the corps has the capacity for self-effacement\n\nwhen necessary.\n10.\n\nWhen the teamwork is so arranged in general as not to hinder, but\n\nto help the fullest development of the individual.\n\nA,\n\nUNIFORMITY OF STANDARDS IN SCHOOL\nADMINISTRATION\n\nTHOMAS E. FINEGAN, THIRD ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION OF\nTHE STATE OF NEW YORK, ALBANY, N.Y.\nPublic education in America has always been subject to the supervision\nand control of the several states. Our forefathers in the Constitutional\n\nConvention of 1787 did not undertake to determine the relation of the\nnational government to public education nor to declare the attitude which\nit\n\nshould assume upon that important subject.\n\nFrom the very beginning\n\nof our national life, public education has been recognized, not as a national\n\nand not as a local, but distinctively as a state function; and there have,\ntherefore, grown up thruout the country definite state systems of education.\nThe several states have never recognized pubHc education as the business\nof a district, village, town, city, or county, but have always assumed con-\n\n"} {"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM STANDARDS IN SCHOOL ADMlNlSfRATiO^\n\ntrol of the general direction of their educational activities.\n\n123\n\nThe decisions\n\nof the courts of last resort in the several states have universally sustained\n\nthe cardinal principle of state administration of pubUc education.\n\nAtten-\n\ntion is directed to the language of the courts in deciding this point in three\n\nimportant cases.\n\nThe Supreme Court of Indiana in State v. Haworth (122 Ind. 462) held:\nThe schools in which are located and trained the children who are to become the\nrulers of the commonwealth are matters of state and not of local jurisdiction.\n\nmatters the state is a unit, and the legislature the source of power.\n\nIn such\n\nThe authority over\n\nthe schools and school affairs is not necessarily a distributive one to be exercised by local\ninstrumentalities; but, on the contrary, is a central power residing in the legislature of\n\nthe state.\n\nThe Supreme Court of lUinois in Ftdler v. Heath (89 111. 296) held:\nThe officers of a city may be invested with powers by the legislature to levy and\ncollect taxes for the support of conunon schools.\n\nSuch laws, wherever f oimd, are a part\nIn\n\nof the school laws of the state and not strictly a part of the charter or law of a city.\n\nsuch cases the city officers are mere agencies of the public to carry into effect the objects\n\nand purposes of the general school system.\n\nThe Court of Appeals of New York in Gunnison v. Board of Education\nof the City of\n\nNew York (176 N.Y. 11) held:\n\nThe settled policy of the state from an early date [has been] to divorce the business\nof public education from all other mimicipal interests or business and to take charge of\nit as a peculiar and separate fimction thru agencies of its\n\nown selection and immediately\n\nsubject and responsive to its own control.\n\nFifteen important decisions of the courts of Indiana, lUinois, Kansas,\n\nKentucky, Minnesota, Texas, and New York also support this principle,\n\nand many others could be cited.\n\nThese cases are\n\nState V. Haworth (122 Ind. 462).\n\nBank V. Brainerd School District (29 Minn. 412).\nState V. Freeman (61 Kan. 90).\n\nFuller V. Heath (89 111. 296).\n\nMarshall v. Donovan (10 Bush (Ky.) 681).\nPeople ex rel. v. Bennett (54 Barbour 480).\n\nGunnison v. Board of Education of the City of New York (176 N.Y. 11).\nLafayette v. Jenners (10 Ind. 70).\nState ex rel. Organ (159 Rid. 123).\n\nPeavy v. Talbot & Brothers (39 Texas 335).\nRedinour v. The Brooklyn Board of Education (15 Misc. 148).\nMatter of Harris (58 Misc. 297).\nHutchins v. Skinner (21 Misc. 729).\nPeople ex rel. Walrath (112 App. Div. 97).\n\nHam V. Major (70 N.Y. 459).\nFor many years the educational systems of the several states were\ncontrolled solely by legislative enactments.\n\nAs these systems gradually\n\ndeveloped, the accepted poUcy of the country found expression in the\nconstitutions of various states.\n\nIn 1857, the people of Minnesota incorpo-\n\nrated into their state constitution the following:\n\n"} {"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n124\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nThe stability of a republican fonn of government depending mainly\n[Sec. I, Art. 8]\nupon the intelligence of the people, it shall be the duty of the legislature to establish a\ngeneral and uniform system of public schools.\n\nIn 1907, or fifty years later, the people of Oklahoma incorporated into\ntheir state constitution the following:\n[Sec. I, Art. 13]\n\nThe legislature shall establish and maintain a system of free schools\n\nwherein all the children of the state may be educated.\n\nThe provision of the constitution of Oklahoma is almost identical with\nthat incorporated in the constitution of New York in 1894.\n\nThat forty\nhave incorporated similar provisions in their constitutions, and\nthat each state in the Union has incorporated other provisions in its\nconstitution to promote educational interests, is conclusive evidence upon\nstates\n\nthe proposition that public education is universally regarded in this country\nas a matter to be regulated by state policy and control.\n\nThe establishment of a state school system pursuant to a constitutional\nmandate, to be supported by state funds and by pubUc taxation, presupposes a uniformity of school administration which shall at least assure\nequal educational opportunities and privileges to all the children of a state.\n\nThis principle has been recognized in every state school system of the\ncountry.\n\nThere have been for many years in each of the several states\n\nuniform laws regulating the machinery for operating the schools, such as\na uniform basis of apportioning public funds, of levying taxes, of supervision, of issuing teachers' certificates, and of requirements as to attendance.\n\nThe tendency in legislation affecting school administration thruout the\nentire country is toward an even greater degree of state uniformity, direction, and supervision.\n\nLaws have been enacted in several of the states in\n\nvarious sections of the country, providing for minimum salaries for teachers,\n\non\ncompulsory attendance, for\n\nfor uniform certification of teachers, for the retirement of teachers\n\nannuities, for the supervision of schools, for\n\nmedical inspection of pupils, and for the sanitary and safe construction\nof school buildings.\n\nThe history of the enactment of these laws and of\n\nother uniform school laws in each state in the country has directly resulted\nin a period of increased educational progress, achievement, and efficiency.\n\nThe character of legislation upon school questions is simply in harmony\nwith the general policy of the whole country in legislation upon many\nother important subjects.\n\nThere is not only uniformity in legislation upon\n\nlabor questions, health, and sanitary measures and acts pertaining to public\n\nutiUty corporations, for instance, but there is also a centraUzation of supervisory authority in the respective states over these matters.\n\nThis vital principle in the administration of public functions has been\nthe means of inducing legislative bodies to enact more readily a law which\nstate wide in its application, rather than one which applies to a single\ncommunity. A general law can be made stronger and more effective than\na local law. Experience shows that a general statute is usually respected\n\nis\n\n"} {"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM STANDARDS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nmore by the public, and therefore more readily enforced.\n\n125\n\nThe question\n\nin point, therefore, is not, Has the state a right to direct and control public\n\neducation thru uniform standards?\n\nThis particular question has passed\n\nbeyond the stage of discussion. The policy of the several states in the\nenactment of school laws for nearly a century, in the adoption of constitutional provisions in relation to public education, and in the interpretation\nof such laws and constitutions by the courts has definitely settled this\nquestion. The real question however is, To what extent should a state\nestablish uniformity in the administration of its educational activities ?\nIt should be distinctly understood, however, that state direction and\n\ncontrol of public education does not and should not mean a state monopoly\nof educational affairs.\n\nNo state in the Union ever has had or ever will\n\nhave a monopoly of public education. Such a scheme of education would\nbe so repugnant to the overwhelming feeUng of the people that it would not\nbe tolerated in a single commonwealth.\n\nA state supervisory officer in any\n\nstate in this country who should attempt to administer public education\n\nupon such a basis would possess a very clear conception of the meaning\nBut\nof the term \"recall\" when the time for his re-election approached.\nstate monopoly of education is quite different from state direction and\ncontrol.\nState direction and control of public education means simply\nthat the state shall clearly assert its duty and obligation to the people and\nshall guarantee to them full protection in their rights and needs in a matter\nso vital to their happiness and prosperity. Furthermore, in a well-directed\nstate system, the principle of co-operation between the state and the locality\nis established, and the greatest freedom, authority, and initiative possible\nin the execution of minimum standards set by the state are conferred upon\nlocal authorities.\nSuch authorities should also of course possess the power\nto provide such additional educational faciUties for their locality as the\n\nwealth, the commercial needs and prosperity, the social and intellectual\n\nattainments, and the sentiment of their people will support.\n\nFrom the beginning of the several state school systems, the laws of the\nvarious states have universally authorized the selection of officers in each\ncity and in all other sections of the state to represent jointly their respective\nlocalities and the state in the execution of the state's general plan of public\n\neducation.\n\nIt has been the policy of many of the several states, in creating\n\norganizations for the operation of their schools, to utilize so far as possible\n\nthe machinery already created in a community for the exercise of the\npowers necessary for the maintenance of local government. This has been\ndone as a matter of economy and simplicity of administration. As pointed\n\nout in the decisions before cited, however, these officers have been independent of the municipalities in which they have served, have been corporate\nagencies of the state's own creation, and the laws have been interpreted as\nschool laws and not as purely municipal laws.\nIt has been a wise practice on the part of the several states to create\n\n"} {"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n126\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nin their state school organizations a local school autonomy.\n\nThis action\n\nhas undoubtedly stimulated the interest of the locaUty in public education.\nAs the country developed and the cities outgrew the original district\nit was quite natural that, in the establishment of a more\ncomprehensive scheme for the local government of schools, the laws relating\n\norganizations,\n\nthereto should have been incorporated in many instances in city charters\n\nor other laws pertaining to the government of\n\ncities.\n\nThis method of\n\ndefining the local powers and authority of school systems has led to the\n\nadoption of the erroneous idea that the schools were of local interest only\n\nand were to be regarded generally as the usual departments of a municipal\ngovernment.\n\nThe policy of utilizing city officials in the administration\n\nof the work of the schools, and of conferring upon them the power to deter-\n\nmine appropriations and control budgets has given to the common council,\nthe board of estimate and apportionment, or other similar bodies in many\nof the cities of the country, greater influence over the management and\n\ncontrol of the schools than the board of education and the superintendent\nof schools.\n\nIn many cases, city officials not legally associated with the\n\nschools and in no way responsible for their management have usurped the\n\nfimctions of the legally chosen school officers.\n\nThis plan means a division\n\nof responsibility in school administration, which results in a delay in pro-\n\nviding necessary school buildings and other improvements, and is to the\ndistinct detriment of the children*s interests.\n\nThe authority exerted thru\n\nthis source has often resulted in influential citizens and poHtical organiza-\n\ntions exercising the power of appointing teachers, of increasing the salaries\nof those in whom they were interested without reference to their fitness or\n\nworth, and of exercising other functions in the administration of the schools,\nwhich the generally accepted policy of school management required school\nThis is one of the weakest points in our public-school\nofficers to perform.\nsystem. The leaders of educational thought in this country should strike\na decisive blow at this evil, should lead in the fight for the complete freedom\nof the schools, for the complete independence of those legally charged with\ntheir management, and for the universal recognition of the principle that\n\nthe schools are institutions dedicated to the service of the people, and that\n\nno power or influence shall be permitted to impair their usefulness or\nNo less an authority than the strong right arm of the state\nefficiency.\nsupported by an enlightened and aroused public opinion can protect the\nschools of this country from the dangers of political mismanagement.\nThere is no force to the suggestion that conditions in the several cities\nof a state are so varied that separate laws are required for the proper regula-\n\ntion and management of the schools in such cities.\n\nThe fact that in many\n\nstates there are separate laws to govern the school affairs in each city in the\n\nstate is a distinct weakness in the general plan of school administration in\ncities.\n\nExperience shows that the mere fact that the laws governing the\n\nschools of a city are local statutes invites interference from local municipal\n\n"} {"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM STANDARDS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nauthorities.\n\nThe administration of school systems in cities would be greatly\n\n127\n\nstrengthened by state uniform laws regulating the cities either as a whole\nor by distinct classes, as already provided in certain cities.\n\nThe board of\n\neducation of any city is the educational legislative body of a city.\n\nIts\n\nimportant function is to determine the broad poUcy on which the schools\nshall be managed.\n\nThe board administers the business management of the\nThe\n\nschools and should consist of men of business training and experience.\n\ninfluence of the lay citizen upon the pubUc-school system is quite as essential\n\nto the vitality and strength of such system as the influence of the professional school\n\nman.\n\nTo eliminate such lay influence would be nearly\n\nas destructive to efficiency as the elimination of the professional influence.\n\nEach of such influences, under proper regulation, is indispensable to the\ndevelopment of the highest degree of efficiency in school management.\nThe board should select professional men to execute the policies which\nThere must, of course, be discussions, mutual agreements,\nit has adopted.\nand co-operation between those charged with the business management\nof school affairs and those charged with the professional direction of the\nschools.\n\nThose charged with the educational supervision and direction\n\nof the schools must be given the greatest latitude and power of initiative\npossible.\n\nNeither the board nor individual members thereof should inter-\n\nand teaching staff. Supervision should not be narrow and arbitrary. To be effective it must be\nliberal and broad-minded, sympathetic and tolerant; it must unite and\nnot disrupt; it must stimulate the entire teaching force and bring out of\nevery teacher in the service her own teaching powers and individuality.\nfere with the prerogatives of the supervisory\n\nThe laws of the several states now very generally prescribe uniform\nconditions in relation to the state's obligation to its children and to the\n\nThey state the hours\nThey also fix the minimum\n\nmaintenance and physical equipment of the school.\n\nwhen the public schools shall be in session.\n\nperiod of time each year during which the schools shall be maintained in\n\nevery district and city.\n\nIn many states the compulsory attendance laws\n\nspecify the subjects in which instruction shall be given.\n\nhave compulsory attendance laws, and in\n\nNearly all states\n\nmany states most stringent\n\nstatutes upon this subject have been enacted.\n\nNeither the right nor the\n\npropriety of the state to enact these laws has ever been seriously challenged\nin any state in the Union.\n\nIn many states the statutes regulate the con-\n\nstruction and repairing of school buildings, by requiring that such buildings\n\nconform to certain standards in relation to heating, lighting, and\nThese laws even specify the extent of floor space and the\ncubic feet of air space per pupil in each study or recitation room. The\n\nshall\n\nventilating.\n\namount of pure air required every minute for each pupil and the facilities\nfor exhausting the foul or vitiated air are prescribed in these laws.\n\nVarious\n\nother details in relation to the construction of halls, doors, seats, stairways,\naisles,\n\nand fire escapes are also prescribed in such laws.\n\nThe states which\n\n"} {"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n128\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nhave enacted these laws have taken every precaution to make local school\nauthorities responsible, not only for the sanitary condition of the school\nbuildings, but for the comfort and safety of the children who attend them.\n\nThis is the true policy for the state to pursue, because the state has stretched\nout the strong arm of its authority, and, thru the enactment of compulsory\nattendance laws, made it mandatory upon every child within certain ages\nto attend these schools.\n\nThe authority of the state over the child in this\nBut the several states have gone\n\nrespect is superior to parental authority.\n\neven farther than this in safeguarding the interests and rights of the child.\nMany states have enacted laws defining the kind of vocations in which\nchildren\n\nmay be employed, specifying the age limit, prohibiting their\n\nemployment in hazardous or questionable occupations, prescribing sanitary\nconditions in the buildings in which they are employed, and prohibiting\nthe use of dangerous machinery in the factories or shops where they work.\n\nThe substance of the details of these various statutes enacted by many\nof the leading states of the country are cited to show that the state has gone\n\nalmost to the limit of its authority in enacting laws intended to protect\nchildhood in the enjoyment of its legitimate privileges.\n\nSince the state\n\nhas regarded it a duty to assume the function of providing for the education\nof its children, since the state commands all children to attend school, and\nsince the state has assumed the supervision of the physical welfare of its\n\nchildren to the extent which has been shown, how can the state possibly\n\nescape the obligation of assuming the more important fimction of expressing\nthe broad outlines upon which the child's intellectual development shall\n\nbe based? The trend of educational administration thruout the whole\ncountry is in this direction. Upon information received from the chief\neducational officer of each state, it appears that forty-four states issue and\nsupply to their schools a state syllabus.\n\nConservative Massachusetts,\n\nwhose leadership in sound educational administration is acknowledged,\nand whose respect for the traditions of her fathers challenges our admiration, but whose recent progressive tendencies in many ways have astonished\nthe country, is one of the most recent states to promulgate a state syllabus.\nOf the forty-four states which issue a state syllabus, the use of the syllabus\nis mandatory under the law in twenty-four, and in the remaining twenty\nstates, altho its use is optional, the local school authorities have very\ngenerally adopted it.\n\nA syllabus prescribed for the general direction of the instruction given\nin the schools of a great American state should have an important bearing\n\nupon the whole purpose of a school system. In the preparation of such a\ndocument, the state is bound to take into account the children who are\nconstantly leaving school, quite as much as it does those who remain in\nschool.\n\nIt is safe to say that at least 40 per cent of all children who enter\n\nthe elementary schools discontinue attendance at the end of the sixth\nyear.\n\nLess than 50 per cent of the children who enter these schools thruout\n\n"} {"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM STANDARDS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nthe entire country complete the eight-year course.\n\n129\n\nIt is also a fact that\n\nless than 50 per cent of those pupils who enter the secondary schools com-\n\nplete two years of the work in such schools.\n\nThe fact, however, that such\n\nlarge numbers of children enter the secondary schools is evidence that their\n\nparents are desirous that they shall have the advantages afforded by the\n\nstudy of the cultural subjects usually included in secondary-school courses.\n\nThe effect of this diminishing number of pupils in the upper years of the elementary course and the early years of the secondary courses, however,\nto decrease the efficiency and consequently the productive value of this\nlarge body of the nation's wage-earners, and therefore to defeat one of the\nvery purposes for which schools are maintained at public expense. This\ncondition in school affairs, therefore, has an important bearing upon\nthe entire social, industrial, and economic conditions of the country.\nThe schools should be organized and such courses provided as to make it\npossible for this vast army of young people who are to be numbered among\nis\n\nthe millions of the nation's toilers, not only to complete eight years in\n\nelementary-school courses, but also to\n\nmake it ultimately profitable to\n\ncomplete at least a two-year vocational course in the secondary schools.\n\nNo state in the Union should fail to grasp the great opportunity which is\npresented for the development of culture as well as efficiency thru proper\ncourses of study for the average person between the ages of fourteen and\nsixteen.\n\nThese results may be secured by a six-year elementary course, general\nin character and adapted to all children until they reach that period of\ntheir development when they manifest different interests,\n\nmental powers,\n\nand tastes, which is usually at the age of twelve. This should be followed\nby a two-year intermediate course covering the usual seventh and eighth\ngrades and rounding out the elementary course. In this course, the work\nshould begin to differentiate, and it should lead to the usual high-school\ncourses, to commercial courses, and to industrial courses which, of course,\ninclude agricultural courses.\n\nSpecial two-year courses, as well as the four-\n\nyear courses, should be maintained in high schools.\n\nAll these courses above\n\nthe six-year elementary course should be sufficiently flexible to meet local\nconditions and needs thruout a state, and even the varying social\n\nand\n\nindustrial conditions in the different sections of a city.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nnot contended that a rigid uniform course of study should be\n\nrequired in every school of a state or even in all the schools of a large city.\nIt is not even suggested that the syllabus should be substituted for the\n\nelements of self-reliance, originality, and enthusiasm so essential to vital\nand efficient classroom instruction. It is not advocated that less emphasis\nshould be placed upon the formal cultural subjects, or that the ambition\nof any American child to complete one of the traditional academic courses\nand enter college should be diverted or thwarted. Nor does this enlarged\nscope of the school jeopardize in any way the democratic spirit and theory\n\n"} {"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n13©\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nwhich now pervade the entire school system, by the intermingling of all\nclasses and types of children in the study of subjects common to usual\nprograms. A syllabus should always represent the judgment of the majority\nof the teachers of the state in which it is used.\nIt should be prepared by\ncommittees of leading teachers of recognized authority respectively in\nthe several subjects which it covers.\n\nThe necessary limits of a brief address preclude discussion of the desirability of uniformity in educational administration except in this\n\nbroad\n\nEnough has been said perhaps to warrant the suggestion\nthat uniformity of method in educational administration in the several\nstates should be founded upon the following general principles:\n1. The absolute divorcement of school affairs from all municipal and\n\ngeneral outline.\n\npolitical activities.\n2.\n\nThe incorporation of school laws governing cities or other local\n\npolitical divisions in general\n\neducation laws instead of city charters or\n\nlocal laws.\n3.\n\nThe board of education of a city school system should be the supreme\n\nlocal authority in the government of its schools.\n4.\n\nThe purely professional management of the schools should be under\n\nthe direction of the superintendent of schools.\n5.\n\nThe general maintenance of the schools should be secured by a\nmethod which will provide fixed appropriations based upon the\n\ngeneral\n\nincreasing needs of a school system.\n6.\n\nThe appointment of teachers should be from lists of eligible can-\n\ndidates in the order of their merit.\n7.\n\nThe adoption of uniform courses, in which only the essentials of a\n\nfundamental education shall be included, with sufficient flexibility to meet\nlocal conditions, and permitting local authorities to include such additional\n\ninstruction as may be wise.\n\nThe democratic sentiment of the nation has been the basis of the establishment and development of our several state school systems.\n\nEvery\n\ngreat movement in this country to extend and Hberalize popular education\n\nhas followed some great movement founded upon the progressive democratic thought of that day.\n\nThe founding of public schools came after the\n\nRevolution, the great struggle to make such schools free, and to extend\ntheir privileges to all children\n\nupon an equal footing occurred near the\n\nperiod of our history when Lincoln wrote his Emancipation Proclamation,\n\nand the sentiment so universal today that our great school systems are not\nrendering the real service which they should to the great majority of children\nwho are in attendance upon them is founded upon that enlarged, beneficent spirit of democracy which a century's Ufe of the free institutions of\nThis same sentiment\nthis country has developed in the American people.\nwill continue to determine the form, character, and substance of public\neducation in this country.\n\n"} {"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\n131\n\nIf the welfare of society and of the state depends upon the dissemina-\n\ntion of education to all classes and to all sections of the state, if the stability\nof a republican form of government depends mainly upon the intelligence\nof the people, as declared in the constitution of Minnesota and of other states,\nif\n\nthe state is to exercise its constitutional power to tax the property of all\n\nits citizens for the accomplishment of this result, if the state is to exercise\n\nthe children who are to become its future citizens,\nand upon whom its welfare depends, to attend upon instruction provided\nfor them, if public education is to be so organized and administered as to\nbear directly upon the Hfe of its people, to improve their living conditions\nand raise their moral, industrial, and intellectual standards, if the schools\nare to become more responsive and more adaptable to the changing conditions of our progressive civilization and enlightened democracy, if the\nmanagement of the schools is to be emancipated from the destructive\ninfluences of favoritism and of partisan politics, if the schools are to be conducted upon sound business principles and correct pedagogical standards,\nif superintendents, teachers, and school officers are to be given the official\nfreedom requisite to strong, aggressive direction of school work, and are\nto labor in proper co-operation with one another, and if men of business\nexperience, skill, and judgment of a high t5^e are to be induced to accept\nresponsible positions on the controlling bodies of local school systems, if\nall of these results are to be accompHshed, then the several states must\nits authority to compel\n\nincorporate into their laws the essentials of correct school administration\nas herein defined.\n\nAn unrelenting war must be waged against any and all\n\nforces which seek to use the schools for selfish or personal ends; the public\n\nconscience must be aroused to the vital necessity of adequately protecting\nthese mighty interests, and the influence, stimulus, and aid of the state, in\n\nco-operation with all local agencies, must be exerted to its full capacity in\nprotecting and prosecuting the state's educational affairs; and, when necessary, the full power and authority of the state itself must be asserted to\nstrike down any individual or organization that would do violence to such a\n\nsacred right and trust as the education and training of the children who are\nto become the future citizens of this republic.\n\nB.\n\nTHE UNIFORM MINIMUM CURRICULUM WITH UNIFORM\nEXAMINATIONS\n\nFRANK M. MC MURRY, PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, TEACHERS\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBL\\ UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\nI.\n\nA definite plan of school administration is proposed for our con-\n\nsideration;\n\none immediately applicable to New York state, but represen-\n\ntative of incUnations in many other sections.\nis concerned, it is this:\n\nIn brief, so far as instruction\n\n(i) uniform examinations set by the state authorities,\n\n"} {"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n132\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nas a means of acquainting them with the status of the instruction; (2) a\nuniform curriculum which shall be the basis for these uniform examinations;\nand (3), since the curriculum often contains too much subject-matter, a\n,\n\nreduction of the amount required to the minimum, thereby estabUshing a\n\nminimum curriculum.\n2. Whether this plan, or some other, is followed, is a matter of tremendous importance for education, owing to the rank of the curriculum in any\n\nsystem of schools.\nComing from the higher officials of a system either directly prepared by\nthem, or prepared under their supervision, it is necessarily an expression of\ntheir prevailing theory and attitude touching instruction.\n\nAgain, being a\nstatement of the material with which the classroom teacher starts in\n\nplanning her daily work, its character must greatly influence her attitude\n\ntoward instruction and her method of imparting it. And finally, being the\nsubject-matter on which examinations are based, it must greatly affect the\nquality of the questions put. Uniform questions based on a uniform\ncurriculum can scarcely represent a higher plane than the curriculum itself\n\nand they are likely to represent a lower one.\nWhen, for example,\na curriculum shows indifference toward good organization by the careless\nway in which the subject-matter is arranged, questions testing excellence of\norganization are not likely to be prominent in the uniform examinations.\nThis is true for two reasons: first, the higher authorities who are finally\nresponsible for the curriculum, having manifested their indifference toward\norganization in that task, are likely to manifest the same attitude toward it\nin their questions; second, even if they wakened up at this point and\nrepresents;\n\nThe importance of this last fact deserves emphasis.\n\ntested pupils severely in the organization of ideas, the teachers, having taken\ntheir cue as to the importance of organization from the curriculum, or at\nleast, having found it too difficult a task to organize the curriculum properly,\n\nwill\n\nnot and cannot have prepared their pupils to meet such tests satis-\n\nfactorily,\n\nand the cause of their failure would reflect on their superiors.\n\nThe same outline of argument will hold for any other large element of school\nwork, such as the consideration of the relative values of facts, or the ability\nto use facts. If the curriculum has not been clearly planned with reference\nto them, tests will not be appUed on them; in short, examination questions\n\nare not likely to rise higher than their source, the curriculum.\n\nThe kind of curriculum adopted, therefore, in any system of schools, is\na matter of enormous importance. According to its nature it reveals the\nprevailing tendencies among the higher officers of instruction; it shows\n\nwhat confronts the teacher as she plans her presentation in detail, thereby\nmuch affecting her spirit and her method; and it limits the character of the\nquestions her pupils must face at the close. It is the key to any system of\nschools, determining the spirit that pervades it.\n3.\n\nWhat plan, then, should be followed in working out a curriculum ?\n\n"} {"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n133\n\nTo an onlooker, that which has been proposed, namely, a uniform minimum\ncurriculum with uniform examinations, possesses a reasonableness that is\n\nalmost striking.\n\nIn the first place, a curriculum of some sort is necessary\n\nfor every school; there would be chaos without one.\n\nSome of us remember\n\nhow, in the dark ages, we taught school without any curriculum at all.\nAnd we will readily agree that we never want such absolute freedom again.\nFreedom under the law ^in this case, under a curriculum ^is the preferred\n\n—\n\n—\n\nIn the second place, examinations of some sort are highly desirable\n\nkind.\n\nfrom the point of view of higher officers of instruction, of teachers, and\nof pupils.\n\nThirdly, there\n\nis\n\ncertain\n\nsubject-matter that every person\n\nmust know, such as beginning reading, writing, the four fundamental\noperations in arithmetic, spelling, and a few facts from geography, history,\nand some other subjects. Then there is certain other subject-matter in\nvarious studies that is highly desirable for everyone, even tho not absolutely\nnecessary.\n\nWhy not, then, form a curriculum from these two kinds of\n\nand reducing the\namount until even the average child could master it with ease, making it a\nreal minimum ?\nIs not this the plan that we ought to agree to here ?\nIn\nso\nvital\na matter, the answer must not be a guess. It must be\n4.\ndecided by subjecting the proposal to the surest standards for judging its\nworth that we have, i.e., the aims and principles of education. The very\nobject of establishing these aims and principles is that they may prove\nIt is odd that we are little accustomed to applying\nuseful in this way.\nthem as standards to the making of curricula; but that reveals our need all\nthe more. For without them what means have we for judging how skillful\nwe have been in performing that task.\nMoreover, we are accustomed to measure skill in classroom teaching by\nthese standards; and since the teacher takes up the curriculum, for presenmatter, making it uniform, since all ought to have it;\n\ntation, at the point where the curriculum-maker leaves off, presumably in\n\nthe same spirit too, it seems fair to assume that the two are working for the\n\nsame ends and subject to the same controlling ideas. Indeed, they would\nfor, otherwise, they might easily defeat each other's efforts\n\nhave to be;\nfrequently.\n\nIt\n\ncan hardly be questioned that curriculum-makers are\n\nrelated to classroom teachers\n\nmuch as dealers in building materials are\nThe dealers and workmen are subject to\n\nrelated to workmen on a building.\n\nthe same specifications, the dealers sending lumber, stone, brick, sand, etc.,\nto\n\nthe\n\nappointed place, shaped up and quantitatively determined so\n\nas to correspond to those specifications in the large;\n\nand the workmen\n\nmodifying and adopting these in detail to correspond to exactly the same\nspecifications.\n5.\n\nAssuming this parallelism, let us first see what specifications the\n\nThen\nwe will consider the extent to which tlie uniform minimum curriculum and\nuniform examinations aid her by showing regard for the same standards.\nclassroom teacher is expected to follow, and her method of doing it.\n\n"} {"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n134\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nOn the one hand, the modem teacher must know the individual\n\n(i)\n\nThe principle of apperception defines teaching as the process of\n\npupil.\n\nadapting, or adjusting ideas to the original nature and acquired experiences\nof each pupil.\n\nHis characteristics are the sole basis on which the educator\n\ncan build, and she must recognize them as such, just as the gardener must\nrecognize the nature of a plant as vitally affecting his method of cultivating\nit.\n\nThat being the case, she must in class observe her pupils individually,\n\nrather than as a mass\n\n—\n\n^as\n\nforty ones, say, rather than as one forty.\n\nAnd\n\nas a test of this tendency, the skillful supervisor over her notes the direction\n\nand character of her glance, to see whether it is a blank stare at the group\nas a whole, or a quick study of this particular pupil and then of that one.\nAnd both in class and outside, she is a student of the individual child;\nof his native tastes, aptitudes, and abilities, including the rate of progress of\nwhich he is capable; and of the contents of his mind, as determined by his\npast experience, his present home life, and his other local environment. In\nbrief, distinguishing one pupil as fully as possible from another so as to get\nthe full sum of qualities that make up each person, she is on the constant\nlookout for differences among her children.\n\nOn the other hand, she must also make a study of the ends that\n\n(2)\n\nshould be realized in the education of each pupil, as determined by society.\n\nHer object in studying the individual is to acquaint herself with the psychodevelopment of each child; and now her\n\nlogical facts that condition the\n\nobject in studying social ideals is to determine the direction in which these\nindividuals shall develop, the main qualities or habits that society finds most\ndesirable in good citizens, and hence, most important in a good education.\n\nVery prominent among these she finds the following:\nThe habit on the part of each pupil of setting up, or fixing upon ideals or purposes,\n\n(a)\n\nvaried enough to represent the leading phases of life; lofty enough to be worthy of being\nrealized;\n(6)\n\nand intense enough to be a source of much energy.\nThe habit of judging wisely the value of facts as they are related to the accom-\n\nplishment of such projects or purposes, emphasizing and discarding according to need.\n(c) The habit of organizing facts aroimd these purposes, grouping them in proper\nsequence for the sake of clearness, and massing them in sufficient number to establish\nconclusions with force.\n{d)\n\nThe habit of using the knowledge acquired imtil its control has become easy, and\n\n(e)\n\n—\n\n—\n\na comparatively small part has become automatically useful.\nAnd, finally, the habit of taking the initiative and showing a good degree of\n\nuntil some of it\n\nindependence in general, in doing these several things.\n\nHere we have the specifications fixed by modern educational theory\nthat the classroom teacher must follow: psychological on the one hand,\nstating the basis of all her procedure; and sociological on the other, declaring\n(3)\n\nthe ends to be attained.\n\nThe curriculum comes in now as a mere instrument; it is the\nmaterial by which she shall develop the pupil from his present status\n\n"} {"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\n13s\n\nto a realization of those things declared by society to be most fundamental\nin an education.\n6.\n\nNote, now, her prevailing thoughts, and her way of using the cur-\n\nriculum, as required by these principles and aims.\nFirst of all, it is her duty to develop habits, certain right habits of work.\n\nThese are so important because they are the only guaranty of real assimilation of knowledge.\nIt makes little difference how much ground one covers,\nQuality of work, in other words, is a far\nif one covers it in the wrong way.\n\nmore important consideration than the quantity. Yet, if one works in the\nright way, one is almost sure to have mastered a fair amount.\nSecond, each study must be intimately related to the pupil to each\npupil, just as far as possible.\nIt is expected to appeal to his ambition and\nestablish purposes within him; to give him practice in judging the relative\nvalues of facts as they bear on these purposes, which would be impossible if\nhe sensed little value in the projects or purposes themselves; to lead him\nlikewise to organize data, use knowledge frequently, and do all these things\nlargely on his own initiative and in an independent way.\nAt the same time, the specifications require that each study be intimately\nrelated to social Hfe, for the pupil must be setting up purposes, weighing\nvalues, organizing data, using knowledge, and exercising initiative in all\n\n—\n\nthese respects along lines or in reference to topics that really count in\ndaily living.\n\nThese two demands are difficult to satisfy; but observe how admirably\nteachers are meeting them here and there.\n\nFor example, the questions are raised in physiology and hygiene:\n\nWhat are the uses of food in the body ?\n\nHow keep the digestive organs in health ?\nHow care for the teeth ?\nHow take care of the nervous system ?\nIn Geography:\n\nWhat are the causes of the awful famines in India, and how might they be avoided ?\n\nHow has China managed to conserve the fertility of her soil, after four thousand years\nof cultivation, while much of our own is suffering from sterility after less than one hundred\n\nyears of cultivation ?\n\nWhat are the prospects for China's becoming one of the world-powers in the near\nfuture ?\n\nWhy do England and Germany import a great amount of nitrate of soda from Chile,\nwhile the United States does not ?\n\nIn arithmetic in the early primary:\n\nHow read the street numbers, and house nimibers about us ?\nHow use money for travel on street cars ?\nWhat quantities of milk and cream are commonly bought?\n\nMake out bills for\n\ngiven amounts.\n\nHow keep score for the game of bean bag, dominoes, etc. ? Make out such scores.\n\n"} {"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n136\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nIn history:\n\nWhat has been our treatment of the Indians; and what seems to be our plan in regard\nto them for the future ?\n\nOn what occasions has the imion of our states been threatened; and is it now permanently estabUshed ?\n\nThese are mere examples.\n\nIn all such cases the instruction centers, as\n\nfar as possible, in problems that are vital to society, and at the same time\nvital to the pupil.\n\nThe idea is that a study is ideally a sum of live questions,\n\nalive both to the adult and to the child;\n\nand that a good course of study in\n\nany branch of knowledge is a sum of such problems along one great line of\ninterest, organized in good sequence and containing data enough to furnish\n\nsatisfactory answers to the problems.\n\nThe one striking fact about this conception is the complete subordination\nof the subject-matter of the curriculum to the psychological condition of\n\nthe pupil on the one hand; and to the purposes fixed by society on the\nother.\n\nAnd the curriculum is not mere raw fact, nor mere science even.\n\nThe unit of organization being a practical question, so much of science is\nInstead of being mere\nraw fact, therefore, the curriculum is truth selected and organized with\nreference to the bearings on life.\nShe\n7. We see the standards to be realized by the classroom teacher.\ncan never meet them adequately, because they presuppose too much; they\ndemand a thoro knowledge on her part of each of her pupils, and of the social\nproblems about her; then a thoro knowledge of each study taught by her,\nas to its scientific content; and the abiUty, time, and energy to organize it\naroimd individual and social interests.\nIt is of the greatest importance, therefore, that the curriculum which\nconfronts her, as she makes her daily preparation, shall aid her as effectively\nas possible, both by encouraging her thru the spirit in which it was evidently\nconceived, and by directly assisting her thru adapting in large the subjectmatter to the standards which she must try to realize.\n8. Now turn to the uniform curriculum, and see to what extent it\nincluded as is necessary for answering it forcibly.\n\nsatisfies these demands.\n\n(i)\n\nConsider, first, its provision for individuaUty.\n\nThe teacher's unit of study, as we have seen, is the individual child;\n\nand one of the great regrets everywhere is that the size of her class, usually\nforty or fifty, greatly limits her ability to give proper attention to each.\n\nTo what extent does the uniform curriculum come to her aid at this\npoint either in spirit or by positive suggestions ?\n\nNot at all.\n\nWhile the\n\nteacher recognizes fifty as too many, the maker of the uniform curriculum\nwill prepare a\n\ncurriculum for seven hundred thousand without embar-\n\nrassment.\n\nThe average child is the only child considered; and no number of\nchildren is too great.\n\nListen, for example, to the first paragraph in the\n\ncourse of study for elementary schools in New York state, dated 19 10:\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n137\n\nIn determining the work of the elementary schools, a six-year course has been preThis course is general in character and adapted to all children imtil that period of\n\npared.\n\ntheir development when they manifest different interests, mental powers, and tastes, which\nis usually at the age of twelve.\n\nOn the whole, then, the six or eight hundred thousand children of New\nYork state are alike, in spite of the teacher's impression to the contrary,\nuntil they are twelve, and one curriculum will do for all.\nBut a curriculum covers several grades and is intended for at least a whole\nThe individual school is the unit for the curriculum-maker's attenschool.\ntion, as the individual child is the unit for the classroom teacher's attention.\n\nNow schools as units differ from one another strikingly. They differ in\nthe nationahty of their children, in their home lives, in their geographical\n\nenvironments, in the abiUties and aptitudes of their teachers, in their\ntraditions;\n\nand in consequence, they differ both in what their pupils can\n\nunderstand and appreciate, and the rate at which they can advance.\n\nFor example, in a certain school in a very congested district, three-fifths\nand one hears very little\nEngUsh in the streets in that section. About one-half of the children, and\nof the children are Italians and two-fifths Jews,\n\nmost of the parents were born abroad, and practically all are absorbed\nin small retail business.\n\nIn another school belonging to the same system, the children are nearly\nall Americans, belonging to well-to-do refined famiUes, with the professional\n\nelement prominent and living in large apartments or separate houses.\n\nIn\n\na third school of the same system, the children belong to a class between\nthese two in advantages and culture, living on the outskirts of the city in\n\nsmall houses, with many vacant lots, and on two sides of the school woods\n\nand swamp land stretch out nearly as far as one can see.\nNature-study should vary greatly in these three schools.\n\nhome geography;\n\nSo should the\n\nso should the music, in the songs that are selected, and\n\nso should the emphasis on parts of the English course.\n\nThese, and many\n\nother variations which would come to light on closer knowledge, would be\nrequired by the local environment and past experiences of the children.\n\nThe rate of progress in the same subjects would naturally vary, too, accordAgain, some of the teachers cannot but\ndo more harm than good in teaching nature-study, even tho they conscientiously try.\nMost have their strong and weak points, which must fail\nto be provided for when all follow the same course.\nEven in a system far more homogeneous than this, the differences are\n\ning to the nature of the children.\n\nstill\n\nstriking.\n\nFor example, in one such system the single fact that 36 per\n\ncent of the pupils are retarded in one school, while 51 per cent are backward\nin another, strongly suggests a radical fault either in the uniform curriculum\n\nor the rate of progress.\n\nYet the uniform curriculum makes no provision for all such differences.\nIt ignores all individual qualities and local conditions.\n\n"} {"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n138\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nTurn next to the social standards that are the guide for the classwhat provision does the uniform curriculum make for\nrealizing them ?\nAs we have seen, the teacher endeavors to organize her subject-matter\naround live social problems, so far as possible alive both to child and adult.\n(2)\n\nroom\n\nteacher;\n\nBy this means, the pupil will be identified with social issues in a way that\nmust affect both his aims and his whole method of work. To what extent\ndoes the uniform curriculum aid her here ?\n\nAgain, not at all.\n\nThis social\n\nbasis for the organization of topics, while varying less than individual schools\ndiffer from one another, since\n\nmany of the social issues are national, will still\n\nvary much according to locality.\n\nMany of the social problems recognized\n\nas pressing in the Bowery section of New York City, and worthy of attention\nin the schools there, are not equally pressing upon the upper west side.\n\nBut the devotion to uniformity that takes no notice of the psychological\ndifferences between schools will hardly allow much concern for the varying\nsocial problems that vex different communities or much interest in organi-\n\nzing the subject-matter around these.\n\nDevotion to uniformity deadens one\n\nto psychological and sociological variations alike.\n\nBut if the uniform curriculum shows little concern for either of\nwhat\nis it concerned about ?\nIn reply, let me ask what is left after\nthese,\nyou have abstracted your subject-matter from the relation to particular\nindividuals on the one hand, and to society on the other ? What have you\nmore than the most abstract subject-matter ?\nFor instance, the following statement is taken from the introductory\nsuggestions for the curriculum in arithmetic for New York state, p. 29:\n(3)\n\nWhile drill in the facts of number during the eariy grades should be largely in the\nabstract, with few if any problems, it is suggested that some concrete work in these com-\n\nbinations be given.\n\nIllustration: Five dollars and four dollars are how many dollars ?\n\nHow strong is the disapproval of abstractions here when the need for\nconcreteness\n\nis\n\nrecognized as slight, and the illustration of a concrete\n\nexample is itself strikingly abstract ?\nIt must be admitted that this quotation is somewhat exceptional,\nbecause the devotion to uniformity in New York state is exceptional.\n\nBut\nThat subject is begun in\ngrade six; and first in grade eight do we find the direction, \"In this grade\nemphasis should be placed upon the connection between composition and\ngrammar.\" Evidently, during the sixth and seventh school years there,\ntake the case of grammar in New York City.\n\nthe need of concreteness is not thought to be pressing.\n\nAny study that\n\nincludes only such subject-matter as can be taught to all aUke is almost\n\nbound to be abstract and formal. Even home geography, for example,\nstripped of most local relationships, becomes mainly location as outlined in\nmany of our present curricula; and nature-study becomes the mere naming\nand describing of plants and animals.\n\n"} {"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n139\n\nIn other words, the attention being centered on subject-matter alone,\nthe curriculum is not applied science, approached from the point of view of\nits\n\nhuman relations and organized into units called problems.\n\nIt is science\n\ncalled pure because it is undefiled by relation to man, and organized\n\nitself,\n\ninto scientifically named topics.\n\nAnd where science seems too heavy a diet for children, its mere fragments\n\n—unorganized, and, possible, more abstract, therefore, pure\nthe present course in\n—are\nWitness, for\nif\n\nfragments\n\nillustration,\n\noffered.\n\ngeography in Philadelphia for the third and fourth grades, which is nearly\nall location.\nIt is enthusiastically condemned by both superintendent and\nteachers, yet it is fairly representative of many others.\n\nThis devotion to mere uniformity does not stop with subject-matter\neither.\n\nIf\n\nuniformity of content is so good, why should not the method of\n\nmastering that content be uniform, too ?\n\nAnd so we find in the uniform\n\nNew York state. New York City, and other places, direct\n\ncurricula for\n\nsuggestions about teaching all Kterary selections read for appreciation, in a\ncertain way; all literary selections, read for composition purposes, in a certain other way;\n\nand all continents, countries, etc., in geography, according\n\nto a certain list of topics arranged in a certain order.\n\nWhat does all this signify but a complete subordination of the pupil to\nsubject-matter, instead of subject-matter to the pupil?\n\nComplaints are\n\noften heard against the fresh college graduate\n\nwho teaches in the high\n\nschool, that he sets his subject above his pupils.\n\nCertainly the complaint\n\nis justified.\n\nYet his point of view is exactly that of the one who stands for\n\na uniform curriculum.\n\nThe uniform curriculum, therefore, not only makes no provision, either\nin spirit or by positive suggestions, for satisf3H[ng, in large, the demands that\n\n—that\n— exactly the one against which\n\nthe classroom teacher must meet; but the position that it represents\nof subordinating pupil to subject-matter\n\nis\n\nteachers have most often to be warned.\n9.\n\nWhat is the influence of \"minimum\" in the term \"uniform minimum\n\ncurriculum\"?\n\nMinimum refers to quantity.\nprominent,\n\nit\n\ncalls\n\nattention\n\nto\n\nTo the extent that the word is made\nthe ground covered, rather\n\ni:han\n\nto\n\nthe quality of work done; and its very meaning forbids the omission of\n\nanything.\nAll this would not be so bad as it might be if the amount were small.\nBut that has not usually been the case, nor is it ever likely to be. The\nis simple.\nThe minimum curriculum is generally the smallest\namount with which the majority of pupils may be allowed to escape. It\nwould be too bad to give them less than they could do, it might spoil them;\n\" Our courses of study,\" says Dr.\nso they are given more than they can do.\nAyres in Laggards in Our Schools, p. 5, \"as at present constituted are fitted\n\nreason\n\n"} {"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI40\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nnot to the slow child or to the average child, but to the unusually bright\none.\"\n\nWhen the people who determine the curriculum are not held in\n\ncheck by the closest possible touch with particular children, they are almost\n\nbound to make a minimum curriculum that is in fact a maximum.\nThe minimum curriculum, therefore, tends to emphasize mere quantity,\nto oppose omissions from that quantity, and to demand a quantity so large\nthat it is inimical to reflection.\n\nAll this reveals a\n\nstill\n\nhigher degree of\n\nindifference, on the part of the curriculum-makers, toward those standards\n\nthat the classroom teacher is desired to attain.\n10. Finally,\n\nwhat aid toward the reaUzation of her standards do the\n\nuniform examinations bring to the teacher ?\nBeing uniform, they ignore all individual conditions, and being examinations of much importance on a fixed quantity, their influence is strongly\n\nopposed to any additions to this quantity by the teacher for the sake of\nfuller adaptation\n\n—\n\n^particularly since the amount is already too great.\n\nFurthermore, since examination questions must partake of the nature of\nthe curriculum on which they are based, like the curriculum in this case,\nthey must test almost exclusively on abstract or cold facts. That is, they\nwill not examine on the ambition and purposes that the instruction may have\ninculcated in the children; nor consequently upon their abiUty to organize\n\ndata with reference to such purposes; nor upon the relative values of facts\nas related to their purposes; nor upon their power of initiative in handling\nfacts.\n\nFor, it must be emphasized, a curriculum selected without reference\n\nto certain children and to certain live social questions makes no provision\nfor questions of this sort.\n\nIn other words, such questions will not, in the\n\n—the\n\nmain, test the child's attitude toward knowledge\n\neffects instruction\n\nhas had upon him, and the habits it has inculcated; but rather the amount\nthat he holds, his storage capacity.\n\nThere is no aid, then, in uniform\n\nexaminations for the realization of the teacher's purposes.\nIt\n\nis\n\nclear that the\n\nwhole plan of a uniform minimum curriculum,\n\naccompanied by uniform examinations, ignores the teacher's standards.\nFor, since the cur11. But the word \"ignore\" is not strong enough.\nriculum is the very key to our educational system, a bad curriculum, with\nits bad qualities emphasized thru uniform examinations based directly upon\nit,\n\nwill accomplish a limitless amount of positive evil.\n\nConsider some of the effects when such a plan is put into operation,\nThe teacher must be rated\n(i) First of all, the curriculum fails to fit.\n\nby what she accompUshes for this and that child.\n\nThe individual child is\n\nthe basis of judgment in her case.\n\nA curriculum is a thing that concerns a whole school, as we have said;\nwe speak of the curriculum for this school and for that school. The school,\nBut the uniform\ntherefore, is the unit of judgment for a curriculum.\n\nminimum curriculum fails to fit any particular school.\neven by its makers, that it does fit.\n\nThere is no pretense,\n\nNo plan was followed even aiming at\n\n"} {"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nUNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\nsuch a result;\n\n141\n\nindeed, the plan pursued practically excludes even the\n\npossibility of an accident of that sort.\n\nAt the same time, a cursory study of such a curriculum with reference\nto any particular school will bring to light numerous desirable changes.\n\nIt\n\nwould be easy enough to improve it, for that school; and so for every other,\ntaken individually. And the changes are sadly needed too. Yet they are\nforbidden; first mildly, in the emphasis on uniformity as desirable; then\nmore forcibly in the emphasis on a minimum quantity; and, finally, with a\nclub, in the form of examinations based on that exact subject-matter.\n\nWhat is the result ?\nbolder\n\nspirits,\n\nWe see it now in New York City. A few of the\n\nprincipals,\n\npetition\n\ntheir\n\nsupervisors\n\nfor\n\npermission to\n\nmodify the curriculum to meet the needs of their individual schools.\nAdaptation to particular situations becomes, in other words, instead of a\nrequirement, a matter of special permit. The rank and file, however,\nlacking the spirit of martyrs, submit, and subordinate the school to the\ncurriculum rather than the curriculum to the school. And when once\nsubmission is secured, there is small limit in the extent to which uniformity\nbecomes meritorious. For example, in one school that I know, six classes\nin the fifth grade have exactly the same work allotted for them in each\nThe tendency\nsubject, each week some 250 children there in a lockstep.\n\n—\n\nin that direction is strong thruout the city, and no reproof for it has come\n\nto my knowledge.\n\nFully half of our states, I suppose, have uniform curricula, and I am\naware that the representatives from many of them will hold up their hands\nin holy horror at the above practice.\n\nheaded for.\n\nNevertheless, this is what they are\n\nThe main reason that they have not already arrived at this\n\npoint is the fact that their systems have not yet had time to become so\nhighly organized as some of those in the East.\n(2)\n\nteacher\n\nWhat is the effect of this general plan upon the young trained\n\n—a most\n\nvital question, since the hope of our elementary education\n\nrests largely in her ?\n\nShe takes her position in such a system keenly alive to the worth of the\nindividuality of her pupils, and hopeful of developing it toward social ideals.\n\nShe is given a curriculum, as a means, that shows no regard for her parno tendency, either, to organize facts about such social\n\nticular children;\n\nproblems as might give the facts value in their eyes.\n\nYet she strives to\n\ncorrect these defects by making small parts over again, laboring more than\n\nthe allotted eight hours per day, for that purpose.\n\nThen she discovers that\n\nsome things and\nadded others, and that the minimum curriculum, as well as the uniform\nexaminations based upon it, makes both changes dangerous. In addition,\nthe examinations impress her with the thought that knowledge, rather than\n\nin her reorganization of topics she necessarily omitted\n\nright habits, is the\nstrive for more ?\n\nmain thing to strive for, and she asks, Why, then,\n\n"} {"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n142\n\n(Phfladelphia\n\nAs she delves deeper, she discovers the real philosophy underlying the\nThe uniform minimum curriculum, with uniform examinations, is\n\nplan.\n\nnecessary in order to surround the poor teacher with so many limitations\n\nthat she cannot go far astray.\ntreated as poor teachers.\n\nAnd since uniformity is a good thing, all are\n\nIn short, if the individuaUty of children is to be\n\ndeveloped, the best way to get it is to suppress its expression in the teachers.\n\nWhat wonder if she becomes discouraged; if the aims and principles of\neducation gradually become dimmed in her vision;\n\nif\n\nthe uniform tests\n\nfinally determine the scope of her interest and her plans as a teacher;\n\nand\nback upon her early enthusiasm as a totally outlived past, just\nas many a person looks back on his honeymoon ?\nThis is the history of many a teacher in systems where the organization\nis highly enough developed to cause the uniform curriculum and examinations to be taken seriously.\nIt is true that teachers will make mistakes\neven the best of them.\nBut no mistake can be greater than that of the higher educational officials,\nif she looks\n\n—\n\nwhen they refuse teachers the opportunity to make mistakes by putting\nthem into a straight jacket. Mistakes necessarily go with freedom; and\neducational systems have got to be founded on trust of teachers, not on\n\nWant of trust in employees is bad enough in a factory; hardly\n\nsuspicion.\n\ndefensible even there, where a mechanical product is the aim.\n\nare not aiming at mechanical products;\n\nBut schools\n\nthey are aiming at devotion to\n\nideals, right mental habits, assimilated knowledge and independence;\n\nand\n\nwe'll never get pupils to show these qualities until teachers are showing them\n\nabundantly in their consciousness of freedom.\n\nWe have said that the curriculum is the key to an educational system.\nLet me ask my opponents how the uniform minimum curriculum, with\nuniform examinations, provides for the freedom and the growth of teachers.\nAgain, the classroom teachers are the only persons in the world who have\nmost of the knowledge necessary for making curricula that will fit. What\nprovision is there in this scheme for bringing it into use ?\n(3) Finally, what are the effects of this plan upon the higher officers of\n\ninstruction themselves ?\n\nTheir primary duty is to encourage and improve teachers; that is, to\n\nBut they are constantly tempted away from instruction to\n\nlead them.\n\nbusiness matters.\n\nAnd our population is growing so rapidly that this\n\ntemptation becomes powerful.\n\nThe only thing that can save them, and\n\nprovide for their own growth, is rigid subjection to standards of skill in\nstrictly professional tasks.\n\ncurriculum\n\n—\n\nAnd in connection with the preparation of the\n\nor the supervision of its preparation\n\n—they have their best\n\nsingle opportunity to apply such standards to their thinking.\n\nHow is this opportunity improved, in the case of the uniform minimum\ncurriculum,\n\nwith uniform tests?\n\nThe opportunity\n\nis\n\nnot improved.\n\nIndeed, the position that the plan requires is fundamentally opposed to\n\n"} {"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\nmodern educational theory.\n\nIt is\n\n143\n\nopposed to it in its neglect both of\n\nindividuality and of the social functioning of knowledge as well.\n\nIt makes\n\nthe work of preparing a curriculum comparatively easy by leaving out the\n\nvery standards that test excellence.\n\nAnd in doing that it places the\n\nhigher officials out of sympathy with the viewpoint of their better teachers,\n\nand practically in opposition to them.\n\nAnd the result is, not merely that our curricula consist of the rawest\nmaterial, entailing impossible work on teachers before it is presentable to\npupils; not merely that our method of curriculum-making lags generations\n\nbehind our classroom method; but that, notwithstanding the many defects\n\namong the rank and file of teachers, our educational systems themselves\nlack professional leadership.\n\nIn conclusion, there is a large place for uniformity in an educational\nsystem: uniformity in business matters; uniformity of aims and principles\nfor the school as a whole; uniformity of aims and principles for particular\n\nand uniformity in many practical matters touching\nBut uniformity in the subject-matter of instruction, and in\ntests upon it, is condemned outright by modern educational theory.\nsubjects of study,\n\ninstruction.\n\nDISCUSSION\nA. B. Poland, superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J.\n\n—^While I am disposed to\n\nview the subject of uniformity from the standpoint of the able paper read by Dr. Finegan,\nI can agree perfectly with Dr. McMurry in most of his contentions. I cannot, however,\nagree to the latter's statement if I understood him rightly that the central purpose\nof education in public schools is to develop individuality. If Dr. McMurry had said\n\n—\n\n—\n\nthe central purpose of education is to develop individuals, not individuality, I could\nfully concur.\n\nThe fallacy in the statement lurks right here, in not defining specifically\n\nwhat is included in the term \"individuality.\" Admitting that certain individual characteristics should be cultivated, the general aim and purpose of education, as I conceive it,\nis to develop not individuality but social unity.\n\nMy plea, therefore, is not for individuality\n\nbut for unity which results in efl&ciency and is rarely, or never, attained except by and\nthru uniformity of some kind.\n\nBaron d'Estournelles de Constant, peace delegate to the United States from France,\nspeaking before a mass meeting of school children in the Metropolitan Opera House,\n\nNew York, made this remark:\n\n\"Disagreements among nations, which sometimes lead\n\nto war, often originate in simply a misunderstanding of one another's viewpoints.\"\n\nIt is\n\nimportant in this discussion that we agree upon the meaning of the terms employed.\nThus, by uniformity of standards in school administration, we do not mean identity of\nstandards.\n\nUniformity is a relative term. It admits degrees. There is no such thing\nUniformity, for instance, may be predicated of the school\n\nas absolute uniformity.\n\nsystems of St. Louis and Boston, unlike as they are in many respects.\n\nBoth cities have\nBoth cities have boards elected at large. Both cities differentiate\nexecutive from legislative powers. In these fundamental and typical characteristics\n\nrelatively small boards.\n\nthere is uniformity, while in many matters of less fundamental importance there is wide\nvariety.\n\nUniformity, as in nature, may exist amid infinite variety.\n\nThe well-understood\n\ndistinction of genus and species suggests what I have in mind.\n\nAgain, uniformity must be distinguished from unity, which is essential oneness.\nUnity differs from uniformity in being an end in itself; whereas uniformity is merely a\n\n"} {"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n144\nmeans to an end.\n\n[Phaadelphia\n\nThat unifonnity is an essential means is proved by the fact that unity\n\nin government is never secured except thru imiform laws; xmity in church matters, except\n\nthru uniform creeds and rituals; unity in business, except thru uniform rules and practices;\nunity in any institutions whatsoever, except thru uniformity of some kind.\n\nJust so far,\n\nThat uniformity as a\ncreative mode is universal may be inferred from Genesis, chap, i, where we read: \"In\nthe beginning God created the heaven and earth. And the earth was without form and\nvoid.\" To make of this chaos a place fit for man, the Almighty found it necessary to\nthen, as unity is itself desirable, uniformity is a sine qita non.\n\nset in operation certain fixed \"laws of nature,\" such as gravitation, chemical action, etc.,\n\nwhich are known to be imiform.\nUniformity is likewise the creative principle in the moral and spiritual world. Listen\nto the words of the Great Teacher: \"All things, whatsoever ye would that men should\ndo unto you, do ye even so unto them.\" Observe that we find no alternatives embodied\nin this moral precept, but instead a single, uniform rule of action eliminating all differences\nof nationality, color, age, sex, and of educational qualifications.\n\n—imity\n\nIt aims at imity\nwith God, wherein all individual differences may eventually disappear.\n\nA priori reasoning as well as scientific evidence leads to the conclusion that all progress\nis derived sub specie uniformitatis.\n\nHow uniformity is secured—its rationale.—For illustration, take the uniform child-\n\nlabor law now being actively promulgated in several states.\n\nAll agree that there exists\n\na need for the protection of children from the evils of being put to work prematurely.\n\nThe facts are:\nThat parents desire to exploit the labor of their children.\nThat employers are willing to profit by such exploitation.\n3. That certain industries require child labor imder present conditions to meet com1.\n2.\n\npetition. Thus, for instance, the glass manufacturing industry across the river in New\nJersey cannot be carried on successfully, it is claimed, without employing child labor,\nbecause here in Pennsylvania and in certain other states such labor is permitted.\n\nSince appeals made to the conscience of parents and to the himaanitarianism of\n\nemployers have so far failed, it is obvious that the only remedy for this unfortunate situation is the enactment of a uniform nation-wide child-labor law.\n\nAgain, in the year 1904, the Public Education Association of this city, dissatisfied\n\nwith the conditions that existed, invited President Eliot, of Harvard University, to come\nhere and to propose how the public-school system of this city might be improved.\n\nPresi-\n\ndent Eliot suggested:\n1.\n\nA small board which should confine its powers to legislation.\n\nThat executive functions should be left wholly to experts, that is, to the dty\nsuperintendent and his staff.\n3. That matters of finance be in the hands of the board with a graduated, predictable\nincome determined by law.\n2.\n\nThese principles, he said, had worked out successfully in certain other cities where\nWhy should they not work out successfully in Philadelphia ? So\nthought the people of Philadelphia, and the necessary legislation was finally secured.\nPhiladelphia is now pointed to as a city whose public-school system is among the best\nin the coimtry. This result was obtained thru conscious imitation, the genetic term for\nthey had been tried.\n\nuniformity.\n\nIn the address of President Eliot on the occasion I have alluded to, he made this\nsignificant remark:\n\nThe public-school systems of our great cities have done a great work, and by comparison with other branches of public service are the most successful of our American institutions.\n\nThis is great praise from a high authority.\n\nA few days ago I wrote to President\n\nEliot asking whether his statement made in 1904 still holds true, and he reaffirmed it.\n\n"} {"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\n145\n\nOne of the reasons for this remarkable success of the school systems in great cities, as\ncompared with other institutions and with school systems in rural districts, is that we have\nconsciously and progressively patterned after one another; that is, have attained to a\ngreater degree of xmiformity.\n\nDemocracy emphasizes uniformity; its fundamental thesis is that \"all men are\nAristocracy is based upon the negative assumption; it emphasizes\nindividuality. Is not the attitude of mind exhibited by the ultra-\" individualists\" in\nour profession a survival of the old aristocratic r6gime ? In a political and social democracy such as ours, children must be taught to live and to work together co-operatively;\nto submit their individual wills to the will of the majority; and to conform to social requirements whether they approve them or not. To inveigh against uniformity because it\ncreated equal.\"\n\nsometimes works injustice is of a kind with Madame Roland's apotheosis of liberty:\n\"Oh, Liberty! Liberty! How many crimes are committed in thy name!\"\nTo condense this discussion into a single paragraph:\nIn seeking to attain definite ends in education, progress and uniformity go hand in\nSo long as we attempt to reach the same end by different ways, we simply admit\n\nhand.\n\nthat the best way has not yet been discovered.\n\nBut once the best way is discovered\n\nthere is no excuse for using any other unless we err voluntarily for the purpose of maintaining diversity.\n\nE. C. Moore, professor of education, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.\n\n—\n\nIt is\n\nevident that there is no uniformity of understanding in regard to the subject of this discussion.\n\nOne side contends for much greater uniformity of school administration.\n\nThe\n\nother for much less uniformity and rigidity in courses of study and in instruction.\n\nI\n\nagree with both of them and I agree so heartily with each one that I cannot say which I\n\nfavor the more. What we have had set forth here today is in a sense a picture of the\ninadequacy of American school conditions. Where there should be organization, system,\nrigidity, like a belt of unyielding armor plate to protect the children inside the schools\n\nagainst the forces vv^hich would destroy their right to an education, there is no adequate\n\nsystem for insuring educational security; and inside the school where there should be the\n\nmaximum of adaptation, consideration, modification to meet local and sectional conditions\nand adjustment to individual need, there tends to be far too much rigidity, uniformity,\nand regularity of procedure.\nThis is an old trouble in human affairs. The problem of government is how to\norganize to get the proper degree of security and yet not by overorganization to kill life\nand individual freedom. Men used to reckon with government as a uniform necessity\nand hew the people down to conform to it. Now government is built up from the other\nend. The people make it to serve their needs. Localism in lawmaking is preferred to\nuniformity, and when the laws are made, tho they are no respecters of persons, there is\none whole branch of government whose duty it is to fit them to individual needs. Medicine\naims to be a body of well-established principles, but the treatment of diseases consists\nin fitting these uniform principles to individual cases.\n\nThere is no uniform meaning to the word uniformity, and more than half its meanNo two leaves on the same tree are uniform, and no two human beings\nare alike, nor can any one of us be treated from moment to moment as unvarying. Machinists tell us that no two machines of the same make behave in just the same way or require\njust the same amount of care and attention.\nWhile they are superficially the same, each\ndevelops its own peculiar friction, its own flaws. The most expert engineer is not able\nto make them develop the same power, or work on the same amount of oil, or last for the\nsame number of days. The human machine is infinitely less uniform. Variety and\ndiversity seem to be its law and its essence. To subject individuals to unvarying uniformities is to treat them unhumanly. A good engineer would not expect to deal with\nhis machines in that fashion.\nSome people believe that there is only one right way to\nings are vicious.\n\n"} {"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n146\n\ndo anjrthing and all the other ways are wrong.\n\nIPhiladelphia\n\nMr. Kipling did not agree with them when\n\nhe wrote:\n\nThere are nine and sixty ways of making tribal lays\nAnd every one of them is right.\nIt is altogether likely that there is no one uniform and eternally right way of doing\n\nanything.\n\nThe right which is not merely an abstraction is always a fimction of a situaBut\n\ntion which is individual and will never repeat all its details in any other situation.\n\nwhile situations are all different in details, and individuals and even machines are different\nand call for different kinds of treatment, situations are also like other situations, and\nindividuals like other individuals, and machines like other machines. There are uniformities in them all, and if we take these uniformities as only parts of what we are dealing\nwith and not the whole thing, we shall find them useful. When we overdo them they are\n\nThe United States government finds it useful to imiform its soldiers, but if\namoimt of cloth into each soldier's dress the result would\nbe unhappy. It applies the principle of imiformity where it belongs, and when it is\nnot useful.\n\nit attempted to put a uniform\n\nkept to its place the principle is helpful.\n\nJust so in education. School systems ought\nnot to be alike or to expect to be alike in the details of their administration, but they\n\nought to be alike and they must be alike, in being free to serve the educational needs of\nthe children; and to be free they must be independent of local political government.\nPublic education must be a state affair and not a village affair, or a town affair, or a city\naffair, for\n\nupon the welfare of that education the being of the state depends.\n\nAnd as\n\nPresident Wilson has put it, \"No instrumentality less universal in its power and authority\n\ncan secure popular education.\" In building our school structure, we must put the steel\nframe and the protective walls on the outside and leave the internal part free for adaptation and readaptation to individual needs.\n\nI am completely convinced that the schools\n\nmust be uniformly protected by being made a part of the administrative system of the\nstate, and that where the laws have already done this, there must be no failure to carry\nthem out. With regard to uniform statistics, much is to be gained by them if they are\nbased upon uniform standards and do not bring confusion by giving a uniform appearance\nto dissimilar things. To make them comparable they must be based upon a common\nvmit such as the cost per student-hour of instruction.\n\nUniformity in business procedure\n\nEven the commonly accepted uniform requirement that all\nbids shall be let to the lowest bidder results in harm imless the lowest and best bid gets\nthe contract. It makes man for the business and not the business for man.\nis\n\nnot altogether desirable.\n\nUniformity in courses of study and in textbooks is destructive to young lives. I am\none of those who believe that those schools are on the right track which are doing the\nutmost for the individual child. No more uniformity than the minimimi which is required\nto organize instruction so that it can be carried on is desirable. A school system can be\nmanaged with a very little uniformity, with much less than some of us think. I am satisfied that there is no subject that every child must take year after year whether he succeeds\nin it or no; that it is vastly more important to have a mentally alive child in a schoolroom than a dead subject any time; that we make a mistake when we define education\nWhat we\nin terms of subjects in place of in terms of the mental activity of children.\nseek is to help children to use their minds.\n\nThe quantitative formulation of courses of\nThe course of study must be made,\n\nstudy makes war upon this conception of education.\n\nthen, not on the basis of pages, but on that of subject units: not quantity of work, but\n\nquality of work, is what we want.\n\n—\n\nTo get and keep a living and expanding interest\n\n—\n\nsearching, reflecting, organizing, using activity going in young children\n\nit will be\n\nneces-\n\nsary for each school to meet them where they live and to vary its instruction to reflect the\nactivities and opportunities of the place in which it is given and the traditions of the homes\n\nfrom which the children come. This work of providing a local and individual mental\ndietary can be done only by those who are in a position to make the necessary local and\nindividual diagnosis, which must precede it. This conclusion is not in conflict with the\n\n"} {"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nUNIFORM CURRICULUM AND EXAMINATIONS\n\n147\n\nview that education must become a science by developing a body of thoroly proven\nprinciples or norms of instruction. As in medicine, these principles will have to be\ninterpreted to each case by means of personal diagnosis. Lacking these principles, as\nwe do as yet, the present need for diagnosis is even greater than it will be when we get\nthem.\nLet me give just one illustration of the great advantage of using diagnostic and\nexperimental methods rather than uniform methods in education. I take it from Newton\nMass., a school system whose energy is directed to adapting subject-matter, methods,\nand organization to the needs of the individual child. Pupils enter the high school in\nNewton when they are old enough for the high school; to have succeeded in finishing\nthe grammar-school course is not prerequisite. And when they are in the high school\nthey take the studies which are suited to their needs. \"But having failed, don't they\ncontinue to fail?\" you ask.\n\nNot at all.\n\nIn 19 10, Dr. Spaulding, desiring to make as\n\nmany appeals as possible to the minds of such belated pupils in the grammar schools,\npromoted fifty average girls from the grammar grades to a special transfer class in the\nhigh school. Thirty-five of them had repeated a grade. They were described as \"apaForty-five\nthetic,\" \"sluggish,\" \"befogged,\" and \"stolid.\" Where are they now?\nremained to the end of the year. Twenty-seven went on with regular high-school courses,\nand the others either entered other schools or went to work. In September, 191 2, nineteen\nof these girls entered the regular second-year class of the high school. What do their\nteachers say about them? \"Their work is as good as that of the other pupils and in\nspecial cases it is better.\" \"Their work is as good as any, and in some cases it is better.\"\n\"The average is as good as the average of the class.\" A similar study has been made\nof a group of twenty-seven boys admitted at the same time and on the same conditions.\nSeventeen of them did decidedly better on the average than did the whole class admitted\nin the regular way. Fourteen of them are now in the second year of the high school,\ntheir average standing is several points higher than the average of their departments.\nThere ought to be as much uniformity in school administration as is necessary to\nmake the schools free to do the purely educational work of helping minds to grow by\ndeveloping interests in, and becoming active upon, profitable social concerns and ways of\nadjusting life. Uniformity must be employed to further adaptation and whatsoever\nuniformity doeth more than this cometh of evil. Medicine was in a crudely empirical\nstage when men reasoned. This medicine cured my child, therefore it will cure yours;\n\nand education is in a crude empirical stage when educators reason. This subject, this\nprocedure, educated my child, therefore it will educate yours.\n\nScientific education will\n\nwork out general principles or uniformities and apply them only after careful diagnosis.\n\nEdwahd C. Elliott, professor of education. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nThe central theme of the present discussion would appear to be that of the outer limits\nfor either necessary or desirable uniformity.\n\nCommissioner Finegan's general thesis, that\n\n—formulated, as\n\na certain uniformity is fimdamental to our state policies in education\n\nthese policies are, upon the principle of equity of educational privilege and opportunity\n\nmust, I think, be accepted without argimient.\nspecific details of this imiformity,\n\nwidely\n\nConcerning the general extent and\n\ndififerent\n\nconclusions are inevitable.\n\nCom-\n\nmissioner Finegan, for example, insists that the larger social purpose of our elementary\n\neducation is best conserved by a six-year course \"adapted to all children until they reach\nthat period of their development when they manifest different interests, mental powers,\n\nand tastes, which is usually at the age of twelve.\" What a simple problem the care of\nchildren in the home and their training in school would be were they so much alike imtil\ntwelve\n\nI\n\nscheme.\n\nProfessor McMurry effectively argues against the practical working of such a\n\nThese differences are in large part due to that ever-present hindrance in our\nwe endeavor to\n\neducational discussions, the ambiguity of the major terms in which\nexpress ourselves.\n\n"} {"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n148\n\nUniformity of what?\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nThe topic as announced specifies \"standards\"; yet a mere\n\nsuperficial analysis of the situation reveals the fact that there are several sorts of standards\n\n—standards\n\nof\n\norganization,\n\nstandards\n\nof\n\nconditions\n\nfor\n\ninstruction,\n\nstandards of\n\nadministrative and instructional procedure, standards of results, both mechanical and\n\nMoreover, these general type standards must be interpreted differently\nwhen applied to different specialized fields of school control ^legislative, administrative,\n\neducational.\n\n—\n\nsupervisory, and inspectorial.\n\nThe existence of forty-eight autonomous imits for the organization and control of our\nnational educational system serves to give an increasing significance to comparison\n\nSuch comp>arison has been, and will continue to be, a potent means for\nThe justice and validity of such comparisons depend upon\nthe identity of the data employed. For this reason there is a large need for a uniformity\nof treatment of certain of the objective factors of our educational scheme.\nSuch elements\nas the school census (the most defective of all the essential social statistics of education,\nand which for its betterment might appropriately be transferred to the care of the United\nStates Bureau of the Census), school registration and attendance, and financial accounting\nlend themselves readily to a imiform procedure. Without imiformity, there is no warrant\nfor comparing the educational economy of one educational area with that of another. A\nimiform terminology in the certification of teachers would undoubtedly contribute in no\nsmall measure to the removal of the confusion that now obtains in this direction.\nThe list of items about which we might readily agree is after all very short, even tho\nwe limit ourselves to matters of major importance within any state. Rather than debating\nbetween states.\n\nthe stimulation of progress.\n\ndebatable details, it appears timely to raise a fundamental issue.\n\nThe conspicuous trend of today in all of our essential social relations is organization,\nEducation may not expect to be iminfluenced by the forces\n\nintegration, regulation.\n\nmaking for imiformity, regimentation, and standardization;\n\nnevertheless, these forces\n\nrequire a most cautious manipulation and application lest the deUcate human balance of\n\nMeasures intended to regulate in a uniform way the\nTo adapt the institutions of education\nto these mechanisms is as simple as it is dangerous. Employing a crude figure of speech\nan educational shoe for society, built over a uniform last, may appear well and be stylish,\nbut it is apt to pinch and to be painful.\nGranting the dominancy of the state over the local coramunity, and admitting the\npriority of the claims of society and those of the individual, may we not, as a matter of\nlarge public policy, regard all imiformity as possessing inherent evils, especially aU uniformity influencing the vital relations of pupils and teacher ? Is there not a lurking danger\nin the current tendency to mechanize and organize ? The industrial world recognizes as a\ngrave danger the enervation of the worker by the machine. The educational system\nshould likewise recognize a similar danger to communities, teachers, and children. To\nenergize the school means a constant conscious effort to reduce all imiformity to a minimum\nand not to increase it to a maximum. Every scheme looking toward uniformity contains\nSome such bureaucracies may be necessary\nthe germ of self-aggrandizing bureaucracy.\ninstruments for the practical operation of our school system, but they should remain\ninstruments and not be permitted to magnify themselves into masters of the education of\nthe child. If we are to capitalize freedom, we must rely more upon those methods and\ndevices that produce freedom. The sovereignty of the state in education is good political\ntheory, but in its application to human situations the fact must not be forgotten that all\nevolution has come thru variation and not uniformity. The pride of states, of local communities, of schools, should be in an intelligent progressive variability and not in a mechanical regressive uniformity, by whatever alluring title it is known.\neducation be seriously disturbed.\n\noperation of the public schools are easy to devise.\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCO-OPERATION AND INITIATIVE OF TEACHERS\n\n149\n\nDEVELOPING THE CO-OPERATION AND INITIATIVE OF\nTEACHERS\nCHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF\nCHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe title which I have ventured to use for my discussion implies that\nthere is not, at the present time, a sufficient degree of co-operation between\nteachers.\nIt also impHes that teachers do not exhibit the degree of initiative\nwhich ought to be expected of them. Perhaps the best introduction to\nthe positive suggestions which are to be made will be a brief preface in\nwhich this critical implication is justified by definite references to various\ntypes of cases in which teachers fail to show co-operation and initiative.\n\nConsider for a moment the machinery by which the teacher is usually\n\nappointed to his or her position.\nfor the fifth grade.\n\nSome superintendent needs a teacher\n\nHe is likely to be bombarded by insistent recom-\n\nmendations from worthy citizens whose feelings he knows he must respect.\nThese same worthy citizens, thru their representatives on the board of\neducation, have for a number of years made it apparent that no one can\n\nbe brought into that town to teach so long as there is an unemployed native\n\nbetween the ages of seventeen and seventy. Co-operation of a certain\ntype there is in this case, and initiative of a certain type, but it is not from\nwithin the school organization.\n\nLet us go on with our example. This superintendent sets aside, after\ndue consideration, all the local applicants or, as they might properly be\ncalled the local insisters,\nelse.\n\nand starts out to get a teacher from somewhere\n\nIs it not extraordinary that at this juncture the superintendent must\n\ngo to an agency which has grown up on a highly profitable commercial\nbasis,\n\nbecause teachers have not developed any co-operative method of\n\nrecording themselves.\n\nWho among us has not witnessed the comedies\n\nand tragedies of the appointments made thru teachers' agencies? I\nremember one day last summer how a young man came into my office and\nwanted a letter in support of his candidacy for a superintendency on the\nPacific coast.\nThe fact was that I had been corresponding for a fortnight\nwith the superintendent whose place was supposed to be vacant about a\nhigh-school principalship. I extracted from my visitor the notice from\na teachers' agency which brought him to ask for a recommendation. The\nnotice contained that subtle phrase, \"Do not mention us, but apply.\"\nThe fact, of course, was that someone connected with that thrifty agency,\nhaving heard a half -rumor about something good on the Pacific coast, was\nlavishly spreading notices with a view to getting, if possible, 5 per cent from\nanyone who might in the thick fog of competition find a harbor thru the\nGolden Gate.\n\nThen there is the other case of the timid young woman who comes for\nadvice because some agency has offered her a position, and while she is\n\n"} {"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n1 50\n\n[Phfladelphia\n\ntrying to decide, another opening comes, and she takes it.\n\n\"But,\" says\n\nthe agency, \"we are entitled to some part of this second salary, for were\n\nwe not offering you a good position on the remote frontier?\"\n\nI am not a\n\nlawyer, or the son of a lawyer, but I have in my day told several young\n\nwomen that I should venture to take such a case before any American\ncourt, and I have even gone so far as to guarantee that I would assume the\n\ncase if it was pushed.\n\nI hasten to add that this is not to be construed as\n\na general invitation to all persons in this particular type of distress, tho\n\nfrom the journalistic point of view I should be willing to take on a few\nsuch cases. Let me not be misunderstood. I am not condemning teachers*\nagencies when they do their regular work, for they are in the main legitimate\ncommercial organizations. I am saying that they operate sometimes well,\nsometimes badly, now and then very badly; the point I am emphasizing\nthat they exist because there is no constituted medium of information\n\nis\n\nwithin the teaching profession.\n\nThe teachers' agency is a kind of vigilance\n\ncommittee in charge of a community which has no organized means of\npromoting its own internal welfare.\nYou will recall, however, that we were following the footsteps of a\nsuperintendent seeking a teacher.\n\nHe finds nothing thru his correspondence\nI am not\n\nwith the agencies except a batch of letters of recommendation.\n\ngoing to stop to speak of this system of paper credit except to say that,\nif\n\nthe banks of this country attempted to do business on letters such as\n\npass between educators, there would be a panic before the exchanges open\n\ntomorrow.\n\nOur hypothetical superintendent, doubtful about the letters of recommendation, starts on a journey.\n\nIf the board of education is wise, it will\n\nlet him go as often as he wants to, provided only that he recognizes as one\n\nof his chief functions that of collecting\n\ngood teachers.\n\nHe goes first to\n\nprey upon a neighboring school system. I am not going to elaborate this\npart of the theme. I remember once being in the office of a superintendent\n\nwhen a visitor of the type we are discussing arrived. The superintendent,\nwho was the host on that occasion, received his visitor with the cordial and\noptimistic remark, \"Thank the Lord, our best schools are closed with the\nmeasles.\"\n\nOur seeker after a teacher now goes to a neighboring normal school.\nSome day when you are surrounded by competition and vexations think\nfor\n\nyour comfort of the happy lot of the well-established normal-school\nHe is given a territory which is marked on the educational\n\nprincipal.\n\nmap of the state \"exclusive.\"\nlearning are checked up\n\nall\n\nColleges and other higher institutions of\n\nthe time by competition for students.\n\nThe\n\nnormal school is a public institution with an allotted territory. Supervision of the normal school is different to put the matter mildly from\n\n—\n\nthat of most other public institutions.\n\n—\n\nThe local authorities not only\n\nhave control of an exclusive territory, but they are so superior in reality\n\n"} {"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCO-OPERATION AND INITIATIVE OF TEACHERS\n\n151\n\nor in form to any educational officer in the state that they are practically\nfree from educational control from outside, but political and national control from outside appears on every hand.\n\nOur superintendent goes to the\n\nnormal school and asks for a teacher. There are none left, he is told.\nThe answer is,\nIs it possible that the state does not prepare teachers?\nNo. At the last meeting of the legislature there were seven bills introduced asking for expansion of the normal schools, and the legislators\ndeclared that they were not convinced that the state needed any more\n\nsuch institutions.\n\nAnyway the state needed the money for a series of\n\ncounty fairs and for the new state capitol. Teachers used to be found in\nthe good old days in the homes of the state, why all this modern fuss about\nprofessional training? Our superintendent condoles with the president\nof the normal school for a time, and then the conversation turns upon the\n\nplans of the school as now constituted, and our normal-school principal\ntells with pride how the students are most of them coming, under his\nown stimulating guidance, to take the college course rather than merely\n\nto prepare to teach in the elementary school.\n\nUnsuccessful in his search for a member of the teaching profession, the\n\nsuperintendent goes home.\n\nHe finds that in his absence the citizens have\n\nmet and organized one of those diversions of modern civic life\n\n—a school\n\nNow a school inquiry is a matter in which a superintendent\nought, in my opinion, to be the leader. There ought to be keenness and\n\ninquiry.\n\nalertness enough in our profession to see that people want to know some-\n\nthing about their schools which they have not tried to find out in times past.\n\nWe ought to initiate all the inquiries that the country can stand. Not\nlong ago an inquiry was initiated by the superintendent of Boise, Idaho.\n\nHis school system will profit by his initiative in this matter, and such\n\n—and they were extraordinarily few—\n\ncriticisms as were made\n\n^were received\n\nwith gratitude as examples of the best type of co-operation. Contrast\nthis with that other example of school inquiry which is in the minds of all\n\nThat inquiry seems to me to show what this whole preface, which\nhas run on too long, started to show. Teachers are not organized to promote their professional interests, and they are lacking in initiative to act\nbefore someone acts for them.\nPlease note that the last statement was carefully phrased. That\nof us.\n\nstatement does not say that teachers are not organized or that they are\ndestitute of initiative.\nTeachers are, indeed, organized. We are organized\n\nWe are organized into state and sectional\nWe are organized into federations and clubs. We are\n\ninto a national association.\nassociations.\n\norganized into principals' clubs and teachers' clubs opposed to principals'\nclubs.\n\nWe are organized into committees of thirty-three and nineteen,\n\nand all the other numbers down to and including one.\nus of not being organized.\n\nNo one can accuse\n\nIs it not striking that with all this organiza-\n\ntion we are so loose and disintegrated a mass ?\n\nWe have in this country\n\n"} {"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n152\n\ntPMadelphia\n\nno recognized publication to which the teacher may turn to learn of the\nbest professional experiments that are being tried on every hand. We\nhave no co-operative source of information from which committees in\ncharge of our meetings can learn of the experiences of others who organize\nsimilar meetings.\nWe do not have any constituted agency to which boards\nof education may be referred when they want real expert advice about\nwhat they should do. We hear again and again urgent pleas for intelligent\nco-operation in promoting wise legislation. These pleas are unanswered\nbecause we have no organized agencies for the formulation of good codes,\nnor have we any organization which can promote the interests of good\n\ncodes when such are formulated.\n\nThere is one matter you will note which I have not mentioned.\n\nOne\n\ncan always get the sympathy of an audience of teachers by saying in some\ndelicate way that they look as if they were underpaid.\n\nOne can get reso-\n\nlutions and investigations and support at the state capitol for a campaign\n\nto increase salaries.\n\nEven here with the idea clearly before our minds\n\nthat we must have better professional organization,\n\nit\n\nwoiild require a\n\nspeaker bolder than the present to recommend that we drop for two calendar\nyears the discussion of salaries.\n\nWhile I should hardly want to put myself\n\nin the position of receiving no second to my motion, I should like to suggest\n\nto some subsequent speaker that he move as above indicated.\nfor a pedagog like myself to see that the path of\n\nIt is easy\n\nwisdom lies away from\n\neconomic considerations in the direction of strictly professional considerations, but I must be true to my own pedagogical traditions; I must be\ntimid. If the school board objects to what they call fads and innovations,\nI,\n\ntheir educational expert, must look cheerfully upon\n\nthat the cost of living is going up.\n\nmy critics and reply\n\nIf the manufacturers tell me that I do\n\nnot know how to conduct schools, and that they are going to have a new\ndeal and a separate system of schools, I must admit all of their criticisms\n\nand ask for a job in the night school. If I see that the children of a city\nneed more teachers and more desks, I must be quiet because I am not\nsupposed to know about civic matters, and furthermore the board might\ntake some steps unpleasant to my family, and then I should hesitate to go\nhome and tell what had happened.\nDo the lawyers allow themselves to be managed by outside agencies ?\nNo, they have a bar association. This association does not discuss chiefly\neconomic matters, and it does not listen to long inspirational addresses.\nThe bar association collects information about professional matters and\n\nWhy can we as teachers not do something of the\nWhy should we not set our own profession in order ? Why\n\nenforces its judgments.\n\nsame kind ?\n\nshould we not close up the salary issue for a httle time and devote ourselves\nto larger professional matters ?\n\nall\n\nThe first suggestion that I have to make is that we co-operate thru\nby organizing at central points in\n\nof our state teachers' associations\n\n"} {"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "CO-OPERATION AND INITIATIVE OF TEACHERS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n153\n\neach state complete annotated lists of the teachers who are members of\nthese associations. Let each teacher write inside of two hundred words\n\nwhat he has done, and what he wants to do. This autobiography is to be\na public document, accessible to anyone who is looking for a teacher. The\nautobiography should be supplemented by three card catalogs: first, a\ngeographical index; second, a grade and class index showing where the\nteacher wants to teach; and third, a record index teUing the public pronouncements of any superintendent or board of education who will record\njudgment. This latter should include also the recorded judgment of the\ninstitutions which have graduated the teacher or given him summer courses\nor other courses.\n\nA further index, to be known as the \"active\" index,\n\nmight be kept apart from the main indexes calling more immediate attention to the teachers who for any reason desire to be considered candidates\nIf properly managed, this list need not be a disfor special positions.\ncredited collection of names, for a teacher in the fifth grade might legiti-\n\n—as\n\nmately desire\n\nset forth in her own biographical statement\n\n—to become\n\na special teacher of music. Other equally legitimate reasons for transfer\nThere would then\nexist and would in time come to be frankly recognized.\n\nbe less of the surreptitious candidating in the dark which usually works\nto the disadvantage of all concerned.\nof this record\n\nThe public, co-operative character\n\nwould lead very soon to the adoption of a new standard\n\nof morals in regard to recommendations.\n\nWe all know too well the kind\n\nrecommendation that is given to a departing teacher with a sigh of\nrelief and the knowledge that the recommendation is not in keeping with\neither the facts or expectations of the writer, but is given to \"avoid trouble.\"\nThe reduction in number of such recommendations is a sufficiently worthy\nwork to justify the life of one reformer.\nThe advantages of such a catalog of teachers are too numerous to\nspeak of in full. The state association would be given by this method a\nreal mission and a real membership; information about the training of\nteachers would become accessible; legislation and ordinary thinking about\nthe teaching profession would begin to be based on real facts; foreigners\ncould get some of their questions answered, and your hypothetical superintendent seeking a teacher could find out where to go. The imagination\ndwells with satisfaction on the substantial foundation which such a card\ncatalog would give to the teaching profession.\nThe second suggestion which I have to make relates to school inquiries.\nThe teaching profession has a right to the fullest possible knowledge regarding school successes and school mistakes. I am persuaded that the irreof\n\nsponsible attacks of self-constituted judges who know schools chiefly thru\ntheir personal observations made in childhood, or thru the even more childish\n\nobservations, made from the viewpoint of the proud parents, will drive the\n\nteaching profession to develop a technic of self-examination which will be\nof great gain to the professional world.\n\nWe all feel keenly the thrusts\n\n"} {"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n154\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nBut after all these people mean well.\n\nof these irresponsible critics.\n\nThey\n\nsimply fail to realize that education has become an expert form of activity.\nI\n\n— think was in the preface of my college\n—the complaint of the author against the -constituted\n\nremember reading once\n\ntextbook in ethics\ncritic of\n\nit\n\n^I\n\nself\n\nother people's morals.\n\n\"The time has passed,\" said the writer,\n\n\"when an untrained man will speak with assurance on matters of science.\nThe time has passed when questions of public policy are discussed with\nBut not so with moral matters. The unthinking, untrained\nflippancy.\ncritic speaks on these matters with a light heart and an empty mind.\nSuch\ncritics remind us of our first parents of whom it is written that they were\nnaked and not ashamed.\" When I read the lucubrations of some critic\nof the schools, who says that all the rich inheritance of modern civilization\nis to be given to boys and girls without home study, I am filled with pity\nfor the writer, and I am filled with longing for the day when the school\nboard in his home town will invite a group of fearless experts to tell him\nand his neighbors what their children need. My only regret is that this\nsame board would hardly be in a position under our civilized mode of life\nto prescribe for the writer himself, since presumably he is over fourteen.\nBoards of experts who could help in the auditing of school systems\nought to be constituted and recognized by the teaching profession. We\nhave a right as experts to speak when schools are under discussion. Because\nsomeone, whom we will call X, has control of the avenues of pubUcity, shall\nhe make attacks upon the schools and no answer be heard ? Time and time\nagain some eager, earnest soul has gone into a community and spent time\nand energy without reserve in organizing the teachers and the course of\nstudy. By and by the educational world has seen that worker discredited\nand humiliated, and we have had no means of expressing the verdict of\nour profession upon his work. On the other hand, there are in our profes-\n\nsion, as in all the world, boasters, ignorant of the real possibilities of our\n\nprofession, makers of words, and self-seekers, who have friends on the local\n\nSuch a one never hears the voice of any organized judgment,\nwhom the suspicious board of education may turn\nIf the bar association is a better agency for the judgfor a real judgment.\nment of professional conduct than a jury gathered up in a day, why should\nthere not be recognized, constituted agencies which can be called upon to\njudge of schools? The Department of Superintendence could render no\nlarger service, I believe, to the country and to the teaching profession than\nnewspaper.\n\nfor there is no one to\n\nby organizing a series of educational councils with seats in different parts\nwhich councils all kinds of questions of school policy\nHave one such council in New England, another for\nthe other North Atlantic States, another for the Middle States, one for\n\nof the country, to\n\nmight be submitted.\n\nthe Gulf States, and so on\n\n—ten or\n\nfifteen councils in all.\n\nMake the territory\n\nlarge enough and the personnel strong enough so that real authority shall\n\nattach to judgments of these bodies.\n\nSelect the men from positions which\n\n"} {"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "CO-OPERATION AND INITIATIVE OF TEACHERS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nwill guarantee real contact with school problems.\n\n155\n\nAgain the imagination\n\nruns on with pictures of the advantages which would flow from the studies\n\nWhere a group of people get together and study educaWhere men work alone and\nin the presence of intense personal issues they lose their perspective. The\nof such councils.\n\ntional situations they are sober and judicious.\n\nteaching profession owes it to itseK to organize centers of professional\njudgment to the end that there may be increasing concord of judgment\nand increasing power of execution.\nThird, I believe that we are in need of an authorized channel of general\neducational publicity. Let us speak of this matter with frankness and with\n\nan eye single to professional rather than personal interests. Today we\nhave in this country a hundred educational publications. Like all the world,\nsome of these are good and some are not. Many have been built up thru\nthe earnest and successful effort of some efficient worker in education.\nI beUeve there is now and will always be a field for these journals, at least\nfor the best of them.\n\nThe Germans have a word which they use in their\n\nprofessional publications;\n\nit is\n\nthe word Centralblatt.\n\nA Centralhlatt is a\n\nweekly sheet which brings to the speciaUst in each field a quick summary\nThis\nof the Uterature and of the most recent movements in his field.\nCentralhlatt is\n\na means of quick and wide communication.\n\nI\n\nbeUeve we\n\nneed such a Centralhlatt in education. I suppose that every other editor\nshares with the present speaker the ambition that the particular sheet over\n\nwhose destinies he presides may gradually extend its subscription list and\nits editorial influence and become the guide of all\n\nin all the schools.\n\nwho teach or administer\n\nPainful as is the awakening, however, let us, my fellow-\n\neditors, realize that no publication can in this day and age become a Centralhlatt without the authorization of some great association.\n\nThere ought to\n\nbe a Centralhlatt with such an organization as this behind it and in front\nThere ought to appear in the pages of such a Centralof it and all around it.\na. statement of the best that is going on in Boston and New Orleans\nand Seattle and Philadelphia. Such a Centralhlatt might even bring to the\nhands of an eager world the report of the New York Inquiry, or at least a\nsummary of those parts of that report which are to be privately published.\nSuch a Centralhlatt could tell all of us what is happening to the Page bill,\nand what is the next probable place of meeting of the National Education\n\nhlatt\n\nAssociation.\n\nHow shall we get such a Centralhlatt? I think we may set aside the\neconomic considerations. There are plenty of ways of financing such an\nenterprise.\n\nIf you\n\ndo not believe that statement I will undertake to tell\nWhat is needed is\n\na committee of this organization how it can be done.\n\nmoral support and authorization.\n\nLet this Department of Superintendence\n\ndecide that a Centralhlatt of education is a good and necessary agency, and\n\nthe task of giving publicity to American school life becomes a mere clerical\nmatter.\n\nNow, mark you, that statement does not mean that the members\n\n"} {"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nIS6\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nThey are to decide\nThey are to be so clear on this matter that when\n\nof this organization are merely to consent to publicity.\n\nthat publicity is needed.\n\nthey open an ungraded class they will not be too modest or too conceited\nto tell of it.\n\nA success in educational organization ought to be given to the\n\nteaching profession just as a successful treatment of a patient is reported\nin the medical journals.\n\nYour physician, when he grafts a piece of tissue,\n\ndoes not feel that he is boasting because he reports his success in the next\nissue of the clinical record.\n\nThe success of his work is recognized by the\n\nphysician as due to his compUance with natural law.\nscientific discovery.\n\ncontributions to professional efficiency.\n\nand are\n\nThe physician therefore hastens\n\nto give his fellows the benefit of his experiences.\n\nmistakes or failures.\n\nHis success is a\n\nScientific discoveries are public property,\n\nHe is not ashamed of\n\nIndeed, he reports these for the benefit of others\n\nwho encounter Uke difficulties. This is professional co-operation and we\nneed much more of it in the teaching profession.\nI am clear in my own thinking that more good educational experience\ngoes to waste thru lack of publicity than gets written into all the ponderous\n\nannual volumes of our general association or in all our scattered and competing educational journals.\n\nWhy not tell the journals that the best of\n\nthem would gain thru the organization of a Centralhlatt ? Why not extend\nthe hand of sympathy to the weaker journals with the good advice that\nthey become better? Why not cut loose from the unsystematic, haphazard lack of organization from which we now suffer and set up a real\norgan of the teaching profession ?\n\nThe examples of possible co-operation and initiative which have been\npresented up to this point have had only secondary relation to the classIt may be well to choose as a final\nexample one that will emphasize the fact that the appointing of teachers,\nthe study of their work, and the publication of educational results are all\nsecondary to the main purpose of the school, which is the adequate training\n\nroom where children are taught.\n\nof children.\n\nI dare say that every educator in this country feels that the\n\ngreatest immediate problem of the elementary school is the problem of so\n\nrearranging the course of study that it shall meet the very legitimate demand\nwhich is made upon us for adequate training of the pupils who are to go\n\nout into the trades or into business.\n\nWe may call the new education\n\n\"industrial training,\" or we may call it, if we please, \"the enlarging of the\n\ncourse of study,\" but in any case the effort must be made so to prepare the\nchildren who are to go out into the business world that the school activities\nshall be directly carried over into practical life.\n\nEvidences are too numerous\n\nto be neglected that we have not succeeded altogether in making the school\n\na true preparation for trade and business.\n\nThose who have to deal with\n\nthe products of our schools have of late become very critical of our procedure.\n\nNot only are they coming to us now with criticisms of our schools but they\n\n"} {"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCO-OPERATION AND INITIATIVE OF TEACHERS\n\n157\n\nare saying that the professional educator has not shown ability to deal\n\nThese critics have then set themselves up as\nThey see a need which is general\nand they are critical of our work; they would therefore cut away from the\n\nproperly with his problem.\n\ncapable of solving the whole problem.\npresent school.\n\nIt is interesting to note that some of the members of our\n\nown professional group sympathize with the view that this industrial\nproblem must be solved by a new set of educators always, of course, includMost of us, on the other hand,\ning those who have seen the new Hght.\nbelieve that there is danger that practical men will overlook some of the\nconsiderations that have been drilled into the minds of teachers thru\n\ngenerations of experience.\n\nThose of us who have been brought up in the\n\ntraditions of the school world are disposed, of course, to hold to these tradi-\n\nPerhaps we have been too tenacious in our adherence; perhaps we\nhave regarded reading and writing and the other subjects that have long\nbeen taught in the schools as sacred and have been afraid to make a change.\nBut one thing is sure: while teaching reading and writing, we have learned\nenough about human nature to be able to speak on the educational problem.\nWe are therefore in a position to take the new suggestions and the new\nsocial situation and use the wisdom of our experience in the best possible\nform of co-operation and initiative. If we are ever going to show any\ninitiative in working out any great reform in education, this is the time when\nwe as teachers must deal with the problem of vocational education vigorously and with clear insight. We are not to draw back from the problem\nbecause it is large and grave. We certainly cannot allow those who are\nnot acquainted with the difficulties of educating immature children to\nsettle the questions which are now up.\nWe should stand, I believe, prepared\nboth to deal with the problem and to defend those virtues of the school\nfor which we can produce an adequate justification.\nWe should be untrue\ntions.\n\nto our past as professional teachers if we did not realize that the problem\nis\n\nour problem and not to be taken from us by anyone else.\n\nWe shall\n\ncertainly be untrue to our past as teachers if we allow others to criticize\n\nour work in this field without presenting the grounds for our practice, and\nwithout seeing to it that that which had been good in the school system is\npreserved in any school system which is erected upon the foundation of the\npresent school.\n\nThere need be no criticism of the motives which are\n\ninvolved on both sides of this debate, but it is clear that we have come to\nthe point in our professional life where it is our duty to insist that we are\n\nquaUfied to deal with the great educational problem which is upon our\npeople.\n\nWe cannot Usten to those who tell us, as they have done in flippant\n\nwords, that we are selling a \"gold brick\" to the people.\n\nI confess that\n\nI have no patience whatsoever with those educators who have gone to the\n\nmeetings of practical men and have repeated this charge, and have said,\n\n\"School people are not competent to deal with this matter.\"\n\nIf there is\n\n"} {"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n158\n\n[Phfladelphk\n\nany ground whatsoever for that criticism, then it becomes our business to\ndevote ourselves most energetically to a co-operative attack on this problem.\nI believe that the Department of Superintendence should undertake investigations, first, for the purpose of understanding clearly and definitely the\ndemands which the practical worid is making upon the schools, and next,\nfor the purpose of devising some general program even if it is experimental.\nThe trouble now is that there is no comprehensive, co-operative, national\nplan before us, no program such as some of the state commissions have\nprepared.\nIf it is necessary, let\n\nus have several committees appointed to go into\n\nthe details of the matter, to examine and evaluate those experiments which\nare being tried in various parts of the country, and to see to it that the\n\nmaterial is made accessible so that every teacher shall first realize the significance of the problem, and, second, have easily at his hand the material\n\nwhich will make it possible for him to have an educational judgment. It\nmay be that this will involve the production of practical reading-matter;\nit\n\nmay be that this will involve the production of textbooks.\n\nIf we leave the\n\npreparation of this material to individual initiative, there is danger that\nit will not be prepared in a form in which it can be used thruout the general\n\nschool system.\n\nThere is danger that attention will not be drawn to it\n\nWe ought to\nhave our eyes so clearly open to this great professional demand that we\ncan set committees and groups of individuals who are skilled at work under\nour professional auspices. The man or group of men who have a program\nfor the solution of this problem will be heard, and it is because the practical\npeople have set their minds upon advocating a definite general program\nto which they adhere that they have been heard so frequently. We\ncertainly ought not to show less co-operation and initiative in this matter\nthan the manufacturer's association.\nThese are some of the concrete Hnes along which it seems to me we\nought to begin to consider the organization of our profession, and the\ninitiation from the educational profession of large educational undertakings.\nWe cannot do this work if we are so absorbed in our individual tasks and\nour individual problems that we do not see the necessity and importance\nThere is no possibility of our showing that\nof organized co-operation.\ndegree of initiative in educational activity which we ought to show unless\nwe can get together and support each other in our endeavors. Sporadic\ninitiative there is and some organization there certainly is within the\nteaching profession, but initiative ought to be cultivated in a very much\nhigher degree and the organizations ought to be made definite and explicit.\nThey ought to be prepared to cope rapidly and effectively with the problems\nthat are before the modem world; they ought to be so strong and ought\nexcept thru the accidental advertising of the book trade.\n\nto have such power of presentation of their cases that the educational\nprofession will no longer be dominated from without, no longer be dominated\n\n"} {"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NEED TO DREAM\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n159\n\nby forces that are vastly less competent to deal with the educational problems than is the trained expert educator when he is banded with his fellows\nand strong in initiative to perform his professional task.\n\nTHE NEED TO DREAM\nJOSEPH LEE, MEMBER OF THE SCHOOL COMMITTEE, BOSTON, MASS.\nIn one of those wonderful articles written about the kindergarten by\npeople whose critical fancy is untrammeled by actual knowledge of what a\nkindergarten really is, there is a story of three children seeing a stone in the\nroad.\n\nOne, having suffered from kindergarten training, says it is a bird\n\nThe second, also demoraUzed by the\nThe third, not having undergone this\nperverting influence, says it is a stone, and is commended of the author for\n\nor something (I forget just what).\n\nkindergarten, says\n\nit is\n\na fairy.\n\nso saying.\n\nOf course the thing didn't happen.\n\nI have read pretty nearly the whole\n\nof Froebel, and I think there is no mention of fairies in his writings.\n\nChil-\n\ndren of the kindergarten age do not need fairies in their business, because,\n\nwhen it comes to making the world as they would have it, they can beat the\nAnd the anecdote is untrue in the more important\n\nfairies at their own game.\n\nsense of not being sound fiction.\nchild, he only discovered it.\n\nFroebel did not invent imagination in the\n\nIt was put there before his time.\n\nAnd finally,\n\nthe power of imagination in children is not an evil to be eradicated, but on\n\nthe contrary an essential means of Ufe and growth.\n\nwould have no hope of growing up.\nsense already dead.\n\nA child without it\n\nIndeed, he would be in every important\n\nIt is to this last proposition, that imagination is an\n\nessential part of the process of the child's growth, that this\n\npaper\n\nis\n\naddressed.\n\nThe child, I take it we all agree, grows by what he does.\n\nHe is sent into\n\nthe world as unformed as he is in order that he may do so.\n\nThat is the\n\nexplanation of the whole phenomenon of infancy, of the fact that there is a\nchild at all.\n\nWhat part has imagination in the child's activity and so in\n\nthe direction of his growth ?\n\nOmitting the period of babyhood, and taking the next, or kindergarten\nstage\n\n—say from about three to\n\nsix years old\n\n— think we\n^I\n\nshall probably agree\n\nthat imagination here takes the leading part in the child's development.\n\nThis is pre-eminently, and very obviously, the age of the imagination;\n\nwhat I have ventured to call the dramatic age, the period when the thing\nimagined and the reality are hardly distinct, and the child very largely\n\nmakes the world to suit himself.\nIf the child at this period of growth wants to be a horse, or a schooner,\n\nWhy not? A plaything, any\noutward object, is useful chiefly as a peg to hang imagination on. The\nor a northwest wind, why he just is one.\n\n"} {"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "i6o\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nblock is a sofa, a cow, a railroad train, according to the requirements he\n\nmakes.\n\nThe favorite mount of a small friend of mine was a half barrel\n\nhoop, not I think because of its resemblance to the bucking bronco, but for\n\nsome recondite reason that I could not penetrate, but which certainly did not\nI remember the same child appeared\nwith a bit of hose, and on my asking what that was, he said: \"Why, can't\nyou see? It's a skunk, it squirts.\" I could not see it, but the fact was\nobvious to him. Napoleon boasted that he had made marshals of France\nout of mud. The child of five does the same thing every day. Probably\nNapoleon himself began by making pies out of the same material. To the\nchild of the dramatic age the world of reality and the world of imagination,\nthe world of desire and the world of fulfillment, the world that proceeds out\nfrom his own heart and the world as he finds it, are one. For him, to\nimagine is to accomplish. Things are malleable to his desire and take the\nform he wills. Aspiration and achievement are still identical.\nAt about the age of six there comes a change. The block suddenly\nIt sets up\nrefuses to be a cow or a sofa or any other thing but just a block.\na character of its own and has the audacity to stick to it whatever you may\nwant. And so with the child himself and the varied characters he had\nassumed. Walking in a queer struck-by-lightning way ceases to make him\na soldier, nor can he any longer become a horse, or a steam engine, or a big\nwind at pleasure. A characteristic of this age is disillusion. The ship\nwe built upon the stairs has dissolved into its component parts, the doll is\nstuffed with sawdust, and the child, awakened from his dream, finds himself\namid the ruins of his self-constructed world. As in the case of all converts,\nimply a very literal resemblance.\n\nthe new knowledge is sharply accented, not consistently perhaps, but at\nleast a part of the time.\n\nThe child now turns with especial animosity\n\nHe won't hop like a toad; he don't\nwant to be a mother bird; he scorns his Uttle sister's games and refuses to\ntake part in them, at least when the men of his own set are looking on. He\nsays all that is silly, and even glories in his own sophistication about Santa\nagainst all forms of make-believe.\n\nClaus.\n\nThe god that has thus driven out the love of make-believe is a new and\ninsatiable desire for the real, a hunger for hardpan.\n\nOn the purely intel-\n\nlectual side, this, as Froebel points out, is the age when the boy wants to\n\nclimb the tree to see what is the other side of the fence; to turn over every\nstone to find what is under it; the time when he returns from his walks with\n\nbugs and spiders and other distressful specimens in his pockets. It is the\nage of mischief, the period in which the child wants to turn on the water,\nlight the matches, play with gunpowder, and with the hind leg of the horse.\nPeople think he does these things because they are so annoying. That of\ncourse increases the attraction, but it is largely a by-product, a happy\ngodsend, Uke the beauty in the rose or the scent of the June fields. The\nmain motive is that of finding out. This is the scientific age, the time of\n\n"} {"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NEED TO DREAM\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nl6l\n\nwanting to come against the real in every form. He wants to touch and\ntaste everything and get up and jounce on it, to test, and most feelingly\nexperience, what it truly is.\n\nHis mischief is largely for the sake of testing\n\nHe is skeptical, unsympathetic, he\nHe tries different stimuli upon you to see how you will\n\nyou, to find out if haply you are real.\n\nmust be shown.\nreact.\n\nYou say \"don't\" pretty often; he wants to find which time you\n\nreally mean it, just as he sticks pins into his companions in order to deter-\n\nmine by actual experiment where they really hve.\n\nAs a result of this new awakening, with its appreciation of reahty, its\npredilection for the hard, obdurate, unsympathetic fact that will not dance\n\nto your music or do your bidding in any way, the child's world has suddenly\n\nspnmg apart.\n\nHe sees\nNo longer a magician,\n\nImagination and reaUty are now as the two poles.\n\nhis desire and the actual as the extremes of contrast.\n\nable to create enchantments with his rod, he is now only a small boy without\n\neven a man's powers to make the world over as he would have it. His\ncapacity for achievement has shrunk from the power to make trees and\nships and oceans do his bidding, to create horses and chariots out of sticks\n\nand stones, down to what he can himself actually put together with his own\nHis child's world has fallen to pieces ^imagination on the one side,\nactuality on the other. He starts at the very bottom of the ladder in the\nlife's work of reconstructing it.\nBut it is a mistake, the great mistake of all, to suppose that because the\n\nhands.\n\n—\n\nchild of this age has lost the illusion of the plasticity of the outer world, his\ndesire to mold it into the form his soul demands is lessened, or that imagina-\n\nformer means of its summary transfiguration, is dead in him.\nNothing could be farther from the truth. It is true he no longer possesses\nthe magician's wand; imagination is no longer the equivalent of reality.\nAnd it is also the case that, awakened to the contrast between his gorgeous\nfancies and his puny power of realization, and conscious of the ridicule a\ndisclosure of his dreams may bring on him, he becomes intensely secretive.\nOf all wild creatures, the small boy is shyest and most difficult to tame.\nTo most people he is utterly impenetrable. Many boys, perhaps the\nmajority, are so to all grown-up people.\nBut it is still, even in the toughest, most anti-sentimental boy, in the\ninner world, the world of imagination, that the most important part of his\nlife is carried on.\nThe saddest and most fatal misunderstandings between\nchildren and their parents or teachers arise from the failure on the part of\ngrown people to recognize the intensity of this inner life, or from supposing\nthat the child's real thought is simple or easily visible to them. If that is\nyour idea, you have not taken the first step in the understanding of the child\nof this or any other age.\nIn every child at his most Philistine period the\npoetry and imagination are still there, tho the stream has suddenly sunk\nunderground and left only the hard dry surface visible to a superficial\ntion, his\n\nobserver.\n\n"} {"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl62\n\n[Phfladdphia\n\nAnd what does imagination mean in this Big Injun period of the child's\nWhat is its contribution to his growth ? A study of one\n\ndevelopment ?\n\nof its manifestations, I think, gives us the key to this question.\n\nIn some\n\ninstances, at least, the imagination of the Big Injun age retains the form of\n\nactual impersonation characteristic of the eariier period.\nI\n\nBoys sometimes,\n\nam told, even up to the sere and yellow leaf of the college age, will be\n\nknights and heroes in a very serious way in some small circle of their own.\nI know a lady who still stamps her foot and carries her head Uke a spirited\n\ncharger, as a result of being the Chevalier Bayard up to the age of fifteen or\n\nthereabouts.\n\nAnd a schoolmaster has told me that when he was at\n\nboarding-school he always thought of himself, in all his lessons and games,\nas performing some heroic action of an imaginary sort.\n\nSuch impersonation\n\nevidently, much restricted in its subject-matter.\n\nThe child no longer\n\nis,\n\ntakes on the character of natural objects nor of personalities that are\nfascinating merely because of their occupation or other outward attributes.\n\nThe experience is now always of an ideal personahty.\n\nHow common such\n\nsurvival of the impersonating impulse is I am unable to say, nor does it\n\nmatter for my present purpose.\n\nSuch instances are important, not chiefly\n\nin themselves, but as showing the direction that imagination takes during\nthis Philistine age, and indicating the vital importance of its satisfaction.\n\nImpersonation of an ideal character is clearly an instance of projecting\nin the imagination an ideal of life and conduct.\n\nIt is a means of reducing\n\nsuch an ideal to possession by taking the first step toward realizing it.\n\nNot\n\ncontented with visualizing the heroic character, it insists upon the more\nrealistic\n\nmethod of muscularizing it, getting not merely the look, but the\n\nfeel of the personality assumed, bringing it home in the most intimate way,\n\ngiving it body and carrying power for thought and feeling.\n\neverybody\n\nelse,\n\nfor that\n\nEvery soldier\n\n—knows the intimate relation between\n\nmatter\n\nbodily carriage and morals.\n\nTo stand right and move right, especially if\n\nsuch standing and moving proceeds outward from a deeply felt ideal, is in\nitself an important part of conduct and the beginning of\n\nmuch more.\n\nTo\n\nadopt the voice and bodily carriage of the ideal Bayard or King Arthur or\nGalahad is to go some way toward possessing their spirit and moral attitude.\nIt creates a habit of body and mind that is a barrier against evil, and must\n\nbe radically changed if anything mean or cowardly is to be done.\nThere are dangers, of course, in such impersonation if persisted in too\nlong.\n\nIf there is neglect steadily to translate the ancient into the\n\nmodem\n\nrequirements, to recognize and respond to the demands of knighthood as\n\nthey occur in daily life, the result may be disastrous.\n\nIn this, as in other\n\ncases, adhesions may be formed binding the soul to early manifestations of\n\nan ideal which ought in the course of nature to be outgrown.\n\nThere are\n\nplenty of Sentimental Tommies, whose heroism, like that of the great\nTartarin, is of the imagination only.\n\nOn the other hand, if you can get\n\n"} {"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE NEED TO DREAM\n\nSuperintendencel\n\n1 63\n\nKing Arthur actually to enter your soul and fight for you in the schoolroom\nand on the playground, he is as valuable an ally as any boy need have.\nFor us the important thing about such instances of surviving impersonation, be they rare or common, is not their spiritual value in themselves,\nbut the fact that they furnish a key to the imagination of the Philistine age\nand to the part it has in a child's growth. Whatever its form, the function\nof imagination is now and henceforward to make the first projection of the\nsoul in action, the earliest presentment of the ideal.\n\nImagination is action\n\nIt is achievement in its initial stage.\n\nin the soft.\n\nImagination, however, at the age we are now considering, commonly\ntakes a more abstract form than that of impersonation.\n\nThe child, become\n\nacutely conscious of the real, builds his castles out of confessedly imaginary\n\n—\n\nHis method is sometimes a day dream long, long thoughts of\nwhat he is to do or be, of the princess he will rescue, the dragons he will slay,\nthe better social order he will build. As the boy is father of the man, so is\nthe day dream the special moment of his parenthood. It is the source to\nmaterials.\n\nwhich, if all goes well with him, the stream will ultimately rise.\n\nThe man\n\nis the incarnation of what the child has done, and the first form and instance\n\nof his child's doing is in his dream.\n\nChildren often tell stories to each other.\n\nThey tell about when they\n\nwere sailors in that strange grown-up past in which such wonderful things\ntake place ^the past golden age which is really a first rough sketch of\n\n—\n\nfuture glories.\n\nPerhaps they describe what they did when they were\n\n—some three inches high—and went to sea on toy boats; passed\n\nlittle\n\nthru those harrowing but glorious experiences at boarding-school;\n\nhow\n\nthey met Fairy Cross-Sticks yesterday, or the Ghost with the Bare\nNose, and of the conversation that ensued.\n\nSuch narratives are con-\n\ntinued at intervals, like a serial story, for months, sometimes for years.\n\nAnd a great part of the imaginative life is now in reading or in hearing books\nand stories. Vast and fascinating realms are opened out which the child\nrecognizes and appropriates as his own and in which he wanders with\ndeUght.\n\nThese various methods of imagining are not so very different.\n\nFrom\n\nlistening to the story of Robin Hood, to going out and being Robin Hood\n\nin the\n\nback lot, the change is largely one of form.\n\nIf there is greater\n\nintensity in the more active method, there is greater freedom in the other.\n\nAs you sit looking in the fire while your mother reads, you can always be\nRobin Hood yourself, or Sir Galahad, Tom Sawyer, Tom Brown, Rebecca\nwhether of Ivanhoe or of Sunnybrook Farm ^Heidi, Sir Launcelot, Sir Lama-\n\n—\n\nrack, or Sir Bors de Ganis; while in the actual impersonation there may be\ndifficulties:\n\nother children are so mean, they always want the best parts for\n\nthemselves.\n\nBut the experience in both cases is essentially the same. In\nmethod of their presentation, the child\n\nall\n\nthese heroes, whatever the\n\n"} {"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl64\n\nIPhUadelphia\n\nrecognizes himself, finds the first expansion of what he feels that he\n\nis\n\nmeant to be. It is the experimental modeling of action in material furnished by the imagination, as a sculptor models his statue first in the clay\nbefore he cuts it in the stone.\n\nThe need which imagination thus fills in the child of the Philistine\nage is a need common to all children and to all men, the need to dream.\nis\n\nIt\n\nthe need of building castles in the air before tr)dng one's architectural\n\nconceptions upon the tougher susceptibihties of brick and mortar.\n\nIt is\n\na part of the general human need to translate ideals into action, and this\nagain\n\nis\n\na constant and inevitable manifestation of the need to\n\nlive.\n\nThe business of life is the putting together again of the world which the\ndisillusion of the Philistine age\n\nhas torn apart.\n\nThat is the aim of all\n\nhuman striving, the inclusive object which we all seek, and in the struggle\nfor\n\nwhich true life consists\n\n—the reuniting of desire and actuality, the\n\nsubjection of outer nature and of our own acts to our ideal.\nful\n\nThe success-\n\nman is he who can perform the miracle of Orpheus, make sticks and\n\nston-es and trees and animals obey the inner music.\n\nAnd thus, the one business of our life is not a simple process.\n\nAn\n\ninstinct, or the ideal that forms the heart and center of it, cannot be trans-\n\nlated immediately into outward acts.\n\nFrom inspiration to execution is\n\nmore than a single step. Between the first stirring of the god within us,\nhardly more than a pain, to the laying of one stone upon another in the\ngrowing edifice, there is a world of effort and endurance to be faced. It is\nin this interval that all the important questions are decided\nof life and death and of the degree of life to be attained.\n\n—the questions\n\nIt is here that the\n\nmoral drama is enacted, that the pain of daring, of waiting, the very throe of\nWhen the definite purpose has been formed, the\ncreation, is undergone.\nfight is already lost and won.\n\nIn this process of translation from crude instinct to finished act, the first\nstep is the seeing in a vision what it is that the soul demands.\n\nYou cannot\n\nform a purpose, you cannot even make a plan, unless you first possess the\nIt is impossible to translate directly\nideal on which your plan is based.\n\nfrom a divine discontent to a finished poem or statue or political institution,\nor to the day's business in any form. The ideal must first grow and take\non form and color in the mind. It must become alive, irradiated, possessed\nwith brilliancy and momentum, before it has power to give its law to outward form or action or to any plan for such. You cannot draw up specifications from a mere uneasiness.\nThe more fully, upon the other hand, you are possessed of your ideal, the\nmore truly it lives and acts in you, the more adequately will it be possible\nIf the flame burns hotly in\nfor you to sketch its outline and fit a plan to it.\nyour heart, if the vision is full of life and color, you may, by good fortune,\nreduce some suggestion of it to the hard sharp lines prerequisite to practical\nachievement. Your plan may, in that case, have some touch of truth and\n\n"} {"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NEED TO DREAM\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n165\n\nadequacy, contain some hint of the glory that lives in the heart of a creative\ninstinct, and that was the divine source of your discontent.\n\nAnd it is only\n\nso that you can hope to give expression to the pushing life within.\n\nThe seeing of the vision is not an easy thing.\n\nTo see at all is given only\n\nto those who will possess their souls in patience till the spirit comes.\n\nIt was\nno false report of the world's artist race that represented the god as first\nappearing in a cloud. Translating the ideal into action is like drawing from\nmemory. The thing first appears as a face in the mist, a vague leading\nThe process of reducing it to possession is\nhere, an adumbration there.\nTo go a step beyond the revelation is to lose\nlike taming a wild creature.\nthe vision. It flees from sudden reduction to crude lines. You must\nwatch by the spring, sometimes for months, lucky if you catch in its surface\na moment's glimpse of Pegasus among the clouds. And when, by some\nhappy insight, you have caught a ghmpse of your ideal, the danger is that\nyou may go away about your business and straightway forget what manner\nThe spirit comes\nof man you were what you truly had it in you to become.\nand goes as it will and must not be rashly interrogated. Specifications\ntoo soon demanded imply a fatal error. But if we wait and Usten, the\nmessage will become alive, will take on power and briUiancy, and mold both\nus and outward things to serve it.\n\n—\n\nI am one who, when\n\nLove inspires me takes note, and in the way\nThat he doth sing within, I go and tell it.\nIt was a great moment in the history of art when Dante took note of\nlove's inspiration, greater even than when he went and told.\n\nThis is the\n\nidolatry that is also true religion, the setting-up of an ideal image in the\nheart.\nIt is true of dreaming in any form, as of impersonation, that it has its\n\nThe dream, if it remains a dream, may be not a step in successful\nThe dream of the ideal and the planning\nof its concrete accomplishment should draw together. The great architect\ndangers.\n\naction, but a dereliction from it.\n\ncan dream in stone, feeling the limitations of his material, not separately, but\nin combination with his ideal.\n\nBut still in all great art, in all creative action\nThe soul, as Emerson says, is open on\n\nof every sort, the dream is there.\n\none side to the infinite, and its first finite articulate voice is in the utterance\nof the imagination.\n\nA man can, it is true, win great apparent success without much use of the\nimagination.\n\nHe can be a successful devotee of the Goddess of EflSciency,\n\nwhom we now so devoutly worship, but yet he will not be a successful man;\nhis action, not proceeding truly from himself, will not belong to him nor be\n\na fulfillment of his life.\n\nAction is, indeed, a kind of sleep, a forgetting of\n\nwhat you started out to do in the throe of doing it.\n\nThere is an anesthesia\n\nof action, a self-hypnotization, a shutting-off of the intellectual faculties,\n\nas in the tiger about to spring;\n\nand as cultivated in a dog who has been\n\n"} {"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl66\n\ntaught to \"point.\"\n\n(Phfladelphia\n\nA study of the absence of this self-hypnotizing power of\n\nthe practical man is seen in Hamlet, the man who still ponders when he\n\nought to shut off the thinking faculty and get to work.\n\n—that\n\nThe opposite vice\n\nman who, in the\nmeeting of insistent claims for action, never wakes up, never remembers or\nhas yet to find its Shakespeare\n\nof the practical\n\nstops to look once more toward the heights he started to attain.\n\nreturn to the hills whence is my strength.\n\nI will\n\nAs action is sleep, so it is when\n\nhe has his dream that the man is truly awake.\n\nIt is in the moment of vision\n\nthat he is alive to the larger issues, and sees himself and his aims as they\ntruly are.\n\nFirst build your castle in the air.\n\nYou will show yourself an\n\nable architect if you can catch one-half the beauty the god has whispered to\n\nyou, even in that easily wrought material.\n\nThe procedure of reducing ideals to action is not unlike the mathematical\ndevice of assuming a solution of a problem as a means of solving it. Execution proceeds by steps. It is methodical and deals with one thing at a time.\nInspiration is of the whole, a vision of the finished product.\n\ngovern both plan and execution.\n\nIts office is to\n\nIf the true end is not there at the begin-\n\nning, the whole work will be cold and iminspired.\n\nTrue achievement begins\n\nnot at the beginning but at the end.\nIt is true, practical\n\nsir,\n\nthat our dream must be reduced to action,\n\nbrought down to earth. That is a vital if obvious part of Ufe's procedure.\nBut the process must not begin there. First catch your dream. In order\nthat it may be reduced to reahty it must first exist.\n\nIf you personally do\n\nnot see visions or dream dreams, you would best pray for some dispensation,\nfor some dyspepsia even, to cure you of so vital a defect.\n\nDreaming is an essential part of the technic of living. It is of the very\ngrammar of action ^the first rule in the book and one that every child should\n\n—\n\nknow.\n\nPicturing to himself a heroic life is a necessary step in the expres-\n\nsion of the child's instinct to be somebody, to have a life of his own, to\n\nan original and creative force. Imagination is the law\noak becoming conscious, the invisible projection of the future tree.\nIt is the first form of the striving to become, the forward throe of conscious\nassert himself as\n\nof the\n\npurpose in the soul.\n\nHow can the need to dream be recognized in education ?\npower of seeing visions be cultivated ?\n\nHow can the\n\nThe first thing is to recognize the place of the imagination as the leading\norgan of growth, and dreaming as one-half the process of living and of\ncoming alive ^to see in it the first reaching-out of the soul toward life, as\n\n—\n\ntraining in efficiency\n\nis\n\nthe reaching-down of practical\n\nmeans to meet\n\nthe soul.\nI. The practical measures necessary are, in a general way: First, that\nwe should continue to allow ample room in the kindergarten for the train-\n\ning of the child's imagination, neither reducing education at this age to\n\na training of the sense of touch, nor making it what is called practical.\n\n"} {"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NEED TO DREAM\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n167\n\nWhen the child wants to make the block serve as a cow, a sofa, or a steam\nengine, we should not divert him into studying instead the difference between\n\nspruce and maple.\n\nHe might possibly, during the three years of the imagina-\n\ntive age, learn as much on that topic as he would learn in ten minutes when\n\nthe practical age has come; but in the meantime we should have sacrificed\nto the anticipating of that ten minutes the three years in which the life of\n\nthe imagination should take possession of him.\n2.\n\nAnother practical means of developing imagination is music.\n\nIt was\n\nsaid early in the last century that England had the rule of the sea, France\n\nthat of the land, and Germany the kingdom of the air.\n\nThat kingdom has\n\nnow been reduced to reality, largely thru the power of music. When Father\nJahn started the Turn Vereins, with their music and gymnastics, he started\nto build the Germany that now is. That was a dream. And what has\ncome of it ? Was it practical ? Ask the English, or our own business men\nwho meet the Germans in neutral markets at the present time. A friend of\nmine, who traveled with some other American teachers in Germany last\nsummer, heard the great German choruses which turned out to welcome\nthem in the different cities they visited, and he heard one German woman\nsay, what thousands of her fellow-countrymen and women feel, that the\nFatherland will never be conquered while Germans sing like that.\n3.\n\nWe should use symbols which stand as provisional representations\n\nof all that cannot be said.\n\nThey are the bright figures seen at the end\nmind for what\n\nof the long vista of the imagined good, standing in the\n\nto be revealed.\nAnd,\nfinally, there are fairy stories, stories of heroic historic charac4.\nters, and the myths and legends, which are better than history, because\nthey are truer to the human soul. These are the real literature of childhood and are necessary to full and healthy growth. Dr. Johnson was in\n\nis still\n\nthe right of it when he said in criticism of the nursery literature of his\nown time: \"Babies don't want to be told about babies. They like to be\ntold of giants and castles and of\n\nsomewhat which can stretch and stimu-\n\nlate their little minds.\"\n\nA child's reading should not be to any great extent books of useful\ninformation.\n\nIt is true that, if the instruction is carried in a story that\n\ninterests the child, as in the case of the \"RoUo Books,\" they will feed the\nscientific side of the Big Injun nature.\n\nSuch stories, however, will never be\n\nthe most important and cannot in any way take the place of those of the\n\nCharles Lamb had the right of the matter, and his\nclass.\nhumorous exaggeration may have been justified by the useful-information\n\nimaginative\n\nstories of his own time, when he wrote:\n\nMrs. Barbald's stuff has banished all the old classics of the nursery\n\nKnowledge\n\ninsignificant and vapid as Mrs. Barbald's books convey, it seems, must come to the child\n\nin the shape of knowledge; and his empty noddle must be turned with conceit of his own\n\npowers, when he has learned that a horse is an animal and Billy is better than a horse,\n\n"} {"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl68\n\n(Philadelpliia\n\nand such like, instead of that beautiful interest in wild tales, which made the child a man,\nwhile all the time he suspected himself to be no bigger than a child. Science has succeeded to poetry and no less in the little walks of children than of men. Is there no\npossibility of arresting this force of evil ?\nThink what you would have been now if instead of being fed with tales and old wives' fables in childhood you had been crammed\nwith geograpny and natural history. Hang theml I mean the cursed Barbald crew,\nthose blights and blasts of all that is human in man and child.\n\nLiterature\n\nis\n\nnot only a stimulus to the child's own spontaneous\n\nimagining, but also a mold into which his life in the imagination may be\n\nnm.\n\nThere\n\nthis\n\nis\n\ngreat\n\ndifference\n\nbetween the imaginative\n\nlife\n\nas\n\ncarried on in listening to stories and as evolved purely out of one's own\n\ninner consciousness, namely, that myth and story present the ideal not\n\nmerely of the individual but of the race.\n\nLiterature is to mankind what\n\nIt is the dream of man, the gorgeous presen-\n\nimpersonation is to the child.\n\ntation, by the accumulated genius of the race, of what all the ages have\n\nbeen able to divine of human destiny; the accumulated prophecy of what\nthe human soul demands. Literature is the vehicle in which the visions\nof all the\n\npoets,\n\nthe dreams of\n\nall\n\nthe prophets, are handed down.\n\nThe biological importance of infancy, to which man owes so much, is due\nlargely to the margin left in\n\nit\n\nfor education,\n\nand to the imitative and\n\nsocial instincts which insure his seeking to be educated, and so attaining a\nsocial, and therefore cumulative inheritance.\n\nHis mind and heart in this\n\nway become heirs to whatever all the generations of his race have learned.\nAnd it is in the form of literature that this precious inheritance, so far as\nit consists in knowledge of the soul of man, is passed along.\n\nSuggestion is all-powerful in this realm of the development and transmission of ideals.\nof precedent.\n\nEven in purely physical performances one sees the effect\n\nA new record in the high jump raises the average perform-\n\nance a fraction of an inch.\n\nIn morals much greater results are possible.\n\nHeroism, adventure, moral enterprise are largely traditional. Our conception of the possibilities of human daring is a social product. Heroes have\n\nprogeny wherever their deeds are told. Myths and fairy stories, sketching\nin rainbow colors man's spiritual demands, with a royal disregard of physical\nlimitations, serve the child as a rough draft of his future accomplishment.\nImagination, led by these, illumines the patient grubbing work which\nfinally wins results as wonderful as those obtained by Aladdin from his lamp.\nPoetry is not merely something made.\nimagination, it is the process of all making\nof man.\n\nIn its widest sense, of creative\nfirst form of all the works\n\n—the\n\nIt is the original and decisive stage in every enterprise.\n\nA deed\n\nthat is not an embodied poem is not an act, did not proceed from the man,\n\nbut happened to him like a fall or a disease. And all literature, as distinguished from encyclopedias, railway guides, and other works of useful\ninformation, is poetry at heart.\n\nIt is prophetic.\n\nIts function is to explore\n\nIn childhood, with its vague\n\nand stake out new extensions of the spirit.\nbut infinite outlook and small effectiveness, this bodying-forth of the ideal.\n\n"} {"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "TEE VNMEASURABLE IN TEACHING\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n169\n\nthis drawing the thirst for life toward noble objects, is of vital consequence.\n\nIt is as much an element in growth as air or food.\n\nNo child has had a fair\n\nchance to grow who has not known the great myths and fairy stories and\ntales of heroes.\n\nThere should be in every school, and above all in every family, reading\naloud, the storing of the memory with the music of great literature, sounds\n\nthat speak directly to the soul and give carrying power to great ideas.\n\nFamily life without good reading must be lame indeed.\n\nThe children in\n\nsuch a case are disinherited of the most precious human birthright.\n\nYour old men shall dream dreams and your young men shall see visions.\nWilliam James said that mankind is divided into the tough-minded and the\ntender-minded.\n\nPerhaps it is the same division that is meant if we classify\n\nmen as those who build in the air and those who build on the ground. Of\ncourse everybody who really builds does both, but there are two temperaments which accent respectively the aerial and the terrestrial method. Of\nthe two processes, the building in the air is the more truly practical. Iron,\nWhat was\ncoal, electricity were in the earth at the time of the cave men.\nlacking was the power to recognize and use them. It is the same today.\nThe mountain is full of horses and chariots of fire round about us, if only we\ncould truly see and use them. It is the vision that is lacking. And the\nsame thing is true of human nature. Personality is like an iceberg only\nabout one-tenth appears above the surface, the rest represents the vast\nmine of spiritual resources l)dng ready for him who has the prophetic power\nto divine and call them forth. I once heard Booker Washington tell of one\nof his demonstrators showing his people how they could improve their\nfarming. He said, \" Any one of you can double the size of his farm whenever\nhe sees fit. You can do it by simply ploughing twice as deep.\" That is\nthe dimension that is generally forgotten. The spiritual resources of any\none of us could be doubled in the same way tomorrow. And the power thru\nwhich it could be done is the power of imagination.\n\n—\n\nTHE VNMEASURABLE IN TEACHING\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nHARRISBURG, PA.\n\nA college president came to the breakfast table, looking haggard and out\nTo the wife's query as to what had disturbed his usual equipoise,\nhe said he had had a dreadful nightmare, the effects of which he could not\nthrow off. On being asked the nature of his dream, he replied that he\ndreamed that on the morrow he would have to pass the college-entrance\nexamination to the Freshman class. If all the superintendents and other\neducators here assembled had to pass next Saturday the examinations\nwhich they set for teachers and others, what sleepless nights they would\nof sorts.\n\n"} {"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI70\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nThe answers which are given at\nexaminations can be graded and measured with reasonable accuracy, but\n\npass during the remainder of this week!\n\nwho can measure the worry, the mental anxiety, the waste of nervous\nenergy which are caused by our system of examinations ?\nit\n\nAs a test of efficient teaching, the examination has its limitations because\ncannot adequately measure intellectual capacity and mental efficiency.\n\nFor instance, there is a kind of memory which resembles the porter of a\nhotel who is expected to deliver unchanged what is given to him at the\n\nThe memory which gives back knowledge in the exact\nform in which it is received is likely to shine at examinations, but the types\nof memory which are exercised in the preparation of a speech cannot be\ntested by an examination these belong to the unmeasurable in education.\nrailway station.\n\n—\n\nHas not the time come when we should recognize that the examination\nis like the drug which has a twofold action, the primary action being stimu-\n\nlating, while the secondary effect is to depress and leave the victim weaker\n\nthan before ?\n\nHas not the time come when, instead of multiplying exami-\n\nnations and measuring the efficiency of our teaching by the averages which\n\nour pupils get at these monthly or semiannual tests, we should study the\n\nwhich examinations exert upon the methods of teaching,\nupon the habits of study, and upon the vocation or profession to which\nthe examination is the door of entrance? This would bring us face to\nface with the deeper aspects of education and cause us to appreciate the\nreflex action\n\nunmeasurable in teaching.\n\nBut I must turn to other phases of my theme.\nin future earning power,\n\nIn these days we hear\n\nWe measure the value of schooling\n\nmuch about vocational education.\n\nand upon that basis frame our answer to the\n\nquestion: ''Does education pay?\"\n\nA letter from an aged educator in the\n\nMississippi Valley complains that corn-growing and corn-clubs are all one\n\nhears discussed at educational gatherings.\n\nThe increased yield per acre\n\nwhich results from agricultural education can be measured in bushels or\ndollars.\n\nBut if agricultural education did not yield far higher results in\n\nthe life of the pupil, it would not be worth the ado which is made over it.\n\nThe insight into nature and its processes of growth, the habits of industry\nengendered in tilling an acre, the development of character and will-power,\n\n—these are of far greater value than\nWe\ncannot be\nshould not despise or neglect the arts that make bread—\nthe preparation for useful citizenship\n\nthe bushels of com which the increased yield per acre can give us.\nthis\n\nemphasized too strongly at teachers' meetings and in the classroom—but,\non the other hand, we should not forget that the greatest teacher of all\nthe ages is authority for the statement that man shall not live by bread\n\nOur schools were established to promote the things of the mind\nand these belong to the unmeasurable in teaching.\nWhen George Wolf became governor of Pennsylvania, he found 250,000\nboys and girls growing up without the ability to read and write. To\nalone.\n\n"} {"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE UNMEASURABLE IN TEACHING\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n171\n\nbanish this illiteracy, he staked his political future upon the establishment\nof a system of schools open to rich and poor alike.\n\nToday you can hardly\n\nfind a native above the age of ten unable to read and write.\n\nIf\n\nPenn-\n\nsylvania had not been made the dumping-ground for the illiterate immi-\n\ngrants from southern and eastern Europe, she would compare favorably\n\nwith the states west of the Mississippi River.\n\nIf the public schools had\n\nnot been so eminently successful in banishing illiteracy and ignorance,\nthe magazines and other periodicals which delight to attack our teachers\n\nwould not count their readers by tens and hundreds of thousands.\n\nThe\n\ncirculation of our newspapers is positive proof that the schools have been\n\nsuccessful in achieving the original purpose for which they were established.\n\nThe readers of a newspaper can be counted, but who can measure the\ninfluence for good or evil which a newspaper may exert simply because the\n\nschools have developed the reading habit among our people.\nof the state and the nation is taught in all our schools.\n\nThe history\nThe daily recita-\n\ntions and the answers at our examinations can be graded and measured.\n\nBut who can measure the patriotism which our history teaching begets?\nThe students of child life say that patriotism is the chief characteristic of\nthe boys who attend our public schools. It matters not how perfect the\nrecitations in history are, the teacher has failed\n\nif\n\nthe pupils do not go\n\nforth from his classroom with the determination to live, and, if need be,\nto die for their country, yea, with the determination in the boys and also\nin the girls that when they attain the suffrage no ward boss shall ever buy\ntheir vote.\n\nIn the teaching of history the things which can be measured\n\nsink into insignificance when compared with those that are unmeasurable.\n\nFor years the schools have been so successful that whenever anything\ngoes wrong in the church, or the state, or the community, or the home, the\n\nreformer shies the problem at the school, and the little woman who gets\nforty or fifty dollars a month is expected to provide the remedy.\n\nWhen the\n\ngood women of this country found legislation unable to solve the temperance\nproblem, they turned to the school.\n\nToday we can count the decrease in\n\nthe kegs of beer and bottles of whiskey sold from our breweries and distilleries, but the advance in health and happiness due to this teaching, no\none has tried to quantify. And the day is not far distant when the school\n\nmust make war upon the cigarette and show that the honors, the prizes,\nand the best positions in our colleges and universities, and in the industrial\nand commercial world are no longer within reach of the boy addicted to\nthe use 'of stimulants and narcotics. The habits which are formed at\nschool and which, when the will enters into them, become school virtues\nand belong to the unmeasurable in teaching are seldom if ever referred to\nby the critics, simply because they cannot be quantified by any standards\nof measurement.\n\nOccasionally I find a high-school teacher who delights to poke fun at\nthe religious faith of his pupils, or the pupils^ parents.\n\nA worse service no\n\n"} {"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n172\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nDestroy faith in things unseen and eternal and you\nhave robbed the pupil of the strongest support in the midst of the trials\nand disappointments and sorrows of this life. When you stand at the\nopen grave that is to swallow and close over the remains of a departed child,\nor friend, faith in heavenly recognition means more than all the bushels\nof com which can be raised in the Mississippi Valley.\nThere is a higher life of thought and faith and hope and love which\ncan be promoted or destroyed by the teacher and his teaching, a life which\nturns on the unmeasurable and the immeasurable in teachers and teaching,\nand which in the end must determine whether failure or success shall be\nteacher can render.\n\nwritten over the doors of our public schools.\n\nThe best and the worst result of our examinations cannot be gauged\nby any units of measurement. If the examination is imfair, the candidate\nwill resort to unfair means in trying to pass, thus lowering the moral tone\nof the school.\nIf the examination is righteous, and neither teacher nor\npupil should object to a righteous test of their school work, it may uplift\n\nHenry Clay said, \"I would sooner be right\nexamination the candidate can say, \"I\nwould sooner fail than cheat; I would sooner carry a good conscience\nthan a diploma or license,\" he begins to show the spirit which made\nHenry Clay a statesman rather than a politician.\nthe moral tone of the school.\n\nthan be president.\"\n\nI\n\nIf at the\n\nhave sometimes been called the Pennsylvania Limited.\n\nI\n\ndo not\n\nobject to the nickname, because this famous train always reaches the\n\nterminal station on schedule time, and as we enter the terminal I leave\n\nwith you a broad street outlook upon the unmeasurable things in education.\n\nTeaching should without doubt enhance the earning power of the pupil,\nbut too much mechanical measurement takes the joy out of the children\nand out of the teacher. The best part of teaching, that which arouses\nthe will, awakens the feelings, stimulates the ambition, inspires the sense\nof something to\n\nbe achieved, and gives purpose and ideals to the life,\n\ncannot be quantified but belongs to the immeasurable in education.\n\nTOPIC:\n\nSOME EXPERIMENTS IN SCHOOL SYSTEMS AND\nTHEIR OUTCOME\nA,\n\nC. S.\n\nDEVELOPING A SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\nMEEK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOISE, IDAHO\n\nI have been requested to survey the process by which the newer school\nactivities have been developed in the city of Boise, Idaho.\n\nFour years ago, in organization, facilities, and equipment, the schools\nof Boise were not superior to those of most villages and towns in the United\nStates.\n\nThe school city at that time numbered about twenty thousand.\nThe board\n\nSince that time it has had a normal but not unusual growth.\n\n"} {"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEVELOPING A SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n173\n\nof education decided that the time had arrived for the beginning of a modem\ncity system.\n\nA physical director for the high school, a playground director\n\nfor the grades,\n\nand a school nurse were employed.\n\nTo facilitate closer\n\nsupervision of instruction a grammar-grade supervisor was employed and\n\none for the primary grades. Manual traming, cooking, and sewing were\nadded to the elementary schools. To conduct this work, four special\nteachers were employed.\nIn the high school a four-years' commercial course was added, two\nyears of shopwork, two of drafting, two of cooking, two of sewing, two of\nmusic, including history of music, theory and harmony, chorus, orchestra,\nand band, two of art, two of dramatic reading, and four years of agriculture.\nTo conduct these newer school activities, twenty-two additional special\nteachers have in the past three years been employed and are this year\nbeing paid a total of $33,350.00. During this time the traditional courses\nin the high school have also been enlarged and made more varied.\nSixteen units of credit are required for graduation. These sixteen\nunits may be selected from a curriculum which offers just fifty-three imits.\nTo distribute students properly into the various branches of so varied a\ncurriculum requires a very liberal scheme of election. The problem to be\nsolved was to see that every student should have liberty broad enough to\nfit his course to his own vocational needs and at the same time prevent him\nfrom spreading his energies over an unarticulated field that leads to\nnothing. The scheme selected to meet this situation is to require of all\nstudents three years of English. To prevent scattered effort with such a\nminimum of required work, each student must select one of the teachers\nas his adviser thruout his course. That adviser consults the parent or\nguardian, gets all the information possible, and selects the program in the\nlight of the results of this investigation.\n\nSuch a scheme will work only when all the teachers are in hearty sympathy with the newer and broader aim of high-school work. Along this\nline we have had no difl&culty.\nAll the teachers are in hearty co-operation\nwith the liberal policy of the system and are conscientious in carefully\ninvestigating the vocational aims of the separate groups of students for\n\nwhom they are sponsors.\nIn all industrial lines of school activities, the most difficult problem is\nto give pupils the training that functions with real industrial life.\n\nSome\n\nexamples will best illustrate how we attempt to meet this difficulty.\n\nOur commercial department takes charge of the purchase, sale, and payment of all books and supplies sold to the students. We hope to turn over\nto the students in that department the purchase, distribution, and payment\nof all the supplies of the district, and to have them keep all the books of\nthe district. Of course, teachers must carefully check all transactions.\nBut no more time is required to check a real transaction than an artificial one.\nThe boys in our shops do all the repairs on our buildings and\n\n"} {"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[PhiUdelphia\n\nare given credit for summer work done under, and approved by, a com-\n\nAny job of work done in the community\nby shop boys and approved by our superintendent will mean so many\nhours of credit in school. The boys in the drafting department have\nplanned more than fifteen residences already built in the city. Their\nexhibits in machine and architectural drafting have taken prizes in competition with professional draftsmen at the state fair. The plans for our\npetent contractor or builder.\n\nWashington School building are the product of students in this department.\nThey are now drawing, tracing, and blue-printing plans for a greenhouse\nwe are to build. These plans include the drawings for the heating and\nplumbing systems to be installed. They are also producing all the plans\nand specifications for our Lowell School to be built this year. This work\n\nmust all be approved by our own superintendent of buildings, who has built\nmany of the largest business buildings in the city. Thus, we shall soon have\nschool buildings costing nearly $100,000.00 constructed without employing\n\na professional architect. A number of our boys are employed by the\nUnited States government as draftsmen on the five-million-dollar irrigation\ndam now in process of construction in the mountains above our city. The\nprofessional work they do there will be accepted as credits toward graduation from our high school.\nthis\n\nOne of the boys, who last year graduated from\n\ndepartment and is now associated with his father as a building con-\n\ntractor, came to the school the other day to get the plans and specifications\n\nfor the Lowell School.\n\nHe intends to submit to the board of education a\n\nbid for the construction of this building.\n\nIf he gets the contract, there will\n\nbe almost as much joy among the students as there was last Christmas\nDay when their football team, on their own field from which the sage\nbrush had been but recently removed, defeated the champions of the sixteen\n\nChicago high schools.\n\nMost of the people of southern Idaho are interested in some specialized\nline of agriculture or horticulture.\n\nAgriculture and horticulture, therefore,\n\noccupy a more conspicuous place in our curriculum than any other line\nThe four-years' course consists of basic agronomy,\nof industrial work.\npractical horticulture, animal husbandry, farm mechanics, and farm\n\nmanagement. We have more than one hundred students in this department, most of whom are boys, tho the course is popular among girl students.\n\nTwo teachers now devote their time exclusively to this department. An\nadditional instructor will be employed next year.\n\nRegular classroom and\n\nlaboratory instruction is supplemented by much practical field experience\nin as many as possible of the specialized lines of this industry.\n\nStudents\n\nplant, prune, spray, and cultivate commercial orchards, and work for wages\nin commercial packing-houses.\n\nArrangements have been made with imple-\n\nment houses whereby students may go into the field and demonstrate farm\nmachinery to prospective purchasers. Boys working under expert superintendents in orchards or on ranches and in fruit packing-houses in the\n\n"} {"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nDEVELOPING A SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\n175\n\nsummer will, upon favorable report from the superintendent, be given\nThe managers of all the stock farms in the valley\n\ncredit for such work.\n\ngladly bring their stock on to the school grounds and give lectures on\n\nstock-judging before the classes in animal husbandry.\nfair, all of\n\nDuring the state\n\nthe judges accompany the classes to their special departments\n\nand demonstrate the points upon which the stock is standardized.\n\nDairy-\n\nmen have gladly set apart whatever portion of their herd is required by the\ndepartment for demonstrations in feeding, care, and milk production.\nThe school has for three years owned a dozen pens of fine poultry, thru\nthe care of which much interest has been aroused among both the boys and\ngirls in the poultry industry.\nThe students and teachers of the schools\nco-operated with local breeders in organizing the state poultry show, at\n\nwhich many of the prize exhibits were owned by students. A year ago\nthe board of education leased the thirty acres of land inside the mile track\nof the state fair grounds for a demonstration farm. A practical farmer\nwas employed to work under the instructors of the high school. Teams\nwere procured, machinery purchased, and everything possible is now being\ndone to make that tract of land the best example of intensive farming\nthe Boise valley affords. The experts in the United States Reclamation\nDepartment give instructions in all problems of irrigation. The Agricultural Department of the state university, and the seed-dealers and seedgrowers are all interested and render valuable assistance. Our program\nis to make this an outdoor laboratory for the agricultural department and\nalso to make it self-sustaining by the sale of products.\nThe program for\nfuture development includes the addition of a commercial greenhouse and\nmodel dairy.\nJust as soon as an athletic director for the high school, and a playground\ndirector for the grades were employed, and organized recreation given a\ndistinct place in the curriculum for all the schools, the need of a central\nathletic field and playground was felt.\nThe co-operation of all the clubs,\nthe chamber of commerce, the city council, and the juvenile court was\nprocured and a campaign for parks and playgrounds was launched. Just\nas soon as enough carefully nourished public sentiment was aroused to\nmake the transaction a safe one, the board of education paid, out of the\nschool funds, $16,000.00 for forty acres of wooded land on the shore of the\nBoise River easily accessible for all the schools of the city. One thousand\ndollars have since been paid a landscape artist for plans for improvement\nwhich include baseball and football fields, tennis courts, children's playgrounds, an outdoor gymnasium, and an auditorium. Three thousand\ndollars have already been spent out of the school funds in developing the\nland according to the plans and specifications. The future development\nof this school park, as well as the supervision of the demonstration farm,\nwill be placed in the hands of the teachers of agriculture in the high school,\n\none of the two teachers having a Master's degree in forestry from Yale,\n\n"} {"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n176\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nand two years of service in the United States Forestry Department. He\nwill superintend the planting and care of trees and shrubs, the making of\nroads, swimming lake, wading pools, etc.\nIn developing the park and\ncultivating the farm, all the labor possible will be done by students in the\nagricultural\n\ndepartment during the school years.\n\nThe teachers will be\n\nretained during the summer and all students who will work imder their\ndirection during summer vacation, eight hours a day for eight weeks, will\n\nbe given one year of credit in agriculture, or for four weeks' work, one-half\nyear of credit.\n\nWe hope to enroll at least fifty students in this continuation\n\nschool.\n\nThese examples are given to illustrate our attempts to make industrial\neducation, as conducted by our public schools, valuable training for the\n\nvocations of real life.\nis\n\nThe remarkable growth of the high-school attendance\n\nevidence that we are, in a measure, successful in our endeavor.\n\nyears ago the total enrollment in the high school was 400.\nshall enroll 900.\n\nFour\n\nThis year we\n\nFour years ago 44 were graduated, the largest class in\n\nthe history of the school up to that date.\n\nThis year we shall graduate\n\nDuring the same period, the total enrollment of all the schools has\nincreased 25 per cent. While the total enrollment has increased 25 per\ncent, the high school has increased 122 per cent, and the number graduating\nhas trebled. More than one-fifth of the pupils enrolled in the entire system\nare now in the high school. No artificial methods have been adopted to\nretain pupils in school. That class of students which formerly dropped out\nof school before they entered upon or completed the high-school course is\n130.\n\nfinding in the varied lines of the industrial courses now offered training\n\nthat they and their parents recognize as valuable for their chosen vocations\nin life.\n\nDuring the period in which industrial activities have been introduced\nand developed, the traditional lines of high-school work have not been\nneglected. A four-years' course in German and two years of French\nhave been added. Two years of Spanish will next year be available to\nstudents who wish it.\n\nThe teaching force in all hnes has been strengthened.\n\nLibrary and laboratory facilities have been enlarged.\n\nThe number of students preparing for and entering college each year\nThe only drift away from the college-preparatory courses is\nfrom that class of students who formerly in a spiritless way served\ntime, because the studies available afforded them no vitaUzing motive.\nThese and many more who formerly never entered the high school are\nnow in the industrial departments working with enthusiasm, energy, and\n\nincreases.\n\nefficiency.\n\nPubUc education as now conducted in Boise is much more expensive\nthan formerly.\n\nOn teachers' salaries alone the budget has increased a\n\ntrifle over 64 per cent in four years, while the school enrollment has increased\n\nbut 25 per cent.\n\nThe regular maintenance expenses have increased in a\n\n"} {"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEVELOPING A SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n177\n\ngreater proportion than teachers' salaries, since equipment for industrial\nactivities costs much more than that for general culture subjects.\n\nDuring\n\nthe same period $300,000.00 has been expended for new buildings, and\n\n$25,000.00 for the purchase and improvement of grounds.\nBoise has an active and virile taxpayers' league which has recentlyassailed every form of state, county,\n\nand city taxes, but not one public\n\nattack, thru the press or from the poHtical platform, has been made against\n\nA crusade against school taxes has been avoided by keeping\n\nschool taxes.\n\nthe public constantly informed as to school expenditures.\n\nThe patrons\n\nhave been educated as well as the children. Every educator of note who\nhas visited the city has appeared before the commercial club and has talked\nto the business men about the policy of the school authorities. The recently\nemployed special teachers have time after time explained or demonstrated\ntheir work before mothers' clubs in the afternoon, and patrons' meetings\nin the evening.\n\nLast spring an industrial exhibit was visited by more than four thousand\npatrons.\n\nA school festival was given in which twelve hundred costumed\n\nchildren demonstrated their school dances and games before seven thousand\nspectators.\n\nThe business men of the city asked the public schools to give\n\nthe feature parade of the Irrigation Festival which occurred in Boise last\nfall.\n\nThirty large floats, all equipped for brilliant electrical display, were\n\ndesigned by the art department of the high school, traced and blue-printed\n\nby the drafting department, built on the school grounds by the students\nin manual training, equipped for electric lighting by the physics classes,\n\nand then distributed to the various buildings for decoration.\n\nThe costumes\n\nfor eighteen hundred children who participated in the parade were designed\n\nand made under supervision of the sewing teachers in the high school and\nThis parade was escorted by four troops of United States cavalry\nand three bands. The citizens' committee paid the expenses but not one\ndollar was charged for labor.\nThe memory of that service which the\nteachers rendered the community is yet so vivid that complaint of school\ntaxes would not strike a popular chord.\nThe school authorities have realized that their enlargements were\nexpensive and not along conventional lines. Care has therefore been taken\nto procure expert advice on administration policies and educational results.\nThree years ago. Commissioner Kendall, of New Jersey, at that time superintendent at Indianapolis, visited the schools and made a report to the board\nof education.\nLast month. Dr. Judd, of the University of Chicago, Dr.\nElliott, of the University of Wisconsin, and Dr. Strayer, of Teachers\nCollege, Columbia, visited the schools for one week and made a report.\nBoth reports have been printed and distributed among the patrons of the\nschools and the taxpayers. These reports have been of great value to\nthe school administration in the community, and have satisfied the tax-\n\ngrades.\n\npayers that their money has been judiciously expended.\n\n"} {"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nlyS\n\n[PhiladdpUa\n\nThe people will stand increased expenditures and will co-operate in\nenlarging the school facilities, provided the results of that increased outlay\nare commensurate with the sacrifice.\n\nB.\nL. R.\n\nSCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME INDUSTRIAL WORK\nALDERMAN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nSALEM, ORE.\n\nWhen I arrived at the town of about two thousand people where I had\nbeen engaged to teach, the chairman of the school board accompanied me to\nthe schoolhouse, on the Friday before my new school was to open.\n\nAmong\n\nthe other bits of advice he gave me was that one particular boy should be\nexpelled, upon the first provocation.\n\nThe boy had given trouble the year\n\nbefore, and should not be allowed to contaminate the whole school.\n\nHe\n\nhad stolen things and had been in a street fight. For two years running he\nhad been expelled at the beginning of school. The boy's father and mother\nwere good people, but they had no control over the boy. This was not very\nencouraging to me, as I had not had such an experience before, in fact had\nnever taught in a town so large. I was looking for the boy the next Monday\nmorning. He was pointed out to me as he came down the long walk to the\nschoolhouse. Instinctively I studied him, as he came up the steps, measuring him with my eye as if to get an estimate of his physical strength, as well\nas of his mental make-up. He was large for his age, carried his head low,\nand looked up from tmder the brim of his hat. He looked at me as if to\nsay, \" I do not like you, nor any who are in your sissy business.\" He chose\na seat in the back comer of the room, signed his name in a big scrawly hand,\nand gave his age as seventeen. It seemed to be generally understood that\nhe would make some trouble, so as to be expelled the first day.\nDuring my vacation, I had read Jean MitchelVs School, and I remembered Jean Mitchell had scrubbed her schoolroom. I had noticed on the\nFriday before that the schoolroom had not been scrubbed, nor the windows\ncleaned, so I said after the morning recess, \"How many of you would be\nAs this is to be\nwilling to help scrub out the schoolroom this afternoon ?\nour home for the year, we want it clean.\" All seemed willing to help, and\nthis boy threw up his head, and took a good look at me as if he thought I\nhad some little glimmer of intelligence. The pupils were to bring brooms,\nmops, and pails from home. Harry brought a broom and mop, and a\npackage of gold dust, almost full, which he had stolen from his mother.\nHe scrubbed harder than any other boy in the school. He seemed to be a\nleader when it came to doing things with his hands. I was much delighted\nI found out that he was totally lost\nto see in him a willingness to help.\nwhen it came to studying grammar and fractions. These were not in his\nline, and unless the school took into account some active work it could not\n\n"} {"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME INDUSTRIAL WORK\n\nreach Harry.\n\n179\n\nWe had no manual training in the school, but we had\n\nfootball, baseball,\n\nand gardening.\n\nIn all of these he excelled.\n\nI became\n\nconvinced that in order to reach a boy like Harry, the school would have to\n\nbroaden out, and give credit for his activities.\n\nNext year in high school there was a girl who had a great deal of time to\nI would see her going to the post-office and to the train\nevery day. She hardly ever had her lessons. I clearly saw I was not\nreaching her. She was a large, healthy, good-looking, happy-go-lucky girl.\nGoing home one night from school with one of the teachers, I was told that\nMary's mother was coming down the street. As I felt she and I had a big\njob on our hands, I wanted to meet her. So I crossed the street, and came\nface to face with her.\nI saw in the face of the faded little woman signs of\nrun the streets.\n\none of life's tragedies that we see so often, in overworked disappointed\n\nHer daughter had broken away from home influences. I\nMary was as cruel as the Spartan boy she and I had read\nabout in history, who had been taught to slap his mother in the face that he\nmight be hardened for battle. This was her first year in high school. I\nrealized that the nebular hypothesis and quadratic equations could not\nreach the real Mary, nor the real Harry, who was also in this school. That\nevening I thought it all over, planning how I could come to the aid of\nMary's mother. The next morning before the algebra class I said, \"How\nmany of you girls swept a floor or made a bed before coming to school ?\"\nSome hands, not Mary's. \"How many of you helped get breakfast this\nmorning ?\" Some hands, not Mary's. \"How many helped get supper last\n\" None of you need to be told that the\nnight ?\" Some hands, not Mary's.\nbest friend you have or ever will have, perhaps, is your mother. Let us see\nwhat we can do to show our appreciation of our parents.\" I was struck\nwith the real interest the class showed. \"Tomorrow,\" I said, \"I am going\nto give you ten problems.\nFive will be in the book, and the other five will\nbe out of the book. The five out of the book will be: (i) help get supper\nmothers.\n\nrealized that\n\ntonight; (2) help do the supper dishes; (3) help get breakfast; (4) sweep a\nI said,\nI also gave certain duties to the boys.\n(5) make a bed.\"\n\"These tasks are going to count the same as algebra problems.\" The next\nmorning I was delighted to see the eagerness with which they responded;\nthey had worked the five problems in the book and \\he five problems out of\nthe book. Mary continued holding up her hand after I had asked how\nmany had worked all the problems. I said, \"Mary, what is the matter\nwith your hand ?\" She said she had worked five problems in advance in\nthe book. I had never associated the working of problems in advance\nwith Mary.\nThe tasks were changed during the year. We had at different times\ncredit given for home work, the same as for school work.\nDuring a discussion at an institute meeting, a very good principal asked me, \"If we give\ncredit in algebra for home duties, what will become of the algebra ?\"\nI\n\nfloor;\n\n"} {"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ni8o\n\nnever have been able to answer his question.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nOnce I was arguing with the\n\nresidents of a small district that I wished would consolidate with another\ndistrict.\n\nA man rose and said he believed in consolidation in general, but\n\nthis particular district\n\nhad the graveyard deeded to it.\n\nIf this district's\n\nidentity was lost in consolidation, what would become of the graveyard ?\n\nAt the next county election, the Republican party was short of material,\nand I was elected county superintendent. My belief in encouraging home\nwork had become a working conviction by this time, and I am sure I bored\nsome very good teachers nearly to the point of death talking about it. I\nwas asked, \" Why should school credit be given for work not done in school ?\nLet school credit be given for school work, and home credit for home work.\nIt is dishonest to give credit at school for things done at home.\nThe more\nwe can keep home out of the school, the better it is.\" Some good staid\nteachers looked at me as if I had broken the Ten Commandments, and I\nhad some qualms of conscience, and wondered if I could not bring myself\nto a condition of being satisfied with seeing school credit given only for\n\nwork done in school, of being content if the subjects in the books were\ntaught, and of not caring if the children did spend their time on the streets.\nOn my visits to the country schools at first I made speeches upon the\nimportance of education, how it would pay the pupils to be well prepared\nbefore taking up the duties of life. I prided myself upon my ability to make\nthis seem wonderfully ponderous to them.\nBut I noticed that nothing\nhappened. They looked dazed and glanced often at the clock to see if it\nwere not nearly time for school to close. But when I asked them to do\nsomething, to make bird-houses for their back yards, or for the school\nyard, they were all alert, and I had over nine hundred bird-houses built by\nthe children of our coimty that year.\nchildren telling of their work.\n\nI received many letters\n\nfrom the\n\nOne little letter has always stayed with me:\n\nMr. Alderman, Dear Friend:\nI am in the third grade.\n\nhouse.\n\nI like to go to school.\n\nTwo bluebirds live in it.\n\nMy mother and I built a bird-\n\nI am going to marry a lawyer.\n\nGoodbye.\n\nI always wondered why she wanted to marry a lawyer, and live in town,\n\nwhen she was living in the most beautiful country in the world.\nOne day as I was visiting a country school, I saw a boy taking up a\nI was told they were taking this up to buy popcorn,\ncollection in his hat.\nas one of the boys was going to town Saturday.\n\ngrow their own popcorn.\n\nI asked why they did not\n\nI knew it would grow there, for I was\n\nraised in that part of the country.\n\nbom and\n\nI told them I would give five dollars to\n\nthe boy or girl who could raise the best popcorn that year.\n\nThis seemed to\n\nasked how many had raised watermelons. I was told\nnobody did, for the boys in the neighborhood were so bad about stealing\ninterest them.\n\nthem.\n\nI\n\nI asked, \"If everybody were raising watermelons who would there\n\nbe to steal them ?\"\n\nAll you have to do to get a grin the full width of a\n\n"} {"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME INDUSTRIAL WORK\n\nl8i\n\nmention watermelons. Going home that night in my\nbuggy some ten miles, I concluded we would have a school fair and give\nWhen talking it over with my\nprizes for watermelons and muskmelons.\nchild's face is to\n\nwe added vegetables, jellies, bread, canned fruit, and\nsewing to the list for which prizes should be given at the fair. A trip down\none side of the business street, and up another, and I had all the prizes I\nwife that night,\n\nneeded to advertise the fair in the fall.\n\nIt was not long before a father\n\nbrought his boy to the office to learn more about the contest.\npatted the boy on his head, and said, \"John has a garden.\nkins as big as a bushel basket.\"\n\nThe father\n\nHe has pump-\n\nHow John's eyes sparkled at the praise of\n\nThey went out and got into the wagon, and I could imagine the\nconversation John and his father had on the way home. It seemed worth\nwhile for us to go into home work and give some credit for it. The fair was\nhis father.\n\na great success, and it has grown with every year.\nseventh, there were four thousand exhibits.\n\nThis last year, its\n\nThe crowd is the largest that\n\never gathers at the county seat.\n\nThe first year of the fair I heard high-school girls say as they looked at\nAs they\nlooked at the rows of ruby and amber jellies, \"I am going to learn to make\nthe long rows of bread, \"I am going to learn to make bread.\"\n\njelly.\"\n\nI had mothers call me in as I drove past their homes, to show me\n\nWe had a larger attendance at our parents'\nwas started. It became evident that we must\n\nthe sewing of their daughters.\n\nmeetings after the\n\nfair\n\nco-operate along the line of the activities of the child, if we wished to secure\n\nThey could not co-operate along the line\nPeople I had not known\nwere interested in education at all would comment upon the interest the\nthe co-operation of the parents.\n\nof decimal fractions, infinitives, and participles.\n\nchildren in the neighborhood were taking in things.\n\nproducts they had to read bulletins.\n\nIn order to raise better\n\nIt created a real interest upon which\n\nthe teachers could build in educational progress.\nI was next elected city superintendent of a city of about ten thousand\n\npeople, and found the children were just as eager for activity as they were\nin the smaller towns and in the country.\n\nWe had school gardens for the\n\nseventh and eighth grades, and did the work during school time, on the\ncondition that the children would keep up their school work.\n\ndid for the sake of working in the gardens.\n\nThis they\n\nCertain teachers were willing\n\nWe had sewing taught.\nHundreds of people came to see the loaves of bread\n\nto take into account home activities in the school.\n\nWe had a bread day.\n\nthe children were able to make under the guidance of their mothers.\n\nWe\n\nhad bird-house day. Nearly five hundred bird-houses, some of them\nwonderfully made, were exhibited by children who had learned from their\nfathers how to handle a hammer, and how to saw off the end of a board.\nI\nhave heard teachers say that it is too bad the schools do not have accommodations for industrial work, but every girl lives in a place where there\nis a stove and cooking utensils.\nEvery country or small-town boy lives\n\n"} {"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "l82\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(PUladelphia\n\nwhere there is a saw, a hammer, and an ax. If every school will furnish\nthe child with a desire to make something, he will surprise you with\nhis ability to make it.\nIf you can create a desire in a girl to make an\napron, or a dress, or a skirt, she will find someone to show her how to make\nit.\nI have noticed that the girls in some of our larger schools in the domestic\nscience class were perfectly happy making loaves of bread, tucking the little\nloaves into shining new pans, and putting them into the gas oven.\n\nThey\n\nwould watch eagerly when they were taken out, delighted with the beautiful, well-shaped loaves of a perfect brown.\nI have seen the same girls look\nwith scorn at the big cookstove oven at home, and the large unpolished tins.\nI have seen the mothers make the bread, and cook the meals, as the girls of\nthe domestic science class were too busy with their school work, which was\nsupposed to mean so much to their future, to apply any of the results\nlearned. I knew a teacher in a manual-training class who spent six months\nteaching the boys how to use a chisel, a plane, and boring bits. The\nsuperintendent had to have the truant oflicer compel these boys to attend\nthe manual-training class. They wanted to make something. Children do\nnot like to play at life, they want to live life. I have seen girls shrink from\nmaking little models in sewing, and the boys look as if they were afraid to\nsay out loud what they were thinking while they were learning to use tools,\njust to use them.\nI have seen the bored looks upon the faces of pupils who\nwere engaged in writing essays to be passed in to the teacher, and sent to\nthe wastebasket. I have seen the animated looks on the pupils* faces when\nthey were learning to write letters which were to go to some real place,\nand would bring back a reply.\nAnd I have seen the enthusiasm of pupils in school where the school\nWhere there were\ncredit for home work was made an important feature.\nthree such schools in Oregon in the spiing of 191 2, there are hundreds this\nyear.\nSome give credit for home work as for studies, and use the home\nwork marks in averaging up the total standings. Others make a contest of\nCredits can be given for any home\nit, giving holidays or other rewards.\ntasks, such as building fires in the morning, milking a cow, cleaning out the\nbam, splitting and carrying in wood, gathering eggs, wiping dishes, tending\nflowers, sweeping floors, getting to bed by nine o'clock, brushing one's\nteeth, feeding chickens, caring for pigs, cows, horses, etc.\n\nof minutes is allowed for each task.\n\nA certain number\n\nParents are asked to sign statements\n\nverifying the amount of time spent in such duties.\n\nIt is a rule in one of\n\nthe schools that any pupil who has earned six hundred minutes may, at the\n\nSamples of home work are often\non\nexhibition.\nThe parents encourage this by\nbrought to school and placed\ncoming to the schoolhouse when these exhibits are made, and the children\ndiscretion of the teacher, have a holiday.\n\nby seeing the work of others learn to imitate the best.\nI think the best compliment I have ever received, and one that I did\n\n"} {"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME INDUSTRIAL WORK\n\n183\n\nnot fully appreciate at the time, was given when a man brought his boy to\nschool and asked me to watch him, and see what we could make of him.\n\nUnconsciously almost I would watch him in class and out of class, and found\n\nmuch to talk about with the father. I\nmeet him occasionally now, and we have a common interest in the activities\nof the son. I have seen teachers ask for the co-operation of the parents,\nhave seen the parents visit the schools, and try to look interested. I have\nseen them yawn, and when they rose to go, have heard them say they had\nbeen much interested and would call again, but they never came again, for\nit is impossible for parents and teachers to co-operate upon subject-matter\nin books, or methods of instruction, or to any great extent in courses of\nit was but a short time before I had\n\nBut every parent is willing to co-operate to the limit along the\nI knew a teacher\nwho, when asked what she taught, answered, \"Boys and girls,\" and she\nmeant the whole boy and the whole girl, the activities out of school as\nI know another teacher, the whole conwell as the activities in school.\ntent of whose answer was that she taught arithmetic, reading, writing,\nand spelling.\nA friend brought his boy to me and asked me to help him plan his\nhigh-school course, as he had just completed the eighth grade. I asked\nhim if he had talked the matter over with his eighth-grade teacher. I had\noccasion to meet the teacher not long after, and asked him to tell me\nsomething about the boy, and for suggestions about the course he should\nchoose. He told me the boy had never given him any trouble; he had\ngot 93 in arithmetic, and 86 in grammar. But this did not throw any\nlight on the subject of the boy's bent, or what course of study he should\ntake up in high school.\nIt seems to me it is worth while to find some common ground upon\nwhich the parent and teacher can co-operate. It seems to me this common\nground is along the line of habit-building by means of the activities of the\n^Md. What really counts in school or out is what habits are being established.\nFacts, formulae, and rules will be forgotten.\nBut the habits which\nare formed are woven into the character. The child that does not have a\nhabit of industry established by the time he is sixteen or eighteen is very apt\nto become a parasite.\nThere are many children who go thru our schools,\nwho, being naturally bright, do not find it necessary to become industrious.\nThey get their lessons thru hearing the other pupils, or from the questions\nasked, or by a few glimpses at the book. In life they are going to need\nbodily industry as well as mental industry. The habit of being industrious\nwill be of untold value to them.\nOne great trouble is that we are likely to\nreading.\n\nline of the activities and the real interests of the child.\n\nlook at the matter from the point of view of the school, as tho the school\n\nwere the end in itself.\n\nThe school is simply the helper of the home, and\n\nonly when the two work together can our dreams come true.\n\n"} {"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl84\n\nC.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nTHE HOME-SCHOOL—AN EXPERIMENT IN HOUSEHOLD\nEDUCATION\nRANDALL J. CONDON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, OHIO\n\nThe \"Home-School\" was organized at Providence in December, 1911,\nas the result of a deep conviction that it is the business of public education\n\nto train girls more directly for the household occupations; that, since the\n\nhome is of more importance than the shop or factory, it is even more\nnecessary to educate girls for motherhood and the home pursuits than to\n\neducate them for the industries and the professions.\n\nIt was also organized\n\nas the result of a second conviction, almost as strong as the first, viz.\n\n:\n\nthat\n\nthe courses in sewing, and cooking, \"domestic science and art,\" \"household\narts,\" \"home economics,\" by whatever name called, are not affording the\n\neducation and training needed in this direction.\n\nNor did I believe that the\n\nexpensive \"model flats\" being installed in the newer school buildings would\nsolve the problem, since at best they are only a make-believe\n\n—too formal,\n\ntoo expensive, and too remote from the real conditions of home to constitute\n\na vital motive and to afford the necessary connection between the school\nand the home. And more than that I knew that a large proportion of the\ngirls most needing this instruction\n\nwere leaving school to enter upon pur-\n\nsuits that left little time and inclination for learning the simple household\n\noccupations in unattractive home surroundings.\n\nTo turn the thoughts of\n\nsome of these away from the department store and the factory, toward the\nwork of the household as a more desirable vocation; to give vision, and to\nbring poetry and beauty into what would otherwise be only the drudgery of\ndaily life; \"to capture the soul that must one day express itself in the\nthis was the purpose and the ideal of the\nrelations of wife and mother\"\n\n—\n\nHome-School.\n\nThat the purpose might be more certain of realization, and that the\nmight have a fitting embodiment, it was decided to organize the\n\nideal\n\nschool, not in a schoolhouse,\n\nbut in a home-house, like those in which\n\nthe girls lived, differing from their homes not in kind but in quality; and,\n\nmost important of all, to place in charge of this home, not teachers with\nschoolroom traditions who would be likely to teach about household\noccupations, but rather women of strong home instincts, who had had experience as homemakers and housekeepers, and who by their companionship and by their own refined personality might inspire in their pupils a\n\nlove of home life and an appreciation of its duties and responsibilities; for\n\n—they must be caught, and the conditions\n\nthese things can hardly be taught\n\njust indicated are most favorable for the contagion.\n\nBut the Home-School itself is not so much an experiment as it is an\noutcome; the result of twelve years of effort in trying to find means for\nmore intimately connecting the instruction of the schools with the work\n\n"} {"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE HOME-SCHOOL\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nof the home and the community.\n\n185\n\nIn closing my annual report as superin-\n\ntendent at Everett, Mass., in 19.00, I said, in looking forward to the new\ncentury:\n\n—and the one most necessary—\n\nwill come thru the estab-\n\nBut the greatest gain of all\n\nlishment of more vital relations between the pupil and the various subjects of instruction.\n\nHe will be brought into closer touch with the world in which he lives; the school will be\nnot so much an institution by itself, but will stand more as an interpretation of life and of\nthe institutions of which the pupil is a part; it will not so much fit him for a life he is to\nlive in later years as it will teach him how to live, and to interpret the life he now has.\n\nIt will find or make opportunity for the expression of the things taught in terms of actual\nliving,\n\nnot at a subsequent period, but during the years of instruction.\n\nIn the past,\n\nhousehold duties have been taught most effectively and thoroly by giving children an\n\n—\n\nby instructing them in this work, not\nThe apprenticeship system, was the recognized preparation thru\n\nopportunity to participate in the household work\nteaching them about it.\n\nwhich a yoimg man was introduced to a profitable occupation. He learned his work by\nModem social forms and industrial organizations have largely eliminated\nfrom the present courses of study these two vital subjects of instruction, homemaking and\nwage-earning, for they were as really a part of each young person's education as tho they\n\nworking at it.\n\nhad been taught in the schoolroom, and more so, because taught in reality and not formally.\nWe must and shall find out how to supply these omissions from our present system of\neducation. We must teach our yoimg women how to make homes, and our young men\nhow to support them, and this solution must be the problem of future education.\nTo this end there must be established a closer relation between school instruction and\nthe industrial pursuits.\n\nThree years later at Helena, Mont., in an attempt to embody these ideas\nin concrete form, I prepared, with the assistance of several teachers, and\n\nissued for the girls in the seventh and eighth grades, a course entitled \"The\nGirl in the Home.\"\n\nThat outline tried to answer the question: What does\n\na girl need to know in relation to herself, in relation to her family, in relation\n\nThere was little that was distinctly new in this outline; its\nmain difference consisted not in what it contained but in the way in which\nThe girl was to become the center of the teaching; she\nit was to be used.\nwas to be taught to think of herself in relation to her home and society.\nHer instruction was to react directly upon herself, and was to be expressed\nin terms of work and of conduct. These sentences quoted from the outline\n\nto her friends ?\n\nof 1903 will indicate this directness of purpose:\nIf the subject is to be taught in such a way that there shall result from it more vital\n\nTo this end there must be established a closer union of\nThey are not to be considered as separate, but as parts of one plan\n\nliving, it should be made real.\n\nhome and school.\nof instruction.\n\nNot only is what is taught in the schools to find its application in the home and\nsociety, but much of the teaching will be done thru the home and society.\n\nNecessarily some of the instruction will be given by the teacher, but this instruction\nand discussion must be closely connected with the doing of the things taught; it must\nconsist in actually performing the work, not as school exercises, but for a real purpose.\nVisits should be made to dry-goods and millinery stores, for the purpose of examining\n\nmaterials, learning the cost and the amount needed for diJBferent articles of clothing.\nVisits to furniture stores, markets, and grocery stores to\n\nvarious articles under discussion.\n\nexamine and price the\n\n"} {"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl86\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nWhen the convenience, decoration, and arrangement of a girl's room is under discussion, spend the afternoon at the homes of some of the girls who are willing to show how\n\nrooms may be simply and tastefully arranged. Many mothers will be willing to place\ntheir homes at the disposal of the class for an afternoon for purposes of demonstration and\nwork in the kitchen, laimdry, or dining-room.\nIt was a serious attempt to teach in school the things which must be\n\napplied in the home, and to have them applied there;\n\nand while every\nattempt was made to unite the two, the teaching and its application, it was\nonly partially successful, for the schoolroom does not readily lend itself\nto such teaching.\n\nThe real opportunity to make the connection came some eight years\nlater, when the Evening School Committee of Providence, R.I., authorized\n\nthe superintendent to rent a suitable tenement or tenement house, to\nproperly equip the same, and to organize a school for teaching girls house-\n\nhold occupations.\n\nThe school was to be opened primarily for girls who had left school and\nThey were to make up the evening classes, meeting from\n7:30 to 9:30 o'clock. The equipment was also to be used from 4:00 to\nwere at work.\n\n6 00 o'clock in the afternoon, for pupils attending the day schools, and for\n:\n\nthose not in school, who might be at liberty to attend at that hour.\n\nA canvass of the city for a suitable house and for the most promising\nlocation resulted in the selection of a two-family house, which had formerly\n\nbeen a well-to-do New England home. It was located in one of the poorer\nand more thickly settled sections of the city, from which the older families\nwere moving away before the flood tide of immigration. The entire house\ncould be rented for $35 .00 a month, half of it for $20.00. It was decided\nthat the lower floor would be sufficient for the initial movement and that\nthere would be a positive advantage in having a real family Uving upstairs;\nfor the school was to be established under conditions similar to those in the\nhomes from which the girls would come, and few of them occupied an\nentire house. The location, type of house, and its surroundings were all\nthat could be desired a real \"house by the side of the road,\" a little apart\nfrom, and a little better than, the homes of most of the girls in the neigh-\n\n—\n\nborhood, but only sufficiently so to afford a better ideal toward which\n\nthey might strive, and by striving reach, not something apart from their\nlives, but so near to their environment and condition that it would afford a\nvital incentive for making their own homes like the ideal.\n\nThere were five rooms and a bath on the lower floor, and two sleepingrooms on the third floor. The front and back halls, the yard, and basement\nlaundry were to be used in common with the upstairs family. The interior\nof the house was painted or stained in a cheap imitation of cherry; the\ndesigns of the paper were cheap and ugly; the floors were of soft wood, unpainted; the kitchen and pantry were particularly unattractive; the whole\ninterior was dingy and somewhat depressing.\n\n"} {"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE HOME-SCHOOL\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n187\n\nits setting.\nNow for the renovation and\nThat the value to be derived from the solution of such a\nproblem might not be lost, it was placed in the hands of the Senior girls\nin the home economics department of the Technical High School.\nThe landlady agreed to repaint the interior and to furnish paper\nwhich was not to cost more than eighteen cents per roll. There were to be\nno evidences of a school in the character of the furnishings; it was to be a\nreal home, but such a home as might be possible for an industrious, intelligent working-man, with a wife who, by economy and good judgment,\nwill make both ends meet; where much is made of a little, and where\ngood taste, simpUcity, order, and appropriateness take the place of expensive cheapness. The opportunity afforded a most interesting problem\nin real home economics. The girls were allowed two months for the solution of the problem; they studied color and design applied to paper, paint,\n\nThis was the house and\n\nfurnishing!\n\nfloor stain, furniture, rugs, dishes, in fact, to every article of household fur-\n\nnishings needed in such a home. Harmony and beauty must be the result,\nbut these must be secured within limited expenditures. There must be no\narticle the purchase of which would not be possible and desirable in the\nfamilies of the neighborhood. The study was well done and when the\nhouse was ready for occupancy it was a model of taste and simple refine-\n\nment\n\n—a\n\nreal\n\n—lacking only a family. Then invitations were sent\n\nhome\n\nto the young women and girls of the neighborhood asking them to come\n\nand make\n\nit\n\ntheir home.\n\nAnd when they came they found over\n\nthe\n\ndoorbell a neat silver plate, bearing the inscription, \" Home-School \" ; for\n\n—a\n\nI had decided that this should be the name\n\nschool, with the emphasis\n\nupon the home; a house-craft school in which the teaching was to be given\nthru living experiences, under conditions that were as near those of the\nactual home as they could possibly be made.\n\nMany things were purposely left for the girls themselves to complete.\nDuring the first months, in needle-work, they were occupied in making\narticles for the kitchen, dining-room, bed- and bathrooms; they hung the\ndainty curtains which had been stenciled and made for them by the Technical girls; they arranged the furniture and dishes; and, in general, set the\nhouse in order. The girls were to have the entire responsibility and to do\nall the work connected with the school except caring for the furnace fire.\nThey were to wash, iron, clean, sweep, and dust; sew, mend, and make over;\nthey were to cook, serve, and eat; build and tend the kitchen fire, and\nsift the ashes.\n\nIn the spring they were to plant the flower and vegetable garden in the\nback yard; tend it in the summer; cook the fresh vegetables; and pickle\nand preserve the surplus for the next winter's use. And there were to be\nlong walks into the country for the girls who were free from work ^to gather\nthe wild flowers, and the wild grapes, apples, and barberries for preserving\nand jelly-making. It was to be work, but work that was joyous, and a large\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nl88\n\n(Phaaddphia\n\nThe talks\nby the teachers and the note-taking were to be so closely related to what\nwas being done that they would constitute an essential part of the work.\nIntelligence, skill, power, joy were the results; learning thru study and work\nI had said to the teachers, \"Don't think of yourselves as\nclosely related.\nteachers, but rather as old-fashioned mothers bringing up a large family of\ngirls\"; and that this was their attitude is evidenced by one girl who said, \"I\nlove to be brought up this way, and I am going to bring up all my children\njust like this.\" The teaching led to self -activity and produced an inner\nunity, under wise direction; it was life, and the product was life.\npart of the joy in the doing was to come from the well-doing.\n\nA few details as to the organization of the work:\nAt first, three teachers were appointed, a fourth being added later.\nFrom a large number of appUcations 150 girls were accepted, and a long\nwaiting list was established. They were divided into groups of thirty,\neach group attending two evenings, or two afternoons a week. The work\nwas divided into cooking, sewing, and general housework a teacher in\ncharge of each department. The thirty girls in attendance at any one\n\n—\n\nsession were divided into groups of ten, each group in charge of a teacher,\n\nby whom they were again subdivided into smaller groups for more definite\nparts of the work. The group having sewing for one lesson would have\ncooking for the next, and general housework and hygiene for the third,\nreturning to sewing at the fourth lesson. They were being trained to\nindustry and thrift in the management of a well-ordered household; they\nwere developing sympathy and helpful co-operation in working together.\nResponsibility was assumed; initiative was encouraged; the homemaking\ninstincts were finding an opportunity for creative activity; ideals of cleanli-\n\nness and order were being established.\n\nThru this division into small\n\ngroups there was no time wasted, no standing about, no looking on; everyone was busy, each with a definite piece of household work to be performed,\nand all were happy in doing something useful. The work of each division\nwas well related and contained progressive difficulties.\nThe cost and value of food and all other materials were carefully studied;\npersonal hygiene and household sanitation were given due attention;\nfeeding, bathing, clothing, and care of younger children and babies occupied\nan important place on the program. And there were quiet hours for\nreading and meditation and serious conversation on the deep things of life;\nfor these girls were being made ready for motherhood, and the spiritual\nideals of home life were considered fully as important as the training in\nhousehold occupations.\nOn Saturdays the mothers of the neighborhood brought their babies, to\nreceive advice and instruction from the superintendent of child hygiene and\na school nurse.\nI\n\nmust omit any discussion of the specific vocational training for\nand domestic service which are possible in a school of this\n\nwaitresses\n\n"} {"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE HOME-SCHOOL\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n1 89\n\nnature, in addition to its larger function of educating girls for homes\nof their own.\n\nBefore closing, however, I wish to point out one other direction in which\n\nsuch a school may fill a large and important place in a community, viz.\n\n:\n\nas\n\na neighborhood center in which the home Ufe of the people may be magnified.\n\nThe settlement house has shown the need and has pointed the way.\nThe Home-School, maintained at public expense, belonging to the people\nthemselves, will render a\n\nstill\n\nlarger social service,\n\nmore general in its\n\napplication and more permanent in its results.\n\nWhat the regular schoolhouse with its assembly hall, gymnasium, and\nclassrooms may become as a civic, recreation, and educational center, that\n\nthe Home-School may become as a genuine, social home center from which\nshall radiate that spirit of friendship and those kindly influences that will\n\nreach the homes of the community and help to transform the residents of the\ncity into the old-fashioned neighbors of the country.\n\nThe Home-School in the poorer neighborhoods will stand as a living\nexample of what a home should be an ideal of home life in which economy,\n\n—\n\nthrift, good order, and beauty are so taught that they will be lived into all\n\nphases of home and community life.\n\nBut the school will do this only as it holds resolutely to its own ideal of a\nhome that is not beyond the comprehension or ability of the girls to realize\nin their own homes a school in which they may learn thru living experience\nwhat a home should be. If such an ideal is maintained, then many who\ncome within its influence will feel as one girl did, who said, \" This place looks\n\n—\n\nmore beautiful to me every time I come to it\"; and some will go out from\nit to do as another did,\n\nwho gathered a group of girls in her own home to\n\nteach them the things which she had learned at the Home-School.\n\nThen across the lintels and upon the doorposts of many a humble home\nof limited means, where self-denial and strict economy must be practiced,\n\nbut where peace and contentment abide, may be written these words, as a\ntribute to the Home-School mother of the household\n\n:\n\n\" Give her of the fruit\n\nof her hands, and let her own works praise her in the gates.\"\n\nOne ship drives east and another west\nWith the selfsame winds that blow;\n'Tis the set of the sails and not the gales\nThat sends them the way they go.\nLike the winds of the sea are the ways of fate\n\nAs we voyage along thru life;\n'Tis the set of the soul that decides its goal\n\nAnd not the calm or the strife.\nIt is our business thru the school to help give the right set to the soul;\n\nthe Home-School will, I believe, better than any other educational agency,\ngive the set toward the home,\ngoal of its highest expression.\n\nand will enable the soul to find in it the\n\n"} {"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI90\n\nD.\n\nIPhiladelphia\n\nTHE CINCINNATI CONTINUATION SCHOOLS\n\nEDWARD D. ROBERTS, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nCINCINNATI, OHIO\n\n—\n\nThe continuation school work in Cincinnati is of two kinds voluntary\nThe voluntary work includes a school for machinists'\n\nand compulsory.\n\nor printers' apprentices, and classes for self-formed groups of mothers and\n\nunemployed women to receive instruction in cookery and dietetics, in\ndressmaking, in millinery, or in homemaking, which includes house furnishing and decoration, sanitation, nursing, and, in general, the essentials of\n\na well-ordered home and the qualifications of a homemaker.\nThe school for apprentices is a development from work privately maintained by various firms.\n\nThis work was taken over by the board of educa-\n\ntion and a public school opened for apprentices in machine-shop, pattern, and\n\ndrafting trades in September, 1 909.\n\nTwo years later classes were formed also\n\nfor apprentices in the eleven trades classed as the allied printing trades.\n\nThe board of education provides the building, the teachers, the equipment, and the books and material. The boys, who range in age from sixteen\nto twenty-one years, attend one four-hour session each week. This school\nattendance is paid for by the employer at the regular shop rate, and absence\nor tardiness leads to the boy's being docked.\n\nDuring the present school\n\nyear there have been enrolled 205 machinists and 24 printers' apprentices.\n\nThe school is in session thruout the year, the instructors alternating in\ntaking vacations.\n\nThe course of study for apprentices is academic and cultural entirely,\nThe school work is kept closely\nrelated to the shopwork by the systematic visiting done by the instructors,\nwho spend two half-days each week in the shops, where the boys are at\nThe course for machinist apprentices is four years in length.\nwork.\nThat for printers is just now in process of completion and will probably\nthere being no machines in the school.\n\nbe a two-years' course.\n\nThe teachers in this school are both expert craftsmen and expert\nWith these qualifications they retain the respect of the boys,\nto whom they become a very real inspiration, and command the approval\n\nteachers.\n\nand support of the labor organizations and the employers.\n\nTheir work is\n\nsupplemented by the voluntary service of owners, superintendents, and\n\nforemen of the shops, and representatives of labor organizations, who give\ninstruction from time to time and assist in keeping the school and the shop\nin close connection.\n\nThe home economics classes are composed of mothers and other adult\nwomen, who cannot well attend evening school, but who desire instruction\nsimilar to that now being given to girls in the high schools.\n\nThese classes\n\nare usually organized in connection with mothers' clubs in the schools, and\n\nmust consist of at least thirty members.\n\nThey meet in a two-hour session\n\n"} {"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendcncel\n\nTHE CINCINNATI CONTINUATION SCHOOLS\n\n191\n\nonce a week and pursue a course in cookery and dietetics, in millinery, in\ndressmaking, or in homemaking, under expert teachers.\n\nThese teachers\n\nare either regular domestic science instructors in the schools or professional\n\ntrade-workers.\n\nTwelve hundred women are now enrolled in forty different\n\nclasses, meeting in thirty-six different school buildings.\n\nThe compulsory continuation school is the outgrowth of an interesting\ncombination of circumstances.\n\nFirst, Cincinnati shared with other cities\n\nthe feeling of regret and responsibility that each year so many children\nleave school to go to work as soon as the law allows, that is, when just\nfourteen, and upon completing the fifth grade.\n\nPractically three-fourths\n\nof the children have been going to work at fourteen, and over one-fourth\n\nThere is reason to believe\n\"having completed the fifth grade\" is\n\nafter having completed only the fifth grade.\n\nthat, in a large number of cases,\n\nnot much more than a phrase without significance.\nSecond, the marked value of the work done in the Cincinnati school for\napprentices, described above, especially in giving the students a right atti-\n\ntude toward work and life, and in stimulating and guiding their energies\nin wholesome channels, led to the desire to do something of the same kind\nfor these children between fourteen and sixteen.\n\nThird, the Women Teachers' Association of Cincinnati had given serious\nconsideration to the problem of the girls who leave school to go to work.\n\nDuring the Christmas holidays in 1909, this organization devoted a meeting\nto the discussion of how to reach girls, whom necessity forced to leave school\nin order to go to work.\n\nAt that meeting a committee was appointed to\n\nconsider the whole matter, to make an investigation of conditions, and to\n\nsuggest methods by which conditions might be bettered.\n\nwas\n\ncalled the continuation school committee.\n\nAt\n\nThis committee\n\nleast a half-dozen\n\nmeetings were held by this committee during the year 19 10, at which were\nconsidered as many phases of the problem as it was possible to study by\nreading, inquiry, and actual observation.\n\nThe committee became convinced\n\nthat there should be established a school to which the young women at\n\nwork could come, for at least one half-day a week, and so recommended to\nthe superintendent of schools.\n\nAs a result of these different things, Superintendent Dyer and the\nboard of education began, in the spring of 1910, a movement to secure\nlegislation upon the subject.\nIn May, 1910, largely as the result of the\nwork of Mr. Dyer and his board, the legislature passed the following law:\nIn case the board of education of any school district establishes part-time day schools\nfor the instruction of youth over fourteen years of age who are engaged in regular employ-\n\nment, such board of education is authorized to require all youth who have not satisfactorily completed the eighth grade of the elementary schools to continue their schooling\n\nuntil they are sixteen years of age; provided, however, that such youth, if they have been\n\ngranted age and schooling certificates and are regularly employed, shall be required to\nattend school not to exceed eight hours a week between the hours of 8:00 A.M. and\n\n5:00 P.M. during the school term.\n\n[Section 7767, revised statutes of Ohio].\n\n"} {"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nIn January, 191 1, the board of education adopted a resolution to\n\nestablish part-time day schools in accordance with the law, these schools\n\nto be opened the following September, from which time attendance would\n\nbe compulsory for those subject to the provisions of the law. Employers\nwere so notified and preparations begun by the school authorities for\norganizing the work.\nIn February, 191 1, a very strong elementary teacher, Miss Mary M.\n\n,\n\nConway, who was recommended for this place by the committee of the\nWomen Teachers* Association, already mentioned, was appointed supervisor of continuation schools. Her first work was to visit all the department\nstores, in order to explain the work and to secure the co-operation of the\nemployers. The response of the business men was unanimously sympathetic, and it was decided to open immediately a school for salesmanship.\nIn May, 191 1, this school was opened, under the direction of the supervisor, and in immediate charge of a second very fine elementary teacher,\nwho had previously been granted a three months' leave of absence in order\nto attend the school of salesmanship of the Women's Educational and\nTwenty-five firms sent their employees,\nIndustrial Union of Boston.\nusually young women over sixteen, one half-day a week without loss of\npay, in order to receive instruction in English, civics, the art of salesman-\n\nand accounting,\n\nand fabrics, objectively\nand\nhome economics. The school enrolled over two hundred students firms\nsending between two and twenty girls and continued for three months,\nship, store arithmetic\n\ntextiles\n\nillustrated, applied art and decoration, personal hygiene, life-ideals,\n\n—\n\n—\n\nuntil the exigencies of the store vacation period made it necessary to close\n\nthe school. When, during the following month, the compulsory work\nwas organized, the demand on the public schools was too great to permit\nthe continuing of this special school of salesmanship.\nOne firm, which\nhad sent a large number of salesgirls to the school, was so well pleased\n\nwith the result, that it arranged with the superintendent of schools to\n\nhave the exclusive services of this teacher for some months.\nThe opening of the compulsory schools for children at work, between\nfourteen and sixteen, who had not completed the eighth grade, in the fall\nof 191 1, meant the enrollment in school of more than 1,100 children at\nthe very outset. The teaching staff consisted of the supervisor and three\nteachers (two women and one man) who were to devote their full time to this\nwork. These were supplemented by regular elementary principals and\nClasses were formed in the various sections of the city, so as\nteachers.\nto be as convenient as possible for employers and children.\n\nBy means of the records in the work certificate office, a complete list\nwas secured of all children subject to compulsory attendance, arranged by\nplaces of employment. Such lists were sent to employers, with the request\nthat they inform the child where and when they desired him to attend school.\nPupils registered in any convenient elementary-school building, during the\n\n"} {"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nTHE CINCINNATI CONTINUATION SCHOOLS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nfirst week of the\n\n193\n\nAt the end of that week, lists of classes, by\n\nschool year.\n\ngrades, and by schools to be attended, were ready for teachers.\n\nInstruction\n\nbegan the following week and continued until the first of June. The classes\nwere resumed last fall, at the opening of the regular school term.\n\nThe Cincinnati authorities have thus far insisted on only the minimum\nrequirement permitted by the law\n\n—four hours a week of school attendance.\n\nGreat freedom has been permitted in the choice of these hours, so that a\nchild may attend school four hours continuously any day of the week, or\n\none hour each of four days, or two hours on two days.\n\nIn one downtown\n\nschool building, classes are held every week day from 8:00 a.m. to 5 go p.m.,\nin eight buildings four afternoons from 4\n\n:\n\n00 to 5 00 p.m., and in six buildings\n:\n\non Saturday afternoons from i 00 to 5 00 p.m.\n:\n\n:\n\nThe various periods enroll\n\nthe following:\nAll day school\n\n684\n\nFour to five classes\n\n429\n\n25 5 per cent\n16\nper cent\n\nSaturday afternoon classes\n\ni,S73\n\nS8 S per cent\n\nTotal enrollment\n\n2,686\n\n.\n\n.\n\nAfter three months it was found desirable to combine the Saturday\n\nafternoon classes in downtown schools into one large school in the Wood-\n\nThis new and elaborately equipped plant\n\nward High School building.\n\noffered facilities for a differentiation of work and for the use of all the special\n\nequipment.\n\nIt has proved to be the most attractive school of all for the\n\nchildren and enrolls 728 pupils.\n\nThere have been enrolled during the present school year 2,686 pupils,\nof whom approximately 300 are double registrations, leaving 2,300 children\n\nattending these classes.\n\nAs this is about the number of work certificates\n\nissued during the year, we may believe that practically every child subject\nto the provisions of the law is in school.\n\nThe public schools furnish a little\n\nover half of these children and the parochial schools the remainder.\n\nAll are\n\nat least fourteen, for the law prohibits, with penalty, the issuing of a certificate to one who does not prove his age. Presumably, too, all these children\nhave completed the fifth grade. It is found, in actual experience, however,\nthat a great many coming from private schools have had a rather inadequate\n\npreparation, and are not able to carry sixth-grade work.\nIt is necessary, therefore, to classify the pupils into preparatory, sixth,\n\nseventh, and eighth grades.\n\nThe percentage in each of these classes is as\n\nfollows: preparatory, 12 per cent; sixth, 24 per cent; seventh, 31 per cent;\n\neighth, 33 per cent.\nPromotions are made by means of readjustments\nduring the year or in June. Of the 1,891 children remaining in June, 1912,\n\n457 were given certificates certifying that they had completed the eighth\ngrade, and were excused from further attendance. Nevertheless, more\nthan one-third of these pupils returned to school the following September,\nattending voluntarily, in order to receive the advantages of the schools.\n\n"} {"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n194\n\n[PhUaddphia\n\nWhere the numbers justify, the sexes are separated in order to permit a\ndifferentiation in work.\n\nClasses vary from twenty-six to thirty-five, but\n\nin the all-day school may be as small as twelve at certain hours.\n\nBy means of the work certificate office, the continuation schools are\nwho belong to their classes. In decreasing\nmeasure is it necessary to summon the aid of the truant officer in order to\nnotified at once of all pupils\n\nhave the child report for enrollment, and not once this year has it been\nnecessary to do what was done last year in about twenty cases; namely,\nrevoke the work certificate and compel the child to return to the regular\nday school. The attitude of the children at first was one of dogged opposition to the whole scheme. If boys and girls ever went unwillingly to\nschool, certainly the continuation school pupils did during the first year of\n\nthe work.\n\nNow, all is different, and with surprisingly few exceptions the\nChildren who have\n\nchildren come gladly and enter into the work heartily.\n\nbecome sixteen are continuously asking permission to stay on, which, of\ncourse, is always gladly given.\n\nThe reason for the attitude of opposition was in part the very thing\nthat had sent some children to work; namely, a desire to escape school.\n\nThe ordinary routine of school duties had become distasteful.\n\nThis feeling\n\nwas taken into account in working out the course of study for the continuation classes. The beaten path is left wherever possible, and when it is\nfollowed, it is, as far as can be, lighted up with new light. The work was,\nin the beginning, based upon the regular elementary course, which, however,\nwas modified more and more largely as time went on. The teachers in\ncharge of the classes, who were all superior teachers in the regular service,\n\nwere called into weekly conferences, in order to work out the course in detail.\nEnglish and arithmetic form the backbone of the course, which includes\nalso civics and hygiene, geography, physics, handicraft, art, and salesmanship.\n\nDaily drills are given in spelling, correct English, and rapid calcula-\n\ntion.\n\nEnglish includes reading, spelling, and correct usage, the aim being\n\nto connect these subject with the daily life and work of the child.\n\nThe\n\nwork is made intensely practical, so that the spelling-lessons will be words\nsuggested by the child's occupation of the day. It is hoped, however, that\nthe reading period will afford an opportunity to bring into the child's\nlife a bit of the ideal, the cultural,\n\nArithmetic includes\n\nthat otherwise he might lack.\n\nmuch practice in the fundamental operations as\n\nwell as work in fractions, percentage, business forms, pay-rolls, the keeping\nof accounts, and simple bookkeeping.\n\nCivics and hygiene, including moral instruction and personal guidance,\nis\n\ngiven more serious consideration than any other part of the work.\n\nIt\n\nnot only has its place on the week's program, but is also brought in incidentally whenever possible.\n\nGeography has been taken largely from the commercial point of view,\nand has been closely related to present-day conditions in the child's own\n\n"} {"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE CINCINNATI CONTINUATION SCHOOLS\n\nSuperintendence!\n\ncity and country.\n\n195\n\nMuch use is made of the stereopticon in connection\n\nwith the geography work, as well as in the study of civics.\nPhysics has been given at Woodward on Saturday afternoon, with a\ndesire to broaden the child's outlook upon life thru his interest and intelli-\n\ngence.\n\nThe work consists of simple experiments, which illustrate some of\nThus far the experiments\n\nthe more common experiences of everyday life.\n\nhave dealt\n\nchiefly with\n\npneumatics and\n\nelectricity;\n\nin the future, the\n\nprinciples of steam engines will be studied.\n\nThe handicraft or industrial work has been given one-third of the\nand in the case of the eighth-grade boys and girls, it may\nThe boys who would thus spend their full\ntime in the shop, taking a special line of work, have in a number of cases,\ncompleted the eighth grade and are attending voluntarily. The girls who\ndevote their whole time to industrial work are those who are preparing\npupil's time,\n\noccupy the full four hours.\n\nthemselves for tradework in millinery or dressmaking.\n\nFor boys the shopwork includes work in wood and in iron.\n\nPractically\n\nthe entire shop equipment at Woodward is in regular use, and in three\n\nother buildings classes use the manual-training shop.\n\nThere are classes\n\nin cabinet work, woodturning, forging, and electrical work.\n\nChildren who work in one line of industry are grouped as far as possible\nand given special instruction relating to that industry. However, the\nwork is not always immediately related to the child's regular occupation,\npartly from a desire to counteract the effects of purely automatic work,\nand partly in order to give the child an insight into other lines of industry\nthan those with which he is familiar.\n\nThe girls spend half-time in either sewing or cooking, as they may\nThe work is very practical in character. In sewing, the girls are\ntaught garment-making by machine as soon as they have mastered the\nelect.\n\nIn cooking, emphasis is placed upon pracwork and correct methods, the combination of suitable dishes for\n\nsimplest principles of sewing.\ntical\n\nsimple meals being the teacher's aim.\n\nNovelty-making\n\nis\n\ntaught in some\n\nclasses,\n\nthe pupils being given\n\ninstructions in sample mounting, making of novelties, covering and lining\nof boxes and cases, accurate measurements, and the solution of problems\n\npertaining to the economical use of materials.\n\nIn certain cases, trade\n\norders are solicited by the teacher and the articles are made in class, with\n\na view to emphasizing the trade side or money value of time, skill, and\nmaterial.\n\nThe lessons in color and design in the art department correlate\n\nwith the work of the novelty trade teacher.\n\nThe art course is planned to give to each boy who takes it the development and skill which will gain him promotion in his field of work. Thus,\nthe boy engaged in jewelry-making is given problems in the designing of\njewelry, while one employed in process engraving is given work in line\nand wash rendering. Mechanical drawing is taught to those who need\n\n"} {"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n196\nit in their line\n\nof work.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nA study of simple lettering is made, as well as\n\nthe principles of proportion and of good and poor arrangements in signs\n\nand advertisements.\nThose boys who elect the art course are given their entire four hours'\ninstruction by the art teacher. He conducts the work in spelling and\ncomposition and arithmetic, as well as the discussion of current topics and\nof problems which arise in the routine of the boy's daily work.\nAn effort\nis made to get into as close touch with the boy as possible, and to correlate\nthe teaching with his work as a wage-earner. A decided lack of initiative\nhas been noted in most cases, and, as a corrective the work is presented\nin such a manner as to stimulate self-confidence and intellectual curiosity,\nand to awaken the desire for originality.\nGirls in the sewing and millinery classes are permitted to take one\nperiod of drawing per week, the work correlating with that of the sewing\n\nand millinery teachers. In the special classes, beauty in common things\nand art in the home and in dress are made most conspicuous in the course.\nOccasional visits are made to the leading stores of the city, where beautiful\nand attractive things may be seen and discussed. The firms have, without\nexception, shown a great interest in this feature of the work, and have\n\ndisplayed a cheerful willingness to offer every advantage for study.\n\nTrips\n\nof this kind have a double value, for they not only acquaint the children\n\nwith the best phases of art products in the city, but also develop in them a\nSuch\nspirit of freedom in visiting establishments of the better kind.\n\nmarked effect\nupon the members of the class. Good taste and discriminating judgment\nhave been noticeably developed.\nexcursions, with the accompanying discussion, have had a\n\nInstruction in salesmanship\nstores.\n\nis\n\ngiven to\n\nall\n\nchildren from the retail\n\nThis work is in charge of the experienced teacher already referred\n\nto as the one who studied at the Boston school, where she served an apprenticeship in the city's leading retail establishments.\n\nThe course consists\n\nof practical lessons in business arithmetic, including sales-slip practice,\n\ncash accounts, etc.;\n\ntextiles, including cotton, flax, silk, wool,\n\nfrom raw\n\nmaterial to finished products; color and design, including color combinations as to counter, dress, etc. ;\n\napproach, analysis of\n\nsale,\n\nand salesmanship, including care of stock,\n\nclosing\n\nsale,\n\ncourtesy,\n\ndemonstration\n\nsale.\n\nThis work has received the strongest expressions of appreciation from\nmerchants, who value it highly as a means of increasing the efficiency of\nthe salesperson.\n\nThus far the story of what is.\n\nWe in Cincinnati feel that two years'\n\neffort in continuation school work has only served to show us the problem\n\nand to point us the direction of its solution. Of the great need of more\nsystematic and more intensive and more diversified work for these needy\nThat it even now satisfies a great need\nchildren, we all feel convinced.\nfor most of these children, they themselves continually give testimony.\n\n.\n\n"} {"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nTHE CINCINNATI CONTINUATION SCHOOLS\n\n197\n\nThe work has meant for many of them the taking-up again of a thread\nsomewhere in the course of educational progress thru the regular\nIt spells new hope for the discouraged.\nIt has borne direct result in a more considerate spirit toward fellowworkmen, until there has come to be a real community spirit which is\nhelpful to all. A very decided cultural uplift is seen in the rapidly improving manner of address to their fellows, in the less general use of slang and\nthe factory vernacular, and in the frequent expression of little courtesies\nto their teachers and classmates. The growth in cleanliness and in a desire\nThere is a growing interest\nfor saner methods of dress and living is decided.\nin good books, as is proved by constant requests for information regarding\nthem. There is, in general, an awakening to the interesting things about\nthe child in everyday life, as is shown by the interest of the child in what\nhe sees and hears and by his desire to make his information of service.\nIn many cases there have been confidential conferences, which have given\nthe teachers rare opportunities for personal counsel and guidance toward\nthe highest ideals. The school has placed in these lives a new ideal, working\nthru a greater respect for authority, a more willing obedience, an increased\nresponsibility, which will end, for many, in a desire to be of fullest service\nlost\n\nelementary school.\n\nto themselves and their fellows\n\nThe employer's attitude is typified in these words of Mr. Fred A. Geier,\npresident of the Cincinnati Milling Machine Company:\nIt is\n\nmy opinion that the continuation school on the whole has proven a success,\n\nwith every possibility of increasing usefulness as the school adapts itself more perfectly\nto the needs of the students and the manufacturers show an increased interest.\n\nA school\n\nof this sort cannot meet with the greatest success unless there is perfect co-operation on\n\nthe part of industrial plants.\n\nThe necessity for continuation schools need not be argued.\n\nThoughtful students\n\nof our industrial situation realize that competition, as well as other causes, will call for a\n\nmore intensive and more intelligent system of manufacture in the future. Improved\nand improved equipment will not alone meet the situation. An increasing\nindustrial intelligence will be demanded.\nThe continuation school, thru its courses, can do much to stimulate the mental activities of the student and lead them in the way of a desire for increased knowledge, which\nbuildings\n\nis so essential to increased efl&ciency.\n\nIn short, a better human element will be required\n\nin our plants, if we are to meet the more intensive competition and at the same time successfully meet the new\n\ndemands that will come thru social legislation as expressed in\n\nshorter hours, compulsory compensation, etc.\n\nA vision we have of the future of this work shows it housed in a splendid\nstructure of its own, adequately equipped with every necessity for complete\nphysical, mental,\n\nand moral training, with all the facilities of a modern\nHere the youth will come gladly\n\nclub and the spirit of the finest home.\n\nto receive, at the hands of the competent, large-souled experts, the equip-\n\nment which will make for the culture and the service of self and of the\ncommunity.\n\n"} {"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n198\n\n[PhUaddphia\n\nTHE MECHANICAL MIND\nJOHN G. HIBBEN, PRESIDENT, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, PRINCETON, NJ.\nThis subject, \"The Mechanical Mind,\" is seemingly a contradiction in\n\nwhen the mind becomes mechanical it is departing radically\nfrom its essential nature as a living organism. It depends wholly upon the\nmanner in which we treat the mind whether it is to retain its vital character\nor become a mere machine. It may prove to be an organ most elastic and\nadaptable in its functioning, or, on the contrary, its activities may become\nso definitely set as to operate efficiently in only one determined and confined way.\nIt is the end of education to develop the mind as a living spirit, and not\nallow it to deteriorate into the operations of a machine, however perfect\nthe machine may be. It is the function of a machine to turn out a certain\nproduct according to an exact program. The machine may be remarkably\nadapted to a particular series of operations, but it has no power of expressing\nitself beyond the restricted routine designed for it.\nIt accomplishes its\nespecial task supremely well, but is helpless in the face of emergency.\nWhat the machine does is something which has been thought out by others\nand wrought into its mechanism. It has no power of initiative; it is wholly\nthe instrument of some other mind. It has no life within itself; some spirit\noutside of it must give it energy and driving power.\nterms, for\n\nNow the mind is so constituted that it very easily learns to follow a\nmechanically prescribed form of procedure, and action thus determined\n\nsoon becomes automatic.\n\nAnd so far as our actions become more and more\n\nautomatic, the control of them becomes less and less conscious.\n\nCon-\n\nsequently the habitual set of activities which form the daily routine can be\naltogether directed by the lower nerve centers, so that the control of even\n\nthe skilled hand in the most delicate and complex manipulation can be\n\ncared for wholly by the nerve centers of the spinal cord.\n\nWe become machines when the activities of life are thus no longer ruled\nby the higher brain centers. The very fact that the lower centers can care\nfor the ordinary routine movements of the human body makes it possible\nfor us to disconnect the great central office of the brain, and reduce our\nHfe to a merely mechanical order of existence.\n\nThere are many human beings who from birth are doomed to the fate\nof animal machines because of their deficient or impaired brain power, or\nthe untoward circumstances of their breeding. But while this is true, it\ndoes not follow that we should so design our methods of education as to\ncultivate this tendency among the children of our public schools.\n\nIt is,\n\non the contrary, a most solemn obligation resting upon those who are\nresponsible for the methods of public-school training to devise other means\nof giving a chance to all for whom a machine-like existence is not altogether\ninevitable.\n\n"} {"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE MECHANICAL MIND\n\nIQQ\n\nThe period of education is peculiariy a time for the awakening of the\nslumbering mind, and stimulating the brain cells into vigorous activity,\ncausing the brain itself to expand with its expanding powers.\nfunction of the teacher to call forth the spirit of\n\nlife\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nthe\n\nwithin the child.\n\nWhatever lessons may be taught, the great central purpose of teaching\nmust not be forgotten, or ignored, or regarded as secondary; namely, the\nsolicitous care and training of the powers of reason.\nThe brain, the eye,\nthe hand must be nicely co-ordinated; but let no one deceive himself\nwith the prevalent modem fallacy, that the eye and hand can be trained,\nwhile the central factor of the combination, the brain itself, can be left\n\nout of account altogether.\nI do not want to criticize the value of manual training or of vocational\n\nstudy;\n\nthey are all very well in their place, provided the task which is\n\ntaught is not disassociated from the directive, compelling, and creative power\nof the mind.\n\nDo not, however, allow the child to narrow down to the\n\nspecial activities of the trade until the mind has had a chance to find itself\n\nand assume permanent control of the operations of eye and of hand. It is\ntrue that the process of education can be most conveniently carried on, and\ncan most plausibly justify itself by neglecting the fostering care of the mind,\nor at least relegating it to a secondary place, and endeavoring rather to\nemphasize the value of certain particular pursuits, which can be learned\n\nby imitation, and the slavish following of the thought of others.\nIt is easier to be superficial than to be thoro and to plow deeply into\nthe lower levels of our powers. It is easier to act than to think; and it is\neasier to be taught to do some one definite thing than it is to exercise the\nGod-given faculties of reason, and aspire to learn and do many things.\nIt is easier to run human nature into a narrow mechanical groove than to\n\ndevelop the concealed possibilities of mental power and achievement.\nIt is easier to follow a system which gives immediate returns than to prepare\n\nthe mind for the possibility of results, which it will take years perhaps to\n\nmature.\n\nThe immediate result may be most gratifying, but we overlook,\n\nor at least we do not care to see, the immediate limitations also which are\nnaturally attached to such immediate results, and which make a continued\n\nprogress of the mind forever impossible.\n\nWhere education leaves a mind that is awake and vigorous with life,\nit is possible to face the future with courage and with hope.\n\nOn the other\n\nhand, where the young boy has been trained into a machine, and the mind\nthereby detached and dulled, he is doomed to the round of an unvarying\ngrind, while the future holds for him no possibilities beyond the inevitably\n\nFor the youth of today,\nThe world acknowledges\nbut one supremacy; it is the supremacy of mind; and but one aristocracy;\ndetermined limits of his machine-like existence.\n\nthe only door of opportunity is the opening mind.\n\nit is the aristocracy of mind.\n\nLet us, therefore, place before us as the supreme end of education,\n\n"} {"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n200\n\nthe development of a versatile and resourceful mind.\n\np»hfladelphia\n\nLet us train the\n\nchild so that he must be dependent upon his reason, and not independent\n\nof it.\n\nLet us not prepare him for the slavery of routine, but endeavor to\nLet us fit him for a\n\nmake him a free man in the kingdom of the mind.\n\nvocation, but let it be the vocation, not of a machine, but of a man.\n\nTEE HEART OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM\nMARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nDENVER, COLO.\nAmerica's public-school system is on trial.\n\nThe educational attitude is\n\nchanging, and courses of study are being modified in harmony with the\n\nnewer ideals. Whether these changes in aims and methods of study are\nmeeting modem requirements cannot be answered, unless the chief purpose\nof public-school instruction is defined.\n\nTo the present writer, civilization is revealed in human institutions, of\nthe highest ideal, the best self of any given citizenship, at any given time.\nCivilization of this type is largely the creation of government, which\nlast is nothing less than the science and art of living together in organized\n\ncommunities so that righteousness may prevail.\nchild of the government.\n\nThe public school is the\n\nTherefore, the public school exists for the making\n\nof citizens.\n\nEducation, then, should present a content and method conducive to\ncharacter-building\n\n—to the formation of such a character-type in\n\nits people\n\nas will make it possible for the United States to fulfill its mission.\n\nAnd what is the mission of the United States ?\n\nWhat is the significance\n\nof the part it is destined to play in the story of the nations ?\nIf it means anything of special import to be an American, it is because\nAmerica is the realizing of a dream of human brotherhood; the coming to\nfruition of a rich and multiform opportunity; the conditioning of life in\nsuch a way that the ultimate possibilities of each human being may be\ndeveloped. America stands for the social transformation, where happiness\nis demonstrated to be the child of freedom, and full satisfaction the result of\n\nthe work well done.\nIf this be the import of the world-message that America is translating\n\ninto world-activities, then to be a representative American citizen is to be\n\nadequate to all the demands of life\n\n—\n\n^physical, mental, moral;\n\nand American\n\neducation should provide such intellectual material and use such pedagogical\n\nmeans as will train the future citizen to see, think, work, love, and enjoy.\n\nHow many there are, who, having eyes, see not; who think they think,\nbut rarely, if ever, partake of the supreme experience of vital thinking.\nHow many labor, but never know the joy of transmuting labor into work.\nThe sense of beauty and the sense of duty are alike necessary to the sense\n\n"} {"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE HEART OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM\n\n20I\n\nof enjoyment, but too often the code of duty and capacity for the expression\nof beauty lie quite undeveloped as the result of the crowding of material\n\n—\n\ndemands. And as for that love which is conscious unity if our representative American citizen who can see, think, work, and enjoy is to be speedily\nproduced by educational methods, a new sociology must be adopted, its\nprincipals based upon this conscious unity and taught by means of love to\nall those whose characters are to be formed\n\nby the pedagogy of the American\n\npublic schools.\n\nOur ideal American citizen must have a trained body by athletic exerand by the exercise that comes from a certain portion of school time\nbeing devoted to labor with the hands. The body should be trained, not\nonly for strength and skill, but for beauty and enjoyment, in order that life\nmay be met with power and purpose, with poise and the aesthetic satisfaction\ncise,\n\nthat results from accomplishment.\n\nOf course, a trained mind has always been the aim of school men everywhere, and so this requisite of the new education is but a repetition of the\n\ndemand of the older pedagogy.\ntraining, goes far afield for the\n\nBut modernity, while emphasizing mental\nmeans by which to produce intellectual\n\ndevelopment, and disciplinary value is acknowledged to be a part of many\nof the industrial and economic forces.\n\nIn fact, education is seen to be the conditioning of life by the education,\nnot alone of the study, but by the education of the home and philanthropy,\n\nby community service, by professional preparation and trade skill.\n\nTo\n\nthis end, vocational training should be added to scholastic discipline, and, in\n\nshort, all means employed for the training of the mind that are found to be\n\ncapable of increasing its power of dealing with fundamentals, and making of\nit an instrument whose temper and reach will be adequate to deal with all\n\nsubjects that may come within its scope.\n\nBut the training of the body has not always been recognized as a necesAt present, the whole human being\nreceives attention, and body and mind alike are developing with unprecedented vigor and in harmonious relationship.\nThe real heart of the educational problem today that problem being\nthe production of adequate human beings is to secure the instant and\nto\nefficient response of trained minds and trained bodies to the call of duty\nthe voice of the higher self, of I care not what you name it, tho I prefer\nto distinguish the something within, as the voice of the Most High, speaking\ndirectly to each human soul and radiating the glory of his nature in the\nsary part of a complete education.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsecret recesses of human consciousness.\n\nThis is the meaning of\n\nall\n\nthe upheaval and storm and stress that\n\nare shaking educational standards, destroying educational fetiches,\nannihilating superstitions.\nlife\n\nand\n\nIt is but the effort so to adjust relations that\n\nand books, the tools of artisan and artist, the work of producer and\n\ndistributer may be enabled to function in scientific and aesthetic harmony in\n\n"} {"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n202\n\n(Phaaddphia\n\nthe building of a new civic temple, the stones of which shall be living and\nglowing with the light of truth perceived, work well done, beauty revealed;\nall thru complete obedience to the law of service.\n\nFor this the public schools exist; and when they shall fully measure up\nto the standard of their great destiny, the American nation will have made\nits glorious dream come true.\n\nTOPIC: REPORTS OF COMMITTEES ON EDUCATION\nI\n\nA,\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ON UNIFORM NOMENCLATURE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR\n\nC. R.\n\nROUNDS, WEST DIVISION HIGH SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS., CHAIRMAN\n\nIn February, 191 1, at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association at Mobile, the following resolution was adopted:\n\nThe Department of Superintendence recognizes that the present lack of unifonnity\nin nomenclature found in texts in English granmiar is confusing and unnecessary.\n\nIt\n\ntherefore authorizes the president of this department to appoint a committee of five to\n\nformulate and report at the next annual meeting of this department a system of nomenclature for texts in English granmiar, and recommends that publishers of such texts use\nthis system if adopted by the department.\n\nPresident Davidson, of the Department of Superintendence, appointed\nC. R. Rounds, Chairman, Mrs. Ella Flagg\nYoung, Stratton D. Brooks, A. F. Lange, and Henry F. West. Mr. West,\nthen assistant superintendent at Baltimore, was obliged to resign from the\ncommittee, on going out of educational work, and in his stead Professor\nW. G. Hale, of the University of Chicago, was appointed by Dr. Davidson.\nBack of this action of the Department of Superintendence in creating\nThe chairman of the comthis committee was a long period of agitation.\nmittee had long felt the need for uniformity in English grammar texts and\nhad, for more than two years, been calling the attention of other teachers\nto the matter. In 1910, he had conducted a considerable correspondence\nwith school men regarding the possibility of taking some definite measures\nto secure uniformity, and about two himdred school men, including normal\npresidents, state superintendents, city superintendents, and, what was\nreally most significant of all, teachers of grammar, had indorsed a plan\nIndorsesimilar to that contemplated in the resolution quoted above.\nments came also from several state and sectional associations. The com-\n\nthe following committee:\n\nmission of these five people, therefore, was in accord with the expressed\n\nwish of a large and representative group of school people.\n\nBut in its inception thus far, the work of the committee was limited\nSimultaneous with this movement, and\nindeed, preceding it, had been three others with similar ends in view. In\nin its scope to English grammar.\n\n"} {"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCOMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n203\n\nEngland, a committee representing many educational associations had been\nat work, and in 1909 it had presented a preliminary report, the final report\nin 191 1 covering the grammar of\n\nGerman, French, Latin, and Greek, as\nFrench grammar had\nbeen presented in France, its final form being published under the auspices\nIt may be\nof the government, represented by the minister of education.\nadded here that German and Austrian committees are now engaged in the\nsame work, and that their reports will cover EngHsh, German, French,\nItalian, Spanish, Latin, and Greek.\nwell as that of English.\n\nSimilarly, a report for\n\nOn this side of the Atlantic, before the agitation for uniformity in\nEnglish texts had taken place, teachers of foreign languages, both ancient\n\nand modern, had felt the great loss that takes place when a student enters\nupon the study of a new language, thru the difference in terms given to\nThey had also deplored the difference in termiidentical constructions.\nnology in different texts in the same language. Foremost among those\ninterested in this situation must be mentioned Professor W. G. Hale, who\nhad presented the matter to the American Philological Association and the\nModern Language Association in 1909 and 19 10 respectively. John C.\nELirtland had also dealt with the subject in the Classical Weekly as early\nas 1909.\nIt will be seen, therefore, that while the movement for uniformity of\n\nterminology in English texts was taking place in the National Education\nAssociation, there was, in the\n\ntwo great representative associations of\n\nteachers interested also in languages other than English, a movement of\n\nwider scope, contemplating the possibiUty of at least a degree of uniformity\nfor the\n\ngrammars of all languages studied in our public schools.\n\nThe\n\nfirst definite step toward the union of these two aims came at a meeting of\n\nthe Michigan Schoolmaster's Club in April, 191 1.\n\nA day was devoted to\n\nthe discussion of uniform grammatical terminology, and at the close of the\n\nsymposium, a resolution was adopted commending to the three following\nviz., the American Philological Association, the Modern\nLanguage Association, and the National Education Association, the\nformation of a joint committee of fifteen, consisting of five from each body,\n\"to work out a system of grammatical nomenclature applicable to the\nancient and modern languages most commonly studied, with a view to\nassociations,\n\nharmonizing, so far as possible, existing differences in nomenclature.\"\n\nIn July, 191 1, at the San Francisco meeting of the National Education\nAssociation, on motion of Mrs. Young, this plan was adopted, and later,\nPresident Carroll G. Pearse reappointed the committee appointed by Dr.\n\nThe Modern Language Association appointed the following:\nF. G. Hubbard, English, University of Wisconsin; E. G. Hills, Romance\n\nDavidson.\n\nlanguages, Colorado College;\n\nW. B. Snow, head of the Department of\n\nModern Languages, English High School, Boston; Edward Spanhoofd,\nGerman, St. Paul's School, Concord, N.H.; and E. H. Wilkins, Romance\nlanguages, Harvard University (now of the University of Chicago). The\n\n"} {"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[PhUadelphia\n\nAmerican Philological Association appointed the following: B. L. Bowen,\nRomance languages, Ohio State University; Hermann Collitz, German,\nJohns Hopkins University; John C. Kirtland, Latin, Phillips Exeter\nAcademy; Walter Miller, Greek, Tulane University (now of the University of Missouri); and S. C. Stacey, Greek, Erasmus Hall High School,\nBrooklyn.\nMr. Hale was made chairman of the joint committee, and\nMr. Rounds secretary.\nThis joint committee has had three meetings, as follows: December,\n191 1, three sessions in Chicago; November, 191 2, six sessions in Chicago;\nDecember and January, 191 2-13, twenty sessions in Philadelphia. We\nhave thus had twenty-nine sessions, and at these sessions, averaging well\nover three hours in length, we have met for a total of between ninety and\na hundred hours. The largest number of the committee attending any\none session has been twelve, and at no time has there been less than a\nquorum. Owing to the pressure of other duties, Mrs. Young has usually\nfound it impossible to attend the meetings, and she has been represented\nby W. B. Owen, principal of the Chicago Normal School, who has been\nofficially given a vote in the committee when serving in her place.\nBefore closing this report, it may be well to call to your minds the\nreasons which impelled this body, two years ago, to inaugurate this movement, and the further motives which have kept the members of this committee at this arduous and exacting task, which has made serious inroads\nupon their time, energy, and money. One of the greatest weaknesses of\nour educational system is the fact that a student, in his progress from one\ngrade to another, one school to another, or one teacher to another, has to\nabandon and unlearn so much of what he has learned in previous school\nwork. Nowhere is this situation more acute than in the various systems of\nterminology in our texts in English grammar. For instance, for the use of\n\"good,'* in the sentence \"He is good,\" there are nine different names, the\nmore prominent being: predicate adjective, subject complement, subjective complement, attribute complement, adjective complement, complement of an intransitive verb, etc.; for the construction of \"red,\" in\n\"We painted our barn red,\" there are eighteen different names in the\ntwenty-five texts I have examined. In the matter of the substantive in\n\"-ing,\" as in \"By being careful he was able to save money,\" the confusion\nis quite as bad, as it also is in the names of the modes, and the classification of verbs and pronouns.\nThe net result of this situation has been to bring the study of English\ngranamar into disrepute. Teachers and examiners familiar with an older\nterminology, on quizzing students familiar with newer texts, find the students apparently ignorant of the most fundamental grammatical conceptions; students, in their turn, are disquieted and confused in the knowledge\nthey do possess. The more carefully they are drilled in one set of terms\nand the more conscientiously they master their work, the greater is the\nshock which they experience when they find themselves obliged to imleam\n\n"} {"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nGRAMMA TICAL NOMENCLA TURE JOINT COMMITTEE\n\nthis carefully\n\nmastered material.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\n20$\n\na fimdamental right of a child\n\nthat he should be left secure in the possession of knowledge that he has\n\nonce taken pains to master.\n\nAny formal truth taught to the child, and\n\nmastered by him, should be worth its face value at any subsequent point\nin his education.\nEvery time we make a child unlearn a thing he has carefully mastered, we weaken his whole grip on that subject, and we lessen\nhis respect for learning in general; for how can we expect him to maintain\n\nan enthusiastic attitude toward learning, when it is so frequently his experience that things he has been told are surely true, prove, when a new\ntext is encountered, to be false, or, at least, out of date ? The effect upon\nthe young teacher, as she takes up an unfamiliar text, is utterly confusing\nand pernicious, and the student, of course, has to suffer doubly with her.\nWe of this committee, therefore, feel that we are engaged upon one of\nthe most needed reforms of our educational system. We have now covered\nthe whole field of grammar. The simplification we have accomplished will,\n\nwe feel sure, commend itself to all.\n\nIt is not possible that all of the actual\n\nterms we shall suggest can, in the nature of things, meet with the whole\n\nBut we have carefully considered every point.\nEach member has given up notions of whose truth he probably once felt\napproval of any one person.\nthoroly convinced.\n\nWe are hoping to present a report that will be unified\n\nand consistent, and whose prime consideration shall constantly be the needs\nof the elementary student and teacher of English.\nOur hope is that when\nthe report shall appear, it may be received in a kindly, tho judicial spirit,\n\nand we believe that before any person sets himself against it, he should\nask himself whether the good that would come from the adoption of the\nreport would not more than balance the importance of any amendment\nthat he might individually like to make.\nPublishers have, on the whole, evinced a willingness to make necessary\n\nchanges in subsequent editions of texts already in existence, tho this will\n\nmean great expense to them;\n\nsurely\n\nwe teachers and superintendents\n\nshould be able to sink minor differences for what is so clearly a matter for\nthe common good.\n\nB,\n\nREPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION, THE MODERN LANGUAGE\nASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, AND THE AMERICAN\nPHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, ON GRAMMATICAL\n\nNOMENCLATURE\nWILLIAM G. HALE, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LATIN, UNIVERSITY OF\nCHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL., CHAIRMAN\n\nThe history of the joint committee up to the present time has been\nsketched by Mr. Rounds, and I need speak only of our aims and hopes.\nIf the work of this committee appeals to any body of educators in the\n\ncountry, it should appeal to superintendents and principals.\n\nUpon them,\n\n"} {"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2o6\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nas upon no other members of the educational system, falls the charge of\nseeing to it that part shall co-ordinate with part, and that the members\nof a group of related subjects shall help one another, instead of thwarting\n\none another.\nporters.\n\nI speak to you, then, as to our natural friends and best sup-\n\nYou easily recognize that it is confusing to a student, in passing\n\nfrom one English grammar to another, to have to associate his conceptions\nwith a new set of names. But consider what happens if he goes on to study,\nsay German, or French, or Latin, or any two or three of these. A new\nlanguage, a new set of terms. It is as if the student of mathematics, having\nmastered the terms addition, subtraction, multiplication, factor, quotient,\nand the like, for arithmetic, had to learn to call the same things by new\nnames when he came to algebra, and then by still different names when he\n\ncame to physics.\n\nMy children in their high school learned three different\n\nexplanations for a certain construction which was one and the same in the\nthree\n\nlanguages\n\nwhich they were studying.\n\nSimilar things happened\n\nAs a father, I feel that to be pitiable; as a citizen, I feel it\nto be wasteful; as an investigator, I know it to be ridiculous. If you will\nin your imagination picture upon the wall behind me a row of charts, one\nfor English, one for German, one for French, one for Latin, etc., the whole\nbeing so arranged that the identical phenomena in these various languages\nstand in the same lines, you will get some idea of the appalling amount of\nneedless and demoralizing labor which we now inflict upon our students\nthru the constant changing of the descriptive terms, and you will feel what\nan enormous gain in practical efliciency would result if, for a given phenomenon, one and the same term ran straight thru all the charts. And you\nrepeatedly.\n\nwill also recognize how largely the present apparent arbitrariness of gram-\n\nmar would disappear if, a given descriptive name having once been learned\nfor a certain conception in a given language, no matter which, the student\n\nshould thereafter find that same name for that same conception in whatever\n\nlanguage he might take up.\n\nFor us English-speaking people, the whole foundation of grammatical\nstudy is laid in the study of English in the grammar schools. All our\nsubsequent work, in whatever language, is based upon this. The joint\ncommittee has kept that fact constantly in mind. It has aimed at simplicity of terms, as well as at harmony.\n\nIt also has recognized that distinctions\n\nwhich it might be desirable to make in the more advanced study of English,\nand in the study of other languages, might not be advisable to make in\nthe grammar schools. The form in which its results will be displayed will\nbe such that the English teacher in the grammar schools will experience\nno confusion. The matter which belongs to more advanced English study,\nor deals with additional distinctions to be made in other languages, will\nappear in a separate and later part of the report.\n\nMr. Rounds has chronicled our meetings, which are already many.\nGood work of this kind is necessarily slow. We have proceeded with the\n\n"} {"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGRAMMA TICAL NOMENCLA TURE JOINT COMMITTEE\n\ngreatest care, and the freest and fullest discussion.\n\n207\n\nI have faith in both\n\nthe clarity and the power of persistence of the American mind.\n\nWe are\n\nhopeful that our results will commend themselves to our countrymen, and\nwill affect ultimate decisions in other countries.\n\nuniformity of nomenclature are now national.\ninternational.\n\nPropositions looking to this end have in fact already been\n\nmade in Europe.\nbegun.\n\nThe movements toward\nThey will in time become\n\nMeanwhile, a certain amount of communication has\n\nI am m)rself a member of a committee, similar to our own, estab-\n\nlished by the\n\nModem Language Association of Germany.\n\nAfter our joint committee had been appointed, and when it was already\nconsiderably advanced in\n\nits\n\nwork, a new organization, the National\n\nCouncil of English Teachers, was foimded.\n\nIt very naturally regarded the\n\nmatter of grammatical nomenclature as one of great importance to its\n\nown work, and it appointed a committee to consider and report upon the\nMr. Rounds is a member of this committee also. The remaining\nsubject.\nmembers are Professor Gertrude Buck, of Vassar College, Chairman; Mr.\nCharles R. Gaston, of the high school, Richmond Hill., N.Y.; Mr. Alfred D.\nSheffield, of Wellesley College; Professor John H. Cox, of the West Virginia University; and Miss Genevieve Apgar, of the Harris Teachers*\nCollege, St. Louis. In accordance with a vote of the joint committee, I\nhave transmitted to the committee of the Council all our recommendaThe two committees are in active\ntions, for consideration and advice.\ncorrespondence, and I have also personally seen and conferred with three\nmembers of the committee of the Council, besides Mr. Rounds, namely\nMiss Buck, Mr. Gaston, and Mr. Sheffield. We hope for mutual helpfulness between the two committees, and harmonious results.\n\nOur greatest difficulty has lain in the cost of travel.\n\nThe expense of\n\nrepeated journeys from widely separated points is heavy, and the committee is not in a position to bear it.\n\nAfter we had met the cost of one meet-\n\ning ourselves, it became clear that money must be raised for the minimum\n\nWe have been obliged to beg, and\nEven as it is, however, our work would have been\nseriously delayed, but for a generous advance made to us by Mrs. Ella\nFlagg Young, a member of the joint committee, appointed by the Department of Superintendence. We hope that the National Education Association will before long recognize the importance of the work which we are\n\nrailway expenses, if we were to proceed.\n\nmust continue to do so.\n\ndoing for the efficiency of language study in the schools of our coimtry,\n\nand will come to our relief.\n\nWe are now engaged in the final stages of putting the report into shape,\nand hope to have it ready to be submitted, in printed form, at the meeting\nof the National Education Association in July, and at the meetings of the\nother two associations in the Christmas week.\nThe one defect in the movement upon which you have now heard our\nreport of progress is that it seems to suppose that, after us, no change can\n\n"} {"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2o8\n\nIPhikdelphia\n\nIt is obvious that our work will not be complete until\nsome plan has been devised to provide for the careful discussion of any\nsupposed improvements which future experience or future thinking may\nsuggest to any teacher or student of language. Such a plan we hope to\npresent at Salt Lake City.\nMay I add that it is a personal pleasure to me to take part in the work\nthe\nNational Education Association, of which I have for many years been\nof\nmember,\nand to have received my place upon the joint committee thru\na\nappointment by the Department of Superintendence. I did, in fact,\noffer a paper on this very subject for the meeting of this department in\n1909, but too late. If I had been able to appear in the following year in\nMobile, when Mr. Rounds addressed you, we might have begun our work\ntogether more than a year earUer than we did. And finally, that you may\nnot, because of my being a Latinist and Grecian, look askance at me as\nchairman of a joint committee whose work covers English and the other\nmodern languages, may I add that I owe my first commission in work of\nthis kind, not to the American Philological Association, but to the Modern\nLanguage Association of America, which in February, 191 1, after I had\naddressed it at the Christmas meeting of 1 910, made me first a member, and\npresently chairman, of its Committee of Fifteen, charged with the work of\ndevising a grammatical nomenclature for English, French, German, Italian,\nand Spanish. That committee will now, of course, make no independent\nThe Modern Language Association will act only thru its share in\nreport.\nthe work of the joint committee. But I hope that the unexpected confidence\nwhich it showed in me in making me the chairman of its committee may\nserve at least to modify a possible presumption of the opposite kind in the\nminds of the members of the Department of Superintendence.\nAnd, finally, I have repeatedly given regular high-school courses in my\nown subjects, in connection with teachers' training courses, and am doing\nso with a class of beginners at the present moment. I am familiar at first\nhand with the equipment in Enghsh grammar, and the diversity of nomenclature, brought from grammar school to high school; and I know the young\n\never take place.\n\nmind at this point of its development.\nII\n\nSUMMARY OF TEE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING\nROBERT C. BROOKS, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA.\n\nThe purposes of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of\nLiving are set forth in the following resolution:\nResolved, That the President of the National Education Association be authorized\n\nto appoint a committee of seven active members, to consider and report to the Associa-\n\ntion its findings and recommendations concerning the salaries, tenure, and pensions of\n\n"} {"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING\n\nteachers, the committee to take into consideration,\n\n209\n\namong other things, the increased\n\ncost of living, the increased professional demands upon the time, strength, and funds of\nteachers, and whether the increase in teachers' wages has kept pace with the increase\n\nin the wages of other workers, the increase in the cost of living, and the increased demands\n\nupon teachers.\n\nIn pursuance of these purposes the present report has been prepared, a\n\nsummary of the contents and principal findings of which follows.\nPART I.\n\nTHE INCREASED COST OF LIVING\n\nIn Part I, an attempt is made to state the more important facts regarding the increase in the cost of living in such form that teachers may make\n\nuse of them in discussions of the question of salaries.\n\n—\n\n1. Measurement of the increased cost of living.\nThe United States\nBureau of Labor found that in 191 1 wholesale prices were 44.1 per cent\nhigher than in 1897. Measured by wholesale prices, a teacher whose\nsalary had remained fixed at $1,000 since 1897 would have had no greater\npurchasing power in 191 1 than $693 76 possessed in the earlier year.\nThe increase in wholesale prices has, of course, been reflected to a\n.\n\ngreater or less degree in retail prices generally.\n\nIn the case of fifteen\n\nstaple articles of food the Bureau of Labor finds that from 1896 to 191\nretail prices increased\n\n50\n\n.\n\n2\n\nper cent.\n\nFigures for the first six months of\n\n191 2 show that the upward flight of retail food prices, which was temporarily\narrested in 191 1, has begun again with increased rapidity.\n\nIn June, 191 2,\n\nretail food prices were 61.7 per cent higher than the average for 1896.\n\nWhile the 15 per cent rise of prices between 1896 and 1903 may have\nseemed of minor importance to the earUer Committee of the National\nEducation Association on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, the subsequent\nrise has been so large and rapid that, in the opinion of the present committee,\nit cannot be left out of sight for an instant in any discussion or settlement\nof the question of teachers' salaries.\n2.\n\nCauses of the increased cost of living.\n\n—To ascertain the causes\n\nof this\n\ngreat increase of general prices, and possible remedies for the inequities\n\noccasioned thereby, twelve eminent economic authorities were consulted.\n\nFor their generous response the committee is deeply grateful.\n\nThe answers\n\ngiven by them and summarized in this section of the report deal with the\nincrease of the world's gold production, the protective tariff, trusts, high\n\nmiddlemen and retailers, higher wages and trade unions, drift\non the\nfarms, exhaustion of natural resources, and extravagance. Particular\nstress is laid by most of these authorities upon increased gold production\nas a cause of higher prices, and the proposal for an international commission\non this subject, which some of them suggest, is favored as likely to at least\ndirect attention to the facts, causes, and effects of the advance of prices in\nprofits of\n\nof population to cities and diminishing proportion of inhabitants\n\na way that may contribute materially to the proper adjustment of teachers'\nsalaries to living conditions.\n\n"} {"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2IO\n\n3. Letters and references\n\non the increased cost of living.\n\n(Philadelphia\n\n—In\n\nthis section\n\nthe letters on the increased cost of living, referred to above, are presented\n\nThe committee counts itself fortunate in being able to add thereto,\n\nin full.\n\na statement of the socialist position and two letters from advocates of the\nsingle tax on the increased cost of living.\n4. Cost of living in various sections of the country.\n\n—Based upon an English\n\ninvestigation made in 1909, this section of the report discusses the relative\n\ncost of rent, of food,\ncities\n\nand of both combined in twenty-eight American\n\nlocated in New England and the East, the Middle West, and the\n\nA final table shows the amount of salary necessary on this basis in\n\nSouth.\n\neach of these cities to equal the purchasing power in rent and food of a\nsalary of $1,000 in New York City.\n\nPART n.\n\nI.\n\nECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF TEACHERS IN CINCINNATI,\nHAMILTON, DENVER, ATLANTA, AND NEW HAVEN\n\nPurpose and nature of the investigation: Replies received.\n\nThe purpose\n\nof Part II of this report was to test the possibility of securing accurate\n\ndata from teachers themselves on a number of points which must be\nconsidered in any discussion of the adequacy of their salaries.\n\nThe\n\n—Cincinnati, Hamilton, Denver, Atlanta, and New\n\ncommunities chosen\n\nHaven\n\n—represent four distinct geographical sections of the country. In the\n\ndiscussion of the topics considered in Part II of the report, numerous com-\n\nparisons are drawn between these communities with regard to such matters\nas age, sex, educational training, experience, salaries, etc., of teachers.\n\nIn\n\ngeneral these comparisons reveal the marked superiority of two, and the\n\nmarked inferiority of one, of the cities studied.\n\nIt is not intended, however,\n\nthat the definite ranking of the five cities along certain lines should be\ninterpreted as meaning either praise or blame.\n\nthese comparisons\n\nis\n\nThe principal purpose of\nby\n\nto demonstrate the possibility of ascertaining\n\nthe committee*s methods of inquiry the exact relative position of cities\n\non a large number of points which must be considered in any discussion\nof the adequacy of teachers' salaries.\nGiven a number of cities situated\nin the same geographical section and with approximately equal living\ncosts, the results obtained in this inquiry show that such comparisons\nmay be used to distinct advantage as bases of arguments for salary\nreadjustments.\n\nIn certain teaching groups considered in the present inquiry, the number\nof persons reporting is so small that occasional statistical irregularities are\n\nnoted.\n\nWith an inquiry on a larger scale embracing many thousands of\n\nteachers, it is believed that such irregularities would disappear.\n\nApart from\n\nthe relative rank of the five cities along various lines, for which readers are\nreferred to the text of the report, the following general statements with\n\nregard to the economic and social condition of teachers may properly be\nconsidered in this siunmary.\n\n"} {"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING\n\n211\n\nIt is significant, both as to the willingness of teachers to answer detailed\n\npersonal questions regarding their circumstances, and as to the representative character of the returns presented in this report, that altogether 1,735\n\npapers out of a possible 3,611, or 48 per cent, were secured from the five\n\nabove-named cities.\n\nIn three cities more than 50 per cent of the teachers\n\nreplied.\n\n—\n\nAge of teachers. ^In this section of the report the average age of\nteachers by teaching groups and cities is shown. A table stating the\nnumber of women grade teachers by age groups reveals the presence in\none of the cities of more than 40 per cent of such teachers under twenty2.\n\nfive years of age.\n\n—\n\nSex of teachers. ^In all five of the cities 13 i per cent of the teachers\nIn two of them the percentage of men closely approaches the\naverage for the United States as a whole as stated by the commissioner of\neducation. The remaining three fall far below this average.\nOf the 1,377\n4. Conjugal condition of teachers: Number of children.\n3.\n\n.\n\nare men.\n\n—\n\nwomen teachers of all groups in the five cities, 1,283, or 93 2 per cent, are\nsingle.\nAll men teachers under twenty-five years of age who replied were\nunmarried. From twenty-five to thirty years of age, 60 per cent; from\n.\n\nfrom thirty-five to forty, 22.9 per\nand from forty-five to fifty,\nper\ncent\nmen\nreporting\nwere\nsingle.\nAbove fifty none of the\nof\nall\n14.3\nmen reporting were single.\n\nthirty to thirty-five, 54.5 per cent;\n\ncent; from forty to forty-five, 11 .8 per cent;\n\nThe average size of families reported by married men teachers was\nIn the case of one of the cities only does the average number of\nchildren per family exceed two. For all the cities the average number of\nsmall.\n\nchildren in the families of married men teachers is i 79.\n.\n\n5.\n\nPersons dependent upon teachers for support.\n\n—It frequently asserted\nis\n\nthat the salaries of men teachers are fixed with reference to the burden of a\nfamily, actual or prospective.\n\nTo what extent are unmarried women\n\nteachers burdened with the support of others ?\n\nOn this question detailed data are presented for Denver. Of the 266\nwomen grade teachers of that city, 157, or 59 per cent, had others dependent\nupon them.\n\nThe average salary of the unincumbered teacher of this\n\ngroup is $885.53, while the average amount of salary of those who are\nsupporting others\n\nis\n\n$567.84 per person supported.\n\nOf the 30 single\n\nwomen teachers in the high schools of Denver, 14 support themselves only,\nand 16 have others dependent upon them for support. These 16 support\nThe 25 married men teaching\n7 persons entirely and 19 persons partially.\nin the high schools of the same city support entirely 103 persons (including\nthemselves) and 15 persons partially. Working out the cost of such support on the basis of adults only, it is shown that the 14 immarried women\nof this group with no others dependent upon them have an average from\nsalary of $1,211 .83 to meet their own needs exclusively; the i6 unmarried\n\n"} {"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n212\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nwomen with others dependent upon them have an average from salary of\n$801.03 to spend for each adult person including themselves; while the\nmarried men have an average from salary of $413.49 for the equivalent of\neach adult person including themselves.\n\nThat the proportion of unmarried women teachers supporting others\nis\n\nlarge and the burden of such support heavy is shown for all cities and\n\nteaching groups by one of the tables in this section of the report.\ncitation will illustrate the nature of this material.\n\nA single\n\nOf the 434 unmarried\n\nwomen grade teachers in Cincinnati, 264, or 60. 8 per cent, are supporting\nothers as follows: 28 male, and 34 female minor dependents, of whom 16\n\nand 91 male and 303 female adult\ndependents, of whom 199 are totally and 195 partially supported. Other\nare totally and 46 partially supported;\n\ntables show the extent to which this burden increases with advanced years.\n6.\n\nHome ownership and tenancy of married teachers.\n\n—In\n\nthis section\n\nof the report the number and percentage of married teachers of both sexes\n\nowning their homes or renting them are shown by teaching groups and\nCombining all teaching ranks in the five cities the percentage of\nmarried men teachers owning their homes is 57.32.\n7. Residence and amount paid for hoard and room by unmarried teachers.\nSection 7 of the report shows for unmarried teachers of both sexes the\ncities.\n\n—\n\nnumber (i) living with parents, (2) with other relatives, (3) boarding elsewhere, or (4) keeping house; and the maximum, minimum, and average\n\namounts paid for board and room in the three former cases.\n\nThe percentage\n\nof unmarried teachers not living with parents or other relatives is a rough\n\nindex of the extent to which cities draw their teachers from outside localities.\n\nWide differences in this regard are noted.\nper cent of unmarried\nrelatives.\n\nAs\n\nIn all five of the cities 28.75\n\nteachers are living apart\n\nfrom parents or other\n\nage advances a constantly increasing percentage of un-\n\nmarried women grade teachers are found living apart from parents or other\nrelatives.\n\nFigures stating the amounts paid for board and room empha-\n\nsize the advantage generally, altho not always, enjoyed by those living with\n\nparents or other relatives.\n\nAlso they show a very much higher living cost in\n\nsome of the cities than in others. In Denver, the average weekly commercial rate paid for board and room by women grade teachers is $7.15;\nin New Haven, $5.42; in Hamilton, $5.15; and in Atlanta, $4 90.\n^The purpose\n8. Average salaries and other sources of income of teachers.\nearnings\nof\nthe\nand\namount\nthe\nreport\nis\nto\nascertain\nof this section of the\n.\n\n—\n\nother income of teachers in addition to their salaries.\n\nParticular impor-\n\ntance attaches to the earnings derived from extra teaching or other outside\n\nwork, altho interest on savings, etc., and income from property are also\nconsidered.\n\nMore than half of all the teachers in the five cities belong to groups\nadding less than 2 J per cent, and nearly 90 per cent belong to groups adding\nless than 5 per cent to their salaries from extra teaching or other outside\n\n"} {"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSuperintendence!\n\nwork.\n\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING\n\n213\n\nIn practice, therefore, the opportunities open to teachers to supple-\n\nment their salaries in this way are not very largely productive.\nenjoy very great advantages over women teachers in this respect.\n\nMen\nAn\n\noutline showing the sources of the teacher's outside income is also presented.\n\nThe overwhelming predominance in this list of sedentary clerical and\nindoor forms of work is a very disquieting feature of the situation.\n9.\n\nSavings of teachers during igii.\n\n—In round numbers unmarried women\n\ngrade teachers in the five cities with average salaries of from $550 to $900\n\nsaved from salaries in 191 1 an average of from $30 to $90.\n\nThe larger\n\npercentages saved as salaries are advanced toward the prevailing maximum\nindicate a provident spirit among teachers.\n\nIn Cincinnati and Hamilton,\n\nhowever, slightly more than one-third, in New Haven and Denver more\n\nthan two-fifths, and in Atlanta very nearly two-thirds of the women grade\n\nThe relation between this unsatis-\n\nteachers reported no savings in 191 1.\n\nfactory condition and low salaries is developed in the accompanying tables.\n\nEven among teachers of longer experience and higher rank the proportion\nNor can the amounts laid aside by those who report\nsavings for the year be considered satisfactory. Under existing conditions\n\nof non-savers is large.\n\nit is clear that the great majority of teachers are so situated that they can-\n\nnot save enough from salaries to enable them to retire at their own expense.\n10. Property of teachers.\n\n—Unmarried women grade teachers\n\nin the five\n\ncities report an average value of all property, real and personal, of $1,091 94.\n.\n\nIn one city the average for teachers of this group and sex is less than half of\nthis\n\namount.\n\ncities.\n\nSimilar averages are presented for all teaching groups by\n\nA table showing the number of teachers reporting property holdings\n\nof various specified amounts also brings out the large number who have\n\nnot succeeded in acquiring any property.\n\nThus among unmarried women\n\ngrade teachers the percentages reporting no property are as follows: Under\ntwenty-five years of age, 67 07 per cent; twenty-five to thirty years of age,\n52 83 per cent; thirty to thirty-five years of age, 38 88 per cent; thirty-five\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nto forty years of age, 30 87 per cent; forty to forty-five years of age, 29 19\n.\n\n.\n\nper cent; forty-five to fifty years of age, 20.21 per cent;\n\nfifty to fifty-five\n\nyears of age, 21 .43 per cent; fifty-five to sixty years of age, 14. 28 per cent;\n\nover sixty years of age, 19.05 per cent.\n\nWhile the decrease in the propor-\n\ntion of the propertyless thus shown is gratifying, still the percentage of those\n\neven in the higher age groups who have acquired no property is alarmingly\nlarge.\n\nA detailed study of single women grade teachers over fifty years of age\nshows that in Cincinnati only 5 out of 66, and in Denver only 9 out of 42\nsuch teachers have property in excess of $5,000, which is probably the\nlowest possible amount upon which they could retire at their own expense\nthis in spite of the fact that the two cities referred to pay by far the best\nsalaries to this\n\ngroup of teachers.\n\nSimilar figures for other groups of\n\nteachers make clear the necessity for teachers' pensions.\n\n"} {"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n214\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nOut of over sixteen hundred teachers of all ranks in the cities studied,\nonly 13 were found to be worth over $15,000.\n\nA detailed examination\n\nof these cases shows that nearly all of them owe their good fortune to sources\n\noutside their salaries as teachers.\nis\n\nThe conmion observation that teaching\n\nnot a money-making pursuit would seem to be more than confirmed by\n\nthe results of this investigation.\n11. Life insurance carried by teachers.\n\n—Reports from teachers regarding\n\nendowment policies,\npremiums for which are much higher per $1,000 of insurance than for other\nforms of policies. While the endowment plan combines a form of saving\nlife\n\ninsurance indicate their strong preference for\n\nwith insurance, it is doubtful whether it is the best policy for many teachers,\nespecially for those who can look forward to retiring pensions.\n\nThe moral obligation resting upon married men teachers to insure their\nlives is recognized by a large majority of them.\n\nIn Cincinnati and Denver\n\nonly 13 out of 138 married men teachers are uninsured. The average\namount of insurance carried, however, is far from adequate. Even combining insurance with property owned, only 4 out of the 138 married men\nteachers referred to above would, if they were to die now, leave estates\n\naggregating over ten times the average salary they are\n\nnow receiving.\n\nNearly two-thirds of them would leave estates amounting to less than five\ntimes their average salaries.\n\nDeath of the breadwinner in the majority\n\nof such cases would inevitably mean a sharp reduction in the standard of\nliving of the survivors.\n\n—\n\nThe teacher^ s working-day. ^In addition (a) to the number of hours\nrequired to be in the schoolroom, this section of the report endeavors to\n12.\n\nascertain (b) the number of hours spent in grading papers, preparing lessons,\n\nand other work directly connected with teaching, and (c) in meeting other\nprofessional demands.\n\nDue to the habit of taking the first of these items\n\nonly into account, it has long been a popular fallacy that the teacher's\n\nworking-day is a very short one.\n\nConsidering all three items, the reverse is\n\nshown to be the case. Thus in Denver, men high-school teachers report an\naverage per school day of 5 hours and 43 minutes in the classroom, 2 hours\nand 7 minutes in work directly connected with teaching, and 56 minutes\nin meeting indirect professional demands a total of 8 hours and 46 minutes.\n\n—\n\nSimilar figures are presented for each teaching group in the five cities.\n\nAn\n\nextended outline containing more than one hundred items shows the nature\nof the direct and indirect professional demands upon the time of teachers.\n\nTaken in connection with the figures noted above, it goes far toward establishing the contention that the\n\nworking-day of the teacher, which, in\n\nappearance is so short, may, with due consideration of the nervous strain\n\nand extra duties involved, really be long and burdensome.\nIn this section\n13. Educational and professional training of teachers.\nof the report detailed figures show the average number of years spent by the\n\n—\n\nvarious teaching groups of the five cities in (a) common schools, (b) high\n\n"} {"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nschools, (c)\n\n21$\n\nnormal or teachers' colleges, and (d) colleges and universities.\n\nAn attempt is also made to estimate (e) the amount of training received in\nFigures showing the number of\n\nsummer schools, extension courses, etc.\n\nteachers who have received degrees, and the nature of these degrees are\n\npresented in another table.\n\nOne striking feature of this section of the\n\nreport is the very great improvement\n\nshown during recent years in the\n\nstandards of preparation of women grade teachers in Cincinnati.\n14. Training, experience, and salaries of teachers.\n\n—In\n\nthis section of the\n\nreport the average number of years of training of teachers in normal and\nteachers' colleges only is considered. Training in this sense of the word\nand teaching experience are considered partial indexes of eflSciency and\ncompared with the salaries paid to various groups of teachers. Very\nconsiderable discrepancies are disclosed in this way, but, on the whole, it\nis shown that the cities which are paying higher salaries are also securing the\nservices of distinctly better trained and more experienced teachers.\nUnder this heading an effort is made to\n15. Expenditures of teachers.\nascertain the burden of direct and indirect professional demands upon the\nfunds of teachers. The expenditures and percentages to total expenditure\n\n—\n\nof 58 married men teachers for rent, clothing, life insurance, religious pur-\n\nposes, charity, amusements and vacation, care of health, etc., are analyzed\n\nSo far as results from so small a number of families may be\ndepended upon, they indicate the effect of community standards upon\nteachers' as compared with working-men's budgets, for rent and clothing.\nin detail.\n\nIn the case of the latter item, the smaller average size of teachers' families\nreduces the economic burden somewhat\n\n—a doubtful gain from the\n\nsocial\n\nTeachers also spend relatively more than working-men\n\npoint of view.\n\nfor life insurance, religious purposes, charity,\n\nand care of health.\n\namusement and vacations,\n\nGrouping the following five items, (i) dues of teachers*\n\nclubs; (2) educational books; (3) fees for institutes, lectures, normal courses,\n\nsummer schools, etc.;\n\n(4)\n\ncontributions to school activities;\n\nand (5) trans-\n\nportation costs due to attendance upon institutes, meetings of state and\nnational education associations, etc., it is shown that the expenditures of the\n\nmarried men teachers above referred to in meeting these directly professional demands upon their funds amount to from i\n\nof their total expenditures.\n\nexpenditures of from\n\n16 to 6.94 per cent\nSeventy unmarried women teachers report\n.\n\ni 07 to 5.14 per cent in meeting these demands.\nIn both cases the burden is heaviest upon teachers with smaller incomes.\n.\n\nBoard, room rent, and clothing in the case of these seventy unmarried\n\nwomen teachers account for from 57.69 to 78.50 per cent of their total\nexpenditures.\n\nIn general, it is the smaller incomes which show the higher\n\npercentages for these three purposes.\n\nIt is evident that\n\nwhere so large\n\na proportion of teachers' salaries is claimed for the elementary necessities\nof food, shelter,\n\nand clothing, scant margin is left for vacations, care of\n\nhealth, self -improvement, and provision for the future.\n\n"} {"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n2 16\n\n1 6.\n\nTeachers^ salaries\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nand salaries of other municipal employees.\n\n—In\n\nSection i6, a detailed comparison is made between the salaries of teachers\nof all ranks and the salaries of other municipal employees in Cincinnati,\n\nDenver, Atlanta, and New Haven.\n\nIn all four of those cities the compensa-\n\ntion of grade teachers is shown to be less not only than that of many groups\nof skilled\n\nmanual workers, but also in numerous cases, to be lower than\n\nthat of common or unskilled labor.\n\nIt is also noteworthy that the highest\n\nsalaries obtainable in the school service\n\nbeneath that of superintendent\n\nby principals of high schools, supervisors, principals of larger schools,\netc.) are much lower than the salaries paid to heads of departments and\n(e.g.,\n\nmany of their subordinates in the city's service.\n17. Summary of general statements of teachers.\n\n—\n\n^At the end of the ques-\n\ntionnaire employed by the committee, teachers were asked for any further\n\nstatement they might care to make upon their compensation or standards\nof living.\n\nNearly one-third availed themselves of this opportunity.\n\nThe\n\nmore significant of these statements are quoted in Section 17 of the report\nunder the following headings: Cost of preparation for teaching; Comparison of teaching with other professions and trades; Standards of living\n\nInadequacy of salaries with regard to recreation,\nInadequacy of teachers' salaries with\nreference to further professional study to enhance efficiency as teachers;\nProvision for family life, for dependent relatives, and for old age; Savings;\nCertain specific cases of alleged underpayment; Outside work necessary\nbecause of inadequacy of teachers' salaries; Salaries inadequate to attract\nor retain efficient men and women; Special expenses and economies of\nteachers; Persons dependent upon teachers for support; Effect of teaching\nupon health; Criticisms and suggestions for reform. Whatever evidence\nof bias or downright error there may be in some few of the statements quoted\nunder the above headings, it is felt that as a whole they present a remarkrequired for teachers;\n\nsocial life, travel, music, literature;\n\nably frank, interesting, and significant summary of the thought of many\n\nOne of\nby a woman\n\nteachers with reference to their present economic environment.\n\nthe most noteworthy of these expressions\n\nis\n\nemployed in the grades of the Denver schools.\n\ncontributed\n\n**A teacher's salary,\" she\n\nwrites, \"should be sufficient to enable her to live comfortably, dress simply\n\nbut in good taste, supply books, etc., in order that she may keep abreast\nof her profession, furnish such vacation and other recreation as shall\nrepair physical and nervous waste, lay aside (without being niggardly)\nmeans to meet accident, illness, or temporary loss of employment, and\nmaintain insurance that shall furnish a retirement fimd when she must\nlay down her work.\"\n\nPART III.\n\nSALARY SCHEDULES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS\n\nPart III of this report presents data with reference to the present\nstatus of salary schedules, tenure, and pensions in the United States in\n\n"} {"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nREPORT BY COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME\n\n217\n\nsuch form, it is hoped, that teachers interested in these subjects may find\nsuggestions and legal precedents for desirable changes in existing local\n\narrangements.\n1.\n\nTeachers' salary schedules and appointment and tenure of teachers in\n\ncity school\n\nsystems of the United States.\n\n—Under\n\nthis section the principal\n\nforms of salary schedules now established in the cities of the country are\ndiscussed, particularly with reference to the conditions under which teachers\n\nare advanced from minimum to maximum salaries.\n\nPrevailing methods\n\nof appointment and dismissal of teachers are also considered.\n2.\n\nTeachers' pension laws in the United States.\n\nof pension laws, the non-contributory, the\n\n—^Three principal types\n\ncompulsory contributory, and\n\nthe voluntary contributory now exist in the United States.\n\nThe character-\n\nistics and distribution of these types are considered, following which excerpts\n\nfrom the pension laws of the various states are presented. With this\nmaterial before them teachers and others interested in enactments of this\ncharacter should be able to find legislative models suited to their needs.\n\n///\n\nECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\nA. A REPORT ON PROGRESS BY THE COMMITTEE ON\nECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY AND\nSECONDARY EDUCATION\nH. B. WILSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, DECATUR, ILL.,\nCHAIRMAN\n\nBy the time of the meetmg of the department one year ago, when your\nCommittee on Economy of Time made its debut, we had merely defined\nthe scope of our work in general terms and in outline form. We presented\nour definition and understanding of the scope of our work before a meeting\nof the Council asking advice and seeking criticism. The brief discussion\nthere and the correspondence which followed have been of inestimable\nvalue to the committee and we hereby express our appreciation for this\nco-operation and help, and bespeak for our committee an increasing amount\nof advice and counsel in the problems just ahead.\nAt the St. Louis meeting the scope of the committee's work was extended\nto include^ secondary schools, thereby making the committee responsible for\nthe study of economy of time and effort thruout the public schools. At this\nmeeting also the department requested the Coimcil to recommend to the\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations the setting-apartof $250 00\n\nI\n\n.\n\nto defray the necessary expenses of the committee in discharging its duties.\n\nMuch of the work which the\ncommittee has been able to do would have been wholly impossible but for\n\nIn due course the appropriation was made.\n\n"} {"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n2l8\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nAs we conferred, and sought to understand our work, it became evident\nthat the task assigned us could not be discharged by the gathering and\n\nNor could it be properly\nIn fact, the committee has assumed\n\ncompiling of offhand opinions and theories.\n\nexecuted in a brief space of time.\n\nthat what is needed is not hasty, convincing recommendations, nor even\n\nconvenient programs for securing possible economies in education, but\nrather a number of well-directed, fundamental studies of problems related\nto the general problem of economy, together with a careful examination\n\nand evaluation of all practical efforts now under way to effect economies.\nThe committee has sought to work along those fundamental lines\nwhich seemed to promise most immediate results, doing first, frankly,\nwhat seemed most feasible. In the course of the year progress has been\n\nmade along at least the following lines:\nFirst: The outline defining the scope and organization of our work has\nbeen somewhat extended.\n\nIn its enlarged form, it is submitted here as a\n\npart of this report that it may be available for reference.\n\nEconomy of TmE in Elementary and Secondary Education\nI.\n\nDefinition: (Logically first but must be answered last).\n1.\n\nIs economy of time to be sought thru lessening the time devoted to elementary\n\nand secondary school work ?\nIf so, shovild total time devoted to elementary and high school be lessened ?\n\nOr is economy of time to be sought thru securing larger results in the time now\nconsumed ?\n3. Or is economy of time to be sought thru a combination of i and 2 ?\n2.\n\nII.\n\nLines of investigation in seeking solution:\nI.\n\nStudy of child,\n\na.\n\nStudy of society.\n\n3.\n\nCourse-of-study problems:\n\nA. Modifications needed as to content ?\na) Eliminations needed to remove archaic and least useful materials.\nh)\n\nSignificant additions necessary.\n\nB. Modifications needed to secure economic amalgamation and wise correlation\nof subjects.\n\nWhat separate subjects or lines of work should the program\n\nof studies provide for ?\n\nC. Modifications needed to secure that sequence of work which is essential in\nsocializing and psychologizing the materials of instruction.\nD. Modifications needed to secure such differentiations in work as are advisable\nin upper grades.\n\nE. Modifications needed to secure flexibility in adapting to varying abilities and\nto different communities.\n4.\n\nProblems relating to teachers:\nA. Giving them an adequate vision as to the function and possibilities of public\neducation in our democracy.\nB. Securing suflScient eflficient, artistic (appreciative, sympathetic) teachers.\nC. Perpetuating their academic and professional growth.\nD. Preventing waste resulting from short professional life of teachers.\n\n"} {"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\n5.\n\nREPORT BY COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME\n\nProblems relating to teaching.\nA. Securing adequate motivation of children's work.\n\n219\n\nImportance of texts in use.\n\nB. Eliminating useless, meaningless, ineffective procedures.\nC. Varying the technic of teaching to suit the outcomes or results sought.\n6.\n\nProblems of organization:\nWhat systems of grading and promotion are most advantageous in securing\neconomy of time? (Effects of attendance; preventing failures; avoiding\n\nA.\n\nretardation.)\n\nB. Advantages of special schools or classes in securing economy of time?\nC. Relation of differentiated courses with reference to vocational ends to problem\nof economy of time ?\nSee D under 3.\nD. Relation of vocational guidance to securing economy of time ?\nE. How may the schools be directed and used in the interest of modifying the\npublic attitude toward educational effort ?\n7.\n\nProblems of school time:\nA. Age of entrance.\nB. Length of school year.\nC. Length of school day.\n\n8.\n\nDevelopment of standards which shall\nA. Set ends for attainment.\nB. Enable the measurement of residts secured.\nC. Indicate need of estimating economy of time.\n\nSecond:\n\nWe have given some attention to the matter of bringing our\n\nplans and purposes to the attention of others.\nvarious educational journals,\n\nThis we have done thru\n\nand by availing ourselves of opportunities\n\nwhich have presented themselves to suggest to the executive committees\nof various educational organizations the feasibility of making\n\n\"Economy\n\nof Time\" the central theme of the programs for which they are responsible.\n\nFortunately, this topic is beginning to receive definite attention in educational programs.\n\nFor example, this will be the central theme of the pro-\n\ngram of the next meeting of the Northern Illinois Teachers' Association.\nThe executive committee of the High-School Conference of the University\nof Illinois has recently constituted a committee to consider the economies\n\nwhich are possible between the high schools and the junior college.\nUniversity of Chicago\n\nis\n\nThe\n\norganizing the spring conference between co-\n\noperating high schools and the university about the question of the\neconomies which may be accomplished between the high schools and the\nuniversity.\n\nRecently the supervisors and principals of the St. Louis public\n\nschools who are doing advanced extension study in the Harris Teachers\nCollege invited the presentation of the topic, \" Economy of Time in Public-\n\nSchool Education,\" with the thought in mind of undertaking the study of\ncertain phases of the topic in co-operation with your committee.\n\nSince\n\nthen. Principal J. W. Withers, of the Harris Teachers College, reports the\n\nfollowing studies under way:\nI.\n\nOwing to the elastic system which prevails in the St. Louis public schools, a con-\n\nsiderable number of individual promotions occur in all the schools each year.\n\nA study\n\n"} {"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n220\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nnow being made of a large number of cases to determine the efifects of rapid individual\npromotion upon the subsequent progress of these children thru the grades.\n2. Study is also under way to determine the loss occasioned by the transfer of pupils\nfrom one school in St. Louis to another, and from other school systems to that of St. Louis.\nis\n\nYour committee feels that along with the theoretical and fundamental\nstudy of the general problem should go these practical efforts to secure\naggressive study and presentation of the topic, or phases of it, on the part\nof other educational bodies or organizations.\n\nAt this time, in addition to the matter in the National Education\nAssociation Proceedings, which has emanated from the Council committee\n\non this problem, we are able to point to a few discussions in educational\nliterature which are directed definitely to the problem your committee is\n\nconcerned with.\n\nIt seems worth while to note these here:\n\nIn the National Education Association Proceedings of the Chicago\n\nmeeting the following discussions appear:\n\n\"Suggestions from Cases of\n\nUnusually Rapid or Irregular Progress in Public Schools,\" by Elmer E.\n\nand \"Need of Standards for Measuring Progress and Results,\"\nby W. C. Bagley.\n\nJones;\n\nIn the Proceedings of this meeting all of the papers presented at that\nportion of this session assigned to the Committee on Economy of Time,\n\nand all of the papers presented at this afternoon session, will be found to\npertain to the general problem of economy of time.\n\nThe following articles or pamphlets are of definite value in this con\"Some Experiments in Elementary School Administration,\"\nby Samuel W. Brown, 19 lo, New York State Teachers' Association Pronection also:\n\nceedings, pp. 69-78;\nto School Progress,\n\nPublication No. 61, The Relation of Physical Defects\n\nby Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation;\n\nPublication No. E 126, The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business\nLetters, just issued, by Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation;\n\n\"The Duplication of School Work by the College,\" by Dean Angell, of the\nUniversity of Chicago, School Review, January, 1913, pp. i-io; \"The\nMeaning of Secondary Education,\" by Charles H. Judd, of the University\n\n\"The Seven- Year\nElementary School,\" by officers of the School of Education, University\n\nof Chicago, School Review, January, 1913, pp. 11-25;\n\nof Chicago, Elementary School Teacher, February, 1913, pp. 274-86.\n\nThe committee is anxious to learn of additional literature bearing\ndirectly and significantly upon this problem and will welcome help in this\n\nconnection.\n\nThird:\n\nProbably the most significant thing done by the committee\n\nduring the year was the holding of a conference with two groups of cooperating experts at the Auditorium Hotel in Chicago in December.\n\nThese\n\nexperts represented, on the one hand, those who were engaged in the work\n\nand included the vice-principal of a\nprivate school, the principal of a university high school, and superintendof administering public education,\n\n"} {"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT BY COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME\n\nents of schools.\n\n221\n\nIn the other group were those engaged in the teaching\n\nof graduate courses in education and in the directing of educational research.\n\nRepresentatives from the departments of education in the University of\nMissouri, University of Iowa, University of Illinois, University of Chicago,\n\nand Columbia University were present, as also was the head of the division\nThese two groups of experts\nmet in conference with the committee thruout an entire day, each presenting\nsome phase of the general problem of economy which it had been agreed\nin advance he would discuss.\nAt the conclusion of this day of discussion\nand cross- discussion, we turned our attention to the matter of breaking up\ninto minor problems the general problem of economy of time and of assigning to each co-operating expert such minor problems as he was willing to\nof education of the Russell Sage Foundation.\n\nundertake to direct the study of.\nIt was not found possible to define definitely a number of the problems\nwhich were suggested tentatively, so that a number of them still remain\nimassigned. The committee will be glad to indicate to those interested,\nproblems which have been suggested for study which have not yet been\nassigned. The following studies are now definitely under way:\nProfessor W. A. Jessup, of the University of Iowa, has under investi-\n\ngation\n\n\"The\n\nUseless Duplication in the Presentation of the Subject-\n\nMatter of Arithmetic,\" and also the problem of determining \"The Actual\nTime Devoted to Schooling in the United States.\" It is probable also\nthat he will undertake, in conjunction with Professor W. C. Bagley, of the\nUniversity of Illinois, \"The Standardization of the Minima in the Special\nSubjects of the Elementary Curriculum in Relation to the Outcomes\n\nDesired and in Relation to Economy of Time.\"\nProfessor W. C. Bagley will undertake \"The Standardization of the\nMinima in the Subjects of the Elementary Schools,\" turning his attention\nfirst to the minima in the subjects of history and arithmetic.\nProfessor W. W. Charters of the University of Missouri, has indicated a\nwillingness to direct the study of \"The Wastes Due to the Short Professional\n\nLife of Teachers Due to Low Salaries,\" and\n\n\"Economies Resulting from\n\nPerpetuating the Academic and Professional Growth of Teg,chers.\"\nProfessor G. D. Strayer, of Columbia University, now has a graduate\n\nstudent at work upon \"The Extent to Which State Organization of Public\n\nEducation May Operate to Secure Economy of Time.\"\nProfessor C. H. Judd, of the University of Chicago, will contribute to\n\nthe study of the general problem from the practical standpoint\n\nby the\n\nexperiment which is now under way in the elementary and high schools in\nconnection with the University of Chicago, whereby it is hoped to save\nthe students, going thru those schools, two years by the time of entrance\ninto the senior college.\n\navailable for study\n\nNot only will the program in operation there be\n\nand discussion, but likewise the tests of the results\n\nsecured from the experiment as it moves forward will be available.\n\n"} {"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n222\n\np»hiladelphia\n\nDr. L. P. A)n-es, of the Russell Sage Foundation, has indicated his\nwillingness to undertake the investigation of any phases of the problem\n\nwhich should not be left to research departments in universities.\nProfessor Frank E. Thompson, of the University of Colorado, a member\nof the committee, has been gathering information as to researches under\n\nThe inquiry indicates that but a few instituhave as yet thought concretely of the problem. Of one hundred\nschools addressed, forty-eight have been heard from, and twenty-eight of\n\nway in various imiversities.\ntions\n\nthese report work more or less upon the question, as follows:\n\nEconomy of time in all subjects of instruction in elementary and secondary schools;\nperfection of the organization and close correlation of courses to eliminate repetition and\n\navoid omission; study of typical towns on problem of retardation, especially the effect\nof changing schools;\n\neconomy of periods of work and rest; hygiene of daily program,\nwhat getting command\n\nof home study, of recess periods; length of elementary course;\n\nof a topic means; time allotment in cities in the United States; efficiency in college work;\neffect of\n\nestablishment of numerous classes for exceptional children;\n\norganization of\n\nseventh and eighth grades; departmental teaching; differentiation of courses; hygiene\nof the learning process; the various factors involved in initial memorizing and review;\nlength of the school day, month, year, etc.; mobility of the teaching population; tenure\nof office for the superintendent and principal; the state's control of the child; the efficiency\n\nof township consolidated schools; comparative study of the progress of high-school pupils\n\ntrained in rural schools and in city grades; the value of special preliminary drill work in\narithmetic; the course of study in arithmetic in two hundred schools.\n\nProfessor Thompson is investigating and compiling information upon several items\nof the syllabus with indications at present about as follows: \"Varying the technic of\n\nThe results of teaching are more than\nwe have supposed dependent upon the teacher; there is great need for specialists in each\nsubject who have farsighted sympathy with children; there is need for much differentiateaching to suit the outcome or results sought.\"\n\ntion of method and wise selection of subject-matter to suit the different abilities and temperaments of children; children should be taught to use books not to memorize them;\nthe teacher should know how to eliminate and rearrange within each lesson; teachers\nshould learn to utilize the recitation period for study should teach less and give the\nchildren a chance to learn; teachers should be cured of ritualism; the teaching should be\nadapted to the nature of the subject; the child should be given more time in which to\nassimilate material; and, above all, the teacher's aim should be clearer than it usually is.\n\" What systems of grading and promotion are most advantageous in securing economy\nof time ?\" Much advantage seems to attach to departmental teaching thru the most of\nthe grades; the ungraded class is capable of large use; schools can grade into more divi-\n\n—\n\n—for example, twenty-five teachers, twenty-five grades; the subject-matter must be\n\nsions\n\nbetter graded and more attention can be given to correlation and sequence within the\n\nsubjects themselves as well as between them.\n\n\"Advantages of special schools and classes in securing economy of time\": More\naccommodations must be provided mentally deficient and physically deficient\nchildren; the bright must be given a better chance but not of necessity in separate classes;\nthere must be more use of summer vacation, and open-air schools; industrial schools,\nco-operating schools, and the like must be devised and used more than now.\n\nspecial\n\nPresident O.\n\nI.\n\nWoodley, of the State Normal School of Fairmont,\n\nW.Va., member of the committee, is undertaking to secure co-operation\nfrom the state normal schools in the United States similar to that which\n\n"} {"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nREPORT BY COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME\n\n223\n\nProfessor Thompson is developing with the universities.\nHe also has\nunder investigation for future report \"The Waste in Education Due to\nImproper and Inadequate Concepts.\"\nProfessor J. F. Hosic, of the Chicago Normal College, chairman of\nthe committee representing the English teachers on the reorganization\nof public-school courses in English, indicated definitely his intention to\n\nhold in mind the necessity of organizing the English courses in such a way\nas to further every possible economy.\n\nTo this end he will arrange to keep\n\nin touch with the work of your committee that his committee may work\nin light of such results as\n\nmay be available from time to time to your\n\ncommittee.\n\nA number of imiversity men who are conducting graduate courses and\ndirecting research work in addition to those who attended the conference\n\nhave expressed a definite interest in the plans of the committee and have\nindicated a willingness to co-operate in\n\nany way they may be able in\n\nfurthering this work.\n\nWithin the\n\nlast\n\nfew days investigations have been arranged for as\n\n\"The Economy of Time and Results in the Teaching of English,\"\nProfessor W. W. Black, director, School of Education, Indiana University;\n\"Eflicacy in Teaching Spelling Rules,\" Dr. C. W. Stone, director of Training School, State Normal School, Farmville, Va.; \"Economy of Time\nThru (a) Scientific Administration of Educational Hygiene; (b) The\nPrevention and Cure of School Ailments,\" Professor Louis W. Rapeer,\nDepartment of Psychology and Education, New York Training School\nfor Teachers; \"Economy of Time in City Training Schools and in High\nSchools as Related to City Training Schools,\" Frank A. Manny, director,\ntraining of teachers, Baltimore, Md.\nDuring the next year we feel very certain that a number of men in\naddition to those who are now at work in a co-operative way will under-\n\nfollows:\n\ntake studies and investigations which will be of fundamental value in\nfurthering the work of the committee.\n\nClarence D. Kingsley, agent, Massachusetts State Board of Education,\nand chairman of the Committee of the Secondary Department of the\nNational Education Association on Articulation of High Schools and\nColleges, has indicated that thruout the various phases of their work they\nshall hold in mind the necessity of providing for eliminations and for such\norganization of their work as will result in greater economies in secondary\neducation.\n\nThe thought of your committee is that the results of these investigations shall be rendered available as rapidly as possible thru the pages of\n\nour educational magazines or thru publications by this department,\n\nall\n\nof them being regarded, perhaps, as contributions to the problem of economy\n\nWithin the next year, also, there is reason to expect that it will\nbe possible to compile for consideration a number of worth-while experi-\n\nof time.\n\n"} {"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n224\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nments which are under way in different city systems in the United States,\nand also to secure some valuable returns from the scientific studies which\na number of city superintendents are planning to undertake in connection\nwith their more progressive teachers.\nSuperintendent J. H. Francis, of Los Angeles, Cal., a member of our\ncommittee, already has a number of things under way, some of which he\nwill indicate in his address.\n\nmittee, supplied\n\nSuperintendent F. E. Spaulding, of the com-\n\nme the following memorandum in reference to some of\n\nthe ways in which they are trying to economize time in the Newton schools:\n1.\n\nWe admit to high school practically all pupils of high-school age, regardless of\nWe are adapting the work and methods\n\nthe completion of the grammar-school course.\n\n(A\nof the high school to pupils thus admitted. This plan is proving very successful.\npamphlet on this subject entitled, A Novel Experiment^ has been issued.)\n2. Thru extensive use of group work, individual work, small classes, special classes\nand rooms, special assistants and extra teachers, we aim to advance every pupil as rapidly\nas his ability permits, and not more rapidly, consistent with his health and general wellbeing.\n3.\n\nWe are modifying somewhat the curriculum in the higher grammar grades, the\n\nbetter to adapt it to different types of children.\n4.\n\nWe are trying to work out a practical scale for English composition, suggested by\n\nthe Hillegas-Thomdike Scale, which was tested but found inadequate.\n5. Groups of principals and teachers, representing in each group both our high schools\n\nand grammar schools, are working on several definite problems of correlation between\nFor example: One group is studying the\nthe granmiar schools and the high schools.\norganization of the grammar schools, on the one end, and the high schools, on the other,\nin their effects upon the pupils coming from the grammar to the high schools, with the\n\npurpose of so modifying the organization of these two types of schools that the transition\nfrom the one to the other will not be disadvantageous to the pupil. Other groups are\n\nworking on similar problems respecting the content and method of instruction in English,\nscience, mathematics, and history in the grammar and in the high schools.\n6.\n\nSome studies are being made in the elementary schools in an attempt to work\n\nout normal standards of time necessary to accomplish given definite results; for example,\nthe mastery of certain topics in arithmetic, as the process of long division.\n7. We are trying to determine the limits within which fall the most advantageous\n\nnumber of recitation periods per week for a high-school pupil.\nreference to this matter in\n\n(I expect to make some\n\nmy paper at the Friday afternoon session.)\n\nThe needs from the standpoint of this problem as your committee\nviews them may be briefly summarized as follows:\n1.\n\nGreater publicity as to the desire of the committee to learn of efforts to economize\n\ntime which should be studied for the contribution they may have to make.\n2. More specific discussion of various phases of the problem in local, state, and\nnational educational meetings with attention directed to concrete xmdertakings and results\n\nand to scientific studies of significant phases of the problem.\n3.\n\nMore extensive study of the topic in the professional meetings of teachers in\n\nservice, and by students in normal schools, and schools of education who are looking to\n\nteaching.\n4.\n\nMore testing out of plans which look to the saving of time and energy.\n\nIt is\n\nextremely important that a large number of school systems test out various procedures\nwhich may contribute to economy of time. The committee is anxious to communicate\n\nwith any persons who will co-operate in this way.\n\n"} {"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "A SEVEN-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n225\n\nThe further perfection of those scales of measurement which have been proposed\n\n5.\n\nfor use in standardizing the results in writing, arithmetic, and English composition, and\n\nthe development of scales applicable in the standardization of results in other studies,\nto the end that definite standards of attainment in a given time may be indicated for the\n\nguidance of supervisory officers and teachers in the various subjects of study.\n6.\n\nA larger number of co-operating experts who will undertake the study and investi-\n\ngation, with students who can do scientific work, of additional phases of the problems.\n7.\n\nThe publication, as rapidly as they are available, of fundamental studies pertaining\n\nto economy of time and of the results of practical efforts to save time in public-school\n\neducation.\n8.\n\nA continuation of the committee for another year and the provision of $500.00\n\nwith which to further the work of the committee.\n\nB.\n\nA SEVEN-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nCHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe elementary school of the University of Chicago has been working\nfor some years on the problem of saving the time of the pupils so that they\n\nmay enter the high school at an earlier period than has been the custom in\nthe regular eight-year course which has up to this time been administered in\nthis school.\n\nIt is evident to all students of education that in one way or\n\nanother time is wasted, or at least not as well spent as it might be.\n\nTeachers\n\nrealizing that they have more time than is required to cover a given amount\n\nof work relax somewhat in their instruction and the class is less well instructed\n\nthan it might be.\n\nLack of activity on the part of the pupils is then inter-\n\npreted as due to the difficulty of the course and further reduction of the re-\n\nquirements follows until the rate of intellectual movement in the upper grades\nis distinctly slow.\n\nThis manifests itself in many schools in an error which\n\neveryone tries to avoid but is likely to fall into either in the elementary\nschool or in the first year of high school,\nreviewing.\n\nnamely the error of excessive\n\nIn the case of the university schools there was undoubtedly\n\nrepetition in several of the high-school courses of matter and methods which\n\nhad been adequately taken up in the elementary schools.\n\nIn some other\n\nschools excessive reviewing appears in the seventh grade.\n\nThis reviewing\n\nis\n\nrepeated in the early part of the eighth grade, and the latter half of the\n\neighth. grade is very commonly given over to a general review of the work\n\nthat has been done in the elementary school, in preparation for the high\nAll this reviewing, even where it has been consciously carried out,\nseems to be regarded as ineffective, for as soon as the student enters the\nschool.\n\nhigh school, he finds himself dealing, as indicated above, in many of the\nsubjects, with materials and methods which he has canvassed before in the\n\nelementary school.\n\nThe natural result of such repetition is that the student\n\nmanifests no interest in the work that is offered to him in the first year of\n\nthe high school because he has already become acquainted with it in the\n\nupper grades of the grammar school.\n\n"} {"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n226\n\nIPhUadelphia\n\nIf it is urged that this reviewing is necessary on the principle that the\n\nelementary work must be done with great care so as to avoid any possibility\nof failure in the high school, there is double reason for the contention that\n\nthe high school must recognize exactly what has been accomplished in the\n\nelementary grades, and the teachers in the high school ought to be called\n\nupon to take advantage immediately of all of the preparation which the\nchildren have for advanced work.\n\nThe fact is, however, that high schools\n\nand elementary schools very often have little or no articulation.\n\nFor\n\nexample, a committee of the National Council of English Teachers declared\nthe problem of relating elementary English to high-school English to be a\n\nnew and unsolved problem.\n\nIt is evident to the student of education that\n\nin most schools students bear the burden of maladjustment in these matters.\n\nThe elementary school is overanxious and overburdened with strict superThe student is made\nvision, while the high school is neglectful of its duties.\nin\nbewildered\nand\nis\nleft\na\nstate\nof mind because the\nimnecessarily\nto repeat\nteachers have not worked out an adjustment.\n\nwas the belief that the school could work out the relation more\nefficiently that prompted the university schools to attack the problem of\nIt\n\neconomy.\n\nTeachers in the high school were called into conference with the\n\nteachers in the later years of the elementary school, and the matter of each\nof the different subjects was canvassed in detail in order to find out exactly\n\nwhat was being done in the seventh grade and in the eighth grade and in the\nfirst year of the high school, and how far all the different lines of work\nwere interrelated.\nIt should be noted perhaps at the outset that the program of the elementary school is somewhat fuller than the ordinary program in public schools\nof elementary grade.\n\nFor example, all of the chUdren of the university\n\nelementary school take one foreign language beginning with the fourth or\nThe result is that each pupil arrives at the eighth grade with\nfifth grade.\n\nsome speaking knowledge of either French or German, according as he may\nhave elected to take the one language or the other during his elementary\nFurthermore, it may be pointed out that the elementary school\ncourse.\ngives a good deal of attention to nature study. Work in the garden alternates with studies in physics, hygiene, general zoology, and botany. This\ntype of work is cultivated to a degree unusual in elementary schools.\n\nIn\n\nlike fashion, a good deal of emphasis is laid on the cultivation of skill thru\n\nmanual arts and the development of knowledge of the industries. Sewing,\nweaving, and constructive work are taught in the lower grades; the girls\nare given more complete courses in sewing in the upper grades, while the\nboys take shopwork; both boys and girls take printing in the upper grades.\nIn short, the effort to economize time is not to be confused with any effort\nto reduce the elementary course to its lowest possible terms in point of\ncontent.\n\nThe undertaking is to be described rather by saying that the\n\nschool is organized to include all that can legitimately be included in an\n\n"} {"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA SEVEN-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nelementary education.\n\n227\n\nIts full content is then to be administered in such a\n\nway as to save as much time as can be saved by the best possible organization.\n\nIt should be explicitly noted, therefore, that the reduction of time\n\ninvolves no curtailment of the various extra lines of work.\n\nThe work in\n\nforeign language, in science, and in handwork is recognized as altogether as\n\nimportant as other lines of work in the school; and it was imderstood from\nthe outset that if the reduction of time was to be legitimately made, it must\n\nbe made in such a way as not to jeopardize the interests of these special\nThe whole attention of the school was concentrated upon the\nsubjects.\n\nproblem of a more effective correlation of the two schools without depriving\nthe students of anything.\n\nThe type of economy which it was the aim of the school to secure can\nbest be illustrated by referring to the various subjects of instruction.\n\nThus,\n\nthe high-school teachers did not find it easily possible to take advantage of\n\nthe training which had been given in the elementary school in\nlanguages.\n\nmodem\n\nThe German teachers and the French teachers of the high\n\nschool held that the kind of work which had been done in the elementary\nschool did not correspond exactly to the work that had been done in the\n\nThey found therefore that students\nwho came from the elementary school could not be admitted to the second\nhigh school in the first-year course.\n\nyear of the high-school classes without interfering in some degree with the\n\nThe organization was therefore\nThe pupil had done such work as was required\n\nordinary organization of the courses.\ninhospitable to the child.\n\nof him, but little or no recognition could be given to the elementary work\n\nby the high-school departments because their organization did not connect\n\nA second example of failure to articuFor a long time the students from the\nelementary school were put into the same kind of science work as children\nwho came to the high school from elementary schools where less attention\nhad been given to science. Again, elementary manual training was given\nin the high school and was required of all, including those who had done\ndirectly with the elementary work.\n\nlate appears in the science work.\n\nsimilar work in the university elementary school.\nIt would have been altogether disastrous to the organization of the two\n\nschools to have made any sudden move.\n\nIn the first place, the teachers\n\nwho would have been involved in any such sudden arrangement would not\nhave had time to adjust their work, and the children would have experienced the ill effects of an experiment for which the teaching corps had\nrelatively little sympathy.\nThe first step therefore was to bring together\nthe various members of different departments, and to establish relations\n\nwhich would make it easily possible for the high-school teachers and the\nelementary-school teachers to look at the problem from the same point of\n\nFor example, the modern-language teachers were called upon to\nexamine each other's work and to suggest any modifications that were\nview.\n\nnecessary in order to allow the children to pass directly from the elementary\n\n"} {"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Phfladdphia\n\nwork into the advanced stages of the work in the high school.\n\nIndeed,\n\ncertain forms of organization were undertaken to make this transition easy.\nIt\n\nwas said, for example, that children who came from the elementary\n\nschool are somewhat less mature than the children who have passed thru\n\nFor two years, therefore, the children who\ncame from the elementary school, and had taken a good deal of German,\nhave been allowed to do a small amount of (jerman during the first year of\nthe first year of high school.\n\nthe high school until they should obtain the maturity supposed to be necessary in order to make it possible for them to stand on an exact equality\n\nwith the students in the second year of the high school. This compromise\norganization is on the whole not very satisfactory, but it furnishes a method\nof passing without shock from the general inco-ordination with which the\n\norganization started to the final arrangement in which it\n\nis\n\nhoped the\n\nadjustment will be complete. In the meantime the teacher of the elementary school has been called upon to give some of the work in the first\nyear of the high school,* and modifications have gradually been made in\nthe work of both the elementary school and the first year of the high school\nuntil there seems to be reasonable promise of a complete co-ordination.\n\nThe English departments of the two schools were asked to meet together\nand to canvass in detail all of the work given in the eighth grade and the\nwork given in the first year of the high school. This careful study of the\nproblem very soon brought out the result that both schools were dealing\nwith the same type of material, and in much the same fashion. Only very\nslight modifications were necessary in order to justify the promotion of the\n\nchildren who had done the work of the eighth grade in the elementary school\ndirectly into the second year of the high school.\n\nThis promotion into the\n\nsecond year of the high school avoided all of the repetitions that had\nformerly been committed in the first year of the high school.\n\nSo far as science was concerned, it was very simple to allow the children\nfrom the elementary school to omit the first-year science course. In the\nuniversity high school this first-year science course\n\nis\n\na general course\n\ndealing with phenomena that are at once physical and biological.\n\nThe\n\nproblem of giving credit for this science course is perhaps not as simple as\nthe problem of giving credit in the other departments, but the permission,\nindeed the requirement, to omit the first year of science in the high school\nhas been put into full operation.\nThe discussion of manual training led to a modification of the course as\nadministered in the high school, so that now elementary handwork is not\nrequired of first-year children who have had such work in the elementary\nschool.\n\nThis readjustment is generally advantageous, because not only\n\nthe university elementary school, but many other schools also, are intro-\n\nducing enough handwork to justify a somewhat more advanced type of\n\nwork when the pupils enter the first year of the high school.\nThe problem of mathematics was somewhat more complicated.\n\nThe\n\n"} {"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nA SEVEN-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\n229\n\nbetween arithmetic and algebra, which marks the\nboundary line between the elementary and the high school, is not so easy\nto transcend. There can be- very little doubt to the mind of the careful\n\ntraditional division\n\nobserver that this traditional division is not justified by the needs of pupils.\n\nA great deal of the work that is done in arithmetic in the elementary school\nin the later years is valuable merely because it presents complicated opportunities for developing reasoning processes in the children.\n\nAs a training in\n\nmathematics these problems are of very doubtful value. They involve only\nthe relatively simpler mathematical processes, and these mathematical\nprocesses are imbedded in a situation which must be visualized and disentangled before the student can properly apply what he knows about\narithmetical operations. It would be very much more educative, in many\ncases, to solve these complicated problems that are given in arithmetic by\n\nalgebraical formulas.\n\nFor example, if a symbol of the unknown quantity\n\ncould be employed in the calculations, the method of solving the problem\n\nwould be better from the point of view of the child's development.\n\nIf the\n\nprinciples of solving the equation were understood, the solution of many an\n\narithmetical problem would be rendered very easy.\n\nYet there is a strong\n\ntradition against the introduction of the unknown quantity and the simpler\n\nmethods of solving equations into the elementary-school course. From\ntime to time algebra has been taught in the upper grades of some elementary\nschool only to be timidly dropped because of the anxiety of someone about\nthe traditions of elementary education. In spite of reason the high school\nhas accordingly kept its hold on algebra and its methods. In the same\nway, geometry has traditionally been the property of the high school.'\nLittle by little the elementary school has been introducing certain constructive problems which deal with the simpler properties of space, but even here\nit has not been regarded as heretical to call such work by the name of\ngeometry because geometry has always been given as a high-school course.\n\nThe experiment in the university elementary school proceeded therefore\nThe mathematical work\n\nvery cautiously in this matter of mathematics.\n\nusually required of the eighth grade was completed in due form.\n\nLast year,\n\nwith an eighth grade that had advanced well in matters mathematical, a\ncertain amount of high-school work was tentatively undertaken, and it was\n\nfound that the eighth grade could take, in addition to its regular arithmetic,\napproximately half a year of high-school work in algebra and geometry.\n\nIt\n\nshould be said that the mathematical course given in the university high\nschool consists of certain algebraical and geometrical problems which are\n\nworked out together.\neighth grade.\n\nExactly the same course was followed with the\nIn order to corroborate the judgment of the instructors that\n\nthe eighth grade had done the work satisfactorily, a test prepared by the\nhigh-school department was given at the end of the half-year course.\n\nThis\n\ntest was just the same as the test which was administered at the same stage\n\nto the classes in the high school; furthermore the papers were graded by the\n\n"} {"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n230\n\n[PhUadelphia\n\ninstructors in the high school, and the eighth-grade children succeeded in\n\nthe tests fully as well as the high-school children had succeeded.\n\nThere\n\nwas a good deal of enthusiasm in the class for the work, and the general\nresult upon the children of the whole experiment has been very gratifying.\nThey have been willing to work, and they have shown enthusiasm about the\nprogress which has interested their instructors as well as themselves. They\nhave gone on in the high school this year with unabated success.\nThis year's eighth-grade class is doing from the first practically highschool mathematics, with the result that at the end of this year the present\neighth grade will have, instead of half a year's mathematics to its credit,\npractically all of the first-year high-school work.\n\nSuch an adjustment as has been described in mathematics is not\nThe changes ought to be made farther down in\nthe elementary course, and it is hoped that the work may proceed from this\npoint in such fashion that in the sixth and seventh grades certain mathematical formulas that have always been given in algebra shall be gradually\nintroduced. The use of co-ordinate paper and co-ordinate sections on the\naltogether satisfactory.\n\nblackboard has long been common in the elementary course in mathematics.\n\nThere is no reason why this should not be enlarged to the point of including\na good deal of material that is ordinarily presented in geometry. In other\nwords, the work in mathematics will gradually but certainly be worked over\nso as to articulate very much more intimately the work of the elementary\nThere will ultimately be no break\nwhich has to be bridged over by the study of high-school mathematics in\nschool with that of the high school.\n\nthe eighth grade.\n\nThere are two eighth-grade subjects which are not fully dealt with in the\npreceding paragraphs. These are history and geography. A certain\namount of history is commonly taught in the eighth grade. There is also a\ncompletion of the work in geography. If these two subjects are entirely\nomitted, the elementary course is likely to be incomplete, and if, on the\nother hand, they are carried up into the high school, they raise a number of\nquestions which are not commonly imderstood by first-year teachers of the\n\nhigh school.\n\nThus we find very few high-school classes which have any\n\ngeneral geography.\n\nThis practice, however, of completing geography in the\nIf one visits European\n\nelementary school is peculiar to the United States.\n\ninstitutions one finds that geography is a respectable science which has its\n\nplace in university classes and in the upper years of the secondary schools.\n\nThere is no reason at all why we should not consider as part of our American\nreadjustment the problem of putting into the high school a certain amount of\ngeography. Indeed, such a change in the high-school course is advocated\nin many meetings of teachers of science.\n\nIf the history\n\ntaught in higher\n\ninstitutions is to be made intelligent, it is very clear that there ought to be\n\nsome review of the geography which has been studied in the elementary/\nschool.\nAt the present time the geography which finds its place in somet\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nA SEVEN-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\n231\n\nhigh-school courses is a form of physical geography, strictly related to the\n\nThat there should be some general earth science in the\nhigh school is recognized widely enough to command serious attention, and\nthe suggestion which ought to be carried out in some form or other is that\nscience of geology.\n\nthere be such a readjustment of the elementary-school geography that there\nshall be no loss to the individual pupil from the ultimate omission of the\n\npresent eighth-grade course.\n\nAgain, with regard to history, the problem is one of general readjust-\n\nment.\n\nAt the present time the eighth grade in the university elementary\n\nschool is carrying on the history and geography which have been for some\n\nyears usual in this grade.\n\nThe result is a program which is somewhat\n\nheavier than the program of students who are doing similar work in the first\n\nyear of the high school.\n\nThe heavy program is an incident of readjustment,\n\nhowever, and will probably be avoided in the future.\n\nAs a matter of administrative convenience, all of the readjustments\nwhich have been described above have been made without changing in any\n\nway the designations of the classes of pupils concerned.\n\nThat is, up to this\n\ntime the eighth grade has been continued as an elementary-school class.\nChildren\n\nwho have succeeded in doing the work in modern language,\n\nEnglish, etc., have been passed into the second year of the high school, and\n\nthere have been allowed to go forward with high-school work, taking\nadvanced credits for the work which they did in the elementary school.\nThere is no final reason why the first year of the high school should be\ncircumvented rather than that the eighth grade be abolished. Indeed,\nthere are many reasons why it would be advantageous to omit the eighth\ngrade and allow the children to begin their work with the regular course of\nthe high school. It is planned for next year that the eighth grade shall be\nentirely omitted.\nThe seventh-grade children will be promoted directly\ninto the first year of the high school, and will carry on the work which is this\nyear being done in the eighth grade, in the first-year class of the high school.\nThis decision needs perhaps to be defended in detail. The purely local\nconsiderations are of no great importance. It is essential that the question\nbe faced in some general form. In the effort to deal in a general way with\nthe whole matter, considerations of the following type are of importance.\nIs the eighth grade in its organization and in its method of conduct of work\nmore like the high-school class or more like the general elementary course ?\nDo the students gain any social and personal advantages by being classified\nas high-school students, which they would miss if they continued to be\n\nmembers of the elementary school ?\nThe considerations which led the officers of the university schools to\ndecide on the abolition of the eighth grade are as follows: First of all, the\ngeneral departmental t3^e of work which has been carried on for years in the\n\neighth grade is of the high-school type.\n\nStudents have been brought into\n\ncontact with special teachers for each of the subjects in the upper grades,\n\n"} {"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n232\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nand this type of instruction seems to give the highest degree of efficiency.\nThe student is mature enough so that he is not crippled by his lack of\ncontinuous contact with his instructor.\n\nFurthermore, this departmental\n\ntype of organization makes it possible to defer in some degree to the special\nneeds of the individual child.\n\nIt is possible, in other words, to introduce\n\nsome elective opportunity which will differentiate the course and adjust it\nsomewhat more readily to the interests of the individual. Sometimes a\nchild falls behind in a single subject.\n\nIf the elementary type of organization\n\ncontinues, it is -extremely difficult to carry him forward in his other subjects\n\nbecause of this single deficiency, whereas in the high school a deficiency in\n\na single subject is not very serious for the general organization of the\nstudent's program. Apart, therefore, from the general advantages of\nelection there is the possibility of adjusting the student's work in detail, and\nthis adjustment is more readily carried on under the formula of high-school\ninstruction than it is under the general formula of elementary organization.\nIndeed, the upper grades are even now, altho they remain in the elementary\nschools, taking on the freer form of organization which makes election\npossible.\n\nAgain there are many considerations which tend to attach the children\nupper years of the elementary school to the adolescent group as\ndistinguished from the elementary group. A general social consciousness\nand a desire for the simpler forms of social life which are known in the\nhigh school and are cultivated by adolescent children, begin to appear in\nstudents of the eighth grade. There is no reason at all why such students\nshould not, imder careful supervision, be allowed to share in some of the\nlarger liberties which are accorded to high-school students as distinguished\nfrom students in the elementary school. The interest that is aroused in the\nminds of these students who are just beginning to realize their social\nopportunities and obligations is also a distinct advantage in stimulating\nthem to do better and more elaborate work. They can be thrown on their\nown responsibility with more definite consciousness on their own part and on\nthe part of the teacher, that they are to be held responsible for their own\nconduct and for their social organization. They can be relied upon to\norganize more fully their home work. They can be appealed to in a variety\nof ways because of the classification which is accorded to them, whereas if\nthey were continued in the elementary school they would feel on the whole\nmore dependent than they do as members of the high-school community.\nFrom the point of view of the instructorial organization also, it is doubtof the\n\nThey\ncome in contact more frequently with men, and this is a distinct advantage,\n\nless advantageous for the students to be classified in the high school.\n\nespecially for the boys.\n\nThe question immediately arises whether this process of economy and\ncondensation can legitimately be carried a step farther than it has been\ncarried in the imiversity elementary school.\n\n"} {"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nA SEVEN-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\n233\n\nIn reply to the question thus raised, it may be said that the effort of the\nelementary school has not been in this case to work out to its final stages the\n\nwhole experiment of readjustment.\n\nThe effort which has attracted the\n\nattention and interest of the officers of the university schools up to this point\nis the effort to co-ordinate the\n\nwork of the two schools.\n\nIt is a mere accident\n\nthat a single grade, rather than a grade and a half, has been eliminated as a\nresult of this experiment.\nfarther.\n\nPerhaps the condensation of the course can go\n\nIt is the judgment of those who are in closest contact with this\n\nexperiment that it is probably not desirable to attempt to reduce any\nfurther the time spent on the subjects discussed up to this point.\n\nIf there is\n\nlack of economy in the high-school organization from this point on, that\nlack of economy can probably be corrected most advantageously by a fusion\n\nbetween the high school and the junior college similar to that which has\nbeen worked out between the elementary school and the high school.\nWhether or not the seventh grade should be classified with the high school\nor the elementary school is another question not to be confused with the\nquestion of economy. That detail of organization may or may not be\nworked out by reducing the elementary school to a six-year school. The\nwork which is now done in the seventh grade will undoubtedly have to be\ndone somewhere, and in much the same form in which it is now done. If\nthat can be carried on better by high-school officers and under the classification of the students in the high school, there is certainly no objection to\nthis new type of organization.\n\nIf this change in the classification of the\n\nseventh grade were made, no such opportunity for further economy of time\n\nand energy on the part of pupils as that which has been recognized in the\npresent readjustment of the university elementary school is likely to be\ndiscovered.\n\nFrom the point of view therefore of economy, the present\nFrom the point of view of the\n\nexperiment may be regarded as fairly closed.\n\npossible reorganization of the elementary school, the present experiment does\n\nnot aim to be at all definitive.\n\nIt\n\nmay be desirable to work over this\n\norganization much more completely than it is worked over at the present\ntime, but any such administrative readjustment of the elementary school\nand the high school will in no wise affect the conclusion of the present\nexperiment. One year has been saved. Whatever the classification, or\n\nwhatever the type of organization ultimately adopted,\n\nthis saving of\n\na\n\nsingle year is a definite and final economy which will operate to the advan-\n\ntage of the student, whatever the form of organization thru which he passes.\n\nThe suggestion has been offered above that a similar economy can be\neffected in the high school.\n\nThis is not the proper place in which to discuss\n\nthis economy, but it cannot be repeated with too great emphasis that the\nfailure to recognize the possibilities of economy usually grows out of the fact\n\nthat two different institutions are organized under different managements\nand with different faculties. The one great virtue of this particular experiment is that it calls attention to the fact that a conference between teachers\n\n"} {"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n234\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nwho have to deal with the same children will very frequently bring out\nopportunities of\n\neconomy that would be entirely lost sight of if these\n\nconferences were not held.\n\nIt is also to be noted that the children feel,\n\nsomewhat vaguely perhaps, this lack of economy. Indeed, it is frequently\ntrue that the lack of enthusiasm on the part of the children is the best\npossible indication that the school organization is defective. That teachers\nshould be slow to discover the significance of these symptoms that appear in\nthe listless children who refuse to be enthusiastic about reviews is simply\n\nanother indication of the necessity of a careful and complete survey of the\n\nwork of every instructor, giving him an opportunity to place his own\nindividual task in the general light of all the educational activities which\n\nsurroimd his own individual work. The eighth-grade teacher may have\ndone his work conscientiously, but until he recognizes that it is his duty to\ncarry the children forward as far as it is possible for them legitimately to go,\n\nhe has not done his whole duty.\n\ndomain of the high school.\nefforts to\n\nThis full duty may carry him into the\n\nThis should not deter him from the utmost\n\neconomize the time of the pupils.\n\nThe gravest menace to our\n\nschool organization is that which grows out of the fact that all work of one\n\ntype is terminated at the end of the eighth grade, and begins anew in an\nentirely different environment and with an entirely different set of officers in\n\nthe first year of the high school.\n\nTo transcend these limitations of institu-\n\ntional organization is one of the opportunities of the teacher who recognizes\n\nthe fact that economy of the children's energy and time is more significant\n\nthan any of the traditions of present-day school organization.\n\nC.\n\nMOBILITY OF THE TEACHING POPULATION IN RELATION TO ECONOMY OF TIME\n\nLOTUS D. COFFMAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS,\nURBANA, ILL.\n\nWith the great majority, school teaching is merely a means of earning\na living; with a comparatively small minority it is a profession.\n\nForced\n\nand impelling economic pressure, the ordinary American school teacher, who by the\nway is a woman, has found it an easy step from the schoolroom as a student\ninto it as a teacher. That her motive has been mainly economic rather\nthan professional is shown by the fact that the only occupations that surpass teaching in the number of women engaged in them are those that\ninto the struggle for existence under the operation of powerful\n\nrequire less preparation.\n\nA consideration of the ethnic characteristics of\n\nAmerican teachers, the social and economic stations from which they come,\ntheir age, experience, training, and mobility, shows that the men engaged\nin teaching have been subject to the same forces and pressures as the women.\nThe strength of these silent forces is shown by the testimony of seven\nthousand teachers selected at random from every section of the United\n\n"} {"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMOBILITY OF THE TEACHING POPULATION\n\n235\n\nAccording to their statements, one man out of every five and one\nStates.\nwoman out of every four has one or both parents dead at the time he or she\nenters teaching;\n\nthe annual income of their parents averages less than\n\n$800.00; while the families represented by these seven thousand teachers\n\naverage seven in number.\n\nMore than three-fourths of all American teach-\n\nWe\n\ners are the sons and daughters of small farmers and small tradesmen.\n\nare not amazed, therefore, when we discover that the majority of the new-\n\ncomers have on the average had only four years of training beyond the\neighth grade. We just then begin dimly to appreciate the limitations\nteaching labors under as a profession and to marvel at the results that\n\nhave been achieved.\nEvery third man and every second woman engaged in teaching is under,\ntwenty-four years of age, 50 per cent of the entire teaching population have\nhad four or less years' experience, and 25 per cent have had only one year's\nexperience. At least half the teachers of this country are but little more\nthan boys and girls. In these figures there is an implied indictment ^not\nan indictment of the teachers and of the horde of young people who annually flock into the teaching profession, but an indictment of a public\nconscience that permits such an unwarranted condition to exist. Every\ntrade, occupation, and profession must be constantly recruited by young\npeople. It would be worse than worthless to inveigh against such an\n\n—\n\ninevitable situation.\n\nBut the strengths and limitations, the formative\n\ninfluence of these young people are determined not merely by their ances-\n\nand their economic station, but also by the motive\nPrivate information of an\napparently thoroly reliable character leads me to conclude that in most\ntry, their social class,\n\nthey have at the beginning of their careers.\n\ncases the professional motive, a desire to consecrate their lives to service\n\nthru teaching, comes late as the result of successful experience, or early\nas the result of superior professional instruction\n\n—where some great per-\n\nsonality has touched their lives and left its indelible impress upon them.\n\nThe situation is rendered even more complex when we consider the\ncharacter and amount of training the novices have received.\n\nThree-fifths\n\nof the men and two-fifths of the women in the rural schools have had less\n\nthan a high-school education.\nis\n\na college graduate.\n\nOnly one rural teacher out of a hundred\n\nOne-half of the men and one-third of the women in\n\ntowns, one-fifth of the men and one-sixth of the women in cities, have had\nless\n\nthan a high-school education.\n\nIt is clearly evident that the repre-\n\nsentatives of the different teaching levels present wide differences in intel-\n\nwhich to some extent must account for differences in\nTeachers of ambition and of sufficient\nnative ability to rise are attracted cityward, where they have additional\nopportunities for enjoyment, recreation, and contact with people. Mere\nability today seldom secures the coveted promotion; training is everywhere\nregarded as a fundamental prerequisite. Clearly the schools of small towns\nlectual attainment,\n\nattitude and in general culture.\n\n"} {"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n236\n\n[PhUadclphia\n\nand isolated districts are in many instances nothing but training stations\nfor more populous communities.\nThe problem of securing well-trained,\nskilled teachers increases in\n\nmagnitude as we pass from the centers of\n\npopulation to homogeneous agricultural communities.\n\nThe cry that the\n\nchildren of rural commimities are entitled to as well-trained teachers and\n\nas competent instruction as the children in cities receive is a righteous cry.\n\nThe tragedy of the American school situation is still the tragedy of the\nIt is there that we find many who have risked little in the\nway of personal investment, and they have gained little. Their little risk\n\nrural schools.\n\nand little gain are checks upon the more rapid advance of the profession\nas a whole.\n\nThe extreme instability of the teaching population is shown in the\nThe median American teacher,\n\nfailure of the recruits to remain in teaching.\n\nirrespective of location\n\nexperience.\n\nand of position, has had less than four years of\n\nThis means that there are as many who have had less than\n\nfour as there are who have had more than four years of experience.\n\nIn\n\nround numbers it means that enough vacancies occur in the teaching force\nin four years to equal the total number of people engaged in teaching during\nany one of these four years. As there are about 600,000 teachers, this\nmeans that we have about 125,000 vacancies annually. All the normal\nschools, state and city, public and private, according to the reports of the\n\ncommissioner of education, are turning out less than 20,000 graduates a year.\nIf we add to the output of the normal schools, the graduates of departments\n\nand colleges of education, the number of trained recruits is still far short\nof the total number of vacancies.\n\nOne objective measure of the efficiency of the teacher is the value the\nworld attaches to experience and training as expressed in terms of salary.\n\nCrude and unsatisfactory as this measure is, it is, nevertheless, indicative,\nwhere free competition prevails, of differences in teaching efficiency. The\ncorrelation between experience and salary is almost perfect for the first six\nyears of the teacher's career. Put in more general terms this means that\nthe world estimates that the maximum effect of experience has usually been\nattained in six years.\n\nSalary increases after five or six years of experience\n\nare more likely to be due to salary schedules, additional preparation, distinguished service, or\n\nsome other consideration than to mere experience.\n\nThe possibility of lifting the great body of workers in teaching to the plane\nof a true profession is thus restricted by the fact that more than 50 per\ncent leave teaching before they realize the cumulative effect of experience\nin teaching on efficiency.\n\nWhile economic stresses and strains partly explain the great influx of\nuntrained beginners, the respectability of teaching as a calling must also\n\nbe offered as an explanation. People are not attracted to teaching because\nSchool teachers, preachers,\nit offers an opportunity to become wealthy.\n\nand honest statesmen must all die poor.\n\n"} {"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "MOBILITY OF THE TEACHING POPULATION\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n237\n\nThat the teaching force is being recruited from large families is an\nThat the transmission of our best culture is\nleft by rather unconscious selection to a class of people who by training\nand intention are not yet eminently fitted for their work, and that those\nimportant sociological fact.\n\nwho enter teaching, even considering that they are the best of these prolific families,\n\nrepresent a group which does not perpetuate itself, are impor-\n\ntant facts for theorists and practitioners in education.\n\nCompetent critics\n\nmaintain that between 40 and 50 per cent of the sons of lawyers, ministers,\nphysicians, and government officials pursue the occupations of their fathers.\n\nOnly about 10 per cent of the sons of teachers ever become teachers.\nAnother measure of the mobility of the teaching population is found\nFifty per cent of\nin the tendency of teachers to shift from level to level.\nthe men, and 70 per cent of the women who go from country to town schools\nshift within the first five years of their teaching experience.\n\nFifty per cent\n\nof the men who go from country to town, and from town to city schools\n\nspend less than three years in the coimtry schools, and less than four years\n\ntown schools. Fifty-seven per cent of the ambitious women of this\ngroup teach less than two years, and 85 per cent less than four years in the\nin\n\ncoimtry; 39 per cent less than two years, and 67 per cent less than four\nyears in town. The group that starts in the country and advances directly\nto the city schools is a little more fortunate and perhaps a little more ambitious and able but no better trained than the group that tarries a while in\n\ntown schools.\n\nSixty per cent of those who pass directly from country to\n\ncity schools make the transfer within the first two years of their experience.\n\nTwo-thirds of those who go from town to city schools make the change\nwithin the first four years of their teaching life.\n\nIn every instance these\n\nfigures are an expression of the expectancy of the average teacher upon each\n\nof these levels.\n\nMost of the changes are made during the early years of\n\nthe teacher's career.\n\nExperience is partly responsible for these changes, but a closer examination of the facts shows that the shifts from level to level are directly\nrelated to training.\n\nThose who go from coimtry to town average four\n\nyears of training beyond the eighth grade, those who go from country to\n\ntown and from town to city average five years, those who go from country\nto city directly average almost six years, while those who go from town to\n\ncity average seven years of training.\n\nThis shifting means that the majority are left behind.\n\nThese are not so\n\nwell trained, have a little less ambition, or are held in restraint by insur-\n\nmountable economic difficulties.\n\nOf course there are exceptions to this\n\nstatement, but the difficulty of discovering teachers, superior in instruction,\n\nhaving professional insight and worthy ambition, increases in proportion\nto the isolation of the\n\ncommunity.\n\nEven in the remotest communities\n\nthere are some pedagogical oases; there are some teachers of rare wisdom\n\nand unusual instructional skill, but these are the exceptions.\n\nWhen we\n\n"} {"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n238\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nremember that the places of those who are advanced to better-paying\npositions and of those who leave teaching entirely must be filled with young\n\npeople who are practically untrained, we begin to appreciate the difficult\n\nproblem of the supervisor. Supervision is necessary not only because of\nthe enrichment of the curriculum, and a growing consciousness of new\nphases of method, but also because the teaching population is so mobile.\nA supervisor must constantly stimulate and reconstruct the point of view\nof those who remain behind, he must direct, train, often instruct, and\nalways generate and cultivate those ideals among the newcomers that are\nnecessary for success.\n\nThese obligations and limitations of supervision\n\nare ever present.\n\nA final measure of the mobility of the teaching force is shown in the\nrapidity with which teachers shift from position to position upon the differ-\n\nent levels.\n\nAltho my figures are not sufficiently complete to be entirely\n\naccurate, I am led to conclude that three-fourths of the country schools\n\nhave new teachers every year. Town and city teachers enjoy a greater\npermanency of position than country teachers, and yet in my opinion\nit is more important that good teachers stay for several years in a given\ncountry school than it is that good teachers stay in the same grade in\ntown or city school, for the student population of the rural school is\nrelatively the same year after year, while the pupils in a given grade in a\ntown or city school shift grades every year or every half-year.\nThe same unsettled condition prevails all along the line. In Indiana,\n34 per cent of the high-school teachers in the best high schools of the state\nare occupying their present positions for the first time, while but 16 per\ncent more are teaching their second year in the same place, making a total\nof 50 per cent who have not been employed in one place to exceed two years.\n\nOne half of the high-school teachers in the high schools on the accredited\nlist\n\nof the University of Illinois have been in their present places two years\n\nor less.\n\nReturns from 3,058 high-school teachers in nineteen central states\n\nshow that high-school teachers in general have had a median experience\nOnce in three years enough changes\nin their present places of three years.\nare made in the typical American high-school faculty to equal the total\nnumber of persons teaching in it.\nThese facts are enough to make us pause. High-school teachers are\na select group. They have had nearly four more years of training than\nthe ordinary American teacher. It is true that the training they have\nhad has been of an academic character. The majority of them have not\nbeen instructed in the problems that lie distinctively within the field of\neducation.\n\nTheir first school is literally a practice school, for half of the\n\nhigh-school teachers got their initial experience in the high schools where\n\nthey are now teaching.\n\nThe burden of responsibility falls heavily upon the practical school\nadministrator when he recognizes that there are as many high-school\n\n"} {"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superiatendence]\n\nMOBILITY OF THE TEACHING POPULATION\n\n239\n\nteachers who have taught a year or less as there are who have taught three\n\nyears or more in their present places.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nbarely an even wager that\n\na high-school teacher will stay long enough in a given place to stamp his\npersonality upon the school.\n\nSmall wonder is it that many communities\n\nregard high-school teachers as an interesting type of cultured transients.\nI am well aware that every sane superintendent would prefer to have\nhis bad and indifferent teachers displaced by better ones;\n\nthat he would\n\nlike to be rid of those who have become stereotjqjed in their thinking and\n\nteaching; and that he would prefer to appoint gifted young people whom\nhe may train in his own way. If mobility involved only this we should\nall\n\nwelcome it.\n\nBut it all too frequently happens, not always by any\n\nmeans, that those whom we would like to keep drift on, while the ones we\n\nwould like to eliminate stay on forever.\n\nA certain amount of change is\n\nnecessary to keep a school or a school system healthy.\n\nNo change at all\n\nmay be almost if not quite as bad as too much change.\nThe nomadic character of the teaching force leads to several bad results\nOne of these is seen in the lack of continuity in the\n\nor forms of waste.\n\nmethods employed in instructing in various branches. A high school\nemployed a thoroly competent person to teach German by the direct\nmethod. When this teacher was beginning to establish herself and to\ncreate a wholesome atmosphere for this new type of language work, she\nwas attracted to a larger place at an increased salary, and the superintendent\nwas compelled to recommend the appointment of another beginner one\nwho could teach German only in the old-fashioned way.\nIn a certain small high school it was necessary to secure a new teacher\nThe first of these men was\nof botany for each of three consecutive years.\na systemist, the second an histologist, and the third a specialist on trees.\nFor the first of these men the library was supplied with the books and\nthe laboratory with the presses needed for the systematic classification of\nplant life. When the second man was appointed, these books and materials were put aside, new books bought, and $300.00 spent for additional\nmicroscopes. The third man, being practically untrained in microscopy\nand the systematic study of plants, recommended the purchase of additional material.\nIt is a fact, of course, that the high school is not wholly\nto blame for this situation.\nSo long as universities and colleges encourage\nand permit rather extensive specialization during the undergraduate\n\n—\n\ncareer of their students, it will hardly be possible to secure teachers who\n\nare competent and willing to give courses in general science.\n\nA large high\n\nschool could obviate this difficulty by breaking up the field and putting\n\nexperts in charge of each division of it, but a small high school cannot do\nthis.\n\nSimilar wastes in expenditure of time, energy, and money in each of the\nsciences appear when quantitative methods are superseded by qualitative\n\nmethods of instruction.\n\nThus it is that the indefiniteness and lack of\n\n"} {"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n240\n\n[PhUaddphia\n\nour willingness to be controlled by\nmere opinion rather than by established principles and modes of procedure;\nand the necessity of doing the expedient rather than the scientific thing,\nuniformity of methods of teaching;\n\nare partially explained by the itineracy of the teaching population.\n\nOne might suspect that the one class of the teaching population that\npossesses the greatest permanency is the supervisory force.\n\nAnd yet the\n\ntowns and cities in a typical western state show that 70\nper cent of the superintendents and principals have occupied their present\nfacts from 768\n\npositions for two years or less.\n\nThe median length of service in a given\n\ncity of the 1,292 superintendents listed in the Educational Directory of the\n\nBureau of Education is only four years.\n\nThe office of the school superintendent, an American creation, was\nsanctioned by the desire of unifying a long and increasingly diversified\nschool curriculum; of securing a rational system of grading and promotion\n\nthat would secure the maximum degree of attention for all classes of children; and of overcoming the defects and handicaps of a changeable teachings\nforce.\n\nBut superintendents are almost as subject to change as any clas\n\nof teachers, and with the change there is usually a modification of function\n\nand a redistribution of responsibilities.\n\nThe ethics of the teaching business seems to lead many to think that\nit is\n\ntime.\n\ndiscreditable to stay in one place more than two or three years at a\n\nTwo forces or agencies are largely responsible for this opinion.\n\nOne is the universal necessity and laudable desire of getting on in the world.\nThe other is peculiar to teachers. It is a fact that they are compelled to\nspend long vacations without pay.\n\nDuring a large part of the year their\n\nattention is devoted to other pursuits.\n\nOne who is compelled to divide\n\nhis attention in order to insure a more respectable standard of living is not\n\ngrowing professionally.\n\nThis very fact tends to put a low money value\n\nupon teachers, and it occasionally encourages them to engage in ffirtations\nwith new positions. That the struggle for existence may be ameliorated\nand that greater service may be performed, promotion should always be\none of the rewards teaching offers to every ambitious candidate. But in\naddition to this, advancement to higher economic levels without change\nof position should be made the basis of a recognition of merit and of efficiency in teaching.\n\nThus far it has been shown that the changing teaching force is responEvery laboratory\nsible for much of the chaos in educational practice.\nand every library show tracks of gross economic waste. The exploitation\nof nearly every kind of method human ingenuity can devise has not only\nresulted in loss within the school but has induced an alert pubUc to question\nthe character of the product of the school. It has also been shown that the\nmultiplication of numbers in the teaching force, the extent to which young,\n\ninexperienced, and untrained persons are received into\n\nit,\n\nand the great\n\ndifficulty we have in getting rid of inefficient teachers have been responsible\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY AND TIME ALLOTMENT\n\n241\n\nfor imposing severe supervisory and administrative limitations that have\n\nat times hampered the freedom of the whole force.\n\nThe greatest handicap resulting from the mobility of the teaching\nIt is easier to force new\nmaterial, new methods, and new devices upon an unstable than upon a\nstable population.\nAs a class of people we are still largely an aggregation\nThis makes us very susceptible to all social demands. Our\nof units.\n\npopulation is our lack of professional solidarity.\n\npeculiar\n\nsusceptibihty to the propagandist, on the one hand, tends to\n\ncreate a dissatisfaction with much of the old material that should be intensified in meaning and expanded in appHcation,\n\nand, on the other hand, it\n\nincreases the necessity of multiplying administrative machinery.\n\nAn extensive investigation would be required to evaluate the losses\nSuch an investigation would also describe the\nUntil such a comprehensive study is made we shall continue to trust to mere opinion for the\nremedies. One thing is sure -the kind of teachers we have and their\ntransiency determine very largely the kind of teaching we get. In view of\nthis we should spend a little less time in idealizing the teacher and her work\nand more time in attempting to secure an adequate description of the kind\ndescribed in this paper.\n\ngains resulting from our shifting teaching population.\n\n—\n\nof people teaching is attracting.\n\nD,\n\nTHE ECONOMY OF TIME THRU TESTING THE COURSE OF\nSTUDY AND TIME ALLOTMENT\n\nLEONARD P. AYRES, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGLENE,\nRUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nTime is the most important thing in the world. It is the one everEach thing that we do or\nmake includes two elements the time consumed, and the result obtained.\n\npresent factor in all human accomplishment.\n\n—\n\nIn dealing with these two elements, the problems of education are fundamentally different from the problems of industry.\nto be done are always definite tasks.\n\nIn industry the tasks\n\nIn comrnerce, transportation, and\n\nmanufacturing the problem centers on the amount of time necessary to\nsell\n\nand to\nThe result to be obtained is a constant; the time\n\ngoods, to carry people or things from one place to another,\n\nmanufacture articles.\n\nrequired to do it is a variable.\n\nIn the field of education all this is reversed.\n\nWe have a given amount\n\nof time, and our problem is to spend it as best we can.\n\nSo far as elementary\n\nschooling is concerned, this available amount of time is about eight years.\nIt begins at about the age of six,\n\nwhen the child becomes comparatively\n\nindependent of his mother, and extends to about that of fourteen, when\n\nThese are biological, rather than educaDuring these years, going to school is the normal as well as\n\nphysical maturity approaches.\ntional, facts.\n\nthe customary occupation of children.\n\n"} {"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n242\n\n[PhUaddphia\n\nThe distinction indicated is the reason for the striking contrast between\nthe signal progress made in economy of time in industry, and the modest\n\nachievements in economy of time in education.\n\nIn industry the results\n\nto be achieved are known, definite, and constant, while time is a variable.\n\nIn elementary education the time to be consumed is a constant, while the\nresults to be achieved are the variables.\n\nIn apportioning the eight years of childhood among the subjects of\nthe curriculum, educators have always asked two questions.\n\nThese are:\n\n\"How much time should we devote to the subject?'* and, \"What results\nought we to expect to get ?\"\nThe proposition that I wish to present is that we shall secure economy\nof time in education only when we realize that the amount of time at our\ndisposal is a constant, change our inquiry from the indefinite to the definite,\nand instead of asking, \"What results might or ought we to get?\" begin to\nask, \" What results are we getting ? '' This means calling a halt on the futile\nquest for standards to be evolved at round-table discussions and educational faculty debates, and substituting for them methods of measurement\nand standards of attainment which are the products of recorded experience.\nIf we can do that, we can lift our problem out of the field of speculation\nand into that of evidence. This involves recording and collating our avail-\n\nable definite knowledge so as to answer three questions.\nis:\n\nThe first of these\n\n\"How much school time can we get into the eight available years of\n\nchildhood?\"\n\nADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOL TIME IN THE EIGHT ELEMENTARY\nSCHOOL YEARS\n\nThe greatest factor affecting the amount of available school time in the\nchildhood years is regularity of attendance combined with the length of\nthe school year. Most of our more advanced courses of study are based\non the proposition that the elementary course consists of eight years of\ntwo hundred days each. The facts are that in general children do not attend\nregularly and in many states the school funds are so meager as to make a\n\nThe result is that children\nnumber\nof days each year than\nactually attend school for a much smaller\ntwo-hundred-day school year impossible.\n\nthe theoretical two hundred on which school men base their calculations.\n\nwe compute the number of days the average child attends school\nin each of the forty-eight states, we shall find that in the one making the\nIf\n\nbest record the average child would have to attend nearly ten and a half\n\nyears to complete eight grades of two hundred days each, while in the state\n\nmaking the poorest showing, elementary schooling would stretch on the\nsame basis over the astonishing period of twenty -five years. The meaning\nThere is an immense gap between our common\nof these figures is plain.\nconcept of the school year and the actual school year the children get.\nIf we are to use economically the eight school years of childhood, we must\n\n"} {"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nsecure\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY AND TIME ALLOTMENT\n\n243\n\nmore regular attendance, increased school appropriations, and\n\nlengthened school years.\n\nThe next important factor in the administration of the school years\nis\n\nthe rate of promotions.\n\nHere the fundamental principle is that the\n\naverage progress of the child thru the grades varies inversely with the rate\nof promotions.\n\nProbably the average rate of promotions in American\n\ncities is not far from 80 per cent.\n\nThat is, it is four-fifths of the ideal or\n\nnormal rate of 100 per cent. Now if the children go forward on the average\nof four-fifths of the normal rate, they will take five-fourths of the normal\namount of time to complete the work of the grades. Five-fourths of eight\nyears is ten years, which is the time that it would take them on the average\nto complete the eight grades if all of them stayed to do so.\nThese facts mean that, of the eight years available for elementary\neducation, we lose a considerable portion thru short school years, another\nlarge amount of time thru absence, and still another quantity of time because\nof low promotion rates.\n\nWorst of all, these three wasteful conditions are\n\nsimultaneously present in most school systems.\n\nELIMINATION OF UNPROFITABLE SUBJECT-MATTER\n\nOur second question is: \"How can we improve the quality of the results\nsecured in the time at our disposal ?\n\n\"\n\nThe answer is to be found in eliminating from our school work those\nportions that are of the least value.\n\nThis necessitates testing the elements\n\nof the course of study to evaluate them in terms of their social usefulness.\n\nAgain, my proposition is that we proceed by asking, \"What results are we\n\ngetting?\" rather than, \"What results might or should we get?\"\n\nSome three years ago, we undertook in the Division of Education of\nthe Russell Sage Foundation two simple experiments in testing the social\n\nvalue of the subject-matter taught in our schools.\n\nThe results were not\n\nconclusive, but they are most suggestive.\n\nWe had been asked to make tests of the arithmetic and geography\ntaught in the schools of one of the large New England cities.\n\nOur experi-\n\nments were confined to the work of the seventh grade. Turning our attention first to the arithmetic, we found that the work assigned for that grade\nwas devoted mainly to measurements of space, time, content, weight, etc.,\nand was divided into ten sections. We chose one example from each section,\nmade from them an examination paper of ten questions, and submitted\nit to ten successful business and professional men in New York City, with\nthe request that they take the examination. Those men were earning\nyearly salaries ranging from three to fifteen thousand dollars.\nAfter some protest, all of them complied, and tried to answer the\nquestions. The man who made the best record was Owen Lovejoy, secretary of the National Child Labor Committee, and he succeeded in getting\na mark of 25 per cent. We then gave the same examination to our office\n\n"} {"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n244\ngirl\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nwho was fifteen years old and had left the 8 A grade of the New York\n\npublic school five months before.\n\nShe got 75 per cent.\n\nThe clear lesson of this little experiment was that the schools were\nlittle application to the work of ileal life.\nEach man who took the examination earnestly explained that he had known\nall those different measures once, but that as he had never used them, they\nhad slipped from memory. Two of the questions related to the purchase\nof paper in wholesale quantities, and of the men who took the examination\none was the business manager of a great national magazine, while the other\nwas the president of one of our foremost book publishing houses. Both of\nthose men purchase tons of paper every year, and both failed on those two\nquestions and protested that the terms used in them had been obsolete\n\nteaching arithmetic that had\n\nfor half a century.\n\nFor testing the geography, a different method was tried.\n\nThe work\n\nassigned by the course of study related in the main to Africa and South\n\nAmerica. A tabulation of the amount of space devoted to the two countries\nby the textbook in use showed that Africa was given twice as much attention as South America.\n\nThis suggests the query whether or not the Old\n\nWorld continent is more important to Americans than the New World\ncontinent. As a step toward answering it, figures were secured from the\nfederal government showing the amount of commerce in exports and imports\nbetween our coimtry and each of the continents. These figures show that\nthe bulk of our commerce with South America is about eight times as much\nas it is with Africa.\n\nAs a second test, two press-clipping bureaus were asked to send us for\nthe space of two months news articles and editorials dealing with either\ncontinent, and collected from publications printed in all parts of our country.\nThe result was the collection of something like a bushel of clippings. When\nthese were tabulated, it was found that those pertaining to South America\nwere several times as numerous as those about Africa.\nThe result of this investigation was to show that there existed only the\nremotest relation between the amount of teaching devoted in that school\nsystem to the continents and their countries, the frequency with which the\nordinary citizen finds references to them in current literature, and the\namoimt of business that we, as a nation, do with them.\nMore recently we have conducted another test quite imrelated to those\njust described.\n\nIt consisted of a study of the spelling vocabularies of\n\ntwo thousand business and personal letters. The results showed a striking\ndiscrepancy between the list of words used in the letters and those found in\nour school spelling-books. More than two-thirds of the words in the\nNational Education Association\n\nspelling-lists did\n\nnot appear even once\n\nin the tabulations of the words of these two thousand letters written by\n\ntwo thousand different people.\n\nNo claim of finality or completeness can be made for these obviously\n\n"} {"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY AND TIME ALLOTMENT\n\n245\n\ninadequate tests of the social value of the arithmetic, geography, and spelling\ntaught in our school systems. What has been presented is offered merely\nas illustrative of the sort of tests which might be made to evaluate the social\nutility of some parts of the subject-matter taught in our public schools.\n\nDISTRIBUTION OF TIME AMONG THE DIFFERENT SUBJECTS\n\nWe have considered means for getting out of the years of childhood the\ngreatest possible amount of school time, and we have considered methods\nfor eliminating from subject-matter those portions that are of least value.\n\nOur third question is: \"How can we use most efficiently the school time\nat our disposal ?\" As before, the proposition I present is that we proceed\nby the method of first finding out what results we are actually getting in\nexisting school systems.\nThis means that we must discover how much\ntime is actually required to secure satisfactory results in the different school\nsubjects.\n\nBefore we can solve this problem, we must find out what we mean by\n\ndo not know what satisfactory results are,\nsurely we cannot judge when we have reached them. If we have no definite\n\"satisfactory results.\"\n\nIf we\n\ngoal, we cannot tell how long it will take to get there, or what sort of progress\nwill most directly lead to it.\n\nThe keynote of the work of finding out what satisfactory results are\nlies in\n\nthe change of our form of inquiry that has been suggested.\n\nWhen\n\nwe have ceased asking, \"What result can or might we get?\" and have\nbegun to ask, \"What results are we getting?\" we have put ourselves into\na position where we can forge ahead. What we have done is to change our\nattitude from that of dogmatism to that of scientific inquiry. We have\nopened a way to investigations which will enable us to learn what results\nour different systems good, moderate, and poor ^are actually getting, and\ntherefore what results may reasonably be expected. The results which are\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsecured in the better systems, and which may reasonably be expected, are\n\nSome systems never\nSome spend twice as much time as others to attain them.\n\nthe \"satisfactory results\" for which we are seeking.\n\nreach them.\n\nFor example, study of the penmanship of children in the final grades\nin different cities shows that at the end of eight years of schooling children\n\nin some cities are able to copy simple written matter at the rate of five words\n\nper minute, while in other cities children copy the same material in fully as\n\nhigh a quality of handwriting at the rate of twenty words per minute.\n\nMoreover, these discrepancies are found to exist between cities where the\ntime devoted to the teaching of the subject is approximately the same.\n\nThese are data from which satisfactory results may be distinguished\nfrom unsatisfactory ones. The new method of judging handwriting by\nmeasuring the work of the children is not so easy as the old method of\ndoing it by discussing the methods of the teacher, but its results are far\n\nmore definite.\n\n"} {"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n246\n\n[PhUadelphia\n\nIn applying this method, we must keep uppermost in mind the fundamental principle that great economies are effected thru small savings.\nThe change which effects a saving of thirty-five minutes a day results in\neconomizing one year of school life out of the eight-grade course.\n\nThe\n\nchange which saves three and a half minutes per day means the saving of\none school month during the course. It is the small changes that produce\nthe big results.\n\nMethods for measuring the work of school children have not been\ndeveloped for all subjects, and it is questionable if they ever will be devel-\n\noped for some of them. Where they exist let us use them, and where they\ndo not yet exist let us strive to develop them. Already measuring devices of\nsuch investigators as Rice, Thomdike, Stone, Courtis, and Hillegas are\navailable in the fields of arithmetic, handwriting, spelling, and English\ncomposition. If there is no prospect that we shall soon be able to measure\nresults in music, drawing, and the manual arts, let us turn our attention\nto those subjects on which work has already been done, and, in addition,\nto such others as geography, history, and grammar. At all events, let us\nbear steadfastly in mind that economy of time in education is to be reached\nthru measuring the results that we are getting, rather than thru arguing\nabout the methods that we might be using.\nThe methods proposed for coping with the problems of the economy\nof time in education are not easy methods. They depend on analytic\nscrutiny, exact measuring, careful recording, and judgment based on\nobserved fact. The problems are those of time spent, quality of result,\nand quantity of result. Their solution depends on three things: first, the\neconomical administration of the available time of childhood; second, the\nelimination of the least useful portions of the subject-matter taught; third,\nsecuring of the largest possible returns for the children from each period\nof time devoted to each subject.\nIf these\n\nmethods are laborious, their results are amply suflScient to\n\nrepay all the labor involved. When we put them into practice, teachers\nwill have an opportunity such as they have always dreamed of, and which\nthey have never been able to secure. The truly economical administration\nof the available time of childhood will result in the teachers working in\nschool systems in which all the children attend schools, the school year is of\n\nample length, the attendance regular, and the progress of the children thru\nthe grades iminterrupted save by exceptional circvmastances.\n\nThe elimina-\n\ntion of the less useful portions of the subject-matter taught will result in\n\nhaving a course of study shorn of archaic features.\n\nBasing decisions as\n\nto what constitutes \"satisfactory results\" on scientific standards founded\n\non the recorded achievements of other teachers will render available for\nthe help of each the experience of all.\n\n"} {"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n247\n\nTOPIC: IMPROVING SCHOOL SYSTEMS BY SCIENTIFIC\n\nMANAGEMENT\nUNDERLYING PRINCIPLES\n\nA.\n\nPAUL H. HANUS, PROFESSOR OP EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY,\nCAMBRIDGE, MASS.\nIn 1902, I had the honor of addressing this association on the subject,\n\"Obstacles to Educational Progress.\" That address was intended to direct\n\nyour attention to the fact that progress in education depends, first, on the\nperiodic organization of educational doctrine or theory\n\nbusiness it is to have a well-defined educational theory\nschools, among others;\n\nby those whose\n\n—superintendents of\n\nand second, on the perennial organization or collec-\n\ntive appraisal of educational experience (results) by those whose business\nit is\n\nto know just what results are achieved\n\namong others.\n\n—superintendents of schools,\n\nI maintained, at that time, that neither the organization\n\nof educational theory nor the organization of educational experience was\n\nattempted by any of us \"educators\" in any comprehensive or satisfactory\nfashion; that every superintendent was a law unto himself in these matters;\n\nand that because individual opinion and unappraised individual experience\ndetermined educational procedure, and these could be successfully ignored\nor opposed by other superintendents or by laymen, the guidance we needed\nfor steady progress in education was lacking.\nThese propositions were apparently assented to.\nAt least, a Committee\nof Nine (afterward increased to eleven) was appointed toward the close\nof the session of 1902, the duties of which were to formulate the aims or\nprinciples underlying the contemporary provision for and tendencies in\nAmerican education. Tho not a member of that committee during the\nfirst year of its existence, I ultimately became its chairman.\nThe committee set about its task seriously, but it failed to secure from the moneyappropriating officers of the National Education Association the funds\n\nneeded for its purposes, and, after a year or two of more or less ineffeC'\ntual effort,\n\nit\n\npassed out of existence, \"unwept, unhonored, and imsung.\"\n\nNevertheless, the propositions put before\n\nsound.\n\nyou at that time are still\n\nIndeed, the subject of this afternoon's session shows that we are\n\nnow asking the same question we asked then, only more insistently: \"Ubinam gentium sumus?\" or, with apologies to Cicero, \"Where are we at?\"\nWhat progress we have made toward getting the answer to this question\nconsists chiefly in a\n\nmore complete and more frank recognition that the\n\nquestion imperatively demands an answer; that the more imperfectly and\nprovisionally we are now prepared to answer it, the more necessity there is\nfor attacking it persistently, until the\n\nmargin between professional or\n\nand mere opinion is progressively increased; until\nwe can show any thoughtful person just what we are aiming at and what we\ntechnical information\n\nare achieving.\n\n"} {"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n248\n\n(PhUadelphia\n\nThe reason why laymen in education, school-board members, or newspaper men, for example, often find it easy today, as they fomid it easy in\n1902, to advocate successfully questionable educational undertakings, or\nto\n\noppose with equal success promising undertakings or\n\nestablished practices,\n\nis\n\nwell-\n\nfairly\n\nthat the margin between technical information\n\nand lay opinion is still so narrow. The only way to combat successfully\nmistaken common-sense as applied to educational affairs is to meet it with\nuncommon-sense in the same field with technical information the validity\nof which is indisputable. Hence we now seek to confirm or refute educational opinion by the measured results of educational experience.\nWe have\ncome to see clearly that unless the validity of educational opinion is established by verifiable data which any technically informed person can appeal\nAs in engineering or in medicine, our practito, we are practically helpless.\ncal procedure can inspire confidence only so far as it rests on objectively\n\n—\n\nestablished truth.\n\nThe progress we have made since 1902 can be stated\n\nway.\n\nWe are no longer disputing whether education has a\n\nin another\n\nscientific basis;\n\nwe are trying to find that basis.\n\nThis last statement summarizes the great change that has taken place\nduring the last ten years in the attitude of progressive workers in the\nfield of education thruout the world.\n\nIt is a promising change.\n\nAuthorita-\n\ntive or dogmatic control in education is going the way of mere authority\n\nand dogma in human affairs generally.\n\nThey cannot survive unless they\n\ncan experimentally establish their validity as instruments for promoting\nthe material and spiritual welfare of mankind. We must face the fact,\nhowever, that our promising contemporary investigations and experiments\n\nhave not yet reached the stage of establishing objective validity for educaExact measurement in educational procedure to any considerable extent.\ntion, the necessary basis of a science of education, is only in its beginnings;\n\nbut those beginnings are real.\n\nIf, in spite of\n\nwhat I have just said, I have\n\naccepted the task of presenting for your consideration principles imderlying\n\nwhat the program calls \"Improving School Systems by Scientific Management,\" it will be understood, I trust, that I cherish no illusions concerning\nthe ultimate worth of my present endeavor.\nI know that the principles I am about to offer for your consideration are\nnot all-embracing; and I am far from claiming that they possess scientific\nvalidity.\nNor do I claim that they are new. Nevertheless I do not hesitate to offer them, so far as they go, for\n\nThey\n\nwhat they are worth.\n\nare scientific so far as they represent a serious attempt at generalization\n\nfrom contemporary procedure\n\nin progressive\n\nschool\n\nsystems;\n\nhence they are at least definite hypotheses, the validity or the\nof\n\nand\n\nfalsity\n\nwhich can be established by carefully collected and well-organized\n\nfuture experience.\n\nThe efficient management of a public-school system depends on the\nfollowing conditions:\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nA clear conception on the part of all concerned with its work of the purposes for\n\n1.\n\nwhich the school system exists\n\n—of\n\nits aims.\n\nA clear conception of the difference between the functions of the board of educa-\n\n2.\n\ntion\n\n249\n\nand those of its staff, and actual differentiation between them in practice;\n\ncentralization of authority and responsibility for:\n\ni.e.,\n\n(A) effective lay control in the board;\n\n(B) business and professional management in the board's staff of employees.\n\nComplete accountability of the board to the people for the work done and the\n\n3.\n\nmoney expended under its direction.\n4. A general manager and executive for the whole enterprise appointed by the board,\nwhose authority is commensurate with his responsibility the city superintendent of\n\n—\n\nschools.\n5.\n\nA competent staff of employees for the educational activities and for the business\n\naffairs of the school system directly responsible to the general manager.\n6.\n\nComplete accountability of the general manager and thru him of the staff to the\n\nboard of education for the proper performance of the duties with which they are charged.\n7. Habitual and well-organized self-examination within the school system; including\nadequate objective appraisal by the staff of results achieved, and well-conducted experiments to confirm or refute educational opinion within and without the school system.\n8.\n\nCo-operation under leadership thruout the school system itself, and of the school\n\nsystem and the community.\n\nThese conditions I now intend to discuss in order, but limitations of\ntime and space obviously permit only brief consideration of any of them.\n\nMy discussion is limited also to the educational aspects of a school system,\nboth for the reason just stated, and because the conditions of efficient\nbusiness management in school affairs will be discussed, I understand, by\nothers.\n\nAIMS\n\nTo say that an efficient public-school system must be based on definite\nYet few persons conversant with school\nmanagement will assert that the actual formulation of such aims and the\nclear conception of them that such formulation necessitates are common\namong superintendents and school officials. Accordingly I venture such\naims is to state an obvious truth.\n\na formulation.\n\nIt is based on the procedure of progressive school systems\n\nthruout the country.\n\nThe aims of a public-school system in a democratic country like ours\ngrow naturally out of our conception of the meaning of public education.\nThat conception can be stated, in general terms, in a few paragraphs.\nPublic education is a social force. As such, it aims at social welfare\nand betterment. It is also the means of individual development the fullest development (self-realization) of which each individual is capable.\nAs a social force, public education aims to preserve, improve, and transmit the resources of society, and to develop in each individual general and\nspecific social efficiency.\nGeneral social efficiency means social intelligence\nand the power to deal effectively with social problems. Specific social\nefficiency means vocational efficiency, or efficiency in a particular calling.\nAs a means of individual development, public education takes accoimt\n\n—\n\nof the nature of individuals\n\nand of the circumstances of their lives.\n\nIt\n\n"} {"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n250\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nsupplies the means of promoting their normal development as socialized\n\nhuman beings.\n\nIt aims to arouse and develop all the worthy interests and\n\ncorresponding powers of each individual, so far as his ability and stage of\n\ndevelopment permit, in order that his life as an individual may be as full\nand rich as possible, and that no artificial obstacles may stand in the way\nof his spiritual and material advancement. Hence:\n1. Public education should train eflficient citizens\nmen and women who\nrecognize and appreciate the common interests of our democratic society\nand are able to promote their progressive development. These interests\nare spiritual, intellectual, moral, aesthetic, hygienic, economic, and civic.\nThey are also religious, but since experience has shown that religious interests are inseparable from ecclesiastical interests, and since society has an\n\n—\n\ninstitution for promoting both at once\n\n—the church\n\nlike ours wisely delegates the preservation\n\na,\n\ndemocratic society\n\nand transmission of religious\n\ninterests to the church.\n2. Public education should strive gradually to emancipate each pupil\nfrom external restraint and guidance, and thus render him self-directing\nintellectually, morally, and physically stable; alert, vigorous, and active.\nTogether with the instruction public education offers, it should, therefore,\ninsist thruout on discipline that is wise, kindly, and firm, including appropriate punishment when needed sl discipline that insists on progressive\nconformity of conduct to insight, including habits of steady application and\n\nreasonable achievement.\n3.\n\nPublic education should endeavor to prepare each pupil to make the\n\nbest use of his leisure as well as of his working hours.\n\nSatisfactory diver-\n\nsions and good recreative habits are important for both the individual and\nsociety.\n\nWithout\n\ndisparaging\n\nharmless\n\ndiversions\n\nand amusements,\n\npublic education should, therefore, strive to develop an appreciation of\n\nand a demand for the serious pleasures our civilization affords.\n4.\n\nPublic education should strive to render each pupil economically\n\nintelligent and efficient.\n\nIt should direct each pupil's attention to a voca-\n\ntion to which he may reasonably aspire;\n\nthat is, every pupil should be led\n\ngradually to realize that a suitable vocation, accessible to him and adapted\n\nAs he approaches the\nend of his school career, whatever his age may be, he should come to see\nthat his vocation will be not only the means of satisfying his personal wants\nand ambitions, but because it is the chief means of establishing significant\nrelations between himself and his fellow-men, it is also the source of such\npublic service as he is capable of and may be called upon to render. Public\neducation should, therefore, provide for the development of vocational\npurposes based on vocational enlightenment (vocational guidance) and it\nto him, is indispensable to a useful and happy life.\n\n;\n\nshould offer each pupil appropriate training for the vocation of his choice.\nPublic-school systems must therefore be so constituted as to provide\n\nadequately: first, the means of appropriate, and, so far as possible, complete\n\n"} {"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n2$!\n\n—self-discovery and\n\nself-realization, and preparation\nand second, various kinds of vocational training adapted to the needs, tastes, and future callings of all pupils\nwho pass at once from school to their life-work, and, for those who wish to\nimprove themselves after they have gone to work, preparation for specific\n\ngeneral development\n\nfor general social service for every pupil;\n\nsocial service, i.e., for usefulness in a vocation.\n\nThey must therefore provide:\n1. The elements of general culture, comprising an insight into, appreciation of, and power to deal with, the recorded ideals and experience of the\n\nand all worthy interests of contemporary life, so far as they can be\nintelligible, and accessible to children and youth of\nschool age; that is to say, the school program, the program of studies,\nmust cover:\n\nrace;\n\nrendered interesting,\n\nThe school arts\n\n—\n\nreading, writing, and arithmetic.\nLanguage and literature (modem and ancient).\nc) History, government, and economics.\nd) Art (pictorial and plastic art, constructive art, and music).\na)\nh)\n\nMathematics.\n\nt)\n\n/) Natural science.\n\nManual arts and domestic arts.\n\ng)\n\nh) Physical education, including physical training and athletics.\n\nVocational guidance.\n\ni)\n\nFor these studies, we must have schools of different types, as follows:\n(i)\n\nKindergartens.\n\n(2)\n\nElementary schools, with differentiated upper grades, and well articulated with\n\nthe high school.\n(3)\n\nHigh schools, having as wide a range of electives, administered imder wise\n\nguidance, as possible.\n2.\n\nVocational training, training for specific social service, at the upper\n\nend of the elementary school, and in industrial and commercial schools,\nwhether called secondary schools or not, as follows:\na)\n\nDay vocational schools for normal pupils over fourteen years of age, whether\n\nthey have completed an eight years' elementary-school course or not, and who will not\ngo to a high school.\nh)\n\nDay co-operative and continuation schools (vocational) for pupils fourteen to\n\neighteen years of age who cannot afford or wiU not take the time to attend a day vocational school.\nc)\n\nEvening continuation schools, vocational and non-vocational, for pupils over\n\neighteen years of age who are at work during the daytime.\n\n—^vocational schools of secondary grade,\n\nd) Vocational high schools\n\nHigh schools of commerce.\n2) High schools of practical arts (technical high schools).\ni)\n\n3) Agricultural high schools.\n\n4) Or well-organized separate departments of (i), (2),\nstruction in general high schools.\n\nand (3) for vocational in-\n\nBut the American people are not satisfied with schools for normal\nchildren only.\n\nThey acknowledge their obligation to do all that can be\n\n"} {"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n252\n\n(PhUadelphia\n\ndone for exceptional children as well; hence they provide also schools or\nclasses for:\na) Cripples.\nb)\nc)\n\nAnemic and tubercular children.\nIncorrigibles and truants.\n\nd) Blind children.\ne)\n\nDeaf children.\n\n/) Mentally defective children.\n\nThe extent to which a school system provides for the realization of\nthese aims is a measure of its efficiency so far as the educational opportunities it affords are concerned, i.e., is a measure of the adequacy of educa-\n\ntional opportunities as compared with educational needs.\n\nCENTRALIZATION OF AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR EFFECTIVE\nLAY CONTROL IN BOARDS OF EDUCATION\nThis depends on small boards\n\n—^boards having\n\nless than ten\n\nmembers.\n\nThe tendency toward small boards is now so well established and the residts\nfollowing this tendency give such general satisfaction that this condition\nof efficient management needs no discussion.\n\nThe question whether such\n\nboards should be paid or impaid is, however, still agitated, and sometimes\nConsidering our limited experience with paid boards having\nvigorously.\nclearly defined functions differentiated by law or otherwise from the func-\n\ntions of the staff, this question must be regarded as unsettled.\n\nNeverthe-\n\nwell-known theoretical objections that paid boards, i.e., boards\nwhose members are paid to give all their time to school-board service,\n\nless the\n\nwould inevitably confuse lay control with professional and executive\nmanagement; that such boards, whether the salaries are large or small,\nwould attract undesirable members and make it difficult if not impossible\nto secure the most desirable; and finally, that it is neither necessary nor\ndesirable that board members should give their entire time to the service,\n\n—these objections to paid boards are cogent, their\n\neven in the largest cities\n\nvalidity is almost self-evident, and justify the widespread and strong disinclination to experiment with paid boards.*\nEfficient\n\nmanagement implies a clear conception thruout the system\n\nof the nature, scope, and limits of the functions of each branch of the service.\n\nHence a clear statement of the functions of the board should be found in the\neducation law, including the charter; and thorogoing study of these\nfunctions by board members is imperative. These functions are: (a) The\nappointment of a general manager, and thru him of a competent staff of\nemployees for the business affairs, and for the educational affairs of the\n(Inasmuch as the school system exists for educational purposes, the general manager of the whole enterprise should be an educator;\nschool system.\n\n*\"The Board will, in the long run, become of the same type as the persons who press for memberThere has never been any diflSculty in getting the best men and women for this service. The\n\nship in it.\n\nhave come from the failure of the appointing power to look for the best.\" Brief of the PubEducation Association on the Education chapter of the proposed charter for the city of New York\n\ndifficulties\nlic\n\nAugust 14. X9XZ'\n\n"} {"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n2$$\n\nand because the city superintendent should be the responsible head of the\neducational activities of the school system, the general manager should be\nthe city superintendent of schools.)\n\n(b) Deciding general policies\n\nby requir-\n\ning, hearing, and criticizing reports from its staff of employees concerning\n\nbusiness and educational aims, means, methods, and results,\n\n(c)\n\nDelegat-\n\ning all executive functions whether business or educational to the staff of\n\nemployees.\n\nSuch delegation of functions makes standing subcommittees\nand they should not exist. To say nothing of\n\nof the board unnecessary,\n\nother objections to standing committees of the board, such as confusion\nor conflict of the duties assigned to them, and dispersion of the board's\nresponsibilities,\n\nwhen the board assigns to a subcommittee or to itself the\n\nperformance of technical or executive functions, it usually attempts the\nimpossible because neither the board nor its subcommittee possesses either\nthe qualifications or the time required.\n\nMoreover, while attempting the\n\nimpossible, the board also loses sight of the important function just referred\n\n—\n\nthe duty of deciding general policies, and seeing that its deliberate\nto\njudgment on those policies are effectively carried out. The performance of\nthis duty demands all the time and requires all the practical wisdom a board\ncan bring to bear on its task. Together with complete accountability to the\npeople, it constitutes the supreme duty of the board as the representative\nof the people in the\n\nmanagement of their educational affairs.\n\nThe staff,\n\nunder the direction of the superintendent, as co-ordinator and general\nmanager of the board's affairs, and not the board itself or the subcommittees\nof the board, has the time and should have the special qualifications for\n\nformulating policies, investigating proposals, carrying out the decisions\n\nreached by the board, and reporting on the results achieved.\n\nThat is\nComplete accountability to the people in respect\nto both the financial affairs and the educational affairs of the school system.\nFinancial accountability covers both budget estimates and actual expenditures for each activity authorized by the board.\nCareful making of budget\nestimates based on recorded, incontestable, and well-organized data\n(statistics of past experience and contemporary conditions), and equally\ncarefully prepared and classified exhibits of expenditures are imperative.\nNothing is more subversive of efficient management than inadequate\nfunds and insufficient control of the fimds required for the work to be done.\nBoth sufficient money and the control of it when secured depend on a convincing statement of real needs and of actual necessary expenditures.\nThere is no other way to minimize the inevitable and well-nigh universal\ndifficulty of securing the money needed for schools.\nwhat the staff is for.\n\n(d)\n\nAccountability in respect to the educational affairs of the school system\ncovers: (i) adequate provision for the educational needs of the conamunity,\nas outlined near the beginning of this paper;\n\nand (2) the success actually\n\nand progressively achieved by the school system in educating all the children\nof the city in accordance with their capacities and needs.\n\nThis success is\n\n"} {"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n254\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nmeasured by its ability to hold all children exclusive of the mentally defective in elementary schools, vocational schools, and high schools, beyond\nthe upper limit of the compulsory attendance age; the proportion of such\npupils of normal age completing or failing to complete a course of study in\nthese schools; the efficiency of the compulsory attendance service in preventing as well as curing irregularity of attendance and truancy; and its\nsuccess in discovering, segregating, grading, and caring for mentally defective children of school age.\n\nAccountability, both financial and educational, cannot be satisfactorily\n\ndischarged without brief, compact, adequate, and perfectly lucid statistical\n\nsummaries of the facts reported on.\n\nThat such statistical summaries are\n\nworthless imless they are truthful and easily interpreted not only by members of the board but also by any intelligent person who considers them\nseriously goes without saying.\n\nThat school statistics now often conceal\n\nrather than reveal the facts is a serious handicap to efficient educational\n\nThat school statistics, like other sta astics, may be misused\nis also true.\nNevertheless accurate and readily\ninterpretable school statistics constitute one of the most valuable means of\nself-examination a school system can use and self-examination with a view to\nlearning and setting lo/th the truth is a very important step toward the progressive improvement of school systems, i.e., toward efficient management.\nFinally, effective lay control by the board of education requires the\nmanagement.\n\nby\n\ndesigning persons\n\n;\n\ncomplete independence of the board of education from the city government.\n\nThe idea that boards of education are now not local but state boards,\naltho elected by local voters or appointed by local officials, and listed among\nIt seems new to some persons, however,\nlocal departments, is not new.\nso new that in the city of New York it has recently been called preposterous.\nYet the plain intent of the law in New York as in other states is to separate\nschool affairs from all other municipal affairs. Numerous examples could\nbe cited, but two or three will suffice.\n\nNo less a person than the present\n\nmayor of the city of New York when justice of the Supreme Court rendered\nthe following decision:\nIt [the Brooklyn board of education] is not a part of the corporation of the dty of\n\nBrooklyn, but is itself a local school corporation, like every board of school district\ntrustees thruout the state, and is like every such board an integral part of the general\nIt is a state and not a city agency, doing state and not city\nEducation is not dty, village, country, or town business. It is a\nmatter belonging to the state government. From its comprehensive foundation by\nChapter 75, of the laws of 1795, down to the recent codification of our school laws, our\nstate system of education has remained a consistent whole.\n\nschool system of the state.\n\nwork and functions.\n\nAnd the Court of Appeals of the same state has declared:\nAll this results from the settled policy of the state from an early date to divorce the\n\nbusiness of public education from all other munidpal interest or business, and to take\n\ncharge of it as a peculiar and separate function thru agents of its own selection, and immediately subject and responsive to its own control.\n\n"} {"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nUNDERLYING PRINCIPLES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n255\n\nThe same principle is conspicuous in the new school code of PennsylAgain, the boards of education in St. Louis and Kansas City are\n\nvania.\n\nnot subject to their respective city governments;\n\nthey are independent\n\ntax-assessing and -spending bodies.\n\nThe intention of the people in some states as regards the independence\nof the public-school system in relation to the city government is therefore\nplain;\n\nand a strong tendency in that direction is in evidence thruout the\n\ncountry.\n\nWhat is too often lacking is clear knowledge of this intention\n\nand a just appreciation of its significance on the part of boards of education, and, on occasion, lack of courage and persistent effort on the part of\nboards of education to see that this intention is carried out.\n\nUntil this\n\nintention is universally recognized and carried into effect, i.e., until boards\nof education are everywhere independent of the city hall, school systems\n\ncannot expect to escape the baneful influence of the politically organized\n\n—\n\nand controlled forces of city governments forces directed by city boards\nor by persons whose chief real interests lie elsewhere than in the education\nComplete independence of boards of education from city\nof the children.\ngovernments is accordingly a fundamental condition of effective lay control\nof public-school systems by such boards, and hence of eflScient management.\n\nCENTRALIZATION OF AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR BUSINESS\nAND PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT IN THE STAFF\nEflSicient management of\n\nthe school system requires, as we have seen,\n\nthe centralization of responsibility for all executive details, including professional management, in the staff, with the city superintendent at the head\n\nas general manager.\nConstant,\n\nalert,\n\nSuch executive and professional management requires\n\nand courageous endeavor to secure for the people the education\n\ntheir children should have, i.e., to secure the schools needed for the appropriate education of\nall the children.\n\nAdequate and appropriate means of determining the qualifications of well-trained\nand otherwise satisfactory workers for the educational staff, and for the business staff of\nthe school system.\n\nThe appointment of duly qualified members of the staff thru the general manager,\nand their assignment to duty, including transfers, by him. No preference should be shown\nfor home candidates as such in any appointments.\nPromoting the progressive usefulness of the staff, and insuring their tenure of\noffice during efficiency and good behavior, and removing unsatisfactory members from\nthe service.\n\nAppropriate promotion of members of the staff to posts of increased responsibility\nand emolimient. But such appointments should not be limited to persons already\nmembers of the staff.\nRetiring satisfactory members of the staff when they become disabled or superannuated, with suitable retiring allowances.\n\nOrganizing the staff for the performance of the several functions to be discharged.\nSupervising the performance of these fimctions, and reporting thereon to the board.\n\nPromoting co-operation under leadership thruout the school system itself, as well as\npromoting co-operation of the school system with the community.\n\n"} {"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n256\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nHence, as general manager of the board's affairs, it is the duty of the\ncity superintendent, with the help of the staff: (a) To show the board of\neducation what schools and how many of each kind are required and where\n\nthey should be built to realize the educational aims for which the school\nsystem exists. The people want good schools, but not being technically\nconversant with the problems involved cannot themselves plan the details of\n\n—\n—the schools require, nor where such\n\nnor do they know what material equipment\n\nsuch schools;\n\ngrounds, and teaching apparatus\nschools should be located,\n\n(b)\n\n^buildings,\n\nTo secure a properly qualified supervisory\n\nforce for the organization, administration, and supervision of the schools.\n(c) To secure an efficient teaching corps for all the schools; and to recommend the salaries to be paid them, together with the conditions for tenure,\n(d) To\npromotion, and retirement with or without retiring allowances,\n\nformulate courses of study for the several schools, together with suggestions\nas to methods of teaching,\n\nother teaching resources.\n\nTo select textbooks, apparatus, and all\ndefine standards of achievement as to\nTo\n(/)\n(e)\n\nquality and quantity of work done by pupils in\nindividual\n\nand\n\nlocal needs\n\nharmony with varying\n\nthruout the school system,\n\n(g)\n\nTo define\n\nsimilar standards of achievement for the work done by teachers and super-\n\nvisory officers,\n\n(h)\n\nTo carry on habitual, well-organized self-examination\n\nwithin the school system, by means of (i) carefully collected and properly\norganized educational statistics showing progressively what educational\nresults are actually achieved in every branch of the service;\n\n(2) investiga-\n\ntion involving experimental verification or refutation of educational opinion\n\nwithin and without the school system, or at least a search for the method\nof such objective appraisal of educational opinion and of the results achieved\n\nand (3) a system of office records for the educational affairs of the school\nsystem that can be made to yield to the staff, to the board, and to the public,\ntruthful, clear, prompt, and adequate information on any aspect of the\nwork to yield this information at any time, but especially in the annual\n(i) To secure a staff of properly\nreport of the superintendent and the board,\nqualified officers and employees for the business affairs of the school system,\ni.e., a staff to purchase sites, build buildings, and equip them and care for\nthem properly when built; to purchase all kinds of supplies and to secure\ntheir prompt distribution to the schools, and an adequate and properly\nqualified office force,\n(j) To provide a system of records and accounts for\n\n—\n\nthe business affairs of the school system as for its educational affairs.\n\nTime will not permit the discussion of these factors of efficient management by the staff. But I must deal briefly with at least two of them.\nLet us first consider habitual self-examination. This means a study of their\nfunctions, and of their performances by the board and by the staff.\n\nmuch given\n\nto this form of selfWithout it we shall continue\nto have boards, whether large or small, who have no conception of what\n\nBoards, on the whole, are not\n\nexamination.\n\nIt\n\nshould be cultivated.\n\n"} {"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nUNDERLYING PRINCIPLES\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n257\n\ntheir functions are, or what is even worse, false conceptions of those functions.\n\nIf boards are without adequate conceptions of their duties, we can-\n\nnot expect them to develop the means and methods of satisfying themselves\n\nand the public that these functions are adequately discharged.\n\nIf they have\n\nand mismanagement, or ineflScient management, are inevitable. It is, therefore,\ntheir first duty to study their functions, in order to attain clear conceptions\nof what those functions really are; next to endeavor imceasingly to develop\nthe methods of assuring themselves that their proper functions are satisfactorily discharged; and finally, to show the public that they are both\nthoroly alive to their real duties and that these duties are performed.\nThe only force that can bring about this indispensable factor of efficient\nmanagement is informed, aroused, and insistent public opinion. This\npublic opinion it is the duty and privilege of the superintendents to cultivate\nby every means in their power. Neglect of this duty by superintendents is\none of the most serious violations of efficient management. To discharge\nthis duty requires a professional consciousness, that springs from the\npossession of professional resources, and the sense of responsibility which\na, professional consciousness and a sense of\nis its natural concomitant\nresponsibility akin to those felt by physicians, lawyers, and engineers, in\nThat it also requires tact and courage goes\ntheir spheres of activity.\nfalse conceptions of their functions, confusion in school affairs,\n\nwithout saying.\nHabitual and well-organized self-examination within the staff requires\n\na perennial study of their functions and performances by the members of\n\nThis means the attainment of a clear and adequate conception, on the part of the supervisory\nstaff\nthe city superintendent, directors, and principals of what constructhe staff under the leadership of the superintendent.\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntive supervision really means;\n\ni.e.,\n\na serious attempt to develop a potentially\n\nproductive theory of supervision which the supervisory force works out\nfor itself,\n\nand never-ending endeavor to find appropriate, and so far as\n\npossible, objective methods of testing the results of supervision in practice.\n\nIt means similar continuous study of their several functions on the part of\n\nthe rank and\n\nfile\n\nof the staff\n\nunder the leadership of their immediate\n\nsuperiors; progressive cultivation of willingness\n\non the part of all con-\n\ncerned to look upon the results of their work in the light of objective\nappraisal of those results, as measured by all the means of measuring educational results now available and other means as fast as they become avail-\n\nand especially, imshrinking facing of the results of such measurement whatever they are.\nUnless and until such self-examination within the staff becomes the\nrule in city-school systems thruout the country, we shall never have the\nprofessional resources and the professional consciousness born of them\non which professional leadership and working efficiency, i.e., efficient\nmanagement and satisfactory results, in the last analysis, depend. Until\nable;\n\n"} {"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nsuch self-examination becomes habitual, school systems\nresort to outside agencies to\n\ntell\n\nthem how they stand.\n\n[PhUaddphU\n\nwill\n\ncertainly\n\nIf the outside\n\nagency is a good one, the results to the school system may be correspondingly good. The danger is, however, that because the public has not\nyet learned to discriminate between educational specialists and plausible\ncharlatans, the public\n\nmay choose unwisely, and the school system may\n\nthus become the prey of the self-seeker and the charlatan.\n\nThe duty of\n\nthe superintendents in relation to this fimdamental element of efficient\n\nmanagement is plain.\nThe second condition of efficient management to which I must refer\nbriefly, at least, is co-operation xmder leadership thruout the staff and of\nthe staff with the commimity.\n\nI have already pointed out that as an execu-\n\ntive and administrator the authority of the superintendent must be com-\n\npletely conomensurate with his responsibilities.\n\nTo exercise this authority\n\nwisely, to safeguard the initiative and secure the co-operation of his staff, he\n\nmust know how to delegate authority and responsibility to his subordinates\nand to give them the same freedom within their spheres of activity that\nhe possesses or should possess in his own. Unfortunately, in school management, we are sometimes, at present, confronted with the anomalous situation of a superintendent who accepts the heavy responsibilities of his office\n\nwithout any guaranty, either expressed or implied, that he shall also possess\nthe authority that should accompany them. The consequence is that he\nbecomes the mere instrument, and sometimes simply the hireling of the\nboard. Under such circumstances he has, of course, no authority to deleEfficient management, however, requires that he shall have.\ngate.\nDelegation of authority by the superintendent; and accountability and freedom\nof action among his subordinates is the means of securing administrative\n\nco-operation in the staff.\n\nFor efficient management co-operation is even more important in the\nAdministrative control will keep the school going, but\nit will not keep the schools going so as to guarantee results of high value.\nTo secure such results efficient and expert supervision is indispensable.\nIn the great school systems, the superintendent cannot himself participate in the details of supervision, as he can and should in the smaller\nsystems. In the great school systems, he is too remote from those details\nto supply the personal touch that actual supervision requires. In either\ncase, however, he can best fulfill his supervisory functions with the aid of\nan officially constituted supervisory council. He should have two such\ncouncils when the system is large one for business affairs, and one for\nfield of supervision.\n\n—\n\neducational affairs.\n\nThis council should consist of representatives of his\n\nentire staff, and should be the official channel of communication between the\n\nThis channel should be kept open and in use,\nand to it should be committed all questions of policy and procedure questions dealing with the aims, means, methods, and results of the work of the\nsuperintendent and the staff.\n\n—\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n259\n\nschool system, and no measures dealing with these matters should be adopted\n\nwithout the approval of the council, after full deliberation.\n\nSuch a council\n\ncould make effective the combined wisdom of the entire staff, and this is\nessential to efficient management.\n\nIt should invite criticisms and suggesand it would obtain them chiefly from those whose criticisms and\nsuggestions are most valuable, namely the thoughtful members of the staff.\nThe staff should understand that criticisms and suggestions are expected\nfrom them; and the council should insure careful consideration of them\nwhen they are made.\nSuch a council would thus vitalize all the work. It would tend to\neliminate the shams; it would do away with passive or restive compliance\nwith orders from above; and it would substitute initiative and co-operation\nfor bureaucratic control; and initiative and co-operation under leadership is\nthe secret of good schools and school systems.\nWe have found the principles of efficient management of a school\ntions;\n\nsystem to be:\n\nA clear conception of the purposes for which the school system exists—the work it\nhas to do.\n\nAn equally clear conception on the part of all concerned with this work of the\nnature, scope, and limits of each branch of the service, i.e., of the board, and the staff.\n\nCentralization of authority and responsibility for effective lay control in the board;\nand for professional and business management in the staff.\nComplete accountability of the staff to the board and of the board to the people.\n\nHabitual, well-organized self-examination to determine the results actually achieved,\nincluding experimental verification or refutation of educational opinion within\n\nand\n\nwithout the school system.\n\nA system of clear, adequate, incontestable, and accessible records of the educational\nresults progressively achieved, for the information of the staff, the board, and the public.\n\nA similar system of financial records or accounts for the same purpose.\nCo-operation thruout the school system, under the leadership of the superin-\n\ntendent and the supervisory staff, in both the professional and the business affairs; cooperation of these branches of the service with each other and with the teachers; and\nco-operation of the community with the school system.\n\nB.\n\nTHE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC\n\nMANAGEMENT\nF. E.\n\nSPAULDING, SUPERINTENDENT OF NEWTON SCHOOLS,\nNEWTONVILLE, MASS.\n\nSchool systems are managed and may be improved both from without\nand from within. Fundamental principles to be observed in improving\nboth their external and their internal management have been outhned for\nus by Professor Hanus. The observance of such principles of external\norganization, support, and control as Professor Hanus lays down makes\ntheoretically possible the unhampered practice of scientific management within the school system. It is to this phase of the subject, the\n\n"} {"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n26o\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nimprovement of the school system from within, that I now invite your\nattention.\n\nAs we recall the familiar stock examples of scientific management that\ncome to us from the material industries such as the moving of pig iron, the\nlaying of brick, and the cutting of metals ^as we recall the multitude of stop\nwatch observations and experiments, the innumerable, accurate measurements and comparisons of processes and results, out of which after many\nyears these examples have grown, we may be pardoned if we feel a momentary doubt of the applicability to the educational industry of any management worthy to be characterized as scientific. But when we learn of the\nmarvelous results achieved in some material industries thru the elimination\nof waste motions that were not detectable by the unaided eye and the stop\n\n—\n—\n\nwatch, but which yielded to analysis\npictures, we are somewhat reassured;\n\nmade possible only thru motion\n\nfor we are impressed with the fact\n\nthat great improvements, if not perfect efficiency, may arise from observations and measurements that are relatively crude.\n\nScientific management\n\nis a method, characterized by its spirit quite as much as by its accuracy.\n\nThe essentials of this method are:\n1. The measurement and comparison of comparable results.\n2. The analysis and comparison of the conditions under which given\nresults are secured\n\n—especially of the means and time employed in securing\n\ngiven results.\n3.\n\nThe consistent adoption and use of those means that justify them-\n\nselves most fully by their results, abandoning those that fail so to justify\n\nthemselves.\n\nThe progressive improvement of a school system demands\n\nthat these essentials of scientific management be applied incessantly.\n\nLet us waste no time over the obvious but fruitless objection that the\nultimate and real products of a school system\n\n—those products that are\n\nregistered in the minds and hearts of the children that go out from the\n\nschools\n\n—are immeasurable, and hence incomparable. There are mediate\n—^products that every school\n\nproducts in abundance that are measurable\n\nsystem seeks to turn out because of the well-founded knowledge or belief\nthat thru these the desired ultimate products are achieved. Neither will\n\nwe take any time to enumerate exhaustively those school products that can\nbe measured and that are worth measuring; to describe suitable imits of\nmeasurement, and their application; and to enlarge upon the improvements\nthat may be effected in any school system thru such measurements and the\nprocedure that the results suggest.\n\n—school systems are not improved by\n—I want to bring before you a few concrete samples of a\n\nInstead of abstract discussion\nscholastic treatment\n\nlarge amount of data that is being constantiy secured and used in the actual\n\nprocess of applying principles of scientific\n\nmanagement in the effort to\n\nimprove one little school system; to suggest something of the significance,\n\n"} {"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSuperintendencel\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n261\n\nthe value, and the use of these data; and to tell of some definite results of\ntheir use achieved and anticipated.\n\nI\n\nknow of no single adequate measure of the eflSciency of a school,\nI know of no combination of measures by which\n\neither absolute or relative.\n\nthe exact superiority of one school over another can be expressed in a single\nterm.\n\nSeveral very important products or results of schools' work can be\n\ndefinitely measured, however; the efficiency of schools in these respects can\n\nbe definitely compared; the conditions, the processes, and means which\nbrought about these measurable results can be studied, and, so far as lies\nin the power of the school, those conditions, processes, and means which\n\nshow the largest measure of justification in results can be adopted.\n\nI refer\n\nto such results as the percentage of children of each year of age in the school\ndistrict that the school enrolls;\n\nthe average number of days' attendance\n\nsecured annually from each child; the average length of time required for\n\neach child to do a given definite unit of work; the percentage of children of\n\neach age who are allowed to complete their schooling, with the average\neducational equipment of each; the percentage of children who are inspired\n\nand the quality of the educaThis last, the quality of education afforded, is\n\nto continue their education in higher schools;\n\ntion that the school affords.\n\nas important as it is difficult to measure.\n\nDefinite examinations of pupils'\n\nknowledge of subjects are not without value, but are open to many serious\n\nand well-founded objections.\nWith conditions as they are in Newton, we have, not a perfect nor a\ncomplete, but an exceedingly valuable comparative measure of the quality\nof education afforded by the several grammar schools.\nThis measure is\nfound in the qualitative success\n\n—that in the standing in subjects studied\nis\n\nof the pupils sent by the grammar schools to the high schools.\n\nIt has long\nbeen a dominant aim of every Newton grammar school to send the largest\n\npossible percentage of its pupils into some of the numerous and widely varied\n\nhigh-school courses\n\n—and every school\n\nis\n\nsucceeding in this, none sending\n\nless than 80, some sending almost 100 per cent, of their pupils to high school.\n\nWhat is the average success of the representatives of the several gramChart Number i\n\nmar schools in their first year's work in the high school ?\n\nanswers this question for each of the first three quarters of the school year\n1911-12, and for the four years ending with the year 1911-12. This chart\nshows the relative success of the representatives of each school in all subjects, and in the single subject of English, which is pursued by all first-\n\nyear high-school pupils\n\n—indeed, with rare exceptions by\n\nall\n\nhigh-school\n\npupils.\nIt is unnecessary to explain in detail\n\nhow these respective quality\n\n—represented graphically— the work of pupils of each grammar\n\nmeasures\n\nOnly comparative, no absolute, value is claimed for\nOf what practical use are they ? They serve as a most powerful\n\nschool are secured.\n\nthem.\n\nof\n\n"} {"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n262\n\n[Philadelphia\n\n—\n\nStimulus to analysis and study study of the conditions and means, the\nexpenditures of time, effort, and money, in the several schools that yield\n\n—\n\nChart I. ^Showing comparative success of the product of Newton grammar\nschoc^ as measured by Newton high schools\nAverage quality of work of Fiedimen j!°\n\n^ subjects\n\n(m English\n\nrrm\n\nNoTB— The circles appearing in this and in following charts arr to be disregarded.\n\nIn the large wall\ncharts from which these small charts were photographed, these circles contained the exact numerical values\nof the bars in which they appear;\nthese small charts the figures are reduced beyond the pobt of recog-\n\nb\n\nnition.\n\n"} {"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n263\n\nsuch varying results, to the end that every school may adopt those plans that\nare proving\n\nstudy\n\nmost\n\neffective.\n\n—and wholesome\n\nThey stimulate study\n\n—intensely practical\n\nrivalry, especially of the very people on\n\nwhom the\n\n—\n\nsuccess of each school's representatives most depends\n\n^principal, teachers,\n\nand pupils.\nJust by way of illustration, let us make a few comparisons of the relative\nsuccess of the products of the grammar schools in the light of some of the\nconditions involved. As the chart shows, the average quality of the work\nof pupils from school Number 9 surpasses that of every other school, both\nin English and in all subjects, in every one of the first three quarters of the\nyear 1911-12, and also in the average for four years.\nNo school has the distinction of standing at the bottom of the scale as\nconsistently as Number 9 stands at the top.\n\nNumber 11, altho standing\n\nfairly well in English and in all subjects during the three quarters of 191 i-i 2,\n\nshows the lowest average standing in all subjects for the four years.\n\nIn this\n\ngeneral average for four years. Number 9 appears superior to Number 11\n\nby more than 17 per cent. The records show that in Number 9, altho next\nto the smallest of all the grammar schools, with a total average membership\nin all eight grades of only 126, the per pupil cost for instruction averaged for\n\na period of five years ending with 1911-12, but 3^ per cent higher than in\n\nNumber 11, altho the latter was next to the largest of all the grammar\nschools, with an average membership of 817.\n\nMoreover, the value of the\n\nplants occupied by these two schools is inversely as the success of their\nrespective products in high school;\n\nthe plant of Number 9 represents an\n\ninvestment of $131 .00 per pupil, based on average membership, while that\nof Number 11 represents an investment of $411 .00 per pupil reckoned on\n\nthe same basis.\n\nWhat is going to be done, what is being done, on the basis of such\nindisputable measurements and records as these?\n\nI have no time to tell\nmore than this, that the quality of Number ii's work is improving and is\ngoing to improve still more, while that of Number 9 is by no means\nretrograding.\n\nElaborate courses of study on paper, showing with mathematical\n\naccuracy the numbers of periods per week and the number of years devoted\n\nno adequate conception of the actual educational\nemployment of the secondary-school youth of a community at any given\ntime. If one week's work of every pupil now in the three Newton secondary\nschools could be recorded successively by a properly sensitized photo-\n\nto each subject, give\n\ngraphic plate, the composite picture that might be developed from this\nrecord would show the pursuit of the various subjects in the proportions\n\nNumber 2. Resolving into one hundred\nNewton composite secondary-school\npupil is receiving just at this time, we find that one-tenth of one part is\n\ngraphically indicated on chart\n\nequal parts the education that the\n\nGreek, while seventeen parts are English; the remaining eighty- two and\n\n"} {"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n264\n\nP^hiladelphia\n\nnine-tenths parts are made up, in the proportions indicated, of the seventeen\nsubjects, from pattern-making to mathematics, that are recorded between\n\nGreek and English.\n\n\"A'^J^\n\nciUP-iFn-\n\nIS\n\nI\n\n20\n\nzljx:jx>\\\n\nGREEK\nVOCAL nusKi\nElICrRlClTYll\n\nPRinTim\n0\\BINErnK(iBl\n\nBi\n\nART\n\n°\n\nGERMAN EEl\nnECt1.DRAWH^\nPMVS. TP.\n\nwSm\n\n°\n\nmoiiriE^^H HKLD APTsHBl °\nLATIN\njiBii °\nhl3T0PY\n\nUiMMH\n\n>5CIENCL\n\nBHifiii\n\nFRENCH\n\nUMUUi\n\nBiH\npHHipiip\n\nconnERciAL^^^Hil\nc..,v\n\nMATH\n^'^U6H\nChart II.\n\n^^^^\n\n—^Ingredients of the education of a \"composite\" pupil in the Newton\n\nsecondary schools\n\nIs the Newton composite secondary-school pupil being adequately prepared to meet the composite demands of that society which education\n\nshould fit him to serve ?\n\nSome help, at least, in answering this question\n\n"} {"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n265\n\nmay be found by studying this composite photograph, which should be\ncomplemented by a composite of the needs of social service, using this term\nin its broadest sense.\n\nAcademic discussion of educational values is as futile as it is fascinating.\n\nWhich is more valuable, a course in Latin or a course in the machine shop ?\nWhich is more valuable, an acre of land or a loaf of bread ? There are,\nthere can be, no permanent, no absolute and universal answers to such\n\nquestions as these; but there are, and there must be, temporary, relative,\n\nand local assignments of value to everything, material or spiritual, that\nman desires. So while we educational practitioners have been waiting on\nthe educational theorists for an evaluation of the various subjects of actual\nor possible school curricula, we have been determining for our own schools\ndefinitely and minutely the relative values of every such subject.\nAnd we\nhave done this, for the most part, without knowing it\nThe school adminis!\n\ntrator simply cannot avoid assigning educational values every time he\n\ndetermines the expenditure of a dollar.\n\n—\n\nIt may give us a shock\n\n^but it will be a wholesome one\n\n—to confront\n\nourselves with the relative values that we have thus unconsciously assigned\nto various subjects.\n\nChart Number 3 shows graphically the relative value\n\nassigned today to every subject taught in the Newton High School.\n\nIt has\nbeen determined, wisely or unwisely, thoughtlessly or intelligently, that in\n\nthat school just now 5 9 pupil-recitations in Greek are of the same value as\n23.8 pupil-recitations in French; that 12 pupil-recitations in science are\n.\n\nequivalent in value to 19.2 pupil-recitations in English; and that it takes\n\n41.7 pupil-recitations in vocal music to equal the value of 13.9 pupilrecitations in art.\n\n—\n\nThus confronted, do we feel like denying the equivalency of these values\nThat is a\n\n^we cannot deny our responsibility for fixing them as they are ?\n\nwholesome feeling, if it leads to a wiser assignment of values in future.\nGreater wisdom in these assignments will come, not by reference to any\n\nsupposedly fixed and inherent values in these subjects themselves, but from\n\na study of local conditions and needs.\n\nI know nothing about the absolute\n\nvalue of a recitation in Greek as compared with a recitation in French or\nin English.\n\nI\n\nam convinced, however, by very concrete and quite local\n\nconsiderations, that when the obligations of the present year expire,\n\nwe\n\nought to purchase no more Greek instruction at the rate of 5.9 pupilrecitations for a dollar.\nThe price must go down, or we shall invest in\nsomething else.\nCharts Numbers 4 and 5 show the relative values now assigned to the\nvarious subjects taught in the Newton Technical and the Newton Vocational schools respectively.\n\nWhether we desire to do it or not, we express our relative valuations of\ndifferent subjects under given conditions by the percentage of our available\n\nfunds that we expend for each, just as the housewife controlling a limited\n\n"} {"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n266\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nfamily budget expresses her valuations of the various necessities, luxuries,\n\nand frivolities of existence by the proportion of her budget that she devotes\nto each.\n\nThe housewife is not seldom charged with large responsibility for\n\nUlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll\n\nChakt III.\n\n—Equivalent educational values\n\nin the Newton High School as shown\nby the purchasing power of a dollar expended for class instruction.\n\nthe high cost of living, on account of her lack of wisdom in handling the\n\nfamily budget; I gravely doubt that we educational administrators show\n\nany greater wisdom than the average housewife in the disposition of our\nalways limited school budgets.\n\n"} {"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n267\n\nUnquestionably the first step toward improvement, both for the\nhousewife and for the school administrator, is to secure definite, detailed,\n\nand significant knowledge of the actual disposition of the budget, whether\n\n5UBJECT\n\nftisjffiiajK\n\n©\n©\n©\n©\n©\n©\n©\nHDTORY\n©\n©\nrwn\n©\nmiD\n©\n©\n©\n©\n\n40\n\n45\n\n50\n\niiiiiiiiiiii\n\nAirr\n\nliiiiiiiiiiiiiiii\niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii\n\nSOEIiCE\n\niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii\niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijii\n\nMECH.D1M\n\niiiiiiiiiiiiiiimi\nIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII\n\nPI1Y5.tr,\n\nIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII\n\n6CRMAH\n\niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil\njiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii\n\nfREMGH\n\niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii\n\nEIiGL15H\n\nlillllllllllllllllll\nlllllllllllllllllllll\n\nlllllllllllllllllllll\n\nAVERAGE\n\nilllillllllilllillllilll\n\nEcon\n\n!!8!!i!!!!!!i!ll!ll!l!l,\n\n5tt0PW0RK\n\nliiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiii\n\nCOmERCIAL\n\nillillllllllllllllllllillllllllllllll\niilillilllllllllllllllillllllllllllll\n\nVOCAL MUSIC\nChart IV.\n\nllilllilllilllllllllllllllillllllllll\n\n—Equivalent educational values\n\nin the Newton Technical High School as\n\nshown by the purchasing power of a dollar expended for class instruction.\nof the family or of the school.\n\nChart Number 6 shows the apportionment\n\nof every dollar now being expended for instruction in the Newton secondary-\n\nschool system.\n\nOf every dollar so expended, o. 3 of one cent goes for Greek,\nWe buy 0.4 of one cent's worth of\n\nwhile 15.6 cents goes for English.\n\n"} {"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n268\n\ninstruction in vocal music while buying 12\n\nmathematics.\n\n.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\ncents' worth of instruction in\n\ni\n\nWe think it best—or are we doing it without thinking ?—to\n\nbuy 7 cents' worth of French for every 3 cents' worth of German; and we\n\nSUBJECT\n\n^\n\nPUPIL RECITATIONS\nP\n\n5\n\n10\n\n15\n\n20\n\n£5 30 35 40 45 SO\n\nPATTERN\n\nPRINTING\nllllllllll\n\ncam\n\nllllllllll\n\nB\nMKG®\n\nELECTRICrrY\nCABINET\n\nMATH\n\nlllllllllllll\n\nmiiiiiiin\n\n1\\MCH.5H0P\niimimmii\n\nMECH. DRAW\niiiiiiiiiimi\n\nENGLISH\niiiiiiiiiiiiiil\n\niiiiiiiiiiiiii\n\nHI5T0RY\nlllllllllllllll\n\nHHLD ARTS\niiiiiiimiiiiih\niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii\n\n5G1ENCL\niiiiiiiiiMuiiniii\n\n—\n\nChart V. Equivalent educational values in the Newton Vocational School as\nshown by the purchasing power of a dollar expended for class instruction.\nare buying no Spanish at all.\n\nthe household arts\n\nWe are spending 5 i cents for instruction in\n\n—in the preparation of\n\n.\n\nhomemaking— to 6.1\n—in the preparation of\n\ngirls for\n\ncents for instruction in commercial branches\n\nand boys for clerical and business service.\n\ngirls\n\n"} {"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\nSuperintendence!\n\n269\n\nCharts Numbers 7, 8, and 9 show the apportionment of every dollar\nexpended for instruction in the Newton High, the Newton Technical, and\nthe Newton Vocational schools respectively.\n\n^\n\nSUBJECT\"\n\n^'\"V'' ?ni^MWn^\n\nCiREEK\nVOCAL MUSICI\nmRttrtAKirKi 11\nPRirrrirKi\n\nipi\n\n(mnmmm\n\n-\n\n^\n\nQtmm\n°\n\nELECTRICITY\n\nEH\nPhYS. TP. Hi\n\nART\n\nlVlECH.DR/wHio\nM/^miriE^hopHiB\nmi'LD ART5\n\nLATIN\n\nBH\n\nmmf\n\ncomERciALHni\nTRENCH\n\nHiaii\n\nnisnoRY\n\nHHHi\n\n•science:\n\nEiaBHiii\n\nMATH\n\nEH^Biiii\n\ntmum\nChart VI.\n\nHHHHip\n\n—Relative valuation of\n\ndifferent\n\nsubjects in the\n\nNewton secondary\n\nschools as shown in the apportionment of every dollar expended for instruction.\no:j\n\nComparison of the costs of the same unit under different conditions is\nperhaps the best starting-point for a campaign to reduce unit costs or to\nimprove the quality of units of service. To be of any practical value, such\n\n"} {"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n270\n\n[Philadelphia\n\ncomparisons must be made of costs arising under conditions that can be\nthoroly studied.\n\nOf what earthly use are our interminable comparisons of\n\nteachers' salaries and annual expenditures per pupil from one end of the\n\nChabt Vn.\n\n—Relative valuation\n\nof different subjects in the Newton High School as\n\nshown in the apportionment of every dollar expended for instruction.\n\ncountry to the other, when we know nothing, when we attempt to find out\nnothing, when it might be practically impossible if we tried to get adequate\nknowledge, concerning the quantity and quality of teaching service rendered\nfor\n\nwhich varying salaries are paid, and the amount and character of\n\ninstruction given on which per pupil costs are based ?\n\n"} {"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OP SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n271\n\nEvery school system presents within itself abundant opportunity for\nthe comparison of unit costs; the conditions under which these costs arise\n\niSUBJKT\n\n5\n\n^^1?\"^\"^\n.ir\n\n^\n\n15\n\nLJkvLJU\n\nhfifrtfiNf^\n\nETHICS\nLOGIC\n\n5B^Nm\nVOCALMUBKI\nrfH'LD Econi\n\n°\n\nGERM\\N\n\n°\n\nIII\n\n.3nop^M(EiD\nmY5.\n\nm IBB\n\nMQCtlDRAwin\nART\n\nffn^T\n\nMATH.\n\nIIdH\n\nfl^NQI\n\nUUill\n\nnmrn\n\nUgHiH\n\n5CICNCL\n\niiaii^\n\ntmum\n\nBiiBigM ^^^^^]\n\nilL--.\n\n|f4WWW ^^^^ff\n\nCOmERClAL\nChart VIII. —Relative valuation\n\nof different subjects in the\n\nNewton Technical\n\nHigh School as shown in the apportionment of every dollar expended for instruction.\nare at hand, subject to any kind and degree of analysis and study that may\nbe necessary. Chart Number 10 shows the cost of one pupil-recitation in\ncertain subjects, each one of which is taught in two or more of the Newton\n\n"} {"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n272\n\nsecondary schools;\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nshows also the average cost per pupil-\n\nthis chart\n\nrecitation, regardless of subject, in each of these schools.\n\nWhy is a pupil-recitation in English costing 7 2 cents in the vocational\n.\n\n.science:\n\n„\n\nCE^^TS\n\n,\nSUBJECT\nOUDvlUVl ^\npioyy;\n\n^C\n\n20\n\nB^\n\n\\,.\n\nmmmmlinn\n\nII\n\niiiSTORv\n\n^^^am\n\n(m^mmmmm\n1\n\nB^HH\n\nPPlMTiMQ\n\n1\n\nMECMDMill^^HI\n\nT\nT\n\nH\n1\n\n1\n\nIBIIIIIH\n\nM/OTL\n\nENGLISH\n\n1\n\n^bUmil II\n\nELECTRICITY\n\nXT\n1\nr -U\nT\n\n1\n\nrmnTiE^tiopbBi^^^^^\n\n1\n\n1\n\n\"t-\n\nHTfLD.ART>3\n1\n\nChart IX.\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\nM\n\n—Relative valuation of different subjects in the Newton Vocational\n\nSchool as shown in the apportionment of every dollar eiq)ended for instruction.\n\nschool while\n\nit\n\ncosts only\n\n5\n\ncents in the technical school?\n\nIs\n\nthe\n\n\"vocational\" English 44 per cent superior to the \"technical\" English, or\n\n44 per cent more difficult to secure ?\n\nWhy are we paying 80 per cent more\n\nin the vocational than in the technical school for the same unit of instruction\n\n"} {"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n273\n\nWhy does a pupil-recitation in science cost from 55 per\ncent to 67 per cent more in the Newton High than in either of the other\n\nin mathematics ?\n\nschools ?\n\nSUBJECT\n\n}\nnTTffll\n\n•\n\n\\7\n\n1\n\nART\n11^\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\nIII!\n\nllllll\n\n•\n\nmeusH\n\nMW\n1\n^mm^m\n—\n—\\\n\nllll\n\nnil!\n\n1\n\nID\n\n\"1en\n\n1\n\nTixri.\n\nmill Hill Hlllll\n\nSVC ICA ri\n\n•\n1\n\nFRErrcH\niiiiiiiibii mill\n\nmil\n\nllllll\n\n1\n\nGLRMAM\n\\m\n\niiiiiiii\n\nllllll\n\nHill llllll ]\n\n•\n\nHI5T0RY\n\nwMim\n\niiiiiii\n\nlliliJ\n\n\"TTO^ vvw^ 3\na\n\nJi\nMATH.\n\nmil ittii mill Hill mil\n\nm mm M\n\nwi\n\nmi\n\n•\n\n5CIEI1CE\n\nillllllllllllHII\n\nm^\n1\n\nllllll\n\niiiiiiiiiiii\n\nm\n\n^m^^mmm.\n•\n\naverage:\nChart X.\n\n—Cost\n\n1\n\n1\n\n^\\ Miii;i(iiiii\n\nr\n\nmmM3mmm^?!mwms:mm\n\nof one pupil-recitation in certain subjects in the Newton secondary\n\nschools.\n\nAll the conditions under which these var)dng costs arise are at hand.\n\nBy studying them we can answer these and scores of other similar questions\nwhich a comparative chart such as Number 10 suggests. More than that,\nso far as the conditions are within our control, we can make changes which\n\n"} {"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n274\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nand quality of service, to the end that we may secure a\nmaximum of service at a minimum cost in every school and in every subject.\nwill vary costs\n\nThere are two phases of every practical problem of school administration, even of the details of classroom procedure; these are the financial and\n\nthe educational.\n\nThey are inseparable;\n\nthe frequent, I\n\nmay say the\n\nprevalent, effort to distinguish the problems of the school into financial or\n\nbusiness on the one hand, and educational on the other, results in two\n\ngroups of problems barren of significance.\n\nThose school boards who insist\non reserving to themselves, or committing to a special business manager,\nsupposedly an expert, the business administration of a system of schools,\nwhile they impose on a superintendent, presumably an educational expert,\nthe so-called professional administration of that same system of schools, and\nthose superintendents who advocate this plan, or meekly acquiesce in it,\ngive evidence of about as sound and comprehensive a grasp of the real\nproblem of educational administration as the would-be manufacturer of\nshoes must have of that industry, who would put his factory in charge of\ntwo independent experts, one of whom knew all about shoes as a finished\nproduct, and all about the processes of their manufacture, but knew little\nand was expected to know less about costs, while the other knew nothing\nabout shoes, but was a past master of business and finance.\nThe inseparability of the financial and educational aspects of school\nproblems is forcibly illustrated by Chart Nimaber ii. Equally well, this\nchart illustrates also the prime necessity of penetrating analysis as a means\n\nAt the top of the chart, figures are given\nshowing that in the Newton High School the average annual cost of classof revealing significant facts.\n\nroom instruction was but $1.33 higher per pupil in 1910-11 than it was\nseven years earlier.\n\nThis slight advance of barely 3 per cent during a\n\nperiod of general and large rise in prices might easily be taken as evidence\nof the constant and most careful scrutiny of every detail of costs.\n\nSuch is\n\nnot its true explanation, however; for that slight advance was more the\nresult of accident than of cost-conscious planning in the organization and\n\nconduct of the school.\n\nAs the analyses in the center and at the bottom of the chart show, the\nslight increase of $1 33 per pupil is the resultant of four factors, the variation\n.\n\nin any one of which has tended to increase or to diminish the total cost per\n\npupil by an amount from nearly two to more than four times that of the\n\nThis actual net increase of $1 .33 per pupil was due\nto the fact that the combined effects of two of the four factors on which\n\nactual net increase.\n\nthe total per pupil cost of high-school instruction depends tended to reduce\n\nthat total cost by the same amount, less $1 .33, as the combined effects of\nthe other two factors tended to raise it.\n\nThe significance, both financial and educational, of the facts that this\nThe increase of i 7 recitations per week\nper teacher reduced the annual cost per pupil by $3 10; this was equivalent\nanalysis reveals is most striking.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n"} {"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n275\n\nto a saving for the school of nearly $2,200.00, enough to pay for nearly\n\nDid the teachers or the\nthis\nsuffer\non\naccount\nof\nincrease of fifteen minutes\nwork\nefficiency of their\nservice?\nIf\nso,\nby\nhow much? These are\nclassroom\nper day in their\neducational questions that may be separated ^but only temporarily from\n13,000 pupil-recitations in expensive Greek.\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntheir financial bearings.\n\nNEWTON HIGH SCHOOL\n\nTotal cost of classroom instruction\nAverage membership\nCost per pupil\n\n1903-04\n\n1910-1X\n\n$35,576.16\n822\n$43.28\n\n$30,961.60\n694\n$44.61\n\n$1.33\n\nIncreased cost per pupil\n\nANALYSIS OF THE INCREASED COST\n\nNumber of pupils per instructor\nAverage salary of instructors\nAverage nimiber recitations per week per\ninstructor\n\nAverage number pupils per recitation class\nAverage nimiber recitations per week per\npupil\n\n27.6\n$1,193-79\n\n28.3\n$1,263.74\n\n21.4\n22.8\n\n23.1\n24.7\n\n17.7\n\n20.1\n\nReduced\n\nIncreased\n\nCOST\n\nOn account of:\nin nmnber of recitations per\nweek per instructor\nIncrease in number of pupils per recita-\n\nIncrease\n\n$3.10\n\ntion class\nIncrease in average salary of instructors\nIncrease in number of recitations per\nweek per pupil\n\n324\n\nTotal\n\n$6.34\n\n$2:47\n5.20\n\nNet\n\n$7.67\n\n$1.33\n\nChart XI.\n\n—Showing cost of regular classroom instruction\n\nThe increase of i 9 pupils per recitation class further reduced the annual\nper pupil cost by $3 .24 equivalent to a saving of over $2,200.00 for the\n.\n\n—\n\nschool.\n\nWas the work any the less efficient on account of the size of classes\n\naveraging 24.7 pupils each than it was with classes averaging 22.8 pupils\n\neach?\n\nAnother question to be answered primarily from the educational\n\nstandpoint; but a question whose answer is no less significant financially\n\nthan educationally.\n\n"} {"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7y6\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nAn increase of barely 6 per cent in the average salary of teachers effected\nan increase of $2 47 per pupil. If the average quality of service in the latter\nyear was not inferior to that of the former, we may be satisfied that this\nslight increase was more than justified by the general rise of prices, teachers'\n.\n\nsalaries included, during the period under consideration.\n\nBy far the most potent factor in affecting costs was the increase in the\nAn increase of 2.4\n\naverage number of recitations per week per pupil.\n\nrecitations involved an increased expenditure of $5 20 per pupil, or of more\n.\n\nthan $3,600.00 for the school.\n\nWere the pupils better served with 20.1\n\nrecitations per week than they were with 17.7?'\n\nWhat is the optimum number of recitations per week, on the average,\nWe may frankly confess that we do\nnot know the answers to either of these questions, important alike educationally and financially.\nBut we do know that we are constantly determining, and that we must continue to determine, the number of recitations per\nweek that shall be given to our high-school pupils; and we know further\nthat our determination of this matter will affect, and we may easily find out\nexactly how much it will affect, our expenditures.\nfor pupils in an academic high school ?\n\nFully conscious of these things, stimulated also by the necessity of\n\nreducing expenditures in some way, and further influenced by investigations\n\nwhich revealed that many pupils who were failing in one or more subjects\nwere attempting to carry a number of recitations considerably larger than\nthe comparatively high average for the school, we determined about two\nyears ago to adopt measures that would probably result in a reduction in the\naverage number of weekly recitations per pupil in the Newton High School.\nAccordingly a number of recitations per week, var)dng somewhat from\ncourse to course and from year to year, but nowhere exceeding seventeen,\nwas established as \"normal\"; on taking up the work of a new year pupils\nwere to be allowed to exceed the normal amount only on condition that their\nwork of the previous year gave satisfactory warrant for expecting that they\ncould carry more than the normal work successfully; furthermore, pupils\nundertaking more than the normal work were to have their work reduced to\nthe normal by dropping a subject at any time, after due warning that their\nwork was unsatisfactory. This last requirement seemed to be justified on\nthe ground that any pupil who is failing in his work must be doing so from\none of two reasons, either because he is undertaking more than he can do\nwell, or because he is not disposed to apply himself earnestly; in the former\ncase, the remedy is obviously a reduction in the undertaking, in the latter\ncase it seems scarcely less obvious that no more than a normal amount of\nexpense should be incurred by the giving of subjects that the pupil is not\nreally tr)dng to master.\n'These averages of recitations per week do not include exercises in vocal music, physical, and manual\ntraining, and optional work in household economics, altogether averaging from two to three exercises per\n\nweek per pupil, the higher number in the later year.\n\n"} {"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT\n\n277\n\nWith some modifying details not necessary here to mention, the above\nwere announced and explained to pupils and parents about two\nyears ago and were put into effect the following September; that is, in\nSeptember, 191 1. One effect was prompt and one result of this effect was\neasily measured: the average number of weekly recitations per pupil was\nreduced from 20 i, the number of the previous year, to 17 8, only one- tenth\nmore than the average of 1903-4, and thereby the total expense for instruction was reduced by about $4,100.00.\nrules\n\n.\n\n.\n\nWhat educational gains or losses are resulting from the limitations\nimposed on the extent of a pupil's work ?\nthat we are now trying to answer.\n\nThis is the important question\n\nI am convinced that no definite nor\n\neven reliable answer can be found in the mere opinions even of those who\n\ncome in closest touch with the pupils concerned. A recent deliberate expression of opinion on the advantages and disadvantages of this plan of limiting\nthe extent of a pupil's work was made by the principal and the heads of\ndepartments, after the plan had been in actual operation about one year\nand a half. The opinions so expressed were about equally divided for and\nagainst, with a slight tendency, on the whole, to favor the plan of limiting,\n\nand with a fairly strong demand that the plan be given further trial.\nWe have made a careful and detailed study of pupils' work under the\ntwo plans, the old plan an indefinite plan, rather a custom, in accordance\nwith which pupils who had done poor work for whatever reason were\nusually allowed, if not actually encouraged, to undertake still more work at\nthe beginning of a new year, with the hope that the ground lost in the past\nmight be regained and the new plan of limiting each pupil's work to the\namount that he had given evidence of being able to do satisfactorily. The\nchief results of this study are shown on chart Number 12.\nThis chart embodies the chief results of two sets of comparisons of the\naverage pupil-performance under the old and under the new plans. In one\ncase the average performance of a pupil in the Sophomore class of 1910-11,\nthe last year under the old plan, was compared with the average performance\nof a pupil in the Sophomore class of 1911-12, the first year under the new\nplan.\nConsideration of the general school history of these two classes\nrevealed no grounds for thinking that one was, on the whole, superior to the\nother in natural or acquired ability. The other comparison was made\nbetween the average performance of the same pupils under the two plans;\nthat is, the performance of the Sophomores of 1910-11, the last year under\nthe old plan, was compared with the work of these same pupils as Juniors\n\n—\n\n—\n\nin the following year, the first year of the new plan.\n\nIn this last comparison\n\nthe work was considered only of those pupils who were in the school thruout\nthe Sophomore and Junior years.\n\nThe significant points of comparison in both these cases were these three:\nthat is, the number of\n\n(i) the quantity of satisfactory work accompUshed\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n278\n\n(2) the quality of the satisfactory performance\n\n\"points\" passed, or earned;\n\n—that\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nis, the average standing in subjects passed;\n\nand (3) the percentage of\n\nwaste, that is, the ratio of the number of points failed to the number of\npoints earned.\n\nThe significance of these three points as tests of comparative efficiency\nare quite evident, if, for a moment, we regard as the object of the school the\n\nturningHDut of a maximum number of satisfactory points per pupil, of the\n\nL\n\n180 Sophomores xgio-iz\n167 Sophomores xgxi-ia\n\nii.\nn.\n\nSophomores 1910-11\n'\"{Juniors igii'i2\n\ni6a\nfui/ua as ^\n*w.« Pupils\n\nAVERAGE NUMBER PODITS\n20.57\n18.58\n18.36\n16.64\n1-95\n1.70\n1-59\n1.20\n\n20.82\n18.89\n19.06\n16.90\n1.67\n1.77\n\n.Attempted.\n...Earned.\n\nGross waste.\n\n1.41\n\nNet waste\n\n8.66%\n,\n\n7.21\n7i-777o\n73 70\n\n61.00%\n45 00\n\n7.40%\n\nNet waste is of points earned.\nAverage quality\n\n75 13%\n72. 9^\n\nPercentage of superior performance\n(Pupils earning 18 points or more with average of 70%\nor more)\n\n63.00\n41.00\n\nGain and Loss After Limitation of Periods\nSophomores\n\nJuniors\n\nPoints earned\n\n1.72(9.4%)\n\nLoss\n\n1.45% (Deer.)\n.07%\n\nGain\nLoss\n\nAverage waste per point earned\nAverage quality\n\n,\n\n,\n\n(11.3%) 2.16\n\nLoss\nLoss\nLoss\n\n(Incr.)\n\n.47%\n2.15%\n\n—\n\nNote. ^Italics refer in every case to pupils working under the plan of limited periods (see explanation\nin the text).\nThe comparison of Sophomores with Sophomores is made in the column at the left; that\ntA Sophomores with Juniors in the column at the right.\n\nChart Xn.\n\n—Comparison\n\nof pupil-performance before and after limitation of periods\n\nhighest quality, with a minimum of waste.\n\nWaste, as in any other produc-\n\ntive industry, is to be avoided, as the cost of it must be added to the cost of\n\nthe satisfactory product.\n\n,\n\nWithout taking any time to go into details, these studies showed, as is\nrepresented on the chart, that in the comparison of the average performance\nof Sophomores, those working imder the new plan earned i 72, or 9 ii per\n.\n\n.\n\ncent, points less than did those under the old plan; that the percentage of\n\nwaste was 1.45 per cent less under the new plan; and that there was a\nslight loss in quality\namounting to 0.07 per cent under the new plan.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe study showed further that the same pupils in their Junior year earned\n\n"} {"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVALUE OF DETAILS WITHIN THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\nunder the new plan an average of 2\n\n.\n\n279\n\n16, or 11 3 per cent, fewer points than\n.\n\nin their Sophomore year under the old plan; that their percentage of waste\n\nunder the new plan was 0.47 per cent greater than under the old; and that\nthe average quality of passable achievement under the new plan was 2.15\nper cent lower than under the old.\n\nAt most, I think the results of this study should be regarded merely as\nindicative; I do not consider that it satisfactorily proves anything regarding\n\nthe relative superiority of the two plans of administration that we are trying\nto test.\n\nThe most that can be said unconditionally of these results is that\n\nthey give no warrant whatever for concluding that our plan of limiting the\n\n—\n\namount of work that a pupil may undertake is superior as judged by the\nquantity and quality of achievement, and the net waste involved to the\nformer plan.\n\n—\n\nFurther studies of this question are now being made, and I\n\nalready have some data bearing on it which there is no time to present.\n\nNeither is there time even to mention several important considerations\n\nwhich the study suggests.\nI have presented this study\n\n—incomplete and inconclusive as —as\n—as\nour daily notebook or chartbook—\nsome\nthe methods\nit is\n\nalso all the suggestions of studies preceding, merely as illustrations\n\nleaves out of\n\nof\n\nof\n\nthat we are pursuing right now in our efforts to improve our school system\n\nthru the application of principles of scientific management.\n\nC.\n\nTHE DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE VALUE OF\nDETAILS WITHIN THE COURSE OF STUDY\nA.\n\nDUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF\nPENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nA test of the relative worth of details within the general course of study\nshould be both universal and practicable.\n\nTo be universal, it must measure\n\nusefulness not only from the standpoint of direct preparation for life or\nsocial efficiency, including specialization\n\nand culture, but from that of\n\ngeneral knowledge and mental development.\n\nTo be practicable, the test\n\nmust not only be stripped of all vagueness, and so reduced from rainbow\ngenerahty to a naked definiteness which specifically and certainly points\nthe way to the pot of gold, but the definiteness must be so highly analytic\nand so capable of mathematical expression that the gold pieces can be\ncounted and their relative value measured. The very vocabulary of our\npast discussions shows the absence of such analysis.\n\nTo say that subject-\n\nmatter must be \"useful\" is either to include as a factor in the test the thing\n\nwhich is to be tested, or to limit usefulness to a direct preparation for life\nwhich ignores all mental discipline which is not specific. That is, usefulness either brings anything into the course of study on the ground that\neverything is useful to some one or other some time or other, or it excludes\n\n"} {"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n28o\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nthe varying apperception and many-sidedness of experience essential to\napplication and general discipline. To include only what is capable of\nbeing related to other knowledge is either to include all, or to limit relationship to what is within the comprehension of learners at a particular stage\n\nBut the most complex ideas which can be included in a\n\nof advancement.\n\ncourse of study are, as partial and imperfect concepts, within the compre-\n\nhension of most normal children at the age when they enter school.\n\nCom-\n\nprehension, therefore, reduces itself to any part of a possible many-sidedness\n\nwhich is immediate for a particular learner or class of learners.\nTo argue that subject-matter must be interesting is to fail to distinguish between interest inherent in content and that which results from\nmethod. Inherent interest, or interest based on natural tendency or\nexplained by culture epoch, does not determine whether a thing is useful\nor not, but is merely a partial measure of relative usefulness. The most\nessential things in the course of study often lack inherent interest.\n\nThe\n\nproblem of the school is to make them interesting thru effective method.\nIf the present discussion is to be practical, its vocabulary must be made\ndefinite thru the analysis of the four factors involved in it:\n\nthe details of\n\nthe course of study; the phases of mental activity thru which they should\nresult in mental development; the phases of direct preparation for life which\n\nthey should further; and the test thru which their value to both mental\n\ndevelopment and direct preparation is to be measured.\nThe course of study must be analyzed into details, i.e., into definite\n\nand specific relationships.\n\nBy details I mean ideas or activities in the va-\n\nrious definite and specific relationships of\n\nwhich they are capable.\n\nFor\n\nexample, in planning a course of study in geography, we are not concerned\n\nwith whether we shall include such general topics as location, population,\nor cities.\n\nThey are capable of so many useful relationships that determinand their\nOur problem is whether\n\nation of their worth as related to each other is unnecessary,\n\ncontinued use in instruction a matter of course.\n\nto teach particular cities; whether each city that is taught shall have its\n\npopulation exactly given, have it reduced to round numbers, or compared\n\nwith that of some more familiar city; whether it shall be exactly located\non railroad, body of water, political subdivision, or by parallel and meridian;\ngenerally located in grand division, country, physiographical region, or industrial section\n\n;\n\nor relatively located, as near a seaport or industrial center,\n\nThat is, the problem is one of\nFormal self-activity\nmust be analyzed into its educational phases, based on the relative retention and definiteness of relationships.\n\nor more specifically, by point of compass.\n\nanalysis and the comparison of definite relationships.\n\nBy relative worth or usefulness, I mean relative furtherance of the\neducational aim, both direct and indirect\nture, information, discipline, or\n\n—\n\n^indirect\n\nfurtherance thru cul-\n\nmental development; and direct further-\n\nance thru relationships which specifically and certainly further right living.\n\n"} {"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVALUE OF DETAILS WITHIN THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n281\n\ngood health, industrial efficiency, social service, good citizenship, and the\nproper employment of leisure. In the case of direct furtherance, the usefulness of details obviously depends upon relationships, and their relative\nusefulness upon the measurement of relationships. In that of indirect\nfurtherance, what is to be measured is not so self-apparent. Here past\nanalysis has been logical, psychological, or philosophical, and has dealt\neither with psychological and physiological parts with which education is\nconcerned as wholes, or with wholes, such as discipline and apperception\nwhich have not been adequately analyzed into their pedagogical parts.\nPedagogical analysis must limit itself to the determination of those phases\nof activity thru which instruction can develop all others.\nSince there is\nno development without retention, these truly formal phases of mental\nactivity can be distinguished from each other pedagogically only thru the\nrelationships by which they hold details in mind.\nCumulative impression, the first phase of formal self-activity and the\nmeans to Professor Bagley's emotional general idea, is largely dependent\nupon forgotten relationships, associated about a common idea or experience.\nWe have not fully enough recognized the potential value in what children\nforget the educational service of a cumulative mass of forgotten lessons,\nwhich, if properly centered, can give to the most fundamental truths that\nthe school must teach, the emotional reinforcement, gained by fundamental\nideas not taught in school, from thoughts that have vanished and days that\nare gone. Mere remembrance, the second phase of formal self-activity,\n\n—\n\nholds details in\n\nmind thru partial concepts\n\n—the varying and incidental\n\nrelationships, first made familiar to us by Dr. Earl Barnes.\n\nUnfortunately,\n\nin place of thanking our lucky stars that the great mass of what we teach\n\nremembered by children in any way at all, we scoff at, as blunders, the\nOne of the first steps toward efficiency,\nfrom the standpoint of the course of study ^and one which should cheer\nus as we hear recitations and inspect examination papers ^is such centering\nof forgotten knowledge and multiplication of partial concepts as will transform into the highest usefulness what has been regarded as the waste\n\nis\n\nvery germs of mental growth.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nproduct of the school.\n\nVar)dng apperception, the third phase of self-activity which is truly\n\nmind thru many-sided and varying relationships.\nWith the type of interest which it arouses, it has sometimes come too near\nto being the only aim of the modem school. As the circus parade of the\nmodern recitation passes by with its camels and its elephants, its clowns\nand living skeletons, it must be something more than a passing show. Specific discipline, the fourth phase, makes details sure in certain and definite\nrelationships.\nThe chief value of an adequate test of relative worth will be\nto discriminate in the course of study between the few ideas and activities\nthat are so highly useful in a specffic way that they must be certainly\nmastered by all pupils in every school, and the multitude of those whose\n\nformal, holds ideas in\n\n"} {"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n282\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nvarying apperception by each pupil according to varying mental content,\n\nand retentiveness, constitutes a safeguard to individumost ironclad scheme upon which promotion is based. The\n\ninterest, attention,\n\nality in the\n\npity of it is that individuality is so often safeguarded by condemning it to\n\nthe same grade for an additional year, in place of developing more of it in\nthe new environment of the grade above.\n\nGeneral discipline, the culminating phase of formal self-activity, is\npossible only for a relationship having a stimulus general\n\nenough to be\nfound in fields of experience other than that in which it is developed. In\n\nplace of being an incidental product of certain traditional subjects, the\nconditions favorable to it for every useful idea should become the chief\n\naim of investigation and instruction. The strangest thing about it is that\nwhen certain distinguished college and university presidents emphasize\nthe fundamental importance of reason or self-activity, they contrast it\n\nwith drill work and routine, when every investigation of formal self-activity\nyet made demonstrates the fact that reason is dependent upon a definiteness and a certainty of ideas that drill and routine alone can give. We\nhave been carried too far in our reaction from Gadgrind and Squeers.\nThe slavish and mechanical mastery of the relationships we remember by\nand think with is the necessary condition to intellectual freedom.\n\nFrom the standpoint of a test for relative worth, the significant thing\nin all this is that the usefulness of formal self -activity, like that of directly\n\nuseful ideas and activities, is dependent upon relationships.\n\nEach phase of\n\ndirect preparation for life must be analyzed into the relationships\n\nwhich\n\nspecifically further it.\n\nIn the case of direct furtherance of the educational aim, analysis must\nconcern itself with the discovery of the subordinate aims and details which\ncertainly further right living;\n\nhealth, industrial efiiciency, social service,\n\ngood citizenship, and the proper employment of leisure, with a view to the\ndetermination of the relative worth of each.\n\nThe analysis of morality,\n\nhealth, and social service in a logical sense has been quite fully accomplished.\nOur notion of what we mean by industrial eflSciency, good citizenship, and\npreparation for leisure is misleading, partial, and vague. In no phase of\ndirect preparation, however, has logical analysis been exhaustive or has\n\nanalysis of a pedagogical sort been brought to bear.\n\nIt is only when such\n\nspecific aims as obedience to law, personal cleanliness,\n\nand honesty have\n\nbeen logically analyzed into all useful definite relationships, and logical\nanalysis has been made pedagogical by adding to them, thru cumulative\nimpression, mere remembrance, varying apperception, specific discipline,\n\nand general discipline, that direct preparation for life can become effective.\nFor example, citizenship cannot be adequately taught by merely mastering\nfacts from United States history or memorizing the Constitution, but by the\ndevelopment of feelings and ideals, even the partial mastery of words that\ngive opportunity for further growth of civic knowledge, many-sided asso-\n\n"} {"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVALUE OF DETAILS WITHIN THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n283\n\nciation with experience, and knowledge in general, and a complex system\n\nof what is specifically useful to citizenship, including the conditions most\nlikely to insure the carrying-over of habits to and from other fields of expe-\n\nThat is, direct and indirect furtherance of the educational aim are\nsupplementary and both are useful thru their relationships. The relative\neducational worth of subject-matter is determinable only thru the measurement of relationships.\nNow there are only three ways in which relationships can be measured.\n\nrience.\n\nTheir many-sidedness can be counted, their recurrence can be counted or\nestimated, and their degree of inherent sensational or emotional appeal\n\ncan be gauged with sufficient exactness to be mathematically expressed.\n\nmodes of measurement are reducible to these three.\nKind of relationship tells whether the aim is furthered or not: that is,\nwhether or not the relationship is useful, but not how useful. Here comparison is qualitative and not quantitative. Relative permanency measAll other apparent\n\nures relationships, but is either reducible to many-sidedness, frequency of\nrecurrence, and sensational or emotional appeal, or is dependent on formal\nrepetition as a factor in method.\n\nInterest can be measured, but if it is not\n\nanalyzable into inherent sensational or emotional appeal, many-sidedness,\n\nand recurrence; like permanency, it is insured thru method. It follows that\nthose details are relatively most useful in their furtherance either of a specific\nphase of the educational aim or of the formal phases of mental development:\n1.\n2.\n\n3.\n\nWhich are most many-sided in their useful relationships.\nWhich are most frequent in their useful recurrence.\nWhich inherently make the strongest sensational or emotional appeal that is\nuseful.\n\nRelative many-sidedness, recurrence, and emotional appeal should\n\nBut to relative usefulness\nmust be added immediacy of many-sidedness, recurrence, and emotional\nappeal, in order to determine the point at which the most useful details\nshall first be taught.\nThese factors do not determine usefulness ^usefulness results from direct and indirect furtherance of the educational aim\n^but by measuring usefulness, they determine relative usefulness.\nIt remains to be seen whether the test of many-sidedness, recurrence, and\nsensational appeal furnishes a definite and mathematical means of expressing\nrelative value, and to what extent exact measurement of relative worth\nis essential or desirable.\nWhether or not it is very often necessary to go\nbeyond the judgment more useful or less useful, if the test is to be scientific\ndetermine the general educational content.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nin the sense of being universally valid, it should be possible to judge how\n\nmuch more or how much less useful one detail is than another.\n\nFortu-\n\nnately, as has already been shown, each of the factors in the proposed test\nis\n\ncapable of mathematical expression.\n\nMany-sidedness can be measured\n\nby counting relationships, the recurrence of each can be counted, and\ndegree of sensational or emotional appeal can be estimated.\n\n"} {"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n284\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nFrom the standpoint of actual application, however, such exact measureThe purpose of the test is twofold: to dis-\n\nment will rarely be necessary.\n\ncriminate, first, between details useful enough to be included in the general\n\ncourse of study, and those so low in relative value that they should be\n\nexcluded altogether; and second, between the details useful enough to be\nincluded, and those so high in their usefulness in some specific relationship\n\nthat they must be\n\nmade certain and permanent thru memorizing and\n\nreview.\nIt will probably be found that there are a sufficient number of rela-\n\ntionships thus pre-eminent in their relative usefulness to occupy the little\n\ntime effective for memory drill.\n\nThey will collectively not only constitute\n\nthe sole uniformity which should be required of all learners in a given\nlocality, but will occasionally differ with locality, because the highest many-\n\nsidedness, recurrence, and emotional appeal vary somewhat with environ-\n\nment.\n\nOnce determined, however, their mastery should not be left to\n\nindividual initiative, whether of teacher or of pupil.\n\nFrom the standpoint\n\nof democracy, it is the most serious waste in education, that the learner\n\nwho is too careless or inefficient to gain them should fail of promotion, or\nfall out of school.\n\nTheir certainty and permanency are not only essential\n\nto the individual, but to the community and state.\n\nIf a Helen Kellar can\n\nbe made to think, to acquire culture, and to develop high ideals, the mastery of supremely essential relationships is possible to all. And on the\n\nsame ground that the state compels citizens thru taxation to support the\nschool, and children to attend school, their mastery should be compelled\nof all.\n\nHere, after all, is the fundamental efficiency test for the school.\n\nAre the pupils certainly and permanently mastering knowledge and activity\nin the specific relationships most useful to the individual and to the state ?\nIn an age of analysis and of inductive science, it is a shame to us as educational experts that we should still be men of opinion, when half the energy\n\nand the research which in other fields of human endeavor have forced\nindividuals to yield to the inexorable compulsion of universally valid truth\nwill make us men of science, capable of determining with definiteness and\n\nfinality the fundamental problems of the school.\nIf exact comparison is little likely to be necessary in the determination\n\nof essential details, it is still less Ukely to be involved in the comparison of\n\nthe great body of relationships.\n\nAt the other end of the scale of relative\n\nvalues will be found a mass of details so low in their direct and indirect\nusefulness that exact comparison is unnecessary.\n\nIdeas or activities useful\n\nin a single or a rare relationship, and lacking in the strong sensational or\n\nemotional appeal which might otherwise compensate for many-sidedness\nor recurrence, must not cumber the course of study, or, when they creep\nin as connecting links, must be left wholly to incidental mastery.\n\nBetween the highly useful and the relatively useless will be found the\nmajor part of the course of study, presenting in its general classifications\n\n"} {"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nVALUE OF DETAILS WITHIN THE COURSE OF STUDY\n\n285\n\nenough range in relative worth to make its exact judgment readily possible,\nbut, in its details as they are grouped together, a close enough approximation to equal usefulness to make selection vary with individuality and\nlocality.\nIt is this third class of useful material, with its groups of details\nof approximately the\n\nsame relative worth, that renders unnecessary and\n\nundesirable the kind of uniformity in courses of study which has been the\n\ndream of theorist and martinet.\n\nUltimately, courses of study will be\n\nlargely uniform in what is so useful that its memorizing and retention are\n\ncompelled of all\n\n—^uniform in what\n\nis rejected\n\nas relatively useless, but, as\n\nregards the mass of material presented for more individual mastery, variable in details, and uniform only in their relative worth.\n\nWhether from the standpoint of mental development or from that of\ndirect preparation for life, the little time available for certain memorizing\nis too short to be largely\n\ndevoted to details just because they are true, or\n\nnecessary to the completeness that some textbook-maker seeks for his\n\nWhat ideas come thronging because a volcano is not always a\nmountain, or because Berlin has three times the population of some local\n\nspecialty.\n\ncity ?\n\nHow useful and frequently recurring in the experience of those of\n\nus not specialists are the facts in the peninsular campaign or the technical\ndetails of\n\nsome complex industrial process?\n\nthese still figure in the school course\n\nA thousand facts such as\n\n—things to be remembered that take\n\nthe place of the things we remember by and think with.\n\nThe test that I have outhned, tho technical in its justification, is simple\nenough and definite enough to be apphed by every school teacher. As it\nis applied by educational experts, its most useful result will not be a partially uniform course of study, but a cumulative system of relationships\norganized thru their relative usefulness. On the one hand, it will weld\ntogether the relationships essentially useful to citizenship, industry, and\n\nother phases of direct preparation for life; and on the other, those most\nessential to\n\nmental development.\n\nSince the particular point at which\n\neach useful detail should be introduced into the course of study is deter-\n\nmined by immediacy of usefulness rather than by readiness of mastery due\nto biological conditions or vain effort at academic completeness, such\n\norganization will be pedagogical rather than biological or logical.\n\nAfter all, it is this building-up of an essential pedagogical system that\nis\n\nthe most significant and prophetic result of a test of relative worth.\n\nWhen the subject-matter most highly useful not only for citizenship,\nmoraUty, and other specific phases of the educational aim, but for general\n\nmental development, has once been determined and a system of relationships, as specific and complex as mathematics or the sciences, has been\nbuilt up, education for the first time in the history of civilization will have\n\nbecome truly and usefully formal, and an ideal state undreamed of by\nhumanist or Greek, made possible thru the gradual development of scientific practice in the school.\n\n"} {"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n286\n\n[Philaddphia\n\nROUND TABLES\nROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF LARGER CITIES\nHOW TO MEASURE THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS\nI.\n\nWILLIAM M. DAVIDSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nI am asked to indicate a solution of the problem of \"How to Measure the Efl&ciency\nof Teachers\" in the school systems of the larger cities.\n\nThis problem resolves itself upon inspection into three elements:\nterms, what do we mean by the eflficiency of a teacher ?\n\n(2)\n\n(i)\n\nIn definite\n\nWhat effects upon the teach-\n\ning corps may we legitimately seek to produce by our system of rating ?\n\n(3) With answers\n\nto these questions in mind, precisely what system should we devise for the oflScial measure-\n\nment and record of the efl&ciency of our teachers ?\nI.\n\nWHAT DO WE MEAN BY THE EFFICIENCY OF A TEACHER?\n\nWhen we speak of the efl&ciency of a teacher, we think (a) of the effects which are\nwrought upon the pupils of the class by means of the teacher, or (6) of the multifarious\nqualities in the teacher which enable him to bring about such effects.\n\nIt is obvious that,\n\nas the tree is to be judged by its fruits, so the teacher is to be judged by the effects he\n\nproduces in the pupils of his class.\n\nWhen we note the absence of a given effect (as, for\n\nexample, the proper growth of the pupils in power of clear and vivid expression in language), we tend to explain the fact by reference to the absence of some quaUty in the\nteacher.\neffect\n\nIf the appropriate quality is\n\nobservable in the teacher, the absence of the\n\nmay possibly be explained by the special character of the pupils or the inadequacy\n\nof some former teacher.\n\nThe effects of the teacher's qualities upon the pupils may be outstanding; but they\n\nmay be so subtle as to escape hasty inexpert inspection.\n\nEffects upon the literary taste\n\nof the pupils or upon their attitude toward problems of conduct, for example, are far more\n\nsubtle than effects upon their accuracy in spelling or upon their facility in routine arith-\n\nmetical processes.\n\nThe teacher who is successful in producing the subtler effects upon\n\nthe mind and character of the pupils, a good critic would promptly concede to be a better\nteacher than he who is successful merely in producing the more superficial tho more\n\noutstanding effects.\n\nThe poor critic judges by the grosser effects; but the wiser critic\n\nneed not neglect to place a due valuation upon the pupils' growth in correct spelling and\n\nprompt calculation.\nIt sometimes happens that the supervisor tends to ascribe to the qualities of the\nteacher effects which are simply due to the increasing maturity and out-of-school experience of the pupils. The qualities observable in the teacher should serve as a check upon\nthis fallacy.\n\nBut at the same time it must be remembered that the efl&ciency of the teacher conthe effects produced by his instrumentality upon the pupils of the\nThis is the substance of the matter. One must be careful in making inferences\nclass.\nsists essentially in\n\nfrom the qualities he thinks he discovers in the teacher to the effects that may or may\nnot be actually produced upon the class or really be traceable to the teacher. The lay\ncritic tends to place too high a valuation upon the personal manner of the teacher toward\nhimself or during his presence in the class.\n\nThe professional critic checks the teacher's\n\ndemeanor by a more guarded and searching observation, and is not misled by the vivacity\nwhich some teachers assiune like a loose garment when the visitor enters and take off\npromptly when he departs.\nRemembering the status of the pupils when the teacher took them in hand, the\nprofessional critic tries to estimate such part of their growth in knowledge, in power to\n\n"} {"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nHOW TO MEASURE THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS\n\n287\n\nobserve and infer, in appreciation, in power to express, and in conduct and character,\nas may legitimately be traceable to the instrimientality of the teacher.\n\nnature the teacher's efl&ciency consists.\n\nIn things of this\n\nBut the task of the professional critic is obviously\n\nmost delicate, most difl&cult.\nII.\n\nWHAT EFFECTS UPON THE TEACHERS MAY WE LEGITIMATELY SEEK TO PRODUCE BY\nOUR SYSTEM OF RATING?\nThe worth of a system of rating is to be determined not merely in terms of its accuracy\n\nin stating the facts, but almost as importantly in terms of its tendency to improve the\n\nGiven a teacher with pride in his professional standing or,\nwhat is better, ambition to increase his serviceableness to the children, a rating which\nreveals some deficiency, considerately, is an incentive to self-improvement. Considerately, I say, for inconsiderate criticism tends to wound and discourage the most sensitive\nof professional servants. Given a teacherwith no particular pride or ambition, the rating\nserves as a warning and in some cases as an awakening. Given a teacher with inadequate\nacademic and professional preparation for the service, the rating serves to set a standard\ntoward which he will strive, if not already professionally dead. Given a teacher who is\ninclined to be negligent of the necessary class and school routine or lacking in the spirit\nof co-operation, the rating may have the arousing effect of a dash of cold water; of course,\nthe water should not be too cold and immersion in it should not be too long! Criticisms\nand ratings cannot effect the impossible; they cannot re-create the teacher. But much\nthey may do in the direction of stimulating cultural and professional growth.\nquality of the teachers rated.\n\nIII.\n\nPRECISELY\n\nWHAT SYSTEM SHOULD WE DEVISE FOR THE OFFICIAL MEASUREMENT\nAND RECORD OF THE EFFICIENCY OF OUR TEACHERS?\n\nWhen we come to the actual task of devising a system of ratings, we come upon a\nseries of problems with which city superintendents everywhere are familiar.\n\nOf what items should the rating blank take accoimt ?\n\nI should say that too many\n\nitems tend to distraction and that too few fail in adequacy of information.\nother administrative matters, the doctrine of the golden mean applies.\n\nHere, as in\n\nI have recently\n\nmade some study of a rating blank which contains twenty-nine items. The items are\nBut I believe that all necessary information can be conveyed with fewer\n\nwisely chosen.\nitems.\n\nOn the blank in question there is provision for the specialties\n\nand physical training;\n\nfor a total rating of the teacher.\n\n—instructing,\n\n—music, drawing,\n\nand\nUnder \"Instructing\" there are eight subheads; imder\n\nfor three major items\n\ncontrolling, educating;\n\n\"Controlling,\" six; and under \"Educating,\" eight.\n\nA recent contributor to the Educational Review offers a teachers' rating blank in\nwhich fifteen items are grouped under \"Teaching Efficiency,\" two under \"Scholarship,\"\neight under \"Effort,\" six under \"Personality,\" and seven under \"Control of Class.\"\nTo make a rating under each item upon this blank is not considered requisite or, I judge,\nusual. The many items are intended to serve not only as convenient categories in which\nto record the critic's impressions as they come along but also as reminders of what he is\nto look for.\n\n\"It is difficult,\" as a prominent superintendent has pointed out in a valuable paper\non \"The Basis of Grading Teachers' Salaries,\" \"to protect the school .... (when estimates of the efficiency of teachers are expressed in percentages) on account of the inclination of supervising officers to escape trouble by boosting the marks.\n\nAccording to the\n\nBrooklyn Eagle a few years ago, the marks of over 90 per cent of the teachers of one of\n\nour large cities were over 90 per cent.\n\nIn another city, at the end of five years, in mark-\n\ning for promotion, it was foimd that 96 and a fraction per cent of the teachers were marked\nso high as to entitle them to promotion.\n\nIt is evident that these estimates had ceased to\n\nproperly discriminate between the degrees of efficiency of teachers.\" It is my own impression that for some reason or other literal ratings do not offer quite as much incentive\n\n"} {"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n288\n\nto this vicious boosting of marks as percentage ratings.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nOn the rating blank to which I\n\nreferred a moment ago, for each of the twenty-nine items any one of sixteen marks may\n\nbe given; I should certainly reduce the number of marks to, say, five. These five might\nbe: excellent, very good, good, fair, and poor. A teacher rated \"Fair\" in a given item\nshould be considered just above the danger line; that teacher should \"stop, look, listen.\"\nA teacher rated \"Poor\" should be considered liable to reduction or dismissal, ample\nnotice having been given.\nShould the rating be given annually ? My own experience is that a rating regularly\ngiven in the middle of the year tends to produce unrest among the teachers, and, in some\ncases, a bitterness that is demoralizing. A confidential rating of teachers at or below the\ndanger line might, perhaps, be given in the middle of the year to advise the higher school\nBut\nofl&cials of the teachers whose work stands in need of specially helpful supervision.\nin general I should say that one annual rating given in May or June is suflScient. This\nrating should, of course, be open to the inspection of the teachers affected. And, let it\nbe said, the supervision should be conducted so honestly, intelligently, and helpfully that\nno teacher should be astonished at the rating he receives.\nBy whom should the rating be given ? I should say by the principal. The point is\nthat the person who is officially responsible for the rating should be thoroly familiar, by\nreason of very frequent observation on the groimd, with the work of the teacher rated.\nThe rating blank offered by the contributor to the Educational Review (hereinbefore mentioned) is intended for use by the district superintendent himself, the principal's ratings\n\nto serve as a check upon the superintendent's impressions and conclusions.\n\nWhen it is\n\nremembered that this particular district superintendent has charge of twenty-five schook,\na number of which have seventy or more classei; each, it is obvious that this task of his\nalone is tremendous. He can visit each one of his nine hundred classes about once a year;\ncertainly not more than twice each year. That he should make and keep a systematic\nrecord of his impressions, there can be no doubt. Nor can there be any doubt that before\nthis record is filed, it should be submitted to the principal for consideration and for comment. But I am firmly persuaded that the basic ratings should be those of the several\nprincipals in charge.\n\nThe principal's ratings will, of course, tend to err in the direction\n\nof leniency, and the record kept by the district superintendent, who is in less intimate\n\npersonal contact with the teachers rated, may serve a valuable purpose in discounting\nthis tendency.\n\nI would, however, use the general officer's ratings merely as a check upon\n\nthe basic ratings for which the principal is held responsible.\nShall all teachers be rated annually or only those near, at, or below the danger line ?\nI am inclined to think that where the promotional system permits, teachers whose work\nis imdoubtedly satisfactory need not be rated on the blank.\n\nThe successful teachers may\n\nbe helped quite as effectively and with less friction by personal conference with the\nsupervisors. Again and again I have seen promising teachers embittered and discouraged\n\nby a too cold-blooded rating.\nShall high- and normal-school teachers be exempted from the annual rating ? It has\nbeen urged that the same reasons for not applying a system of efficiency ratings to college\nprofessors should apply with slightly diminished force to the case of high- and normalschool teachers. But the unfortimate truth is that our high- and normal-school teachers\nin too many cases are ill-trained for their profession or ill-adapted by temperament or\ndominant interests to its pursuit. And so, where the high- or normal-school teachers\nare more in number than a handful, a system of ratings at least for those bordering upon\n\"unsatisfactory\" might well be used.\n\nHigh- and normal-school teachers should, of com-se, all have at least the first degree\nthe tendency is toward the second degree as a requirement. I wish\nthat all elementary-school principals could meet the same requirement. In the case of\nthe elementary-school teachers in the service who attain the first degree in colleges of good\n\nin arts or sciences\n\n—\n\nstanding, some special recognition should be made in the promotional system, provided\n\n"} {"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW TO MEASURE THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS\n\ntheir classroom work is good.\n\n289\n\nSuch recognition may serve as a proper incentive to their\n\ncolleagues.\n\nSome cities have had a more or less doleful experience with promotional examinations.\n\nWhen the examinations obviously lack the approval and moral support of the great body\nof the teachers, they should undoubtedly be abandoned. Otherwise, they may prove\na source of much good particularly in school systems whose teachers have been inadeAn intelligently devised examination may disclose serious\ninterests in various fields by simply calling for knowledge; it may test power of expression.\nThe examination should serve to supplement the efl&ciency rating by permitting the\nimprovement of the teacher, as measured in terms of scholarship, to receive a recognition\nwhich the routine ratings tend to reduce to low, if not the lowest, terms. Thus, the promotional examination may serve as an incentive to the teaching corps not to rely for\nself-improvement exclusively upon their teaching experience but to continue to be learners\nat the feet of wiser teachers than themselves. It is well for the teacher of children to be\nat the same time an active student in some field of knowledge; his studies will keep alive\nwithin him a penetrating sympathy with the difficulties of the learning mind. Classroom efficiency must for obvious reasons outweigh, decidedly, examination efficiency as\na factor in determining the teacher's promotion.\nFar better, however, than any showing a teacher may make in a promotional examination is his attainment of a degree in arts or sciences in a college of high repute which\nactually lives up to its repute! And this vital contrast must be duly recognized in the\npromotional system. That the functions of the city normal school be extended to the\ncultural and professional improvement of teachers in the service is a proposition worthy\nquately educated and trained.\n\nmuch depends, of course, upon\nAt any rate let the college graduate\n\nof the earnest consideration of educational administrators;\n\nthe accessibility and character of other institutions.\n\nbe attracted to the elementary school, and let teachers in the service be encouraged to\nsecure a more thoro and extended academic education and technical training.\n\nThe motive for the cultural and professional improvement of the teacher in the service\nAt\n\nshould certainly not be commercial, for teaching is a ministry rather than a trade.\n\nthe same time, I conceive it to be administratively wise in a large system of schools for\nthe efficiency rating to exercise a distinct eflfect upon the teachers' salaries.\n\nMy thought\n\nsame basic salary might be given to all elementary-school teachers and a higher\nbasic salary to teachers of the high-school grades; and a still higher basic salary to the\nnormal-school teachers. Upon each basic salary there should be provision for slight and\nregular increases each year for not more than, say, five years on account of length of\nservice; and for larger increases on account of efficiency, during a much longer period\nthan five years, until a reasonable maximum is reached. Under these circumstances,\na proper relation would obtain between salary and efficiency. The community should\npay the teacher for service rendered rather than for mere longevity.\nis that the\n\nWhen the efficiency rating affects remuneration, the question of ratings acquires a\nCases will necessarily arise in which a teacher conceives the rating\nIn such cases, appeals for revision should always be permitted and\nsuch appeals should be welcomed rather than looked upon with disfavor. The revision\nshould be effected by the superintendent of schools or by a small professional board of\nspecial importance.\n\ngiven to be unjust.\n\nsupervision after personal observation of the teacher's work.\n\nMany a teacher would have the promotional system made automatic. But the merit\nsystem is not necessarily automatic. There should be reserved to the superintendent of\nschools a certain margin of discretion. In so personal a ministry as teaching, the recognition of the personality of the teacher is fundamental.\n\nThe superintendent of schools\n\nshould at any time have a right to select from a given group of teachers rated \"Excellent\"\nthat one whom he for good reason may deem worthy of the promotion.\n\nThere need be\nno fear that the merit system will ever suffer damage from the responsible head of the\nschools. If a superintendent cannot pick out a teacher of rare promise almost intuitively,\n\n"} {"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n29©\n\nhe is no superintendent at all.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nThe school system will profit much when thru the superin-\n\ntendent's personal intervention, if need be, a career is kept wide open to the most talented.\n\nThe personal judgment of a first-class superintendent, in those cases where it is based\nupon first-hand knowledge, will almost invariably prove more significant than the automatic working of the promotional system.\n\nIn no profession are physical vigor, and that contagious buoyancy of spirit which\nseems so closely correlated with vigorous health more important than in the profession\nof teaching. A sound nervous system, particularly, is nowhere more vital to happiness\nand service. Now, when a teacher's work suffers gravely from any physical disability,\nthe school authorities are, of covurse, charged with the duty of seeing that he promptly\ntakes a leave of absence for his own sake as well as for the sake of his class. But, where\nthe temporary impairment of efficiency is not grave and may with fairness to the children\nbe tolerated, the rating official should not rate the teacher at all for the school year in\nquestion. This proviso I would make in order to spare the officer the very himaan temptation of reporting a rating that blinks the facts. Such a proviso tends to emphasize the\nfimdamental fact that it must be a point of professional honor with the rating officer to\n\nmake his rating accurately express his sincere and well-grounded convictions.\nFinally, I am of opinion that the promotional list of a given grade of teachers should\n\ncomprehend not merely all the teachers in a given district but all the teachers of the city.\nThe whole system should be operated as one unit. This means that the rating should be\nstandardized. Such standardization is promoted by frequent counsel among principals,\nsupervisors, and superintendents; it may be officially established by a small board of\nsupervision.\n\nII.\n\nBEN BLEWETT, SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nIn discussing this topic, we may properly regard the discussion as being based upon\nseveral assumptions which are admittedly well grounded.\nis\n\nThe first of these is that there\n\na possibility of measuring such efficiency; second, that there can be no correct or\n\nadequate measure of such efficiency unless the one who measures has a clear conception of\nthe nature of that which is to be measured; third, it assumes that the one making the\nestimate shall have in his possession correct and adequate standards of measure; fourth,\nit assimies that the measurer, thru his training and experience, has become competent to\n\napply such standards of measure to the things to be measured which, by their very nature,\nare many of them intangible; fifth, it assumes that he will be as honest and imprejudiced\nin his estimates as it is possible for a human being to be.\n\nStarting with these assimiptions as admittedly proper and fundamental, a mode of\n\nprocedure may be easily outlined.\n\nwork and when in the work.\n\nThe teacher should be estimated before he enters the\n\nBefore he enters the work there should be ascertained:\n\nfirst,\n\nhis scholastic preparation for it, and, second, his probable aptitude for the work as shown\n\nin his personality and in his interest.\n\nWhether he has the equipment in scholarship for his work can be better ascertained\nby the record of his student life rather than thru examinations. It is necessary that the\none who shall pass upon such a question shall be able to judge correctly the value of\nreports made by the schools or school officials. The testimonial that bears upon its face\nthe evidence of careless or extravagant praise, as well as the one which does not regard the\n\npromise of development expressed in the attempts already made or the things already\naccomplished, should be of little influence in the estimate of probable worth. The\njudge of the probable influence of his personality in the schoolroom will require the\nexperience, skill, and insight suggested in the assumptions upon which this discussion is\n\nHe must be able to read in the candidate's appearance and conversation the mind\nand heart that show themselves thru these outward manifestations. To determine\nwhether he is entering the profession because of his interest in the field of work it offers,\nbased.\n\n"} {"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW TO MEASURE THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS\n\n291\n\nor whether it is to be merely a temporary occupation used as a stepping-stone to some\nother work, is evidently a necessary element in considering his probable efficiency in the\n\nwork.\n\nIf he wishes to enter the profession as a makeshift, it\n\nmay be quite safely assumed\n\nthat he will not reach a high degree of efficiency in it.\n\nThe teacher when in the work should be estimated by what he does, and by what he\nThe estimate of what he does should have regard, first, to his conception of the aim\nof the work as a whole; and, second, to his adaptation of means to accomplish this aim.\n\nis.\n\nIf he is foimd to have a faulty conception of the whole work of education, the conviction\n\ncannot be escaped that he is certain to be inefficient. For instance: Should his notion of\nthe function of geography in the curriculum be that i t instructs the the pupils upon location\nof certain political or physical features of the map without relation to the life of the child,\nit is evident that he will misinform rather than inform and stimulate the pupil.\n\nfound to be correct in his theory;\n\nif,\n\nIf he is\n\ntheoretically, he regards the school as the place for\n\ninforming and developing the child, and is still unskillful in the adaptation of the various\nappliances and means at his disposal for accomplishing this purpose, his correct theory is\n\nrendered useless by his lack of skill in the selection of means to accomplish his ends.\n\nWhat\n\nthe teacher does, as manifested in his handling of the curriculum and its related parts, is\nquite certainly but a manifestation of what he himself is.\n\nThese things are but evident\n\nmanifestations of his manner of thinking, his emotional nature, his capacity for enjoyment,\n\nand his strength of wiU.\n\nHis tendencies and habits in intellectual and emotional life are\n\nsure indices of his efficiency, and his modes of thinking, feeling, enjoying, and willing are\ncertain indices of his worth.\nIf the one who is responsible for making report upon the efficiency of a teacher will\n\ntake into his consideration these things that I have set forth, he need not concern himself\n\nabout more minute scales. Without fear of doing injustice either to the school or to the\nteacher, he may, in a large measure, ignore such questions as the percentages which the\nteacher's classes make on certain examinations in the subjects of the course of study, if he\nhas satisfactory evidence that the teacher has the proper conception of the purpose of\nthese different subjects in the whole scheme of education, and in his own life in the schoolroom evidences his capacity and habit for right thinking and right acting. It is these\nlarger results that must be considered as the rational measure of efficiency.\n\nIt should be\nkept distinctly and constantly in mind that the qualities which distinguish successful\nteachers from tyros or misfits stand out in bold relief and cannot be overlooked or mistaken\n\nby one who is an experienced educator.\n\nFor instance, there will be no difficulty in dis-\n\ncovering the teachers whose whole schoolroom influence stimulates the development of the\n\nnobler aspirations in the child; but there will be great difficulty in analyzing into the\ndifferent and differing elements such power as is manifested in different teachers.\n\nToo\n\nfrequently the measurer uses a micrometer screw where he should use a field glass.\n\nThis should be the method of measuring, and its record should be in accord. On\nwhatever qualities the measurer wishes to report, the record should be on a large scale or\nclassification and not by percentages.\nIn other words, it should be reported as\n\" Excellent,\" \" Good,\" etc., and not as \"95 per cent,\" \" 75 per cent,\" etc. Nor is it fair to\nlet this estimate go imrecorded.\n\nIt cannot be carried in the memory of anyone and, if it\n\ncould, the changing conditions of the work take out of it frequently the one who has\n\nTo be fair, there should be a written record kept and, in a large\nsystem of schools, the value of the symbols used in making this record should be stand-\n\nmade the estimate.\n\nardized as far as hmnan care can standardize it in order that the symbols may mean the\n\nsame thing from whatever school they come, and to all consulting them.\nThe measurer in his work of estimating should set up for himself the same standard\nthat he uses on the one he is measuring.\n\ncompetency he expects in the assistant.\nteacher he should be himself far above.\n\nHe should be competent along the lines of\n\nThe littlenesses that he would condemn in the\n\n"} {"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n292\n\n[PhUaddphU\n\nAfter the standing of the teacher has been determined, he is not only entitled to know\nthis estimate, but he should be informed of it in such manner that he may profit by it if\n\nhe is capable and worthy.\n\nSometimes there is hesitancy about even letting a teacher\nThis is neither fair nor is it good business.\n\nknow what the estimate of his work is.\n\nDIFFERENTIATION IN THE COURSES OF STUDY FOR CHILDREN\nBETWEEN TWELVE AND SIXTEEN YEARS OF AGE\nS. L.\n\nHEETER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nan administrative body, a roimd table of school superintendents of cities of the\nfirst class, a body of men and women interested in the executive work of public education\nI desire to continue this discussion in a very informal way, and wholly\nin our larger cities.\nfrom the administrative point of view. It is not the theory of differentiation that I would\nemphasize, but the practice. There are many theories that call for differentiation in our\nelementary-school courses educational, social, industrial, economic, and civic. These\nhave been presented from time to time on educational platforms in convincing arguments.\nWhat we need in a meeting like this is not theory, but a statement of executive,\nadministrative experience a statement of things actually done by men and women at\nThis is\n\n—\n\n—\n\nwork.\n\nIt is this that should give value to a round-table discussion of this character.\n\nI have been called within a year to a city school system undergoing reconstruction and\n\nprobably confronting school authorities with as many administrative problems within the\nscope of one year as have ever been presented in the same time in any American city.\n\nAnd it has been suggested to me that a brief review of the year with special reference to\nthe effort of the board of education of Pittsburgh to break down the single, traditional,\n\ngrammar-school course, and to extend differentiated forms of training to the children of\nthe city would give perspective to the subject before us.\nThe schools of Pittsburgh were, until a year ago, administered by sixty-one school\nboards, one board of six members in each ward, elected by the people, given imlimited\n\npower to select its own teachers, levy taxes, borrow money on notes, issue bonds, employ\narchitects and contractors, construct school buildings, act as their own accoxmtants, and\n\nmake no reports to the people.\nLittle independent systems of schools grew up in some sections of the city, so vicious,\n\nso pernicious in their methods that the people of Pennsylvania came to the support of the\n\ngood people of Pittsburgh, and two years ago school laws of Pennsylvania were enacted in\nthe form of a new code that has proved to be the most practical and comprehensive piece\nof school legislation ever framed in any American commonwealth. Under its provisions\nlocal ward boards in cities of the first class in this state were abolished, and a new central\nboard of fifteen was authorized and appointed by the judges of the Courts of Common\nPleas. This legislation has been followed by an educational awakening thruout the state\nand especially in Pittsburgh, where the people with considerable imanimity demanded a\n\nnew board of education constituted of the most responsible and influential men and\nwomen of the city, men and women experienced in big business and public affairs; and\nthe same people are now supporting a program of reorganization and reconstruction such\nas has never before been imdertaken in the same time in this country. No one individual,\nnor group of individuals can lay claim to the credit for a remarkable year of educational\nprogress. It means merely that a half-million people, interested in the education of their\nchildren, demanded the abolition of\n\nan old order of things, and the establishment of a\n\nnew.\n\nA year ago ward lines served as barriers between school districts. Empty buildings\nstood in some wards and congested ones across the street in others.\nbuildings were found with an average of 70 children to a teacher;\n\nTwenty-room\n\nmany individual school-\n\nrooms enrolled as high as 80 and 90, and, in one instance, 136 children to one teacher.\n\n"} {"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "-\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nDIFFERENTIATION IN THE COURSES OP STUDY\n\n293\n\nHere was a system of schools, or rather the lack of a system, where educational\nPrimary pupils, 60, 70, and 80 to the room, were being required to\nremain in the second or third year in first-year work; children in all the lower grades were\nbeing habitually schooled in habits of failure, and thousands were fovmd in the fourth,\nfifth, and sixth grades at the ages of foiuteen, fifteen, and sixteen years, overaged and overprogress was clogged.\n\ngrown, behind grade, imable to proceed farther, holding a dislike for school, threatening\ntruancy, and applying for labor certificates, leaving the schools in too large numbers with\nonly the rudiments of an education, and nmning up and down the city streets looking for\njobs.\n\nYou will imderstand that I am describing a system with a full knowledge of the\nnumber of exceptional, high-grade schools and many excellent\n\nfact that there were a\n\nteachers and principals.\n\nIt is the system that I would discredit without reflecting upon\n\nindividual teachers and schools that did good work in spite of the system.\n\nThe new board of education aboUshed ward lines, established new school districts,\nredistributed the entire school population, equalized attendance, filled up empty buildings,\nrelieved others, and issued an order that no principal imder any circtunstances would be\n\npermitted to enroll more than 50 children to a teacher; they employed teachers on the\nbasis of one for every 35 pupils in the grammar schools, and one for every 40 in the\nlower grades; opened up forty empty rooms; placed seventy rooms of children on one-half\n\nday sessions; purchased fifty portable schoolrooms; and assigned additional teachers\nwith the idea of normalizing school attendance. To my mind, ladies and gentlemen, here\nis\n\nthe first step toward securing efficiency in public education, a step that precedes even\n\ndifferentiation in courses of study, and that is one that provides adequate schoolroom\n\naccommodations, and gives each teacher a decent and respectable nimiber of children.\nThe new Pittsburgh board of education further established a system of semiannual\n\nand individual promotions thruout the entire district, regraded all the children in the public\nschools on a half-year basis, and secured the volunteer services of one hundred teachers\nduring the first summer vacation to simplify the course of study so as to permit a larger\nproportion of school children to complete the year's work in a year's time.\n\nAnd here, to\n\nmy mind, is the second step anticipating differentiated courses—simplification before\ndifferentiation, reducing the subject-matter in each of the subjects in our elementary-school\n\nciuriculum to a point where only things essential and fundamental shall be emphasized,\ngiving to all the children alike in the first six grades a broad, yet basic training.\n\nTHE UNGRADED ROOM\nAs a third step preparing the way for differentiated courses in the elementary schools,\nOne teacher\nis assigned in each building of twelve rooms or more to give her entire time assisting\nchildren back into their classes. Here is a special definition of the aims and purposes of\nthe imgraded room in Pittsburgh. It is to provide special, individual help merely to those\npupils who may be gotten back into normal standing in their classes. It is not a room for\nsixty teachers have been appointed within one year to do ungraded work.\n\nthe imbecile, nor the mentally defective, the consumptive, nor the moron, but rather it is\n\na room for the normal child, one who, for one reason or another is slow, or behind in one\nsubject or more, who can be encouraged and strengthened in his regular work by extra\nhelp.\n\nIt is also a room for the supernormal or bright child who desires to do outside work\n\nfor a special promotion.\n\nProvide special assistant teachers for the large number of\n\nchildren in our schools who are a little slow to learn or a little backward in studies and\n\nthere will be less need of differentiation.\n\nSCHOOLS FOR THE WEAK-MINDED\n\nNine thousand dollars has been appropriated for the current year to establish and\nmaintain three different schools for mental defectives, to be geographically distributed and\nto admit only such children as are of such a low grade of mentality as to require a school\nprogram ©itirely different from that of the ordinary schoolroom. Segregate the weak-\n\n"} {"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nminded children, the institutional cases, from the regular schoolroom, and you will reduce\nthe need for other forms of differentiated courses of training and instruction.\n\nTHE FOREIGN CHILD\nThree special schools, geographically distributed, have also been organized for foreign\nchildren, and a number of teachers have been employed to meet each week in special\ncenters with children with defective speech. Remove from the regular schoolrooms the\nadult foreign children that have been assigned usually to the kindergarten and primary\nschools imtil they could learn the language; also assist stutterers and stammerers, and you\nwill remove drags on the educational system.\n\nOPEN-AIS SCHOOLS\n\nThe chief medical inspector, with his thirty assistants, has been working for two\nmonths overtime after school hours and on Saturdays in a special examination of school\nchildren of the city, covering all suspected cases of tuberculosis.\n\nThis examination has\nbeen thoroly and scientifically conducted and always in the presence of the parents. The\nmedical inspector has just made his report and has presented to the board of education the\nnames of 125 children suffering from active tuberculosis, and the names of 400 others,\nwho are predisposed to the same disease.\nThe board has just taken action, providing for two types of schools to accommodate\nthese two classes of children. First: five open-air schools with suitable rest-rooms, lunchrooms, medical rooms, etc., for those who are actively tubercular; these schools are being\nlocated in portable school buildings, two buildings to each of the five centers.\n\nSecond:\n\nopen-window rooms or low-temperature rooms are being set aside in ten different school\nbuildings of the city, to which will be admitted the anemic and the physically subnormal\nchild predisposed to tuberculosis.\n\nELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS\nThere will always be in every city system a large number of boys and girls, fourteen,\nfifteen, and sixteen years of age in the intermediate and lower grammar grades, children\n\nwho are scheduled either by circumstances or choice to leave the schools and go to work,\nwho will not and cannot go to high school, who do not look forward to the professions but\nto the occupations and industries. They are not the pupils who should be placed in\nungraded rooms with the thought of getting them back into the regular class standing;\nthey are not unfortunates, who should be assigned to the schools for the weak-minded;\nthey are not necessarily the tubercular children. They are, as a rule, the motor-minded,\npossibly overaged and overgrown boys and girls, who leave the public schools regularly\nbefore completing a common-school education to enter industrial and commercial piirsuits.\nAs a beginning, in the way of providing a differentiated course of training and instruction for this type of child, the board of education in Pittsburgh has recently set aside two\nfourteen-room buildings to be used as elementary industrial schools.\n\nThese buildings\nhave been equipped since September with woodshops, printing-oflSces, bookbinderies,\nelectrical construction\n\nrooms, sheet-metal shops, mechanical-drawing rooms for boys,\n\ncooking and sewing centers, and millinery shops for the girls, gymnasiums, swimmingpools, shower baths, etc., for both boys and girls.\n\nPupils over fourteen years of age are admitted in all parts of the city to a six-houra-day school program, where they spend one-half of each day in the school shops; one and\none-half hours in simplified book courses; three hours in the shops; and one and one-half\n\nhours in the gymnasiimi and shower bath.\n\nThe boys in this school have just petitioned\n\nthat the shops be kept open on Saturday, and letters have been received from some of the\nprincipals, requesting that the boys enrolled in the regular schools during the week be\npermitted to spend all day Saturday in these special schools.\n\nHere is a suggestion that might well be applied to all the forty manual-training and\nhousehold arts centers in the city, and that is to keep them open all day Saturday for the\n\n"} {"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIFFERENTIATION IN THE COURSES OF STUDY\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n29$\n\nboys and girls who attend the regular schools during the week, and receive manual training\n\nbut one-half day. Provide special vocational or prevocational courses for more children\nin our elementary schools, and there will be less need for other forms of differentiated\ncourses.\n\nCOMPULSORY ATTENDANCE, CHIU) LABOR, AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE\n\nThe director of compulsory attendance has been assigned offices in the elementary\nHis thirty assistants, truant officers, report to him regularly, and\nthus the truants of the city are brought in direct, personal touch with the elementary and\nindustrial schools. No child can be given a labor certificate without making a personal\nschools above named.\n\nvisit to the attendance officer in the elementary industrial schools.\n\nthe time of his visit is made a guest.\n\nEvery such child at\n\nHe is shown about the buildings, thru the shops,\n\nand the value of a year or more of special vocational training is placed before him..\nFurther than this, the board of education has just appropriated $5,000.00 for vocational guidance.\n\nThe newly appointed director has also been assigned offices in the\n\nelementary industrial schools.\n\nIt will be largely the fimction of this\n\ndepartment to\n\nascertain the circumstances of the homes of children applying for labor certificates, and to\n\nto take an\nand to have them\nprinted in pamphlet form and placed with explanations in the hands of the children.\nThere is a new responsibility placed upon public education, not only of training the\nadolescent boy or girl in industrial processes, but in providing counsel and guidance to\ninquire into the conditions under which these children propose to work;\n\nindustrial survey of the different occupations and vocations of the city;\n\nevery yoimgster that stops school to enter the fields of labor.\n\nChild labor presupposes\n\nboth vocational guidance and vocational training.\nI have the feeling that when we assign the reasonable number of children to each\nteacher; reduce our course of study to a minimum basis, establishing imgraded rooms to\ncoach backward children; provide special schools for the mentally defective; take care of\nour foreign children in separate rooms; maintain open-air schools for the anemic and\ntubercular;\n\nand provide vocational courses for the larger number in all elementary schools,\n\nwho are determined to go early to work, that the work of the compulsory attendance\ndepartment will be greatly reduced, and that the problem of truancy will partly disappear.\nIt is a question of differentiating our courses of training to meet the needs of the varying\n\ntypes of children in our schools.\n\nTHE HIGH SCHOOLS\nIt is not only in the elementary schools.\n\nToo large a proportion of children graduatThe board of education of\n\ning from the eighth grades have left school permanently.\n\nPittsburgh is now maintaining the beginning of nine high schools organized as district and\n\ncosmopolitan high schools.\n\nThese schools are located according to the topography of the\n\ndty and established in every district where attendance warrants the same. Four of these\nschools have opened since September. A recent three-million-doUar bond issue looks\ntoward the simultaneous construction of four modem high-school buildings. The oldtime academic and college-preparatory courses have been supplemented by differentiated\ncourses, industrial, commercial, vocational, technical, art, etc.\nJust as much credit is\ngiven to the pupil pursuing music, freehand drawing, or crafts, or household economics, or\n\nmanual training, as to the pupil pursuing algebra or Latin.\n\nAs a result, the high-school\n\nenrollment in four months has increased 50 per cent and bids fair to double by September\nof next year.\n\n// is only a question of providing schools for the people's children.\n\nTHE SHORT-COURSE HIGH SCHOOL\nRecognizing the fact that the business college has thrived in the past upon those\neighth-grade graduates who could not afford to take the four years' high-school commercial\ncourse, the new board of education in Pittsburgh founded in September in a partially\nempty grade-school building a two-year, short-course commercial high school, offering\n\n"} {"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n296\n\nonly the essentially commercial subjects.\n\n[Philadefchia\n\nThree hundred pupils were enrolled the first\n\nhalf-year in this school and investigation shows that 90 per cent of this entire enrollment\n\nwould have been lost to the public schools had not this special school been opened.\nI realize in giving this review of a year's development in Pittsburgh, that I am not\nproposing things new to many other cities. These types of special schools have been\npretty well established in thoroly organized systems, but they were new to us. Our year\nof progress may be measured quite largely by our effort to provide separate schools with\nseparate forms of training to meet the separate needs of separate types of children. This\nis our idea of differentiation of courses for children over twelve years of age.\n\nLet me say in closing that I believe strongly in a single, basic, minimimi, uniform\ncourse for children who are finally left in regular schoolrooms.\n\nand reasonable imiformity.\n\nI believe in a basic course\n\nI have seen the effects of a lack of imiformity, the results in\n\n—a development of\n\nsixty-one self-governing, locally adjusted, independent school systems\n\na hundred years.\n\nYou can't preach local interests, community adaptation, individual\n\nliberty, and rights of teachers and principals to me.\n\nNo uniformity means no imity; no\n\nunity means no organization; no organization means disruption.\n\nI look with alarm on\n\nthe disposition of educational theorists to enter this department, and clamor for decentralized control\n\nand administration of schools.\n\nThere are certain fundamental basic\n\nprinciples that must be observed in aU efl&cient school management even to the formulation\n\nof courses of study and the presentation of subject-matter, and all efforts to differentiate,\n\nto adapt to local and individual needs, should not break down imiformity in fundamental\nthings.\n\nROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF SMALLER CITIES\nTHE MOST EFFICIENT SERVICE WHICH ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS OR SUPERVISORS CAN RENDER\nA. THE RELATION OF SUPERVISORY ASSISTANTS TO THE\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTOPIC:\n\nI.\n\nMILTON C. POTTER, SUPERINTENDENT OP SCHOOLS, ST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nSupervisory assistants are of various species.\n\nOne must differentiate.\n\nSupervisors of special subjects can safely bear no general administrative duties.\n\nThe supervisor of sewing, or penmanship, or music, or drawing, or physical culture pre-\n\n—\n\nsumably teaches, or once taught those subjects better than others ^which affords no\nargument for making one of them your administrative partner outside his own speciality.\nA table prepared after returning some of her reports the second time for verification\nwas handed me by Miss Alice Dinsmoor, supervisor of drawing, at Butte, Mont. It\nindicates a marvelous variation of service inside the special field.\n\nSalaries ranged from\n\n$2,700.00 paid at Los Angeles well down to the $1,000.00 mark.\n\ngiven to drawing varied from 150 minutes to 60 minutes.\n\nThe time per week\nThe number of lessons per\n\nThe number of meetings per year for each grade\nThe average number of visits made by supervisors\nThe number of lessons taught personally by super-\n\nweek in each room varied from s to i.\nof teachers varied from 10 to\n\ni.\n\neach month varied from 240 to o.\nvisors each month varied from 150 to \"occasionally.\"\n\nIt seems that few of the super-\n\nvisors formally participated in arriving at final judgments upon the election or retention\n\nof teachers.\n\nMost of the supervisors, apparently, could find plenty to do without leaving\n\ntheir specialty.\n\nI can imagine few more fertile fields for cultivating misunderstandings than that of\n\nthe erstwhile special teacher, recently relieved of teaching duties and dubbed supervisor,\n\nwhen his or her recommendations outside the special subject are accepted as those of\nThe heartaches and tears of the room teachers wiU some-\n\nan assistant superintendent.\n\n"} {"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRELATION OF ASSISTANTS TO SUPERINTENDENT\n\n297\n\ntimes curdle into hatred and small conspiracies if these specialists are even thought to\n\nhave decisive influence concerning teachers with the superintendent.\nThere are none of us here, I fancy, who are too yoimg to have known the advent\nof the special teacher. It was not in that connection or at that time argued that departmental teaching in the grades must supplant the general practice of room teaching. No,\nthe special subject would be specially taught only as a passing convenience to the untrained\nroom teachers, and as a temporary expedient of the superintendent. So soon as the\nmajority of room teachers should be properly equipped in the new subject there would\nbe no further need of the specialist. And the training schools cheerfully set about to\nteach teachers who should read music, etc., as naturally as they would English print.\nToday the second generation of children specially educated in these specialties thru fourteen or sixteen years of school life find themselves as teachers more specially supervised\n\nthan were their predecessors of the last century.\n\nThe only hope for the youngster to\n\nacquire one of these delectable specialties is still for the superintendent to engage a specialist, no longer to teach the specialty, but to teach the teacher to teach it.\n\nThis temporary\nscheme for \"training in service\" may be expected to fulfill its temporary purpose and\npermanently depart, about the time the Civil War pension and the Civil War tariff shall\ncomplete the purely temporary purposes for which they were devised. Meanwhile,\nmany a special supervisor has made himself, or been made, a kind of superintendent.\nTo be true to his own history it is important that while the critical functions of the\nsubject supervisor should not be minimized, he should not forget or neglect his prime\npurpose as a model teacher. In these capacities, supervisors of the more recent school\nsubjects will probably be necessary beyond our lifetime.\nJust because the inartistic, imgymnastic, or non-musical, have so many of them\nbeen criminally if not foolishly certificated by colleges and normal schools each year\nto teach school, there is still considerable teaching which might well continue to be\ndone by special teachers if it is to be done well at all. A large moiety of our room\nteachers seem still quite lacking in artistic temperament or skill. But to put these\nunfortunate creatures into the hands of a taskmaster who demands specially colored\nstraw in every tale of bricks, when the poor driven things can't tell straw from papyrus\nreeds, and have their whole interest centered on the essential fleshpots anyway, will\nscarcely fit the artmaster's mind or feelings for generous participation in the really\ncatholic or sympathetic administration of diverse interests.\n\nTrue, one must secure the specialist's judgment on each teacher at one time or\n\nOne must recognize the just claims of each study specialty. But in these\ndays of extreme subdivision of labor in adult life, we are somewhat likely to be subjected to bullying at the hands of the devotees of some special subject who consider\nit the sine qua non of education.\nIt is the business of a general superintendent of\nschools jealously to defend a general liberal education for children against the inevitable\nattacks of special supervisors who so naturally try to monopolize most of the general\nteachers' time and energy in teaching and worrying about their special subjects.\nIf\nhe expects strong supervisors to be strong in their special fields, he must be equally\nanother.\n\nso in the general field.\n\nIn the American city of 200,000 souls, more or less, it is all too common to see\nthese specialists pressing or pressed forward into assistant superintendencies, thereby\ngreatly inhancing the diflSculties of the superintendent\n\nand supervising principals\n\nin curbing the natural tendency of specialists to overdo their\n\nown specialties, as a\n\npart of any general education.\n\nThere are several cases of special supervisors, with special equipment and experience, being made assistant superintendents with incidental\ngeneral functions while continuing those of the subject supervisor.\n\nThere are presumably some specialists without the special mental habits of their\nclass and to that extent perhaps not the most effective specialists.\n\nBut the results\n\nof making over effective specialists into assistant superintendents seem generally to\n\n"} {"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n298\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nhave been quite perceptible in a prescriptive, uncatholic administration, arbitrarily\nenforcing various localized, unexpected, and non-related measures in the schools.\n\nThe subject supervisor's greatest chance of service is generally confined to the subject\nsupervised.\n\nFor careful, child-conserving, teacher-forming supervision, general supervisors,\neach of a distinct portion of the twelve years of public-school program, seem desirable\nin a town of more than a few thousand school children. A general supervisor's annual\nor occasional reports to the superintendent on teacher efficiency are quite as helpful\n\nas a principal's.\n\nHe has a wider basis of present comparison than any building princi-\n\npal could or should command.\n\nWhile such a general supervisor, as of the grammar\n\nor primary grades, may frequently well be given the authority of an assistant in field\nsupervision, at other times and places it has happened that a multiplication of superin-\n\ntendents has confused the teachers and complicated the direct relations of the principals to the superintendent.\n\nThe better, and the better paid, your general teachers,\n\nthe less need usually for numerous and expensive administrative functionaries.\n\"Administrationitis\" has been diagnosed as dangerous.\nThe inflammation of the\nsupervisory nerve is closely allied to it.\n\nIn a city of the middle size it appears to me that a superintendent must usually\nconsider his principals as his correct representatives in local administration, the real\nassistant\n\nsuperintendents.\n\nIn 1899, speaking before this body.\n\nSuperintendent\n\nSoldan said:\n\nThere is no more important office in our whole school organization than that of\nthe principal. Our whole system in its daily working is based on the idea that the\nprincipal is the one in whom the highest local authority is vested. Great authority is\nconnected with duties correspondingly great.\nIn cities such as most of us in this room represent, professional field supervision\na discussion of which will\nbe seen to be strictly within the limits of my subject. To hold a dragon guard over\nthe gates where unfit teachers enter or are thrust in, is made to seem a sterner duty\nwhen you yourself are daily in the life-laboratory where incapacity mars so many\nlittle souls.\nTo choose teachers skillfully from among the fully prepared and nobly\nendowed is easier to one who keeps among teachers. Even so, I carefully chose\na man for special work one time, with an angel record and saintly face, only to find a\nhole in him big enough to throw my hat thru.\nField work, including the selection and assignment of teachers, is the superintendent's big job in the average city. And it is a big job. It is worthy of the best\nefforts of the first officer in your average school system.\nIn the modem Baby Ions\nsuch work seems impossible. Organization problems, which are thought out on\nSaturdays and holidays in smaller places, must command most of the metropolitan\nsuperintendent's time. But himian conservation ideas, I take it, would limit, even\nwith him, the frequency and amount of new organization. Repeated reorganizations\nconnote disorganization.\nToo much tinkering with the machinery in the average schools sadly reduces\nthe efficiency arising from continuity of method. In most towns it is not by innovations, discoveries, proclamations, or other newspaper leads which are so frequently\ngenerated in purely office administrations, but just by happy or patient living with the\nteachers and their little flocks, praising or correcting thru the days, that we earn an\nhonest wage.\nSuch a superintendent remains a schoolmaster. He is not too anxious to excel\nas a business man or a politician. His Schoolcraft will grow in skill, and will seem\nincreasingly worthy of a devoted life, as he beholds it in actual application by his\ncomrades in the ranks.\nis\n\nthe best service the general superintendent can render;\n\n"} {"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nRELATION OF ASSISTANTS TO SUPERINTENDENT\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n299\n\nAn oflfice assistant is desirable for such a superintendent, one who will meet\nchildren and parents, agents and chance visitors, with genial grace but with precise\nreference to the sequential policy of the ofl&ce.\n\nSuch an assistant in charge of forms,\n\nrecords, inquiries, and general ofl&ce administration, if a woman, can also prove a guide,\n\nphilosopher, and friend to ambitious, misunderstood, or misunderstanding teachers,\n\nthem and to the superintendent. In\nWest one finds some such arrangement. The relation\nbetween the assistant and her chief is that of a lieutenant to a chief, and seems thoroly\nsatisfactory in every case. Visitors always find the cheery assistant in the ofl&ce and\nusually leave her presence happier than they came, whether they got just what they\ncame for or not. If one would see the superintendent during school hours, he will\nfind him in the schools.\nAs the growing school interests of the expanded city shall overtax the central\nrendering thus the most efl5cient service to\nseveral cities of the Middle\n\nsupervisory organization, decentralization within certain general limits with greater\n\nhands of the principals, will perhaps be considered a safer\nremedy than establishing a bureaucracy. Then the superintendent may still do firsthand visiting, form first-hand judgments, and preserve a speaking acquaintance with\nthe principals, who, when not loafers, and when not swamped in purely clerical operaIn such an organization the principals\ntions, are vital assistant superintendents.\nThe family relations which should exist between\nare the district superintendents.\nthem and their chief, who is their general representative, have been elaborated in so\nmany professional treatises that further discussion by me would be churning butterlocal discretion in the\n\nmilk.\n\nII.\n\nJ. J.\n\nKEYES, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NASHVILLE, TENN.\n\nIn discussing the question of the relationship of the supervisor to the superintendent,\nI have no theories to advance, but can only relate the conditions as they exist in\n\nmy own\n\nexperience as a superintendent.\nI have seven supervisors, some of whom have two or more assistants.\n\nOf the seven,\n\nfour have charge of the special subjects, music, writing and drawing, domestic science, and\n\nmanual training.\nintendents.\n\nThe work of the other three is more clearly that of assistant superone, a woman,\n\nTwo of them supervise work in the white grade schools;\n\nhaving charge of the first three grades, the other, a man, having charge of the grades from\nThe third, a negro man, has charge of all the work in\n\nthe fourth to the eighth inclusive.\nthe negro grade schools.\n\nThe relationship of the supervisor to the superintendent is a twofold one: the attitude\nof the supervisor to the superintendent and the attitude of the superintendent to the\n\nsupervisor.\n\nThe relationship on both sides should by all means be cordial and confidential.\n\nThe\n\nsupervisor in his relationship to the teacher is neither critic nor spy, but a general helper\n\na godfather.\n\nSo in his relationship to the superintendent he is in no sense an informer, but\n\nis in the truest sense a confidential adviser.\n\nWhen the school system has grown so large that the superintendent needs assistance\nin his own particular field, the problem of keeping in vital touch with the work and the\n\narmy of workers is a most diflScult and delicate one indeed.\n\nThe supervisor must be the\n\nconnecting link; in truth, he must be both thermometer and barometer, and woe to the\nsuperintendent when the instrument is of cheap construction, or for any reason untrue in\nits readings.\n\nThe temperature of the corps is at all times of much importance to the\n\nsuperintendent, and who but the efl&cient supervisor can more correctly read it, as he moves\ndaily among the workers, with here a word of encouragement and there a kindly suggestion,\n\nand always with a cheery, hopeful manner which gives inspiration to all? And again\nwhen trace of the brewing storm of some disaflfected group appears on the horizon, or the\n\n"} {"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n300\n\ntPhfladelphia\n\ngrowing desire for some needed reform, or the increasing demand for some progressive\nstep, who so quick to read the sign as the faithful sentinel, the supervisor ?\n\nFortunate,\n\nindeed, is the superintendent who has at his command just such a faithful steward.\n\nAnd\n\nthe superintendent who stands aloof, monarch of all he surveys, but without such protection, must be strong indeed to escape defeat.\n\nThe selection of teachers from those in training and the promotion of teachers to more\nresponsible positions are matters of serious import, and the advice and support of the\nconscientious, wide-awake supervisor is of untold value to the superintendent.\n\nThe efficiency of the teacher with respect to her power to instruct and discipline, her\npersonal standing in the community, her attitude toward the school problems in general\n\n—\n\nand her attitude toward her own particular problem these are matters upon which the\nsuccessful superintendent must be thoroly informed and this knowledge must come\nlargely thru the efficient supervisor.\n\nThe selection of textbooks, where this is left to the individual city, is a laborious and\nThe suitability of the text and its adaptability to local conditions is\n\nresponsible duty.\n\nquite important and the supervisor is in a position to give expert advice along this line.\n\nOne of the most important duties of the superintendent is the formulating of the\ncourse of study.\n\nHe may evolve a most beautiful scheme, embracing all the latest theories,\n\nbut unless it fits the local conditions, it may be worse than useless. The supervisor, being\nin close touch with the daily work, not only reflects the attitude of the teacher, but becomes\nthoroly conversant with the strength and weaknesses of the course. He is therefore well\nprepared to suggest the changes necessary to make the course most efficient.\nBy keeping in close touch with the varied interests of the city at large, he is enabled\nto bring the schools, both teachers and pupils, into a more vital relation with the manu-\n\nfacturing and commercial development of the city.\n\nThis has been done by prearranged\n\nvisits of the teachers or pupils, or both, to industrial exhibits, electric light plants,\n\ngas\n\nplants, and other manufacturing plants, typical wholesale and retail stores along various\nlines, shipping-points,\n\nsuch as railroad terminals, steamboat landings, etc.\n\nBut what of the attitude of the superintendent to the supervisor? There must be\nno false conception of the relationship as that of master and servant. The superintendent\nand supervisor are partners in a most delicate and intricate organization. Patient and\ncareful attention must be given to the supervisor in all his reports and suggestions, whether\nin the nature of complaints, problems to be investigated, or constructive measures to be\ntried.\n\nThe supervisor should be made to feel at ease in approaching the superintendent,\n\nand opportunity for discussion of all these problems should be given. It is the painstaking duty of the superintendent to see that the teachers of the corps have the proper\nconception of the duties of the supervisor. It is so natural for the teachers, and especially\nthe weak ones who need the most help, to look upon the supervisor as a faultfinder and\ntalebearer.\nUnless there is a frank, harmonious feeling of partnership between teachers\nand supervisor, little good can be accomplished. This much-to-be-sought condition rests\nlargely upon the relationship of the superintendent and supervisor.\n\nB.\n\nHOW CAN SUPERVISORS AND ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS\nRENDER THE MOST EFFICIENT SERVICE IN THEIR\nRELATIONS TO PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS?\nFREDERICK M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nThe basis of the efficiency of the supervisor does not lie in any authority given him\nby the board of education, nor in any carefully planned system of supervision which he\n\nmay devise, nor yet in the methods of instruction in which he may train his teachers.\nIt is to be found rather in the supervisor's general conception of the f imction of the public\nschools, in the ideals which he holds for his own part in this work, in his judgment of\n\n"} {"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRELATION OF SUPERVISORS TO PRINCIPALS\n\n301\n\nvalues or the comparative merit of school purposes and methods, in his knowledge of the\n\nneeds of his own city, and each distinct community in it, and in his common-sense and\npractical ability in making his own department aid in meeting those needs. The supervisor's\n\nown personal calibre and his breadth of view determine what his relationship\n\nto his teachers and principals shall be, and how this can bring the maximum of efl&ciency.\nI shall attempt an answer to the question which this subject raises, if I attempt one at\n\nnot in defining what sort of an organization shall be maintained, nor in suggesting\nwhat kind of rules for the government of supervisors and their relationship to teachers\nand principals should be laid down by the superintendent and the board of education,\nbut in outlining what the supervisor himself should be and think, in suggesting some of\nthe ends which he should accomplish, and possibly in intimating briefly some of the means\nall,\n\nhe should use in attaining them.\nIn the first place, the supervisor's view of the responsibility of the modem day\nschool system should be exceedingly broad. He must get away from the viewpoint of\nthe mere specialist who seeks to develop in the pupils nothing but a mere proficiency\nin his particular subject. His viewpoint must cover the school system as a whole, and\nhe must see what it aims to do for the boy and girl. This vision must not be dimmed\nby the glory of his own enthusiasm for his subject. True, he must see the importance\nof his own work in the economy of the whole school; he must believe in it, and be enthusiastic about what he can make it accomplish; but it should be written indelibly in his\nsubconsciousness that his subject is subservient to the thing which the system as a whole\nis\n\nattempting.\n\nThe school's place in caring for and developing the physical being of\n\nthe boy and girl, its responsibility for their moral foundations, and its responsibility for\ntheir specialized preparation for industrial eflaciency, in short, the whole social responsi-\n\nbiUty of the school, should give a definite trend to the habitual thinking of everyone who\ndirects the work of the teachers of our children.\n\nThe results of the work of the supervisor\n\nof art, or of domestic science, or of penmanship, for instance, are not to be measured in\n\nhow well the child can draw, or cook, or even write, but rather, in how can an appreciation of and an ability in art, or the ability to cook well, or the ability to write a beautiful,\nlegible slant penmanship aid this boy or girl in filling eflaciently the very highest sphere\n\nThe social ideal of the time demands that our school system should\nview the child as public property, and \"education as a function of the state.\"\nAgain, the supervisor's power to judge school values is a most important element\n\nof life possible to him.\n\nin the basis of his efficiency.\n\nWith the intricate development of our later day school\n\nsystems, there has grown up among school people, perhaps not a confessed belief, but at\nleast a course of action which recognizes the smooth operation of school machinery, and\n\nthe complete accomplishment of a carefully worked-out curriculum as efficiency.\n\nUnder\n\nthe weight of this incubus, the supervisor becomes a mere manipulator of the details of\norganization, a detective following upon the trail of the violators of requirements;\n\nthe\n\nteachers become assigners of pages and checkers of papers, and the course of study becomes\n\nthe haunting specter of each schoolroom.\n\nAs I have said, few of us, perhaps none, con-\n\nfess to such a creed of school management, but in too many of our cities this is nevertheless the course of operation.\n\nTo make his work really efficient, as efficiency should be\n\nmeasured, in meeting the demands placed upon the schools by modem life, the supervisor\n\nmust be more than an operator.\n\nHe must be a shrewd discriminator between\nHe must see in the power of the\n\nsordid details and things truly great and worth while.\n\nchild, in his individual versatility and adaptability, in his attitude toward honest toil,\n\nin his ideals of life, and in his cleanness of character, the truly great results of the training\nof the schoolroom.\n\nHe must not confuse these with the amount of work done or the\n\ncourse of study covered, or mere glibness of knowledge.\n\nFurthermore, the supervisor should be a student of the social and industrial problems\nof his city.\n\nHe should know the forces which make for right living and civic cleanness;\nHe should xmderstand the industrial conditions\n\nand those which are standing in the way.\n\n"} {"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n302\n\nrPhfladclphia\n\nwhich control the gaming of a livelihood, and the individual competition which the boy\nmust meet as he begins life for himself. He must visualize clearly the relation of the\nschool and of his own subject to these problems, and have definite ideas of his own part\nin helping the school system meet them. This principle applies not only to the whole\n\nThe social or industrial problem of\n\nschool organization, but to each school unit of it.\nthis subdistrict\n\nmay not be the same as the social or industrial problem of that one. The\n\nsupervisor of music must imderstand that he cannot accomplish the same thing by use\nof his subject in the German-Russian, or Italian district as in the district peopled with\n\nthe best families; nor can he do it in the same way. The supervisor of manual training\nmust comprehend the difference in the meaning of manual training to a district of children\nof working-men, and its significance to the children of well-to-do parents. This demands\nthat the supervisor be close to the everyday life of the city; that he be a student of its\nlife,\n\nand a practical man in his application of the work of his department to the civic,\n\nsocial, and industrial needs of the community.\n\nTo put it in a few words, the relation of the supervisor to his teachers and principals\ndepends upon: first, his vision of the social responsibility of the public school; second,\nhis power of judgment in determining what things contribute most efl&ciently toward\nthe meeting of this responsibility; and third, his practical knowledge of the immediate\nsocial and industrial problems of his commimity.\n\nIf these be\n\nthe elements which cou'\n\nstitute the attitude of the supervisor toward his work, he immediately becomes to the\n\nteachers and principals a leader of didactic thought\n\n—\n\nan inspiration toward purposeful\nAs a leader of thought and an inspiration to\nhigh professional ideals, he brings to his teachers his own broad view of the work of the\nschools. They are transformed from the slaves of a system and a course of study into\nteachers, with a clear vision and a large purpose. They are able to discriminate between\nthe things worth doing and the adherence to traditional detail; they have an instant\nand ever-present freedom in doing these things; for they know from the supervisor's\nideals, and a safe guide in their methods.\n\nbreadth of horizon that it is the \"letter which kills, but the spirit which gives life.\"\n\nThe supervisor thus becomes responsible for the professional growth of the teachers\nIf he is a supervisor of a special subject, he expects to find new teachers\n\nimder his charge.\n\nin the system prepared for the work of the subject;\nresponsible for their technical advancement.\n\nwith a training school\n\n— the school system\nif\n\nbut from this point forward he is\n\nHe will provide means either in connection\nis fortunate enough to have one\n\n—or in con-\n\nnection with some outside educational institution whereby the teachers may continue\nprofessional study, and he should provide in his own supervision the stimulus and encouragement for such study. To illustrate I am acquainted with a school system in which the\n:\n\nsupervisor of art provides a class in public-school art in the School of Fine Arts of the\n\nwhich fortunately is located in the city. Beginning teachers, unless\nthey have had imusual preparation in art, are expected to take this course. In the same\nstate university,\n\nschool system, additional salary inducements are given those who carry professional courses\nin the state university.\n\nThe results both in art instruction and in general professional\n\nwork are most marked.\n\nThus, it seems to me, the supervisor should hold himself respon-\n\nsible for the professional advancement of those directly under his charge.\n\nIn a more detailed way, the supervisor should make his relationship to the teachers\na means of improvement in classroom methods by his own personal example, by classroom instruction where necessary, by constructive criticism, by professional instruction\nin teachers' meetings, and by personal conferences. To do this he should certainly be\nvested with sufl&cient authority by rules of the board of education. He should be given\nscope enough to impress his ideals upon his teachers. He should be given power to require\nresults in the largest sense.\nWithin the limits of this conception, he should be given power\nto require a minimimi course of study. He should have the fullest confidence of those\nwith whom he works, and every relationship should be marked by friendship, cordiality,\nand mutual confidence. It is possible for a supervisor to accomplish the highest ideals\n\n"} {"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELECTION AND TENURE OF OFFICE\n\n303\n\nin his school work only by holding high standards and high purposes before his teachers,\n\nand, by his own personal attitude and personal example, creating in them a desire for their\n\nattainment.\n\nC.\n\nTHE SELECTION AND TENURE OF OFFICE OF ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS AND SUPERVISORS\nI.\n\nJ.\n\nM. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LA.\n\nTo enable me to present the facts in regard to the selection and tenure of office of\nassistant superintendents and supervisors, I sent a questionnaire to the superintendents of\n\nthirty-one of the largest cities in the United States.\ncities.\n\nI received replies from twenty-seven\n\nThe questionnaire called for information concerning the nimiber of assistant\n\nsuperintendents and supervisors of various kinds; the conditions of eligibility for appoint-\n\nment of these officers; how their qualifications were determined; the method of appointment, whether by the school board alone, the superintendent alone, or by the board on the\nnomination of the superintendent; the length of the term of office under the law, or rules\nof the school board, and in practice in the various cities.\n\nAll of the twenty-seven cities replying, except Buffalo, Detroit, Louisville, Salt Lake,\n\nand St. Paul, report from one to thirty-four assistant superintendents. I am informed\nthat in Louisville and probably in Detroit assistant superintendents will soon be appointed.\nAll cities reported the employment of from five to thirty-nine supervisors, exclusive, in\nsome instances, of assistant supervisors. Thirteen cities report supervisors of primary\ngrades;\n\nnine, supervisors of writing;\n\neighteen, supervisors of cooking\n\ntraining and industrial work;\n\ntwenty-two, supervisors of physical education;\n\nand sewing; twenty-two have supervisors of manual\n\nsix,\n\nsupervisors of evening schools;\n\neight, supervisors of\n\nkindergartens; four cities have supervisors of special schools and activities, and practically\nall report supervisors of music and drawing.\n\nAmong the supervisors reported were those\n\nfor German in one city, social centers in two cities, and grammar grades in two cities.\n\nIn eight of the twenty-two cities reporting assistant superintendents some legal conditions of eligibility are mentioned.\n\nIt is significant that in 64 per cent of the cities no\n\nlegal limitation whatsoever is set on the qualifications of assistant superintendents, while\n\nin the eight instances noted above the legal requirements in regard to qualifications are\n\nworded in such general terms as \"must hold a teacher's certificate,\" or \"must be practical\nThe most definite statement in regard to eligibility is found in the law of New\nYork City, where associate or district superintendents are required to be college graduates\n\neducator.\"\n\nwith five years of successful experience in teaching or supervision, or in lieu of the college\neducation must hold a principal's license obtained thru an examination, with an additional\nfive years of experience in teaching or supervision.\n\nIt is evident that the makers of school laws and of the rules and regulations of the\n\nschool board have felt that the qualifications of assistant superintendents are best left to\n\nthe judgment of the superintendent who should not be hampered by legal or other restrictions.\n\nThe superintendent is expected to know what qualifications are requisite in any\n\nassistant superintendent, and his judgment is practically the sole basis for determining the\nqualifications of his assistants.\n\nBut seven cities require any examination of supervisors and in two of these the\nexamination is for a teacher's certificate only.\n\nIn twenty-one out of the twenty-seven\n\ncities, the judgment of the superintendent is depended upon to determine the eligibility\n\nof supervisors.\n\nIn eighteen of the twenty-two cities reporting assistant superintendents, the assistant\nsuperintendents are elected by the school board on the nomination of the superintendent.\n\nIn three cities the board alone appoints assistant superintendents, and in one city the superThe appointment of supervisors is\n\nintendent has full authority to appoint the assistants.\n\n"} {"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n304\n\n[PhUaddphia\n\nmade by the board on the nomination of the superintendent in twenty-two of the twentyseven cities, by the board alone in two cities, and by the superintendent alone in three\ncities.\n\nIn the matter of the tenure of ofl&ce of assistant superintendents, ten cities report the\nterm fixed or limited by law, other cities limit the term by rule of the board. In seven\ncities the term is indefinite, in nine cities the length of each term is one year, in one city\ntwo years, in two cities four years, and in two instances the term is six years. In practical\noperation of the rules and practices, the tenure is reported as for life in all but one city.\nSupervisors are appointed for indefinite terms in ten of the twenty-seven cities, in twelve\n\nthe individual term is one year.\nyears.\n\nIn one city the term is three years, and in one it is six\nOf the twenty-three reporting the point, twenty-two report that in practice\n\nsupervisors are kept in office for a life-term.\n\nM. G. CLARK, SUPERINTENDENT OP CTTY SCHOOLS, SIOUX CITY, IOWA\n\nII.\n\nThe selection of assistant superintendents and supervisors depends upon their qualifications to\n\nmaintain successfully the relations and responsibilities already discussed.\n\nConsequently the consideration of their selection must necessarily presuppose a recapitulation of the principles of the previous papers.\n\nI shall, therefore, make no apology for\n\nthis recapitulation but will treat the subject briefly from two standpoints: first, cabinet\n\nqualifications; second, the qualifications of the specialist.\n\nThe assistant superintendents and the supervisors constitute the cabinet of the\nThey are his chief consultants, as well as his departmental administrators.\nUpon their loyalty, frankness, largeness of vision, and ability in administration\nsuperintendent.\n\nmust depend to a large extent the success or failure of the superintendent's work. Their\nselection, therefore, is a matter of much concern both to the superintendent and to the\nschool system.\n\nThe first consideration should be their qualifications for a cabinet relationship,\na relationship that establishes them as supervisors in a far larger sense than the mere\nadministration of their special subjects or departments.\n\nIn selecting his cabinet, therefore, the superintendent bears in mind that he is choosing\n\nThru this cabinet he is to make his\nThey, the cabinet, must speak and\nact thru his authority, and as his representatives. They must assume responsibilities\nand solve problems. They must study the harmony and efficiency of each department\nand of the general school economy. They must discover leaks and report deficiencies\n\nhis coimselors, advisers, and chief administrators.\n\nplans and personality felt thruout the whole system.\n\nand suggest remedies.\n\nThe superintendent will, therefore, consider the personal fitness of each candidate\nto enter into this most confidential relationship with him and with the plans and purposes\n\nwhich he has formulated for the growth and development of the school system.\nAs chief administrator of the system, the superintendent has a policy, or a general\nplan of administration. There is something to be accomplished; there must be carefully,\nwell-formulated plans for its accomplishment. These are not simply present- tense plans\nbut rather a policy which looks far into the future, regardless of the short tenure of his\ncontract.\n\nHe must plan as tho for a life-tenure; it is only by means of such plans that\nHe has in his mind's eye the growth and development of five\n\nhe can avoid time service.\n\nan ideal, if you please, toward which he strives;\nan ideal which year by year is to become school life and school atmosphere.\nHe is to select a cabinet, therefore, that can understand and enter into these plans\nand ideals. It must be a constructive cabinet one that will discuss plans with him freely,\nwith perfect confidence, making suggestions and truing errors, adding of its own collective personality and inspiration, but all the time unifying and harmonizing into one whole,\none purpose, this cabinet ideal. The cabinet is the agent which must establish this ideal\n\nyears, of ten years of substantial progress;\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSELECTION AND TENURE OF OFFICE\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n305\n\nwith the school community, but before it can be established these coworkers with the\nadministration must feel the ideal to be their own. It must become a purpose with them,\nso thoroly understood that each teacher and school officer shall catch its spirit and likewise feel a confidence in the school policy, in the school leader, in the cabinet, and in each\nother, and be able, if required, \"to stand and answer\" whenever shall come the challenge,\n\n\"Quovadis?\"\nHere, again, must the superintendent take thought.\n\nThe cabinet officer must\n\nunderstand the plans and policy of the administration of which he is a part, but he must\nremember also that the cabinet officer must be discreet. Unwise talking ruins many a\ncabinet plan before it is fully matured and before the public mind is ripe for its reception.\n\nA plan in successful operation is never criticized. A plan in the stage of formulation and\ntrial is\n\nalways open for criticism.\n\nHere, then, is the superintendent's first problem in\n\nThe selection of a cabinet officer large visioned enough to enter into the administration of his plans and policies, loyal enough and discreet enough to reveal only so much\nchoice.\n\nof these plans as have reached publication maturity.\n\nAgain, the superintendent is selecting a cabinet which should keep in touch with\nthe pulse of the pupils, the teachers, and the conmiunity.\nof the favor-seeker.\n\ngood.\n\nThis is not the petty tattling\n\nschool-community\n\nIt is the dignified cabinet discussion of the\n\nAn administration that is accomplishing its ideals will find itself beset with mis-\n\nunderstandings and with the complimentary enmity of charlatans and cheap political\nself-seekers.\n\nAll this will often appear to the wise and discreet supervisor before it comes\n\nThe integrity of the system demands that it be\n\nto the knowledge of the superintendent.\n\nprotected against these dangers, and it is thru the loyalty and wise counsel of the supervisors that\n\nmany a storm is averted.\n\nIt is in this avoidance of trouble that the real\n\nstrength of the administration, the superintendent, and his cabinet\n\nis\n\nshown.\n\nThe\n\ndiscovery and quiet removal of frictions before they develop into conflagrations is a large\npart of the work of the administrative cabinet.\n\nthe superintendent's second problem in choice\n\nThis phase of the question constitutes\n\n—the selection of a cabinet that\n\nshall guard\n\nthe integrity and harmony of the school system.\n\nNext and not least in the selection of the cabinet is the task of finding among the\ncandidates capable specialists who are broad-minded enough to see their work in its proper\nrelation and perspective when viewed from the standpoint of the necessities of the whole\n\nschool system.\n\nThe specialist is likely to feel that his work is the keystone of the educa-\n\ntional arch; the cabinet officer\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\n—\n\nthe worth-while supervisor\n\nsees rather an arch\n\nmade up, if you please, of a series of keystones, each fitted to its place with just the proper\ncurvature and the proper convergence to give strength and efficiency and individuality\nto the whole system, and harmony to the cabinet relations.\n\nEach member brings to the\n\nsystem the specialist's knowledge; each subordinates his activities to their true value in\nthe scale of the general school economy, and each seeks to express these values in terms\nof the child's need and of the child's understanding.\n\nAgain, the superintendent seeks to bring into his cabinet an influential individuality\ninfluential because of its individuality.\n\nHe seeks an individuality which will subordinate\n\nitself to the larger idea and the larger ideal, yet one that will discover in that very idea\n\nor ideal a free field for the expression of its own strength and personality.\n\nSuch an\n\nindividuality enlarges the ideal, gives value to the service, and clears up the weaknesses\n\nand errors which it discovers thru its own departmental activity.\n\nThis perhaps is one of\n\nthe hardest tests of the supervisor and yet perhaps it is the one that the wise superin-\n\ntendent will seek most industriously.\nAgain, in the selection of the cabinet, the superintendent will seek those who can\n\nbear responsibility, not mere henchmen.\n\nHe seeks those who, having undertaken the\n\nschool policy, will make that policy their own in its administration and in the accruing\nresponsibilities\n\nwhich administration always necessitates.\n\nThe responsibility of seeing\n\nthe thing thru, the completion of the work, without the necessity of the superintendent\n\n"} {"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3o6\n\nor others giving it further thought, is an essential qualification.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nThe fact that each\n\ncabinet member may depend upon the other in the complete administration of plans\ngives confidence to the teachers, to the pupils, and to the school commimity.\n\nBefore\n\nthe teachers and the public, the qualified supervisors assimie their responsibilities; they\nnever take to cover, but stand \"fire\" for the cause that is their own by virtue of their\n\nThey stand with the administration for the successful maintenance of the\n\nselection.\n\nplans and policies which they established.\n\nIt is here that the backbone of the cabinet\n\nIt is likewise here that the strength of the administration is developed.\n\noflScer is tested.\n\nIn seeking a department specialist, we of course look for those qualifications of education and experience which naturally give confidence in the candidate's ability to organize\n\nand administer his subject.\n\nOftentimes, especially in those schools in which only the\n\nsmaller salaries can be offered, these qualifications are determined by the college record\nof the candidate.\n\nWhile I am not here to minimize in any wise educational qualifications\n\nas represented by the college or technical training, I am here to contend that there are\nqualifications of experience, mind, and heart that are of far more value to the supervisor\nthan the possession of a degree in education.\nPersonally, I should endeavor to select for grade supervision a candidate who has\ngrown into the larger field from actual grade-teaching experience. There are problems\nto be met which can be fully understood only by one who has had this experience. The\nteacher who has actually spent some years working with the child is in a far better posi-\n\ntion to organize school material to fit the child mind and to know the actual child possibilities\n\nthan is the best-trained technical graduate without this practical experience.\n\nIt is not so much the problem, as the way the problem is presented that makes it possible\nfor child-understanding, and of all persons connected with the school, the grade supervisor\nmust never shoot either above or below the child-interests and the child-understanding.\n\nThe attitude of the supervisor will unconsciously determine the attitude of the teachers.\nTherefore she must present her material to her teachers with the attitude predominant\nthat she would have them use in presenting it to their pupils.\n\nHerein is a need for actual\n\ngrade-teaching experience.\n\nAgain, the supervisor needs this experience in order to know the real problems of\nthe teachers.\n\nLogical paper organizations are comparatively easy for the mature student.\n\nBut the practical, psychological organization of work that is possible for the teacher to\naccomplish, and that is truly helpful and inspirational in its method, is the work of the\nexperienced and sympathetic teacher-supervisor. There are a hundred things that the\nspecialist can never realize until he has had the actual problems of the classroom to solve\nand has really acquired the teacher-touch thru the actual process of child-mind contact.\nThe grade teacher who is strongest along these lines is the one who should enter the\nspecialist school with the greatest confidence of future success.\n\nBut here is often a difl&culty in human nature.\n\nThe promotion of a qualified teacher\nThe fact that it is a pro-\n\nto a specialist's position often results in annoying troubles.\n\nmotion from the ranks often leads to jealousies in the corps, for a prophet is not without\nhonor except in his own country. Such a promotion will need the careful attention and\nco-operation of the whole administrative force.\n\nThe personality of the supervisor, like the personality of the teacher, is fully 50\nper cent of real efficiency values.\n\nIt includes nearly all that has been suggested under\n\ncabinet selection, for the capable cabinet officer possesses the personality to make the\n\nwork effective.\n\nUnder the title of personality, however, I would particularly emphasize\n\nfour points:\nFirst,\n\nsympathy:\n\nthat peculiar quality thru which the supervisor unconsciously\n\nenters into the life and plans of every teacher and pupil with whom she comes in contact.\n\nThe willing ear, the willing hand, the discreet tongue are all elements of sjonpathy.\n\nAn\n\natmosphere that is helpful, encouraging, cheerful, loyal, and always constructive permeates\nsuch a character.\n\n"} {"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nNATIONAL AID TO STATE SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION 307\n\nSecond, dignity: not the unbending aloofness of the small-minded, but rather that\nattitude of mind which of its own calibre establishes its authority without question, and\n\nalways with respect.\na personality so permeated with the principles of educational\nmere contact inspires coworkers with the same faith and to a corresponding\n\nThird, inspiration:\nfaith, that\n\nco-operative activity.\n\nFourth:\n\nif\n\nthe supervisor possess the three qualifications named, the fourth is most\n\nsurely to be found;\n\nviz.,\n\nthe natural leader.\n\nThere are always to be found in society\n\nthose about whom we group ourselves and to whom we more or less unconsciously render\n\nhomage in the various activities of our social welfare.\nthis personal qualification.\n\nThe successful supervisor possesses\n\nIt has demonstrated itself from early childhood days,\n\nassociates have again and again acknowledged it.\n\nand\n\nIt is not an acquired characteristic.\n\nLittle more need be said concerning the supervisor's education than that she must\n\npossess a broad mastery over her subject, that she must be a student and one that con-\n\nMost important is the scientific attitude toward education.\nThe selected supervisor believes in education as a science not as a mere drill process.\n\ntinues the student attitude.\n\n—\n\nShe is a student of mind, a student of social conditions, and a student of economics.\nShe knows the needs of the child and the needs of society and strives in every way in the\nadministration of her subjects to apply those principles of sociology and psychology\nwhich shall bring about the greatest educational activity on the part of the child with\nthe least effort on the part of the educator. In other words, she seeks the true line of\nEducation is to her a profession which she honors and\nleast resistance in education.\nstrives to ennoble.\nShe is a worth-while supervisor.\nFortunate is the school system that has made such a selection. Progress in all lines\nof educational activity and harmony in administration cannot but follow. Appreciation\nA tenure of office secure and unquestioned and a\nfor such work should be practical.\nsalary commensurate with the service rendered are but matters of mere justice and of\nsound business sense.\n\nROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\nTHE BEST FORM OF NATIONAL AID TO STATE SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF A COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT\nE. M. RAPP,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OP BERKS COUNTY SCHOOLS, READING, PA.\n\nThe best form of national aid to state systems of instruction, in my opinion, is\nvocational education cast on the lines of the Page bill.\n\nThis bill is neither radical nor revolutionary. It is the logical extension of the policy\nwhich the government adopted when the act of 1862 was passed. It would therefore\ninaugurate no new fiscal policy nor establish a new precedent. No one questions the\nconstitutionality of the land-grant college acts, and no one will wish to test the constitutionality of this bill if enacted into law.\nThis measure promotes the general welfare.\nIt simply attempts to adjust legislation to new conditions, to larger numbers, and to\nampler resources. It is also a movement toward popularizing and amplifying present\nknowledge and practice. This bill establishes a national policy with reference to\nsecondary education, which it is not possible for the individual states to do. Neither\nPennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, nor Minnesota can establish a national\npropaganda or system of education which will place this country on a competitive basis\nwith such nations as Germany and France. The value of this bill is not so much in the\n$14,000,000.00\n\nit will\n\nappropriate, as\n\nit\n\nis\n\nin the general educational policy\n\nit\n\nwill\n\ninaugurate.\n\nFederal initiative will certainly stimulate the inactive states along vocational lines\n\n"} {"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3o8\n\nand nationalize the movement at once.\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nThis plan does not smack of paternalism or of\n\nFrom first to last it provides that whatever the federal government shall do\nshall be matched by the states.\nThe Lever bill, recently before the Senate and a bill\nsimilar in many respects to the Page bill, does not make this provision in all instances but\ncharity.\n\nprovides that $10,000.00 be immediately available to each state without duplicating it.\n\nDuplicating the additional sums that come to the states year after year stimulates\nself-help and deepens their sense of responsibility.\n\nTruly, the best way to help people is\n\nto help them to help themselves.\n\nSo long as the federal government secures two-fifths\nof all taxes raised, and spends twenty times as much on war and navy as on education\nin the arts of peace and homemaking, there will arise no harm from co-operating with\nthe states in producing more efficient citizens.\n\nThe Page bill will prevent to some extent centralization.\n\nIt really decentralizes.\n\nBy building up strong state educational institutions, imder what is in effect a federal\nendowment, the states are made relatively stronger.\n\nThe schools remain wholly under\n\nlocal control, the only requirement being that they use the appropriation for vocational\n\neducation only.\n\nReturning to the states a portion of the taxes collected from them would\n\nprevent the centralization of social, intellectual, financial, and even governmental power.\n\nThe proportion of the taxes which the federal government will collect from the people\nThis money is going to be\n\nwill increase, unless we change radically our fiscal system.\n\nspent, and if it is not redistributed to the people of the states from whence it came, and\n\nspent for laudable projects, it will be spent on less important and less worthy objects.\n\nMoney invested in battleships centralizes power, money invested in education makes\nstronger the units of local power and thus decentralizes.\n\nThe expenditure of the price\n\nof one battleship annually will increase the efficiency of our industrial system and thus\n\nincrease the annual production sufficient to pay for a dozen battleships.\n\nFederal appro-\n\npriations also tend to take money from the stronger and more prosperous states and\nsections to help build up the poorer and more backward states and sections, and to this\n\nextent it would equalize the conditions of life over the country.\n\nThe administrative features of this bill have been freely criticized, more particularly\namong school men because of a division of authority. A single national agency, and a\nThe men who from time to time\nsingle agency within each state, have been advocated.\nprepared and fathered it have carefully considered this matter and conferred with those\nbest qualified by experience to advise, and have finally concluded that the supervision of\n\nthe extension work in agriculture and the branch-station work would be best administered\n\nby the Department of Agriculture, because this department has long been the special\nagency in touch with agricultural and homemakers* organizations. The labor organizations have come to regard the Department of Commerce and Labor as the connecting\nlink between the government and themselves and this department is therefore vested with\n\na co-operative relation in connection with those schools which are to teach the trades and\nThe supervision of the schools provided for in the bill is left entirely to the\ncommissioner of education, who will, of course, be the direct representative of the Department of the Interior. It seems eminently wise that the Department of Commerce and\nLabor and the Department of Agriculture be authorized to give co-operative assistance\nto the Department of the Interior and thus help the Bureau of Education to have the\nwidest possible support. The public welfare is not dependent upon the channel or channels thru which the money is expended. The public has little interest in who does the\nindustries.\n\nwork, as long as it is effectively done.\n\nThe great waste in this country is ignorance. It costs more than wars, floods, fire,\nThe waste in agriculture, in the trades and industries, and in\nhome economics runs into billions of dollars. The farmer especially has been the greatest\nwaster; he must be made the greatest conserver. The solution of this problem is more\n\nand cyclones combined.\n\nvital than the administrative difficulties that may be encountered in this bill.\n\nThere is\n\nno better-established economic law than that of the relation of the right kind of education\n\n"} {"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNATIONAL AID TO STATE SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION 309\n\nto the productive capacity of the people.\n\nThe relation is so vital that you can measure\n\nthe wealth-producing power of the people by the educational privileges which they\nenjoy.\n\nIs it not time to turn our attention to the gigantic and monumental waste due to\n\nineffective education and stop turning our apochromatic objectives with collar adjust-\n\nment upon comparatively insignificant matters? This bill has a tendency to turn our\neducational ideals more toward the wholesomeness of productive occupation, rather than\naway from manual vocations, and will do much to break down the artificial barrier which\nexists between the minds of those who labor and produce and those who obtain their living\nin occupations not manual. We all believe in equality of opportunity and universal\nintelligence, but have made no strenuous efforts in giving this boon to the great mass of\nAre the sons of our toiling millions receiving their fair equality of opportunity\nAre they getting a square deal educationally ? For centuries, education of the masses was opposed by the royalty, as dangerous to power; by\nthe church as dangerous to creed. We have too long confined technical education to the\nprofessional classes. Let us provide, along with general schooling, industrial education,\nnot only to the privileged 5 per cent, but also to the 95 per cent who are doing the world's\nwork. Too long we have been taking money from the masses and using it almost\npeople.\n\nto which they are entitled ?\n\nexclusively for the preparation of leaders.\n\nThis may have been wise thus far, provided these trained leaders have rendered\nservice to society and nation.\n\nBut too long we have had an educational holdup by the\nWealth snobbery is still too frequently supported\n\nscholastics for the benefit of the few.\n\nby scholastic snobbery.\n\nThe one thing that scholastic aristocrats refuse to see is that\n\nforms of education which make men self-supporting often have as much, or more, real\ncultural value than those which concern only the pedant or classical dilettante.\n\nEduca-\n\ntion must be for service as well as for sweetness and light; for a vocation as well as for an\n\navocation.\n\nIt has been truly said that classics\n\nmachines and potatoes.\n\nand calculus are no more divine than\n\nUniversal education must contain a large element of the voca-\n\nThe first duty every man owes to society is to support himself. The law of our\nFood and clothes and shelter for themselves\nand for those dependent upon them occupy the first place in men's thoughts; and they\nought to. The aesthetic and the spiritual belong to the superstructure. Two men are to\nbe pitied: (i) the one who builds an economic foundation and is satisfied; (2) the one\nwho attempts to build an aesthetic superstructure without a material foundation; and\ntional.\n\nnatures makes the economic fundamental.\n\nthe second failure is more pitiable than the first.\n\nLet us learn how to make a living in an economically sound and defensible way\nand then philosophize to the happy end of our days. The curse of this age is its\nunwillingness to give what the world needs in order to secure what the individual desires.\nThe great need of this country is not more lawyers, more doctors, more professional\nmen, but more skilled laborers, more trained farmers, and more homemakers. We have\ntoo many morbid thinkers and miserable workers. Our leaders never get beyond the\nsophomoric stage of political economy. Many a man who passes for a thinker is spouting\nhazy philosophic impressions he recalls from his school career of twenty or forty years\nago. These men ought to be studying political economy, history, philosophy, sociology,\nand the science of government now, as they have need, just as they should formerly have\nbeen taught at school how to make a living for themselves instead of off the other fellow.\nEdwin G. Cooley in a discussion on industrial education says:\n\nWe\n\ncan become a true democracy only when we shall be as much concerned about\ntraining a good blacksmith as we are about training a good lawyer; when our system of\nschools offers equal opportunities to all classes and all talents.\n\nA commendable feature of the Page bill, from my viewpoint, is the provision to prepare teachers in state normal schools or other training schools to give practical or technical\ninstruction fitting for useful service in agriculture, the trades and industries, and home\n\neconomics.\n\nThe federal fund may not be used to teach the so-called cultural studies, but\n\n"} {"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3IO\n\n[Philadelphia\n\nmust be used solely to educate those who are to teach the vocational subjects contemplated\nThe country school is in its best sense an industrial school, and only those\nteachers can do best work therein who have had the personal experience in industrial\ntraining and the changed pomt of view which only a school having industrial training can\ngive.\nHow can there be a redirection of education in the country or an adjustment of\nthe school to the industrial life of a community if teachers are not properly trained?\nIt is only thru these industrial subjects that teachers can interpret the natural and indusin the bill.\n\ntrial\n\nenvironment of the country school.\n\nThe teacher in the country is to be partly\n\nblamed for the exodus of the farm boy to the city, as he has constantly idealized captains\nof industry, railroad presidents, and military heroes, covering up their iniquities and painting halos aroimd the heads of standard oil magnates and beef trust barons, who spent\nin riotous living the dollars filched from the farmers of the land. If normal schools would\nprepare teachers to impart to their pupils, in a way easily assimilated by them, the beaute-\n\nous and profitable truths of growing things; to inspire and stimulate a love for the garden\nand the farm; for horticulture, and animal husbandry, then, it seems to me, there would\n\nbe little left in the educational world to be desired.\n\nI do not mean in all this that every\n\nboy should be a farmer, but I do mean that the education that should be given boys who\nare to be farmers will make the best kind of foundation upon which to rear the structure\nof any calling or profession.\nThe kind of teacher we want and must have is one who can gather her class about\nher as a hen her brood, and can interest them in the conception, the growth, and the\n\n—\n\n^life revealed.\n\nIt is master-\n\ning, step by step, God's creative processes in the sweetest, simplest manner.\n\nThe organi-\n\nfruiting of things.\n\nThis is the study of life.\n\nIt is revelation\n\nzation of a well-planned series of consolidated central schools with connecting high schools\n\ncommunity problem as\nThe teachers of these schools of course will come largely from the agricultural\n\nis the solution not only of the rural school problem but the rural\n\nwell.\n\ncolleges, will be employed the year aroimd, and will live with the pupils and farmers in\n\ntheir respective communities, working with the students and their parents about half the\n\nyear on the farms, thus making the farm and home life educational, and the farm home\n\nand civic and social life of the commimity better and more wholesome. What power in\nfarm pride this ambassador of the state and nation would impart!\nThis measure greatly stimulates the movement back to the farm. The country life\nmovement, despite the picayunish economies of a short-sighted congressional policy, is\nthe most universally indorsed movement of the time. The social and industrial revitalization of coimtry life in this generation is one of the most hopeful signs of the times. In\nsolving this problem, we solve one of the most fimdamental problems of the century, the\nproblem of checking the movement of population from the coimtry to the city, thus\nremoving one of the chief causes of the high cost of living. The mad rush to the cities,\nNo other tide now seems\ncalled the nation's funeral procession, must be counteracted.\nso strong in the public opinion of our country as this determination to build up the country\non a right and profitable basis, not only for the farmer's sake, but for the sake of our\ncountry, and of a wise and safe civilization.\nThe provisions in the Page bill relative to additional experiment-station work, and\nthe provision for extension work both in industrial and agricultural work, have been\ncriticized because of already generous support by the national government.\n\nIt has been\n\nBut the need of this kind of work at present\nin America is great. This bill is not necessarily drafted to the needs of the South and\nWest, as it contemplates assisting industrial as well as agricultural and household arts\neducation. It is right and proper that the agricultural interests are emphatic in the\nsupport of the bill. They are at last coming to their own. The prosperity of this nation,\nin the last analysis, rests upon agriculture. This is not a mere platitude. The backbone\nIn\nof a nation is its farming class, and no nation was ever overthrown by its farmers.\nthe solution of the farm problem is bound up the prosperity, the happiness, the very\nsaid that these should be separate measures.\n\n"} {"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAPPORTIONING AND ADMINISTERING STATE AID\n\nexistence of the nation.\n\n311\n\nThe high cost of living is a more serious problem in America\n\nthan Europe because of the disproportion of the progress of the industries and that of\nagriculture. America is fifty years behind Europe agriculturally. Men of vision who\nstudy history and who are able to think in large imits see the peril of our nation and\n\nwarn us.\n\nRome ruled the world but fell, not on account of pride and immorality, not from the\nRome fell because of the\n\nenervation of luxury, but because of defiance of economic law.\n\nexhausted or wasted agricultural resources of the country.\n\nA Chinese philosopher cen-\n\nturies ago uttered a profound truth:\n\nThe well-being of a people is like a tree; agriculture is its root, manufactures and\ncommerce are its branches, and its life; if the root is injured the leaves fall, the branches\nbreak away and the tree dies.\nGarfield said:\n\nAt the head of all sciences and arts, at the head of civilization and progress, stands,\nnot militarism, the science that kills, not commerce, the art that accumulates wealth, but\nagriculture, the mother of all industry, and the maintainer of human life.\n\nThe great centers of industry and commerce must always depend for their moral\nand physical health upon a constant influx of fresh blood from the country. The ancient\ncivilizations\n\nwere chiefly military; our modem civilization is pre-eminently industrial.\n\nPhysical strength for military purposes is no longer so important, but physical strength,\nintegrity,\n\nand independence still remain just as necessary for our industrial democracy\n\nas they were for the military nations of the ancient world.\n\nYes, the wars of the future will be economic.\nof spelling economic prosperity.\n\nIndustrial education is but one way\n\nA race for commercial supremacy is now on among the\n\nnations of the earth with Germany in the lead.\n\nNational disarmament may come, and\n\nI am prajdng to God that it will come, but every machinist who stops making cannon\nwill be set to making gears, and cams, and dynamos, and that nation whose machinists\n\nare the cleverest, whose chemists the most resourceful, whose designers the most artistic,\n\nwhose farmers the best scienced, whose homemakers the most efl&cient, and as a whole\nthe best trained\n\n—that nation stands to win.\n\nLet the educational slogan of America be:\n\"Learning to do; doing to earn; earning to live; living to serve.\"\n\nTHE BEST METHOD OF APPORTIONING AND ADMINISTERING\nSTATE AID\nDAVID SNEDDEN, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR MASSACHUSETTS, BOSTON, MASS.\nIt is now generally accepted that public education in America is a state fimction.\nIts organization and its support are made possible by means of state legislation.\n\nLegis-\n\nlative provision is ever3rwhere made by the state for the existence of publicly supported\n\nelementary and secondary education; and also in many cases for such special forms of\neducation, as collegiate, vocational, and correctional.\n\nEach American state now contributes in greater or less degree toward the support of\nthe public education which it requires or makes permissive for local communities to\nmaintain.\n\nThe following are the principal directions taken in administering such support:\n1. It has been found expedient that the state support out of its own fimds certain\neducational institutions which serve the state as a whole, or areas of the state larger than\n\nthe county or city.\n\nAmong these institutions are state universities, agricultural colleges,\n\nnormal schools, schools for delinquents, defectives, and dependents, and also a variety\nof secondary institutions of technical, agricultural, and household arts education.\n2. In certain instances, the state has constituted itself a taxing authority to the extent\n\n"} {"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n312\n\n(Philadelphia\n\nof levying upon local communities a specific tax for the support of schools;\n\nthe state\n\nreturning to each community the share which it has paid in under the requirements of\n\nthe tax thus imposed.\n\nIn this way, the state is able to compel commxmities to provide\n\nat least a part of the money necessary for the support of public schools.\n\nThe method of\n\ndistribution here employed is, of course, simple, each community receiving according as\nit\n\nhas contributed.\n\nIt is well\n\nknown that this method was formerly employed freely\n\nthruout southern states.\n3.\n\nIn many states, the income of invested funds, as well as the money derived from\n\nthe proceeds of state taxation, is distributed to local commimities in such a way as to aid\nor promote local educational effort.\nis\n\nThis general method of assisting public education\n\nnow found in quite general operation in almost all states.\n\nSuch state funds are usually\n\ndistributed to local communities in accordance with one or more of the following principles:\na) State aid may be apportioned to each community in proportion to the total\nnumber of children found therein of specified ages, as shown by the school census. This\nmethod, known as the census basis of apportionment, presupposes that the number of\n\nchildren to be educated constitutes a satisfactory index to local educational need.\nh) State aid may be apportioned on the basis of the actual nimiber of children attending school, as measured by average membership, average daily attendance, or otherwise.\nApportionment\nc) Special appropriations may be made to needy commimities.\nof state aid in accordance with this principle assumes a great variety of forms. Usually,\nhowever, local property valuation, local rates of taxation, local conditions of population\nand of school attendance are taken into account.\nd) State aid may be given for the support or encouragement of particular forms of\neducation, such as industrial, agricultural, etc., or for the development of specific adjxmcts,\nsuch as expert supervision, medical inspection, care of defectives, provision of suitable\nbuildings, etc.\nIt is evident that the apportionment of state aid in accordance with objects set forth\n\nin paragraph 3 above rests upon one or both of two principles; namely: (i) that state aid\nis given to assist the local\n\ncommimity in meeting definite educational needs; or (2) state\n\naid is given to stimulate the local commimity to further educational effort.\n\nIn almost all forms of apportioning and administering state aid now practiced, one\nState aid may be given to supplement local\n\nor both of these two principles are involved.\neffort in meeting definite need;\n\nor it may be given to stimulate local effort in making\n\nprovision for a more advanced quality of education.\n\nAs a rule, some conditions attach\n\nto almost every form of state aid, even tho these relate only to the minimum number of\nweeks that school must be maintained or to compliance with the general laws regarding\n\neducation.\nIt is clear that in devising plans for the apportionment of state aid consideration\n\nshould be given, on the one hand, to the fact that the state establishes by law certain\nconditions which are expected to be met thruout the state as a whole, and, on the other\n\nhand, to the fact that local communities, able or disposed to do so, are expected to do\nmore than meet the minimum standards thus imposed.\n\nThe ability of any given community to maintain a system of public schools is, of\nAssuming\nan equality of valuation thruout a state, the ability of the community to raise money\nby taxation may be expressed in terms of its general tax rate and its school tax rate. It\nis just and expedient for the state to recognize for all communities a maximum rate of\ntaxation for school purposes beyond which, except for extraordinary reasons, the comcourse, fundamentally affected by its ability to raise money thru taxation.\n\nmunity should not be obliged to go.\nHence, as the first condition governing in the apportionment of state aid, should not\nreference be made to what has been done by the local community itself in meeting the\n\nminimum educational standards set by the state?\n\nIf\n\nthe local community has not\n\nexpended for this purpose an amount represented by an approved rate of taxation for\nFor example,\nthis purpose for the state as a whole, then no state aid should be given.\nthe state may prescribe that certain types of public schools shall be maintained; that these\n\n"} {"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "APPORTIONING AND ADMINISTERING STATE AID\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nschools shall be open for a specified number of weeks each year;\n\n313\n\nand that teachers holding\n\nindicated minimum certificates, and in receipt of minimum salaries, shall be employed.\nSimilarly, the state may impose minimum conditions as regards buildings, equipment,\n\nsupervision, medical inspection, special provision for defective children, etc.\n\nIt is obvious\n\nthat if the state prescribes these minimum conditions, and if the local community has done\nits best to meet them, the state is first imder obligation to\n\nmake it possible out of state\n\nfimds for these standards to be met.\n\nBut the state is not only interested in the maintenance of minimum educational\nit desires that, where possible, communities shall go further.\nHence the state\nis justified in encouraging, by the use of state fimds, local conunimities in their efforts\nto make more complete provision for the educational needs of their children. To this\n\nstandards;\n\nend, the state may be free to assist the establishment of special or exceptional types of\napproved education, such as industrial or agricultural. It may assist communities, not\nrequired by law to maintain high schools, in maintaining them. It may lend its aid in\n\nproviding for the education of the deaf or other defectives, or in maintaining schools for\ndelinquents.\n\nIt may encourage local communities to diminish the\n\nnumber of children\n\nper teacher, to employ teachers of more advanced professional training, or in maintaining\nIt may put a premium upon length of\nBy special grant it may encourage the development\n\nfacilities for the training of teachers in service.\n\nschool term or large attendance.\n\nof medical inspection, transportation of children to central schools, the provision of\n\nadequate laboratory facilities, free textbooks, and playgroimds. All of these are elements\nEach might well be encouraged out of state funds, subin higher educational efl&ciency.\nject, of course, to the requirement that the local\n\ncommimity shall make a due contribu-\n\ntion thereto, and shall also make adequate state inspection possible.\nIt should be accepted as a truism that wherever state money is paid toward the sup-\n\nport of public education state supervision should follow.\n\nIt is probable that in most\n\nof the American states, at the present time, such state supervision as exists is of a very\ninferior quality.\n\nIn theory, the state should be in a position to develop standards in\n\neducation in advance of the local commimities, and to promote their local application.\n\nIn practice, our administrative machinery is as yet rarely equal to this task.\napplication of the principle of state aid would seem to make\n\nit\n\nFurther\n\nincreasingly incumbent\n\nupon the state to develop such supervision. This can be carried on only by experts.\nThe state possesses no more powerful instrument of advancing public education than its\nability to make the receipt of state aid contingent on the maintenance of high standards\nlocally.\n\nTo this end, however, it is absolutely essential that the two purposes of state aid,\ncontrasted above, should be dearly defined.\n\nWhere the state assists local commimities\n\nto supplement their own financial resources in order to meet the minimimi requirements\n\nimposed by the state, the character of the supervision may weU assume already welldefined forms; whereas, when the state deliberately uses its own resources to further the\n\ndevelopment of approved types of new or supplemental education, then the co-operation\nand supervision of the state thru its experts should assume quite a distinct character.\nIn the New England states, from the standpoint of the public schools, only two\nadministrative agencies need be recognized: namely, the state, and the town or the city.\nIn southern and western states, in a large number of instances, it is necessary to recognize\nthree agencies with distinct responsibilities as to taxation and distribution of funds,\nnamely, the state, county, and the local town or district. In a few instances, even four\nsuch agencies are involved.\nExperience would seem to show that in the distribution of money by the state, the\nlocal school administrative authority should be recognized primarily, whether this be the\ndistrict,\n\nthe town, or the coimty.\n\nIn other words, the state should deal as directly as\n\npossible with the local authority responsible for the administrative efficiency of the schools.\n\nThe apportionment of state aid to counties, in cases where the county school authority\n\n"} {"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n314\n\n[Phfladelphia\n\nhas comparatively little administrative responsibility, involves an element of confusion\nand imcertainty making for inefl&dency. In cases where the town or district actually\nadministers the school, but the county is made the center of auditing and bookkeeping,\nit is, of course, desirable that state moneys should pass thru the customary channels of the\n\ncounty ofl5ce.\n\nState apportionments, however, should be designated for the particular\n\nadministrative imits which are held responsible for their eflScient expenditure.\n\nThe\n\ncoimty, under these conditions, becomes merely a convenient intermediary for transmission and accoimting.\n\nIn conclusion, it is suggested that wherever methods of distributing state fimds are\nto be revised, full consideration should be given to the desirability of giving separate\ncertain amoxmt of state money\napplication to the opportunities discussed above.\n\nA\n\nshould be deliberately apportioned with a view to meeting specified conditions as to taxation, etc., and with a view to enabling them to maintain prescribed types and quaUties of\neducation.\n\nA simi of money should be available to assist such commimities as elected,\n\nin the maintenance of newer types of education not prescribed by law. In this way,\nwhile insuring to all the children of the state such uniform educational opportimity as\n\nexperience justifies, there is also held out to communities electing to advance educational\nstandards, a distinct financial incentive to do so. Educational administration is thus\nmade flexible and high-grade experimentation imder the supervision of the state is made\npossible.\n\n"} {"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n315\n\nREPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL\n\nNOMENCLATURE\nSALT LAKE CITY, UTAH, JULY, I913\n\nPREFACE\nTwo kinds of grammatical terms are effective.\n\nIn one, a given term exactly sets forth\nSo the term descriptive, as applied to an adjective like \"good\" or \"bad.\"\nIn the other, the term in itself means little or nothing to the\nstudent. Thus noun, adjective, verb, indicative, subjunctive, infinitive. These serve, just\nas X, y, z, etc., might serve. At present, at any rate, it seems best to let them alone.\nBut there is still a third kind. In this, the terms are intended to be exactly descripAn example is the name imperfect, now\ntive of that for which they stand, but are not.\nhappily superseded, in English grammars, by the name past. Terms of this kind are meant\nto belong to the first glass, but fall short of reaching it. They form a large proportion of\nour accumulated and conflicting nomenclature.\nYet the aim of their makers exactness of representation was in every case right.\nNothing but praise can be given to any effort to reach this ideal. For the young student,\nand indeed for many a teacher, the name given to a phenomenon in the grammar which\nhe uses ^if this name has any obvious meaning at all largely determines his conception of\nthe phenomenon, and is a constant influence toward the building-up of a clear understanding, or of the opposite.\nThe man who frames a working name that is a more perfect\ndescription of the force of a given grammatical phenomenon than any existing before\nis not only making that phenomenon more intelligible to the student, but is also reducing\nthe work to be done. The impulse toward perfection in grammatical nomenclature is a\ngood one; and this impidse necessarily leads to the invention of new terms.\nthe nature of that for which it stands.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nNevertheless, the present state of things is deplorable.\n\nIn the very desire for better-\n\nment, we have reached a multiplicity of terms, even for grammatical relations about the\nnature of which there is no real difference of opinion, as, for example, those seen in the\n\n\"This is John,\" \"I admire John,\" \"We made John\nFor the first of these, there are nine different names in twenty-five of the\nEnglish grammars in use in the United States today, for the second ten, for the third\nseven, and for the fourth eighteen. Thus \"good\" in \"John is good\" is variously called,\n\nitalicized words in \"John is good,\"\n\npresident.\"\n\naccording to the grammar used, attribute complement, predicate adjective, subject complement, attribute complement or predicate adjective, subjective complement, complement of\nintransitive verb, predicate attribute, adjective attribute, and predicate.\n\nThe result of such a\n\nstate of affairs is almost hopeless confusion to the student as he takes up a new text in\n\npassing from year to year, or when a new book is adopted, or when he changes his school.\n\nEven the strongest students are bewildered.\n\nAnd the teacher's burden is likewise heavily\n\nincreased, since he often has to deal with students who do not imderstand one another's\n\nanswers to a grammatical question, even if every answer is right.\n\nMoreover, the teacher\n\nup his own phrasing, which has so passed into his subconsciousness as\nalmost to utter itself, and watchfully build up a new one, from which he will for a long\ntime slip back every now and then, in spite of his best efforts. The situation as we now\nis obliged to break\n\nhave it is wasteful from the point of view of accomplishment, pitiable from the point of\nview of the needless inflictions which it puts upon the unfortunate pupil, and absurd\nfrom the point of view of linguistic science. As long as it exists, it wiU make the ideally\nsuccessful teaching of English granmiar in our public schools impossible.\nBut even this is not the whole story. Nowhere else, it is true, has so great a variation of terminology come into existence as in the grammar of our mother tongue. Yet\na considerable variation does exist in the grammar of every language; and naturally, in\nany case, a student who goes on from English to the study of German, or French, or Latin,\n\n"} {"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3i6\n\n[Salt Lake\n\nChy\n\ntho he will probably use but one grammar in the new language, will find a terminology\nlargely different from that in which he has been schooled.\n\nthese languages, he will repeat the experience.\n\nIf he studies two or three of\n\nA new language, a new set of terms!\n\nIt\n\nconunon terms addition, subtraction,\nmultiplication, division, quotient, and the like, for arithmetic, had to learn to call the same\nthings by new names when he came to algebra, and then by still different names when\nhe came to physics. A system for high-school instruction more flatly opposed to the\nmodem demand for efficiency could hardly be devised.\nis as if a student of mathematics, having mastered the\n\nTwo further results follow.\n\nIn the first place, the student is almost sure to regard\n\ngranmiatical work as arbitrary and unreal; and he cannot be blamed if he finds it uninteresting.\n\nIn the second place, he naturally comes to feel that the various languages which\n\nhe studies have no relation to one another.\n\nThis belief is frequently shared by his instruct-\n\nMany a teacher feels that the syntax, for example, of the language which he teaches\n\nors.\n\nstands quite by itself, and has nothing in common with the syntax of the language taught,\nperhaps, in the next room.\n\nBoth of these feelings are mistaken. The phenomena of language are as real as the\nphenomena of physics or chemistry; and the study of the operations of the human mind\nas seen in language is as interesting as the study of any of the other operations of\nNature. The languages studied in our schools are, also, the descendants of the same\nlanguage, the \"parent speech\" once spoken by the ancestors of almost all the scholars;\nand, while the words of that parent speech have largely changed their forms, and differ in\nthe languages spoken today, the ways in which they are used have changed relatively little.\nThe relations expressed, for instance, by the terms subject, predicate, direct object, indirect\nobject,\n\npurpose, result, cause, have not changed at all:\n\nabout these relations that differ.\n\nit is\n\nonly our ways of speaking\n\nAnd if the student, having learned the conception and the\n\nname for any of these in any language, found the same conception set forth by the same\nname in any other language that he might study, a sense of law and order would succeed\nthe present sense of arbitrariness, and, in many minds, a feeling of interest would succeed\nthe feeling of indifference or distaste.\nFurther, the adoption of a system of identical nomenclature for identical phenomena\nin all the languages of our family which the student may take up, with its natural accom-\n\npaniment of differing nomenclature at the points where the phenomena differ, would have\nthe effect of making these differences stand out more sharply in his mind.\nIt is such a system which the Joint Committee of the National Education Association,\nthe Modem Language Association of America, and the American Philological Association\nIt has done its work with the utmost care and a large expenditure\nis charged to frame.\nIt has\nof time, and has brought to the task its best knowledge and complete devotion.\nalso had the assistance of a committee appointed by the National Council of Teachers of\nEnglish. Yet it is unlikely that the Joint Committee has everywhere made the best\nchoice. The fact that at a number of points its system differs from those of the corresponding English and French Commissions^ ^just as their systems differ from each other\nindicates the improbability that complete success has yet been attained. That the system\nwhich the Committee offers should at every point be satisfactory to any one American\nteacher is not to be expected. The New York Committee of Teachers of English and the\nNew Jersey Conmiittee, separated from each other by only a narrow strip of water, have\n\n—\n\nreached conclusions diametrically opposed at many points.\n\nBut, after long discussions\n\nin full meetings, opened in many cases imder great differences of opinion, the American\n\nJoint Committee has come, on almost all questions, to a unanimous opinion.\n\nAnd it is\n\nbelieved, therefore, not only that the acceptance of the system recommended will at once\n\nlead to a state of things much more satisfactory than the present one, but also that the\ngreater part of the system will successfully stand the test of future thought; while the use\nI The German CommissioD and the Austrian Commission, which have been for some time at work.\nhave not yet published reports. The Austrian Commission has, however, issued proposals.\n\n"} {"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n317\n\nof it will at the same time direct attention more sharply upon points at which its results\n\nmay at some future day be bettered.\nIn the field of syntax, the necessary principle in determining what constructions\nshall be distinguished has seemed to the Committee to lie in the answer to the question,\n\n\"What sensibly differing ideas exist?\" But it must constantly be borne in mind that\ntwo constructions the ideas of which lie, in the main, well apart, may, at points in their\nrange, approach so close to each other that it is occasionally dilB&cult to choose between\nthem in classifying a given example.\nThe Committee has avoided matters of controversial theory, wherever it has been\npossible to do so without leaving a variety of terms for phenomena that must be dealt\nwith in the schools.\n\nFor us English-speaking people, the whole foundation of grammatical study is laid\nAll our subsequent work, in whatever\nlanguage, is based upon this study. The Committee has kept this fact constantly in\nin the study of English in the grammar schools.\n\nmind.\n\nIn every case, the name to be used in the teaching of English is given first.\n\nThe\n\nConmiittee has also recognized that certain distinctions which it seems desirable to make\nin the more advanced study of English, and in the study of other languages, need not be\n\nmade in the grammar schools.\n\nThe form of presentation adopted is intended to make the\n\nlines of demarcation clear.\n\nWith the same end in view,\n\nFor greater convenience in use, the display is tabular.\n\nthe nomenclature needed for the word as such is first given, the nomenclature for the relations of words as they appear in speech or writing being placed later. This order of\narrangement must not be understood as meaning that, in the opinion of the Committee,\nactual work should begin by dealing with the word as such. The contrary is the case.\nWork should begin with the relations of the sentence, which are set forth on p. 323. Similarly, the inference should not be drawn that every distinction for which terms are pro-\n\nvided, as common or proper, transitive or intransitive, should constantly be made wherever\n\nthe part of speech concerned is dealt with.\n\nWhat appear to the Committee to be desir-\n\nable cautions are given in the second part of the report.\n\nBut it has seemed advisable\n\nthat the tabular exhibit should contain all the technical terms which will anywhere be\n\nneeded in classroom work.\nIn starting constantly from English, the Committee has done no wrong to the study of\nany other language. In a few instances, fuller distinctions are needed in other languages\nto account for actual difference of forms (as in the case of the adverbial construction of\nthe noun, and the names for some of the tenses of the verb), and these distinctions have to\nbe provided for in their proper places. But in the great majority of instances, whatever\nterm is best for a given phenomenon in English is best for that phenomenon in any language in which it appears.\nThe terms which now by general usage stand for given phenomena, tho in themselves meaningless to the student, are left unchanged, with the exception of a few for\nwhich really clarifying terms can easily be substituted.\nThe considerations which have guided the Committee in the choice of terms that aim\nat actual characterization of phenomena are three of which the last properly follows\nfrom the other two.\nA given term should describe as exactly as possible the phenomenon to which it is\n\n—\n\nassigned.\nIf there is a familiar word in common use outside of grammar, which will serve as a\ngrammatical term, it should be preferred to one that is not familiar. For this reason it is\n\nbetter, for example, to say descriptive adjective than to say qualitative adjective.\n\nA term which is selected as the most exact characterization of a given phenomenon\nshould be employed for every phenomenon identical in force.\ntive is\n\nThus, if the word descripemployed to designate a certain kind of adjective, it should also be employed to\n\n"} {"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n3i8\n\ndesignate the kind of claiise which has the same force.\n\n[Sah Lake City\n\nWe should say descriptive clause,\n\nand not, as a number of Romance and Latin grammars now say, clause of characteristic,\neven if the latter term were equally exact. Similarly, in place of genitive of quality, now\ncommon in German and Latin grammars, we should say descriptive genitive, adding or\nThis would give us, in place of the diverging terms descriptive adjective,\nablative for Latin.\ngenitive or ablative of quality, and relative clause of characteristic, the accordant and\nmutually illuminating terms descriptive adjective, descriptive genitive or ablative^ and\ndescriptive relative clause.\n\nIn brief, the purpose of the system of grammatical nomenclature recommended in\nthis Report is to clear the way for the intelligent study of the field with which it deals\n\nthe relations of thought as seen in language.\n\nPART I. NOMENCLATURE\nA.\n\nTHE MATERIAL OF SPEECH\nTHE PARTS OF SPEECH\n\nNoun\n\nAdverb\n\nPronoun\n\nPreposition\n\nAdjective\n\nConjunction\n\nVerb\n\nInterjection\n\nNOUN\nKind:\n\nCommon, proper\nAbstract\nCollective\n\nWeak, strong\n\nDeclension:\n\n(for German only) :\n\nGender:\n\nMasculine, feminine, neuter (no neuter for Romance')\n\nNumber:\n\nSingular, plural (for Greek add: Dual)\n\nCase-forms:\n\nFor English: Common, genitive\nFor German: Nominative, accusative, genitive, dative\nFor Romance: No distinction of case\nFor Latin and Greek: Nominative, vocative,* accusative,\ngenitive, dative, ablative (for Latin only), locative*\n\n'\n\nThe vvord \"Romance\" as used in this report is to be understood as meaning modem French, Italian,\n\nand Spanish.\n\n•The \"vocative** should not appear in paradigms except where a distinctive form exists to indicate\naddress.\n\n*The term 'locative?' fbQ^14\n\n^\n\n^>m<1 °°^y\n\n^ ^^^ explanation of special forms, not in giving paradigms.\n\n"} {"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n319\n\nPRONOUN\nKind:\n\nPersonal\n(For Romance only: Conjunctive, disjunctive)\nPossessive\n\nDemonstrative\nInterrogative\n\nRelative\nIndefinite\n\nReflexive\n\nReciprocal\n\nEach of these shares the character of one\nor more of the following: Personal, demon-\n\nIntensive\nstrative, indefinite.\n\nIdentifying\n\nMost pronominal words may have either a substantive or an adjective use.\n\nIn their substantive use they\n\nare to be called pronouns.\n\nIn their adjective use they\n\nare to be called pronominal adjectives.\n\nPerson:\n\nFirst, second, third\n\nGender:\n\nMasculine^ feminine, neuter\n\nNumber:\n\nSingular, plural (for Greek add: Dual)\n\nCase-forms:\n\nFor English:\n\nDemonstratives do not distinguish case\n\nSome indefinites, and the second members\nof reciprocals, are like nouns in respect to case.\nMost\nby form.\n\npersonal pronouns, together with *who' and its com-\n\npounds, have two case-forms, a nominative^ and an\naccusative-dative.\n\nThe forms\n\noften\n\nclassed\n\nas\n\nthe\n\n\"possessive\" case-forms of these pronouns are to be\nclassed as possessive pronouns or possessive adjectives.\n\nFor German, Romance, Latin, and Greek: Nominative,\naccusative, genitive, dative (for Latin add: Ablative)\n\n"} {"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Salt Lake\n\nDty\n\nADJECTIVE\n\nKind:\n\nDescriptive\n\nCommon, proper\nLimiting\nArticle\nDefinite, indefinite\n\nPronominal\nPossessive\n\nDemonstrative\nInterrogative\n\nRelative\nIndefinite\n\nIntensive\nIdentifying\n\nNumeral\nCardinal, ordinal\n\nDegree:\n\nPositive\n\nComparative\nRelative, absolute (not for English or Romance)\n\nSuperlative\nRelative, absolute\n\nDeclension\n\n(for German only) :\n\nWeak, strong\n\nGender\n\n(not for\n\nMasculine,\n\nEnglish):\n\nfeminine,\n\nneuter\n\n(no\n\nneuter for Romance, except in one use in Spanish)\n\nNumber:\n\nSingular, plural (for Greek add: Dual)\n\nCase-forms:\n\nAs in nouns, except for English, which does not distinguish case in adjectives\n\n"} {"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n321\n\nVERB\nKind:\n\nTransitive\nIntransitive\n\nLinking, complete\n\nConjugation:\n\nRegular, irregular (but for German: Weak, strong)\n\nFor EngUsh, Italian, and Spanish: Progressive\nFor English: Special interrogative, negative, and\nemphatic forms of present and past (with the auxiliary\nMo')\nFor German and Romance: Reflexive\nFor French Interrogative\nFor Latin and Greek: Deponent, semi-deponent\nFor Latin: Periphrastic active, periphrastic passive\n:\n\nPerson:\n\nWith personal subject:\n\nFirst, second, third\n\nImpersonal\n\nNumber:\n\nSingular, plural (for Greek add: Dual)\n\nVoice:\n\nActive, passive (for Greek add: Middle)\n\nMood:\n\nIndicative,\n\nimperative,\n\nsubjunctive\n\n(for\n\nGreek add:\n\nOptative)\n\nThe modal forms are always predicative.\nNon-modal forms:\nInfinitive (modal in certain uses in certain\n\nlanguages)\nSubstantive^\n\nGerund (for English, Romance, and Latin)\n^Supine (for Latin only)\n\nAdjectival\n\n(Participle\nI\n\nGerundive (for Latin only)\n\nThe non-modal forms are non-predicative.\nWords which originated as gerunds or participles are to\nbe classed as nouns or adjectives, not as forms of the\nverb, when the verbal force no longer predominates.\n\n•fiJ^ui'\n\n"} {"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nTense:\n\nModal forms:\nFor EngKsh and German:\n\nPresent,\n\niSalt Lake City\n\npast,\n\nfutxire;\n\npresent perfect, past perfect, future perfect;\n\npast\n\nfuture,' past future perfect.\n\nFor Romance: Present, past descriptive (indicative),\npast\n\nabsolute\n\nsecond past\n\npast\n\n(indicative),\n\n(for\n\n(subjunctive),\n\nthe Spanish subjunctive only),\n\nfuture, past future;\n\npresent perfect, past perfect,\n\nsecond past perfect, future perfect, past future\nperfect.\n\nFor Latin: Present, past descriptive (indicative), past\n(subjunctive), future; perfect, past perfect, future\nperfect.\n\nFor Greek: Present, past descriptive, future, aorist;\npresent perfect, past perfect, future perfect; second\naorist, second present perfect, second past perfect.\n\nNon-modal forms:\nFor English and Romance: Present, past. The compound participle of the type having been written,*\nin English and Romance, is to be called the phrasal\n*\n\npast participle.\n\nFor German and Latin: Present, past, future.\nFor Greek: Present, future, aorist, perfect.\n\nADVERB\nDegree:\n\nAs in adjectives\nPREPOSITION\nSimple, compound\n\nA preposition with a substantive is to be called a\nprepositional phrase\n\nCONJUNCTION\nSimple, compound\nCo-ordinating, subordinating\nCorrelative\n\nCOMMON TERM\nSubstantive: for noun, pronoun, infinitive (usually),\n\ngerund, supine\n\n*\n\nThe forms of tbe English past future and past future perfect, as in (/ knew that he) wotM wrUe, (/ knew\n\nthat he) would have written, should not be given in the paradigms of elementary books.\n\n"} {"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nB.\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\nTHE USE OF THE MATERIAL OF SPEECH\n\\\n\nKind:\n\n323\n\nTHE SENTENCE\n\nAf&rmative, negative\nDeclarative, interrogative\n\nExclamatory, non-exclamatory\nSimple, compound, complex\nSubject:\n\nSimple, compound\n\nComplete subject, subject substantive\nPredicate:\n\nSimple, compound\n\nClause:\n\nComplete predicate, predicate verb\nDeclarative, interrogative, assumptive\nPrincipal, subordinate\n\nTwo or more principal or two or more subordinate\nclauses may be co-ordinate.\nFunctions of subordinate clauses:\nSubject\nPredicate nominative or accusative\nSubstantive- Object\n\nAppositive\n\nWith a preposition\nAdjectival\n\n(Descriptive\n\nDeterminative\nAdverbial\nRelation of clause to its context:\nEssential, non-essential\n\n"} {"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nISaltLakeOty\n\nConditional complex: Conditional clause with conclusional clause (condition\n\n+ conclusion)\n\nKinds of conditional complex:\n'Neutral\nPresent f\n\nContrary to fact\n\nPast\n\n/Neutral\n\n{Contrary to fact\n\n(More vivid\n\nFuture i^°'\"^^yi\n\nIntroduced for the sake of contrast with the volitive 'will,* 'shall.'\nIn subordinate clauses, 'shall' in all persons.\n\n'Jin\n\n"} {"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n328\n\n[Salt Lake City\n\nADDITIONAL TERMS FOR THE MORE IMPORTANT ENGLISH INDICATIVE AND\nSUBJUNCTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS\n\nOf purpose;\n\nof result; of comparison; of cause; of concession; direct,\n\nindirect.\n\nFor use in advanced teaching add: Of advisability, necessity, and the\nlike; softened statement; generalizing, particular.\n\nTHE GERMAN AUXILIARIES\n\nThe German modal auxiliaries correspond largely to the English:\nwerde to \"shall\" or 'Vill\" (according to person), kann to \"can,\" mag\nto \"may,\" soil to \"shall,\" etc.\n\nTERMS FOR CERTAIN ADDITIONAL MOOD-IDEAS IN THE OTHER LANGUAGES\nFor Germany Romance, Latin, and Greek: Attraction.\nFor German, Romance, and Latin: Fact as consecutive (of limited\nrange in German and Romance).\nFor Romance: Feeling.\n\nFor Greek: Past point of reference.\n\nTERMS FOR THE MORE IMPORTANT ADDITIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS INVOLVING\nMOOD IN THE OTHER LANGUAGES, WHERE CURRENT\nNOMENCLATURE VARIES\nFor German, Romance, and Latin: Of rejected reason; proviso; concession of fact, concession of indifference.\n\nFor German, Latin, and Greek: Of imaginative comparison.\nFor Romance and Latin: Limiting.\nFor Romance: Of anteriority; of mental reservation.\nFor French:\n\nQue-c\\aMse of added condition; introductory g«e-clause.\nFor Latin and Greek: Question of deliberation or perplexity; question\n\nfor instruction;\n\nquestion or exclamation of surprise or indignation.\n\nFor Latin: Adversative;\n\ntacit or explicit;\n\nparallel;\n\nrestrictive;\n\nof\n\nsituation; of repeated action.\n\nADJECTIVE TERMINOLOGY FOR CERTAIN MOOD-IDEAS AND CONSTRUCTIONS\nAdjective terminology may be used, if desired, in place of some of the\nnames given on pages 327 and 328: Anticipatory, volitive, optative (meaning *of wish*), potential (meaning 'of possibility or capability'), consecutive,\n\ncomparative, causal, concessive.\n\"volitive clause,\" etc.\n\nThus one may say \"anticipatory clause,\"\n\n"} {"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n329\n\nTERMS FOR THE MORE IMPORTANT TENSE-USES*\nAbsolute\nRelative\n\nPoint of reference\nStage of action\nDescriptive (or of situation)\n\nHarmony of tenses\nAttraction\nHistorical (present)\n\nHabitual action\n\nFor Latin and Greek add: Attempted action\nUSES OF THE INFINITIVE IN ENGLISH\nSubstantive\n\nIn many of the case-relations indicated on p. 325\nAdjectival\n\nAdverbial, expressing various ideas, especially:\n\nApplication\n\nRespect\n\nPurpose\nResult\n\nCause or Reason\nCondition\nPredicative\n\nADDITIONAL USES OF THE INFINITIVE IN OTHER LANGUAGES\nHistorical (Romance, Latin)\n\nOf command (German, Romance, Greek)\nOf wish (Greek)\nOf proviso (Greek)\nFor Romance, infinitives with d or de, a or Ji, d or de are to be classed,\nin certain uses, as simple infinitives.\n\n*\n\nMany of the distinctions indicated upon this page are not important in the teaching of elementary\n\nEnglish.\n\n"} {"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n330\n\n[Salt Lake City\n\nPART n. DISCUSSION AND ILLUSTRATION\nA.\n\nFOR ENGLISH\n\nFor many of the terms recommended in the foregoing tables discussion\nand illustration are unnecessary. There remains a considerable body of\nterms for which they seem desirable.\n\nTHE PARTS OF SPEECH\n[Page 31S]\n\nThe list of the parts of speech is put at the head of the treatment of the\ngrammatical material as a matter of practical convenience only.\nIt is recommended that words be never dealt with as isolated units,\n\nbut always in sentences. Many are, in fact, indeterminate when standing\nalone. Thus the word \"enough,\" so standing, does not show whether it is\nadjective, or adverb, or substantive. It cannot be said that \"enough,\"\nas a word, is any of these things; but a given \"enough\" in a sentence quite\nclearly shows its character.\nIn accordance with sound modem tendencies in teaching, the first\nprocess in grammatical analysis shotdd be to deal with sentences as a whole,\ndistinguishing subject and predicate, principal and subordinate clauses, etc.,\nas indicated on page 323.\n\nNOUN\nCommon, proper. —\n\n^It is recommended that the distinction between\ncommon and proper be not asked for in the ordinary work of sentenceanalysis, except where something in the thought of the sentence demands a\nrecognition of the difference. The practice of requiring the one or the other\nterm for every noun dealt with distracts attention from more important\nthings, makes grammar work mechanical, and wearies the pupil.\nSimilarly, it is recommended that the term collective\nAbstract, collective.\n\n—\n\nbe not used except where needed in explaining the occasional use of a\nplural verb with a singular noun, and that the term abstract be not used\nexcept where needed in explaining the significance of certain endings, or\nin the statement of other grammatical facts in certain languages. The\ndistinction between abstract and non-abstract nouns is in many cases very\ndifficult for even the specialist to make.\nMasculine, feminine, neuter.\n\n—It\n\nis recommended\n\nthat the distinction\n\nof gender be not dwelt upon in dealing with English nouns.\n\nCas&-forms.\n\n—The reasons for the choice of the terms common form and\n\ngenitive for the cast-forms will best appear after a discussion of the terms\n\nnominative, accusative, dative, genitive chosen for the C2^t-uses (see p. 325).\n\nThey are\ncommonly called \"nominative,\" \"objective,\" \"indirect object,\" and \"possessive.\"\nThis nomenclature is not consistent. One should either have\nFour types of case-uses are generally and rightly recognized.\n\n"} {"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n331\n\nterms of the same sort as \"nominative\" for the other three case-uses, or\n\nhave the term \"subjective\" for the first case-use. But the terms\nand \"possessive\" are each\ntoo narrow. The term \"subjective\" applies properly to a noun used as\nsubject, but not to a noun used as predicate after \"is,\" or in direct address,\nor in exclamation, or in an absolute construction, as in \"The president\nelse\n\n\"subjective,\" \"objective,\" \"indirect object,\"\n\nThe name \"objective\"\nnot properly applicable to a noun used as subject or predicate of an\n\nbeing absent, the vice-president took the chair.\"\nis\n\ninfinitive,\n\nnor to a noim used adverbially, as in \"He works many hours\n\nThe term \"indirect object\"\n\"Spare youi father such a grief.\" The\nterm \"possessive\" is clearly wrong for the italicized nouns in \"the war^s\ndelays \" and \" a stone's throw.\" The Committee recommends for these four\ntypes of case-uses the terms nominative, accusative, dative, genitive. Each\nof these terms is sufficiently colorless to cover all the varieties of case-use\nin question. The term nominative of address (see p. 325), proper for a name\ndaily,\" nor to a noun used with a preposition.\n\nwill hardly serve for \"father\" in\n\nused in direct address, renders unnecessary the addition of the term \"voca-\n\nThe four terms recommended are\nThe\ntreatment of English, considered quite by itself, will accordingly be helped\nby the use of the names proposed; while the pupil who passes to the study\ntive\" to the list of terms for case-uses.\n\nidentical with those in universal use for German, Latin, and Greek.\n\nof a foreign language will be spared the necessity of taking up a discordant\n\nnomenclature.\n\nThese four types of case-uses, however, are not reflected, in the English\nnoim, by corresponding varieties of case-form.\n\nThe English noun has\nbut two case-forms, one used when the function is nominative, accusative,\nor dative, the other used when the function is genitive.\n\nIt seems clear\n\nthat genitive is the proper name for the second case-form.\n\nA logical name\n\nfor the first form would be \"nominative-accusative-dative,\" but that name\nis obviously too long and complicated.\n\nIn recognition of the fact that the\nform in question serves for three types of case-uses, the Committee recommends that it be called the common form.\nThe Committee recommends further that attention be directed, in the\nordinary classroom work of analysis, to ^q function of a given noim in the\nsentence (see p. 325) rather than to its case-classification. For instance,\nin the analysis of the sentence \"My father taught me French,^' it is more\nimportant that attention be directed to the fact that \"French\" is the\nsecondary object than that it be directed to the fact that \"French*' is\naccusative.\n\nThe reason for the presentation of the case-uses in the order nominaUve,\naccusative, dative, genitive rather\n\nthan in the order nominative, accusative,\n\ngenitive, dative is that the dative relation is expressed in the same case-form\n\nas the nominative and accusative relations, whereas the genitive relation\n\nhas a special case-form of its own.\n\n"} {"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n332\n\n[Salt Lake City\n\nPRONOUN\n[Page 3ip]\n\nExamples:\nPersonal: /, you, etc.\nPossessive:\n\nmine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, whose.\n\nDemonstrative:\nInterrogative:\n,,\n\n,,\n\n•,;*VT\n\nRelative:\n\nthis, that.\n\nwho, what, etc.\n\nwho, that, etc.\n\nIndefinite: one, someone, any, anyone, no one, none, every one, each,\n\nanother, the other, neither, both, etc.\nReflexive: myself, yourself, etc. (identical in form with the intensive).\n\nReciprocal: each other, one another.\nIntensive:\n\nmyself, yourself, etc.\n\nIdentifying: the same (as in ^^The same holds in other cases.\"\n\nThe\nsame is the only English identifying pronoun).\nSubstantive and adjective use of pronominal words. ^A large number\nof pronominal words, under the classes possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, and indefinite, are pronouns or pronominal adjectives according\nto the use made of them in a given instance. Thus, \" This is a comfortable\nhat\" (pronoun); \" T/rw hat is comfortable \" (pronominal adjective) ^^His\nis good\" (possessive pronoun); ^^His book is good\" (possessive adjective).\nCase-forms. Whereas nouns have but one case-form for the nominative,\naccusative, and dative relations, most personal pronouns, together with\n\"who\" and its compounds, have two case-forms, one for the nominative\nrelation, the other for the accusative and dative relations.\nThese two\ncase-forms (as \"he,\" \"him\") are therefore named, respectively, the nominative and the accuscUive-dative.\nEnglish words like \"my,\"\nPossessive pronouns and possessive adjectives.\n\"your,\" present a peculiar difficulty. About half of them (\"my,\" \"thy,\"\n\"our,\" \"your\") are historically adjectives, like the corresponding German\nwords, which are declined and agree with their substantives, like any other\nOf the remainder, \"his,\" \"her,\" \"its,\" \"their,\" \"whose\" are\nadjectives.\ngenitives or were made upon the analogy of genitives. To try to distinguish\nthe two classes by different names would be confusing, and could not succeed.\nThese words must all be called adjectives, or ail be called genitives of\npronouns. Only three out of the nine in any way suggest case by\ntheir form (\"my\" looks no more genitive than \"shy\" and \"cry\" do, or\n\"our\" than \"sour\" and \"flour\" do); and even for these three the correspondence with the genitive is not complete in a single one. The name\nThis is\npossessive adjectives would therefore seem the more appropriate.\nthe one used in the more recent advanced books on English grammar,\nand is recommended in the Report of the English Committee. To adopt it\nis thus to fall in with the modern tendency, and at the same time to make\nthe way easier for students of other languages, in which the corresponding\nwords are for the most part immistakable adjectives. When the EngUsh\n\n—\n\n;\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n333\n\nwords enumerated are called possessive adjectives, the mistake of writing\n\"his\" or \"its\" with an apostrophe will be less likely to be made, and the\nquestion why \"whose\" has a final e and no apostrophe will not be asked.\nADJECTIVE\n[Page 320]\n\n—\n\nThe exact subdivision of adjectives\nThe scheme given is offered as practically right,\n\nGeneral division of adjectives.\npresents grave diflSculties.\n\nand easily teachable.\nAdjectives fall into two great divisions.\n\nOne of these expresses the\n\nkind or condition of a person or thing spoken of, as in ^^ good boy,\" ^^sick\n\nboy.\"\n\nThe other, without expressing any idea of kind or condition, limits\n\nthe idea conveyed by the noun, as in \"this boy,\" \"what boy ? \" or intimates the\n\nabsence of limitation, as in \"any boy.\"\n\nTo state the difference briefly and approximately, the first division\nanswers the question \"of what kind, or in what condition?\" while the\nsecond answers the question \"who, what, which?\"\n\nThe second class is\n\nthus made up of words of exactness or the opposite.\n\nFor the first division, the commonly used name descriptive is the best.\nThe name \"qualitative,\" which is sometimes employed, is not only in itself\n\nan unfamiliar word, but is too narrow to include adjectives of condition.\nFor the second, the name limiting seems to be the best that can be found,\nit\n\nbeing understood that a very considerable variation may exist in the\n\ndegree of limitation expressed.\n\n—\n\nCommon, proper. These divisions correspond to the divisions similarly\nnamed for nouns. Thus \"winter\" and \"wintry,\" common noun and\n\"Russia\" and \"Russian,\" proper noun and adjective.\nExamples\nPossessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, whose.\n\nadjective;\n\nPronominal.\n\n—\n\nDemonstrative:\nInterrogative:\nRelative:\n\nthis, that.\n\nwhat, which, etc.\n\nwhich, whose.\n\nIndefinite:\n\nsome, any, no, every, each, other, neither, both, etc.\n\nIntensive: very.\n\nIdentifying: same.\n\nWhen the possessive adjective stands in the predicate, the forms are\nmine, thine, etc., hke those of the possessive pronoun.\n\nE.g.,\n\n\"This pen is\n\nof\n\nthe adjective\n\nwme.\"\nSuperlative, relative\n\nand\n\nabsolute.\n\n—The superlative\n\nmeans that the quality denoted exists in the highest degree in the person\nor thing described. When this means \"in the highest degree out of all the\npersons or things concerned,\" as in \"John is the most considerate of all my\nfriends,\" the superlative is to be called relative.\nWhen it means \"in a\nvery high degree,\" as in \"John is most considerate,\" the superlative is to be\ncalled absolute.\n\n"} {"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "^^ TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n334\n\n[Salt Lake City\n\nVERB\n[Page 321]\nTransitive^ complete^ linking.\n\n—\n\n^In\n\nrecommending these terms the com-\n\nmittee has been governed by the belief that it is practically better to classify\nverbs according to the actual use made of them in given sentences than to\nclassify them according to the possible uses that might be made of them.\n\nThus, it is better to say of \"writes\" in \"He writes for a living\" that\nit is \"an intransitive verb\" than to say that it is \"a transitive verb used\nintransitively\" or \"a transitive verb used absolutely.\"\nIn practice, after the distinction between transitive and intransitive\nverbs has been completely grasped, the natural form of question in dealing\n\nwith a given verb would be, \"Is this transitive, complete, or linking?\"\nrather than, \"Is this transitive or intransitive, and, in the latter case, is it\n\ncomplete or linking ?\"\n\nExamples:\nTransitive:\n\n\"He observes everything.\"\n\"He writes stories.\"\n\nIntransitive:\n\nComplete:\n\nLinking:\n\n\"He observes carefully.\"\n\"He writes for a living.\"\n\"He grows fast.\"\n\"He is observant.\"\n\" He appears observant.\"\n\" He becomes observant.\"\n\"He grows observant.\"\n\nMany verbs are capable of being used with either transitive or complete\nforce, as \"teach,\" \"write.\"\n\n\"vanish.\"\n\" appear.\"\n\nOthers are capable only of complete force, as\n\nOthers are capable of either complete or linking force, as\nOthers are capable only of linking force, as \" seem.\"\n\nSome are\n\ncapable of all three forces, as \"grow.\"\n\n—\n\nRegtUar and irregular conjugation. English verbs might be classified,\non an historical basis, as \" weak,\" \" strong,\" and \" irregular.\" But inasmuch\nas the strong verbs form so small a class, it seems best to adopt the simpler\nclassification regular ^ irregular.\n\nProgressive conjugation:\n\n\"John is writing, was writing, will he writing, has been writing,** etc.\nThere is a progressive form for each tense.\nSpecial interrogative, negative, and emphatic forms of present and past\n(with the auxiliary '^do'*):\nInterrogative:\n\nNegative:\n\nEmphatic:\n\n\"Do you speak Chinese?\"\n\n\"I do not speak Chinese.\"\n\n\"You say that I don't\n\nbelieve it.\"\n\nImpersonal verbs: \"It is raining.*'\n\nbelieve that story:\n\nI\n\ndo\n\n"} {"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintcndencel\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n335\n\nModal forms (always predicative) and non-modal forms (non-predicative).\nj\n\n—Every definition of a sentence or a clause assigns to each, as a necessity,\na subject and a predicate. From this definition, upon which all workers in\ngrammar are agreed, a number of important consequences in nomenclature\nfollow, two of which belong under the present head.\n\nIt is recognized that, in English, only an indicative, imperative, or sub-\n\njunctive can constitute, or help to constitute, the predicate essential to a\n\nBut these are the moods, or modal forms.\n\nsentence or clause.\n\nThe moods\n\nor modal forms, accordingly, are the predicative forms.\n\nThe other forms in general, as the gerund or the participle, do not\npredicate, though they often imply predication.\n\ncannot be made with them.\n\nA sentence or clause\n\nThey are accordingly,\n\nin general,\n\nnon-\n\npredicative.\n\nOne of the non-predicative forms, however, does gain predicative power\nin certain constructions, as in\n\n\"I believe him to be honesty\" which is an\n\nindirect way of saying, \"He is, in\n\nmy opinion, honest.\"\n\nIn such a sentence,\n\naccordingly, a group of words like \"him to be honest\" may properly be\ncalled an infinitive clause.\n\nOther consequences following from the accepted designations subject and\npredicate appear below in the discussion of page 323.\n\nGerund.\n\n—^The form\n\noffice is quite different,\n\nis identical with that of the participle, but its\nand a distinct name is therefore necessary. The\n\nform is sometimes interchangeable with the infinitive (thus \"seeing\n\nis\n\nbelieving\" = \" to see is to believe\"), but in the main the two are used quite\ndifferently, and it is better, therefore, not to name the form in question as\n\na variety of the infinitive. The common name gerund seems satisfactory.\nExample: \"By persevering we shall succeed.\"\nWords which originated as gerunds or participles are to be classed as nouns\nor adjectives when the verbal force no longer predominates.\nNoun: \"Reading, writing, and arithmetic are coming into respect\nagain.\"\nAdjective:\n\n\"Your sister is a charming girl.\"\n[Page 322]\n\nTense. —^The principles which have guided the Committee in\n\nits recom-\n\nmendation of tense-names are as follows:\n1.\n\nWhatever principle\n\nof\n\nnaming is adopted should be consistently\n\nmaintained.\n2.\n\nThe name of each tense should, if possible, carry a natural and prac-\n\ntically sufficient meaning, appropriate to that tense and to no other.\n3.\n\nSuch tenses as possess a common element and elements of difference\n\nshould have names that will indicate both these facts.\n4. Where a given form does not distinguish between two or more tensemeanings of which it is capable, that form, as such, should bear but a\nsingle name.\n\n"} {"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n336\n\n[Salt Lake City\n\nThe following-out of these principles leads, for the English indicative,\nrecommended by the\nCommittee. Thus, since we say \"present\" and \"future,\" we should say\npast, not \"imperfect,\" and since we say \"present perfect\" and \"future\nperfect,\" we should say past perfect, not \"pluperfect.\"\nThe names past future and past future perfect are formed on the same\nmodel as \"present perfect,\" \"past perfect,\" and \"future perfect.\" As\nimperative, and subjunctive, to the tense-names\n\n\"past perfect\" means \"perfect in the past,\" so past future means \"future\n\nThe same reasonThese two tenses are in extremely\n\nin the past,\" that is, \"future from a past standpoint.\"\n\ning holds for the past future perfect.\n\ncommon use, but there have been no established names for them in our\nschool grammars.\n\nExamples are: \"I felt sure that it would rain^'; \"I\n\nfelt sure that he would not have arrived when\n\nwe got here.\"\n\nFor the infinitive and participle, the same principles are to be maintained as are laid down for the indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.\nThe infinitive and participle express time only relatively. If, then, we\nretain for the English infinitives and participles the name present, meaning\nrelatively present, it will follow that the other tense, which means relatively\npast, should be called the past, not the \"perfect.\" The use of these terms,\npresent and past, will at once simplify the teaching of the forces of the\ntenses.\nThus we shall say that, in \"He was understood /o be sick,\" the\npresent infinitive \"to be\" expresses time relatively present to that of the\nprincipal verb \"was understood,\" while in \"He was understood to have been\nsick,\" the past infinitive \"to have been\" expresses time relatively past to\nthat of \"was understood.\"\n\nThis consistent principle of naming being accepted, it is necessary to\nprovide distinctive names for the two forms of the English past participle,\nas seen for example in \"written\" and \"having been written.\"\n\nThe Com-\n\nmittee recommends that a form like \"written\" be called the past participle\n\nand that a form like \"having been written\" be called the phrasal past\nparticiple.\nThese names will be seen to have the advantage of implying\nthat the difference between the two forms is not one of essential meaning,\nbut only one of greater brevity or greater fullness of expression.\n\nADVERB\nAdverbs used to introduce questions and adverbs used to introduce\nsubordinate clauses are to be called respectively interrogative and relative\nadverbs, in accordance with the nomenclature employed for the corresponding classes of pronouns.\n\nCOMMON TERM\n\n—\n\nand words used substantively {See page 324). The eight\nfamiliar names employed above {noun, pronoun, adjective, etc.) give us a\nsufl&cient means of distinguishing among the individual classes of words,\naccording to their distinctive nature. But the names fall short in failing\nSubstantives\n\n"} {"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n337\n\nto note a common nature possessed constantly by the noun, the pronoun,\n\nand the gerund, and usually by the infinitive, and occasionally taken on\nby other parts of speech (for instance adjective and adverb). This common\nnature consists in the power of expressing something (person, thing, etc.)\nabout which the speaker is thinking, and about which a predication may,\nIt is best designated by the well-established and\nif desired, be made.\nThus we may speak of all nouns and pronouns as\nsubstantive.\nfamiliar word\nsubstantives, and we may speak of an adjective, an infinitive, or an\nadverb, when so used as to share the substantive nature, as an adjective,\nSubstantives of any kind are\ninfinitive, or adverb, used substantively.\nnecessarily in some case-relation in the sentence, as in the following:\n\nNoun: Rest is sweet.\nPronoun:\n\nHe is weary.\n\nGerund:\n\nResting is gaining strength for the future.\n\nInfinitive:\n\nTo rest is sweet.\n\nAdjective:\n\n\"The good die young.\"\n\nAdverb:\n\n\"An eternal now.'*\n\nIt is obvious, too, that every subject must be substantive in character.\n\nIn condensed form we may accordingly say Sentence or clause = substantive-\\:\n\npredicate.\n\nThe Committee prefers the term substantive to the term \"noun,\" in\nTo say that \"weary\" in the\n\ndescribing uses like those discussed above.\n\nthird sentence is a noun, or that \"to rest\" in the fourth is a noun, or that\n\n\"now\" in the last is a noun is to ignore the clear adjectival feeling which\npersists in\n\n\"the weary,\" the clear infinitive feeling which persists in \"to\n\nrest,\" and the clear adverbial feeling which persists in \"now.\"\n\nTHE SENTENCE\n[Page 323]\nDeclarative, interrogative; exclamatory, non-exclamatory.\n\n—^These terms\n\nhave to do with the classification of sentences, and the divisions differ\nfrom those now current, namely \"declarative,\" \"interrogative,\" \"imperative,\" \"exclamatory.\"\n\nIn the current system, the examples of the exclamatory sentence are\nof the type seen in \"How cold it is!\"\n\nreckoned under the \"imperative.\"\n\nWishes, requests, and the like are\n\nThe term \" declarative,\" as explained in\n\nthe manuals and illustrated by examples, means \"declaring that something\nis\n\na fact.\"\n\nIt thus stands for \"declarative indicative.\"\n\ndivision is accordingly into:\n\nA. Declarative indicative\nB. Interrogative\nC. Imperative (including wishes, etc.)\n\nD. Exclamatory\n\nThe\n\nactual\n\n"} {"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n'33S\n\n[Sah Lake City\n\nThe scheme is defective in many ways.\n1.\n\nIt fails to explain a good deal of the actual punctuation found in the\n\ntexts read in the schools, as in \"Beware!\"\n\nand \"I*m killed, Sire!\"\n\nThe\n\nfirst sentence is imperative, the second declarative indicative, and yet both\n\nhave exclamation points.\nThus \"Has he come ?\" and \" Shall\n2. The scheme is not symmetrical.\n?\"\nfall\nbecause they both ask a question,\nboth\nunder\n\"interrogative,\"\ngo\nhe\nand for no other reason. But the corresponding non-interrogative sentences, \"He has come\" and \"Let him go,\" do not similarly fall together,\nbut pass, the one under \"declarative,\" the other imder \"imperative.\"\nIt follows that some other consideration than that of the non-interrogative\ncharacter of the sentences has played a part here, and the scheme is accordingly not harmonious with itself.\nIt embraces three mood-ideas,\n3. It does not cover all sentences.\nThus such sentences\nfact, command, and wish, but omits many others.\nas \"It might have been,\" \"This would be folly,\" find no place in it. It\naccordingly fails of its express purpose, to cover all sentences.\n4.\n\nThe classes are not mutually exclusive.\n\nis clearly imperative, and finds its proper place.\n\nThus \"Let him write\"\n\" Shall he write ?\" on the\n\nother hand, while clearly interrogative, is also clearly imperative.\nquestion as to what is to be commanded.\n\nIt is a\n\nIt will accordingly go under two\n\nheads, and is not completely covered by either.\n5.\n\nThe classes are not homogeneous.\n\nclass, but\n\nThus \"imperative\" is a mood-\n\n\"interrogative\" and \"exclamatory\" are not.\n\nNo one has ever\n\nput them among the moods in writing a grammar, or could think of doing\nThe scheme is drawn up on the basis of distinctions of two kinds of\nso.\nideas, having absolutely no relation to each other as imlike each other, to\nmake a comparison, as sex and stature are. And neither idea is carried out.\nIt is as if all mankind were to be divided, not into male and female, nor into\ntall people and short, but into males and tall people.\nAnd the case is even worse than this, since the first category, which\nreally is declarative indicative^ puts together parts from two different orders,\none of the mood-kind, one of the other kind. It is as if, then, we divided\nall himian beings into: (i) tall males (sex and stature), (2) mxiles (sex),\n\n—\n\n(3) tall people (stature).\n\nThe fact that the distinctions are of entirely unrelated kinds is the\n\nWe have accordingly to\nadopt the one kind or the other, and carry it out. But we already have in\nour grammars a treatment of the moods. What is wanted here, accordcause of the defective working of the scheme.\n\ningly, is to carry out the ideas seen in \"interrogative\" and \"declarative.\"\n\nThe opposite of\nThe speaker, in uttering any sentence, necessarily brings\n\n\"Interrogative\" means, in simple language, asking.\nasking is telling.\n\nfor there can be no sentence without a predicative verb,\nand every predicative verb is in some mood, and carries soms mood-idea.\n\nin a mood-idea;\n\n"} {"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendencel\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n339\n\nThe speaker either tells his own mood-idea, or asks whether the moodBut this is\n\nidea which he puts in his question is that of his interlocutor.\nall,\n\nso far as the class to which ** declarative\" and \"interrogative\" belong\n\nis concerned.\n\nThe two divisions are exactly opposed, and there is nothing\nWe have only, then, to empty the word\n\nthat stands between them.\n\n\"declarative\" of the association which it has had with the idea of fact\ncUonCy\n\nand apply it to all uses in which the speaker expresses his mood-\n\nidea.\n\nIt is as legitimate to speak of a declaration of the speaker's will or\n\nTvish, as to speak of a declaration of the speaker's perception of fact.\n\nSome grammars have recognized that the class \"exclamatory\" is not\nBut it has not been recognized that it is in no sense opposed to them. The idea of exclamation or\nof the same rank with the other three classes.\n\nthe opposite (non-exclamation) turns on the degree of excitation of the\n\nhe is indifferent, or self-controlled, the sentence is\n\nspeaker's feeling.\n\nIf\n\nnot exclamatory.\n\nIf his feeling rises above the degree naturally belonging\n\nto the contents of his sentence, then the sentence is exclamatory.\nis\n\nThis\n\nwhy declarative and imperative sentences are often punctuated with\n\nexclamation points, and questions (rhetorical) occasionally, as in \"Why in\nthe world did you do that!\"\n\nEmotion may even be centered upon a clause,\n\nor a phrase, or a single word, and the exclamation point will then follow.\n\nThe common conception has been that every sentence fell into one\nor another of the four categories declarative, interrogative, imperative,\n\nexclamatory.\n\nThe sound conception is that every sentence carries three\n\nit, as size, weight, and color coexist in every material\nEvery sentence (i) tells or asks (2) one or another mood-idea\n\nideas, coexisting in\n\nobject.\n(3)\n\nwith non-exclamatory or exclamatory feeling.\n\nOne type of sentence\n\nonly shows exclamatory feeling by the form, namely, the one seen in \"How\ncold it is 1\"\n\nWhen nouns are wanted in place of the adjectives above, declaration\nshould be used to correspond to declarative, question to correspond to interrogative, and exclamation to correspond to exclamatory.\n\nQuestions are of two kinds, yes- or no-questions, as in \" Shall we send\nsomeone?\" and questions of detail, as in \"Whom shall we send ?\"\nInstead of speaking to another person, one may frame sentences of any\nkind for oneself alone. But such a use requires no special nomenclature.\nFor the occasional use of an independent sentence to express an assumption, see below under declarative, interrogative, and assumptive clauses.\nSimple, compound, and complex sentences:\n\nSimple: John was made president of the class.\n\nCompound: John was made president of the class, and his friends\nwere much pleased.\nComplex: John was made president of the class, because he was clearly\nthe most competent person.\n\n"} {"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "N^ TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n34»\n\n(Salt Lake City\n\nSimple subject, compound subject; simple predicate, compound predicate:\nSimple subject: \"John was elected.\"\n\nCompound subject: \"John and George were elected.\"\nSimple predicate: \"John rows well.\"\nCompound predicate: \"John rows and sails well.\"\nComplete subject, subject substantive; complete predicate, predicate verb.\n\n—\n\nHowever long the complete subject may be, it must contain a substantive\npart, which stands in immediate connection in thought with that which is\n\npredicated.\n\nThis part should therefore be called the subject substantive.\n\nSimilarly, however long the complete predicate may be, it must contain a\n\nverb.\n\nThis part should therefore be called the predicate verb.\n\nIllustrations:\n\nComplete subject: \" The stately ship dropped her anchor.\"\n\n\"The stately ship dropped her anchor.\"\n\"The stately ship dropped her anchor.\"\nPredicate verb: \"The stately ship dropped her anchor.\"\n\nSubject substantive:\n\nComplete predicate:\n\nand assumptive clauses.\n\n—As a sentence may\n\ndeclare or inquire, so a clause may declare or inquire.\n\nThus in \"I love him\n\nDeclarative, interrogative,\n\nbecause I trust him\" the subordinate clause is declarative, and in \"You ask\n\nme whether I trust him\" the subordinate clause is interrogative (indirect\nquestion).\n\nBut there is a third possibility, in which the subordinate clause neither\n(supposes). Thus the introductory\nclause in \"If I killed him, I killed him justly; but I did not kill him,\"\ndeclares nor inquires, but assumes\n\nneither declares that I killed him, nor asks whether I killed him, but for\n\nthe moment assumes that I killed him, in order that something else may be\n\npredicated as holding good if the assumption holds good.\n\nThe third pos-\n\nsible office of the subordinate clause is accordingly an assumptive one.\n\nWhat are technically called conditions (clauses with \"if,\" \"if not,\" or\n\"unless\") constitute one form of assumption.\n\nBut there is also another\n\nform, in which the subordinate clause is introduced by a relative of some\nkind, as in the coward's motto, \"He who fights and runs away may live to\nThe effect is the same as if we said, \" Supposing a man\n\nfight another day.\"\n\nto fight and run away, he may live to fight another day.\"\n\nThe presence of\n\nan antecedent is not necessary. Thus \"Who steals my purse steals trash.\"\nIndependent sentences may also, though declarative or interrogative\nThus in \"somebody says 'no,' so do I;\nin form, be assumptive in effect.\nsomebody says 'yes,' so do I,\" the sentence \"somebody says\" = \"supposing\n.\"\nsomebody to say\n.\n\n.\n\n"} {"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n341\n\nPrincipal and subordinate clauses:\n\n\"Mary^ who studies music with Miss Brown, plays welW^\n^^Mary plays weW is the principal clause; *'who studies music\nwith Miss Brown'' is the subordinate clause.\nCo-ordinate principal clauses:\n\n\"Mary, who studies music with Miss Brown, will play your accompaniment, and she will be glad of the opportunity.\"\nCo-ordinate subordinate clauses:\n\n\"Mary, who studies music with Miss Brown, and who has practiced\nfaithfully for many years, plays well.\n\nSubstantive clauses:\nSubject:\n\n\" That he should do this surpuses me.''\n\nPredicate nominative:\n\n\"The truth is that he is careless.\"\n\nPredicate accusative:\n\n\"I found it to be what I wanted.\"\n\nObject:\n\n\"I heard that he was ill.\"\n\"There is one good reason for excusing him: namely,\n\nAppositive:\n\nthat he didn't foresee the consequences of his act.\"\n\nWith a preposition: \"I spoke of what he had done.\"\n\n—\n\n^Just as adjectives are of two strongly differentiated\nand the limiting, so are adjectival clauses. It is\ntherefore no more a sufficient disposition of an adjectival clause merely\nto call it such without discrimination, than it would be to throw together\nwords like \"good,\" \"this,\" \"that,\" \"a,\" \"the,\" \"any,\" calling them\n\nAdjectival clauses.\n\nkinds, the descriptive\n\nsimply \"adjectives.\"\n\nAmong the limiting clauses, the one in most frequent use is the determinative clause, that is, the one which makes exactly known.\n\nThis is the\n\nclause which tells who, what, or which is meant by the antecedent to which\n\nthe relative clause\n\nis\n\nattached.\n\nIt\n\ndemonstrative pronoun in its effect.\n\nis\n\nlike the definite article\n\nand the\n\nIf there were as many demonstrative\n\npronouns as there are or ever have been objects in the world, there need\nnever have been any determinative clauses. But as things are, any object\nof which the speaker is thinking can be designated by the help of a determinative clause. Examples may be seen in: \"Let me see the book which\n\nyou have just bought,\" \"I want the variety of peas which you sold to John\nSmith last year.\"\nIt often happens that the same facts may be used in an adjectival clause,\neither to describe or to determine.\nThus:\nDescriptive clause: \"There are students in this school who do their work\nwell day by day\"\n\n(= steadily industrious students).\n\nDeterminative clause:\n\n\"Those students in this school who do their work\n\nwell day by day are excused from examination\"\n\nstudents).\n\n{=the steadily industrious\n\n"} {"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n342\n\n[Salt Lake City\n\nThe descriptive clause is in effect a big descriptive adjective, the determinative clause a big demonstrative adjective.\n\nThe descriptive clause is often foretold by \"a,\" as in \"There is a boy\nwho ...\" For the corresponding plural form, as in \"There are boys\n,\" there is no foretelling word.\nwho\nThe determinative clause is foretold by \"the,\" \"this,\" \"that,\" or stands\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nwithout special introductory word.\n\nThe determinative clause, though extremely common, and corresponding to a type of pronouns everywhere named and explained, has in general\n\nnot been noted in grammars.\n\nname \"restrictive clause.\"\ndeterminative.\n\nA few, however, have noted it, under the\n\nBut this name is less exact than the name\n\nIt implies that the clause restricts the application of the\n\nantecedent; that is, that it refers to a part of the antecedent, not the whole.\nIt does not do so.\n\nThe clause is identical in application with the antecedent,\nIt would be a just name only if we called the\n\nand merely explicates it.\n\ndemonstrative pronouns \"restrictive pronouns.\"\nIt is clear that the ordinary office of the definite article, the demonstra-\n\n—to designate what\n\ntive pronoun, and the determinative clause is the same\n\nThe same name might be applied to all. But it would not be\nwell to use the name \"demonstrative clause\" in place of determinative\n\nis\n\nmeant.\n\nclause^ since the very reason why the clause is used is generally because the\n\nThe same objection holds\nThe name determinative on the\nother hand, could be applied equally well to the article now called definite^\nthe pronouns now called demonstrative and the clause under discussion.\nBut the Committee felt that the first two terms would continue to serve,\n\nobject designated is too remote to be pointed at.\noften to the name demonstrative pronoun.\n\ny\n\n^\n\nand were perhaps too firmly established to be changed at present. In this\nplace the Committee has not put into operation its guiding principle of\napplying the same name to all mechanisms of expression that have the same\nfunction.\n\nAdverbial clauses:\n\n*^When he had finished his work, he went home.\"\n\"Since we cannot agree, let us agree to differ.\"\nEssential\n\nand nonessential\n\n—\n\nclauses.^\n\n^A\n\nsubordinate clause\n\nmay be\n\nessential to the expression of the thought of the clause on which it depends.\n\nSuch a clause properly has no comma before it. On the other hand, a\nsubordinate clause may be nonessential to the expression of the thought\nof the clause on which it depends.\nSuch a clause is usually set off by punctuation from the principal clause. According to the nature of the relation\nof a nonessential clause to its principal clause it may be called /ree, loosely\nattached, forward-moving, or parenthetical.\n*\n\nNot importaot in the teaching of elementary English.\n\n"} {"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n343\n\nExamples:\nEssential:\n\n\"There are boys\nrelative clause\n\nthat\n\nwork without being\n\ndriven.**\n\nThe\n\n\"that work without being driven\" could\n\nnot be omitted without leaving the thought in the clause\n\"there are boys\" incomplete.\n\" What is the name of the architect who designed your house? \"\n\n\"It is probable that there will be trouble.*'\nFree:\n\n\"Mr. Smith, who was in town last week, is a friend of mine.\"\n\nThe relative clause could be omitted without leaving the thought\nin \"Mr. Smith is a friend of mine\" incomplete.\nLoosely attached:\n\nfind his roll.'*\n\n\"Thus,\n\ntherefore,\n\nhe went back, if haply he might\n\nThe condition is not accompanied by any conclusion,\n\nbut is loosely attached to the principal verb.\n\"We threw the drowning man a rope, which he\n\nForward-moving:\n\nclutched with both hands.**\n\nThe clause carries the story forward,\n\njust as a co-ordinate sentence introduced by a conjunction might do\n\n{which he clutched— and he clutched it).\nParenthetical:\n\nMr. X was elected representative\n\n{this\n\nwas in iSgo)^\n\nand, six years later, governor of the state.\n[Page 324]\n\nConditional complex. —^The terms condition and conclusion, commonly\n\nemployed in grammars of the modem languages, seem to the Committee\nunquestionably better than the terms \"protasis\" and \"apodosis,\" generally\nemployed in Latin and Greek grammars published in this country. The\nwords condition and conclusion have a familiar English sound. The first,\nat any rate, is already within the vocabulary understood by the young\nstudent, and the second will easily follow after. On the other hand, the\nterms \"if-clause\" and \"then-clause,\" which have been proposed, do not\nseem to promise the relief which the substitution of these phrases for really\ndescriptive names was meant to afiford.\nFurther, the term \"then-clause\"\nis not applicable, without an additional effort of mind, when the condition\nbegins with \"unless.\"\nIf the\n\nterms condition and conclusion are adopted, it follows that the\n\nadjective form of the name for the clause expressing the condition should\n\nbe the conditional clause, and that the adjective form for the name of the\nconclusion should be the conclusional clause.\nThe complex sentence made up of a condition and a conclusion differs\nin one fundamental respect from other complex sentences.\nThe principal\nclause is not, as in other combinations, valid by itself alone.\nis\n\nWhat is declared\n\nnot the validity of the conclusion, but the existence of an unbreakable\n\nbond between the condition and the conclusion, so that the second cannot\nbe taken without the taking of the first also. To emphasize the conception\n\n"} {"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n344\n\n(Salt Lake City\n\nthat a complex sentence of this type must be taken as a whole, the\n\nCommittee recommends the name conditional complex.\n\nTwo elements are simultaneously present in the thought in each part\nof the conditional complex, (i) that of reality or non-reality, and (2) that\nof time.\n\nOne or the other must be made the basis of classification.\n\nThe\n\nsecond seems the easier for the student to build upon, since the distinctions\npast, present, future are familiar to him thru constant use elsewhere.\n\nIn the present or past, the condition and conclusion may imply nothing\nwith regard to the truth of either, or may imply that either or both are\nuntrue. For these two ideas respectively, the Committee recommends the\nnames neutral and contrary to fact.\nAll future conditions and conclusions are necessarily neutral, for the\n\nvery reason that they deal with acts or states not yet realized.\n\nIt is there-\n\nfore not the aspect of neutrality that should be denoted in the working\n\nnames, but the differences within the field of a common reference to the\nThese differences do not lie in the ideas of \"probability\" or \"im-\n\nfuture.\n\nprobability,\" which are commonly assigned to them.\n\nWhen one says, \"If\n\nwhen we reach X, we shall put up for the night; if it\nshould not be raining there, we shall keep on,\" one does not picture both the\n\nit should be raining\n\nraining and the not-raining as improbable.\n\nNeither is the difference one of\n\n\"contingency\" and \"non-contingency.\"\n\nAll future conclusions, no matter\n\nwhat the kind may be, are contingent upon their conditions.\n\nThe differ-\n\nence between the types lies simply in the greater or lesser vividness of the\nconception.\n\np\n\n{Neutral:\n\np\n\n[Neutral:\n\n^^If he is doing this, he is in the right\n\nJ^\n\n[Contrary to fact: ^^If he were doing this, he would he in the right J*\n^^If he did this, he was in the right\n\nJ^\n\n[Contrary to fact: ^^Ifhe had done this, he would have been in the right J\n\nMore vivid:\nFuture\n\n^\n\n*^If he shall do this (or If he does this), he will be in the\n\nrights\n\nLess vivid: \"If he should do this, he would be in the right\"\n\nThe condition and conclusion may of course be in different times.\nThus \"if he did this {neutral past condition), he is in the right\" {neutral\npresent conclusion).\nIt will be noticed that the neutral condition in the present or past is\n\nalways an assumption of fact.\nPhrase:\nSubstantive:\n...\n\n^\n\n.\n\n\" From New York to San Francisco is a long way.\"\n{Descriptive:\n\n.\n'\n\nAdverbial:\n\n'^\n\n[Determinative:\n\nA man of high standing.\"\n\"The chair in the corner.\"\n\n\"Of a sudden, a noise arose.\"\n\n"} {"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n345\n\nCHANGE OF FORCE IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH\nWords used with unusual force:\n\"The above statement\" (\"above\" is ordinarily an adverb).\nExpletives:\n\n\"//is easy to talk.\"\nThere were many people in the room.\"\n\"It\" as expletive should be carefully distinguished from the true pronoun \"it\" used as an impersonal subject, as in \"It is cold,\" or as a colorless\n^^\n\nsubstantive, as in these sentences:\n\n\"// is the first of January.\"\n\n(\"It\" is colorless for \"this day. \")\n\n\"// was John that did it.\"\n\n(\"It\" is colorless for \"the man\";\n\nthe\n\npresence of the relative shows that the \"it\" is not expletive.)\n\nRELATION OF ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE TO SUBSTANTIVE\n\n—\n\nMost grammars recognize but two\nword to which it belongs, namely the\n\"attributive\" and \"predicate\" relations. In using the word \"attributive,\"\nthe writers have in mind the relation of close connection of the adjective with\nits noun, as in \"the hungry child.\"\nBut there is still a third relation of the adjective, which is neither that\nof \"attribution\" nor that of predication, as in \"The boy, careless and\nThis relation is precisely the same as\nindifferent, paid no attention.\"\nAdherent\n\nJ\n\nappositive^\n\npredicate.\n\nrelations of the adjective to the\n\nthat of the appositive noun, as in \"The boy, a member of another school,\n\npaid no attention when the bell rang\"; and it should therefore bear the\n\nsame name, appositive.\n\nIt already does so in several English grammars.\n\nThe three relations for the adjective are thus (if we accept for the\nmoment the current names) the \"attributive,\" \"appositive,\" and \"predicate\" relations. The first is a close connection, in direct attachment, to the\nnoun, the second a looser connection, thru a mere adding to the noun, the\nthird a close connection made thru the medium of the verb.\n\nThe second and third terms express the relation satisfactorily; the term\n\"attributive\" does not.\nof attachment.\n\nIt does not in itself suggest any idea of closeness\n\nIts natural meaning is in fact such that it would apply\n\nall three relations.\nIt properly means \"expressing an\nand this it does, no matter what the relation to the noun may\nThus in \"John is diligent,''^ the attribute \"diligence\" is certainly\nbe.\npredicated of John. In other words, the term \"attributive\" expresses the\ninherent nature of the idea conveyed by the word used, and not the way\nin which that idea is framed into the sentence.\n\nequally well to\nattribute\";\n\nIn place, then, of the term \"attributive,\" as at present employed, the\n\nCommittee recommends the word adherent. This conveys the idea of\ncloseness of connection.\nAnd, if the pupil or teacher should also suggest the\nword \"adhesive,\" and the class should think of paste or mucilage, the conception would be helped, not hindered.\n\n"} {"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n346\n\n{Salt Lake City\n\nIn France, the word \"attribut\" (properly meaning the same as our\n\"attributive\") is regularly employed where we use the word ** predicate\"\n(thus in *' John is good'').\n\nThis is as defensible as our use of \" attributive\n\nin the other sense, since all adjectives are attributive;\n\nbut the term,\n\nwherever used for the relation of the adjective to\ndefective, as has already been shown.\n\nsubstantive,\n\nits\n\nis\n\nThe name for the adherent relation in general use in France is\nThe English Committee, in order to obtain harmony with the\n\n\"6pithete.\"\n\nFrench Ministerial Circular, has adopted the term \"epithet\" in place of\n\nBut harmony is still not reached; for the English\nCommittee has adopted the terms \"epithet\" and \"predicate,\" while the\nFrench Circular has adopted the terms \" 6pithete \" and \" attribut.\" Moreover, the term \"epithet\" or \"epithete\" would not appear to be good in\nitself, since the common use of the word in either language is in the sense of\na fixed description occurring even where it has no special bearing, as in\n\"Then the swift-footed Achilles made answer.\" Further, the word is\ndefective in not expressing the thing most desirable to name the nature of\nthe term \"attributive.\"\n\n—\n\nthe connection of the adjective with its noun.\n\nThe relations of the participle to its substantive are like those of the\nadjective.\n\nCASE-USES\n[Page 325]\n\nNominative:\nSubject:\n\n\"/ saw him.\"\n\nPredicate:\n\n\"It is the king\"\n\n\"He seems to be the leader.\n\n''\n\nNominative of address: \"John, come here.\"\n\nNominative of exclamation:\n\n\"O the wretch/\"\n\nNominative absolute: \"This done, he went away,\"\nAccusative:\n\nDirect object:\n\n\"I saw him.\"\n\nSecondary object:\n\n\"My father taught me French.\"\n\n\"I was taught French by my father.\"\nCognate accttsative:^ \"I slept a long and heavy sleep.\"\nAdjunct accusative: \"The class elected John president.\"\nRetained object:\n\n\"We painted the house white.\"\n\"He believes me to be the author.\"\nPredicate of infinitive: \"He believes me to be the author\"\nAccusative of exclamation: \"O unhappy me!\"\nAdverbial accusative: \"He works many hours daily.\"\n\"He plays golf every day.\"\n\nSubject of infinitive:\n\n\"They bound him hand and foot.\"\n\"The man behind the gun.\"\n\nAccusative with a preposition:\n\n'Not.important in tlie teaching of elementary English.\n\n"} {"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "'\n\nSuperintendcncel\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n347\n\nDative:\nIndirect object:\n\n\"My father has given me a boat.\"\n\nDative of reference or concern:^ \"Spare me my child.\"\n\" I'll rhyme you so eight years together.\"\nGenitive:\n\n\"John's bicycle.\n\nGenitive of possession:\n\nGenitive of connection:\n\n\"The war^s delays.\"\nIn Adam^s fall, we sinned all\" (Adam fell).\n\nSubjective genitive:^\nObjective genitive:^\n\n'\n\n\"Lincoln's election\" (the people elected Lincoln).\n\n\"A stone's throw.\"\nNotes on some of the above uses.\n\nNominative and accusative of exclamation.\n\n—Both the nominative and\n\nthe accusative of the pronoun are found in exclamations.\n\nThe same is\n\ntrue of nouns in the languages which distinguish the nominative\n\nand\n\naccusative by difference of form; but, since English does not do this, it\n\nseems best to class the indeterminate noun-form in exclamation as nominative.\n\nGenitive of connection.\n\n—The idea\n\nis\n\nan outgrowth from the possessive\n\nidea, but has come to the point where a special term is necessary.\n\nwar's delays\" means \"The delays connected with the war.\"\n\n\"The\n\nIt could not\n\nreasonably be said to mean \"The delays possessed by the war.\"\n\nLEADING MOOD-IDEAS\n[Page 327]\n\nIn the Anglo-Saxon period of English, the subjunctive had as large a\nrange as is found in any language.\nuse, to differentiate the\n\nBut auxiliaries were already coming into\nThe auxiliaries gained\n\nmood-ideas more finely.\n\nupon the subjunctive, and in the ordinary English of the present day this\nmood is limited to the expression of volition, wish, and condition contrary\nto fact. In these, though often replaced by auxiliaries in the first two\ncases, the mood is still in full life.\nThus:\nVolition: \"I move that John Smith be made president of the class.\"\nWish: \"Heaven /fe/^ him!\"\n\nCondition contrary to fact: \"If he were here, he wouldn't accept.\"\n\nIn the marked literary style, including much that is written in the daily\npapers and the popular magazines, the subjunctive is still in occasional use to\nexpress: volition, in t)^es from which it has dropped out in ordinary speech\n\nor writing;\n\nanticipation;\n\nobligation or propriety, after an introductory\n\nword conveying the idea; ideal certainty (that is, certainty in a purely\nimaginary case) and indirectness. Thus:\n;\n\n'Not important in the teaching of elementary English.\n\n"} {"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n348\nVolition:\n\n[Salt Lake City\n\n\"Let us begin, and carry up this corpse, singing together.\nLeave we the common crofts, the vulgar thorpes \" (Browning).\n\n\"This he the verse they grave for me\" (Stevenson).\n\n\"But to act that each tomorrow Find us further than today\" (Longfellow).\n\"Before this solid flesh decay\" (A. E. Housman).\nObligation or propriety: \" It is proper that this be done.\"\n\nAnticipation:\n\nIdeal certainty:\n\n\"Love were clear gain\" (Browning).\n\nIndirectness: \" When I ask her if she /c?i;e me\n\n.... \"(Tennyson).\n\nIn the times of Shakespeare and the King James translation of the\nBible, the subjunctive was still in large use, alongside of the auxiliaries.\n\n\"Here will I stand till Caesar pass along\" (Shakespeare, Julius\niii,\nii; anticipation).\n\"Sir, come down ere my child die\"\n(John 4:49; anticipation). \" Go bid thy mistress when my drink is ready\nshe strike upon the bell\" (Shakespeare, Macbeth, II, i, 31; volition).\nA number of forces which were once in unrestricted use have still survived, in our daily speech, in fixed expressions, as in \"6g that as it may,\"\nThus:\n\nCctesar, II,\n\n\"suffice it to say, \" \"she will be twenty come Christmas.\"\n\nBut in the main the subjunctive has given way to the auxiliaries.\nIn these, English possesses a fuller inflection for mood-ideas than any other\nlanguage except German, in which the situation is substantially parallel.\n\nFor us, accordingly, the observation of the forces of the English auxiliaries\nforms the best starting-point in the study of mood-ideas.\n\nThe\n\ntable that follows gives illustrations of both kinds of\n\nmood-\n\nexpression, with distinction of common and literary use.\n\nIn the lower half of the table the anticipatory subjunctive and auxiliary\nare placed first in order to bring together the classes \"volition\" and \"wish,\"\n\nwhich approach each other, tho distinct.\nand, in\n\nits fullest force,\n\nmentioned.\n\nThe idea of voUtion is stronger,\n\nsuggests determination to bring about the act\n\nThe idea of wish is weaker, and, in its normal force, expresses\n\nsomething which lies outside the speaker's control.\n\nIn the parent speech\nfrom which our language has come down, the two ideas were expressed by\nentirely distinct moods, the mood of volition or anticipation being the\n\"subjunctive,\" and the mood of wish, together with the remaining forces,\nbeing the \"optative.\"\n\nBut the fact that the two moods lay near each\n\nother in force led in time to the coming together of the two in a single sys-\n\ntem of mixed forms, or to the complete or nearly complete triumph of the\none at the expense of the other.\nThe mood-ideas beginning with wish are so arranged that each stands\nnext to the one which most closely approaches it, except that possibility\nand ideal certainty approach equally near to natural likelihood. The\norder thus effected puts the condition contrary to fact and the less vivid\nfuture condition in immediate succession to ideal certainty, which is the\n\nmood-idea of the corresponding conclusional clauses.\n\n"} {"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "'\n\nSupermtendcncel\n\nREPORT ON GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE\n\n349\n\nIndependent Subjunctive Ideas^ as expressed by:\n\nMood-forms\nVolition\n\nAuxiliaries\nVolition,\n\n'will'\n\n(ist pers.), 'shall'\n\n(2d and 3d pers.)\n\n(\"Everyone me\")\n\nCThou Shalt not kill\")\nWish\n\nWish, 'may'\n(\"May God bless you\")\n\n(\"God bless you\")\n\nObligation or propriety,\n'ought'\n\n'should,'\n\n(\"Everyone shotdd rise\")\n\nNatural likelihood, 'should,' 'ought*\n(\"He shotdd make a good teacher\")\nPossibility, 'may,' 'might'\n(\"It may rain\")\n\nIdeal certainty'\n(\"That w;ere terrible\")\n\nIdeal certainty, 'should' (ist pers.),\n'would' (2d and 3d pers.)\n(\"That would be terrible\")\n\nDependent Subjunctive Ideas, Spanhoofd, German\nSt. Paul's School, Concord, N.H.\n\nE. H. WiLKiNS, Romance\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\n(At the time of appointment. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.)\n\nAPPOINTED BY THE AMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION\nB. L. BowEN, Romance\n\nOhio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\n\nHermann Collitz, German\nJohns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\nJ.\n\nC. KiRTLAND, Latin\nPhillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, N.H.\n\nWalter Miller, Greek\nUniversity of Missouri, Colvunbia, Mo.\n\n(At the time of appointment, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.)\nS. C.\n\nStagey, Greek\n\nErasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\n"} {"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION'\nPREAMBLE\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\n\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\n\nformulated.\n\nIt shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational\n\nquestions;\n\nand, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its\n\ndiscussions, to dei&ne and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and\n\nreasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\n\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\n\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same.\n\nIt shall further require\n\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever\n\ngrounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the\nAny\nfreest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions.\n\nmember making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the groimds\ntherefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council.\n\nIt shall\n\nprepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Education Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing\n\nbefore the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished.\n\nIt shall embody in this\n\nreport a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part\nof the Association.\n\nThe Council shall appoint, out of its own niunber, committees repre-\n\nsenting the several departments of education,\n\nand thereby facilitate the exchange of\n\nopinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public.\n\nARTICLE I—MEMBERSHIP\n1.\n\nThe National Council of Education shall consist of one himdred and twenty\n\nmembers, selected from the membership of the National Education Association. Sixty\nof the members shall be elected by the National Council of Education, and sixty by\nthe Board of Directors of the National Education Association.\n\nEach body shall select ten members annually, who shall serve for six years.\n2. The Council shall elect its quota of members at its regular annual meeting.\nThe Board of Directors of the National Education Association shall elect its quota\nof members at the second meeting held during the annual meeting of the National Education Association.\n\nThe absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nbe considered equivalent to resignation of membership. All persons who have\nbelonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership from any cause\n3.\n\nshall\n\nwhatever, except expulsion, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending\nits regular sessions\n\nand participating in its discussions.\n\nin the Council by more than twelve members.\n* As amended at San Francisco session, July la, xgxi.\n\n355\n\nNo state shall be represented\n\n"} {"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION /\n\n__—\n\n3S6\n\n[National\n\n1\n\nARTICLE n—QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Coimcil shall be either life or active members of the National\n\nEducation Association.\n\nARTICLE\n\nm—MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regxilar annual meeting of the Council held in connection with the\nDepartment of Superintendence of the National Education Association, or at such other\ntime and place as the Executive Committee of the Council may designate. There may\nbe special meetings of the Coimcil, subject to the call of the Executive Conunittee, but\nthe attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\n\nA majority of the Council\n\nshall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular\n\nor called; but any less niunber, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for\n\nthe transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article.\n\nARTICLE IV—THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Education Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\n\nARTICLE V—THE APPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES\nAND EXPERTS\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts,\n\nwhether members of the\n\nCoimcil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\n\nARTICLE VI—OFFICERS\nThe officers of the Council shall be a president, vice-president, and secretary, each of\n\nwhom shall serve for three years, with terms so arranged that one officer is elected annually.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance\n\nand approval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as\nshall realize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized\nand exists.\n\nARTICLE VII—STANDING COMMITTEES\n1. There shall be four standing conmiittees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Conunittee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Conmiittee shall be composed of the president of the Coimcil and\nthree other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\n\nmay be chosen each year.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\n\nwhenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nselecting,\n\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\n\nthe report of any investigation which may be ordered by the National Education Association or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies\n\nmay be filled every year.\n5.\n\nThere shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit at the next meet-\n\ning a report on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of the\n\n"} {"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS AND STANDING COMMITTEES\n\nCouncil]\n\n357\n\nimportant movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This\ncommittee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled\neach year. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the Association\nfor an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal has been\n\nreferred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\n\nARTICLE VIII—THE DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL\n1.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educa-\n\ntion Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2.\n\nThe meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\n\ncharacter.\n\nARTICLE IX—AMENDMENTS\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council,\nby a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provisions may be waived at any\nregular meetings by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the Council.\n\nOFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS\nOFFICERS FOR 1913-14\nROBERT J. ALEY\nJAMES Y. JOYNER\nWILLIAM B. OWEN\n\nOrono, Me\n\nPresident\n\nRaleigh, N.C\n\nVice-President\n\nChicago, 111\n\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires in IQ16\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 1914\n\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\nJames M. Greenwood\nEiXEN C. Sabin\nDavid B. Johnson\n\nThe Przstoent, ex officio, chairman\nKansas City, Mo.\nMilwaukee, Wis\nRock Hill, S.C\n\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 19x6\n\nCOMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP\nThe President, ex officio\nRaleigh, N.C\n\nJames Y. Joyner\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\nAugustus S. Downing\nCarroll G. Pearse\n\nAlbany, N.Y\nMilwaukee, Wis\n\nA. C. Nelson\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nJACX3B A. Shawan\n\nColumbus, Ohio\n\nKansas City, Mo\n\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 191s\nTerm expires in 1916\nTerm expires in 1916\n\nCOMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS\nEdward T. Fairchild\nElla Flagg Young\n\nDtirham, N.H\n\nZ. X. Snyder\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\n\nGreeley, Colo\n\nChicago, IlL\n\nKansas City, Mo\n\nFrank A. Fitzpatricx\n\nBoston, Mass\n\nPayson Smith\nAugustus S. Downing\n\nAugusta, Me\nAlbany, N.Y\n\nT. A. Mott\n\nSeymour, Ind\nLittle Rock, Ark\n\nG. B\n\nCook\n\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 19x4\nTerm expires in 19x4\nTerm expires in 19x5\nTerm expires in 19x5\nTerm expires in 19x5\nTerm expires in 19x6\nTerm expires in 19x6\nTerm expires in 1916\n\n"} {"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n358\n\n[National\n\nMEMBERS\nElected by the Association\n\nElected by the Council\n\nTERMS EXPIRE in igi4\n\n*W. E. Hasmon. Helena, Mont.\n•David Feuiley, Nonnal, EL\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C.\nWales Martindale, Detroit, Mich.\n\nWm. M. Davidson, Washington, D.C.\nM. G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa.\nP. P. Claxton, Washi»gton, D.C\n\nHarlan Upoegraee, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nC\n\nOliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111.\nKatherine D. Blaxe, New York, N.Y.\nMrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\n\nEdnah a. Rich, Santa Barbara, Cal.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, San Francisco, Cal.\nM. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md.\n\nFrank Strong, Lawrence, Kans.\n\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nJames W. Crabtree, River Falls, Wis.\n\nHomer H. Seerley. Cedar Falls, Iowa\n\nC. P. Gary, Madison, Wis.\n\nTERMS EXPIRE IN IQIS\n\nJohn MacDonald, Topcka, Elans.\nH. B. Wilson, Topeka, Kans.\nC. O. Merica, Redwing, Minn.\nS. L. Heeter, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nLaura D. Gill, Boston, Mass.\nDavid Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal.\nWalter R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho\nEdward L. Thorndike, New York, N.Y.\nEdwin G. Cooley, La Grange, 111.\nFrederick E. Bolton, Seattle, Wash.\n\nNebraska Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nLloyd E. Wolfe, Memphis, Tenn.\nWilliam H. Black, Marshall, Mo.\n\nHenry Suzkallo, New York, N.Y.\nLuther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\nGeorge M. Philips, West Chester, Pa.\n\nEdmund A. Jones, Westerville, Ohio\nErnest £. Balcomb, Greensboro, N.C\nJ. E. Burke, Boston, Mass.\n\nterms expire\n\nJohn W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\nW. A. Brandenburg, Pittsburg, Kans.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nThomas H. Harris, Baton Rouge, La.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nm zgi6\n\nD. H. Christensen, Salt Lake City, Utah\nPayson Smith, Augusta, Me.\nJames H. Van Sickle, Springfield, Mass.\nJames A. Barr, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Me.\nCharles E. Chadsey, Detroit, Mich.\nDavid Snedden, Boston, Mass.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\n\nCalvin N. Kendall, Trenton, N.J.\n\nElla C. Sullivan, Chicago, 111.\nRandall Spaulding, Montclair, N.J.\nGeorge D. Strayer, New York, N.Y.\nEsTELLE Carpenter, San Francisco, Cal.\n\nAlbert E. Winship, Boston, Mass.\nTERMS EXPIRE IN I917\n\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nWnxiAM B. Owen, Chicago, 111.\nM. E. Pearson, Kansas City, Kans.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.\nW. T. Carrington, Springfield, Mo.\n\nWnxiAM P. BuRRis, Cincinnati, Ohio\n\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nN. C. ScHAEFEER, Harrisburg. Pa.\nBen Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nE. E. Bass, Greenville, Miss.\nE. C. Moore, New Haven, Conn.\n\nJ. G. Crabbe, Richmond, Ky.\n\nG. W. A. LucKEY, LincoUi, Nebr.\n\n*Margar£t E. Schallenberger, San Jos£, Cal.\n\nJohn A. Wood, New York, N.Y.\n\nWnxiAM E. Wilson, Ellensberg, Wash.\n\nD. B. Parkinson, Carbondale. 111.\nEXPIRE in 1918\n\nThomas A. Mott, Seymour, Ind.\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nFrancis G. Blair, Springfield, 111.\nJames H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nCharles S. Meek, Boise, Idaho\nEdward T. Fairchild, Durham, N.H.\nE. E. Scribner, Ishpeaung, Mich.\n\nAlbert A. Murphree, Gainesville, Fla.\nHelen C. Putnam, Providence, R.I.\n\nElla Flago Young, Chicago, IlL\n\nEdwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla.\nW. H. Elson, Cleveland, Ohio\nJohn W. Carr, Bayonne, N.J.\n\nEdward C Elliott, Madison, Wis.\n\nGrace C. Strachan, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind.\nCarleton B. Gibson, Rochester, N.Y.\nC. G. SCHULZ, St. Paul, Minn.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio\n\nNot present at either meeting of the CooncU in 1913.\n\n"} {"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "HONORARY MEMBERS\n\nCouncil]\n\nElected by the Council\n\nElected by the Association\n\nEXPIRE IN igiQ\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N.J.\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.\nGeorge B. Cook, Little Rock, Ark.\nStratton D. Brooks, Norman, Okla.\nHenry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nB. K. PuRDUM, Hamilton, Md.\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah\n\nReed B. Teitrick, Harrisburg, Pa.\nA. J. KiNNAMAN, Bowling Green, Ky.\n\nJ. L. Snyder, Agricultural College P.O., Mich.\n\nFannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass.\nBextie a. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio\nCharles H. Keyes, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\n*J. F. Sms, Stevens Point, Wis.\nCharles H, Judd, Chicago, 111.\nBird T. Baldwin, Swarthmore, Pa.\nA. Duncan Yocum, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJosephine C. Preston, Olympia, Wash.\nThomas C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va.\nFrank B. Dyer, Boston, Mass.\n\nHONORARY MEMBERS\nJohn W. Abercrombie. University, Ala.\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\nSarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.\n\nThomas Hunter, New York, N.Y.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, 111.\n\nJames B. Aswell, Natchitoches, La.\n\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nWilliam F. Kino, Mt. Vernon, Iowa\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N.Y.\n\nBrown Ayres, Knorville, Tenn.\nThomas M. Balliet, New York, N.Y.\nClippord W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111.\n\nR. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn.\n\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111.\n\nRichard G. Boone, Berkeley, Cal.\nDavid R. Boyd, Albuquerque, N.M.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nElmer E. Brown, New York, N.Y.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\n\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJames A. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho\nCharles McKenny, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nCharles A. McMurray, De Kalb, 111.\nI. C. McNeill, Los Angeles, Cal.\nEdgar H. Mark, Bowling Green, Ky.\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y.\nEsTELLE Reel Meyer, Toppenish, Wash.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nHenry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn W. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn.\nWarren D. Parker, Pasadena, Cal.\n\nE. W. Coy, Cincmnati, Ohio\n\nFrank E. Parlin, Cambridge, Mass.\n\nEarl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D.C.\nIda C. Bender, Buffalo, N.Y.\n\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R.I.\nAlma L. Binzel, Missoula, Mont.\n\nEdwin B. Craighead, Missoula, Mont.\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N.Y.\nRobert E. Denpeld, Duluth, Minn.\nJohn Dewey, New York, N.Y.\nKatharine E. Dopp, Chicago, HI.\nJohn J. Doyne, Conway, Ark.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJxnjtus I. FousT, Greensboro, N.C.\n\nWilliam K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\nR. B. Fulton, Miller School P.O., Va.\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice, Philadelphia, Pa.\nW. N. Hailmann, Cleveland, Ohio\n\nClem Hampton, Hampton Springs, Fla.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass.\nCheeseman a. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N.Y.\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo.\nW. M. HoLLOWAY, Tallahassee, Fla.\nJames H. Hoose, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\n\nJosiAH L. PicKARD, Cupertino, Cal.\n\nJames R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Raleigh, N.C.\nWilliam 0. Riddle, Des Moines, Iowa.\nMrs. Ellor C. Ripley, Boston, Mass.\nJames E. Russell, New York, N.Y.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa\nJ. G. ScHURMAN, Ithaca, N.Y.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nCharles R. Skinner, New York, N.Y.\n\nEuLER B. Smith, LaGrange, Ga.\nJames A. Smith, Deland, Fla.\n\nHenry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J.\nEdwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa.\nWilliam S. Sutton, Austin, Tex.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111.\n\nJohn G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N.J.\nWilliam O. Thompson. Columbus, Ohio\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio\nB. W. ToRREYSON, Little Rock, Ark.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\n\nCharles C. Van Liew, San Francisco, Cal.\n\n* Not present at either meeting of the Council in 1913.\n\n359\n\n"} {"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n360\n\nJasper N. Wiuonsom, Muskogee, OkUi,\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio\nJohn W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.\nLiGHTNER WrncER, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\n(NaUonal\n\nHarry K. Wolfe, Lmcoln, Nebr.\nL. E. Wolfe, Memphis, Tenn.\n\nCalvin M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nPHILADELPHIA MEETING\nOFFICERS\nPresident—Cbaxlbs H. Keyes, president of Skidmore School of Arts\n\n.\n\n.\n\nSaratoga Springs, N. Y.\n\n—^Jaues Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction\nSecretary— Robert\nAley, president of the University of Maine\nVice-President\n\nRaleigh, N.C.\n\nJ.\n\nOrono, Me.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Evening, February 24, 1913\nCharles H. Keyes, president of Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.,\ncalled the meeting to order at 8 20 p.m. in the William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\n:\n\nThe topic for consideration at this session was \"The Reorganization of the Teaching\nProfession,\" the general presentation of which was made by Henry Suzzallo, Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\nThose taking part in the discussion were: A. Duncan Yocum, professor of pedagogy.\nUniversity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; William M. Davidson, superintendent of\nschools, Washington, D.C.;\n\nGeorge R. Crissman, principal of Training School, Warrens-\n\nburg, Mo.; Benjamin F. Moore, superintendent of city schools, Munde, Ind.;\n\nand John\n\nMacDonald, editor. Western School Journaly Topeka, Kans.\nSuperintendent William M. Davidson, of Washington, D.C., moved:\n\nThat a conmiittee of seven members of the National Council of Education be\nappointed by the president of the Council to whom shall be referred the address of Professor Henry Suzzallo on \"The Reorganization of the Teaching Profession,\" and that the\nsaid committee shall report back to the Council at some future meeting its conclusions and\nsuggestions on the desirability of attempting to perfect some such plan as that outlined in\nthe address.\n\nThe Council voted to lay this motion on the table until the meeting of the Council\non Tuesday morning, February 25.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Tuesday Forenoon, February 25, 1913\nThe session was called to order in the Clover Room of the Bellevue-Stratford Hotel\nat 9:3s A.M., with President Keyes in the chair.\n\nJohn W. Cook, president. Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb,\n\n111.,\n\npresented the following resolution:\nResolved, That the Coimdl recommends to the National Education Association the\nappointment of a committee to devise ways and means by which the subject of sex education shall be fitted into the curriculum of the normal schools, in order to equip teachers for\na wise later treatment of the problem in the grades.\n\nThis resolution was duly passed by the Coimdl.\nThe resolution of the previous session relating to Professor Suzzallo's address was\nthen taken from the table and adopted.\n\nThomas D. Wood, M.D., of Columbia University, New York, N.Y., chairman of the\nConmiittee on Health Problems in Education, presented a report on \"The Sanitation of\n\nRural Schools.\"\nThose speaking in the general discussion were: J. A. Shawan, superintendent of dty\nschools, Columbus, Ohio; E. B. Hoag, M.D., state medical inspector of schools, Minneapolis, Minn.;\n\nJohn R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.; Thomas\n\n"} {"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nCounca]\n\n361\n\nC. Miller, principal of Shepherd College, State Normal School, Shepherdstown, W.Va.;\n\nW. A. Brandenburg, superintendent of city schools, Oklahoma City, Okla.;\n\nC. P. Cary,\nMadison, Wis.; O. T. Corson, editor, Ohio\nEducational Monthly^ Columbus, Ohio; J. M. Dodson, University of Chicago, Chicago,\nIII.; and J. W. Cook, president, Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb, 111.\nstate superintendent of public instruction,\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Tuesday Afternoon, February 25, 1913\nPresident Keyes called the meeting to order in the Ballroom of the Bellevue-Stratford\n\nHotel at 2:00 P.M.\n\nA commimication was received from the Vocational Guidance Committee of New\nYork and was referred to a committee consisting of L. D. Harvey, president. Stout Institute, Menomonie,Wis.; T. A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind.; and\nFrankUn B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nGeorge D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., presented a report from the Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools and\n\nSchool Systems.\n\nThose participating in the discussion were: E. C. Elliott, University of\nJ. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.;\n\nWisconsin, Madison, Wis.;\n\nC. N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J.;\n\ntendent of instruction, St. Louis, Mo.;\n\nJ.\n\nBen Blewett, superin-\n\nM. Green, principal. State Normal School,\n\nJ. M. Rice, Mt. Vernon, N.Y.; J. D. Burks, Philadelphia, Pa.; Charles S.\nMeek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho; Henry Suzzallo, Teachers CoUege,\nColumbia University, New York, N.Y.; William D. Parkinson, superintendent of schools,\nWaltham, Mass.; L. P. Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.; Augustus S.\nDowning, first assistant conmiissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.; Charles H. Judd,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, lU.; Edward F. Buchner, Johns Hopkins University,\n\nTrenton, N.J.\n\n;\n\nBaltimore, Md.\n\nSuperintendent W. A. Brandenburg, Oklahoma City, Okla., moved that the report of\nthe committee be approved and that a committee be appointed in accordance with the\n\nrecommendations.\n\nA. S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., moved as a substitute that we continue\n\nThe subThe original motion was then carried. Upon motion, the chair\nwas authorized to appoint the committee and to make it consist of fifteen members.\nThe chair announced the following committee on Professor Suzzallo's address:\nthe present committee and accept its report of today as a report of progress.\nstitute was voted down.\n\nCharles H. Judd, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\nF. E. Bolton, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\nC. S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho.\nKatherine D. Blake, principal of pubHc school, New York, N.Y.\nAugustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.\nJohn R. Kirk, president. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Tuesday Evening, February 25, 1913\nPresident Keyes called the meeting to order in the William Penn High School at\n\n8:25 P.M.\nThe committee authorized by the action taken at the afternoon session was announced\n\nby the chair as follows:\nGeorge D. Strayer, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nE. C. Elliott, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y.\nE. L. Thorndike, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nJ. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.\nE. P. Cubberley, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University, Cal.\nCharles H. Judd, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.\nElla Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, III.\n\n"} {"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "$62\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nPaul H. Hanus, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nC. N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, NJ.\nKatherine D. Blake, principal of public sdiool. New York, N.Y.\nF. E. Spaulding, superintendent of Newton schools, Newtonville, Mass.\n\nBen Blewett, superintendent of instruction, St. Louis, Mo.\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Department of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.\n\nThe Committee on Rural Schools made an oral report of progress. Various phases of\nthe subject were presented informally by the following members of the committee: Edward\nT. Fairchild, president,\n\nNew Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts,\n\nDurham, N.H.; Edward Hyatt, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento,\nCal.;\n\nLuther L. Wright, state superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich.;\n\nThomas H. Harris, state superintendent of education, Baton Rouge, La.; A. C. Nelson,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah;\n\nState Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.;\n\nJohn R. Kirk, president,\nand Adelaide S. Baylor, Department of Public\n\nInstruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nUpon motion of Secretary Robert J. Aley, the president of the Council was directed\nto send a telegram of greeting to H. B. Brown, president, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Cal.,\n\nwho has been seriously ill at the Touraine Hotel, Boston, since October\n\n3, 1912.\n\nCouncil adjourned at 10: 25 p.m.\n\nFIFTH SESSION—Friday Forenoon, February 28, 1913\nThe Council met in joint session with the Department of Superintendence in the\nBallroom of the Bellevue-Stratford Hotel.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Keyes at 9:30 a.m.\nThe record of this session is found in the minutes of the Department\n\nof\n\nSuperintendence.\n\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE REORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING\nPROFESSION\n\nHENRY SUZZALLO, PROFESSOR OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION (EDUCATIONAL sociology), teachers college, COLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOf late there has been some discontent with the ideals, methods, and\nrelations of those who are engaged in the profession of public-school work.\n\nThe dissatisfaction has registered itself in numerous ways. The public\nhas become critical of schools and schoolmasters. The protest of the parent\nhas been given an enlarged voice by the magazine writer. Citizens have\noverturned the educational administration of their own cities, often lending\nthe force of their honest but blind revolt to the machinations of politicians.\nCivic agencies, too, have conducted inquiries from their own special points\nof view.\n\nThe\n\nteachers\n\nthemselves, becoming dissatisfied,\n\ncall\n\nfor\n\nan\n\n"} {"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\n363\n\neconomic return that will compensate them for the spiritual satisfactions\ngrowth of the educational machine. They plead for more\n\nlost in the\n\ndemocracy, and organize the grade teachers against their oflScial leaders.\nThe superintendents, too, pressed by the huge educational responsibilities\nthat have been thrust upon the modern school, make change after change,\noften without adequate knowledge, in the hope of meeting criticism and\n\nThe\n\nalleviating difficulties of which they are more or less clearly aware.\n\nmore progressive of them call in the efficiency expert to give them aid in\nthe diagnosis of existing faults and the construction of new ways and\nmeans. All these facts are symptomatic of one underl3dng truth, that the\nteaching organization of our public schools is far from satisfactory either\nto its members or to its patrons, and that we are attempting by hit-andmiss methods to reconstruct the profession of public education.\n\nTHE PROBLEM\n\nThe fault with all these efforts is found in the isolated and fragmentary\nnature of the attempts at reform.\n\nOften unintelligent, and more often\n\nunwholesome, in their diagnosis of defect, they have simply hastened our\ndiscontent and hurried us to the pressing necessity of an organized program\nof reconstruction.\n\nAs a professional group, we are at once confronted with\n\nthe fact that many of the elements in our situation are beyond immediate\nprofessional control.\n\nThe public will not always provide adequate finances,\n\nimmimity from politics, or appreciative support in terms of progressive\npublic opinion. But, at any rate, we are bound so to organize ourselves\nthat we can better meet the expert obligations which belong exclusively to\nus, and pave the way for those dealings with the public that are important\nI believe, therefore, that there is\nalike to society and to the profession.\nno more important question before us than that of the reorganization of\nthe teaching profession. It is primary in all substantial and wholesome\nprogress.\n\nHow then can we make teaching a profession?\n\nOr,\n\nif\n\nour\n\nhow shall we make it a\nbetter profession ? Before we can answer these questions we must first ask\nourselves: What is a prof ession ? What standards hold in all professional\nAnd, under existing conditions, how far do teachers fall short of\nlife?\ntraditional assumption of the status be justified,\n\nthese ideals of efficient service ?\n\nPROFESSIONAL AND NONPROFESSIONAL WORK\n\nWe are in the habit of calling some types of work professional, implying\nthat others are not.\n\nTraditionally we have always spoken of law, theology,\n\nmedicine, and teaching as professions.\n\nIn the opinion of many, such occu-\n\npations as engineering, journalism, nursing, and philanthropy are regarded\nas recent recruits.\n\nOrdinarily\n\nwe do not regard unskilled labor,\n\nmechanical trades, and business among the professional services.\n\nthe\n\n"} {"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n364\n\n[National\n\nTHE NATURE OF THE DISTINCTION\nAll these classifications imply,\n\nhowever worthy and respectable every\n\nuseful work may be, that there are some which carry wider responsibility,\n\nand call for larger knowledge and skill, greater power of initiative, and\nincreased capacity for co-operation. These, as history proves, are more\nreadily classified as professions. But there seems to be no justification for\nthe assumption that one particular work, such as law, is inevitably to be\n\nincluded among the professions, and that another, such as business, is just\nas inevitably to be excluded.\n\nLaw may cease to be professional in its\n\npractice, and business may attain professional ideals;\n\nwhich is to say that\n\nmanner in which a service is rendered is quite as important as the\n\nthe\n\nsituations with which it deals.\n\nEvery\n\ntraditional\n\nprofession,\n\ntherefore,\n\nmust conform\n\nto\n\ncertain\n\nstandards of workmanship if it is to maintain its place; and every form of\nservice which aspires to professional status\n\nmust reconstruct its practice\n\nso that these special standards gain a larger recognition than is now current.\n\nThe public esteem given to the existing professions is not a perpetual grant;\nit is\n\nconferred only for an indeterminate period of good behavior.\n\nCOMPARATIVE STUDY OF PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS\n\nWhat, then, are the important standards which determine professional\nA careful survey of the accepted policies and ethical codes of\n\npractice?\n\nexisting professions reveals many detailed variations, but they all agree in\n\nimplying that there are certain positive characteristics which all types of\nprofessional life possess.\n\nThese qualities are corroborated in a negative\n\nway by recognized tjrpes of unprofessional conduct, and by the current\narguments offered for considering business and the trades nonprofessional\nin their present status.\n\nFOUR QUALITIES OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICE\n\nThe fundamental qualities which seem to characterize work done in a\nprofessional spirit are:\n\n(i) Professional work must always\n\nbe performed as\n\n(2) It requires an expert knowledge and technic.\n\na social service.\n\n(3) It\n\nmust be practiced with a resource and initiative adequate to meet changing\nneeds.\n\n(4) It is\n\na co-operation that takes account of the interests of all\n\nhuman factors involved.\n\nTersely stated, professional work is:\n\n(i) a social\n\nservantship, (2) an expert service, (3) a mastery of crises, (4) an ethical\n\nco-operation.\n\nPUBLIC EDUCATION A SOCIAL SERVANTSHIP\nIt is because the professions, traditional and modem, usually exercise a\n\ngreat influence upon fundamental social rights and standards of high value\n\nthat they have their enlarged importance.\n\nThe incidental effects of pro-\n\nfessional practice on social welfare are usually\n\nmore important than the\n\n"} {"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "REORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\nCouncil]\n\n365\n\nfact that the individual practitioner does or does not enjoy a prosperous\n\nHence every member of a profession is asked to pursue his\nwork as one primarily for public service and secondarily for earning his\nliving.\nIf his work is dominated by a sense of personal financial gain and\nlivelihood.\n\nloss,\n\nhe is likely to make it a business rather than a profession.\n\nWhen we\n\nsay \"business is business,\" we usually mean that we have failed to meet\n\nsome moral obligation that society would prefer to have us keep.\n\nThis\n\nmay be fairiy tolerable in business; it is intolerable in a profession, because\nthe social and human considerations that are involved are too precious\nto be set aside.\n\nThe lawyer unavoidably deals with the constitutional\n\nrights of life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness;\n\nthe doctor,\n\nwith the natural gifts of health, efficiency, and physical life; the minister,\nwith that religious faith or optimism which guarantees an effective confidence in an orderly and moral universe;\ntialities of childhood,\n\nthe teacher, with all the poten-\n\nFrom one\n\nthe gifts of natural and institutional life.\n\npoint of view, there is not a single unprofessional practice that is not a\nresult of ignoring or violating\n\nconsideration.\n\nsome such fundamental personal or social\n\nA doctor having the necessary skill ought not to let men\n\ndie of neglect because they cannot pay.\n\nNeither should a lawyer let the\n\nThe\nThey are\n\ninnocent go to jail merely because they are too poor to pay a fee.\nprofessional sins of teachers and ministers are of another sort.\n\na conscienceful people.\n\nThey fall short because they do not see their full\n\nsocial duty, rather than because, seeing it, they will not render service.\n\nFor these reasons the teaching and other professions should be dominated by a consciousness of social conditions and ends.\n\nTheir work should\n\nbe regarded as primarily an expression of unselfish social service.\nIn a rough way, society tries to protect itself against an abuse of these\nlarge powers which are incident to the earnings of a livelihood in professional\n\ndemands more general culture preliminary to the study and\nThis means that it requires that the professional\npractitioner, because of his peculiar powers and temptations, must be given\na fundamental knowledge of those values, ideals, and traditions which are\nfundamental to our social life. Hence the boy may go to a trade, or a\nservice.\n\nIt\n\npractice of a profession.\n\nbusiness, at the close of the elementary school, but he may not start his\n\nwork as a teacher, lawyer, doctor, or nurse before he has passed thru the\nhigh school at least. The secondary school means a broader and more\nintensive view of life in general than the elementary school.\n\nwork\n\nis\n\nservice\n\nnot merely more\n\nscientific\n\nProfessional\n\nand complex than nonprofessional\n\n— has intimate connections with the fundamental values of\n^it\n\nlife.\n\nIt ramifies to such an extent that it touches all the important aspects of\n\nour civilization.\n\nHence the need for a wider, more intensive general edu-\n\ncation, which will foster a knowledge of, and a reverence for, human rights\n\nand institutions.\nBut a wide basis in general education is not an adequate guaranty\n\n"} {"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n366\n\niNaUonal\n\nthat such influential work will be done in that professional spirit which\n\nguarantees the conservation of fundamental rights and essential values.\nProfessional training\n\nmust itself be\n\nsocialized, so\n\nthat the bearing of\n\nparticular practices on general welfare will always be obvious to the\npractitioner.\n\nIn this connection it is often said that the teaching profession lacks an\nadequate social consciousness.\n\nIt is too frequently academic rather than\n\nvital in its approach to important matters bearing on the training of chil-\n\nmore often bookish than social in its interpretations\nHence the social world moves on, and the\nprofession remains devoted to old knowledge and old needs preserved by\ndren for life.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nof the place of knowledge.\n\nthe isolation of the school.\n\nWhen at last the school reacts against our\n\noverconservative traditionalism, the schoolmaster's devotions are likely\nto be caught\n\nWe do\n\nby a new social demand more forceful than real.\n\nnot know the social world either by direct experience or thru social science,\n\nand we are either halting or defective in our responses\n\nto a changing\n\ncivilization.\n\nBut the overconservative or overfaddistic tendencies just mentioned\nare not more pathetic failures than the new enthusiasm of many teachers\n\non an economic basis. Pensions, tenure, and pay are\nthey cannot and should not be made the prime basis\nof teachers' associations.\nTo do so is to focus our professional vigor\non personal return rather than on impersonal service. The prime end\nof teachers' organizations should be to make more efficient our social\nservantship. To the extent that the economic status of teachers affects\ntheir efficiency, and because teachers are human beings with certain economic and personal rights of their own, all these financial difficulties are\na legitimate concern. But service, not selfishness, must be the dominant\nfor organization\n\nvital questions, but\n\nideal.\n\nPUBLIC EDUCATION AN EXPERT SERVICE\n\nAs teachers we are set aside to perform a more or less specialized duty.\n\nWe should not have schools if homes could do the work as well.\n\nTeachers\n\nmust have more power about their business than ordinary laymen.\nwise we are not expert in our workmanship.\n\nOther-\n\nThe authority with which we\n\nspeak should be based, not upon mere years of service, but on superior\nintelligence\n\nand skill in doing our work.\n\nIn a world full of intelligent\n\npeople, we shall have to stir ourselves to keep ahead in a work which has\n\nso much to do with life in general, a field in which all men play some part.\n\nTo be expert necessitates definite technical powers along several lines.\nThe teacher's chief business is to intermediate between childhood and\nsociety.\n\nHe must get children over into social life successfully else they\nHe must carry civilization over from books and constitu-\n\nwill be failures.\n\ntions into human beings or it will become a dead letter.\n\nSuccessful life is\n\nmade up of knowing the facts of life and reacting appropriately to them.\n\n"} {"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nREORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\n367\n\nThe teacher must first be a wholesome and successful social human being\nwho knows life in terms of {a) superior command over its essential facts\nand conditions (scholarship), and {h) superior attitudes toward them\n(socialized character).\nBut this only provides the superior man out of\nwhom the teacher is to be made. The second requirement is that he should\nhave expert power to transmit truth and attitude.\n\nThis requires {a) supe-\n\nmethods for teaching truth (pedagogy), and {h) superior\nunconscious methods for transmitting values, attitudes, standards, or\nrior conscious\n\nideals (personality).\n\nThe ideal of expert service lays down these standards;\n\ntherefore:\n\n(i) Every teacher should have an adequate cultural resource for\n\nhis work.\n\nThe elementary teacher should have a high-school education;\n\nthe secondary teacher a college training, etc.\n\n(2) Every teacher must have\n\na professional course in general and special methods of teaching coupled\nwith some scientific knowledge of the educational psychology and educational sociology basic to their interpretation\n\nand application.\n\n(3)\n\nEvery\n\nteacher must acquire an interest in, and command over, the fundamental\n\nproblems and purposes of modern social life thru personal contact with, and\nextensive study of, social affairs.\n\n(4)\n\nEvery teacher must react upon the\n\nsituations of school life and classroom instruction with sincere and whole-\n\nsome reactions that will be true to the larger aspirations of the outside world.\nThe supervising and administrative officials need all these expert powers\nof the teacher of children, if not in terms of a practical and active power,\nat least in terms which guarantee ready appreciation and constructive\ncriticism.\nAnd they require more. In our modern school systems there are\ngathered about the teaching fimction many other functions, such as school\norganization, school administration,\n\nand school management.\n\nIn\n\nall of\n\nthese, the modern superintendent is obliged to have power superior to that\nof his teaching staff, his board of education, or the laymen of his community.\n\nWhen we look at the profession as we know it and apply these standards,\nour defects seem large.\n\nWe are appalled by the large number of certificated\n\nteachers who have had little more general education than that of the grade\nof school in which they teach, and no special professional training for their\n\nparticular task.\n\nWe feel less confidence in our practical leaders when we\n\nrealize that they are for the most part graduate-teachers who have had no\n\nadditional special training for their new obligations save the apprenticeship\n\nserved in the practical school of trial and error.\n\nThis was well enough when\nour men could grow up with the school system, but the time has passed when\n\nwe can rely upon the gifted few who emerge; we must make provision for the\nsystematic training of the many who will fill the posts of lesser and greater\nresponsibilities.\n\nWe cannot raise our standards for training teachers with-\n\nThe work of public\neducation must be made expert from top to bottom, if we would have the\n\nout raising those for training the supervisory staff.\n\nIn no other way can we check that rebellion\nnow beginning which arrays grade teachers against their official leaders.\npublic respect and support.\n\n"} {"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n368\n\n[National\n\nPUBLIC EDUCATION A MASTERY OF CRISES\n\nWe might be richly endowed with the spirit of social service, expert in\nteaching children and administering the schools, and still lack the power\n\nneeded to make us effective.\n\nOur adjustment is not a fixed one. The\nThe conditions underlying teaching and administration vary because we have new\nselections of children and new problems of civilization to deal with.\nThese\nvariables create a constant succession of new difficulties that challenge our\nresourcefulness.\nThey are the educational crises, personal and social, in\nproblems with which efficiency must deal constantly change.\n\nwhich something important is at stake.\n\nA man who spends his life in the ever-repeating and monotonous business of working the lever of a machine in a shoe factory has little opportunity\nto meet new problems.\nIt is not normal for him to be facing and solving\nnew situations, mental crises that require resource and thought. The very\nnature of his situation makes it impossible for him to become what every\nprofessional workman is a master of crises.\nNo such limiting situation exists in teaching. The teacher is master of\nthe school, unless he makes of it a machine which masters him. Every\n\n—\n\nchild is in a degree different from every other, and so with every class, and\n\nAlways there is some new ignorance,\nHere the resource and\nHe must know and think. It is\ntact of the teacher are called for fully.\nprecious human stuff in trouble with which he deals.\nAs a lawyer is called in to redeem a client from a situation which jeopardwith every day with the same class.\n\ndoubt, hope, or discouragement to be coped with.\n\nizes his legal rights, as a doctor protects health, as a minister faces down\n\nthe danger of shattered faith, so the teacher conserves the power of child-\n\nhood, conquers the deadening touch of error and discouragement, fosters\nintellectual courage and the passion for goodness.\n\nThe teacher is in short\n\na minister to the intellectual, moral, and spiritual crises of childhood.\n\nAt least it should be so, if teaching is rightly practiced. If our teaching\nbecomes such a monotonous drill and grind that the child feels it to be of\nlittle\n\nmoment to him, then teaching is not a professional service.\n\nSchools\n\ncannot become \" locks teps\" and \"machines\" and at the same time render\nprofessional service.\n\nThe crucial nature of all teaching of the young is frequently missed\nbecause we are dealing with children and not with adults.\n\nTeaching is a\n\n\"calling,\" tho the pupil does not personally \"call\" us into his life.\nforesee his needs and serve them.\n\nWe\n\nBecause childhood's troubles are solved\n\nsituations to the adult it does not follow that they are not important to the\nchild.\n\nChildren's troubles are very real to them.\n\nTo deny a child's\n\ncuriosity as it pokes around the world may be to commit him to slow intellectual starvation.\n\nHarshly to hush up his play and his garrulousness is\n\nto cripple his ultimate power to act, express,\n\nand control himself.\n\nAnd\n\nthen it is also true that childhood's troubles come close together, as they\n\n"} {"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\n369\n\ndo not in an adult's world. A child is only a babe ushered into a great\nNothing is old to him; everything is new. The very\ncommonness of new problems in his life hides their crucial nature from us,\nwho look for new problems to appear only now and then. Only as we\napproach childhood with the traits of full sympathy and versatile imagination can we serve little children, and make them men and women of the\npower \"they were born to be.\"\nThe essence of efficient teaching is to be found in the modern gospel\nconfusing universe.\n\nof\n\nreverencing\n\nthe\n\nstudent's\n\npersonality.\n\nIn\n\never-variable\n\nteaching\n\nmethods, rather than in a uniform and fixed use of device, is true mastery\nover childhood to be found.\nwill forever crave\n\nNo great teacher, no moderately efficient one,\n\na rigidly fixed school system, an unchanged course of\n\nstudy, the same subject, or the same grade.\n\nHe will be happy for the\n\nadventure of meeting new problems, glad to hear a call to his resources,\nfor these redeem teaching from deadening sameness and make of it a real\n\nand free art at once effective and congenial.\n\nThe spirit of mastery over varying needs, which should characterize\nclassroom teaching, should also characterize every public-school function\n\nwhich has been differentiated from teaching.\n\nIt should be present in the\n\norganization, administration, and supervision of schools, tho, sad to relate,\nit\n\nseldom is.\n\nIt is the business of the school administrator to aid rather\n\nthan hinder the growth of this spirit in the teacher, as it is his emphatic\nbusiness to remold the structure of the school system to meet the changing\nsocial conditions and aspirations of his community.\n\nEvery school superin-\n\ntendent should aim to master the difficulties of the civilization in which\n\nhe lives to the degree that the right education of\n\nmen and women will\n\ncontribute.\n\nYet it can scarcely be said that we have gracefully welcomed the doctrine that teaching as a professional work is a constant progressive adjust-\n\nment to changing needs. Teachers teach the same old subjects in the same\nold way when they ought to be teaching many kinds of children in different\nways. They still shudder when the superintendent hints at change in the\ncourse of study or methods of teaching.\n\nSuperintendents still impose a\n\ndeadening uniformity on teachers and children which kills the individualities\n\nand enthusiasms of both and ignores differing social conditions and psychoAnd how slow we all are to perceive what our own social\ntime and place require. The industrial leaders of our country have beaten\nthree times on the doors of our elementary schools asking for the early\ndevelopment of those fundamental interests and skills that the vocation will\nlater call for and specialize; once in terms of drawing, again in terms of\nmanual training, now in terms of industrial arts. We have only begim to\nhear.\nShall our minds not be quickened to the changing needs of our own\ntimes so that school organization and school teaching may be remolded again\nand again to the new efficiencies required ? We cannot remain stubbornly\n\nlogical needs.\n\n"} {"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n37©\n\n[National\n\nconservative, become wildly radical, or affect a feeble responsiveness, and\nstill\n\ndo our full professional duty.\n\nWe must be open of mind to changing\n\nciromistances, flexible in technic, scientific in point of view, and eager and\n\nmasterful in our ministry to new educational problems, if we are to play\n\nour professional part in the world's great task.\n\nTEACHING AN ETHICAL CO-OPERATION\n\nThe time has passed when we can trust that the spirit of service, expert\nworkmanship, resourcefulness, and initiative will be adequately generated\nand distributed in the teaching profession by any such loose organization\nas we have had in the past. The leadership of the rare few and the spontaneous co-operation of unusually progressive minorities will still be needed;\n\nbut we must make more efficient use of them.\n\nDuring the past fifty years\n\nevery large private interest has learned the worth of corporate organization.\n\nThe public interest in clean politics, the fair conduct of business, or efficient\npublic schools is entitled to the massive power of a similar support.\n\nWe can\n\ncapitalize the isolated demands of those interested in spiritual and social\n\nwelfare just as readily as we can gather the scattered savings of many men,\n\nIn public education the time has come when we\nmust organize the forces that favor an efficient public education. First,\nwe must organize the 500,000 American teachers who have a professional\nobligation to serve the public in maintaining good schools. Second, we\nmust associate with them every layman who has enough surplus interest\nand energy to be specially devoted to the schools. I stress this association\nof citizens with professional teachers, for, unlike law and medicine, publicschool teaching is a state matter. We need the counsel and the influence\nof laymen who have an interest in our democracy and our schools.\nWe\nprosperous in a small way.\n\ncannot make progress without consciousness of general needs, or without\nthe support of public opinion.\n\nAt present teachers and laymen do not adequately understand and\nsupport each other.\n\neach other.\n\nWorse, the teachers themselves do not understand\n\nIt can scarcely be said that the paltry ten or twelve thousand\n\nnow included in the existing national association are an adequate representation of the whole group of public-school teachers. The various state\nassociations are themselves not sufficiently inclusive. They enroll from one\nto eight thousand members who are more or less transient in their interest\nand membership, the geographical location of meetings and the administrative zeal of the officers being the chief factors in enrollment.\nThese\nstate associations have no direct connection with the national association;\nand no existing method of co-operation among the state associations is\neffective.\n\nBoth state and national associations are organizations with a merely\nThe chief fimction of the permanent officers is to\narrange for the annual meetings, at which the main business of members is\noccasional purpose.\n\n"} {"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "REORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\nCouncU]\n\nto listen to addresses.\n\n371\n\nSuch organizations usually have no power over\n\npractical educational affairs in the interim, and even the resolutions of such\n\nmeetings have few consequences.\n\nThe result of this situation is plain. Bodies of laymen usually have\nmore direct influence upon educational legislation than groups of professional teachers.\n\nWe find it difficult to unify our own opinions in the face\n\nof small disagreements within the profession, for sheer lack of that machinery\nof association\n\nand communication which insures adequate information,\n\nintelligent discussion, and approximate unity of opinion.\n\nWe are powerless\n\nOf this we\nThe influence of partisan and personal poUtics still\n\nto enforce our standards of right and wrong upon the public.\n\nhave many evidences.\n\ninterferes with a full rendering to the public of an expert educational service.\n\nTeachers and books are still selected, in many places, by boards of education rather than superintendents.\n\nMany teachers still split their fees for\n\nthe first month's work with teachers' agencies, the chief purpose of which\nis\n\ncommercial, not professional.\n\nSome textbook and supply houses still\n\nexploit the public schools for their own ends.\n\nThe teacher or superintendent who stands against these influences\nencounters a pernicious hostility.\n\nWithout the backing of an organized\n\nprofession for his professional ideals of public service he is, in backward and\nindifferent communities, as likely as not to lose his position.\n\nThereafter,\n\nthat one failure to hold his position is, in matters of reappointment or pro-\n\nmotion with boards of education, a presumption of incompetency rather\nthan of superior training and standards.\n\nThus the present status of pro-\n\nfessional organization permits a handicap to be placed upon superior courage\n\nand ideaUsm in maintaining high standards of service.\n\nWhen I suggest that we need the massive strength which would come\nthru the corporate will of 500,000 American teachers, I do not mean to\n\nA national labor union\n\nimply the organization of a merely coercive power.\n\nmy thoughts.\n\nBut I do mean to suggest all the\npowers of an ethical co-operation which keeps well in mind its obligation\nto every human and social interest in and out of the profession. The\nof teachers is farthest from\n\nethical co-operation\n\nrequires\n\nis\n\nwhich the true professional practice\n\nnot restricted to the teacher-student contact.\n\nevery human relationship which the teacher has:\nthe board of education, to supervisory\n\nofficers,\n\nto the\n\nof education\n\nIt extends to\n\ncommunity, to\nand other\n\nto textbook\n\ncommercial houses, and to fellow-teachers as well.\nIn the new ethical co-operation which must come, we shall have to face\nthe marring effects of\n\nmany unethical traditions.\n\nIs it not true that\n\nteachers make reputations for themselves on the high marks of children\n\nthey have crammed, say in literature, and turned them out on the world\nso deadened to any literary appeal that they will never read a classic again ?\n\nThe child here has been used for the teacher's purposes and not respected\nfor his own.\n\n"} {"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n372\n\n(National\n\nhave made teachers in great\n\nIs it not true that the superintendents\n\nand partly inefficient because\nthey have not considered the teacher's individuality? These misguided\nschool systems mechanical, unresponsive,\n\nchieftains, in their indifference to teachers as human working units, have\n\ntaken refuge in an appeal to the doctrine that ''the schools are for the\n\nwhen men and women are\nHence they have used teachers and used\n\nchildren, not the teachers,\" forgetting that\n\ninstruments they are not tools.\n\nthem up, spiritually at least.\n\nSo it has been with other difficulties. Our unfair and inexpert treatment of the just claims of book and supply houses has given some faint\nwarrant for their appeal over our heads to the school boards, and for their\nappeal to other factors than the merit which we have not always been careful\nto consider.\n\nAfter years of desultory and unrepresentative organization, are we not\n\ncompelled to admit that the profession is without a code of ethics which is\n\nsound in principle or binding in its effects upon teachers ?\n\nHow long shall the vital interest of public education continue to be\nwithout the corporate support of its professional members ?\n\nThe state has\n\nno more intelligent or conscientious set of servants than its teachers, yet\nhow little their intelligence and conscience count in competition with\nmeaner interests. However difficult the task may be made by scattered\nmembership, short service, or other factors, it must be assumed at once.\nAlready the possibility of a united and unselfish teaching profession is\nthreatened by agitations for organization which would divide us in terms of\nsex, official position, and the relative stress we place on merely personal\nBelieving that the problem is urgent, I ask that the council give\nends.\nthis problem its earnest consideration, and for the purpose of bringing the\nwhole matter to definite issue I offer certain constructive proposals in the\nform of a far-reaching tentative plan.\n\nTENTATIVE PLAN FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS\n\nThe need of organization.\n\n—^The need\n\nis\n\nfor a\n\nmore adequate national\n\norganization of all American public-school teachers upon a permanent basis\n\nwhich will insure a day-to-day influence upon school affairs.\nThe central convention system must give way to one of local organizaTo\ntions with a capacity for frequent business and professional sessions.\nmaintain a democratic spirit in the organization, the organization should\nproceed from the bottom to the top, rather than vice versa.\n\nLocal educa-\n\n—\n\ntion societies should be the centers of activity, and all larger units\n\n—should be merely a federation of\n\nstate, and national\n\ndistrict,\n\nthese, the permanent\n\noperations of each of which should be delegated to a truly representative\ncouncil of carefully selected leaders.\n\n—\n\nThe method of organization. ^Local societies of teachers (with associated\nlaymen) should not be established by an arbitrary unit. The territorial\n\n"} {"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\n373\n\nunit should be highly flexible, the one standard being ease of afl&liation and\n\nattendance at meetings.\n\nIn the country districts, the county system might\n\nbe followed, but not strictly, ease of congregation by roads, railroads, etc.,\nbeing taken into account. Towns should have their own societies. Cities\nof considerable size should\n\nhave several so that the size of each could\n\nbe kept so companionable that free discussion of professional problems\nis really possible.\nCoercion for some partisan purpose is always more\nreadily resisted where all the teachers can easily know each other's state\nof mind.\n\nThe active membership in such societies should be limited to those who\nare actively engaged in the public educational service, because this profession is peculiarly linked up with the public service thru the state, as no\n\nother is.\n\nAny person specially interested in public education may become\n\nan associate member of an \"education society.\"\nThere should he a state association of education societies in each state.\n\nThe affairs of this state association should be vested in a council consisting\nof one or\n\nmore representatives from each local education society.\n\nThis\n\ncouncil should meet annually for the discussion of professional affairs, and\n\nat that time should appoint an executive board of seven to administer their\naffairs thruout the year.\n\nThere should be a permanent office in charge of\n\na paid executive secretary. It will be advisable for the state association to\nhave its own educational magazine as a medium of communication under a\npaid editor, and to maintain a bureau for the registry and placement of\nteachers.\n\nThere should be a national council of state education associations^ con-\n\nEach state council should select\n\nsisting of representatives from each state.\n\nat large as many representatives to this council as there are senators and\n\nThey should meet annually for\ntwo weeks for the consideration of problems of public education, to determine matters of common policy and comity among the states, to initiate\ninvestigations into the efficiency of teaching and administration, to establish standards of efficient practice and professional conduct, to provide\nways and means for gathering and disseminating professional information,\nand to attend to such other matters as have an important national scope.\n\nrepresentatives in the national congress.\n\nThey should maintain a central office under the charge of a paid executive\nsecretary, who will have\n\nan advisory executive committee of five associThis executive committee\n\nated with him to aid in administering affairs.\nshould be elected by the national council.\n\nConventions of education society members by districts or states might\nstill be held annually or otherwise as\n\nSupport of organization.\n\n—All\n\nthe local societies might determine.\n\nfees should be paid thru the local educa-\n\ntion societies, a certain percentage of\ndistrict, state, and national organization.\n\nwhich should be segregated\n\nfor\n\n"} {"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n374\n\n[National\n\nSPECIFIC POLICIES OF ORGANIZATION\n\nThe primary purpose of such organization is to increase the efficiency of\neducation as a public service.\n\nAnd as a mode of attaining this chief end,\n\nits secondary purpose is to improve the status of teachers.\n\nMore particularly the organization should finally accomplish the following particular things:\n1.\n\nTo make professional efficiency in the public service the sole standard\n\nfor employment, assignment, promotion, demotion, dismissal, and release\n\nof teachers.\n2.\n\nTo realize in practice the principle that all expert professional\n\nofficers should be selected by appointment and not by popular election.\n3.\n\nTo remove the selection of boards of education from the domain of\n\npartisan politics.\n4.\n\nTo eliminate the pressure of textbook and supply houses from\n\neducational affairs.\n5.\n\nTo adopt such means as will finally eliminate the teachers' agencies\n\n(however useful and necessary at present) in the appointment of teachers,\nrecognizing the principle that there shall be no splitting of fees for\n\nappointment with any person or agency whatever, and that the registry,\nrecommendation, and appointment of teachers shall be in the hands of\nbureaus organized under conditions that guarantee the public good; e.g.,\nappointment bureaus of normal schools, colleges, and teachers' associations.\n6.\n\nTo make it unprofessional for any teacher to use the influence of\n\npartisan or personal politicians,\n\ntextbook or supply houses, teachers'\n\nappointment agencies, or any other means not calculated to render an\nunbiased and expert judgment. In fact, to make it unprofessional to use\nany argument for appointment save that of educational efficiency vouched\nfor by someone in a position to render an expert judgment on the same.\n7. To make it unprofessional to apply or seek for a position or to cause\ninfluence to be exerted for the same when said position has not been declared\nvacant by teacher, superintendent, or board.\n8.\n\nTo guarantee to the chief educational officer of any administration\n\nimit that he, and not the board of education, shall have the right to initiate\n\naction in all matters involving expert professional knowledge and judgment;\ne.g.,\n\nthe nomination of teachers, the recommending of a course of study,\n\ntextbooks, apparatus, and other supplies made necessary by the pedagogical\n\nneeds of the schools.\n9.\n\nTo improve and unify the standards and means of training, certifi-\n\ncating, and appointing teachers, so as\na)\n\nTo insure that every teacher shall have received the cultural training\n\nof one more school vmit than the school in which he teaches; e.g., elementary\n\nteachers should have at least high-school training, etc.\n\n"} {"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "REORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\nCouncil]\n\n375\n\nTo insure that every educational worker shall have had some sys-\n\nb)\n\ntematic training in the performance of the particular function intrusted\nto him.\n\nTo widen the provision for and increase the practical efficiency of\n\nc)\n\ncourses devised for the professional training of teachers.\n\nTo provide for a better supervision of teachers in service so that\n\nd)\n\nthe growth of the system in the care of new responsibilities shall not be\nlacking.\n\nTo work toward a more nearly uniform standard of certification thru-\n\ne)\n\nout the states, so that interstate comity is possible in the recognition of\ncertificates, thus relieving congestion and scarcity of teachers, and increas-\n\ning mobility so that a wider selection is possible for both boards of education and teachers.\n10.\n\nTo abolish the election of teachers for a stated term, and substitute\n\ntherefor a system of appointment to service wherein the presumption is\n\nthat satisfactory service involves continuity of employment, that cannot\n\nbe broken save by dismissal for cause.\n\nNew appointees may be subject\n\nto review and dismissal within a stated time, but if not removed within\n\nthe stated period they shall hold their positions on presumption of continuous tenure.\n11. To establish the principle that contracts are mere fiscal arrangements for service, which do not imply a period of indenture wherein the\nfreedom of movement of the teacher is interfered with.\nThey simply\nguarantee a certain service for a certain pay and vice versa. The profession holds to the belief that our schools have a national purpose, and that\nthe public good demands that a call to larger or more congenial service is a\npublic and a personal right with which no board ought deliberately to\ninterfere.\nUnder such a principle it will be possible to enforce the ethical\nstandards that suggest that no board or superintendent should seek the\nservices of a teacher without consultation with the present employing\nauthority, and that no teacher should seek another position without noti-\n\nfying the officials of his own system.\n12.\n\na)\nb)\nc)\n\nTo improve the economic status of the teachers by favoring:\nAn annual salary system with twelve payments.\n\nA minimum salary system.\nA gradual increase in teachers' salaries over and above the increased\n\ncost of living.\nd) A state-wide pension system with final comity between states,\nwhich recognizes service in other states, with a system of apportioning\ncosts among states on the basis of proportionate service. And necessarily,\ntherefore, to provide uniform pension legislation among the states as a\n\npreliminary stage.\n\n"} {"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n376\n\n[National\n\nDISCUSSION\nPa.\n\nA. Duncan Yocum, professor of pedagogy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,\n^In discussing so fundamental a topic as educational readjustment, it is necessary\n\n—\n\nto hold in mind that it is possible in various interrelated forms.\n\nConcentration of atten-\n\ntion on one, without equally serious consideration of others which it conditions and which\n\ncondition it, not only may point the way to a too partial reform, but may result in new\nevils more serious than the old.\n\nDr. Suzzallo's admirable argument concerns itself with readjustment on the side of\neducational organization, and with that particular phase of organization which can far\n\nmore readily transform the teaching force of the country into a powerful trade union\nswayed by class interest than into a professional body working for professional eflBciency\nand dominated by professional ideals. I am inclined to think that the form of readjustment which he proposes is as inevitable as it is logical. It is democratic without being\nwholly microcosmic. Yet it is a democracy within a larger and a broader democracy.\nIt insures popular representation within the teaching body itself, but will probably fail,\neven with an associate membership, to include those citizens not teachers who are as\nactively interested in educational issues as the teachers themselves.\nit\n\nIf it includes them,\n\nceases to represent class or profession; whether it includes them or not, it will be as\n\ndominantly feminine as the teaching body itself, and almost inevitably tend to represent,\nnot only a class, but a majority which is in itself a class.\n\nThe chief difficulty which confronts reorganization is the maintenance and development of a truly professional form and spirit, when the immediate incentive to membership is more efiFective co-operation for salary increase thru legislative enactment. In the\nhistory of education, professional organization has resulted from the development of\nprofessional knowledge and spirit, rather than professional spirit from organization.\n\ntwo must keep pace with each other.\n\nThe\n\nIt is from this point of view that it is necessary\n\nto consider the relation of readjustment in organization to other phases of educational\n\nreadjustment.\n\nA nation-wide organization, whose development will outstrip the advancement\nand whose local \"guilds\" will largely consist of relatively inexperienced\nmust be guided with almost saintlike unselfishness and superhuman skill, if\nit does not, here and there, sacrifice both standards and ideals to small immediate gain,\nof science,\n\nteachers,\n\ninvolve itself in entangling alliances with political organizations which will enslave the\nschool, and make of the profession which should nobly serve the state but an organized\nsocial class struggling with others for the attainment of selfish tho righteous ends.\n\nInher-\n\nent dangers are no argument against democracy in organization, but strong reason for\nentering\n\nupon readjustment conscious of all safeguards against them.\n\nAt least two\n\nsafeguards are fundamental: systematic effort to insure in the general Association the\n\ndominance of professional as opposed to class spirit, and a fuller democracy of organization to parallel and complete its too partial democracy.\n\nGeorge R. Crissman, principal, Training School, Warrensburg, Mo.—Three distinct\nThe first devotes itself to\n\nt3rpes of educational organizations are found in this country.\n\nthe discussion of educational questions;\n\nthe second deals with the organization and\n\nsupervision of the teaching staff primarily for economic betterment; while the third\n\ncombines these two features.\nintellectual improvement;\n\nThe function of the first is professional instruction or\n\nthat of the second is professional administration or economic\n\nimprovement; that of the third is both. The first is the prevailing type being represented\nby the National Education Association and most of the state teachers' associations. The\nsecond is represented by the teachers' federations of Chicago, New York, Brooklyn, and\ntwenty-nine other cities having thirty thousand population or over. The third is the\nnewest and is well illustrated by tJie Ohio School Improvement Federation, and the\nCalifornia State Teachers Association, altho there are many others that are now recog-\n\n"} {"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "REORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\nCouncUl\n\nnizing this double function.\n\nIt is\n\n377\n\nmy purpose to demonstrate that this latest type of edu-\n\ncational organization is the only one that can render to the profession the kind of service\n\nneeded.\nPresent conditions repulsive to the kind of men and women needed.\n\n—^We are a wage-\n\nearning, quasi-official body, but the principles of civil service that apply to all other groups\nof this character do not apply to ours.\n\nThe whim of any influential patron makes the\n\nschool teacher tremble because he has no protection.\n\nHe stands alone, helpless; \"like a\n\nWhy this needless sacrifice and\nThey are positively immoral and harmful. So long as there is no permanency of tenure and no adequate support, home and families and community prestige\nare impossible. Most men and women of spirit, of culture, of ambition, and of native\npower will not become members of such a group.\nsheep before his shearer, he opens not his mouth.\"\n\nhumiliation?\n\nBetter conditions must he created by organization and co-operation.\n\n—\n\n^This\n\nmay seem\n\nbut it is by no means impossible. Several of the states like California, Ohio,\nMassachusetts, and others have made significant beginnings. It is clearly not a question\nof ability but of purpose and courage.\nPotentially we are a giant but kinetically we are\na pigmy.\nIf this were a truly representative body, in close and constant touch with our 500,000\nconstituents, we could in less than ten years require every teacher in the land to have\nadequate professional training; we could make the average salary of teachers equal to that\nof the rural mail-carriers, about $1,000; we could make tenure of position depend upon\ndifficult\n\nefficiency only;\n\nwe could attract men to the profession who are capable of splendid\nwe could then prove ourselves worthy educators (seed corn)\n\nleadership and great service;\n\ncreating intellectual, moral, and social character after our kind.\nIt is said that our chief business is with the children.\n\nsome, useful men and women of them.\nespecially trained for it.\n\nWe are to make strong, whole-\n\nA big job, you say. Then it calls for big people\n\nCan they be supplied ?\n\nAre we organized to get them ?\n\nBig\n\npeople and especially trained are not looking for $200, $300, and $400 jobs without the\n\nannual moving expenses.\nbusiness.\n\nSo our organization, or lack of organization, fails in its chief\n\nIs it not time we were organizing to bring things to pass ?\n\n—\n\nKind of organization needed. ^We must have more permanency of position, more\nadequate compensation, a more select teaching staff, more professional preparation, and\nmore efficiency of service. Educational principles and educational theory will not secure\nthese things. These belong to the business side of our profession and they demand a\nbusiness organization. We must have an organization that is on duty 365 days in the\nyear, a sentinel for every danger, a captain for every battle, a publicity bureau to keep us\nin constant communication, a counselor for all our business relations, a personal friend\n\nwhen dealing with an unreasonable employer, an advocate to plead our cause at the bar\nof the public, an educational campaign manager to bring patrons and teachers into more\nsympathetic and intelligent relationship.\n\nIn this organization, co-operation between our\n\nprofession and our patrons should be the chief comer-stone; educational intelligence its\n\nfoundation;\n\npublic service its main structure.\n\nNo group coercion or sordid commer-\n\ncialism should be hidden away in the vaults, and all must be hedged about with abimdance\nof publicity.\n\nSuch an organization will at once command the confidence of both the people and the\nprofession.\n\nWe stated at the beginning that all the various educational organizations\n\ngrouped themselves according to their aims and functions into three types:\n\nfirst,\n\nthose\n\nthat discuss educational questions; second, those that provide for the economic better-\n\nment of the profession; and third, those that perform both functions.\nWe have tried to show that this third type is the only one that renders adequate\nservice:\nI.\n\nBecause conventions for the discussion of educational questions ignore the business\n\nside of the profession.\n\n"} {"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n378\n\n2. Because organizations for material betterment\nspiritual interests of the profession.\n\n3.\n\n[National\n\nonly ignore the intellectual and\n\nBecause there can be no educational improvement worth while without a stronger\n\nteaching stafif.\n4.\n\nBecause a stronger teaching staff cannot be secured under present conditions, the\n\nmost objectionable of which are (c) precarious tenure, and (6) a miserable pittance of\nsupport, making impossible home and family life or conununity citizenship and influence.\n5.\n\nBecause these conditions destroy all esprit de corps in the profession.\n\n6. Because effective organization is the only means of raising the standards of prepara-\n\ntion and efl&ciency and of eliminating the unfit.\n7. Because our present organization is unsatisfactory in dealing with the state, the\npeople, or the children.\n8. Because other groups, industrial and professional, have seen the necessity of\norganizing for economic betterment and have far outstripped us in the race of life.\n9. Because a business organization in connection with the intellectual organization is\nthe only means of securing group solidarity and professional prestige.\n10. Because this third type of organization is the only one that gives sufficient\nrecognition to the patrons as well as the teachers, thus avoiding group friction and group\ncoercion.\n\nNow what is the duty of the National Council of Education ? To me it is clear.\n\nWe\n\nshould take the first definite step toward the realization of the things so greatly needed.\n\nIn any forward step of a business character, this body should lead. The rank and file of\nour profession in every state have a right to look to us for suggestion and guidance. They\nwould be greatly helped by our co-operation. Many are only waiting for courageous\nleadership such as this body alone can offer.\n\nWe could supervise the organization of a\n\ngreat national representative body that would wield a tremendous influence in national\n\neducational affairs.\n\nWe could render invaluable service for the economic betterment of\n\nthe nation's teachers, if we had an organization which would put us in vital touch with\n\nWith such an organization, we can do all things which in our\nwisdom we think ought to be done. The goddess of opportunity never came knocking at\nour doors more loudly than she does today.\nthe whole teaching force.\n\n—\n\nBenjamin F. Moore, superintendent of city schools, Muncie, Ind. ^This discussion\nhas proposed an organization of American teachers upon substantially the same basis\nas workers in other professions and in the industries and trades of America are organized.\nWhile there has been some preliminary discussion of the plan, and a few meetings have\nbeen held, it has all been done to the end that a full and frank discussion of the whole\nquestion might be had in the broad-minded and dispassionate way which has characterized\nthis meeting.\n\nThe idea of a delegate organization, as set forth by Dr. Suzzallo, is not entirely new\nnor is it untried.\n\nIt is the principle upon which the industrial, professional, and political\n\norganizations of the country are based.\n\nIn most cities and in many states there are organizations of teachers on substantially\nAltho we admit that such organizations of teachers have, so far, been somewhat local and desultory, there has, nevertheless, been a pronounced sentiment for them.\nthis basis.\n\nThat there is a growing demand on the part of teachers for representation in the councils\nof their profession is evident. Is it not better that this demand be met in a rational way ?\nThat it be rationally directed? That its purposes be broadened? That it be diverted\nfrom all selfish ends prompted by local conditions, and that, instead of spasmodic outbursts, we have a rationally organized body, sufficiently broad in its purposes to command\nthe confidence and support of the teachers of the whole country ?\n\nMuch has already been done in creating sentiment for higher things even in local\nThere would be ample justification for incorporating many of the objects\npromulgated by these local organizations into such a general scheme as here proposed.\nThe question may arise: What could such an organization accomplish ?\norganizations.\n\n"} {"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "REORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION\n\n379\n\nIt would command the support of practically all teachers of the country.\n\nIts benefits\n\nCouncfl]\n\nto them would be direct, immediate.\n\nThey would recognize in it an organization worthy\n\nIt would unite present desultory and independent organizations into\na national body that would command the confidence and support of the entire profession.\nIt would mold and direct public sentiment for education beyond what it is possible\nIts membership would be national. Its influence\nfor any present organization to do.\nwould go to every school district in the land, carried there by one' personally responsible\nfor its acts and personally interested in its welfare.\nIt would strengthen local organizations by suggesting and bringing about larger\nthings. Such an organization would inspire confidence in both the profession and the\nlaity because it would be able to do things worth while.\nIt would make possible the securing of data for the solution of educational problems\nin a direct and reliable way. Members would be personally interested in collecting and\nsubmitting such data. Its use would advance that in which they are directly interested.\nTeachers would study the Uterature compiled from such data. It would be the Uterature\nof the organization of which they would be a part. The effects of such work would come\n\nof their support.\n\ndirectly to the teacher.\n\nToo often she is the last for its effects to reach.\n\nIt would create a bond of union among teachers themselves and between teachers\n\nand patrons beyond what is possible under present conditions.\nhigher dvil and social standing\n\ncommunity.\n\n—\n\nIt would bring to teachers\n\n^bring about a deeper recognition of their worth to the\n\nTeachers would be better satisfied, more independent, less liable to unjust\n\nor unfair treatment, better able to defend themselves against unscrupulous attacks from\n\ndesigning politicians, and, best of all, they would be released from the domination of the\nagitator and the demagog in their own ranks.\n\nWith its large membership small assessments wotdd provide ample means for carrying on the work.\n\nIts\n\nmanagement, being in the hands of those delegated from local\n\nguilds, selected in dispassionate business meetings, uninfluenced by tmscrupulous agitators\n\nThere would be neither hoarding nor dissipation of funds.\nEvery dollar would be expended for the welfare of those who contributed it.\nA question may be raised as to the relation of such an organization to existing organizations of teachers and school men.\nWe submit that its relation to all such would be that of co-operation, not of antagonism. So far as we know, no general organization of teachers covers the field proposed\nfor this.\nIt would not be necessary, therefore, that it supplant any other organization.\nThe discussion of Dr. Suzzallo differs very materially from the ordinary suggestion.\nIt does not seek to tear down does not condemn. It presents a worthy object for what\nit suggests, shows the need for it, and submits a perfectly feasible plan for its accomplishment.\nThis is not urged as a revolutionary measure. The complete development of the\nplan will take time. The important thing now is that we shall begin and that our beginning shall be upon right principles. This is certainly not the time to condemn the whole\nscheme because of differences as to proposed details of organization or management.\nDetails can be worked out later. The big question now is: Will we accept the principle\nof local guilds and delegate general meetings as a basis for the organization of American\nteachers ? We can then proceed with the development of the plan in accordance therewith.\nor agents, would be economic.\n\n—\n\nThe declaration of principles set forth in this discussion will command the respectful\nconsideration of all school people.\n\nIt proposes only that to which the true teacher and\n\nthe true leader can alike subscribe.\n\nIt provides equal opportunity for every teacher in\nthe profession and invites equal activity on the part of every teacher for the profession's\n\nbetterment.\n\nIt provides for a general organization of teachers upon a workable basis.\n\nIts adoption wiU, we believe, mean larger things for American teachers, larger things for\n\nAmerican schools.\n\n"} {"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n38o\n\nfNational\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN\nEDUCATION\nTHE SANITATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS\nTHOMAS D. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,\nCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\nIt is the conviction of the Committee on Health Problems in Education\nof the National Council that there is no more important health problem in\n\neducation than that which relates to the sanitation of the rural school.\n\nThe one-room country school is the oldest and most primitive type of\nschool in this country.\n\nIn the one-room rural schools are being educated\n\n42 per cent of the school children of the United States.\n\nThe country child needs a healthful school environment quite as much\nas the children in the city.\n\nMany diseases formerly considered due to\n\ncongestion of population are now known to be as prevalent relatively in\n\nthe coimtry as in the city.\n\nthan the city.\n\nT)rphoid fever is more prevalent in the coimtry\n\nScarlet fever, infantile paralysis, and some other diseases\n\nare as prevalent in the country as in the city.\n\nIn general, good architecture and good sanitation have been much\nmore freely studied and much more frequently secured in the school of the\ncity than in the school in the country, but the sanitation of the rural school\n\nevery respect as important as the sanitation of the city school. The\nproblems are at foundation identical. Both the city child and the country\nchild need fresh air, good light, clean, wholesome, and attractive surroundis in\n\nings, but the methods of securing these educational essentials are somewhat\n\ndifferent in relation to the two.\n\nThere are further two types of rural schools to consider: first, the oneroom schoolhouse, and, second, the consolidated school with several rooms,\none or more of which may be needed for a greater variety of purposes than\nis required, of the conventional or the traditional schoolroom.\n\nThe country schoolhouse should be in appearance, in quality of attracand in essential characteristics as good a building as there is in the\ncommunity. It should express the intelligent standards, the good taste,\nand the pride of a community quite as much as does the church, the town\nThe country schoolhouse should be the most\nhall, or any public building.\nsanitary building in the district. It should be in all the factors influencing\nhealth as good as, if not better than, any private dwelling in the community.\ntion,\n\nThe civic pride in every community should find expression in some building of\npre-eminent importance to the people as a whole, which should be a model in\narchitectural attractiveness, in adaptation to use, and in sanitary excellence.\n\nIn this age of intelligent conservation of values, when the importance\nof child life is receiving greatest emphasis in the category of relative values,\nit is\n\naltogether appropriate that in either country or city the schoolhouse\n\nshould be recognized as the most important building.\n\n"} {"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nCouncill\n\nCOMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION\n\n381\n\nThe building for the training of the young may be made in any community, by intelligent planning and without unreasonable expense, a\nstructure of genuine beauty and a source of continual safety, comfort,\n\nand pleasure.\n\nAll the features essential to the health of children in school-\n\nhouses and grounds, in furnishing and equipment, are within the power\nof practically every rural community in the country to provide.\n\nA schoolhouse without an adequate playground is an educational\ndeformity and presents a gross injustice to childhood.\n\nThe location of the schoolhouse\n\n(with reasonable deference to the\n\ngeographical center of the community) in anything but the most desirable\n\nand sanitary position available is altogether indefensible.\nNeglect of anything essential for health in construction, materials,\narrangements, and equipment of the rural-school building is an educational\nsin of omission, if not a social and civic crime.\n\nThe expense of the things which really affect the health of the pupil\nin school should be estimated in terms of child life, child health, and human\nefficiency, and only for convenience reduced to dollars and cents.\n\nObservation of the rural schoolhouses in different parts of the country\n\nshow many that violate most or all the principles of sanitation, and whose\nexistence or use is a disgrace to any civilized community. There are many\nrural schools which are attractive and satisfactory when tested by all\nreasonable criteria. But a majority of the rural schoolhouses are unfit\nfor use because of unsanitary conditions.\n\nIn many sections of the country\n\nthe average rural schoolhouse in relation to its purpose is not as well kept\nor as healthfiil as a good stable, dairy barn, pigpen, or chicken-house.\n\nA county supervisor of schools in an old, conservative, and prosperous\neastern state reports as follows\n\nsome conditions of rural schools in his\n\ndistricts:\n\nSchoolhouses ventilated entirely by windows, doors, and cracks.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDry sweeping by teacher and pupils seldom any janitor teacher is thankful to\nhave a decent broom.\nToilets: Small wooden building at side of school or in the rear. Often only a few\nfeet from schoolhouses.\nSeldom any provision for vault, or dirt, or even to board up\nthe under part. It may be cleaned once a year by some farmer. Locks are seldom provided. The building is open to tramps and other wayward people who both use and abuse\nthe place.\n\nWindows, provided there are any, are usually broken. Obscene marks and cuttings\nAbsence of such is worthy a day's journey to see whether the report be true.\nHeating: Usually an unscreened wood stove stands in the central front of the room\nbattered and old, say ten years, twenty years, and, in some cases, fifty years, according to\nthe date of manufacture on it. Stovepipe swings to and fro, and may come out, and school\nbe delayed for a day or more at a time, imtil the committee can find time to repair it. The\ndamper will not work, or is gone, and the teacher must have a terrific fire or none at all.\nThe opposition to closing one of these rural temples of learning and transporting\nthe children is great. The mere suggestion of closing a school of five pupils in a building\nwhere the roof leaked and the privy-room had holes a foot across nearly cost me my\nare common.\n\nposition in that town.\n\n"} {"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n382\n\n[National\n\nMany of these rural palaces are squatters by the roadside, as neither the district\nNo playground is provided\n\nnor the town owns any land aside from the public highway.\nexcept the road.\n\nQuotation from a report of a special educational committee:\nYour commission has been painfully impressed by the condition of many of the\nschool buildings in the smaller towns of the state. They are old, imclean, offering no\n\n.J\n\n,.^\n\npropjer shelter, poorly heated, unventilated, associated with outbuildings offensive to the\n\nsenses and sensibilities of child and adult alike\n\n—buildings of a sort which would not be\n\ntolerated for an instant in the case of a state prison or a county jail.\n\nYet in these hovels\n\nare gathered together five or six hours a day the helpless little children for whose education\n\nthe state has assumed to care.\n\nIt is apparent to the members of the Health Committee that the most\neffective text upon which to base a constructive report on \"The Sanitation\n\nwould be an accurate statement of actual conditions\nfrom representative districts of all principal types and\n\nof Rural Schools\"\nof rural schools\n\ngrades thruout the country.\n\nThe following features are considered most important for satisfactory\nsanitation of the rural school:\n\nGood air.\n\nI.\n\na) Supplied abundantly from outdoors in all weathers.\n\nNot warmer than 68® Fahrenheit in cold weather.\nHeated (but not overheated) and kept in moderate motion by the operation of\n\nJ)\nc)\n\nthe jacketed stove.\n\naway from the health-giving\nOutdoor air is the most valuable tonic known\nto man and acts constantly, not only thru the lungs, but as a continuous\nIt is a crime to shut in school children\n\ninfluences of outdoor air.\n\nair bath affecting the entire surface of the body.\n\nVentilation is a vitally\n\nimportant feature in the sanitation of the school.\n\nA vitiated atmosphere lowers the vitality, increases the susceptibility to, and severity\nof, disease, and decreases the physical working power of the individual.\n\nThe depressed state of the organism imder the prevailing conditions of badly ventilated schoolrooms not only predisposes to epidemic diseases, but the liability to, and the\n\ndanger of, all diseases are intensified, and the vicissitudes of weather, which under favorable circumstances may be encoimtered with impunity, imder these depressing circumstances become dangerous perils; and doubtless much that is attributed to the season of\n\nthe year supposed to be predisposing to scarlet fever, whooping cough, diphtheria, and\n\nsome other common affections of children, is due to the same cause.\nII.\n\nCleanliness\n\n—^which not only influences physical health powerfully,\n\nbut also produces important effects almost as directly upon mind and morals.\na) Dry sweeping or dusting is never justified.\nb)\n\nFrequent scrubbing is indispensable.\n\nVacuum cleaning is desirable whenever possible.\nd) Wet sawdust or oily mops should be used for cleaning floors.\nc)\n\nDamp or oily\n\ncloths are best for wiping off furniture and woodwork.\n«) Clean bodies and dean clothing of pupils and teachers in addition to a clean\nschoolroom are necessary to make a sanitary environment for every pupil.\n/) Flooding the schoolhouse with sunshine and fresh air in addition to thoro scrub-\n\nbing and cleanliness a-re better than any form of chemical disinfection.\n\n"} {"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncil]\n\nWater\n\nIII.\na)\n\n—\n\n383\n\n^pure and abundant.\n\nWater should be as free for internal and external use, as health-giving, and as\n\navailable as air.\nb)\n\nIndividual drinking-cups or, better, a drinking-fountain should be furnished in\n\nevery rural school.\n\nDisposal of sewage.\n\nIV.\n\nProvisions for toilet accommodations and sewage disposal in every rural school\n\nshould satisfy all essential sanitary requirements. The relation between water supply\nand sewage disposal in the causation of typhoid is too well demonstrated to be disregarded.\n\nV.\n\n(2)\n\nLighting.\n\na)\n\nLight should be abimdant and effectively controlled.\n\nb)\n\nWindows should (i) be located at left, or at left and rear of the schoolroom;\n\nextend to ceiling and provide a lighting area equal to one-fifth to one-fourth of the\n\nfloor area.\nc)\n\nLight should be controlled by double shades.\n\nd) Direct sunlight should have access to every schoolroom some time during the day.\n\nHygienic furniture, books, and materials.\n\nVI.\n\nDesks and seats should be individual, separate, adjustable, and clean.\nb) Books and other materials should be not only sanitary but attractive enough to\nstimulate a wholesome response from the pupils.\na)\n\nScreening against insects.\n\nVII.\n\nMosquitoes may convey malaria and yellow fever germs.\nFlies may convey germs of t)rphoid, tuberculosis, infantile paralysis, and perhaps\nother diseases.\nFlees may convey bubonic plague.\n\nTicks may convey Rocky Mountain fever.\nEvery schoolhouse should be effectively screened against mosquitoes and flies.\n\nVIII.\n\nLocation, site, surroundings, and grounds.\n\nWith reasonable regard for geographical center of community, rural school\nshould be located on site (i) well drained and away from stagnant water; (2) free from\na)\n\ntroublesome noise, unpleasant outlooks, or air contaminations;\nas may be) from unfavorable weather influences.\nb)\n\n(3)\n\nprotected (as well\n\nSchool grounds should provide sufficient space for play and games.\n\nIX. Sanitation of the rural school requires not only a healthful building\nand well-kept grounds, but the intelligent and conscientious effort and\nco-operation of teacher and pupils for preservation and improvement\n(where possible) of all the health values in the school and the school surroundings.\n\nX.\n\nThe arrangements and equipment of the rural school should not\n\nonly conserve in every vital way physical health, but should also favor in\nall fundamental particulars the social and moral welfare of all the pupils.\n\nFactors important for securing and preserving the sanitary features\nof the rural schools:\na) Inculcation of ideas of sanitation in the minds of school officials who control the\n\nfimds for the establishment and maintenance of the schools.\nb)\n\nEducation of the rural-school teacher, coimty superintendents, and rural-school\n\nsupervisors.\n\nIntroduction of brief course in hygiene and sanitation in normal schools\n\nand teachers' institutes.\n\n"} {"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n384\nc)\n\nInstillation in minds of pupils and parents of pride in,\n\n[National\n\nand enthusiasm for, the\n\ncare and improvement of all measures favorable to health.\n\nThe present program of the Committee on Health Problems in Education\nappointed by the National Council includes the following:\n1.\n\nAn investigation of actual sanitary and unsanitary conditions of rural schools\n\nin enough districts of various types and conditions in a sufl&cient number of states to make\n\nthe statistical results accurately representative of the rural schools thruout the country.\n2. The employment of a working secretary who shall, under the direction of this\ncommittee, supervise the collection of the data by the most reliable observers available\n\nand then tabulate the statistics for the final report.\nFor the employment of this secretary and other necessary expenses, the Committee\nof the American Medical Association has generously agreed to duplicate any reasonable\namount of money that may be appropriated by the National Council and the National\nEducation Association.\nAn arrangement has been made with the United States Bureau of Education which\nwill enable this committee to do all of its work with the full assistance and co-operation\nof the bureau. This arrangement will be of great advantage in the work of the committee\nand in the advancement of the cause.\n3. The Health Committee plans to prepare a brief preliminary report of its program\nfor the study of sanitation of the rural school, which will be issued by the Bureau of\nEducation as a special bulletin, be ready for distribution before the National Education\nAssociation meeting in Salt Lake City next July, and serve as a basis for discussion at\n\nthat meeting.\n\nTo make effective a study and report intended to be of assistance in\nthe improvement of the sanitation of the rural school, the committee\nconsiders promising and important the following forms of propaganda:\na)\n\nEnlistment of interest of rural-school teachers in information and\n\npractice affecting health conditions.\nb)\n\nPublic lectures for parents, teachers, and pupils on health subjects\n\nin the rural schoolhouses.\nc)\n\nEducation of people generally by popular but reliable health material\n\nin the public press.\nd) Encouragement of pupil interest and co-operation for the betterment of sanitation by organizations like a pupils' board of health, or a\n\nhealth militia.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ.\n\nA.\n\nShaw AN, superintendent of city schools, Columbus, Ohio.\n\n— have been\n^I\n\nre-\n\nquested by the chairman of the committee to present especially the plan of a militia of\nhealth among the pupils of the schools, as suggested by Dr. Burnham in his communication to the committee.\n\nBriefly stated, the objects of the organization are to secure\n\npersonal health, a model school from a sanitary point of view, and healthful surroimdings.\n\nThe older-brother idea should predominate from the Seniors to the lowest grades represented. Training rather than instruction should be the chief end in view. The plan\nmeets with the hearty approval of the members of the joint committee present and should\nIn speaking of the plan. Dr. Burnham says:\n\nreceive the support of school people generally.\n\nIt would be an excellent thing to have this plan tried in some one high school or in\nseveral high schools before any general organization were formed, and, if circumstances\nfavor this,I would suggest that you might get some superintendent to try it in his own city.\n\n"} {"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION\n\nCouncUl\n\n385\n\nMore concretely my idea would be that the students organized into such a militia of\nhealth should first of aU aim to make their own health and physical development as perfect\nas possible by trying plenty of physical exercise, sleeping out of doors or with plenty of\noutdoor air, eating proper food, taking adequate sleep, and avoiding things that would\ninjure one's personal health. Second, they should aim to make their own school and\nschool building a model of hygiene by doing what is possible for cleanliness, ventilation,\nand the like. Third, they should aim to make the surroundings of their own high school\nas sanitary as possible by destroying all flies, mosquitoes, and the like, and working for the\nhighest degree of scientific cleanliness. Fourth, they should do what they might in looking\nafter the health of the younger children in the school or in the neighborhood, this organization being first of all started among the Seniors and Juniors. Ultimately this plan could\nbe extended, and could, perhaps, give a rational solution of the social evil in the high\nschool, the older boys and girls endeavoring to look after the health and morals of the\nyounger. The training in sex hygiene that would come from such a plan would, I fancy,\nbe far better than much of the instruction that is sometimes given. In any case it would\nbe an important supplement to such instruction. What we need in hygiene, as, in fact,\nin education generally, is not so much instruction, but actual training, not talk about\nhygiene and the like, but actual practice of hygiene and actual warfare against the causes\nof disease.\n\nErnest B. Hoag, M.D., state medical inspector of schools, Minneapolis, Minn.,\npresented a report as follows.\n\n—^The plan for the health grading of school children consists\n\nof two parts:\n1.\n\nAn outline for a partial health survey to be made with the aid of the pupils them-\n\nselves, or in the case of young pupils with the aid of parents.\n2. An outline for a more extensive health survey on the part of teachers.\nIn schools where a medical officer or nurse is employed, this outline will serve as a\n\nuseful preliminary health survey.\n\nWith the employment of this survey no school need wait for the appointment of a\nmedical officer or nurse before commencing some effective health work with school children.\nIt is desirable that the teacher should, in the absence of medical officer or nurse,\n\nmake this survey as early as possible after the children enter school, but if necessary the\nteacher may take her own time and complete the survey of the children in her room at\nher own convenience.\nIt is desirable that this survey be made in the case of every child, but in any event the\nteacher should make it in the case of every pupil whom she suspects of being mentally or\nphysically unsound.\n\nThe answers obtained to any one question may be of no particular significance but\nThe answers to questions\n\nthe answers taken as a whole will be of very great significance.\n\nin the same group are often of great importance; for example, it may be discovered that a\n\npupil complains of headache, blurred vision, and inability to see easily what is written on\n\nthe board.\n\nIn such a case, the pupil is unquestionably suffering from a more or less\n\nserious eye defect; or again, it may be noted that the pupil complains of earache, running\near, and perhaps inability to hear easily what the teacher says.\n\nSuch a group of significant\na\n\npoints would indicate unquestionable ear disease leading to permanent deafness;\n\npeculiar standing posture may indicate any one of a number of things, for example, spinal\ndisease, weak muscles, beginning hip joint disease, etc.\n\nThe teacher is strongly recommended to make these surveys without attracting the\nThe\n\nattention of the individual pupil too much to the fact that he is imder observation.\n\nteacher will soon discover that her powers of observation in matters pertaining to the\npupil's health will be greatly increased, and her attention will be called to many things of\n\nAs a matter of fact, one of the most\nimportant uses of this health survey consists in the fact that it trains the teacher's powers\nimportance which she formerly entirely overlooked.\nof observation.\n\nWhen one or more conditions are discovered by the use of this survey, which in the\nopinion of the teacher require attention from the family physician, specialist, or dentist,\n\na notice should be sent to the parents in the following form:\n\n"} {"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n386\n\n[NaUonal\n\nDate.\n\nNotice to Parents or Guardians:\nappears to the teacher to be in need of\nattention. A further examination by\n\nyour family physician, dentist, or specialist, is advised.\nPrincipal\nSchool\n\nThe parent will please sign here and return the notice to the principal.\n\nHealth Survey\nPAKT I\n(Questions to be answered by Pupil or Parent)\n\nName\n\nSchool\n\nDate\n\nGrade\n\nQuestion i. How old are you?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 2. Have you ever had much sickness?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 3. Are you well now?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 4. Do you eat breakfast every day ?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 5. Do you eat lunch every day?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 6. Do you drink coffee ?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 7. Do you drink tea ?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 8. Do you have your bedroom window open or shut at night?\n\nAnswer\n\n•. . .\n\nQuestion 9. Have you ever been to a dentist?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 10. Do you own a toothbrush ?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 11. Do you use a toothbrush?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 12. Do you have headache often?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 13. Can you read easily what is written on the blackboard?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 14. Does the print blur in your book ?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 15. Do your eyes trouble you in any way?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 16. Do you often have earache?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 17. Do your ears ever run?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 18. Can you hear easily what the teacher says?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 19. Is it hard for you to breathe thru your nose?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 20. Do you have sore throat often?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 21. Do you tire easily in school?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 22. Do you work any out of school hours?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 23. What kind of work?\n\nAnswer\nQuestion 24. How much ?\n\nAnswer\n\n"} {"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "..\n\nCouncil]\n\n..\n\n.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION\n\n387\n\nHealth Survey\nPART II\n(Questions to be answered by the Teacher)*\n\nA.\n\nGEMZKAI. APPEARANCE\n\nYes\n\nIs the child healthy appearing ?\n2. Is his color good ?\n3. Is he physically weU developed ?\n4. Is he free from apparent deformities ?\n1.\n\n5.\n\n6.\n\nHas he a good standing posture ?\nHas he a good sitting posture ?\n\nAre the shoulders even ?\nDoes the child walk normally ?\n9. Are the ankles straight when the child walks ?\n7.\n\n8.\n\n10. Is the physical age of the child apparently equal to that\nof his actual age ?\nB.\n\nMENTAL CONDITIONS\n\nIs the child normally advanced in school ?\nIs he mentally alert ?\nDoes he answer ordinary questions intelligently ?\n\nDoes he play normally ?\nC.\n\n1.\n\n2.\n\n3»\n4.\n5.\n6.\n7.\n\nNERVOUS CONDITIONS\n\nIs the child good tempered ?\nIs he free from abnormal emotion ?\nDoes he have good powers of muscular co-ordination ?.\nIs the child free from spasmodic movements ?\nIs he free from the nail-biting habit ?\n\n.\n\nDoes he speak without stammering ?\nIs he free from pronounced peculiarities such as irritability, timidity, embarrassment, cruelty, moroseness, fits\n\ngeneral misbehavior, etc. ?\n8. Is he apparently free from bad sexual habits ?\n9. Is he free from so-called \"bladder trouble\" (requests to\n\n\"go out\")?\n10. Is he usually free from complaints of headache ?\n\nAre the teeth clean looking ?\nAre the teeth sound looking ?\n3. Are the teeth regular ?\n4. Does the child use a toothbrush every day ?\n5. Are the gums healthy looking ?\n6. Are the upper teeth straight (not prominent) ?\n1.\n\n2.\n\n.\n\nE.\n\nNOSB AND THROAT\n\nDoes the child ordinarily breathe with the mouth closed?\n2. Is he free from nasal chronic discharge ?\n3. Is he free from \"nasal voice\" ?\n1.\n\nHas he a well-developed face ?\nHas he a well-developed chin?\n6. Has he straight, even teeth ?\n4.\n$.\n\n7. Is the child mentally alert ?\n8. Is he usually free from complaints of sore throat ?\n9. Is the hearing good ?\nr.\n\n1.\n\n,[\n\n[[[]\n\nEARS\n\nDoes the child usually answer questions without first\nsaying \"what\" ?\n\n2.\n\n]\n\nIs he fairly attentive ?\nIndicate answers by a checkimark.\n\nNo\n\n"} {"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n—\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n388\n\nPART n\n\n[National\n\nContinued\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n3. Is he fairly bright appearing (not stupid) ?\n\n4.\n\nDoes he have a voice with good expression (not expres-\n\n5.\n\nsionless) ?\nDoes he spell fairly well ?\n\n6.\n\nDoes he read fairly well ?\n\n7. Is he free from complaints of earache ?\n8. Is he free from ear discharge ?\n\n9. Is he free from any pecuUar postures which might indi-\n\ncate deafness ?\n\nAre the child's eyes straight ?\nIs he free from chronic headache ?\nDoes he do his work without fatigue ?\nIs he free from squinting or frowning ?\nIs the child free from postures which might indicate eye\ndefects, such as leaning over too near the desk, holding\n\nthe head on one side, etc. ?\nAre the eyes free from redness and discharge?\n7. Are the eyelids healthy looking ?\n8. Can the child read writing on the board from his seat ?\n*9. Have the eyes been tested separately with the Snellen\n6.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nTest Type?\nH.\n\nDISEASES OP THE SKIN\n\nIs the head free from signs of disease (lice, ringworm) ?\nIs the skin healthy loo^ng ?\nI.\n\nERUPTIVE children's DISEASES\n\nThe following points often indicate the early signs of\ntransmissible diseases in children. They will, of course, not\nordinarily be observed at the time of\n\nSurvey.\n1. Flushed face\n2. Lassitude\n3.\n\nVomiting\n\n4.\n\nEruptions\n\n5.\n\nRed eyes\n\n6.\n7.\n\nmaking this Health\n\nNasal discharge\nPersistent cough\n\nScratching of the skin\nSore throat\n10. General aches and pains\n8.\n\n9.\n\nTeachers may use their own judgment about this test.\n\nW. A. Brandenburg, superintendent of dty schools, Oklahoma City, Okla.\nWhen we consider how little has been done to improve the sanitation and health conditions\nof the rural school during the last quarter of a century, and when we take into account\nhow greatly dependent upon these conditions is the physical, mental, and moral welfare\nof the child, the subject at once appeals to us as one that has a legitimate right to engage\n\nour most serious thought and attention.\nIt is easy to criticize and point out imperfections in these respects in the rural school,\nbut what can we offer to better these conditions ? Is it possible in the rural community\nto have everything with respect to sanitation and ph)rsical environment that is enjoyed\nby the children of the dty school ? We afl5rm that it is not only possible but most pracIn\ntical to have everything and even more in this respect than has the dty commimity.\nour judgment the first step is to consolidate six or eight of these rural districts into one\ndistrict.\n\nWith little, if any, more than it would cost to build and maintain those six or\n\neight rural schools a really up-to-date, sanitary school building could be built.\n\nThis\n\nbuilding should be built upon a wisely selected site, which should contain at least ten acres\n\n—why not? Land\n\nis\n\none of the cheapest commodities of rural communities and it is\n\n"} {"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION\n\n389\n\none of the most essential parts of the school plant. In this building every room should\nThere should be an adequate amount of light about\none-sixth as many square feet of light space as floor space. Every window should be\nsupplied with adjustable or Venetian shades. In northern localities adjustable shades\nare preferable; in southern localities Venetian shades may be used with profit. All walls\nshould be tinted with appropriate colors. These should be selected according to the most\nmodem and scientific intelligence in schoolroom decoration.\nThe heating system in such a building should be complete and modem with respect\nto both regulation and ventilation. The fan system should be used and should supply\nfresh air equal to the volume of air in the respective rooms every six to nine minutes.\nIn such a mral-school arrangement, medical inspection could be quite as successfully\nadministered as in any school system, which would be a great step forward in the efficiency\nof the rural school. As little opportunity for even periodical bathing is afforded in mral\ncommunities between the freezing-over of the old swimming-hole and spring, provision for\n\n—\n\nreceive light from one side only.\n\nbathing should be made in this building.\n\nAnother thing that would prove to be of great merit and assistance, not only to the\n\nWhen we consider\nhow little reading-material is found in the ordinary rural community, and how much\nschool but to the rural community, would be a well-equipped library.\n\ntime for the reading of good books country boys and girls have during the long evenings,\nSundays, and stormy days, we readily see what a great opportunity would be offered in\nhaving a good library in every mral township.\n\nEvery such school should be provided with an assembly hall which should be large\nenough to accommodate two or three hundred people. A building thus equipped could\neasily become the real center of the social, political, and industrial life of the community.\nHere lectures could be given on all subjects of interest to the rural community. Who\ncould estimate the value of such an arrangement for the rural community ?\nA part of the school site should be beautified, and a part supplied with play apparatus\nfor the small children. There should be grounds for baseball, football, basket-ball, etc.\nThere should be a modest, small gymnasium, or playroom, for use especially in inclement\nweather. Every mral school of this sort should be equipped for manual training, domestic\nscience, and the study of agriculture. With such an equipment one more thing is needful.\nThis one thing is competent teachers. No teacher should be employed to teach in a\nrural school who has not completed a normal-school course; and our normal schools ought\nto exist primarily for the training of the mral-school teacher; and there should be a law\nenacted in every state requiring the payment of a salary commensurate with the qualifications thus imposed.\n\nSome of the results that would follow:\nPractically every desirable thing now being done by all progressive school systems\n\ncould be accomplished.\n\nFar greater efficiency, physical, mental, and moral, would be brought about.\nSubjects could be pursued, not merely textbooks studied.\n\nA wider S3mipathy and closer and a more efficient co-operation among the people\nwould result.\n\nOne of the needs of our nation today is a greater appreciation of the beauties, advanand the sacred influence of country life under favorable circumstances. Young\n\ntages,\n\nchildren are often sent to the town or city school for their grammar-grade or high-school\n\nwork just at that flexible and impressionable age when home ties should be strengthened\njust at the age of visions and the fixing of life's purpose, when the\nthreads woven into the fabric should come from nature and nature's God.\n\nrather than weakened\n\n—\n\n—\n\nJohn M. Dodson, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Permit me on behalf of the\nAmerican Medical Association, which I am here to represent, to express the profound\nappreciation of that organization of the prompt and vigorous response of th€ National\n\n"} {"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n390\n\n[NaUonal\n\nEducation Assodation to the suggestion, made at your San Francisco meeting, that you\ntake up for consideration the health problems of the public schools.\n\nThe Medical\n\nAssociation, thru its Coimdl on Public Education and Hygiene, is seeking to disseminate,\n\nas widely and effectively as possible, knowledge of the recent advances in the medical\n\nsdences, and to arouse in the public intelligent and enthusiastic interest in preventive\nmedicine. This the council is doing thru the public press, by sending weekly to several\nthousand papers carefully written articles on medical subjects, by public addresses before\ndubs, sodeties, colleges, schools, and other organizations, and in various other ways. The\nreasons for this movement are to be found in the nature and possibilities for good to the\nworld in the recent progress in the medical sdences. This remarkable advance of the last\nhalf-century has added more to our exact knowledge of the causes of diseases than had\nbeen accumulated in all previous centuries.\nThe fruits of this new body of knowledge, in usefulness to mankind, lie almost wholly\nin the direction of prevention rather than of cure; of sanitation and hygiene, rather than\nof therapeutics. How great are these possibilities has been abimdantly demonstrated\nin the last few years, most conspicuously perhaps by two events of the past decade. The\nfirst of these, taken from military life, is the experience of the Japanese\n\nwith Russia.\n\narmy in the war\n\nFollowing closely the disastrous experience of our own army in the Spanish-\n\nAmerican War, and the equally deplorable record of the British army in the Boer War in\nSouth Africa, in both of which wars the loss from preventable diseases exceeded that from\nthe casualties of battle by four or five to one, the medical corps of the Japanese army,\ngiven full authority to enforce the mandates of modem sdentific sanitation, was able\nto demonstrate that disease among large masses of men assembled as in armies may\nbe so controlled as to minimize the mortality and morbidity almost to the point attained\nimder the best conditions of dvil life.\nThe second notable demonstration of sdentific sanitation has been afforded by our\nown experience in the Panama Canal Zone. The French, under De Lesseps, were obliged\nto abandon this great engineering project, mainly because of the awful mortaUty among\ntheir working force. Given full authority to institute and maintain sanitary conditions\nin the Canal Zone, Colonel Gorgas and his sanitary corps have converted this \"veritable\nvalley of death \" into a land of health and comfort. So great has been the transformation\nthat enthusiastic visitors have dedared that \"the foremost pesthole on the earth has become a health resort.\" The health reports from the Canal Zone for the last five years\ncompare favorably with those from our better American dties.\nNumerous other instances might be dted in proof of the effectiveness of modem sanitary and hygienic procedures smallpox, by universal vacdnation and revacdnation, has\nbeen practically abolished from the German empire since 1875; typhoid fever has been\nfor years almost xmknown in the leading dties of Germany; yellow fever has been all but\nbanished from Cuba, and no longer visits our own shores; cholera, for centuries a frequent\nand deadly visitor, has been effectually excluded from the United States.\nWith these facts in mind can anyone doubt the tremendous possibilities of sanitation\nand hygiene in reducing the sum total of sickness and death with all the attendant suffering and distress? Of the 1,500,000 deaths which occur annually in the United States,\nabout 600,000 two-fifths of the total are due to preventable disease. It is safe to say\nthat if the knowledge which we now possess of the causes and modes of dissemination\nof these preventable diseases could be effectively utilized, with the universal co-operation\nof every individual, these diseases could be almost wiped out in a few years.\nIf any progress is to be made in this direction, however, it must come mainly thm\ncommunity rather than personal hygiene, by means of the enaction and enforcement of\nsanitary legislation, mimidpal, state, and national. In a democracy like our own such\nlaws can be enacted and successfully operated only when they are the outgrowth of an\nintelligent and earnest general demand by the people for such legislation, and a hearty\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "'\n.\n\nCouncai\n\nCOMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION\n\nco-operation in carrying out the regulations enacted.\ntial step, therefore, in\n\nThe most fundamental and essen-\n\nsecuring better sanitary and hygienic conditions is the universal\n\neducation of the people along these lines.\n\nyoung.\n\n391\n\nSuch education is most effective among the\n\nWe cannot hope to accomplish a great deal in the present generation, but if the\n\ncoming generation can be instructed in these matters, convinced of the great possibilities\nof preventive medicine, and aroused to an energetic demand for improvement, there is no\n\nmeasuring the possible good, which may be accomplished.\n\nHerein lies the opportunity\n\nof the great body of teachers represented in this National Education Association.\n\nIf the\n\ncoming generation is to be instructed along these lines of sanitation and hygiene, and is\nto be aroused to effective action it must be accomplished very largely by the teachers\nin our schools.\nI should like to elaborate on some of the points in the report of the conmiittee as presented by Dr. Wood, and first, let me say, that the rural school should serve as a model\n\nf\n\n>\n\nof sanitation and hygiene to the whole community. More and more the schoolhouse is\nbecoming the social center especially in the rural communities. Centrally located with\n\nattractive surroundings, it should serve as an object-lesson to everyone in the district.\n\nThis fact may warrant the institution ot measures which might not seem immediately\nindispensable for the welfare of the pupils.\n\n—provision\n\nI would call particular attention to the need of facilities for cleanliness\nfor washing the hands and face after out-of-door sports at recess.\n\nThis should be by\n\nrunning water whenever possible, rather than by washbasins or bowls, and it is gratifying\nto learn from President Kirk that such can be provided without large expense.\n\n—each pupil providing his own towel. The\n\ntowels should be insisted upon\n\nIndividual\n\nroller or other\n\ntowel used in common by many children is at least as dangerous an avenue of contagion as\nthe common drinking-cup, which is now, happily, being consigned to oblivion.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe exclusion of insects flies, mosquitoes, and the like by screened windows and\nis all-important.\nThe demonstration by Ross, Bignami, and others that the\nmalarial organism is transmitted by a genus of mosquito, and in no other way; the\nbrilliant demonstration by our own army surgeons. Reed, Carroll, Lazear, and Agradoors\n\n—\n\n—\n\nmonte names which every true American must hold in everlasting honor that yellow\nfever is conveyed by another genus of mosquito, and by no other means; the evidence\npresented by Dr. Ricketts, another noble American martyr to the cause of science, that\nthe moimtain fever of the Bitter Root Valley is conveyed by the tick; and that the dreaded\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntyphus fever\n\nthe tarhadillo of Mexico is transmitted by the louse; the convincing proof\nthat the plague is conveyed by the rat flea; and that t)T)hoid fever and other infections are\nfrequently spread by the fly;\n\nthe positive proof that the terrible sleeping sickness of\nCentral Africa is transmitted by the tsetse fly these, and other similar demonstrations,\n\n—\n\nhave afforded overwhelming proof that the fly, the mosquito, the tick, the flea, the louse,\nthe bedbug, the cockroach, and possibly other insects are not simply annoying nuisances,\nbut are dangerous pests, to be destroyed and excluded from our homes and from contact\nwith our bodies by every possible means.\n\nIn conclusion permit me to express again the gratification of the medical profession, as\nrepresented in the American Medical Association, over the active interest which this\n\nNational Education Association has manifested in the vital health problems associated\nwith our schools.\n\nWe pledge you the hearty support and co-operation of the medical pro-\n\nfession, financially and in every other way, in the furtherance of this great movement.\n\n<\n\ni\n\n"} {"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n392\n\n[National\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS\nOF EFFICIENCY IN SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS\nGEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION,\nCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y., CHAIRMAN\nEducators and laymen have always expressed opinions with respect to\nthe efficiency of our schools.\n\nIn recent years there has been developed,\n\nalong with a refinement in the technic of investigation in education, a\n\nremarkable public interest in the attempts to evaluate our educational\npractice.\n\nSchool inquiries, investigations, or surveys have been conducted,\n\nor are planned, in a great\n\nmany cities thruout the United States.\n\nIn\n\neach case there is the supposition that such an inquiry or investigation will\n\nmeasure the efficiency of the schools.\n\nIt has not always been clear, either\n\nto those making the survey, or to those who read the reports, that three\ndistinct types of measurement have been employed, or three sets of stand-\n\nards or tests applied.\n\nIt is possible to characterize each investigation, or\n\neach part of some of the larger surveys, by one of the three following\nmethods of measurement: first, measurement by personal opinion; second,\nmeasurement by comparison; and third, measurement by more or less\nwell-established standards or units.\n\nMeasurement by personal opinion is valuable in just the degree in which\nthe person passing the judgment is, by training and experience, qualified\nto give an intelligent opinion.\n\nSuch personal judgments have frequently\n\nsuggested comparisons with other commimities, and have at times, no doubt,\n\nbeen based upon more or less well-established standards. The chief characteristic of this type of report, however, is found in the fact that the author\ndoes not feel that it is necessary either to appeal to a painstaking compari-\n\nson with other similar situations, or to state the standards which he uses\nin passing his judgment.\n\nOften the individual who is expressing a personal\n\nopinion seeks to give dignity to his statements by saying that he speaks in\n\nterms of facts. In effect, his argument is that the situation as he sees it\nand as he has described it leads inevitably to a conclusion with respect to\nthe strength or weakness that has come under his observation. Of course,\nno such appeal to facts can modify the situation. Unless careful comparisons have been instituted, or commonly accepted standards applied in\npassing the judgment, the opinion expressed in the light of the so-called\nfacts which have been discovered remains simply an opinion.\n\nMeasurement by comparison is based upon the fundamental idea that\nthe common practice is the result of the judgment of many men who have\n\nattempted to solve the same or very similar problems. In reports which\nhave used the method of measurement by comparison, the most common\npractice is used as the standard to which each local situation is referred.\nSuch comparisons have been made with regard to expenditures, the progress and classification of children thru the grades of the school system.\n\n"} {"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nTESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\n393\n\nthe amount of time devoted to school subjects, supervisory provision,\nteacher-training, tenure,\n\nand the like.\n\nIn the derivation of standards of\n\nefficiency, it will always be necessary to employ the comparative method.\n\nAny adequate derivation of standards will, however, involve much more\nthan comparison.\n\nMeasurement\n\nin\n\nany\n\nfield\n\nis\n\nnot successful merely\n\nbecause we are able to say that one quantity is more or less than another.\nIt is only when we have a measuring-stick which enables us to describe all\nof the quantities with which we deal in terms of definitely determined units,\n\nthat we can claim to have any adequate method of measurement.\n\nWe are only beginning to have measurements undertaken in terms of\nstandards or units which are, or which may become, commonly recognized.\n\nSuch standards will imdoubtedly be developed by means of applying scientifically derived scales of measurement to\n\nmany systems of schools.\n\nFrom\n\nsuch measurements it will be possible to describe accurately the accomplish-\n\nments of children and to derive a series of standards which will be applicable\nto varying groups of children and to different social demands.\nStandards of accomplishment will always be stated in terms of group\nmeasurements. For example, we shall not demand that all children in a\ngiven grade be able to write with a certain speed and with a certain degree\nof excellence, nor that they all be able to perform a certain number of operations in arithmetic with a fixed speed.\nWe shall, rather, measure the\nabilities of the group in terms of a central tendency, possibly the median or\nmode, and in terms of variability from this most common or median ability.\nThe derivation of standards and their application to school situations does\nnot mean that we shall attempt to make all children alike, or to secure the\nsame product in every situation. It will be possible, however, for one who\nhas some appreciation of statistical method, to compare groups of children,\neither within the same school system or in separate systems of schools, with\nrespect to any ability or quality which they may possess, with even greater\nassurance than we have any right to have in comparing two individuals.\n\nWe may expect to develop standards or tests of efficiency in the several\ndifferent fields, or with respect to the several different elements which constitute a school system.\n\nIt will not be wise to attempt to measure one ele-\n\nment in the situation out of relation to others, since each part of a school\nsystem is not only related to, but in some measure determines, the efficiency\nof every other part.\n\nFor example, we might consider the problems of busi-\n\nness administration as distinct, and yet we know that successful business\n\nadministration will determine in no small degree the efficiency of work done\nin classrooms.\n\nIt is only when buildings are properly constructed, lighted,\n\nand ventilated, when supplies of the right sort are purchased and properly\ndistributed, that we can expect to do satisfactory work.\n\nIn like manner,\n\nthe accomplishment of groups of children in the several subjects which we\nteach, and the number of promotions or non-promotions, may be determined\nin considerable measure by the enforcement of the compulsory education\n\n"} {"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n394\nlaw.\n\n[National\n\nIn any attempt to measure the efficiency of a system of schools, it\n\nwill therefore be necessary to include in such a survey all of the problems\n\ncommonly considered under the head of business administration, educational\norganization, the recruiting of the teaching corps, and the accomplishment\nof children.\n\nIt is not probable that it will ever be pf^ssible to establish a\n\nsingle standard or unit of measurement, the application of which may be\n\nthought to determine the efficiency of a school system.\n\nThe business management of a system of schools is to be judged by the\nadequacy of the system of accoimting and of reporting which is used, just to\nthe degree that such records are a measure of business efficiency in other\nlines of human endeavor.\n\nIn so far as we have commonly accepted stand-\n\nards for school buildings, one may judge of the efficiency of the school plant.\nEfficiency may further be determined by the degree to which the business\nmanagement has succeeded in standardizing supplies and equipment to the\n\nend that waste is eliminated.\n\nIt cannot be too strongly urged that neither\n\nexpenditure per unit of population nor expenditure per pupil measures the\nefficiency of a school system.\nThe question is always, not the amount spent,\nbut the return secured for the money expended. The development of\n\nstandards in business administration will be made possible when we have\n\nmore adequate reporting in this field.\n\nAny comparative study which might\n\nlead to the development of standards of efficiency can be made only upon\n\nthe basis of a large degree of imiformity in accounting and in reporting\nfiscal statistics.\n\nFrom the standpoint of the enforcement of compulsory education, which\nis,\n\nin effect, putting children in touch with the education which we provide\n\nfor them, the efficiency of a system of public education is measured by the\nratio of the number of children in school to the nimiber of children in the\n\nconmiunity who ought legally to be in attendance.\n\nIf legal restrictions,\n\ncontrol by agencies outside of the school system, or the lack of funds renders\n\nimpossible the enforcement of the compulsory education law, one cannot\n\ncharge that those\n\nwho are responsible for the administration of public\n\neducation are inefficient.\n\nIt is not probable that any city of considerable\n\nsize can hope for efficiency in this respect without the establishment of a\n\ncontinuing permanent census.\nEfficiency in school organization demands that children be differentiated\n\nwith respect to their mental, physical, and moral capacities.\n\nIt is relatively\n\nsimple by physical examination to determine the need for classes for the\ntubercular, the blind, the deaf,\n\nand the crippled.\n\nThe fact that special\n\ntypes of education must be provided for these several groups is easily estabIt is not quite so simple to determine the adequacy of the means or\nmethods employed in the classes in which these children are found. We\nmay, however, expect, in the light of further experience with classes for\nthese children, to develop standards as adequate as those which we apply to\ngroups of normal children.\nlished.\n\n"} {"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nCouncU]\n\n,395\n\nChildren who are mentally defective can be discovered by tests which\n\nmore or less commonly accepted.\n\nare\n\nThe Binet-Simon tests are being\nIt is probably not more\nand it would seem just as\n\napplied thniout the United States for this purpose.\ndifficult to discover children of superior ability,\n\nlegitimate to judge of the efficiency, with respect to school organization, of\n\na school system in terms of the provision made for supernormal children,\nas in terms of special classes for defectives.\n\nMoral delinquency demands special treatment.\n\nWe judge the efficiency\n\nof the organization of a school system not infrequently by the provision\n\nwhich is made for those who are habitually truant, or who are incorrigible.\nWe should more frequently judge the efficiency of schools which attempt\nto reform the morally delinquent in terms of the later activities of the individuals placed in these special schools. We may claim to have reformed a\nboy or girl only when we know, because of our careful system of following\n\nup these special cases, that they do not revert to those practices which we\noriginally sought to eliminate.\n\nWe are coming to recognize the need for a differentiated curriculimi for\nchildren who have finished their elementary-school course.\nin the\n\nnewer types\n\nIt is not easy\n\nof industrial, household arts, agricultural, or trade\n\neducation, to determine the needs of the community or the special apti-\n\ntudes of children.\n\nAny adequate solution of the problem of vocational\n\ntraining will necessitate careful vocational surveys and the largest possible\n\nopportunity for the discovery of the special abilities of children.\n\nIt is inter-\n\nesting to note that many of those who are studying the problem of vocational guidance are\n\ncoming to speak more in terms of the discovery of\n\nspecial ability in order that adequate training may be given, than in terms\n\nof places for children to work.\n\nOne of the most common tests which has been applied to school systems\nduring recent years is found in the percentages of retardation, elimination,\n\npromotion, and non-promotion.\n\ntaken\n\nall\n\nThese statistics do not, either singly or\n\ntogether, measure the efficiency of the school system.\n\nare rather symptomatic.\n\nThey\n\nA large degree of elimination or retardation is\n\nsignificant mainly in showing the need for changes in curricula or in school\n\norganization, in calling attention to a lax enforcement of the compulsory\n\neducation law, or in showing the need for modifications in standards\n\nemployed by the school system.\n\nWe shall, of course, continue to follow\n\nclosely the statistics of elimination, retardation, acceleration, and promotion.\n\nEvery competent administrator will introduce cumulative record\n\ncards which will enable him to trace accurately the history of all children\n\nSuch information will always be valuable,\neven indispensable, to one who wovdd study carefully a school situation.\n\nthruout their school course.\n\nWe shall have gained greatly, however, when we learn to consider these\nfacts as symptoms rather than as final measures of efficiency.\nIt has been suggested that the efficiency of schools be measured in terms\n\n"} {"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n396\n\n[National\n\nof medical inspection, dental inspection and treatment, the provision for\n\nplaygrounds and recreation, the satisfaction of children's needs in terms of\n\nmeals and clothing, and the provision for the education of youth and adults.\nIt is unfair to judge a school system as efficient or inefficient in terms of\n\nany one of these activities except as the community concerned has recognized these activities as belonging to the school.\n\nIf the social group has\ndetermined that these functions shall be added to those commonly belong-\n\ning to the school as an institution, then it will be possible to measure the\nefficiency of each of these lines of\n\nendeavor by standards which we may\n\nhope to derive.\nConsiderable progress has been made in recent years in measuring the\n\naccomplishment of children in the subjects which are taught in our schools.\n\nThe problem here is to come to recognize the necessity for group measurements and group standards.\n\nSuch measurements will involve the idea of\n\nprogressive increase in achievement and of central tendencies and variability\n\nwithin the group.\n\nOften such tests of efficiency will be most significant\n\nThe work of Stone and\n\nin comparing the units of a single school system.\n\nCurtis in arithmetic, the scales for measuring the quality of merit in handwriting by Thorndike and Ayres, and the scale for measuring English composition by Hillegas are especially noteworthy.\n\nThe measurement of the efficiency of the work of individual teachers has\nreceived considerable attention in recent years.\n\nIt is essential, if superior\n\nmerit is to be rewarded, that a scale for measuring the work of teachers\n\nbe established.\n\nThe scale proposed by Professor Elliott has been successThe further\n\nfully used by many superintendents and supervisory officers.\n\nuse and criticism of this scale should result in the establishment of a satisfactory measuring-stick in this field.\n\nIn the application of scales for measur-\n\ning the accomplishment of children, we have a valuable supplement to the\nscale for measuring the efficiency of teachers.\n\nDoubtless both scales will\n\nneed to be used by anyone who hopes to compare adequately the work of\nthe individuals who constitute any teaching corps.\n\nThe more we attempt to establish standards and tests, the more insistent we will have to be that our practice be carefully described in the records\n\nwhich are made by teachers and supervisory officers. Such material will\nbe most signfficant for school systems which have organized as a part of\ntheir administrative system a bureau of investigation.\nIndeed, the administrative or supervisory officer of the future may be expected to act largely\nin terms of measurements, which enable him to judge accurately of the\nefficiency of any element or part of the school system of which he has charge.\nWe may expect that a group of capable investigators will work imder the\ndirection of the superintendent of schools to the end that he and the community which he serves may have constantly available the most adequate\ninformation possible with respect to the efficiency of the school system.\n\n"} {"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nCouncU]\n\n397\n\nIt may not be claimed that the measurement of the several parts or\nelements of a school system necessarily indicates the efficiency of those\nIt may be that a school\nsystem is inefficient because a community is relatively poor, or unusually\n\ncharged with the administration of our schools.\n\nUnusual facilities for the development\nmost excellent system of schools may be provided by virtue of the\nsuperior intelligence and the large resoiurces of the population of another\nschool unit. The most significant measure of efficiency is progressive development or improvement within the system of schools measured.\nGreater progress will be made in the establishment of standards and\ntests, and in the development of more adequate measurements of the\nlacking in progressive leadership.\nof a\n\nefficiency of school systems,\n\nwhen we establish a committee, a board, or\n\ncommission on school efficiency.\n\nIt is of the utmost importance that this\ncommittee or board be representative of the most significant scholarship and\nof the best administrative practice known to our profession.\n\nshould be constituted by the National Council of Education.\n\nThis body\nIts functions\n\nshould be as follows:\n1.\n\nIt should offer encouragement, expert advice,\n\npublication to those engaged in scientific\n\nand opportunity for\nwork in the direction of the\n\nderivation of scales of measurement, in the application of such scales or\nunits to actual school situations, or in the establishment in any other manner\nof standards in relation to public education.\n2.\n\nIt should offer expert advice with respect to the nature and scope of\n\nsurveys, investigations, or inquiries, to be undertaken in any part of the\n\nUnited States.\n3. It should offer to members of our profession engaged in administrative\nwork the opportunity to secure a scientific investigation of their systems of\n\nschools under the direction of professional experts.\n\nAs the situation is at\n\nwe have the anomaly which permits a politician, an interested\nbook-publishing company, or a personal enemy of the chief administrative\npresent,\n\nofficer of a school system to attempt to secure the removal of such an officer\nwithout any adequate measure of the efficiency of the school system or the\n\naccomplishment of the man whose work is called in question.\n\nThe estab-\n\nlishment of a body of professional experts would in time render such action\nimpossible.\n\nFor the work of a committee or board such as is contemplated in the\nstatements made above, a liberal appropriation should be made by the\nNational Education Association, and it is possible that further endowment\nshould be sought in order to make possible those activities which will\nmean the increase in efficiency of our system of public education and the\nestablishment of our profession.^\n•This report together with a bibliography of more than three hundred titles is printed by the United\nStates Bureau of Education as Bulletin No. 13, 1913.\n\n"} {"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n398\n\n[National\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nEdwaiid C. Elliott, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. ^The ultimate problem\nof this committee is not that of establishing procedure or defining tests; rather it is that\nof creating a new kind of confidence on the part of the public in the work of the public\nschools. This confidence constitutes the capital with which the efficient school system\nmust develop its dividends and activities. Many recent educational events have contributed to a weakening of that bond of trust that must ever obtain between the community and its fimdamental institutions.\nIn devising tests and formulating standards, this committee must constantly have in\nmind the intelligent and public-minded portion of our citizenship. These tests and\nstandards, however technical in character and object, must not have their significance\nclouded by esoteric verbiage. Our people of today want to understand what their\neducational system is, and what it is supposed to do. The ultimate worth of the efficiency\nprinciples and devices must be measured by the extent to which they are brought within\nthe comprehension of the typical la3mian. Our aim must be the bulwarking of the cause\nof public education by a new common confidence in the performance of schools. This new\nconfidence cannot be sustained upon vague theory nor upon standards that are established\nin defiance either of scientific procedure or of common-sense. If our schools are to have\ncredit for their work, this new confidence must obtain; if our school systems are entitled\nto the new confidence, they must have these new tests and standards.\n\nCharles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho.\n\n— should\nI\n\nlike to give the\n\nexperiences of Boise, Idaho, relative to the discussion of expert surveys.\n\nDr. EUiott, Dr. Judd, and Dr. Strayer were employed by the board of education to\n\nmake an expert survey of the school system.\n\nTwo of these men spent a week in the com-\n\nmimity, and Dr. Elliott remained ten days.\n\nThey submitted a report that is very valuable\n\nto the board of education and to the taxpayers of the community.\n\nMany valuable sug-\n\nimprovement are made. These three men came into the commimity in a sympathetic attitude. They were helpful at every point.\nCommenting on that report, the president of the board of education, who is an expert\nin matters of irrigation law and irrigation investment propositions for bonding houses,\ngestions for continued\n\nsaid:\n\nI am glad to see that education has at last reached such a stage of development\nthat it is indeed a profession. The report these three men have made to the board of\neducation will certainly compare favorably with expert reports made by engineers, etc.\nTheir standards are sensible and sane. They attempt to standardize only those elements\nthat are indeed measurable. Their language is simple and all their findings may be\neasily understood by any layman. They have indeed rendered a service to the school\nand to the community\nThe report is worth ten times what it cost us.\n\nThe teachers were all enthusiastic and are eagerly following all suggestions made.\nThey see now more clearly than ever before that there are certain elements in school\nadministration that may be standardized.\n\nAll are xmited to do teamwork for increased\n\nefficiency as never before.\n\nThe comparisons these men made with other cities, as on expenditures, have placed\nus in an entirely defensible position before the taxpayers and will convince even the most\ncritical that we are not spending too much money, and that the results that we are getting\n\nare certainly conmiensurate with the expenditures made.\nIf school authorities generally would secure expert advice rather than fight it, they\nwould not have to submit to the humiliation of having it forced upon them by taxpayers'\nleagues from the outside.\n\n—\n\nC. N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J. ^The Council has\ndone well to appoint this conunittee to attempt an inventory of the factors which measure\nschool efficiency.\n\n"} {"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "•\n\nTESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nCounca]\n\n399\n\nI venture the opinion that any serious discussion of standards and tests will have a\n\nsalutary influence upon the public, upon school boards, upon teachers, and upon superintendents.\n\nI believe the day is past when any system of schools, municipal or state, can\n\nsafely ignore analysis of its results.\n\nTaking it for granted that we realize that some of the potential values of a school\ncannot be fixed by tests or standards, shall we ignore all tests and standards ? Because\ntests and standards have their obvious limitations, shall we refuse to accord them a place\nin our administration of schools ?\n\nThe committee has directed attention to factors in efl&ciency which can be tested or\nOne of these is the school building or school plant the equipment, the\n\n—\n\nmeasured.\n\nprovision for playgrounds.\n\nA survey may be worth all it costs if it reports upon the need of a gymnasivma in a\nhigh school; that the seating in the primary schools is such that the legs of the children\ndangle in the air; that the janitor service is sloppy; that some of the buildings are firetraps; that the toilet acconmiodations are immoral and indecent;\n\nthat the ventilation is\n\nbad; that the lighting is impairing eyesight; that the playgrounds are inadequate; that\n\nprimary teachers are handicapped by lack of supplementary reading; that the alleged\ncommercial department is without suitable furniture; that the industrial-training equip-\n\nment is insufficient.\nThere is enough agreement of opinion among men and women in this room to form a\nWhether the conmiunity will sit\n\nworkable basis for reporting upon these conditions.\n\nup and take notice or not is another matter.\nAnother factor, or group of factors, comes under the head of school organization.\nHere, too, it seems to me there is enough agreement to form a substantial basis for\nstandards.\n\nWhat are some of these?\nThe number of children of legal school age who are in school, taking into account\nprivate school enrollment. The suggestion made by the committee that there be a permanent school census is an excellent one.\n\nThat city or state which shall be the first to\n\npoint the way to such a census, accurate in detail, will perform a distinct educational\nservice.\n\nSchool attendance in relation to efficiency can be reported upon with assurance.\nRetardation, elimination, and promotion may be reported upon in a similar way.\n\nThe relative cost of schools in different cities, the system of accounting, the efficiency\nof the business department may well be reported upon.\n\nThe number of children taught by the individual teacher is a factor of far-reaching\nimportance affecting efficiency, which in my judgment has not received the consideration\nit\n\ndeserves.\n\nThe necessity of special schools for varying types of children is becoming accepted as\na test of efficiency in organization, depending, of course, upon the extent of the system\n\n—\n\nschools for mentally defective children, schools for truant children, schools for children\n\nwho are retarded, schools for the alert and especially capable children, different types of\nschools in the upper grammar grades and in the high schools, as commercial departments,\nacademic departments, industrial departments.\n\nSummer schools, continuation schools, opportunities by means of playgroimds and\nrecreation centers may enter into our estimate.\n\nThe report, however, should make clear that the blame is not always to be laid at the\nsuperintendent's door if these extra activities do not exist.\n\nfunds may be wanting to carry on these activities.\n\nPublic support or public\n\nLloreover, we should be on our guard\n\nin estimating the efficiency of a school system solely by the number of special activities\n\nfoimd therein.\nHere, then, is a group of factors under school organization which it seems possible\n\nand reasonable to test in terms generally acceptable.\n\n"} {"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n400\n\n[National\n\nWhen we come to the course of study, greater difficulties begin to appear.\n\nThe kind\n\nA\n\nof industrial training is one, but the necessity for this training is a settled question.\n\nschool system without provision for industrial training can readily be judged as partially\n\nlacking in efficiency.\n\nCourses of study in high schools which relate to Ufe, in which there is motive, which\nappeal to the interests of young people, do not seem to be generally agreed upon so far as\nI have been able to observe, altho we have been talking about it for some time.\n\nReading, English composition, handwork, spelling, music, drawing seem to be well\ndefined in the first six years or grades;\n\nbut in the higher grammar grades, how much\n\ngeography, how much EngUsh grammar, how much literature, the amount and kind of\nhistory, civics, elementary science, the scope of industrial training, are still open to differ-\n\nence of opinion among very competent people, even experts.\n\nHowever, the opinion may be expressed with considerable confidence that enough\nmake possible a report upon efficiency as to the course of study.\nAbsence from a course of study of suggestions for its interpretation, and absence of\n\nis settled to\n\nsuggestions as to the elimination of obsolete material, is not a sign of efficiency; neither\nis the absence of suggestions for correlation of study a sign of efficiency.\n\nWhat about standards and tests applied to the teacher\n\n—the one important factor in\n\nIt would seem that there might be substantial agreement upon the following:\n\nthe school ?\nSalaries\n\nRequirements, academic and professional, for entering the service\nProvision for improvement of teachers in service\nOpportunities for study and the like\n\nMethod of appointment\nPolitics or \"pull\" in app>ointment. transfer, and dismissal\n\nPensions\n\nOn the side of instruction, it would seem that standards and tests may be formulated\nDr. McMurry has attempted this in the New\n\nas to the character of the instruction.\n\nYork report.\nI suppose there would be universal agreement that there should be evidence of tnc\n\nplay spirit in primary schools, and cultivation of initiative, of the spirit of freedom, of\nhabits of straight thinking, in the work of the teacher in all schools.\n\nHabits of study,\n\nability to use books, the working power of children may to a certain extent be evaluated\n\nby wide observation in many schoolrooms\n\nsystem under investigation.\n\nThe\n\ncharacter of the appeal to children's motives and interests in the instruction\n\nmay\n\nof the\n\nbe similarly determined.\n\nThese relate obviously to processes in teaching.\n\nHow far, however, the influence of the teacher extends in the cultivation of ambition,\nof self-direction, of moral courage, of regard for the rights of others, of sweetness of temper,\nof self-denial,\n\nrobust habits;\n\n—\n\nand of social consciousness ^in a word, in the building-up of strong and\nhow far these may be measured by any body of experts or investigators\n\nis extremely doubtful.\n\nAnd yet all this enters into the rating of efficiency.\n\nThe public is interested in what the children know, in what they can do, in the degree\nof their skill, in how they read and spell and work problems and write letters, in how well\nthey know some of the essential facts in geography and United States history. Public\nquestioning here cannot be ignored in testing, surveying, and investigating.\n\nThere are two great sources of waste in schools, both elementary and high schools,\nin connection with instruction:\n\nfirst,\n\nforcing adult standards upon children by means of\n\nthe course of study, and secondly, too much activity by the teacher and too\nthe pupils.\n\nlittle\n\nby\n\nA survey should not ignore these conditions.\n\nThe committee suggests three methods in determining the value of the teacher's\nwork: personal opinion, comparison with other cities, and measurements by established\nstandards.\n\n"} {"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nTESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nCouncil]\n\n401\n\nThe first two are of value, but their limitations are obvious. The last method,\nmeasurements by established standards, suggests the question: Have we such established\nstandards that are reliable or dependable ?\n\nThe character of the supervision is another vital factor not to be omitted in our estiSome qualities in this important field are such that they may\nbe summed up, defined, or reported upon. As to other essential qualities in supervision,\ncan we be sure that they can be evaluated in a report ?\nmate of school efficiency.\n\nIn conclusion, I wish to advance five propositions:\n\nA\n\n1.\nsystem of schools should have, under the leadership of the superintendent, its\no>yn local machinery for testing and investigating. A trained educational statistician\nmight well be on the superintendent's office staff, or available for his use. A committee\nof laymen, citizens appointed by the board of education upon the recommendation of the\nsuperintendent, might, with the co-operation of the superintendent, present a survey of\nvalue. The report of such a local body, it is true, would probably take on local color or\nprejudice, but it could make some contribution. I do not wish to convey the impression\nthat it could do as effective work as an outside body, but it might be a sort of clearinghouse between the superintendent and public opinion which would strengthen the hands\nof the superintendent.\n2. The survey should take into account purely local conditions which have affected\nschool efficiency; for example, rapid growth in population, the character of the foreignbom population, lack of public funds to establish and maintain vocational training.\nThis is\n3. The report should not fail to recognize the achievements of the schools.\ndue to the public, to the superintendent, to principals, and to teachers. Nothing will\nbring educational surveys into disrepute more surely than a survey which summarizes\nthe work of the schools in the words of a college professor who recently passed judgment\nupon schools in such a discriminating statement as this: \"The schools are absolutely\nrotten.\"\n4. The survey should clearly indicate whether the general movement of the schools\nin spirit and results is in the direction of increased efficiency. The element of comparison\nshould not be left out. Comparison with other cities ? Yes. Comparison with previous\nconditions in the same city ? By all means, yes.\n5 The investigation should preferably be made by at least three persons. An adverse\nreport will carry farther, in my judgment, and be received with more confidence, if it is\nthe combined opinion of a group of persons than if it is the opinion of one man, however\ncapable and conscientious he may be.\n\nThe committee raises the question whether the Council should appoint a committee\non standards and tests, and one on educational surveys or investigations.\nThe purpose of such a committee, as I understand it, would be to offer counsel or\nadvice to communities or cities, proposing surveys of their respective school systems.\nSuch advice or counsel is needed. This being the case, I believe that this Council,\na professional body, representing the country at large, might well, thru an appropriate\ncommittee, act in this professional capacity.\nI beUeve that the committee has rendered a valuable report, that the Council should\n\nrecommend that it be continued, and that it be authorized to make still another report\nupon tests and standards for efficiency one year from this date.\n\n—\n\nBen Blewett, superintendent of instruction, St. Louis, Mo. ^The membership of the\ncommittee submitting this report represents the scholarship and practical experience\ncompetent to consider this question of surpassing importance.\nThe report of the committee in its painstaking and judicial consideration of the\nsubject, and in most of its conclusions, justifies the expectations aroused by its personnel.\n\nCenturies ago the wisest of all teachers said: \"By their fruits ye shall know them.\"\nThe value of all human endeavor must be judged by what proceeds out of it. There\nseems to be no conceivable reason why schools or school systems either must or should be\nexempted from this universal test. The difficulty in this instance, as in many others, lies\nin not discriminating between stem and twig, and flower and fruit.\n\n"} {"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n402\n\n[National\n\nThe report is, however, disappomtiDg in at least one of its conclusions and certainly\nin some of the things it omits saying.\nIf I may venture to simmiarize the conclusions, they are:\n1.\n\nThat any school or school system may be justly measured in the functioning of its\n\nseveral activities.\n2.\n\nThat one standard of measure that can test its efl&dency as a whole is impossible.\nthe measures applied must be standards in the several and respective\n\n3. That\nactivities.\n\n4. That these standards must be established by some bureau, committee, or group of\nexperts selected because of ripe scholarship and broad experience in administration.\n5. That varying conditions in social groups are factors in the results.\n6. That an unrelated money value cost unit is a meaningless and mischievous standard\nof measure of results in any of the activities of a school system, even in those activities\nhaving to do with such material things as cost of buildings and supplies.\n7. That the community shares with the schoolmaster in the responsibility for the\nefficiency or inefficiency of the system of schools.\n\nThe report is disappointing in its second conclusion.\nit is misleading in not going far enough.\n\nWhile it is true as far as it goes,\n\nNo one test can prove that the piece of metal I\n\nhave on my laboratory table is gold, but there is one test by which I can prove that it\nis not gold.\n\nIf it will not resist the drop of add, I know that it is base, not pure.\nTho we cannot\nbe assured that a school system is efficient because it stands the test in any one, two, or\n\nmore of its departments, or in some of the subjects of its curriculum work, its failure to\nshow one dominant purpose or aim for its whole work is conclusive evidence that it is\nineffident Nor is the condusiveness of the evidence vitiated by any question concerning\nthe adequacy of the purpose or aim of any part of the work.\nis\n\nIf there is not this one prindple that binds the parts into a co-ordinated whole, there\nwithout question a chaos instead of a system, a game of chance instead of a law of\n\norder.\n\nI do not believe the committee will object to this amplification of its position on\n\nthe use of one single test of effidency.\n\nIf I\n\nam not wrong in this belief, I may with\n\npropriety express the regret that the committee did not discuss the possibility of an\n\nagreement upon a dominant purpose or aim, the absence of which would be an infallible\nindication of ineffidency and whose presence would suggest the presumption of effidency.\nIs there not already practical agreement, not only among teachers, but of the citizens\n\nof the state with the teachers, that the only justification of the support of a system of\n\nschools by the state is that there is no other way in which the democratic state can so well\n\nAnd is this not on the\ntheory that the product of the schools shall be a youth who will respect himself and his\nprovide for its stability, development, comfort, and happiness.\n\nfellow-men, who has a positive will imder rational control, whose intellect shall be alert\nand accurate in its action, and whose emotional nature shall be responsive to the beautiful\nthings in the natural world and broad in its human sympathies ?\nMight the committee not have told us that should we find a school or a system of\nschools lacking in this aim as the result of all of its work, we could know of a certainty\nthat it was not worthy of support ? Might it not have told us that, if we found this aim\ndetermining all the formal plans of administration and instruction, and animating every\nact of the lives of the teachers and administrative officers, we could feel quite sure that the\nschool or system was worthy of support altho in time it might be improved by a better\nagreement on standards of spelling and composition, etc., which would make these subjects\nof the course of study more effective in accomplishing their part of the whole aim ?\nJ. M.\n\n—We of our country\nWe are quite given to rushing new acquaint-\n\nGreen, prindpal of State Normal School, Trenton, N.J.\n\nare energetic and often very emotional.\n\nances, new ideas, and sometimes, I am afraid, new terms without much relating of ideas.\nIt is easy to pick from the files of newspapers and magazines names of men upon whom\n\n"} {"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\nCouncai\n\n403\n\nthe eyes of the nation were focused, and whose praises were on every tongue for a brief\nseason.\n\nHow many of us could now readily recite the names of even the select few who\n\nhave been chosen to the Hall of Fame ?\nRecall the favor in politics of such expressions as \"taxation without representation,\"\n\n\"the little log cabin,\" \"Tippecanoe and Tyler too,\" \"the full dinner pail,\" \"the open\ndoor,\" \"imperialism,\" \"conservation,\" \"progressive,\" and, in education, of such\nexpressions\n\n\"object\n\nas\n\nteaching,\"\n\n\"co-ordination,\"\n\n\"correlation,\"\n\n\"concentration,\"\n\n\"Herbartianism,\" etc.\n\nThere is a saving grace in our rushing.\n\nWe are not hkely to allow it to carry us\n\nclear off our feet, and our fads often leave a residuum of real and lasting value.\n\nnow we are rushing the term efficiency.\n\nJust\n\nI do not know exactly what the term means.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n^not by any specific language\nbut\nby talking much around and about them.\nThe proposition is that we establish, by action of the National Council of Education,\n\nIt is like some other expressions that we try to deiSne\n\na committee, board, or commission on school efficiency; that this committee be representative of the most significant scholarship and the best administrative practice known\nto our profession; that the duty of the committee shall be, first, to offer encouragement,\nexpert advice, and opportunity for publication to those engaged in scientific work in the\ndirection of the derivation of scales of measurement, in the appUcation of such scales or\n\nimits to actual school situations, or in the establishment in any other manner of standards\nin relation to pubhc education;\n\nsecond, that it should offer expert advice with respect\n\nto the nature and scope of surveys, investigations, or inquiries to be imdertaken in any\n\npart of the United States; third, that it should offer to members of our profession engaged\nin administrative work the opportunity to secure a scientific investigation of their systems\n\nof schools imder the direction of professional experts.\n\nFor this committee the National Council is asked to make a Uberal appropriation\nand prepare itself to make further endowment in order to make possible the increase in\nthe efficiency of our system of public education and the establishment of our teaching\nprofession.\n\nShould the Council assume this undertaking ? The answer should depend, first, on\nwhether or not such a committee is desirable or even possible; second, on whether the\nCoimcil or National Association has the money to meet the necessary outlay. Speaking\nto the first proposition, is there any distinction to be made between the use of standards\nin connection with material things and intellectual things ?\n\nWe may standardize bricks\n\nso that whenever we use the word \"brick\" we shall be understood to mean a solid four\n\ninches wide, two inches thick, and eight inches long.\nsimilar way ?\n\nCan we standardize ideas in a\n\nIs it possible for us to select a given number of words and processes which\n\nin a certain schoolroom will produce a certain result that can be anticipated ?\n\nCan we\n\nmeasure the value of an idea ? Can we tell what the effect of an opinion will be on the\ncommimity with which we are associated ? Do thoughts take such forms in expression\nthat they are the same to speaker and hearer ? Does a given thought mean the same\nthing in one age that it means in another, or has it the same force in one place that it\nhas in another ?\n\nWas Galileo as much appreciated when he made his great declaration\n\nas he is now?\n\nDoes Christianity mean the same thing in Turkey as it means in New\n\nEngland ?\nIt has been said that there is no great school that does not bear the impress of some\n\nindividual, that does not itself have an individuality.\n\nCan we compare the individualities\n\nof these institutions and state the results of the comparison in terms of exact measure-\n\nment?\n\nHow does Harvard compare with Yale, or Columbia, or Princeton, especially\n\nwith reference to the last half of our century, and the problems it will offer ?\n\nThe words \"standard\" and \"standardize\" have a place.\neach other's ideas and opinions as nearly as possible.\n\nWe must be able to get\n\nTo a certain extent we may adopt\n\neach other's views; for instance, as to the amount of light that should be admitted to a\n\n"} {"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n404\n\n[National\n\nschoolroom, and the direction from which it should come with reference to the position\nof the pupil; the amount of heat and of fresh air that should be admitted; the size and\n\ncharacter of seats, desks, and blackboards.\n\nWe may agree upon the approximate use\n\nwe will make of a given number of words and signs; as, for instance, the alphabet, the\nnames of the simple objects with which we are in contact ^house, street, chair, and\nso on; the multiplication table, and the simple measurements called arithmetic. We\ncannot be absolute in the uses of any of these words or characters or processes, but we\ncan be reasonably uniform in our estimate of their values and places. Beyond these\nsimple processes it is quite impossible to go with any certainty that we are more nearly\n\n—\n\nright than would be another.\n\nThere is a very decided difference between popularity and\n\npermanent value.\nI am strongly of the opinion that the tendency of our age is to minimize the teacher\n\ntoo much; to assume that by processes of a mechanical nature, supervision general and\nspecial, tests, etc., we can accomplish an education in which the teacher is\n\na small part.\n\nThe teacher is the most\nessential factor of education.\nEducation is the influence of one mind upon another\nwith a definite end in view. There is no exact way of estimating what that influence will\nbe.\nHow often we hear someone say of a certain teacher that he had more influence\nover him than any other teacher he ever had, that he practically was responsible for\nwhatever success had come to him in life.\nI also feel strongly that this is the reverse of what it should be.\n\nThere should be a standardization, but it must be understood to be largely a standardization of opinion such as comes from a suggestive course of study.\n\nThis is necessary\n\nfor purposes of co-operation, classification, certification, etc., but it cannot be measured\n\nin exact terms of efficiency.\n\nThere are to my mind three strong reasons why the National Council of Education\nshould not undertake the proposition:\nFirst, the Council is not wise enough to select such a committee.\nSecond, there are no men wise enough to constitute such a committee.\n\nThird, the National Education Association has not money enough to spare to meet\nthe necessary expenses of such a conmiittee.\n\nThere should be no objection to any superintendent of public instruction, any president of a college, or any board of education seeking any advice from anyone, but the\nNational Council of Education should not designate that one.\n\n—\n\n^To express my views\nJ. M. Rice, formerly editor. The Forum, Mt. Vernon, N.Y.\non educational standards and tests of efficiency as briefly as possible, I shall state them\nin the form of two fundamental propositions, which, from my viewpoint, are of equal\n\nThey are:\nThat standards and tests of efficiency are capable of development on a scientific\n\nimportance.\n1.\n\nbasis in education.\n2. That such development has its limitations.\nThese two propositions will suffice to indicate that, in my opinion, we are here\nconfronted by a problem that presents two elements, a knowable and an unknowable one.\n\nNow, if the new movement may be expected to be rewarded by the advent of a real\nscience of education, it will be necessary for our educators to recognize that unless they\n\nconfine their attention in the development of standards to those elements that are knowable, and for this reason are subject to standardization, the whole movement is liable\n\nto go awry.\nScientific standardization involves at least two distinct factors.\n\nIn the first place,\n\nwe must have a tangible or objective thing to be measured; and secondly, a tangible or\nobjective thing to measure it with; the former being represented by the result, the latter\n\nby the test.\n\nConsequently, where the conditions are such that the result cannot be\n\n"} {"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nTESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY\n\n405\n\nexpressed in terms of quantity, we can go only so far as to measure intangible things by\n\nmeans of subjective standards, and this lies outside of the category of science.\nIn education, science demands the standardization of the result as well as of the test.\nAs for standardizing the result, the only possible basis is that of comparison, while the only\npossible basis of comparison\n\nis\n\nactual achievement.\n\nWhen this idea is carried to its\n\nultimate conclusion, it will be found that the only scientij&c working basis is the capacity\nof the child.\n\nThus, we cannot set up standards a priori.\n\nThey can only be developed\n\ninductively by learning what the pupils in the more successful schools have been able to\n\naccomplish, while this can be\n\nknown only within a sphere that will permit of actual\n\nAnd, in my opinion, the nature of the\nproblem is such that, from this point of view, our field is practically limited to the three\nR's. This statement requires an explanation into which, however, my time limit will not\npermit me to enter.\nAgain, from the viewpoint of standardization, the result cannot be accepted as it\nis, but must be viewed in the light of conditions, the fundamental one among these\nbeing the time allotment. Thus a result, even if found to meet the percentage standard,\ncannot be looked upon as satisfactory unless achieved within a given time. For example,\nif the standard result in arithmetic as determined by standard tests should be 70 per cent\nunder forty minutes' daily instruction, 70 per cent achieved as a result of an hour's daily\ninstruction would not be meeting the standard.\nNow, when we come to touch upon the question of methods of teaching with a view\nto standardization, we find ourselves treading on very delicate ground. If an extended\ninvestigation should show that satisfactory results had been achieved in a given branch in\na given percentage of the schools examined, and unsatisfactory results in others, and it\nshould be found that the successful schools had used a method which the others had not,\nthen a causal relation between methods and results could be said to exist, and we should\nperhaps be justified in accepting certain methods as standards. As it so happens, however,\nthat during the course of my own investigations no such relationship was found to exist,\nI arrived at the conclusion that the question of methods was one in which we were not in\na position to dogmatize without abandoning the scientific point of view.\nIn this respect, education differs entirely, for example, from the industries, where a\ngiven result at times cannot be obtained except thru the use of a certain machine or process.\nIn education, we are thrown off the track for the reason that the mind is not a machine, but\na highly complex organization, which will not permit us to verify the prediction that a\ngiven cause will lead to a given effect, except perhaps within a very narrow range. As I\nsee it, we shall therefore adhere more closely to the scientific aspect of things by demanding standard results and allowing free play in the choice of methods to principals and\nteachers, than by demanding the use of certain methods to which the superintendents have\ntaken a fancy, and granting immunity from results to principals and teachers who employ\nthem and profess to believe in them.\nFor this reason, I maintain that the efl&dency of teachers cannot be justly estimated\nby observing how they present their subjects, but can be so estimated only by noting what\nthey have accomplished imder certain conditions and with a given allotment of time,\nwith this single proviso, namely, that the classroom spirit is such as to make the school\nhomeUke to the children. Thus, by insisting that the teachers accomplish the demanded\nresults, but allowing them due latitude in the selection of methods, they will secure more\nactual freedom than when they are obliged to use certain methods, without being held\nquantitative measurement on a common basis.\n\naccountable for the results.\n\nIn brief, then, I maintain that while it is well enough to theorize about methods from\nthe standpoint of suggestiveness, we cannot, at least at the present stage of pedagogical\n\nknowledge, go so far as to dogmatize about them and look upon some of them as standards,\n\neven when indorsed by our leading educators, without abandoning the scientific point\nof view.\n\n"} {"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4o6\n\n[National\n\nAgain, in regard to the subject-matter of the curriculum, standardization does not\n\nseem possible except in the case of ideas and processes with which all persons of ordinary\neducation are expected to be familiar, even after leaving school, whatever their walks in\nlife may be.\nWithin that sphere standardization is both desirable and possible; but\nbeyond it much latitude should be allowed to principals and teachers. In arithmetic, the\nessential elements would be confined to addition, substraction, multiplication, and division\nof whole numbers, fractions, and decimals, besides percentage.\nGood penmanship, the\nuse of good English, and the ability to read fluently are also self-evident requirements.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nSALT LAKE CITY MEETING\nOFFICERS\n\n—Chakij:s H. Eetes, president of Skidmore School of Arts. .Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\nRaleigh, N.C.\nVice-President—\nY. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction.\nSecretary—^Robert\nAley, president of the University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nPresident\n\n.\n\n^Jaices\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nJ.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Saturday Forenoon, July s, 1913\nThe National Coimdl of Education was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in Barrett Hall,\nSalt Lake City, Utah, by President Charles H. Keyes.\nThe report of the Conunittee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living was presented\nby the chairman of the conmiittee, Joseph Swain, president of Swarthmore College,\nSwarthmore, Pa. The following took part in the discussion: David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C; Carroll G. Pearse,\nsuperintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; James M. Greenwood, superintendent of\nschools, Kansas City, Mo.;\n\nRobert J. Aley, president, University of Maine, Orono, Me.;\n\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal. Township High School, Joliet, 111.;\n\ntendent of schools, Louisville, Ky.;\n\nE. O. Holland, superin-\n\nMary Adkisson, Denver, Colo.; Amelia C. Fruchte,\n\nCentral High School, St. Louis, Mo.; and Charles H. Keyes, president, Skidmore School\nof Arts, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Saturday Afternoon, July 5, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m.\nPresident Keyes reported on the success of the \"two meetings a year\" plan, showing\n\nthat the interest and attendance had been better than under the \"one meeting a year\"\nplan.\n\nP. P. Claxton, commissioner of education, Washington, D.C., who was absent from\n\nthe morning session, discussed the report made by President Swain.\n\nJames H. Baker, president, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., made the final\nCommittee on Economy of Time in Education. He recommended that\nthe report be printed. It was voted that the report, with the chairman's recommendation, be referred to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\nreport of the\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Monday Forenoon, July 7, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m.\nJames Ferguson, principal of Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, Cal., read\na paper discussing the report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living.\n\n"} {"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\n407\n\nThe report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education was presented\nby Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical education, Columbia University,\nNew York, N.Y., and chairman of the Committee of the National Council of Education,\nand R. W. Corwin, M.D., Pueblo, Colo., professor of surgery, University of Colorado, and\nchairman of the Committee of the American Medical Association.\nThis report was discussed by the following: Jacob A. Shawan, superintendent of\nschools, Columbus, Ohio; Henry B. Favill, M.D., Chicago, 111.; A. E. Winship, editor,\nJournal of Education^ Boston, Mass.; Helen C. Puttiam, M.D., Providence, R.I. W. A.\nJessup, director, School of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; and\n;\n\nothers.\n\nOn motion of C. P. Cary, of Wisconsin, it was voted to continue the committee and\nto ask for an appropriation of $1,500 for the work of the committee.\n\nThe president appointed Joseph Swain, of Swarthmore, Pa., to take the place of A. S.\nThis comDowning, of Albany, N.Y. (absent), upon the Committee on Membership.\nmittee was called to meet in Room 405, Hotel Utah, at 8:30 a.m., July 8.\nThe president appointed the following members to fill vacancies on the Committee\non Investigations and Appropriations caused by absence:\nA. E. Winship, Boston, Mass., to take the place of A. S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio, to take the place of L. D. Harvey, Menomonie,\nWis.\nJ. Y. Jojnier, Raleigh, N.C., to take the place of J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nJ. S. Brown, Joliet, 111., to take the place of Ella F. Young, Chicago, 111.\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 10, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 00 a.m.\nThe following report of the Committee on Membership was unanimously adopted:\n:\n\nTerm expires 1916\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Me., President\nTerm expires 1914\nWilliam B. Owen, Chicago, 111., Secretary\nTerm expires 1916\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C., Executive Committee\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah, Committee on Membership. Term expires 1916\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio, Committee on Membership. Term expires 1916\nA. S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., Committee on Investigations and\n.\n\n.\n\nAppropriations\nTerm expires 1916\nT. A. MoTT, Sejrmour, Ind., Committee on Investigations and Appropriations\nTerm expires 1916\nG. B. Cook, Little Rock, Ark., Committee on Investigations and\nTerm expires 1916\nAppropriations\n\nMEMBERS\nTerms to Expire in 1919\nFannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass., to succeed herself\nBettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio, to succeed herself\nCharles H. Keyes, Saratoga Springs, N.Y., to succeed himself\nJ. F. Sims, Stevens Point, Wis., to succeed himself\n\nCharles H. Judd, Chicago, 111., to succeed himself\nBird T. Baldwin, Swarthmore, Pa., to succeed himself\nA. Duncan Yocum, Philadelphia, Pa., to succeed himself\nJosephine C. Preston, Olympia, Wash., to succeed Clem Hampton\nThomas C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va., to succeed himself\nFrank B. Dyer, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\n\n"} {"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "2\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4o8\n\n[National\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nSTATEMENT OF TEE WORK AND PROPOSALS OF THE COMMITTEE ON TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST\nOF LIVING FOR 1912-13\nJOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT OF SWARTHMORE COLLEGE,\n\nSWARTHMORE, PA., CHAIRMAN\n\nCommenting on the increase in wholesale prices that has been going on\nsince 1897, the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living stated\nin Chicago a year ago that: \"Authorities on the subject are of the opinion\n\nthat the movement thus begun will continue indefinitely.\"\n\nevents confirm this forecast.\n\nSubsequent\n\nAccording to a recent report of the Bureau\n\nof Labor,' wholesale prices, which had eased off slightly in 1911, reached a\n\nnew high level during 191 2.\nhigher than in 1897.\n\nIn the latter years they were 48.9 per cent\n\nOn this basis the purchasing power of a dollar in 191\n\nwas equal to the purchasing power of 67 2 cents only in 1897. Or, to put\nit in another way, to equal the purchasing power of a salary of $500.00 in\n1897 would have required $744. 50 in 191 2.\nOf course the increases of wholesale prices noted above have been\nreflected in retail markets.\nAnother report issued by the Bureau of Labor\non March 11, last,* enables us to trace this upward movement in the case of\n.\n\nfifteen staple articles of food as sold over the counter to the ultimate con-\n\nsumer.\n\nOn this score also last year marked the highest level for the last\n\ntwenty-three years.\n\nIn 191 2, the average price at retail of the fifteen food\ncommodities referred to above was 61.9 per cent higher than in 1896.\n\nDuring the last fifteen or sixteen years, therefore, wholesale prices generally\nhave been rising at the rate of 3 26 per cent and the retail prices of food at\n.\n\nthe rate of 3 81 per cent a year.\n.\n\nWORK IN PROGRESS\nIt was suggested at Chicago that in the second task set for itself by the\n\nranks and in\n—a study of the actual\npaid teachers of\n—the co-operation of other organizations, such as\n\ncommittee\nall\n\nsalaries\n\nall\n\nparts of the country\n\nthe national Bureau of Education, the Sage Foundation, or the Bureau of\n\nMunicipal Research, might be secured.\n\nThe committee deems itself very\nAt the\n\nfortunate to be able to report that this anticipation was realized.\n\npresent time a large investigation along the lines indicated is well under\n\nway in the capable hands of J. C. Boykin, of the editorial division of the\nBureau of Education, who states its scope and purpose as follows:\nThe investigation has been planned to cover the entire subject of the rewards of\nNaturally modifications will be made as the work progresses, for some of the\n\nteaching.\n\n'Bulletin Whole Number Z14, No. x, April 4. 1913'Bulletin Whole Number 113, No. s, p. 18.\n\n"} {"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING FOR 1912-13\n\n409\n\nfeatures now contemplated may prove impracticable, and undoubtedly additional topics\nwill be suggested from time to time.\n\nSo far, however, the plans include the following:\n\nAn examination of the laws of the several states relating to teachers' salaries,\nincluding: (a) maximum and minimum salaries, with provisions for maintaining them;\n1.\n\n(6) authorities charged with the duties of fixing salaries;\n\nfunds for salaries;\n\n(c) taxation and other sources of\n\n{d) use of state school funds, and restrictions that relate to salaries; (e)\n\ntime and methods of payment, temporary loans, and other expedients to insure promptness; (/) conditions of payment, including certificates, attendance on institutes, etc.\n2.\n\nSalaries actually paid to supervising oflScers and teachers in the city public schools.\n\n3.\n\nThe schedules under which those salaries are paid; the conditions of promotion,\n\nand of reappointment if appointments are for a definite term.\n4. Salaries of teachers, etc., in villages and small cities.\n5. Salaries in rural schools;\n\nhouse rent; gardens; provisions for boarding, etc.\n\n6. Salaries of state, county, township, and district superintendents.\n7.\n\nSalaries of teachers, etc., in normal schools and training classes.\n\n8. Salaries of specialists in institutions, etc.\n9.\n\nEarnings of private-school teachers (if obtainable).\n\n10. Salaries of professors, instructors, etc., in state universities\n\nand agricultural\n\ncolleges, etc., and in other higher institutions, as far as practicable.\n11. Increase in salaries in certain t)T)ical cities (St. Louis,\n\nBoston, New Orleans,\n\nBaltimore, and Cincinnati) as shown by their schedules, from the establishment of their\nrespective public-school systems to the present time.\n12. Relation between subject and salary; between class of institution and salary;\nbetween geographical location and salary; between sex and salary, etc.; comprehensive\n\ncomparisons; discussion; conclusions.\n\nAn authoritative answer to the question whether salaries have outrun or\nlagged behind the increase in the cost of living is of the highest importance.\nIt will determine whether teachers have been able to maintain or extend an\nearlier standard of living or are being forced to lower economic levels.\nThere remains, however, the further question whether the existing standard\nSome very fruitful studies of this\nof living among teachers is satisfactory.\n\ncharacter have been made of certain laboring groups, and the committee is\n\nnow conducting negotiations with an economist of distinction with a view\nto securing his assistance in this field.\n\nThis will involve:\n\nThe formulation of a general plan which can be adopted by teachers in every locality\nin an attempt to determine whether or not the salaries which they are receiving provide a\n\nConsiderable work along this line has been done with the budgets of wage-earners.\nIn each such investigation a rather simple plan of procedure has been adopted, and the\ninvestigation has decided whether the wages paid in a given district enable the wageearners there to maintain a standard of eflSciency. It would seem that the same method\nmight be beneficially applied in the case of teachers. The study for teachers should\ninclude, first, a statement of what teachers need to maintain a fair living; second, a statement showing the cost of filling such needs; and third, a comparison of salaries with\n\nliving.\n\nthese costs.\n\nWith the completion of the investigations detailed above, the committee should be in a position to formulate definitely a number of propositions\n\nregarding the salaries, teniures, and pensions of teachers.\n\nAn extensive\n\ncorrespondence with this end in view has already been inaugurated among\n\n"} {"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4IO\n\n[National\n\nthe members of the committee, the results of which should be ready for\npresentation at the next meeting of the Association.\n\nFUTURE WORK OF THE COMMITTEE\nIt is the hope of the committee that the various lines of work in progress,\n\nas detailed above, may be completed within the limits of the funds already\n\nThere remains, however, one field of inveswhich has been suggested for the future, and which is brought\nforward at this time in order that the members of the National Education\nAssociation may have an opportunity to decide whether they wish to\nencourage and support an undertaking of this magnitude and importance.\nThe value of the studies made by Dr. Brooks of the social and economic\nconditions under which teachers live and work in Cincinnati, Denver,\nHamilton, Atlanta, and New Haven is by no means limited to these comappropriated for its purposes.\n\ntigation\n\nSimilar conditions notoriously exist elsewhere. To what extent\nand in what localities they exist can be determined, however, only by a\nmunities.\n\ncorresponding study of many widely scattered communities.\n\nA founda-\n\ntion has already been laid for such an investigation, should it command the\n\nfavor of the Association, by the circulation last fall of a letter addressed to\nthe superintendents of schools in all cities of over 25,000 inhabitants and\nto a select but widely distributed\n\nlist\n\nof smaller cities.\n\nIn\n\nthis letter\n\nsuperintendents were asked to request teachers to keep such memoranda,\nparticularly of their expenditures\n\nfrom September, 191 2, to September,\n\n19 1 3, as would enable them to furnish the committee with the information\nit desired.\n\nIf this plan is to be carried\n\nout it will require a large corre-\n\nspondence during the fall of the present year and following this the tabulation of the returns,\n\nand the writing of a report based upon them.\n\n[No\n\nfunds are available for this work at present.]\n\nPENSIONS\n\nThe third part of the committee's report is devoted to the subject of\nA conspectus which it contained made it possible to see\n\nteachers' pensions.\n\nat a glance the present status of pension systems in the various states and\ncities of the country.\n\nFollowing this the texts of existing pension acts were\n\nquoted at length in the hope that they might provide not only ideas but also\nlegal phraseology in which to clothe them to groups of teachers engaged in\nthe study of this subject.\n\nNo attempt was made in our report to pass upon\n\nthe merits of various pension plans.\n\nIn a recent report of the Carnegie\n\nFoundation,' this subject is taken up as follows by Mr. Henry S. Pritchett,\n\nwhose experience as president of the Foundation and whose exhaustive\nstudies of pension systems of all descriptions at home and abroad qualify\nhim to speak most authoritatively on this subject:\n*\n\nSeventh Annual Report, igza, pp. 70-74.\n\n"} {"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING FOR 1912-13\n\n411\n\nA FEASIBLE PENSION SYSTEM FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nThis problem is now before the legislatures of many states. It is going\nto be an increasingly insistent question. In the presence of such suggested\nlegislation, the thoughtful legislator will wish to ask at least four questions:\n\nUpon what grounds are pensions for public-school teachers justified ?\n(2) Assuming that pensions ought to be paid, who ought to pay them ?\n(3)\nWhat form of pension system would it be fair to adopt, having regard both\nto the individual teacher and to the state ?\n(4) What will such a pension\n(i)\n\nsystem cost the individual teacher and what will it cost the state ?\nWhen these four questions have been answered, a feasible pension\nsystem for the public-school teachers of a state will have been described.\n\nWhile it is not possible to answer these finally for a particular state\nwithout a thorogoing examination of the salaries, ages, and lengths of\nservice of the teachers who compose the system, it is nevertheless possible\nto give a general answer, sufficient to guide the inquirer in forming a\n\njudgment.\n1.\n\nPensions are justified upon practically two grounds:\n\nfirst,\n\nthose of a\n\nsecondly, as a necessary condition to an efl&cient\n\nlarger social justice;\n\npublic-school system.\n\nThe first of these reasons applies in marked measure to pensions like\nthat of the teacher.\n\nSociety, as at present organized, desires to get the best\n\nservice it can out of the various vocations and callings into which men are\n\nIn some of these callings great prizes are to be won\nand these serve as incentives for high performance. In other callings, like\nthat of the teacher, there are no large prizes in the way of pecuniary reward\nand it would be a wise thing in society to create such. Society desires to\nobtain of the teacher a service quite out of proportion to the pay which he\nIntelligence, devotion, high character\nall are necessary, and the\nreceives.\nstate seeks to obtain them at an average salary of $500 a year.\nIt is clear\nthat, if the state is to receive such service, some protection for old age and\ndisability must be had, if the best men and women are to be induced to\nenter upon such a calling as a life-work.\nnaturally distributed!\n\n—\n\nSecondly, from the standpoint of efficiency in organization, whether a\ngovernmental one or a business one, there must be some means for retiring,\ndecently and justly, worn-out servants. In the past we have in most cases\n\nturned out men and women no longer able to teach, but the conscience of\nour time does not permit such action.\ndirect injury of the pupils themselves.\n\nOutworn teachers remain to the\nAs a matter of efficiency, some\n\nhumane method of retirement for public-school teachers is necessary.\nThese two reasons for the establishment of pensions for the teachers in\nstate schools are soimd and unanswerable.\n2.\n\nThree plans\n\nfor\n\nsecuring protection against\n\ndisability\n\nand the\n\nweakness of old age are proposed: a pension system borne wholly by the\n\n"} {"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n412\n\n[National\n\nemployer, a pension system borne wholly by the employee, a pension system\nconducted jointly by both employer and employee and supported by their\njoint contributions.\n\nWhile there are some variations of opinion among those who have\nstudied the question, the overwhelming weight of opinion is in favor of the\nthird plan.\n\nI assume that on the whole it is fair for the teacher to bear half\n\nthe cost of the annuity and the state the other half.\n3.\n\nThe form of pension system at once just and feasible would involve\n\nthe consideration of many details, but at least these general principles may\n\nbe assumed as proven:\na)\n\nThe pension obligation should be compulsory upon every teacher who enters\n\nthe service.\n6)\n\nThe amount of the contribution should be determined by thoro actuarial investi-\n\ngation, but each teacher shall form a unit, and the annuity which he is to receive shall be\n\nbased upon his own payment plus that granted by the state.\njust and fair, and is capable of actuarial computation.\n\nSuch an arrangement is\nEvery individual, whether he\n\nsurvives, resigns, or dies, thus furnishes the basis for the action taken.\nc)\n\nContributions levied upon teachers who resign or are dismissed must be returned,\n\nwith a moderate interest\n\n—say 3 per cent—and similar returns must be made to the widows\n\nor heirs of those who die.\nd)\n\nA central administration for the pensions of all public-school teachers should be\n\nprovided, constituted of a small commission serving without salary, with a paid executive\n\nwho should at the same time be a competent actuary.\n\nDISCUSSION\nD. B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill,\nS.C. The National Education Association exists for the improvement of all the schools\nI do not know\nof the coimtry and to that end for elevating the profession of teaching.\nof any way by which it could better accomplish the purposes of its existence than by\nhelping to secure for teachers salaries sufl&cient to enable them to live in a way becoming\nthe dignity and social position which should attach to their high calling and by lending\nits powerful aid to making the position of teaching more secure and to removing the\nchance of teachers spending their old age in dire want after having given the best of their\n\n—\n\nlives for the welfare of the state at comparatively small salaries even at the best.\n\n—\n\nGood schools of any kind are secured only thru good teachers teachers of ability\nand we can have good teachers only by giving to the teachers' calling\n\nand character\n\n—\n\ndignity, security, independence, proper financial and social rewards, and some certainty\n\nof support in old age, or in case of disability.\n\nGovernor Folk, of Missouri, in his address, \"Education in a Democracy,\" before a\n\"Every state needs more schoolhouses,\nbetter equipment, better-paid teachers, and better teachers\"; but he added: \"No school\nis better than the teacher makes it, nor worse then the teacher permits it to become.\"\nconference for education in the South, well said:\n\nThe president of that same conference declared that \"when this coimtry realizes the\ndei>endence upon, and the obligation to, the teachers of America, the least appreciated\nof all who serve society and the state, then will appear the Golden Age.\n\nThe teacher,\n\nnot the millionaire, is the hope of the state.\"\nI do not suppose that anyone will take serious exception to the position of our committee, that a profession or calling in which the incomes of its workers do not permit\n\nthem to maintain the proper standards of living will deteriorate not only economically but\nalso intellectually and socially.\n\n"} {"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Counca]\n\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING FOR Igi2-I3\n\n413\n\nWe all know something of the dignity, independence, and influence of the German\nschoolmaster and of the honorable place he always holds in the life of his commimity.\n\nThis is attributable more to tenure of ofl5ce and to pensions than to high salaries.\n\nAs\nGermany secures and holds as teachers for life able,\nintelligent, high-minded, and devoted men and women, and individual schools enjoy\nthe result of these conditions,\n\nthe continuous services for twenty and thirty years of men and women whose high qualities of character make them safe examples for the boys and girls placed in their charge.\nThe example of the teacher plays a large part in the training of the children especially\nwhen he stays long enough in a community to become known and to exert that influenc*\nwhich every teacher should. \"What we do speaks louder than what we say.\" A C§mparison of Public Education in Germany and in the United States, by George Kcrschcnsteiner, director of the schools of Munich, Bavaria, recently issued by the United States\nBureau of Education, is well worth reading by any school man of this country.\n\n—\n\nC. G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. The discussion of the\n\"Teacher's Working Day\" rather effectually dispels the common notion that the teacher's\n\nhours of labor are \"few and short.\"\n\nA most effective comparison has been made with\n\nthose of bank clerks and officers; these employees of a business iastitution are not generally\n\nthought of as laboring too few hours, tho banks in cities open at 10 00 a.m. and close at\n:\n\nThe public knows that much of a bank's work must be\ndone before doors open and after they close. This report makes equally clear that\n3 :oo P.M., a period of five hours.\n\nteachers have also many and heavy duties before and after school sessions.\nIt is to be remembered also that the work of the teacher is exhausting and nerve-\n\nno other ordinary employment aside from that of the public speaker and the\nand no one would think of keeping the actor or the public speaker\n\"on the rack\" for five to five and one-half hours each day, five days out of each seven,\nand nine or ten months out of the year. The school is the \"audience,\" the \"jury,\"\nand the teacher is the actor, the lecturer, the advocate. He must \"hold\" his audience;\nhe cannot relax arid let things drift; he must be at all times the real, if not the apparent,\nleader.\nIt is not strange that nervous systems show exhaustion; that nervous breakdown\ncomes, not only to women, but to men who follow this trade; that nervous dyspepsia and\ntempers and queemesses crop out.\ntesting;\n\nactor is so trying;\n\n—\n\nPREPARATION FOR TEACHING\n\nThe report of the committee shows very clearly one thing: that the teachers coming\ninto the work at present are much more thoroly trained for their work than was the\ncase in the past. The superior preparation for teaching shown by teachers in the \"imder\n25,\" \"25 to 30,\" and \"30 to 35\" groups shows both that such preparation is being more\nand more insisted upon and that an increasing number of teachers can meet this demand.\n\nEXPENDITURES OT TEACHERS\n\nThe report is most interesting in this respect: It is, I believe, the first showing of\nfacts on the claim frequently made that the teacher's profession requires different and\ngreater expenditures than is the case with persons in other employments giving equal\n\nincome.\n\nThe expenditures for clothing, books, and various items of professional culture\n\nor improvement are shown to be felt as necessary, tho burdensome, in great nimibers of\n\nThese expenses are shown to bear most heavily in proportion upon those teachers\nwhose incomes are smallest; there seems to be a certain standard of appearance and of\nsocial and professional activity required of all teachers.\nIt appears particularly that,\nwhile with persons in most employments a larger percentage of income goes for clothing\nas income increases, showing that, in considerable d^ree, this expenditiure is for ornament\nand is a luxury, with teachers the reverse is true, those with lowest income paying out\nmore in proportion for doliiing than tln]ise with la^er income. The ordinary \" workiiig\ncases.\n\n"} {"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n414\n\nclothes\" of the teacher must be of an expensive sort\n\n[National\n\n— the kind which people in many\nof\n\nother lines of work are required to use only when \"dressed up.\"\n\nSALARIES OF TEACHERS WHEN COMPARED WITH THOSE OF OTHER PERSONS\n\nThe report gives figures to show that salaries of teachers, in a multitude of instances\nso great as to rouse the presumption that the condition is general, are smaller than those\nof persons in other skilled employments, as well as smaller than those of persons employed\nin other capacities by municipalities.\n\nThis is not only true in figures showing income but,\n\nwhen the cost of preparation for the business of teaching is considered in comparison\nwith the cost of preparation for these other lines of work, the disparity of compensation\nas against the business of teaching becomes even greater, a disparity which is turning\n\naway from the teacher's profession yearly an increasing number of the most capable and\nambitious of those who might otherwise engage or continue in it.\n\n—\n\nRobert J. Aley, president, University of Maine, Orono, Me. ^The report as a\nwhole is so complete and illuminating that one hesitates to attempt to add anything to\nThe committee is to be congratulated upon the splendid and far-reaching result of\nit.\nthe investigation.\n\nThe one phase of the report to which I care to call attention is the effect of wages\nand cost of living upon the personnel of the profession. The importance of education\nis certainly greater today than at any previous time.\nWe are expecting great results,\nand we are spending much money to produce these results. It is true, however, as the\nlate George P. Brown used to say, that \"our schools will never be what they should be\nxmtil they cost at least double what they are now costing.\" The taxpaying public needs\nto be brought into agreement with this far-reaching truth.\n\nThose of us who are directly interested in educational work ought to double our\nWe ought to enter on a campaign of education for adults\nalong these lines. Comparatively few of the taxpayers of this country realize the direct\nrelation between the cost of living, and the quality of men and women who can be induced\nto remain permanently in the profession. The profession of teaching, if it is to accomplish the result expected from it, must attract and hold the very best men and women that\nwe can produce. It should have within its ranks the men and women who could make\nsignal successes in other departments of public service. These men and women, in general,\nefforts to spread information.\n\nwill not be attracted to the profession imless it promises larger returns, with the consequent comforts and opportunities, than are now guaranteed. The tenure of oflSce and\n\nthe salary paid therefore have a most direct relation to the quality of men and women\n\nwho enter the profession, and also to the quality of those who make it a life-work.\nIt should be understood by all that the teacher ought to have a salary big enough\nto furnish money for travel, for attendance at state and national meetings, for the purchase\nof needed books and magazines, for contribution to benevolent and religious causes, and\n\nfor maintenance of a style of living demanded by the position.\n\nAll these things cost\n\nmoney, but every one of them has a direct relation to the efficiency of the service. The\nteacher, unable to meet these proper demands, is sure soon to drop below the standard\nthat the present demands.\nI have great faith that the people will do right once they are convinced what is right.\nThe great need in the campaign for better wages is the diffusion of knowledge, the spread\nof the truth about conditions and needs. We should all become publicists and never grow\nweary in our advocacy of this great cause. When the public once understands, justice\nwill be done and teaching will take its proper rank among the great professions.\nJ. Stanley Brown, prmdpal, Township High School, Joliet, 111.—The report of\nthe Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living is a significant docimient and ought\n\nto play a great part in bringing to the teaching body the inauguration of movements\n\nnecessary to place the tea;cher where he belongs as a citizen.\n\n"} {"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nCouncil]\n\nTEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING FOR IQI2-13\n\n415\n\nThis report will fall far short of doing its greatest service if its circulation is confined\nto the teaching body or even to the professional bodies.\n\nIt is the public at large that\nneeds to be informed about the teacher and needs to get the kind of information set fortli\nIf some way could be devised by which the contents of this report could\nbe published in the daily newspapers of the country in a series of articles, the day laborers,\n\nin this report.\n\nwho can by no other means get this information, would then have an opportunity to read\nwhat you and I have studied. The business men, who are not directly concerned, would\nthen have an opportxmity to read on the same page with other matter the results of this\ncommittee's investigations.\n\nThe public at large has never had this information and\n\nwill never get it except thru the channels which I have mentioned.\n\nOne part of this report clearly shows that the men who profit most are the men in\nthe teaching profession who move from one position to another after a short period of\nservice.\n\nIn most cases these changes take place for purely commercial reasons, but anyone\n\nwho examines the records of the men and women who have accomplished most in the\nteaching profession will soon learn that these accomplishments are due to the fact of\nlong-continued service in one position, and to the fact that plans may be made for a series\nof years rather than from year to year.\nsities in the teaching profession if\n\nContinuity of service is one of the great neces-\n\nthe teacher is to accomplish the greatest things in his\n\nwork and if the teaching profession is to rank among the great professions of the world.\n\nWe clearly recognize that the teacher is not paid for the character of service which he\nrenders, but we must also concede that during the last ten years the salary of the teachers\n\nhas materially increased and the position of the teachers is steadily growing in favor.\nThere is no form of service which ranks higher than the service of a real teacher, and if\nthis report can bring before the general public the facts which it sets forth in a convincing\n\nway, it will have done a service that has not yet been done by any committee of the\nNational Education Association.\n\nJames Ferguson, principal of Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, Cal.\n\n—I wish\n\nto recommend to every member of the Association a most careful reading of the entire\nreport of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living.\n\nThe data with regard\n\nto increased cost of Hving are presented in sufficiently concrete form to be of service; also\n\nthe statements of demands upon teachers' time and energy.\nSection 2 of Part 3 of the committee's report was prepared by William R. Hood, of\nthe Bureau of Education, and deals with the question of teachers' pensions in the several\nstates.\n\nIt is valuable for reference as it contains an excellent tabular digest of state laws\n\nrelating to teachers' pensions, as well as the full texts of the general teachers' pension laws\n\nin the United States.\n\nMr. Hood divides the teachers' pension laws of the United States into three types\nnon-contributory, compulsory-contributory, and voluntary-contributory.\nSince this report was printed, California has passed a pension law which will be\nstate-wide in its operation, in place of the old law which left the matter entirely in the\n\n—\n\nhands of local authorities, and which was in operation in only one city in the state San\nFrancisco. The law was signed by Governor Johnson on the i6th of last month, only\nthree weeks ago.\nIt is with satisfaction and yet not a little concern that many leading educators see\nthis rapid growth of pension legislation\n\n—\n\nsatisfaction, because of the principle of justice\nwhich it recognizes, and because of the benefits which may accrue to the service; concern,\n\nbecause much of it may prove ineffective.\nPresident Pritchett, of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, in\nthe seventh annual report of the president, a part of which has already been presented to\nthis Council, makes the most critical, scientific analysis that I have seen of this pension\n\nmovement in the United States.\n\n"} {"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4l6\n\n[National\n\nHe says:\nThe difficulty of maintaining a pension system from an estimated income is very\nEven with the best actuarial study, the conditions of the future are difficult to\nserious.\nforecast.\n\nAll groups for which pensions are available show a curious liability to grow in\n\nThe death-rates fail to follow the anticipated law.\n\nsire.\n\nAny pension system admin-\n\nistered from a fixed income and unprovided with a source from which its income may be\nincreased is bound in time to come to a point where the calls upon it under its own rules\n\nexceed its income.\nCalifomia's past experience in teachers' pension legislation bears out the statements\n\nmade by President Pritchett.\nIn conclusion, I wish to recommend to those interested in the question of teachers*\npendons a most careful reading of the seventh annual report of the president of the\nCarnegie Foundation. If the principles laid down by him are followed, much disappointment will be saved the friends of this movement.\n\nREPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS\nIN EDUCATION\nI.\n\nTHOMAS D. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, COLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y., AND CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE\nOF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nThe first part of the report as presented by Dr. Wood at this time\nduplicated the report which was given by him at the Philadelphia meeting\nof the Coimcil, which report is printed with the papers of that meeting.\n\nWe print here only additions thereto.\nAmong the reasons which explain the present deplorable conditions of\nrural schoolhouses, the following are prominent:\na)\n\nLow architectural and sanitary standards in rural regions generally\n\nthruout the country.\nb) Ignorance regarding the physical and moral effects of unattractive\nand unsanitary school buildings upon the children and upon the community\n\nas a whole.\nc)\n\nFalse economy expressed by local school boards in failure to vote\n\nenough money to build and maintain suitable school plants.\nd) Lack of supervision or assistance by the state which is usually\nnecessary to maintain desirable standards.\n\nSome important influences which are effective for securing and preserving the sanitary with other valuable features of riural schools are suggested.\na)\n\nThe furnishing, by the government Bureau of Education and by state\n\ndepartments, of plans and instructions for construction and equipment\nof rural-school buildings.\n\nThe Bureau of Education in Washington is already supplying on request\nvaluable help of this kind, and a few state departments are demonstrating what may be done by supervision and support which aids without\nrestricting.\n\n"} {"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS\n\nCouncU]\n\nb)\n\n417\n\nSupervision of rural schools by state departments of education with\n\npower:\n\nTo condemn unsanitary and wholly unsuitable buildings.\nTo give state aid to rural schools when the local authorities fxil-\n\n(i)\n\n(2)\nfill\n\ncertain desirable and reasonable conditions.\nc)\n\nThe inculcation of ideas and standards of school sanitation in minds\n\nof local school patrons and school authorities who control school funds and\n\nwho administer the affairs of the schools.\n\nPublic lectures in the schoolhouse\n\non health topics.\nd)\n\nThe introduction of effective school health courses in normal schools\n\nand teachers' institutes.\n\nThe better education of rural-school teachers, county superintendents,\nand rural-school supervisors in the principles and practice of school hygiene\nand sanitation.\ne) The instillation in rural-school pupils of interest in, and enthusiasm\nfor, the improvement and care of all features in the school and surroundings\nwhich affect health and happiness.\n\nThe development among pupils of organizations like \"pupils' boards of\nhealth,\" \"civic leagues,\" or \"health militias\" for actual constructive effort.\n/) Co-operation\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nrural\n\nschool\n\nof\n\norganizations\n\nlike\n\nthe\n\n\"granges,\" \"women's clubs,\" \"county medical societies,\" and other groups\nso situated that they may further the cause of health and efficiency in the\nschool.\ng)\n\nPopular education by attractive but reliable health irJormation in\n\nthe public press.\nh)\n\nThe introduction of social demonstration of rural health standards\n\nand improvements by volunteer or employed demonstrators.\n\nThe Health Conunittee of the National Council with the co-operation\nof the Committee of the American Medical Association is making a study\nof the actual conditions of sanitation in rural schools in different parts of\n\nthe country as a basis for an authoritative report upon this subject which\nshall:\n\na) State the health conditions of coimtry schools as they actually\nexist at present.\nb)\n\nExplain very clearly by illustrations and descriptions the different\n\ntypes of sanitary schoolhouses and sanitary equipments which are most\ndesirable and most suitable for the varying conditions in different parts of\n\nthe country.\nc)\n\nOutline convincingly the various influences within and outside of\n\nthe rural community which may be effective in bringing about marked\n\nimprovement in all the conditions in the rural school which affect health.\nThe report of the Joint Health Committees will be embodied in a special\nbulletin on Country Schoolhouses to be issued at an early date by the United\nStates Bureau of Education. This bulletin is being prepared by Dr.\n\n"} {"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n4i8\n\n[NaUonal\n\nFletcher B. Dresslar, a member of the Health Committee of the National\nCouncil, with the co-operation of the two committees referred to above.\nDr. Dresslar has collected statistics from school authorities concerning over\n\n1,300 schools in 19 different states. The two health committees have\nemployed a field secretary who has personally studied with detailed care\nand photographed one hundred rural schools in five states.\n\nThe purpose of the report is to provide for every person, who desires\nsuch help, the best available information regarding the construction, equip-\n\nment, and maintenance of attractive, healthful, and inspiring rural schoolhouses,\n\nand the improvement of existing unsanitary conditions in the\n\nschools.\n\nn.\n\nW. CORWIN, M.D., PUEBLO, COLO., PROFESSOR OF SURGERY,\nUNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, AND CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION\n\nR.\n\nDr. Murphy, at the meeting of the American Medical Association, held\nat Los Angeles, June, 1911, in his presidential address, laid great stress\n\nupon educating the people in the basic principles of health.\n\nHe suggested the establishment of lay health journals; complimented\nthe teachers on their earnest and excellent instruction in health sciences,\n\nand reconmaended that the American Medical Association appoint a committee to bear thanks to the National Education Association, which was\nto convene in San Francisco two weeks later, and tender them the services\nof the American Medical Association in developing the great undertaking\nof improving the health conditions thru the schools.\n\nThe committee appointed by the American Medical Association met\nthe representatives of the National Education Association in San Francisco\n\nand were heartily received by the president of your Coimcil and the President of the Association.\n\nThis is not the time for details.\n\nSufl&ce it to say,\n\na committee from\n\neach body was appointed to study jointly the health problems pertaining\nto the public schools; money was appropriated by both associations, and\nat St. Louis, Chicago, New York, and Washington, many meetings have\n\nbeen held by the committees.\nIt was decided to begin with investigations of the rural school.\ngravity of the findings of the committees needs no comment.\n\nThe\nYou may\n\njudge from the report read by Dr. Wood whether you are satisfied with\nconditions of the rural school.\n\nCould you have imagined that any part of our country contained and\nupheld schools \"violating most or all the principles of sanitation and\nwhose existence or use is a disgrace to any civilized conomunity,\" that not\na few but a majority of the riural schoolb.ouses are unfit for use because of\ninsanitation, and that in many sections of the country the average rural\nschoolhouse in relation to its purpose is not as well kept or as healthful\n\n"} {"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS\n\nCouncU]\n\nas a good stable, dairy barn, pigpen, or chicken-house ?\n\n419\n\nBut what more\n\ncould be expected from a government that creates a cabinet department\nfor animals but fails to recognize one for man;\n\nthat appropriates millions\n\nfor brute heredity and little or nothing for human eugenics ?\n\nIt is bad enough to know that 15,000,000 out of the 20,000,000 school\n\nchildren in the United States are diseased and unhealthy;\n\nthat 300,000\npersons are socially unfit; that 200,000 venereally infected people walk the\nstreets of\n\nNew York City daily (New York is no exception to other cities\n\nlarge or small);\n\nthat 5,000,000 people in the United States are suffering\n\nfrom syphilis; that our country permits several million prostitutes to\npromote their business; that venereal diseases cause one-eighth of all\nhimian suffering; that 80 per cent of deaths due to inflammatory diseases\npeculiar to women are caused by gonorrhea; that a cesspool of degrada-\n\nNew Jersey, as revealed by Dr. Goddard and\nMiss Kite and reported in the Kallikak family and \"Mag,\" exists under\nthe shades of Princeton, and that similar conditions exist in other states;\ntion in the Pine Lands of\n\nthat we punish the drinker instead of the seller; that we criticize the use\nof cigarettes and permit their manufacture;\n\nthat it costs $32,000,000 per\n\nyear to care for patients suffering from mental diseases in public institutions; that insanity is increasing more than twice as rapidly as our popula-\n\ntion (11\nfifty\n\nand 25); that heart-disease is 57 per cent more prevalent than\nand that kidney diseases have increased 131 per cent in\n\nyears ago;\n\nthe last half-century.\nAll this is bad\n\n—^bad enough—but to think that we should permit the\n\nexistence of schools that are health-destroying and moral-corrupting, and\n\nteach by illustration the vilest of sanitation, as reported by the chairman\nof your committee, is well-nigh incomprehensible.\n\nDoes the report read\n\nthis\n\nmorning give assurance that the doctors,\n\nthe teachers, or the laity have been performing their duty ?\n\nWith improvement of the rural schoolhouses, the duties of your comIn fact, they are just begun, and it is sincerely hoped\n\nmittee do not end.\n\nthat your committee may be permitted to pursue a course that has been\nwell planned.\n\nThere are many disgraceful things that have been tolerated and indifferently permitted that demand attention and correction:\n\nIn our schools\n\nwe find 2 per cent of children known to be feeble-minded; in some schools,\n\n—and\n\nthey average as high as 30 per cent\n\nthis does not include the morons,\n\nthose who run\n\naway with the chauffeur,\nwho supply the courts with divorce cases, feed the prisons, and necessitate\nthe employment of detectives; it is well known that the feeble-minded\nthe higher class of defectives:\n\nconstitute the major portion of criminals, prostitutes, epileptics, drimkards,\nneurotics, paupers, and ne'er-do-wells, found in and out of prisons;\n\nand\n\nthat in a large number of our states the mentally defective are cared for\n\nwhen young but when reaching maturity and most dangerous are turned\n\n"} {"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n420\n\n[National\n\nloose upon the community to become parents of a class, with each generation becoming more depraved.\nIf for the next hundred years our schools would discontinue all higher\nand aesthetic education and devote their energy to improving the human\nstock; to feeding and breeding; to teaching that acquired traits die with\nthe body, that inherited traits pass to the next generation, and that the\nlaws of heredity are constant and are the same for bug and man; to developing athletically the weak pupil instead of the strong, making the average\nimprovement of health in school a prize-winning contest instead of the\nfastest mile or highest jump; to insisting that every normal school and\nteachers' college should give thoro instruction in health sciences and every\n\nteacher be obliged to pass a rigid examination in these sciences before\n\nbeing qualified to teach in a public school; and to educating the people\nto know that environment is important but heredity more important,\nand eugenics most important, and that thru eugenics is the only hope of\n\nimproving our race or saving our nation\n\n—\n\nif\n\nthis were done, at the end of\n\nthe century we should find the people not only loo years older but loo\n\nper cent better, stronger, and wiser.\n\nWe do not ask, however, that higher education be discontinued, but\nwe do earnestly request that more time be devoted to the fimdamentals of\neducation, that is, to health sciences.\n\nDISCUSSION\nHenry Baird Favill, M.D., Chicago, HI.\n\n—In considering hygiene, rural or urban,\n\nwe are prone to forget the simplicity of its principles in an endeavor to meet the complexities of its application.\nOne law imderlies the hygiene of all life, and it is as infallible\nand fundamental and determining for plants and animals as for human beings.\nThe processes of life depend upon adequate appropriation of food and innocuous disposal of waste.\n\nThese terms are to be interpreted broadly, to cover air and water, but\n\nwith this inclusion the principle is complete.\n\nTwo subprinciples are universal: (i) regard\n\nfor the interests of coexisting life, be they reciprocal or antagonistic; (2) adaptation to con-\n\nOut of interaction of these principles must be evolved all\nWaiving for the moment questions of access to food and\nmutual protection, the problem of individual safety from a hygienic standpoint is difficult\nin direct ratio to the multiplication, which involves proximity, of other individuals.\nCommimity life, evolved primarily as a measure of safety and economic facility, becomes\nrapidly and effectively a menace to its individual components. With every refinement of\ncivilization has come deeper distiurbance of primitive law of supply and demand.\nIt is\nmore than a jest the recipe for rabbit pie. One might starve, but he never would be\noverfed if he had first to catch his hare. It is just as certain that those would starve or\nfreeze or be devoured who are unable to provide for themselves; and this is nature's\ninexorable law. We have substituted for natural selection social devices, and we are\nslowly coming to realize the penalties involved, and to feel an obligation to meet the\nexigencies.\nFor the checks and balances of limited food and shelter, and instinctive\nguidance in their use, we have substituted relative ease and plenty, and adopted an imitative method which results in custom and habit.\nThere is but one method worthy of acceptance in social development: to prove all\nIn the proving it becomes obvious that development of custom has followed lines\nthings.\nditions of physical environment.\n\nhygienic and sanitary law.\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nCouncil]\n\nJOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS\n\n42\n\ndependent on the possession of material resources in part, and only in part heeding the\nprinciple of appropriate use of food and adequate disposal of waste.\nLet us pause to reflect that waste is not only the obvious matter of excreta, in which\nthe community is especially interested as against the individual, but it is also the fine\n\nchemical question of cellular waste and its disposal in which the individual is interested\nas against himself.\n\nIt is doubtless in respect to this proper balance in bodily processes,\n\nwhich one may venture to call physiologic cleanliness, that the most profoimd hygienic\nlaws may in the end be determined.\n\nThe question for us is: Do we care to adopt extraordinary means to protect oiurselves,\nThus far we have seen fit to modify the\noperations of nature widely. Why not in this most vital struggle ? The logic of this is\ntoo plain to justify argiunent, and yet we are, as public-spirited citizens, in the throes of a\nstruggle to institute and maintain simple precautions against the dangers of conmumity\nor shall we let nature operate mmiodified ?\n\nUfe.\n\nIt is true that the measures suggested have not always been wise, and that opposition\n\nto a plan has often submerged a principle.\n\nIt is true that conception of the principle has\nbeen defective, and methods, by reason of their provisional character and tentative scope,\n\nhave not reached the root of matters. Nevertheless, there is but one groimd upon which\ncivilized people can stand: the paramount necessity and obligation to provide conditions\nfor all which are wholesome and which permit the observance of hygienic law.\nI ask you\nto observe the statement: wholesome conditions that will permit hygienic living. Whole-\n\nsome conditions demand sanitary law; hygienic living demands intelligent habit.\ntary law without personal hygiene is vastly limited in its beneficence.\n\nSani-\n\nCorrect habit in\n\nunsanitary conditions is more or less futile.\n\nBoth lines of this development must be advanced.\n\nUnfortunately, they do not, as a\n\nrule, proceed pari passu.\n\nSanitary law involves but the inteUigent action of legislators.\n\nIt is prompt and effective.\n\nHygienic living, on the other hand, involves substitution of\n\n—in the mass, a colossal undertaking. Logically, one might believe\n\nhabits for other habits\n\nthat when a people, by and large, had correct ideals and corresponding habits of life,\nsanitary law would be imnecessary, or easy and inevitable of achievement.\n\nDoubtless\n\nthis is true, but need we postpone for an event almost millennial the benefits of common\n\nobservances which never will be superfluous, and which protect a large portion of the\nterritory we are striving to redeem ?\n\nIn comparison with the problems presented by city conditions, rural sanitation has\nfew inherent diflaculties.\n\nFrom the standpoint of public administration a coefladent of\n\ndifficulty could be adduced for all commimities based on the number of inhabitants per\n\nacre.\n\nUpon this basis country sanitation becomes simple, tho not so trifling in view of\n\nthe fact that animals must be included in this calculation.\n\nWhy, then, is sanitary progress in rural districts not markedly in advance of other\nAdmittedly it is not. In many directions it is far behind. Two facts in\n\ncommimities ?\n\nexplanation of this are pertinent\n\n:\n\nthe simplicity of a problem bears no relation to its early\n\nsolution; however, rural advance is unduly tardy.\n\nout of conditions the most aggravated.\n\nMoreover, the deepest reforms arise\n\nThe (tountry has not these.\n\ntion of sanitary standards is here not to be trusted.\n\nThe natural evolu-\n\nFor this reason specifically and\n\nintensely directed attention is indispensable in most districts.\n\nWhen one affirms the simplicity of country sanitation from the general administrative\nside, or the possible habitation side, he must not ignore certain specific difficulties that are\n\non the social and industrial dde. Isolation implies relative safety from contagion, both to\nthe individual and to the conununity; but it carries with it complex industrial function\nand freedom from scrutiny. These two factors are of paramoimt importance in the\npresent status. Let us illustrate. The farmer has a small dairy. He and his wife and\n\nA case of typhoid fever occurs in the house. The wife\nThe father is milker and distribtitor of milk in some fashion. The\n\nchildren milk as a regular duty.\nis nurse and milker.\n\n"} {"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n422\n\n[National\n\nCompared to the process of walling ofif a case of typhoid in\nThe patient must be nursed;\nthere is no one but the mother to do it. The cows must be milked she.must do her share.\nThe milk must be disposed of shall it be thrown away? There's the rub. With no\none to know what goes on, why waste it? Or, if thrown away, what a relatively deep\ninroad into the family income. All the work to do, all the expense, and no return. Is it\nany wonder that farmers are not looking for sanitary restriction ? Yet this is inherent in\nchildren are variously either.\n\nthe dty, consider the complexity of this farm situation.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nthe complex function of a farmer's life.\n\nThis is no reason why the question should not be met and dealt with thoroly.\nis one of\n\nBut it\n\nmany illustrations which should lead to the conclusion that rural sanitation should\n\nnot be directed from the viewpoint of the city, but by careful study and provision for its\nspecific necessities.\n\nSupervisory control of sparsely settled districts is not feasible.\n\nBy\n\nas much as the individual is a relatively free agent, by so much is his reliability dependent\n\non his integrity of purpose. The very conditions that make rural sanitation feasible\ndetermine the lines upon which it must go. Here the emphasis must be placed upon\nindividual responsibility. By no other idea can it adequately be met. This does not\nmean that the principle is different in the two cases. It does mean that relatively\nperfect sanitation is possible in the country.\n\nWhile I have no reservation as to the importance of developing sanitary law with all\nspeed and force and wisdom, I am firmly of the opinion that it offers but a partial solution.\n\nThe most that it can do is to remove untoward conditions.\npersonal hygiene and its underlying ideals.\nmaterially in advance of the less favored.\n\nThe essence of the matter is\nIn this regard the most favored class is not\n\nThe essentials of personal hygiene are few and\n\nsimple, but by no means easy of attainment, for there is involved that most difl&cult factor,\nself-discipline.\n\nIt is absurd to seek the possession of health in sanitary enactments.\n\nis not a matter of law, but of character.\nis so automatic, specific resistance\n\nOn the surface, this is not very obvious.\n\nIt\n\nLife\n\nand vigor differ so widely in different individuals, and\n\nespecially, cause and effect are so far separated in time, that this picture is of necessity\n\nobscure.\n\nNevertheless, I am convinced that any individual can materially enhance his\n\nhealth and increase his resistance to external attack by judicious hving.\n\nIf that\n\nbe true\n\nit follows that education and character are the comer-stone and keystone of the structure.\n\nAssuming this, how does it bear markedly on rural conditions? In principle, not\nmore than in all environments; in practice, in promise, in possibilities, it is of immediate\nsignificance.\nSelf-respect and freedom are the birthright of the farmer.\nThey are also\nthe basis of character. In so far as they fail of full development a blight is upon the\nharvest.\nIs it a far cry from the fimdamentals of farm Ufe and its psychology to health ideals ?\n\nI have no faith in remedies less searching and remote. Let me be not diverted\nfrom my philosophy by obvious disconnection and apparent indirection. Do you recall\nthe wisdom of the men called upon to administer the Rockefeller fund for the improvement\nof education in the South ? Do you recall that they discovered that what was the matter\nwas lack of productiveness of the land, hence lack of money, hence lack of independence ?\nDid they begin by supplying money for schools ? You recall that they began by educating\nthe planters in the art of agriculture, confident that schools would follow that uplift. So\nhere the psychology of rural life is what we need to study. Upon it turns the entire\nhygienic and economic future.\nFarm life is not a bed of roses, but its advantages and compensations are far from\nbeing appreciated by those engaged in it. Drudgery and routine and monotony are there,\nbut not to compare with most dty occupations. Mental isolation is there, an incubus\nmore than offsetting the advantage of physical separation. It is this that breeds conservatism, upon which the state has counted for a large measure of its stability; but it\nleads, too, to ultra-conservatism over which we stumble in sodal advance.\nSmall margin\nI hope so.\n\n"} {"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS\n\nCouncil]\n\n423\n\nof profits is there, leading in the best type to frugaUty, and in the worst type to shiftless-\n\nDesire and prospect of property are there, leading to a jealous hostility to imposed\n\nness.\n\nexpense that may defer economic independence. Inertia is the result, a static factor to\nbe overcome from within, and but indirectly from without.\n\nA deeper consciousness in the farmer of his relation to life is the desideratum.\nNot only\n\nare\n\nthe dignity and importance of\n\nhim\n\nworld's sustenance, important for\n\nhis function, as the producer of the\n\nA larger lesson of self-assertion\n\nto realize.\n\nand a corhprehensive view of his commercial relation are essential to his full sense of\nfreedom. Out of this will grow his clearer view of adaptation of means to ends; proper\nPursued to\nutilization of resources; economy of effort; and truly ethical conservation.\nSelf-respect involves a deeper note.\ntheir end, they would evoke nothing but self-esteem.\nIt demands civic consciousness, a sense of community responsibility, participating, not\nThat motive is beneath aU great accomplishment. It is simple and vital.\nselfish life.\nBut, it may be commented, the physical and industrial conditions are unfavorable to\ncommunity life. The farmer has scant time for social intercourse. Granted; but he has\ntime to establish his mental attitude and determine his own standards, and this is far and\n\naway the greatest contribution to the common weal that men make.\nthe coimtry-life question and may as well be proclaimed.\n\nIt is the very gist of\n\nIn many respects there is not\n\nas much community life in the country as there was years ago.\n\nIt is not safe to generalize\n\nYet I venture to make this comment: women on\n\ntoo broadly on matters so complex.\n\nthe farm have not the interest in the intrinsic features of the industry that is necessary for\ntheir contentment or their fullest development.\ninterest and effectiveness.\n\nAgriculture has gone in long strides in\n\nMen have kept pace variously. Boys have grasped it eagerly.\n\nWoman's work on the farm, arduous as it is, is not as burdensome as it used to be. Has\nshe lightened her load by the stimulus that comes of real interest in and comprehension of\n\nMy observation is that she has not.\n\nthe vocation of which she is an indispensable part ?\n\nThe trouble lies in education.\ncharacter to adjust the matter.\ntions.\n\nNeither to boys nor to girls is education offered of a\n\nOnce more I am conscious of the danger in generaliza-\n\nI have, however, but to point to the interest and enthusiasm created by signal\n\ndepartures in agricultural pedagogy to justify my statement.\n\neducation is better or worse than much city schooHng.\nthat we do not, in our educating, fit for life.\n\nIt is not Ukely that rural\n\nThe criticism is almost universal\n\nOur problem, however, is the rural school.\nI have no idea\n\nBeing less developed and crystallized, it is probably easier of correction.\n\nthat simply adapting the course of instruction to practical agricultural subjects will solve\n\nthe difl&culty.\nprocess\n\n—\n\n—and I regard\n\nImportant as it is\n\nit will at best furnish information.\n\nit\n\nas an indispensable factor in the\n\nThe perfection with which this is done will\n\nmake the determining steps more certain and valuable, but the determining step will none\nthe less be needed.\n\nAnd what is this step in which I seem to have such confidence ?\nschool:\n\nan inadequate phrase, perhaps, but a text.\n\ndevices, the country few.\n\nSociaUzation of the\n\nCities and towns have many social\n\nWe are saying a great deal of late about giving the young people\nThey need it, but our suggestions easily become\nThe school is a natural center, organIt can be made the clearing-house for the community\n\nin the coimtry more social latitude.\n\nforced and artificial and in so far doomed to fail.\nized, financed,\n\nand recognized.\n\n—not\n\nintelligence\n\nfor men or women or children,\n\nbut for all; the place where youthful\n\neagerness can meet and interact and in turn react upon the mature powers of the neighbor-\n\nhood; the place where information can be transformed and vitalized into knowledge, to\nthe end that impression may become conviction. Only so can we mitigate the waste of\n\ntime and expense and Ufe that is inherent in our present methods. All the precept in the\nworld, even if followed, is not effective until Ufe has ground it into our fiber. Need we\nalways expend the most of life before we have fully incorporated our opinions ? Is there\nnot a better social organization to be conceived that will avoid this waste ? Once more we\n\n"} {"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n424\nfall\n\nback upon our school system to save the situation.\n\n[National\n\nThere is no other place to\n\nlook.\n\nOnce more we are face to face with the weakness of our machinery. Is it sound to\nAt present, no as an ultimate achievement, yes.\nIf in a generation that can come to pass it will be a triumph.\nAdministrative function\nmost readily follows demonstration.\nThe need of the country is leaders ^men and women with ideals and imagination.\n\n—\n\nlook to the school system for relief ?\n\n—\n\nThey are there in abundance, imdeveloped, unheard, wasted.\n\nTechnical agriculture\n\nhoped for its upUft from the agricultural college. In a measure it found it. But it has its\nlimitations.\nNow comes into the field the expert demonstrator under public or corporate\nIt has in it the magic factor of leadership.\nWhy\nauspices.\nIt is a great step forward.\nshall we not interpolate between our present inefl&ciency and our ideal educational standard a period of social demonstration? This is not a dream. Social demonstrations here\nand there, imder average conditions, are conclusive as to possibilities. The factor needed\nis conception and plan.\nWays and means can be developed. Of all the fields before us\nthe country is most inviting.\n\n"} {"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresidenl—'hiAXY B. Page, director, Chicago Kindergarten Institute\n\nChicago, III.\n\n—Gkace FuiJiER, supervisor of kindergartens\n\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nSecretary—Mary B. Fox, Kindergarten Department, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah\nVice-President\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Forenoon, July 7, 1913\nThe meeting was held in the First Church of Christ, Scientist, and was called to order\nat 9:30 A.M. by the president of the department, Mary B. Page, director, Chicago Kindergarten Institute, Chicago, 111.\n\nMrs. Page introduced the first speaker, P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner\nof education, Washington, D.C., who gave a talk on **Why Should the Kindergarten Be\n\nIncorporated as an Integral Part of the Public-School System?\"\n\nBarbara Greenwood, Los Angeles State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal., followed,\nwith a talk on \"Ways and Means of Increasing EjBfective Kindergarten Supervision.\"\n\nPatty S. Hill, head of Kindergarten Department, Teachers College, Columbia University,\n\nNew York, N.Y., was xmable to be present. Her paper was read by the presi-\n\ndent.\n\nIt was entitled \"Some Obstacles in the Path of the Kindergarten of the Future.\"\n\nThe nominating conmiittee was appointed as follows:\n\nMary B. Fox, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nRose Jones, Brigham, Utah.\nLucy T. Little, Phoenix, Ariz.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 9, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order in the First Church of Christ, Scientist, at 2 ;3o p.m.,\nby the president.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nFor President— KaLthanne Tracy, Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President Lucy T. Ellis, principal of Phoenix Kindergarten, Phoenix, Ariz.\n\n—\n\nThe committee recommended that the secretary of the Kindergarten Department\nbe appointed by the president from the town in which the meeting is held.\nThe report was imanimously accepted.\nA paper on \"The Value of Outdoor Kindergartens\" was read by Ada Mae Brooks,\npresident, Broadoaks School, Pasadena, Cal.\n\nThe main question xmder discussion was \"The Effect of the Scientific Spirit in Education upon the Kindergarten,\" which was presented under the following subheads:\n\n\"In\n\nRelation to Materials,\" Louise M. Alder, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.;\n\n\"In\nRelation to the Distinctive Characteristics of the Montessori Method,\" Elisabeth R.\nShaw, Child-Study Department, Public Schools, Evanston, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 10, 1913\nThe third session of the department was held in connection with the Department of\nElementary Education\n\nm the Tabernacle.\n\n^^^ ^ p^^^ ^^^^^^^^^\n42s\n\n"} {"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n426\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\n\nWHY SHOULD THE KINDERGARTEN BE INCORPORATED AS\nAN INTEGRAL PART OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM?\np. p.\n\nCLAXTON, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION,\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n[Ahstrac{\\\n\nIt is a well-known fact that all organized bodies are conservative, that\n\nnew feature it is necessary that the idea be completely\nworked thru a series of evolutions, beginning with specialists on the subject.\nFroebel was the great discoverer of infancy as a phase of life worth\nconsidering, as the beginning of the moral, aesthetic, and educational tastes\nof life.\nHe was the pioneer specialist in kindergarten work and his life\nwas spent in trying to convince the German nation of one fact, that early\nchildhood is an important period in the formation of tendencies or the\ncreation of attitudes in life. He died without seeing any tangible results,\nbut since 1836 he has been the authority which modern thought has followed. The gradual growth of his ideas, the try-out of his plans by organizing kindergartens in the slimis among the poor and uneducated class, has\nto introduce a\n\ntaken over half a century.\n\nThe kindergarten, like every other new movement, has had to be\nfostered by individuals and associations especially interested.\ninstitutions do not undertake new interests.\n\nOrganized\n\nIdeas must first be worked\n\nout and their practical worth proven before they are adopted by public\ninstitutions.\n\nUpon the answers to three questions must depend the answer to the\nquestion whether the kindergarten should now be adopted as an integral\n\npart of the public-school systems of states and cities:\n1.\n\nIs all education a function of the state ?\n\n2.\n\nShould there be formal education provided for children before the\n\nage of six ?\n\n*\n\n3. Is the kindergarten program an effective one?\n\nMy answer to each of these is in the aflirmative, and therefore do I\nbelieve that the kindergarten should be adopted as an integral part of our\n\nsystem of education.\n\nWhen this is done, great care will be necessary to prevent the kindergarten work becoming over-formal and losing its most essential characteristics.\n\nTo prevent this there must be no attempt to grade children on\n\ntheir attainments or take out definite and fixed courses of study, nor must\n\nwe suppose that because the children are small, teachers do not need a\nhigh degree of education.\n\nWomen of the best education and training must\n\nbe selected for teachers of the kindergarten classes.\nmore here than anywhere else.\n\nPersonality counts\n\n"} {"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINCREASING EFFECTIVE KINDERGARTEN SUPERVISION\n\n427\n\nAnother reason for the adoption of the kindergarten as a part of the\npublic-school system is the effect which it will no doubt have on the work\nof the primary and grammar grades and even on the high-school grades.\n\nWAYS AND MEANS OF INCREASING EFFECTIVE KINDERGARTEN SUPERVISION\nBARBARA GREENWOOD, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nThe following suggestions under this topic are based upon some practical\nTo more readily present the subject I\nhave divided it into three parts: (i) What is the necessity for special\nexperience and much observation.\n\nkindergarten supervision? (2) some of the dangers of supervision; (3) ways\n\nand means of increasing effective supervision.\nFirst, What is the necessity for special kindergarten supervision ?\n\nThe kindergarten is a peculiarly special work. Because it is truly\nunderstood only by those who have had special training, greater importance\nmust attach to its direction. The kindergarten period and the years preceding it are the most important in the development of the himian being,\n\nnot even excepting the very important period of adolescence.\nchild is father to the man\" all modern psychology proves.\n\nThat \"the\n\nSince this is true\n\nwe cannot lay too much emphasis upon the right control of the department\ndealing with this age.\n\nAnother urgent need for supervision is to bring about complete unificaWhereas we desire that great freedom be exercised in kindergarten\nwork, there must be co-operation to solve the problems confronting us.\ntion.\n\nAgain, we know there is unusual opportunity for haphazard work in the\nkindergarten because of the latitude allowed by its less restricted curriculum.\n\nMuch that is really poor, or at best indifferent, is accepted by an unsuspecting,\n\ntho slightly puzzled, outside world, with \"Well, I suppose that is\n\nkindergarten.\"\n\nIt is within the province of supervision wisely to curb the\n\nextravagant, the radical, the careless; to protect the child from tempera-\n\nment, experiment, and all that is unworthy.\n\nAnother reason for supervision is that there may be some mediimi of\ninformation for the kindergarten department, the superintendent, and the\n\nboard of education; someone to present the manifold problems and needs.\nThis can be done systematically and effectively only by one vested with\nauthority.\n\nShe should help in the appointment of the teachers, since only\n\nthe supervisor can adequately determine the qualities particularly needed,\n\nand she should be held responsible for the personnel of her department.\nThen, again, the business and financial problems alone are sufficient\nreason for supervision.\n\nIn the matter of ordinary supplies, for instance, we\n\nfind inexperienced teachers at a great disadvantage.\n\nThis is a standing\n\nobjection to kindergartens, not because of what the expenses in reality are,\n\n"} {"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n428\n\nIKindergartcn\n\nor should be, but because of the exaggerated ideas of the untrained.\n\nThere\n\nis certainly evidence of this fact in the recently printed kindergarten report\n\nof the Committee of Investigation.\n\nIn this report, the opinions in regard\n\nto the expense of the first equipment vary from $io to $500.\n\nIn this same\n\nreport opinions in regard to consumable material vary from $25 to $200.\n\nThose who have had experience realize that the matter of expense need\nnever be an objection to the kindergarten when properly managed.\nHaving indicated some of the conditions that make kindergarten work\nmore effective thru supervision, we will consider the second division of the\ntopic:\n\nDangers of supervision.\n\nIn general, where supervision exists, teachers are likely to be too much\nsupervised.\n\nTheir individuality and personality are not developed; they\n\nare hampered in their plans rather than encouraged to grow by working out\ntheir own problems in their own way.\nOr, again, teachers are sometimes\nprone to depend too much on the leader, shirking the responsibility of\ninitiative.\n\nOr perhaps the supervisor plans the work too minutely, thus\n\ndestroying all opportunity for originality or freedom of thought.\n\nRather,\n\nthe plans or subject-matter should extend over large periods of time; they\n\nshould be very general indeed, with ample possibility for substitution and\nelimination in accordance with the differing conditions of the schools.\n\nplans should be more suggestive than restrictive.\n\nAll\n\nA prejudice has justly\n\nsome school systems where kindergartens are supervised by a\nHowever efficient, no teacher can successfully superimpose\nthe methods and ideas of the present-day primary upon the kindergarten, as\nshe inevitably will do, if approaching the situation from the viewpoint of\nthe primary grade. If, on the other hand, she recognizes that the ideals of\nthe kindergarten must permeate the grades, she may combine the two\nmost successfully.\nI come now to the third division of the subject: Ways and means of\narisen in\n\nprimary expert.\n\nincreasing effective kindergarten sur\n\nIn the first place we may ask:\n\n*«=:'\n\n^.\n\nWha: is effective supervision?\n\nIn a\n\ngeneral way, we answer that effective supervision is the working-together\nof supervisor and teachers having for its aim the best good of all.\nfirst, last,\n\nNow the\n\nand only means of accomplishing this is to have the right kind of\n\na supervisor: one who is purposeful; capable of intelligent, sympathetic,\nShe must possess professional skill balanced with\n\nconservative leadership.\n\nmuch common-sense. Moreover, she must not only understand thoroly her\nown specific work, but she must also have much knowledge of the whole\neducational system in order to see the relation of this foundation work of the\n\nkindergarten to the whole.\n\nGiven, then, the supervisor who realizes truly that \"where there is no\nvision the people perish,\"\n\nwhat is the next important condition to be\n\nfulfilled for effective supervision ?\n\nHere I have to state a truth as old as the organization of our educational\n\n"} {"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "INCREASING EFFECTIVE KINDERGARTEN SUPERVISION\n\nDepartment]\n\n429\n\nprinciples into a working system, the truth that the teacher is of supreme\n\nNowhere is it so true as in the kindergarten that the teacher\nmakes the school. Dr. McMurray has said: *' Whereas personality is\n\nimportance.\n\nimportant everywhere, in the kindergarten it is a necessity.\"\n\nEffective\n\nsupervision calls for a corps of teachers, then, in whom the majority, at least,\nare strong personalities, willing to be directed, eager to go forward, disci-\n\nplined to abide by the best interests of the whole body.\n\nBeing a thoro student of psychology, child study, and pedagogy, the\nsupervisor will understand the significance of the words, \" And a little child\nshall lead them.\"\n\nShe will so guide her teaching force that they, too, will\n\nconstantly realize what a wonderful privilege it is truly to know a little\nchild.\nWith this high conception of the teacher's work the supervisor can\nweld together the members of the working group into a forceful whole.\n\nThe greatest service, as I see it, that a supervisor can render her teachers\nis to be a\n\nconstant source of inspiration to them: to be able always to call\n\nforth their best and to create a faith in themselves that they are capable of\n\na noble best.\n\nIt is necessary that the supervisor so wisely direct her\n\ndepartment that the teachers will ever understand that she considers it a\nprivilege, as well as a duty, to appreciate, to encourage in every phase of the\nwork; above all, to help them attain freedom, the freedom which is essential\n\nto growth.\n\nAnother very important work is to make quite clear to the kindergarten\nteachers the great necessity of thoroly understanding the imderlying\nprinciples of the kindergarten system that they may meet intelligently any\n\nquestion, criticism, or argument in regard to it.\n\nWhile their preliminary\n\ntraining does much of this, only the maturity of mind which comes with\nlater experience can master the philosophy of the system.\n\nWhat a wonder-\n\nful help to the cause of the kindergarten if all teachers could be ready to\n\nmeet criticism fairly!\n\nAnd now as to a few of the practical means of carrying on supervision:\n1. Visits will be made to the kindergartens by the supervisor.\n2.\n\n3.\n\nIndividual conferences following these visits will be held.\nVoluntary written reports from the directors may be encouraged.\n\n4.\n\nGeneral meetings of different kinds will be arranged for.\n\n5.\n\nSmaller group conferences for special work may be called.\n\nThe first means is by far the most satisfactory\n\n:\n\nthe personal visit to see\n\ngeneral conditions; the attitude of the teacher to her work, to the children,\nto the school in general.\n\nIf there is\n\nexcellent time to exchange ideas.\n\nbe made.\n\nopportunity after the session is an\n\nIf not, an appointment at the office\n\nmay\n\nIn either case matters are to be talked over privately, helpfully,\n\nwith emphasis always on the good points first, and then help for the weak\n\nWe must ever keep in mind in these conferences that \"only\none who loves may criticize.\" The teacher must always be placed at her\n\nplaces given.\n\nbest in the school, in the conference, or in the general meeting;\n\nit is\n\nhdr\n\n"} {"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n430\n\nright to be so considered.\n\n(Kindergarten\n\nAs some psychological principle is usually\n\ninvolved, an excellent plan is to follow the conference with a suggestion of\n\nsome reading along the line.\n\nThis not only helps in the particular difficulty\nbut may also stimulate to continued research.\n\nThe written reports from the directors should be entirely voluntary.\nThey should prove a most effectual asset in promoting the closer personal\ntouch between supervisor and teacher.\n\nIn regard to the meetings there is much to be said, for really this is\nwhere the supervisor must do the greater part of her work with the teacher,\nespecially in the large systems.\nIn planning them great care ought to be\ntaken not to overburden the teacher who must have time to live. I heard\na remark made recently by a teacher of wide experience and efficiency in\nregard to a drawing supervisor. \"It is a pleasure,\" she said, \"to attend\nMiss Blank's meetings. No one objects and will undergo any inconvenience\nbecause one gets so many ideas which help not only in the drawing, but all\nalong the line.\" With the idea of inspiration and preparation clearly in\nmind, the supervisor may vary the meetings as much as possible. Aside\nfrom practical discussions, the teachers should be vitalized by contact with\nsome ideas outside their routine, something which will broaden the vision,\nfor we know it is impossible to be a good teacher if one is not a student.\nThen some, at least, of the meetings should be open to the primary\nteachers who care to come. \"In union there is strength.\" Our cooperation should not stop with the kindergarten and primary-grade teacher,\nbut should extend to the other departments as well. It is quite necessary\nthat the kindergarten supervisor should have the viewpoint of the other\nsupervisors of the system and know something of the scope of their work.\nIt would also be most valuable to have inspirational talks from the superintendent and the supervisors of other departments from time to time, for\nit is excellent to come in contact with these thinking men and women\noutside of our own line of work. We have been too much inclined to stand\nalone.\n\nComing back, now, to the thought of the closer connections of the\nkindergarten and primary school, I am altogether of the opinion that the\nthat we have only\nbegun to realize their significance in the educational world.\nIn a recent book on Genetic Psychology, by G. E. Partridge, which is an\nepitome of G. Stanley Hall's educational theories, we find some interesting\nstatements. To quote from this treatise:\n\nkindergarten and its ideals have a wonderful future;\n\nIt is true that the school, as it is now conducted, takes the child from home and play\n\ntoo early, but the remedy for this is not to begin school later, but to change its methods.\n\nAt present the first two years are likely to be almost wasted, for the school takes a child at\nan age when there is often weakness and ill-adjustment, shuts him up and away from\nnature and free social life, forces him to use only his small muscles; faiUng to see that all\ninterests are now motor and demand free expression.\nAll natural instincts should be given\n\n"} {"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE VALUE OF OUTDOOR KINDERGARTENS\n\nDepartment]\n\nfree\n\n431\n\nThe kindergarten ideals, rather than those of the higher\n\nand wide opportunity.\n\ngrades, should dominate until the age of eight, and the time devoted to filling the mind and\n\ncultivating experience and expression.\n\nAgain he says:\nAll the grades of the school need to be infused with the spirit now best represented by\n\nthe best kindergarten ideals.\n\nThe primary school should connect with the kindergarten\n\nand continue the methods .... there begun. Nature, life, and live language should, in\nprimary years, have free access to the mind of the child.\n\nAlong this same line is Dr. Hailman's article in the April Kindergarten\nMagazine entitled, \"A Dream.\" I believe, with him, that, in time, instead\nof having the kindergarten housed in cramped quarters in the grade buildings, as it is to a large extent now, there will be a segregation of the lower\n\nprimary from the elementary school\n\nthe kindergarten and the primary will\nbe united, and the education of the child continued along the line of natural\n;\n\nThen there will be no prescribed time to learn to read and to\nany more than there is for learning to talk and to walk. Why\n\ntendencies.\nwrite,\n\nshould there be ?\n\nWe shall not find it necessary then to say, \"At six, thou\n\nshalt begin to read,\" any more than we should say, \"At two thou shalt begin\n\nUnder presjent conditions we are doing violence to the child, by\n\nto talk.\"\n\nobliging him to conform to a system which proceeds in an order just about\n\nthe opposite of that which the all-wise Creator meant him to follow. The\nprimary school has come down from the university with the university's idea\nof formalism.\n\nFroebel taught that nature shows us in the child himself the\n\nprocess by which he must be educated.\n\nhim in the midst of them.\"\n\n\" And he took a little child and set\n\nChrist meant the child to be our leader, our\n\nhope; but it has taken all the Christian centuries to recognize this as a\nprinciple of education: that we must begin with the child and follow him.\n\nTHE VALUE OF OUTDOOR KINDERGARTENS\nADA MAE BROOKS, PRESIDENT, BROADOAKS SCHOOL, PASADENA, CAL.\n\nThe value of the outdoor school is no longer debatable.\nThe question is how to make it workable.\n\nIt has passed\n\nthat stage.\n\nNo one questions that the need of humanity is a clear, spiritual vision.\nNo one questions that this is best obtained thru the keen, clear-seeing mind.\nNo one questions that the mind is freshest, keenest, when untrammeled\nby the physical. Everyone knows that for physical fitness the lungs need\npure air, the growing body needs freedom, the eye needs the far reaches and\nthe restful, changeful colorings of nature.\n\nEveryone knows that the typical\n\nThey are just at hand, just outside, just\nThen why are we so long in coming into our own ?\n\nschoolroom does not furnish these.\nthru a door.\n\nSo near!\n\nWhy are we so long in claiming our inheritance—this big, rich inheritance?\n\nBecause we^ve been so long indoor teachers.\n\nOur movements have\n\n"} {"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nbeen regulated for so many years by four limiting walls, and tho the eye\nhas caught outdoor visions thru the shaded windows, yet we have allowed\nthese walls to \"a prison make,\" confining the body and hindering the spirit.\n\nWe have even feared the outdoors; for example, at beautiful Avalon, on\nCatalina Island, where the new schoolhouse was built with windows high\non the ocean side, fearing the distraction of wide waters and passing vessels.\nPardon the humiliating comparison, but have we not been something\nlike those old work horses which, given their freedom after years in double\nharness, went round and round in their big new pastures, in couples, just\nas they did when they were in the restraining harness ? That we are bound\ntoday by the old habits we have abundant proof. Pardon a personal\nallusion.\nA teacher came to us with the highest recommendations. She\nproved herself fully qualified for the shut-in school, but frankly owned to\nbeing disqualified for the outside one, resigning before anyone had even\ncriticized her, saying: \"I miss the rows of desks and the formalities of my\nold schoolroom. I just can't teach with the children seated around the\ntree.\"\n(We have a table like Froebel's around an oak tree.)\nIt was the same with a gymnasium teacher some years ago, who did not\nsee how to take his class outdoors for their exercise because there were no\ndesk rows in which to have them perform. Unlike the chambered nautilus,\nwe stay in the low vaulted past and allow ourselves to be chambered and\ncramped by the old shell.\n\nThe first requisite of an outdoor school is an outdoor teacher. The outWhere find her? Keep that question in mind and\npardon a seeming digression when we bid you look from the present out and\nback to your childhood days. There are meadows and bees, grain fields\ndoors is secondary.\n\nwith their annual mystery of varied seed and waving harvests.\n\nSee the\n\nhazelnuts and hickory nuts and walnuts gathered by rollicking boys and\ngirls in the autumn.\n\nRemember the cows driven home from the pastures,\n\nthe eggs gathered from the mow.\nyourself among all and of it\n\nall.\n\nHear the birds singing in the trees. See\nNow look again on your present self.\n\nDo you find there any love for those things ? They were so lovely in the\nhappy free days. Have you kept the spirit of it all ? And would you share\nit all with the children ?\nThen you have the first requisite for an outdoor\nteacher. If you have this spirit you will appreciate the little Los Angeles\nboy, considered the most interesting child in his room, who managed to\nplay truant fifty-three days this spring, spending his time in the park,\n\nand when questioned as to how he spent it, he said: \"Oh, with the tadpoles\nand things.\" You will appreciate and love Marie who came panting and\ndirty an hour late to kindergarten tumbling a big newspaper bundle in her\nteacher's lap, exclaiming:\n\n\"Look out, it will bite,\" said bundle proving\n\nafter delicate handling to be a young gopher, which Marie had discovered\n\non her way to school and had dug up, confining it in the paper with a quantity of soil so, as she sympathetically explained, \" that it would be happy.\"\n\n"} {"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE VALUE OF OUTDOOR KINDERGARTENS\n\nDepartment!\n\n433\n\nYou will welcome Helen who came late bringing with glowing face to a\nsympathetic teacher her gathered dress skirt full of things which had said\ngood morning to her on her way to school.\nYou will appreciate these children and want to supply their needs which\nare only fully met by the outdoor school. But there will be many adjustments to be made. A real outdoor school must take into account simshine\nand shade, wet and cold, nesting bird and fluttering butterfly, slimy slug\nand opening flower. Take them all into account and use them all. And\nlet\n\nme say that the best outdoor school is completely outdoors with a\n\n—best for several reasons. Then there\n\nnear-by sheltering house\n\nis\n\nno roof\n\nto shut us out from the beauty of the strong tree limbs, the grace of the\n\nmoving green leaves, the depths of the infinite blue beyond.\nIt's very, very beautiful and seems so entirely natural to hear above us\nthat sweetest of bird music, a grossbeak's liquid trill, to catch a briUiant\nflash of orange and black and yellow-white and to discover that a pair of\n\nthese birds have established a rival outdoor school in the branches just over\n\nour heads, where the bird students are taking their first lessons in flying.\n\nWith keenest interest and with sympathetic appreciation we watch these\nbeginners as they teeter hesitating on the edge of their nest, then quiveringly\n\ntake their flight down and out to the lawn where by and by they share\napples and crumbs with the delighted children.\n\nJust beside our tables a\n\npair of towhees companion with us, while on a high branch a red-headed\n\nwoodpecker tap-tap-taps,\n\ncalling our attention to his\n\nnodding approval\n\nA discordant call and a flash\nof azure, and a jay screams his second to the woodpeckers.\nA droning\n\nof our wisdom in patterning after the birds.\n\nundertone, and a big black-and-yellow biunblebee passes ladened to her\n\nOh the wonders that are revealed to\nThere \"heaven is given away.\" There\n\noutdoor school in a neighboring log.\nus out under the trees and skies!\n\" God is had for the asking.\"\n\nBut the freedom of the outdoors calls for careful planning. Is it warm ?\nShade is sought. Is it cool ? Tables are moved into the sun and big hats\n\nDamp? Rugs are\nDampest?\nIf it rains,\nRubber\nare worn.\ntables and chairs are moved indoors by the fire.\nThe question arises:\n\"Does this not tend to dissipation of thought?\" \"Will the children learn\nconcentration when there is so much about calling attention from their\nare\n\ndonned.\n\nspread.\n\nbooks?\"\n\nCooler?\n\nSweaters\n\nDamper?\n\nare\n\ndrawn\n\non.\n\nshoes\n\nWe answer: \"We find the children develop a sixth sense: the\n\nrelative value of things.\n\nThey do not make that rigid distinction between\n\nthe real world and the book world which is so common and so disastrous,\n\nbut consider that they and their teachers and books and nature are all one.\nWe think that it is not dissipation to give attention to every passing phase\nof\n\nGod's handiwork.\n\nIt's appreciation.\n\nWe think that concentration is\nWe think the child's\n\ngained by this absorbing interest in nature's lessons.\neducation well begim\n\nif\n\nhe has learned to look with wide-open eyes and\n\n"} {"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n434\nintelligent mind\n\nhis radius.\"\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nupon all of this big interesting world that comes within\n\nIf this is error, our greatest have erred.\n\nThere was never a king like Solomon, not since the world began;\nYet Solomon talked to butterflies, as man would talk to man.\nThere was never a queen Uke Balkis, from beginning to the end;\nYet Balkis talked to butterflies as you would talk to a friend.\nShe was queen of Sabea and he was Israel's lord;\nYet both of 'em talked to butterflies when they took their walks abroad.\n\n—Kipling\n\nAnd are not the children and the world thru them losing much because of\nthis lack of freedom, this opportunity to\n\nable to sing their sweetest notes;\n\noiu:\n\ngrow?\n\nOur poets will not be\n\nstatesmen will not be so strong or\n\nteachers so wise and sympathetic if something of the bird's song, the oak's\nstrength, the harmony of all nature have not become a part of their lives.\nSitting at her table under the oak one morning a little poet, sunny-\n\nfaced, nature-loving Polly, gently said: ''I've made a poetry.\"\n\nAnd while\n\nwe waited expectantly she gave:\nI love the sun when it shines,\n\nI love the rain when it rains,\nI love the spring,\n\nWhen the birdies sing,\nI love every growing thing.\n\nAnd right there with the birds joining in we set it to music and have\nnamed it, \"Broadoaks Confession of Faith.\"\n\nA very different kind of character is our four-year-old Dorothea, the\nstrong, the born leader, who outstrips all rivals in contests of strength, who\n\nhas conquered by climbing the oak, who has Waterloos to meet before she\nlearns that there are forces which even she cannot control, and who is meet-\n\n—^Dorothea who says: \"When I\nam big I am going to boss God.\" Would you spoil the world of a poet's\n\ning them here under careful guardianship\n\nsong, of a leader's strength, by limiting their powers to the schedule of the\n\nregulation school?\n\nIdeal conditions\n\nmay not prevail.\n\nBroadoaks and\n\nnear-by Arroyos are not for all, but with the outdoor spirit a teacher will\ntake every advantage offered.\n\nA superintendent said of one of his teachers\n\nwho sought every opportunity to take her class out: 'Give her a bench in\nthe yard and she will have a kindergarten.\" You haven't trees? Then\nplant them. You haven't the grounds? Then work to get them or as\nsome have done, go out on the roof. Our climate is cold ? Then wrap up.\nYou can at least open windows, and will if you have the open mind—\n*\n\nmind unfettered by creed and dogma, a mind uncontaminated by the\nunfruitful past.\n\n"} {"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCIENTIFIC SPIRIT AND THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n435\n\nTHE EFFECT OF THE SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT IN EDUCATION\nUPON THE KINDERGARTEN IN RELATION\nTO MATERIALS\nLOUISE M. ALDER, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, EMPORLA, KANS.\nFroebel held education to be a process of development thru the selfactivity of the child,\n\nand taught also that the \"child, the boy, the man\n\nshould know no other endeavor than to be at every stage wholly what\n\nYet he was not always able to apply these principles\nHe at times seems to have forgotten\nhis theory of development, and to have used the method of abstract instruction.\nThat he should have fallen into this error is not strange. Our\nwonder and admiration grow at his insight into the nature and needs of\nlittle children.\nHe grasped by intuition much that has since been set forth\nby psychology and science. His mistakes in the use of materials were\ndue largely to the limited knowledge of his day. Froebel had the spirit\nof the true scientist.\nAs long as he lived and worked he was constantly\nmodifying and reconstructing his theory and practice. However, at his\ndeath Froebel's followers adopted the kindergarten as he had left it, accepting as final and authoritative work which he had regarded as tentative\nthat stage calls for.\"\n\nconsistently in his working plans.\n\nonly.\n\nDuring the decade between 1890 and 1900 genetic psychology and the\nchild-study movement turned serious attention upon the varied phases of\nchild life and child education, challenging much of the theory and practice\nof current school procedure, including that of the kindergarten.\n\nAs the\n\ncriticisms became more general and insistent, kindergartners gave heed to\n\nthem and began a serious study of the subjects with which their theory\nand practice seemed to conflict. It is impossible to discuss here the adapWe shall therefore\ntions being made by various bodies of kindergartners.\nconfine our treatment of the current use of materials to that made by the\ngrowing body of so-called \"progressive\" kindergartners who were pioneers\nin this movement of reconstruction.\nChild psychology pointed out to the kindergartner that she was failing\nto see the true relationship which should exist between the child and\nmaterials. The logical organization of the geometrically related series of\nmaterials, the so-called \"gifts and occupations,\" was thoroly satisfying\nto her adult mind. Each element of this series she considered essential\nto every other, and the whole was used as an \"alphabet of form\" by means\nof which the child might \"learn to read all material objects\" and \"acquaint\n\nhis\n\nmind with the general properties of matter.\"\n\nSince these materials\n\nwere considered of independent worth and value it was natural that they\nshould come to hold a place of isolation, unrelated, except incidentally,\nto the other elements of the kindergarten program, developing along\n\n"} {"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n436\n\nindependent lines thru logical series of exercises.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe traditional kinder-\n\ngartner was so intent upon unfolding this series to the child, and bringing\nto his consciousness certain qualities and ideas inherent in the materials,\n\nthat she did not perceive that she was failing to meet the real needs of the\n\nthan boys and girls, and\nmaking gifts and occupations an end instead of a means. Child psychology,\nfor the time being, turned her eyes away from the \"charmed circle'* of\nmaterials, and toward the little child with his impulses, instincts, and\nIt led her to\ncapacities, reaching out for, and responding to, materials.\nsee that the gifts and occupations were, in their organization, more logical\nchild, that she was developing materials rather\n\nthan psychological, that little children were not capable of grasping the\ndefinite, logical\n\nconnection within materials, that what had appeared a\n\nsequence to the mature mind was not a sequence to the immature mind.\nSubject-matter to be real to the child must become a part of his own social\nexperience.\n\nHe must feel an interest in, and a need for, this material.\n\nAll the experiments of child psychology\n\nshow that children of four and\n\nhave only a slight interest in such abstract qualities of material as\nform, color, etc. It is the purpose of the thing, what he can do with it,\nfive\n\nhow he can use it in a life situation, that is his absorbing interest.\n\nIf\n\nform, color, number come to consciousness thru fimction, thru the use of\nmaterial in a natural, vital situation, as they inevitably will, well and good;\n\nbut to lead the child constantly to observe attributes of objects, and to\nclassify\n\nand \"interpret the universe\" according to \"type forms\" is im-\n\npsychological and unpedagogic, and \"tends to arrest the child's develop-\n\nment upon the plane of the abstract phase of things,\" which, as Dr. Harris\nmaintains, is injurious to the mind.\n\nThe gifts and occupations, then, are not regarded by the progressive\nkindergartner as a series of material of value and worth in itself.\n\nCertain\n\nof the gifts and occupations, however, she holds in high esteem because they\n\nstimulate and satisfy in the child valuable instincts and impulses which are\n\nseeking for expression;\n\namong these are the impulses (i) to make, to con-\n\nstruct;\n\n(2) to record and interpret experience;\n\nment;\n\n(4) to arrange and decorate;\n\n(3) to investigate, to experi-\n\n($) to co-operate and compete with\n\nothers and with self.\n\nIn her selection of materials the kindergartner must consider,\n\nfirst\n\nof all, the past experience, and the present capacities, needs, and interests\nof the child.\n\nShe must ask herself, not what the child will need in the\n\nwhat will make his present\nBut she must not confine her atten-\n\nfuture, but what he is reaching out for today;\nlife richer and give it deeper meaning.\n\ntion to a study of the child's instincts and impulses alone.\n\n\" It is one thing,\"\n\nsays Dr. Cole, \"to respect instincts and impulses, and another to admire\n\nthem as they blindly perform an unassisted work.\" The kindergartner\nmust give careful study to the values which society and the race have\nplaced upon ideas, activities, and materials. She must be able to see in\n\n"} {"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENTIFIC SPIRIT AND THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n437\n\nthe child's play and in his crude achievements the dim beginnings of the\ndifferent branches of race civilization.\n\nShe must know the child as he is\n\ntoday, and know also what she wishes him to become, and then furnish\n\nhim with material which will satisfy his present need, and will lead him on\nto the next step in advance toward the desired goal.\n\nThis aim will lead the kindergartner to come to all material alike with\na questioning attitude, and to study each separate material in order to\ndetermine its special function and value in organizing the child's present\nexperiences and activities.\n\nIt will lead her to eliminate\n\nsome\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nFroebelian gifts and occupations, to place special emphasis upon a few,\n\nand to add materials not included in the orthodox sequence.\n\nThe interests of the playing child are largely social.\n\nHe tries thru his\n\nmotor activity and imitation to adjust himself to his environment. He\nseeks to express thru his materials the images and ideas which have come\nto him from the life which surrounds him. The kindergartner, if she meets\nthe child's needs, will help him to do what he is already struggling to do,\ntherefore she will select those materials which are best suited to satisfy\nhis impulse to express, represent, and interpret his social environment.\n\nThe progressive kindergartner finds certain of the gifts of value because\nthey afford excellent opportunities for play, for construction, for expressing\nideas,\n\nand for free investigation and experimentation.\n\nFirst\n\non her list\n\nshe will place the building blocks, as better suited to the play purposes\n\nnamed above than the more abstract surfaces, lines, and points. Some\nof these latter gifts she may discard entirely.\nThe others she will use only\nto a limited extent, as they seem particularly fitted to express the desired\n\nplay idea, or for experimental work.\n\nColored balls and balls of various\n\nsizes and materials are well adapted to play purposes, and have an educative\n\nvalue.\n\nThe second gift probably will be retained, not because of the sym-\n\nbolic value of its forms, however, as representing the \"mediation of oppo-\n\nsites\" or because of the geometric\n\n\"type forms\" by means of which all\n\nobjects in the child's world may be classified, but because it combines to\n\nadvantage with other gifts for constructive purposes, and in certain plays\nis adapted to the representation of social ideas.\n\nSince the progressive kindergartner does not feel the importance of\nhaving the little child handle the unit of measure, the inch, in his play\nmaterials, she\n\nis\n\nglad to heed the warning of the physician and discard\n\nher small gifts for those of larger dimensions in order that the strain on\nnerves and muscles may be minimized.\n\nThe children often sit upon the\n\nfloor when playing with these materials, gaining in freedom of movement\n\nand calling into play their larger and more fundamental muscles.\nThe progressive kindergartner no longer divides the forms to be made\nwith the gifts into those of life, beauty, and knowledge, for she realizes\nthat this is an adult division, and is not felt by the mind of the child. She\nhas learned, too, that the kindergarten child has only a slight interest in\n\n"} {"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n438\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nabstract knowledge and very little use for it in his life, and that his interest\n\nand enjoyment in producing objects for purely aesthetic reasons are also\nThe artist tells her, too, that most of the so-called aesthetic forms\nproduced with the gifts are crude and inartistic, and that other materials are\nbetter adapted to the beginnings of art expression than blocks and tablets.\nDown thru the ages man has used two general methods in handling\nslight.\n\nmaterials.\nit\n\nEither he has discovered a new material, experimented with\n\nto learn its characteristics, possibilities, and use, or he has felt a want\n\nand looked about for the best material and the best means of satisfying\nHe has set himself a definite problem and worked for the\n\nthat want.\n\nsolution of it.\n\nIn his undirected play with materials the child makes use of both of\nthese methods, and the progressive kindergartner finds each of educative\nvalue.\n\nThe first method, that of experimentation, of investigation to\n\ndiscover the characteristics and possible uses of the material, is as a rule\n\nthe best method to use when the material is new, for the child comes to\n\nsuch material with a questioning attitude, and the good teacher is one who\nencourages the child to discover for himself.\n\nIn the second method, the child works consciously toward the solution\nof a definite problem, toward the most satisfactory expression of an idea.\n\nAll good thinking centers around a problem.\n\nHere the purpose or end may\n\nbe set by the child, suggested by some past experience, or in line with some\npresent interest.\n\nThe child may select the material which he feels is best\n\nadapted to carry out his purpose, and then use his own method to attain\nthat end, or the teacher, trained in psychology and in sympathy with the\nchild, often understanding his interests, desires,\n\nand needs better than he\n\nhimself does, may set up a problem which the child adopts at once as his\n\nown.\n\nThe child may select his own materials to reach this given end, or\n\nshe with her greater knowledge of the possibilities of material may feel it\nwiser to select for him, leaving the child free to proceed with the solution\nin his own way.\n\nBut at times the teacher may feel that a greater benefit\n\nwill be derived by the children if even the process of solving the problem\nis\n\nfurnished.\n\nThe kindergartner finds one of her greatest problems to be\n\nthat of keeping a sane balance between impression and expression, between\nimitation and invention.\n\ndevelopment.\n\nEach has an important part to play in the child's\n\nCreativity she acknowledges to be the highest type of work,\n\nbut it must follow and be based upon the imitation of many well-chosen\npatterns.\n\nThe child himself often chooses to imitate in order to gain\n\nexperience or because the product of another expresses his idea in better\n\nform than he himself could express it.\n\nHis standard of expression is raised\n\nto a higher level thru such imitation.\n\nNevertheless the kindergartner\n\nrealizes that freedom of choice and self-direction are necessary elements in\n\ndevelopment, and so she leaves room in each lesson for some degree of\nexperimentation, of self-expression.\n\n"} {"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT AND THE KINDERGARTEN\n\nDepartment]\n\n439\n\nThe methods stated above are only suggestive of those which the\nprogressive kindergartner uses in her earnest attempt to respond to the\n\nShe will choose each day the method which she feels\nwill best carry each individual child on to the next step in his development.\nIn an age when all things are being tested and tried, and only those\nneed of each child.\n\nthings which can prove their worth can survive, it is fortunate for the kinder-\n\ngarten that its advocates are bringing the spirit of the scientist into their\n\nwork, testing kindergarten theory and practice, and holding fast only to\nthat which is good.\n\nTHE EFFECT OF THE SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT IN EDUCATION\nUPON THE KINDERGARTEN IN RELATION TO THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MONTESSORI\n\nMETHOD\nELISABETH ROSS SHAW, CHILD-STUDY DEPARTMENT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nEVANSTON, ILL.\n\nThe millennium\n\nThe scientific spirit is not a know-it-all attitude.\n\nof scientific spirit in education will come when you and I and our fellow-\n\nteachers are eager\n\n—not\n\nand open minded, investigative and adaptable\n\nwhen we are all perfectly wise and convinced of our wisdom.\nIt is possible to have the scientific spirit in high degree without having\nfull or up-to-date knowledge of any science.\n\nThis fact has never been more\n\nconvincingly proved than in the case of Dr. Montessori.\ncritics of\n\nEven the frankest\n\nMontessori agree that she is scientific in attitude, but as to her\n\nknowledge, even her friends apologize.\nbranches of science\n\n—\n\nWell-known authorities\n\nin six\n\n—biology, sociology, pedagogy, psychology, hygiene,\n\nand medicine ^refute her chief claims and theories. As has been well said\nby Professor Kilpatrick of Columbia University, who was one of the committee of experts sent to Rome to study Montessori's work, her system\n\n\"has the spirit but not the content of modern science.\"\n\nShe is like an\n\nexplorer undertaking geographical research while ardently believing that\n\nthe earth is flat.\n\nThis fact is not so unexplainable as it appears.\n\nDuring\n\nthe last ten years Italian universities have challenged the admiring\n\nEurope by awakening from mediaevalism. But Dr.\nAsk your physician\nwhether, even yet, he would go to Rome instead of to Germany for postgraduate work in medicine.\nI have just said that experts refute Montessori*s chief theories, while\nstill appreciating her personality and work.\nIf you wish to become informed on this subject in the shortest possible time, I advise you to get the\nScientific American for June, 191 2, Education for September, 191 2, the Dial\nfor May, 191 2, the Nation for June, 191 2, and especially, to bring your\ninformation up to date, get the Kindergarten Review for April, 1913.\nattention of\n\nall\n\nMontessori took her medical degree twenty years ago.\n\n"} {"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n440\n\n[Kindergartm\n\nIn the latter magazine are three masterly analyses of Montessori's\nThere you will find Professor Bigelow's statement\n\nprinciples and methods.\n\nthat Montessori's biology is \"generally weak, often incorrect, and at times\n\nabsurd.\"\n\nProfessor\n\nHolmes of Harvard says that her chief sociological\n\n—the plan to communize the motherly care of\n\nidea\n\nlittle\n\nchildren so com-\n\npletely as to enable the mothers of little children to become wage-earners\n\nwould involve \"a vital and undesirable change in our social organization.\"\nProfessor Holmes also warns against the dangerous practice of isolating\nthe senses. In the same magazine Professor Kilpatrick shows that Montessori's pedagogy is based on the doctrine of formal discipline or \"mental\ngymnastics\" a theory which was exploded twenty-five years ago and\ncharacterizes her psychology as \"false.\" Professor Earl Barnes refutes\nher claim to have discovered discipline thru liberty, by saying: \"The\n\n—\n\n—\n\nabsolutely determined nature of her materials denies the assertions of\n\nAlso he denies her claim to originality by calling attention to\n\nfreedom.\"\n\nthe similarity if not identity of her patented materials with those of Seguin,\n\nwhich have been used in Massachusetts since 1848, and in New Jersey since\n1880.\nIf in view of all this evidence we must admit that Montessori's knowl-\n\nedge of fundamental facts and principles\nthat she\n\nis\n\nstill\n\nis\n\nuntrustworthy,\n\nrecognized as scientific in spirit?\n\nwhy is it\n\nThe chief feature of\n\nMontessori's method is that she tries to adapt herself to her children, first\nindividually and then collectively, and this is a scientific purpose, whether\n\nshe carries it out wisely or not.\n\nThis same purpose animates the modern\n\nchild-study movement, which, contrary to Montessori's procedure, uses the\n\nknowledge of abnormal children as a side-light while keeping the knowledge\nof normal children as its main point of view.\n\nMontessori's magnificent declaration of independence for child nature\nis\n\nperhaps her chief claim to attention in our republic, which still retains\n\nmonarchical government and military teaching methods in most of\nschools.\n\nits\n\nBut here and there, all over the country, educators are trying\n\nexperiments in liberty, seeking to balance justly the rights of the individual\n\nand of the group. This problem also must be solved by child study, which\noffers practical ways of discriminating the masses of mediocre or so-called\nnormal children, who can wisely be taught in squads, from the comparatively few who are so brilliant or so backward that they need special educational treatment.\n\nMontessori has adopted and applied to normal children a striking\nHis\nof Seguin's method of educating mental defectives.\n\ncharacteristic\n\nsystem, which for over half a century has been called the Franco-American\nmethod, used to include the practice of trying to isolate a part of the brain\nfrom co-operative working with the rest of that organ, in the hope of\nstrengthening one part at a time by intense use. Montessori jumps at the\nconclusion that if a child is blindfolded, the seeing part of his brain is idle\n\n"} {"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT AND THE KINDERGARTEN\n\nDepartment!\n\n441\n\nand that his whole mental energy is therefore free to concentrate itself on\nsome other sensation. But anyone who has ever had a nightmare knows\nthat even with closed eyes the brain is entirely capable of \"seein' things at\nnight.\" Seguin himself said \" What enters the mind alone dies in it alone.\"\n:\n\nThe truth is, the only thing that saves isolated sense training from being\nharmful to mental co-ordination is this fact that it fails to isolate.\nSense gymnastics, aiming to intensify the keenness of the sense organs,\nis\n\nanother idea borrowed from Seguin.\n\nThis method has been used in\n\nthe Massachusetts School for Feeble-Minded ever since its founding sixtyfive years ago.\n\nIt is still used in its original form (that is, for the individual\n\nawakening of an abnormally unobservant child, not for class drill) in Dr.\nSeguin's\n\nown school at Orange, N.J.\n\nYet neurologists the world over\n\n—cannot\n\nagree that sense-exercise cannot possibly produce sense-sharpening\n\nincrease the keenness either of the sense organs or of their cortical centers.\n\nDr. Adolph Meyer says:\n\n\"The word 'sense-training' is a misnomer.\n\nIt is\n\nreally attention and reaction training.\"\n\nAs to the value in life of exceptionally keen sensations, every teacher\nhas an opportunity to compare children who were born of predominantly\nsensory type with those who are chiefly motor.\n\nThe motor child does not\n\nalways react appropriately to a stimulus, because he is more interested in\naction than in how to act; the sensory child, on the contrary, is so interested\nin contemplating the stimulus that he sometimes forgets to act at all.\n\ncourse both these children are of one-sided type;\n\nOf\n\na well-balanced mind\n\nconcentrates its attention half way between sensation and movement.\n\nThe\n\ntask of education is to promote such balance, even in one-sided children, as\n\nmuch as can be done without violating their natural bent.\n\nThis is a far\n\nhigher aim than to produce a generation of tea-tasters, piano-tuners, perfumers, dry-goods experts, and other sensory specialists.\n\nIf human beings\n\ncould attain the sight of eagles, the scent of hounds, and the delicate touch\nof butterflies\n\n'\n\nantennae, they would become, not supermen, but hypersensi-\n\ntive nervous wrecks.\n\nMontessori is doing well to spread the doctrine which Dr. Fernald of the\nMassachusetts School for Feeble-Minded has been preaching for a quarter\nof a century; which is, that the teaching of normal children would be greatly\n\neased by the adoption of certain procedures which have been proved to\n\neconomize the nerve force of subnormal children.\n\nBut Montessori should\ntwo wholly different classes of so-called\n\"special\" pedagogic methods, the first of which is not needed except by\nabnormals. Dr. Seguin supplied children who need two or three years of\nlearn to discriminate between\n\ndaily training to enable them to lace a shoe with lacing frames like those of\n\nMontessori. He did this instead of using the real shoe of a real child, or of\na large doll, not to economize nerve force, but to economize shoe leather. A\nlacing frame is cheaper than a shoe for such destructive use by children who\n\nspend as much effort in trying to chew the leather as to lace it.\n\nBut there\n\n"} {"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n442\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nis a whole repertoire of methods which teachers of the subnormal have been\n\nforced to devise, because the limited nerve energy of their pupils made none\n\nbut economical methods of using nerve force effective. This repertoire\nought to be added to the stock of every teacher, for nerve force is too\nvaluable a commodity to be wasted, no matter how superabundant a\nnormal child's supply may seem to be. This is believed, not only by\nthose who have made practical use of such methods, but by psychologists\nlike Professor Angell, of the University of Chicago,\n\nwho has reached the\n\nsame conclusion by a wholly different line of reasoning.\n\nHe is authority\n\nfor the statement that the next step in the progress of educational science\n\nawaits the application of the facts of abnormal psychology to normal\n\npedagogy.\n\nA striking expression of the child-study spirit in Montessori's work is\nMontessori takes Froebel's advice to\n\nthe alert silence of the teacher.\n\n\"follow the child\" much more literally than kindergartners do.\n\nThe latter\n\nare aiming to give children a wealth of ideas about their environment, and\n\nhence are tempted to overstimulate.\n\nBut Montessori's temptation is to\n\nThe scientific spirit seeks a happy medium between these\ntwo, which I believe can be attained when teachers take the trouble to learn\nthe facts as to which part of the brain is exercised by the kindergarten\nimderstimulate.\n\nactivities,\n\nand which part is chiefly involved in the Montessori activities.\n\nYou know that when you do a thing consciously and with more or less\ndifficulty, you are using your cerebrum;\n\nbut when you do a complex thing\n\nhabitually or automatically, such as fastening your gloves or taking the\n\nseparate steps necessary to arrive at a certain place, your cerebrum\n\nis\n\npractically free to think about other things, because your cerebellum or\n\"little\n\nbrain\"\n\nis\n\ncontrolling the\n\nactivity ought to be allowed to\n\nmovements. No sporadic or useless\nbecome automatic, but many of the\n\nordinary useful acts of daily life ought to be made automatic for the sake\n\nand more complex\n\nof leaving the consciousness free to direct higher\n\nco-ordinations.\n\nNow Montessori's strong point is that she trains the\n\n— she deliberately\n\ncerebellum and spinal cord\n\ntries to\n\nmake the child an\n\nThat is why so many observers of her work have\nremarked on the striking resemblance between her methods and those of\nHer weak points are that she largely neglects the training\nanimal-trainers.\nof the cerebrum, and does not show delicate discrimination as to what\nefficient\n\nautomaton.\n\nforms of activity are really needed as lifelong automatic habits. What\nactually happening when a child manipulates the cylindrical insets for\ndays or weeks at a time is the gradual transfer of brain control from the\n\nis\n\nthinking cerebrum to the unthinking cerebellum.\nparticular activity, what's the use ?\nlike to\n\nIn the case of\n\nthis\n\nIt is easy to see why some children\n\naccomplish this transfer, which\n\nsatisfies\n\nthe instinct of activity\n\nwhile leaving the cerebrum free to indulge in the dissipation of mind-\n\nwandering.\n\n"} {"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCIENTIFIC SPIRIT AND THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n443\n\nThe phase of Montessori's method which is most alluring to ambitious\nThe unanimous\n\nparents is her too early teaching of writing and reading.\n\ntestimony of biologists, neurologists, and psychologists\n\nis\n\nthat certain\n\nfundamental parts of the brain develop first, and their accessory association\nareas mature later. Speech is a fundamental power, reading is accessory\nto it, depending on an adjacent and later-matured part of the brain. In the\nsame way, drawing is fimdamental and writing is accessory. Surely it is\nonly common-sense to exercise the earliest developed powers first, knowing\nthat thruout organic evolution, from the lowest form of life to its human\napex, the higher functions are reached by development from the lower.\nWe can draw a most enlightening comparison between two nations, one of\nwhich trained the primary mental and physical powers, allowing the secondary to ripen and bloom naturally, while the other nation for more than\ntwo thousand years has followed the order of training which Montessori\nuses.\n\nThe first of these nations is ancient Greece, whose achievements in\nand mental development are still our unattained ideal. The\n\nphysical\n\nathletic training of the Greeks developed intelligent co-ordination of the\n\nbut of symmetry and efficiency. Their outdoor schools, in which pupils and master\nwandered together thru beautiful groves, mutually seeking truth, gave\n\nlarger muscles to the highest degree, not of brute strength,\n\nevery opportunity for developing each part of the brain and physique\nat the time of its natural ripeness for development.\n\nThe second of these nations is China.\nthe child's training at a very early age.\n\nThe Chinese method is to begin\nWriting is taught before reading,\n\nand both these forms of abstract word-expression are taught before they\ncan be understood.\n\nThe writing-books have double tissue paper leaves,\n\nwithin which the copy is inserted, to be traced again and again until it can\n\nbe reproduced freehand with the help of the muscular memory acquired.\nArithmetic is taught concretely thru hand activity by means of the abacus,\n\nand additional finger training is given along artistic lines, regardless of\nmuscular immaturity.\n\nThe writing of original poems and subtle philo-\n\nsophical and ethical treatises is the chief goal of education, which is striven\nfor at the earliest possible age.\n\nThis radically individualistic culture is\nsupplemented by training in the ceremonial forms of courtesy, rather than\n\nby the cultivation of altruistic ideals. Individual teaching, and school\nby individual influence instead of by social consciousness are\nequally characteristic of the ancient Chinese and the new Italian system.\nOf course Montessori's teaching varies from the ancient Chinese prodiscipline\n\ncedure in many details; but these underlying principles are very similar.\nAre we not justified in concluding that the chief traits produced by any\nwholesale application of Montessori's ideals would be those characteristic\nof the conservative type of cultured Chinamen before their awakening by\n\nthe recent introduction of American educational ideals?\n\nThe reason for\n\n"} {"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n444\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthis is plain: that such cerebellar training as Montessori and ancient China\n\nhave given increases the capacity for willing drudgery but not for originality\nand invention. It develops the habit of plodding, while right training of\nthe cerebrum develops the impulse to progress.\n\nThe Chinese method of teaching the three R's is vastly better than that\nof Montessori in two important particulars.\n\nIn the first place, words are\n\nlearned as wholes, not in artificially analyzed bits.\n\nIf you use the pink-and-\n\nblue letters of Montessori, I would urge you to present them in the Chinese\n\nway, at least until the child has a vocabulary of perhaps fifty phonetic\nwords which he has traced as wholes in connection with the ideas which\nthey express. For instance, the three letters, c, a, t, together can be more\neasily learned than any one of the three separately, and the child can analyze\nthem intelligently afterwards. To learn the whole artificially analyzed\nalphabet without an idea would insult the intelligence of anyone but a\nparrot.\n\nSecondly, the Chinese method of teaching number ideas thru multitude\n\nmuch more direct than Montessori's way of teaching these ideas thru\nmagnitude. The \"long stair\" has to be translated by the child's mind\n\nis\n\nfrom its most obvious quality of length into terms of its less apparent quality\nof multitude before it really conveys number ideas to him at all.\n\nThe kinder-\n\ngarten materials illustrate number thru both magnitude and multitude.\n\nMontessori emphasizes sensation more than activity, and limits activity\nand long-considered movements. In this way she is in\n\nchiefly to slow\n\ndanger of eff eminizing education to an extreme degree.\n\nProfessor Thomas\n\nin Sex and Society says that the only difference between the mental efficiency\nof man and woman is that men have been forced to form habits of reacting\n\nfreely and swiftly to the emergencies of a swiftly moving\n\nanimals, enemies, machinery, etc.\nfixed environment of garden\n\nenvironment\n\n—while women have reacted to the more\n\nand house.\n\nHe concludes that brain power\n\ndeveloped by the individual being forced to make swift, necessary\nmovements, and that an environment is educative in proportion to the\n\nis\n\nvariety of\n\nits\n\nsudden hindrances to the carrying-out of the individual's\n\nstrongest purposes, thus stimulating his powers of invention and adaptation.\n\nIf this is true, no part of the educational system, from the kinder-\n\ngarten up, can afford to ignore it, for it implies that our present sedentary\n\nform of education, given ahnost exclusively by women, is trying to make\nThis is especially inappropriate in this\nall children as girUsh as possible.\ndawning era of social and political co-operation, for soon no young citizen\nof our republic will be justified in being exclusively boyish or girlish, or\n\nanything less than wholly human.\nMontessori has done us a great service in reminding us to develop and\nto appreciate all those simple and gracious forms of service by which a\n\nhome and garden. But in addition to this\nwe must also virilize education by adapting to it the ideal of the modern\n\nlittle child can be helpful in the\n\n"} {"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCIENTIFIC SPIRIT AND THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n445\n\nplayground movement: not play for its own sake, but frequent periods of\nstrenuous non-habitual activity, for\n\nself-development, for alertness, for\n\nswiftness and wholeness of mind action.\n\nThis would necessitate the fullest\n\nuse of all the senses, for the sake of prompt co-operative action.\n\nThe Montessori Movement has roused the kindergarten profession to a\nnew insight, and challenged it to begin a new era.\nWhat is this new insight ? When we try to describe it we find it as old\nas the world.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nthe habit of understanding a child from the inside,\n\ninstead of gazing at him from the outside.\n\nIt is\n\nan outgrowth\n\nmotherly habit of feeling the pin that pricks the baby.\n\nof the\n\nBut, instead of\n\nbeing an unreasoning instinct, this power must be patiently acquired thru\nyears of the most minute and accurate observation of children, supple-\n\nmented by memories of our own childhood. The slogan of the Conference\non Mental Hygiene at Boston this spring was: **The chief business of\nsociety is to evolve adults fit for children to live with.\"\n\nIn proportion as\n\nwe understand and direct sanely the workings of our own minds, shall we\nbe fit to do the same for the \"long, long thoughts\" of childhood and youth.\n\nNo teacher is equipped for teaching until she has somehow gained a clear\nand intimate knowledge of what was going on inside of her own skull at the\nchief stages of her development.\nWe must saturate ourselves in the restlessness, the wistfulness, the likableness of\n\nhuman nature in order to rest\n\nand satisfy and transfigure \"the least of these.\"\nAnd what is the new era toward which we are tending? An era of\nscientific teaching: that is, of open-minded teaching.\nCome, let us cease\nto be content with any method, no matter how good, and cease to waste\ntime in fighting any method, no matter how imperfect. Let us struggle\never for deeper acquaintance and more wholesome physical as well as mental\ncomradeship with our own children; and strive ever for more eflScient\nco-operation with all teachers.\n\nThis is the scientific spirit in education.\n\n"} {"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nDEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident—L. D. ComcAN, professor of education, University of Illinois\n\nUrbana, HI.\n\nVice-President—Ltvxsgstokr McCartney, superintendent of schools\n\nHannibal, Mo.\n\nSecretary\n\nSan Diego, Cal.\n\n—Gertrude Longenecker, state normal school\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 9, 1913\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in joint session with the Department\nof Normal Schools in the Tabernacle and the following program was presented:\n\nTopic:\n\n\"The Training of Teachers\":\n\n—\n\n\"In Normal Schools and Colleges of Education\" Z. X. Snyder, president,\nState Teachers College, Greeley, Colo.; John R. Kirk, president. State Normal School,\nKirksville, Mo.\n(For papers see Department of Normal Schools.)\nb) \"In Service\nAdjusting the Normal-School Graduate to the City System\"\na)\n\n—\n\nFrances Jenkins, supervisor of elementary grades, public schools, Decatur, 111.\n\nThe following persons were appointed as a committee to nominate officers for the\nensuing year:\nC. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis.\n\nW. P. Evans, state superintendent of public schools, Jefferson City, Mo.\nJohn MacDonald, editor. Western School Journal, Topeka, Kans.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 10, 1913\nThe department met in the Tabernacle at 9:00 a.m., and was called to order by the\nchairman, 1. 1. Cammack, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo.\n\nThe first paper, on \"The Effect of Kindergarten Work on Children in the Grades,\"\nwas presented by Ernest O. Holland, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky.\nA paper entitled \"Some Experiments in Elementary-School Organization\" was then\nread by Samuel W. Brown, State Normal School, San Francisco, Cal.\nThe discussion which followed was led by Mary E. Griffin, principal of the Lowell\nSchool, Kansas City, Mo.\nThe Conunittee on Nominations presented the following names:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President M. E. Pearson, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Kans.\nFor Vice-President ^J. W. Crabtree, president, State Normal School, Fall River, Wis.\nFor Secretary Frances Jenkins, supervisor of elementary grades, public schools,\nDecatur, 111.\n\nThe nominations were approved and the officers elected.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July ii, 1913\nThe department met in joint session with Departments of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation and Manual Training and Art Education, and was called to order at 9:30 a.m.\nThe following program was presented:\n447\n\n"} {"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n448\n\n[Elementary\n\n—\n\n\"Rural Schools and Community Needs\" Perry G. Holden, International Harvester\nCompany, Chicago, 111. (For this paper see Department of Manual Training and Art\nEducation.)\n\"Agriculture and Gardening in the Public Schools\" Clayton F. Palmer, supervisor\nof agriculture, public schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n(For this paper see Department of\nAgricultural Education.)\n\"Some Eliminations in the Content of Arithmetic as a Factor in the Economy of\nTime\" ^W. A. Jessup, director, School of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa\nCity, Iowa.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nJ.\n\nH. Markley, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE—ADJUSTING THE\nNORMAL-SCHOOL GRADUATE TO THE CITY SYSTEM\nFRANCES JENKINS, SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY GRADES, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nDECATUR, ILL.\nFor a half-century the normal schools have been sending their graduates\ninto the schools of the land, and from the first it has been recognized that\n\nthey were an inspiring force in the uplift of our educational system.\n\nSince\n\nwe recognize that the normal graduate has a distinct contribution to make\nto the city system, yet that she has much to learn, the early years of the\ngraduate^s teaching life are appreciated as the period in which wise supervision may help the struggling young person to reach a maximum of efl5-\n\nciency with a minimum of struggle.\n\nThe city system which rests content in having its teachers realize no\nrelationships to the system except to make reports and sign the pay-roll\n\nThe system which\nand administered that every member appreciates that he is\n\nwill not be burdened with this problem of adjustment.\nis so organized\n\nrecognized as a contributing factor finds this one of its greatest problems.\n\nThe adjustments discussed in this paper are those which are made in a\nsmall city of the Middle West which is trying to help its teachers to grow\nprofessionally thruout their period of service.\n\nThe placing of the yoxmg graduate in grade and school receives careful\nattention, the inspiration which she may receive and that which she may\n\ngive both being factors to consider.\n\nSo long as she remains in the force,\n\ntransfers may be made to give her greater opportunities.\n\nIn so far as a\n\nbusy office can help in finding comfortable homes for teachers, this is done,\nand teachers are urged to live where conditions are favorable to good work\nand good health. A series of meetings with new teachers is held to\nemphasize the salient features of the work in the system, to acquaint\nteachers with the various helps provided for them, and above all to bring\n\n"} {"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE\n\nDepartment]\n\n449\n\nabout from the first a co-operative attitude between teachers and supervisors.\n\nThese factors are common, however, in other city systems.\n\nA unique type of school visitation has been developed in our schools\nduring the last four years, and so much gain has come from it that I take\nthis occasion to describe it at\n\nsome length.\n\nBased upon the critique\n\nlessons which have proven so helpful in our normal schools, it comes closer\n\nhome to those participating in it because of the motivation underlying it.\nAs soon as our schools are well under way, usually early in October, a\nschedule is arranged whereby the new teachers, and such experienced\nteachers as desire, may visit the best work in the system in company with\nthe supervisor of elementary grades.\n\nA group of four or five meet at a given school, visit two classrooms, then\nspend an hour in discussion of the work seen. Another school is visited in\nthe afternoon, and a discussion follows.\n\nOccasionally the classes visited are\n\ndismissed so that their teachers may take part in the discussion.\n\nA brief\n\nreport is sent in to the office during the next fortnight by each teacher who\n\nhas visited, in which are stated the most profitable outcomes of the visiting\nday.\n\nThese are summarized and the summary distributed to all teachers\n\ninterested, becoming a permanent contribution to our school records.\n\nThe normal graduate responds most readily to the co-operative tj^e of\nThe attitude from the first is likely to be that of eager seeking\n\nsupervision.\n\nto do\n\nwhat is required, of seizing all opportunities offered.\n\nGradually\n\nindividual differences assert themselves and a decided difference in rate of\n\nadjustment appears.\n\nAllowing for these individual differences, however,\n\ncertain strengths appear which must be the outcome of the normal training,\ncertain weaknesses which offer opportunity for helpful supervision.\n\nIn by far the majority of instances the young graduate is able to plan\nher work intelligently, to break up the body of thought in the course of\n\nstudy into units of work which approximate the pupils' ability, to present\nlessons with a fair degree of clearness,\n\nand to study the aptitudes and\nThat the\n\ninterests of her pupils both in subject-matter and in discipline.\n\nnormal schools have succeeded in doing this for their graduates seems\nmatter for congratulation.\nPerhaps the first weakness which presents itself is the lack of training\n\n— holding a\n\nin providing valuable seat work and study assignments\n\nin\n\nclass\n\nNothing sooner opens the way for the spirit\nof disorder, and supervision needs to concern itself from the^ first in seeing\nto definite habits of study.\n\nthat the beginning teacher is helped in these important phases of the work.\n\nOur courses of study have helped much in meeting this problem; an exhibit of class work is kept in our school museum so that teachers may see\nwhat other classes do, and a new teacher is urged to observe assignments\nmade by experienced teachers in her own building. A helpful display of\n*eat work is often made in the corridor or office of a school building.\n\n"} {"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "4SO\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nA second weakness, and one which we almost hesitate to name, is lack of\nknowledge of the psychology underlying drill and of the technique of handThis leads to difficulty in securing specific results, so that the\nling drills.\nbeginning teacher works vigorously at presenting lessons only to find her\npupils failing to recall the points made.\n\nNo one would wish to return to\n\nthe old type of drill, with its lack of motivation, its failure to reach any\n\nmeaningful end, but there is much to do in introducing drills which grow\nout of real needs and which show the pupil his actual accomplishment.\n\nFear of appearing to be a drillmaster may prevent the supervisor from\ngiving adequate help here, but more may often be accomplished for the\nyoung teacher by conducting a speedy drill lesson than in hours of conference. It is one of the places where example is better than precept.\nA third weakness appears in the teaching of drawing and music. The\nfacts which confront us in our school reports for four years are given here;\nother cities may not find the same difficulties. During the years 19 10-13\nthe percentage of normal graduates taking high rank in the teaching of\ndrawing was for each year respectively 20, 20, 28, 23, an average of 22,\n\nwhile for all other teachers the percentages taking high rank were 17, 33, 20,\n27, an average of 24.\n\nIn music the record reads: normal graduates, 25, 30,\n\n40, 43, an average of 34, while those not graduates received 26, 27, 28, 35,\n\nan average of 29.\nLack of confidence is one element which we find needs to be especially\nguarded against in dealings with young teachers. A proper degree of\nhumility is sure to be the outgrowth of work based on high ideals, but many\nyoung teachers, especially those slow in development, suffer exceedingly\nthru overanxiety to do the right thing. Many have been made superTo have such a\nsensitive by the criticism received in the normal school.\nteacher assume a responsibility in committee work or in a grade meeting,\nto ask for display purposes some well-done bit of work, may show her that\nthe supervisor has confidence in her ability, and help her gradually to the\nneeded self-assurance.\n\nKnowledge of the scientific standards now in course of development, of\nthe scientific attitude toward school problems, proves of interest to the\n\nyoimg graduate. Graduates co-operate well in studies of this character.\nThese may be more meaningful coming in this practical way than if they\nwere studied theoretically at the normal schools, but it is to be hoped that\nat no distant day the normal schools will enter into this line of work more\nvigorously than at present.\n\nTeaching may be only in part a profession, nevertheless certain profesWe wish that a few definite principles might be\n\nsional aspects belong to it.\n\nso carefully inculcated that no graduate 'could forget them, that their use\nin practice might be assured:\n\nthe sacredness of a child's name;\n\nof the\n\nknowledge of his behavior and intellectual progress; the meaning of active\n\n"} {"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE\n\n451\n\nloyalty to the entire school body; the difierence between presenting complaints where they may be remedied and using them as gossip.\n\nAn important part of the supervisor's work is to present to the normal\ngraduate opportimities for advancement in the profession.\n\nThe supervisor\n\nneeds to recognize special talents in these young graduates, and to encourage\n\nthem in further study and speciaUzation.\n\nThese abilities are likely to show\n\nthemselves when opportunity is given to do an original piece of work, to\n\nThe emphasis upon motivation of school\n\nco-operate in some special study.\n\nwork, the development of new courses of study, the recognition of broader\n\ncommimity interests, the study of scientific standards, have all given our\nnew lines of endeavor and have discovered strengths unknown\n\nteachers\nbefore.\n\nRecognizing that the school\n\nis\n\nan increasingly powerful factor in\n\ninfluencing the broad community interests, we see the need for helping the\n\nnormal graduate to make such relationships as will be inspirational to her\n\nand helpful to the community.\nconfronting the supervisor.\n\nThis is one of the most difficult problems\n\nMany times intimate personal points of view\n\ndebar the graduate from establishing effective relationships, prejudices are\npresent which prevent contact, habits of behavior which are unpleasant to\nencounter.\nrut.\n\nAgain, indifference is most powerful in keeping a teacher in a\n\nOne hesitates to say: \"Do you know that your card should be sent\n\nin recognition of this courtesy?\n\nWhy did you fail to return that call?\n\nYou are mistaken in saying that you have no dress suited for this occasion.\"\nYet one difficulty in establishing right relationships grows out of just such\nThe need for making friends\noutside of the teaching force, for finding wholesome modes of recreation, for\nassuming community obligations in church or club or charitable work\nfailures to meet common social conventions.\n\nthese are factors with which supervision may wish to concern itself, yet in\n\naccomplishing which it finds its hands tied.\n\nOur parents' associations offer\n\nopportunities for such contact, but only too frequently the graduate has to\n\nbe told the courtesies of hostess, has to be urged to take the initiative in\n\nmaking the mothers feel at home. The supervisor may be of some help in\nmaking these commimity adjustments thru a personal word here, an introduction there, an opportunity for special recognition or service, but the\nproblem remains largely imsolved, yet in great. need of solution.\nThe adjustment of the normal-school graduate to a city system requires\nadaptation of each graduate to certain conditions, but even a city system is\na growing entity. The contributions made by the progressive graduates to\nour school system cannot be measured. In nine of our fifteen elementary\nschools during this past year, from one to three graduates of normal schools,\nseventeen teachers in all, have done work of superior grade, have made\n\nthemselves\n\nfelt\n\nas\n\nmost effective contributors in upbuilding the school,\n\nwhile in two other schools graduates have been a decided inspiration to the\n\n"} {"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n452\n\n(Elementary\n\nAlert and earnest, they take up the burden of school\nwork and carry it forward with a vigor which stimulates all who are cogeneral school spirit.\n\nworkers with them.\n\nThe purpose of this paper will have been accomplished if it has shown\nthat adjustment of a normal graduate to a city system is effectively accomplished in so far as just and sympathetic supervision provides ways by which\n\nthe graduate may learn the phases of teaching not gained in the normal\nschool, may grow to a deeper appreciation of personal responsibility to the\n\nschool and to the\n\ncommunity she serves, and may have opportunity to\n\ncontribute consciously to the upbuilding of the system itself;\n\nthe results\n\nbeing the greatest possible personal growth for the teacher, and a high type\nof social service.\n\nTHE EFFECT OF KINDERGARTEN WORK ON CHILDREN IN\nTHE GRADES\nERNEST O. HOLLAND, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOUISVILLE, KY.\n\nSome time in the near future we must undertake a very careful analysis\nwork of the kindergarten. For instance, we should know what\n\nof the\n\neffect kindergarten training has had on the nervous condition of the child\n\nand upon his ability to concentrate and apply himself to a set task.\n\nWe\n\nshould know, too, if his general physical condition is impaired, unaffected,\nor improved by a year of kindergarten life.\n\nSome people contend that the\n\nkindergarten methods have destroyed the child's ability to concentrate,\n\nhave made him a nervous creature who will require years to recover his\nnormal health, and that the majority of kindergarten children simply want\nSome prominent educators\nto be amused and have things done for them.\nbelieve that the foregoing indictment is quite true and that the money\ndevoted to kindergarten training is worse than wasted.\nMany educators who refuse to take this radical view believe that the\nkindergarten is of distinct worth only to the phlegmatic child, and that it\nis of no value whatever to the great majority of American children, who,\nbecause of home conditions and city life, are already inclined to be nervous,\nand therefore should be left strictly alone until the age of six or seven, when\nthey enter the primary grade.\nThese various questions and contentions cannot be answered until a\nvery careful examination is made of both the physical and the mental\ncondition of children having had kindergarten training and of those not\nhaving had such training.\n\nA careful investigation of this kind, carried\n\non for eight or ten years, will do much to confirm or refute the charges that\nhave been made against the value of kindergarten training.\nBut this paper will be confined mainly to a discussion of the effect of\nkindergarten training upon the future progress of the children in the\ngrades, since to attempt a wider and deeper analvsis at this time would be\n\n"} {"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nKINDERGARTEN WORK AND CHILDREN IN GRADES\n\nquite impossible.\n\n453\n\nVery recently, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage\n\nFoundation, examined the school records of sixteen thousand eighth-grade\ngraduates of the public schools of New York City.\n\nHis conclusions were\n\nto the effect that he found no appreciable difference between the rate of\n\nprogress of those with and those without kindergarten training.\n\nSo far\n\nas he could discover, a child entering the kindergarten at the age of four\n\nand a half or five years and receiving instruction there until the age of six\nfound the work of the grades no easier than did the child of six who went\ndirectly from home to the first grade where he received formal instruction\nfor the first time in his life.\n\nKindergarten Department of the National Education\n\nBefore the\n\nAssociation last year, Superintendent Mary D. Bradford, of the Kenosha,\nWis., schools, read a paper entitled, \"The Kindergarten and Its Relation\nto Retardation.\"\n\nSuperintendent Bradford made a careful study of the\n\nprogress and work of 1,663 pupils, which included all those who might have\n\nattended the public kindergartens established in Kenosha six or seven\nyears ago.\n\nFirst of all, she discovered that 925 of these 1,663 ii^-d attended\nkindergarten and that these children formed 60 per cent of the bright\n\ngroup.\n\nFurthermore, she discovered \"that all the children with kinder-\n\ngarten training, wherever found in the first five grades, have an average\n\nage which\n\nis\n\n8.4 months below that of\n\nall\n\nthe children without such\n\ntraining.\"\n\nSomewhere\n1 1. 8\n\nelse in\n\nher paper, Superintendent Bradford states that\n\nper cent of the public-school children under her charge were born\n\nacross the ocean, and 52 per cent of the school children of her city come\nfrom homes where one or both parents are foreign born. In many of\n\nthese homes only a foreign language is spoken, and she points out that the\n\nkindergarten serves another purpose in giving little children at an early\n\nage a command of the English language.\n\nIn the light of this it seems that the statistics obtained by Superintendent Bradford may be affected by the fact that a fairly good group of\nchildren entering the lower grades of the\n\nKenosha schools have still to\n\nacquire the use of the spoken English and therefore part of the retardation\n\nfound among non-kindergarten children is not due to their failure to get\nkindergarten training but to their failure to understand the English language.\n\nBecause of this fact, the conclusions she has reached may have\n\nto be modified.\n\nI make this point because at my suggestion Miss Mary I). Hill and\nMiss Louise Dictz, kindergarten supervisor and primary supervisor, respectively, in the Louisville public schools, tried to discover what effect kinder-\n\ngarten training had in our city on the later school progress of children in\n\ncomparison with the progress made by children without such training.\nThese facts were obtained from the 8A pupils those that completed the\nwork of the grades in June, 1913. Very frankly I must say that our\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "..\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n454\n\n(Elementary\n\ninvestigation bears out the conclusions reached by Doctor Ayres, as the\n\nfollowing tables will show;\n\nTABLE A\nSummary of Questionnaiee Sent to the 8A-Grade Pxjpils with Kindergarten\nTraining\n\nEighth-grade pupils\nhaving had kindergarten training.\nYears in kindergarten\n\nGills\n\nBoys\n\nTotol\n\n82\n\n76\n\n158\n\n.\n\n103\n\n2ioi years Average niunber years\nin kindergarten, 1.33\nyears\n\nio7i years\n\nyears\n\nKindergarten Averages\n\nAge at conclusion of\neighth year\n\nyears\n1,169\n5 months\n\n1,082\n\nyears\n\n2,251 years\n5 months\n\nAverage age at conclusion of eighth grade,\n\n14.25 years\n\nAge of entering first\ngrade\n\n520\n\nyears\n\n472\n\nyears\n\n992\n\nyears Average age entering\nfirst grade, 6. 277 years\n\n114\n\nAverage number\n\nNumber half-grades\nskipped\n\n63\n\nSI\n\nNumber half-grades\n\nhalf-\n\nretarded\nTotal\nnumber of\nyears in school.\n\ngrades skipped, 0. 721\n\nAverage number\n\n38\n\n19\n\n19\n\nhalf-\n\ngrades retarded,\n\n24\n\n.\n\n589 years 1,217.8 years Average number years\n\n628.8 years\n\n.\n\nin school, 7 706 years\n.\n\nAn papers marked B were discarded. Total apparent 8A, 763. Of this number 65 were thrown out\non account of conflicting statements. This left 698 for the whole report both kindergarten and non-\n\n—\n\nkindergarten.\n\nTABLE B\nSummary of Questionnaire Sent to the 8A-Grade Pupils without\nKindergarten Training\nGirb\n\nBoys\n\nTotal\n\nNon-kindergarten\nAverages\n\nEighth-grade pupils having\nhad no kindergarten training\n\n307\n\n233\n\nS40\n\nAge at conclusion of eighth\ngrade\n\n4,276 years\n\n6 months\n\nAge entering first grade .....\n\nNumber half -grades skipped.\nNimiber half-grades retarded\nTotal number years in school\n\n1,902 years\n5 months\n\n169\n\n7,374 years\n\n3,098 years\n2 months\n\n1,040 years\n\n9 months\n\n2,943 years\n\n5.45\n\n265\n175\n4,218 years\n\n.49\n.324\n\nyears\n\n7 months\n\n96\n\n72\n2,307 years\n\n13-635 years\n\n8 months\n\n103\n1,910 years\n8 months\n\n7. 811\n\n5 months\n\nTable A shows that 158 of the 698 children in the 8 A grade had had\nkindergarten training, with an average of one and one-third years of\ninstruction.\n\nBy accident a number of 8B pupils\n\nthe eighth grade\n\n—\n\n^were included.\n\n—those in the\n\nfirst half\n\nof\n\nHowever, the conclusions have not been\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nKINDERGARTEN WORK AND CHILDREN IN GRADES\n\ninvalidated.\n\n455\n\nA comparison of Tables A and B shows that the average age\n\nfor completion of the eighth grade\n\nby those having had kindergarten\n\ntraining was 14.25 years, while those without such training completed the\n\neighth grade with an average age of but 13.64 years. This difference can\nbe explained when we find that the non-kindergartners entered the first\n\ngrade at an average age of 5 45 years, while those receiving kindergarten\ntraining averaged 6.27 years.\nBut we must admit that we are still puzzled\nto know why this special training of the kindergarten children and their\n.\n\nadded maturity have not been evidenced in more rapid promotions.\nDuring the past few months. Misses Dietz and Hill asked the teachers\nof the children in grade B\nthose enrolled for the first five months of the\nfirst grade\nto rate their children in three groups, slow, average, and strong,\nand then discover how many in each group had received and how many\nhad not received kindergarten training. Their reports have been compiled\n\n—\n\n—\n\nand presented in Table C, given below:\n\nTABLE C\nGiving facts about 965 pupils enrolled in iB grade of the Louisville public schools.\nThese pupils are divided into three groups accordmg to ability, indicating in each instance\nthe number that have received kindergarten training.\n\n(Number having kindergarten training\nPercentage having kindergarten training\nNumber without kindergarten training\nPercentage without kindergarten training\n\n63\n22. 7 per cent\n\n210\n77. 2 per cent\n\n273\n126\n\n{Number having kindergarten training\nPercentage having kindergarten training\n\n31 .6 per cent\n\nNumber without kindergarten training\nPercentage without kindergarten training\n\n272\n\n68.3 per cent\n\n398\n91\n\n[Number having kindergarten training\n«\n^STRONG\n\n295d:*f\n\njjfeO/U\n\nThe aim of industrial education, in the language of Dr. Kerschensteiner,\n\"is to insure personal efficiency and enable the pupil to take that part in\n\nThe first place must be assigned to\nIn other words, a pupil is not being fitted as\n\nsociety which his capabilities warrant.\ntraining in trade efficiency.\"\n\na worthy member of society who is not acquiring the power to make a living.\n\nHe says:\nA useful citizen is one who contributes by his work, directly or indirectly, to the\nattainment by the state of its goal, as a legal and cultural community. The first task of\nthe school is the promotion, so far as may be, of the skill as well as the joy in the work\n\nThe second task is the early accustoming of the pupil to placing his joy and\nwork in the service of his companions and fellow-men, as well as of his own.\n\nof the pupil.\nskill in\n\nThe third task is the connecting of the so-built-up readiness for service, consideration,\nand ethical devotion, with an insight into the purpose of the state, so far as such an insight\ncan be developed in the pupils, considering their position and degree of maturity.\n\nThe great German school superintendent has thus ably summed up the\npurpose and possibilities of education\n\nwhole man.\n\n—the complete development of the\n\nIf the hand is skilled, the head is trained,\n\nand the heart is\n\nright, there is no limit to the possibilities for public service in that individual.\nIf the public schools are ever to approach more nearly that ideal development, it seems to me that there are three agencies which must work together\n\nin perfect harmony.\n\nIn the first place, the household must do its work.\n\nThe things we learn from our fathers and mothers we never forget.\n\nThey\n\nbecome incorporated into our being and become almost instincts. If we\nhave learned at home to be industrious and loyal to the home interests, to\nlove and honor the truth, and to hate, as men hate filth, all lying or double\ndealing\n\n— that\nif\n\nis firmly ingrained, a child will carry that business asset to\n\nThe school should keep in much closer touch with the\nThe home environment should be known to the teacher and the\n\nthe end of life.\n\nhome.\n\nschool authorities.\n\nWhen the child reaches the age of twelve or thirteen,\n\nthe school should confer with the home for the purpose of learning what\nthe future plans of the home are for the child.\n\nIf the information indicates\n\nthat the child must leave school at the expiration of the period of compul-\n\nsory attendance, the school and the home should counsel together as to the\nnatural bent of the child and the occupations and the vocations which are\navailable for the object of guiding him to the vocation which is best fitted\n\nto his temperament and capability. The schools should keep a record of\neach case and follow the young worker, giving wise counsel as difficulties\narise owing to the newness of the work and the strangeness of the environ-\n\nment.\n\nThat is, keep in touch until the success of the worker is assured.\n\n"} {"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nS6o\n\n[Manual Training\n\nNext, the school must give closer study to industrial conditions.\n\nThe\n\nschools should know what industries offer the best opportunities to those\n\nwho must seek employment early, because of necessity or dislike of the\ndrudgery of school work.\n\nAgain, there must be aroused a public sentiment\n\namong those who manage the industries which will cause them, without\nfear or favor, honestly and earnestly to co-operate with the schools, and\n\nthru the schools with the home, for the purpose of placing the pupil who\nmust leave school in a place where, if he is industrious, he will succeed and\nthru success be contented and happy. Again, the co-operation of business\ninterests should\n\nbe secured so that boys who are attending our schools\n\ncould be sent out stated hours each week to do practical work in the shops\nof the community.\nIn this way the business interests, of course, would be\nbrought in closer touch with what the schools are attempting to do, and the\nschoolmasters would learn what the shops expect of the schools, so that\n\nVery many business men criticize the\nsympathy with the developing boy and\n\neach would be helpful to the other.\nschools because they are not in\n\nconsequently have no patience with the worker, who is also the learner.\n\nThis attitude is not in keeping with the true spirit of helpfulness and really\n\nworks to the disadvantage of the business interests. At best, the schools\ncan supply but limited practical education because of the expense of\nmachinery. The school can do the drawing and the theoretical work as\nwell as the shop, but practice of the theories taught in the schoolroom\nshould be put into execution in the atmosphere of practical business, where\nefficiency is the watchword and economy the practice.\nWe schoolmasters have our limitations; there are a few things we do\nnot know. Our training has not been along the same lines with the man\nwho is risking his money in the manufacturing of articles which are to compete for profit in the markets of the world. Those men are usually forehanded; we are mostly empty-handed. We are not experts, nor can we\never be, in training boys and girls for industries. The aim of the industrial\nschool, or of the industrial course in our public schools, is to fit the students\n\nto become efficient workers in the industries.\n\nThe success of industrial\n\nschools, like everything else, depends upon organization and management.\n\nTo bring the vocational training of the schools closer to business interests\nthose schools should be controlled by industrial experts by men who are\nmaking industrial conditions a study, who anticipate, thru their expert\n\n—\n\nknowledge, industrial changes and arrange their business to meet these\n\nchanges with as little loss as possible.\nIndustrial schools both in the United States and in Europe are still in\n\nthe experimental stage.\n\nWe know that the industrial work has accom-\n\nplished much, but I do not think that any one of us is willing to say that\n\nthey have reached the ideal stage.\n\nTo bring them closer to that stage and\n\nnearer to the business interests, I believe that there should be established a\nfederal vocational bureau which will have representatives in every com-\n\n"} {"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT ON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS\n\nDepartment!\n\nmunity;\n\n561\n\nthat this bureau should be composed of both capitalists and\n\nrepresentatives of organized labor; that they should be represented on all\n\nschool boards with the right to suggest,\n\nif\n\nnot the right to vote on all\n\nmeasures affecting the vocational work of the public schools.\n\nThru such a\n\nbureau, I believe that public schools would be stimulated and that vocational work would be vitalized and energized.\nIt would bring co-operation\nbetween trade unions, capital, and the state, and place industrial training\nupon a scientific basis, which would bring to the school the confidence of all\nclasses.\nIt would also standardize industrial work and give the industrial\nschool the benefit of friendly, constructive criticism from men trained in\nthe commercial shops and factories.\nThe public school is in a period of transition, based upon the change in\nindustrial conditions. It is not a sentiment, but an aspiration toward a\nbetter order of society. A transition with such a noble aspiration exhibits,\neven in its catastrophies, and its transitory errors, a youthful vigor and\nvitality which promise long and glorious periods of growth.\nIndustrial\neducation is so vast in its possibilities that it seems as boundless as the past\nand as unsolvable as the future. But patient, definite, organized study on\nthe part of all the forces interested will produce results which will insure\nsuccess and enable our industries to hold their own in the markets of\nthe world because of the co-operation and intelligent ejficiency of their\n\nemployees.\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\nREQUIREMENTS\nAt the meeting of the National Education Association in Boston, three\nyears ago, resolutions were adopted by the Department of Manual Training and Art Education urging colleges and universities to grant to appli-\n\ncants for admission greater freedom in the choice of subjects that they\ncollege; and urging upon the colleges\nand imiversities the recognition of drawing, shop work, and household\neconomics as accepted entrance subjects, whenever these subjects are well\ntaught and form a part of a well-planned and approved high-school course.\nIn addition to the passage of these resolutions, a committee was appointed by the department with instructions to further the spirit and\n\nmight present for entrance into\n\npurpose of the resolutions in every possible way.\n\nThe committee made a preliminary report at the San Francisco meeting of the Association, describing\n\nits\n\nwork in securing and distributing\n\ninformation regarding the colleges, and calling attention to the tendency\n\ntoward decidedly more Uberal requirements especially in the subjects in\nwhich this department is especially interested. Again at the Chicago\nmeeting, a year ago, the committee made a second report of progress, giving\nfurther facts and pointing out certain tendencies observed in the relation\n\n"} {"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nS62\n\nof the colleges and the preparatory schools.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThis second report was not\n\nas complete as it otherwise would have been, for the reason that we were\n\nwaiting for the Report on College-Entrance Requirements by the United\nStates Bureau of Education, compiled by C. D. Kingsley, agent of the\nMassachusetts Board of Education and also a member of this committee.\n\nThis report of the Bureau of Education is now out, and is, of course,\nfuller and more complete as a source of information than any report could\n\nwell be that was made entirely by volunteer workers.\n\nThruout the whole work of the committee, the question of obtaining\na more appropriate recognition for the subjects of drawing, shop work, and\nhousehold economics has always been regarded as an integral part of the\nlarger question of the whole relation of colleges to the preparatory schools.\nTo attempt to separate it would be a mistake. The work of the committee\nhas shown plainly that it is tied up with the prescribed requirements in\nlanguage, mathematics, history, and science, and also with the electives in\nother subjects that are now demanding a more generous recognition.\nThe greatest hope of gaining the objects set forth in the Boston resolution lies in the direction of obtaining a decrease in the proportion of\ncredit given to the subjects on the prescribed list;\njects that are seeking recognition as\n\nand of using all the sub-\n\na combined argimient for broaden-\n\ning the elective list, or giving to the subjects on the elective list a larger\n\nproportion of total credit.\n\nThe following tables are compiled from data taken from the report of\nThey will\n\nthe United States Bureau of Education referred to before.\n\nshow just what conditions are at the present time and the exact extent to\nwhich drawing, shop work, and household economics are now being accepted\nby American colleges and universities of each of the types named.\n\nTABLE I\nInstitutions Included:\n\n203 Liberal Arts Colleges Granting the A.B. Degree\n\nMaximum Credit Units Acceptable\n4 or more\n3 or more\n2 or more\nI or more\n\\ or more\n\nTotal\nWill consider\n\n,^j.).i. v. .\n\nGrand total\n\nDrawing\n\nShop Work\n\nHousehold\nEconomics\n\n22\n\n20\n\n19\n\n5\n\nII\n\n17\n\n25\n\n67\n\nu\n\n13\n\n4\n\n124\n10\n\n97\n9\n\n79\n10\n\n134\n\n106\n\n89\n\n69\n\n97\n\n114\n\nNumber of institutions granting no\ncredit\n\nNote.—The credit unit referred to in this report is that adopted by the Carnegie Foundation and is\ndefined as follows:\n\n\"A unit represents a year's study in any subject in a secondary school, constituting approxi-\n\nmately a quarter of a full year's work.\"\n\nTwo hours of drawing, manual training, or laboratory work are generally assumed to be equivalent to\none hour of classroom work.\n\n"} {"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT ON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS\n\n563\n\nIn the foregoing table, the figures in the first column are the number\nof credit units that are acceptable in each of the subjects given in the head-\n\nings of the following columns.\n\nThe words \"or more'' after the figures\n\nshould be understood to mean \"or more, but less than the figure immediately above.\"\n\nThe figures in the second column indicate the number of institutions\nin the class indicated in this table that will accept in drawing the mmiber\n\nThe\n\nof credit units indicated by the corresponding figure in column one.\n\ncolumns 3 and 4 give the corresponding information for shop\nwork and household economics respectively.\nThe sunmaary at the foot of the table gives the total number of institutions that will give credit for from one-half unit to four units in the three\nfigures in\n\nsubjects;\n\nthe\n\nnumber that will consider the subjects, but that do not\n\nadvertise the extent to which they will give credit; the grand total that\nwill in\n\nany way consider the subjects; and the number that decline to\n\ngive any credit whatsoever.\n\nWhile the figures given in the last line of Table IV are not strictly\ncomparable with the figures collected for the report of a year ago, because\n\nTABLE II\nInstitutions Included:\n\n85 Colleges of Engineering\n\nMaximum Credit Units Acceptable\n\nHousehold\nEconomics\n\nDrawing\n\nShop Work\n\n7\nS\n\n10\n10\n\n16\n\n21\n\nn\n\n45\n\n28\n\n15\n\n4\n\n2\n\n2\n\n77\n3\n\n65\n\n39\n\n3\n\n5\n\n80\n\n68\n\n44\n\n5\n\n17\n\n41\n\n4 or more\n3 or more\n2 or more\nI or more\n^ or more\n\nTotal\nWill consider\n\nGrand total\n\nI\n\nNumber of institutions granting no\ncredit\n\nTABLE III\nInstitutions Included:\n\nMaximum Credit Units Acceptable\n4 or more\n3 or more\n2 or more\nI or more\n^ or more\n\nTotal\nInstitutions granting no credit\n\n31\n\nColleges of Agriculture\n\nDrawing\n\nShop Work\n\nHousehold\nEconomics\n\n9\n\n10\n\n10\n\n3\n\n3\n5\n\n2\n\n5\n7\n7\n2\n\n31\n\n31\n\n28\n\n4\n13\n\n8\n2\n\n3\n\n"} {"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n5^4\n\n(Manual Training\n\nTABLE IV\nSummary\nGiving Credit\n\nGivine Credit\n\nDrawing\n\nShopWork\n\nEconomics\n\n134\n\n89\n44\n\nTotal Number\n\nType of College\n\nGiving Credit\nfor Household\n\nA.B. degree\nCollege of Engineering\n\n203\n\nCollege of Agriculture\n\n31\n\n31\n\n106\n68\n31\n\n319\n\n24s\n\n207\n\n161\n\n76.8\n\n64.9\n\n50.5\n\n80\n\nTotals\n\nPercentage\n\n28\n\nthe number of colleges included in the earlier report was smaller, being\n\nbut 188, nevertheless the contrast of the figures in the two reports, but a\nyear apart, is interesting.\n\nREPORT OF LAST YEAR\nNumber of colleges considered\n\n188\n\nPercentage granting some credit in one subject\n\n—either drawing, shop work, or\n\nhousehold economics\n\n66\n\nPercentage granting credit in two subjects\n\n50\n\nPercentage granting credit in three subjects\n\n44\n\nTables I, II, III, and IV show the extent to which entrance credit\nfor drawing, shop work,\n\nand household economics is already being given.\n\nBefore these figures can be materially increased, it will probably be necessary to decrease the number of units at present definitely prescribed for\n\nentrance in other subjects.\n\nAn accurate knowledge of the present practice\n\nin this particular is, therefore, of interest and value;\n\nand the conunittee\n\nhas therefore compiled data of this kind in the following table.\n\nTABLE V\nNumber of Units Prescribed for Entrance in Each Principal Group of Subjects\nSubject\n\nEnglish\n\nMathematics\nLanguages\nScience\n\nHistory and Social Science\nVocational Subjects\n\nTotal units prescribed\nElective units permitted\n\nAverage of 203\nA.B. CoUeges\n\n2.9\n2-3\n\n4.0\n0.5\nI.O\n0.0\n\nAverage of 85\nAverage of 31\nEngineering Colleges Agricultural CoUeges\n\n30\n3.1\n2.0\nI.O\n\n2.9\n2.2\n1.2\nI.O\n.8\n.0\n\n•9\n\n0.1\n\n10.7\n4.3\n\n10.\n\nTotal\n\nIS\n\n15\n\nElective imits permitted in\nvocational subjects\n\n1.9\n\n2.8\n\n4.9\n\n8.1\n6.9\nji;\n\n4-2\n\n"} {"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT ON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS\n\n565\n\nIn the first column of the foregoing table are given the several groups\nIn the second\n\nof subjects which are usually prescribed for college entrance.\n\ncolumn are given the figures for each one of these groups of subjects obtained by averaging the definitely prescribed requirements for 203 liberal\narts colleges granting the A.B. degree.\n\nIn the third and fourth columns\n\nare given the corresponding data for 85 engineering colleges and 31 agricultural colleges, respectively.\n\nTable V shows that on the average for the 203 Uberal arts colleges\nthere is a total of 10 j^ definitely prescribed units; for the 85 engineering\ncolleges there is on the average a total of 10^ definitely prescribed units,\nand for the 31 agricultural colleges the corresponding figure is 8yVThere is left, therefore, to be selected among the various groups of\nelectives, a total of 4^ units for the average of the 203 liberal arts colleges;\na total of 4y^^ units for the average of the 85 colleges of engineering; and a\n\ntotal of 6y^^ units for the average of the 31 agricultural colleges.\n\nThe number of units of vocational subjects which may be offered as a\npart of the total electives is given in the last line of Table V.\n\nOn an average,\n\nthe 203 liberal arts colleges will accept a total of not more than i^^ units;\n\non an average, the 85 engineering colleges will accept a total of not more\nthan 2^^^ units; and on an average, the 31 agricultural colleges will accept\na total of not more than 4^ units of vocational subjects.\nIt is unquestionably true that American high schools have seriously\nsuffered in the past from an attempt to teach too many subjects in their\nendeavor both to satisfy the requirements of different colleges and to meet\nlocal commimity needs.\nThey have felt that they could not disregard the\ngrowing demand to provide education directly related to industry, commerce, and the social life of their communities, and they have wished also\nto meet the requirements of those colleges to which certain of their pupils\nwished to go.\nThis condition, however, has apparently reached a point from which\nreaction is inevitable.\nIt is generally recognized that the lowering of college-entrance require-\n\nments is not the right way to produce the reUef This would weaken both\nthe high schools and the colleges.\nOn the other hand, maintaining rigid and definitely prescribed collegeentrance requirements can result only in widening the present gap between\nthe high schools and the colleges, and in crippling college work by increasing the number of conditioned and poorly prepared students.\nIt is evident that the only improvement in this situation can come\nabout from continuing to make the college-entrance requirements more\nflexible so as to meet the varying needs of different schools and different\n.\n\ncommunities.\n\nIn this direction of greater flexibility of entrance require-\n\nments, your committee believes that the high schools of the United States\n\nmay confidently expect increasing co-operation from the colleges, for, in\n\n"} {"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nS66\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthe long nin, the interests of both are identical, and the colleges appear\nto be ready to recognize this.\n\nInvestigation has shown that the quality of college work is much more\n\nintimately related to the quality of work done by students before entering\ncollege than it is to the nature of the subject or subjects that were included\n\nin the preparatory course.\nIn other words, the facts show that efficient\nwork in college is best insured when it is based upon thoro and efficient\nwork in secondary schools. It is, therefore, for the welfare of the college\nand university, quite as much as it is for the high school, that the latter\nshould do its work under the most favorable conditions.\nThis means that the high school must be free to recognize different\nkinds of ability in different individuals; free to profit by the increased\ninterest that comes from educating boys and girls in the directions that are\nrelated to their life-experience and that they believe to be worth while;\nand free to concentrate energy upon a reasonable nimiber of lines of work.\nThis freedom, however, can be obtained only when colleges require but a\nsmall number of definitely prescribed imits for college entrance and permit\nelectives from a wide variety of subjects.\n\nIn order to express in more definite form the minimimi degree of flexibility in college-entrance\n\nrequirements that your committee regards as\n\nthe following recommendations are respectfully submitted to\n\nessential,\n\nAmerican colleges and universities:\nRecommendations for College-Entrance Requirements by the Department of\nManual Training and Art Education of the National Education Association\nThat not more than one-half of the total credits required for entrance to\n\nFirst:\n\ncollege be prescribed.\n\nThat whenever subjects are prescribed for entrance at least three (3) units\n\nSecond:\n\nof EngUsh be included in the prescribed list.\n\nThird:\n\nThat not more than three (3) units of foreign language (either Latin or\n\nGerman or French) be included in the prescribed list.\nFourth: That not more than (2) units of mathematics be included in the prescribed\nlist,\n\nexcepting for colleges of engineering.\n\nThat not more than one (i) unit each of natural science or of history and\n\nFifth:\n\nsocial science be included in the prescribed list, excepting where no foreign language is\n\nprescribed.\nSixth: That at least one-half of the total credits required for entrance be elective\nfrom any subjects included in a regular four-year course of an approved high school.\nSeventh: That a total of at least four (4) credits be accepted in each of the following\nsix groups of subjects:\n\nEnglish, foreign language, mathematics, natural science, history,\n\nand vocational subjects (including drawing, shop work, and household\neconomics, and with at least two possible credits in any of the three branches).\nNote. As stated in connection with Table I of this report: The unit referred to\nhere is that adopted by the Carnegie Foimdation and is defined as follows: \"A unit\nrepresents a year's study in any subject in a secondary school, constituting approximately\nsocial science,\n\n—\n\na quarter of a full year's work.\"\n\nTwo hours of drawing, manual training, or laboratory work are generally assumed\nto be equivalent to one hour of classroom work.\n\n"} {"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "'\n\nDepartment!\n\nTYPES OF SCHOOLS FOR DIFFERENT PUPILS\n\n567\n\nIt is of interest to note that the entrance requirements of the following\n\nimportant institutions at present come within all of the seven foregoing\nrecommendations of your committee:\nHarvard University (according to the new plan of admission)\nUniversity of Chicago\nLeland Stanford Junior University\nUniversity of Minnesota (with the exception of the fact that four units in English\nare prescribed)\n\nUniversity of Wisconsin\nUniversity of Missouri\nUniversity of Michigan (with the exception of the fact that a total of but 3 units\nin vocational subjects will be accepted as electives)\n\nState University of Iowa\n\nUniversity of Nebraska\n\nClark College\n\nOhio University\n\nReed College\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nA. L. WiLLiSTON, Chairman\n\nCommittee\n\n'\n\n\\\n\nI\n\nMichael W. Murray\nWilliam C. A. Hammel\nClarence D. Kingsley\nEdnah a. Rich\nHelen Louise Johnson\nClifford B. Connelley\n\nTHERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT KINDS OF BOYS AND GIRLS\nFOR WHOM ARE NEEDED MANY DIFFERENT\nTYPES OF SCHOOLS\nARTHUR L. WILLISTON, PRINCIPAL OF WENTWORTH INSTITUTE,\n\nI\n\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nI\n\nThere are many different kinds of boys and girls; and at the outset\nlet us recognize that boys and girls not only differ, but that they differ in\n\nmany ways. They differ in mind, in character, and in body; they differ\nin home environment, and in financial resources.\nEach one of these differences affects the kind of life-work for which they by nature are best\nfitted,\n\nand accordingly affects the training that will serve as the best\n\npreparation for such life-work.\n\nWe should try to understand these facts better than we do and we\nshould take them into consideration in school training.\ndifferences, I\n\nThe physical\n\nam inclined to believe, are much greater than we are in\n\nthe habit of thinking.\n\nThere are not only\n\ndifferences of stature,\n\nand\n\nweight, and muscular strength, but also differences in nervous system, in\n\npower of vital organs, and in acuteness and sensitiveness of touch, eye,\near, and taste.\nTraining and directed activity may greatly influence\n\nL\n\n"} {"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nSfiS\n\n(Manual Training\n\nbodily development, correcting weaknesses or producing exceptional power,\njust as it is possible to direct the development of mind and character within\n\nprescribed limits.\n\nBut the natural constitutional characteristics still pre-\n\nvail, and should not be overlooked or forgotten.\n\nHome and social environment, too, have a far-reaching influence.\nThe boy brought up in crowded city streets has some advantages over,\nand perhaps on the whole equal opportunities with, his country cousin,\nbrought up on the farm; but tho all other things are the same, their opportunities cannot be identical; for the outlook and chance to gain life-\n\nAnd lastly, financial resources\n\nexperience are of very different kinds.\n\ngreatly affect the likelihood of achievement in many directions.\n\nA boy in\n\npoor or moderate circumstances, who is forced to go to work at the age\nof fourteen or fifteen years, may early acquire a sense of responsibility\nwhich in certain fields may give him a great advantage over his richer\n\nand apparently more favored schoolmate.\n\nOn the other hand, certain\n\navenues of success are definitely closed to him by the early necessity of\ngoing to work.\n\nIn American schools in the past, we have been too liable to overlook\nthese differences, and to think that it is possible to average these qualities\nof\n\nhuman character as we would figures on the blackboard.\n\nIn conse-\n\nquence, in our practice, we have too often assumed that a course of study\n\ncould be devised which would fit the mythical average boy and therefore\n\nbe equally good for all.\nIn contrast with the outworn doctrine of the average boy, let me\nrepeat a story told me by the superintendent of an important factory of\n\none of our largest industries.\n\nThis man had charge of the employment and\n\nplacing of many hundreds of workmen.\n\nHe told me that he had often dis-\n\ncharged men as a matter of discipline, and for many other reasons; but\n\nhad never, so far as he could recall,\nYet his factory was noteworthy\nHe said that he had learned that incompetence in\nfor its high efficiency.\none direction, so long as there was willingness to make effort, invariably\nmeant special ability in some other direction. His constant study, therefore, was to find the kind of work that was suited to the men who appeared\nthat, in his years of experience, he\n\ndischarged a single man for incompetence.\n\nto be below the usual ability at the tasks to which they were first set.\n\nHe\n\nobserved them closely and moved them about from one kind of work to\nanother, and said that it invariably happened that there was some kind\nof work in the factory that in the end they were able to do especially well\n\nthe kind, of course, for which they were especially fitted.\n\nUntil that was\n\nfound, he regarded the failure as his, not theirs.\nI think this coincides with the observation of most of us.\n\nThe mis-\n\nfortune is that both in school and in practical life there is nobody to assign\nthese different tasks to those who appear to be behind their fellows until\n\nnew work is found for them in which they may do well.\n\n"} {"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "TYPES OF SCHOOLS FOR DIFFERENT PUPILS\n\n569\n\nThe story nevertheless, has, I believe, a special meaning for us.\n\nAs\n\nDepartment!\n\nschools are at present organized, the only departments in which there is\n\nmuch room for varying tasks and instruction to fit different tastes, abilities,\nand ambitions of pupils are the drawing, the shop work, and the home\neconomics. In greater degree than teachers of other subjects, we have\nhere opportunity to study boys and girls, to discover their limitations and\ntheir special powers, and to give them a chance for individual expression;\n\nand because of the unfortunately prescribed conditions of the balance of\nthe curriculum, is not the obligation upon us increased to keep our work\nflexible and adaptable to individual human needs ?\nAt present our system of education is arranged as a continuous pathway\nfrom the lowest grade to the highest without even convenient stoppingplaces for those who must get off. In consequence many are tumbled\noff most unceremoniously with absolutely no equipment to help them\n\nmake the necessary adjustments with practical life.\nI like better to think of an ideal system of education as a \" s)mametrically\n\nbranching chestnut tree\" than as a series of parallel paths.\n\nI think of\n\nthe trunk as embracing those things which are common to all, even to\nthose who must leave school at the earliest age.\n\nThis trunk continues up\nwould reach the blossoms at the\nvery top; but at every stage, between a point very near the bottom and\nthe top, branches go out in every direction; and each branch reaches out\nto blossoms as perfect and not so difficult to reach as those at the top.\nIn similar fashion, our school system at every stage, from a point very\nearly in the grades to the college, should reach out a helping hand in every\ndirection toward every kind of practical work that is worth while.\nThis analogy makes simple the relation between general and vocational\neducation. The former is the trunk which supports and nourishes the\nBoth are necessary parts of the equipment of every boy or girl.\nlatter.\nThey are not antagonistic, but supplement one another; not enemies,\nbut friends; one is the stalk, the other the foliage and flower. The general\nalone is imperfect, and an almost useless thing. It should always be\nregarded as preparing for, and leading up to, skill, efficiency, and excellence\nin something, whether it be in plumbing or in preaching.\nNow let us apply these principles to our own work. It may be general\nor it may be vocational. How shall we distinguish ? If it is work given\nto boys or girls who have not yet determined their future occupations, or\nif it is given to a group who will follow a wide variety of pursuits, then it\nis general education no matter how technical the teaching may be.\nThis\nis true whether we are considering shop work in the elementary school or\nin the technical high school; whether it is mechanical work or fine and\napplied art; whether it is work for boys or household science and art for\ngirls.\nIt is still general so long as it is not destined to be used in the main\nas a stepping-stone to some specific vocation.\nstraight thru the center for those who\n\n—\n\n—\n\n.\n\ni\n\n"} {"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nS70\n\n[Manual Training\n\nLet us frankly acknowledge this, and, under the term \"manual arts,\"\nconsider for a moment how we can make it of the most value.\n\nEmphasis\n\nin each of the seven following directions, I believe, is important:\nFirst:\n\nMore time is needed in the curriculum than is ordinarily allowed for manual\n\n90 minutes per week, or 120, or 240 is not enough. More than this in many places\nhas been found, and in others it can be found. We must continue our crusade, therefore,\narts;\n\nfor a sufl&cient allotment of time.\n\nSecond: Each thing undertaken should be carried far enough to get proficiency\n\ngenuine excellence in it.\nThird: All the work should accurately represent professional work\n\n—not amateur.\n\nWhen we teach mathematics, we use the standards for addition and multiplication used\nin business offices. When we teach French, we insist upon the best pronunciation of\nSimilarly, when we teach manual arts, let us always insist upon the best methods\nand standards of the profession.\nFourth: All the work should have reality, that is, the tools and equipment and\nmethods should be identical with the commercial; the jobs should be real jobs; each\nParis.\n\nsixty minutes should, so far as possible, be made to produce sixty minutes' worth of\n\nproduction; and always the product produced should have a purpose.\nFifth:\n\nThe instruction should be made to reveal a true picture of modem industry\n\nin the outside world.\n\nIf a boy is to study history, he should learn true history.\n\nIf he\n\nstudies manual arts, even tho he become a merchant, he should obtain an accurate per-\n\nspective of industry.\nSixth:\n\n—with under-\n\nToo often we have been satisfied with intellectual conceptions\n\nstanding, merely, how work should be done.\n\nSeventh:\n\nThe atmosphere of real Ufe should surround the work, giving the sense of\n\nresponsibility, the spirit of competition,\n\nand the necessity for efl&ciency that industry\n\ndemands.\n\nDo I hear someone inquire: \"Are you not imposing standards for\nvocational work rather than for general education?\"\nI\n\nNo!\n\nNot at all!\n\nam simply imposing the same standards that good Latin and science\n\nteachers have been demanding for all time.\n\nWe will pass on now to consider the industrial or vocational education\nand the difference will be plain. If we refer back to the analogy of the\nchestnut tree, we shall expect the industrial to follow and supplement\nthe general education. We shall expect it to conform to the conditions\nthat make for efficiency in the general; but as it differs radically in its\nprimary purpose and in the direction in which it leads, we shall also expect\npoints of radical difference. In detail these points of difference are many.\nthe three that seem to be of special\nI shall only touch here upon three\n\n—\n\nimportance:\nFirst:\n\ntion\n\nis\n\nThe time devoted to vocational subjects in industrial educa-\n\nvastly greater than is ever obtained for manual arts in general\n\neducation, being from perhaps 50 to 80 per cent of the total time in the\n\ncurriculum instead of at the best perhaps 20 or 30 per cent.\n\nSecond:\n\nThe boys or girls, with very few exceptions, are actually\n\ngoing into the occupations for which the school offers preparation.\ndifference is fundamental.\n\nThis\nFor example, a school of high-school grade\n\n"} {"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL AND PUBLIC EDUCATION\n\nDepartment]\n\n571\n\ncannot be a trade school, for boys who go to high school beyond the first\nyear do not enter mechanical trades.\nThird:\n\nThe industrial school has the absolute necessity of making\n\nconnection with the trades or industry for which it trains.\n\nIt must actually\n\nsucceed in landing the boys or girls in the positions they are seeking.\n\nA\n\nlaw school that does not succeed in making real lawyers is not a law school;\na normal school that does not make teachers is not a normal school; a\npreparatory school that does not get boys into college is not in fact a pre-\n\nparatory school;\nits boys\n\nand similarly, an industrial school that does not land\n\nor girls, in the main, in positions in industry is not an industrial\n\nschool in every proper sense.\n\nThe danger is that schools may be planned that start nowhere in\nThey must always rest\non a solid foundation, at the level of the human beings that are ready\nto be trained. They must lead to some definite getting-off place.\nThe great variety of important callings and occupations requiring\ndifferent types of skill and intelligence indicates something of the number\n\nparticular, and will reach nowhere in particular.\n\nof different kinds of school training that there is need for.\n\nIn conclusion, let me say that the movement to adapt education to he\nneeds of all types of boys and girls is widespread, and is making rap i\nprogress.\n\nMuch harm may come if this movement is misunderstood, ii\n\nthe distinction between the general and vocational training is forgotten,\nor if the attempt is made to compromise between these two, for no such\n\ncompromise is possible.\n\nMuch good, untold good, on the other hand, will\n\nresult when a general system of truly vocational work fully supplements\n\nthe fine results that are now secured in the scheme for general training.\n\nThe members of this department of the National Education Associawe who are teachers of art and manual training have at the present\n\ntion\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntime both a great opportunity and a great responsibility.\n\nWe are in a\n\nbetter position than others to see and appreciate the meaning and impor-\n\ntance of this movement.\n\nConsequently, it becomes our privilege and duty\n\nto study and support it, and, in so far as we are able, to guide and direct\nit wisely.\n\nTHE CONTINUATION SCHOOL AND PUBLIC EDUCATION\nCARROLL G. PEARSE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n{Abstract)\n\nGreat numbers of young people, either because it is necessary, or\nbecause they think it is necessary, will leave school before they complete\nthe minimum of ordinary education.\n\nThey leave also without any ade-\n\nquate preparation for the business which they choose.\n\nA part of the people who require the service of a continuation school\nare young persons under eighteen years of age, who should get not only\n\n"} {"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n572\n\n(Manual Training\n\nmore of general education, but who need training to make them better\ncraftsmen or followers of various employments.\n\nIn addition to this,\nabove\neighteen\nyears of age who\nthere will be a great number of persons\nneed to continue some general studies to make them wiser and happier\nThey need also to get more training in the things that will\ncitizens.\n\nmake them intelligent in their business.\nDifferent kinds of continuation schools will be required.\n\nAmong these\n\nwill be the half-time classes in which young people will work one-half of\n\nthe day and attend school one-half of the day or they will attend school\none day, and work the next day, or perhaps they will work for one week\nand attend school one week. In each of these arrangements the young\nperson will fill one-half of a job; two young people will fill a desk at school\ncontinuously and the same two young people will fill out a job.\n\nThere will also be evening continuation schools for persons over eighteen\nyoung people below that age should not be permitted to\nattend school in the evening after they have done a full day's work.\nFor boys and girls under eighteen years of age, there will also be established classes where they may attend school for one-half day during the\nweek, following some regular employment during the remainder of the time.\nyears of age;\n\nThe course of studies for these schools will differ according to the\nneeds of the students and the amount of time they can spend in school.\n\nThe younger pupils must have general studies. They must have those\nsubjects which will make them better citizens. They must also be trained\nin the business which they have chosen. The older people, most of whom\nare trained in their business to a reasonable degree, may also wish some\nhelp in this direction.\n\nThey will, however, be interested chiefly to increase\nmake them\n\ntheir general knowledge and to learn those things which will\n\nmore intelligent citizens.\n\nThe \"plant\" for these schools will be of necessity adapted to the kind\nof instruction given\n\n—equipment for teaching the household\n\narts,\n\nfor\n\nteaching the use of tools, for giving a knowledge of mechanical drawing,\nfor special studies in connection with business\n\nemployments.\n\nAll these\n\nand many others must be provided to meet the needs of the different\nclasses which will be taught in these schools.\n\nThe selection of teachers for continuation schools is of first importance;\nonly the best teachers can be used. People who are in school only a few\nhours each week must have the best which can be given in the way of\n\nequipment and teaching; the time of these young people is precious.\nThese schools should be organized as a part of the public-school system.\nThe regular school authorities are generally and must universally be interested in this work. It will be a mistake to follow the plans used in some\nforeign countries where separate boards of administration are provided.\n\nUnder such a plan there will always be the danger of developing two independent and competing public-school systems.\n\n"} {"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE\n\nSound principles\n\nof administration require that the\n\n573\n\ncommittees or\n\nboards having charge of these schools should have control of their funds;\nthat the executive officers should receive general direction from their boards,\n\nbut should have the responsibility for the professional administration of\nthese schools placed fully in their hands;\n\nschools should at all times be\n\nadministered so as to meet the needs of those who attend the classes and\nbring to their students the greatest good in the direction in which the\nlatter most need help.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nAND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE\nOne of the most insistent present-day demands of the public is that the\nwork in the field of education shall be efficient. The measure of efficiency\nis found in the ability or lack of ability to cope successfully with the problems\n\nwhich arise in a higher school, in a particular occupation, or in the ordinary\nThis measure is applied ruthlessly to all types of education.\nThe wonder is that the difference between the standard and the result is no\ngreater than that expressed by the critics of our public-school system.\nThis whole question is one which deeply concerns society and its\nprogress. Any attempt to settle it without a consideration of society in a\nlarge sense can result only in a temporary compromise and partial failure.\nThis has been fully demonstrated in the so-called cultural education which\nroutine of life.\n\nin actual practice has resulted in training for the professions and kindred\n\noccupations thru a long process of elimination of the so-called \"unfit.\"\n\nIt is\n\nalso illustrated in the case of the manual-training schools which were still\n\ngeneral in their aims and methods, and did not enable the individual to get\nat the specific task which was to make him an efficient citizen.\n\nIt is again\n\nillustrated in the technical schools, which at best can provide only for the\nselect few who either wish to enter the polytechnic schools or wish a shorter\n\nroute to a position as draughtsman or to the machinist's trade.\n\nEach of\n\nthese methods of solution held sway until the people themselves realized\n\nthat no one of these plans offered the correct solution of the problems\nof society.\n\nOn every hand now comes the renewed determination to arrive at a\nmore permanent solution of many of the questions involved. The manufacturers' associations, the social and philanthropic workers, the labor\nunions, those interested in education, the people themselves are all striving\nto discover the means which shall bring about the desired result.\n\nTo be\n\nsure, each of the above agencies may be seeking to promote the best interests\n\nfrom a somewhat narrowly biased standpoint.\n\nNevertheless, the pertinent\n\nfact is that all are endeavoring to reach a conclusion which may be placed\n\nbefore the world as one of the methods thru which better things may be\n\nevolved not alone for the individual but for society as a whole.\n\nThis whole\n\nmovement has resulted in a new demand upon the public schools.\n\n"} {"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "N^ TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n574\n\n[Manual Training\n\nUp to the present time the public schools have met fairly the problem\nof preparation for the higher schools, with more or less criticism from these\n\nhigher schools.\n\nAlso to a good degree they have furnished the yotuig\n\ncitizens with the tools for the ordinary life-routine, notwithstanding the\n\nadverse criticism of adults.\n\nThat is to say, for the most part the public-\n\nschool pupils know a sufficient amount of English, mathematics, etc., to\n\nenable them to carry on any ordinary occupation.\n\nIt is only within the last\n\nquarter of a century, however, and more particularly within the last\n\ndecade that specific progress has been made toward equipping the student\n\n—\n\nfor direct contact with life in the business and industrial world\n\nhim or her fit a particular occupation.\n\nto make\nThe report of this committee upon\n\nvocational education is concerned chiefly with this specific problem.\n\nThis conmaittee believes that the fimdamental thought underlying this\n\nmovement, whether it be a movement of educators, manufacturers, workers,\nor philanthropists, is the closer relation between theory and practice in\neducational work. This committee believes also that as the attempt is\nhonestly made to relate these two of necessity there will arise a modification\nof theory to meet the empiric conditions found in practice. Thus, at the\noutset, the conamittee is open to the possibihties of a philosophy which shall\ncarry it beyond the field of education for culture to the field of education\nfor accomplishment.\n\nIn other words, the general mind-training idea may\n\nbe superseded by the idea of training the mind for specific and related ends.\n\nWORK ACCOMPLISHED\nIn determining the line of work to be carried on by this conmiittee, a\nThis preliminary outline was submitted\n\npreliminary outline was prepared.\n\nto the several members of the conmiittee for revision.\n\nFrom the responses\n\nreceived it was readily ascertained that the breadth of the program made it\n\nimpossible to finish the work this year.\n\nFor this reason, it was determined\n\nby the committee to prepare a preliminary and a final report.\nOne meeting of this conamittee was held in Cooper Union, New York\nCity, May 26, 1913. While not all members of the conamittee were present,\nprevious correspondence and conference, in addition to this meeting,\nresulted in the adoption of the following as a basis for the preliminary and\nfinal report.\n\nThe preliminary report is to contain: a general introduction; a suggestion of the field which might be covered in the final report of the com-\n\nmittee;\n\na series of questions and issues which might be discussed in the\n\nfinal report;\n\nan outline indicating the scope or possibilities of the work\n\ninvolved in any comprehensive study of the questions of vocational education for persons between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years.\n\nIn the final report, it is proposed: that the report shall take the form\nof a handbook of information for the use of those who are interested in\n\nadopting some plan of vocational education and vocational guidance; that\n\n"} {"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE\n\nthis report shall contain also\n\n575\n\na discussion and presentation of plans for\n\ncertification and training of teachers for vocational education\n\n;\n\nthat it shall\n\nan acceptance of principles and policies, abready prepared, upon\nvocational education and vocational guidance, together with additional\nprinciples and policies in case such need arises; that it shall add warnings,\nas well as suggestions, concerning what needs to be done and what needs to\nbe avoided to make the work successful in any given community.\nOne phase of the work of this committee includes a report upon the\ninclude\n\nquestion of vocational guidance.\n\nAt the suggestion of the President of the\n\nAssociation, it was finally decided to assign this work to a subcommittee,\n\nwith the chairman of the general committee acting as chairman of the\n\nsubcommittee, this subcommittee to make a report to the general committee\nto be reviewed by it and to become a part of the report to the Association.\nAs a result of this decision, the following were named as members of this\n\nsubconmiittee:\n\nMeyer Bloomfield, secretary of Vocational Bureau, Boston, Mass., vice-chairman.\nAlice P. Barrows, director of Vocational Education Survey, New York City, N.Y.\n\nM. Edith Campbell, director of Schmidlap Bureau for Women and Girls, Cincinnati,\nOhio.\nJesse B. Davis, principal, Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich.\nJames S. Hiatt, secretary, PubUc Education Association, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nThis subcommittee has held one meeting, mapping out the line of work\nwhich it will undertake for the report of 19 14.\nLike all great educational movements in the past fifty years, the\nmovement is sure to modify, if not be introduced actually into, the work of\nboth the elementary and the secondary schools of the country. The\nimportance of the report upon this question is indicated by the 2,000,000\nyoung persons concerning whose welfare such a report must take cognizance.\nThe educational interests of the country can ill afford to have private\ninterests take up and carry forward work of such large importance as is the\nwork of providing helpful, efficient instruction for young men and yoimg\n\nwomen between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years.\nIn its broadest sense, vocational education may deal, not only with the\nformer professional schools, trade schools, and schools of technology, but\n\nwith the more recent development of industrial schools.\n\nThe far-reaching\n\ninfluence indicated in such a movement cannot fail to impress all with the\n\nseriousness of undertaking to report upon the topic.\n\nAs will also be seen by\n\nthe outline, it will become necessary for mvestigations to be made, questions\nto be submitted and returned, and the services of experts and stenographers\nto be placed at the disposal of the committee from time to time.\n\nrecommendation\n\nIt is\n\ncommittee that this Association\nappropriation\nsufficiently\ngrant an\nlarge to carry on the work of this\ntherefore the\n\nof this\n\ncommittee.\n\nThe question of the need for vocational education has been too well\nestablished to require extended consideration in this report.\n\nNevertheless,\n\n"} {"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n576\n\n(Manual Training\n\nthere are certain factors which increasingly tend toward the strengthening\nof the demand for a form of education which shall give more than a general\ntraining;\n\nthat is to say, an education which shall directly benefit a larger\n\nnimiber of the school population in the occupation in which they may be\ncalled upon to engage.\n\nWhile these factors are variously related and have\n\ntheir foundation in society, they may be separated into three distinct fields:\nfirst,\n\nthose which are of economic significance; second, those which are\n\nmore distinctly social;\n\nthird, those which we may term educational.\n\nThis committee believes, therefore, that vocational education is justified\n\nfrom the economic standpoint for the following reasons:\nFirst:\n\nWhether or not we are willing to admit it, it is nevertheless true that the\n\nnatural resources of this country are becoming exhausted.\n\nFor this reason, there is need\n\nof more concentrated effort to assist in the conservation of these natural resources.\n\nSecond: Whether in the home or at work, there are certain factors which need greater\n\nthought and training upon the part of the individual in order to make a more economic\nuse of these factors.\n\nThird: At the present time there are many persons entering various fields of labor\nwithout due emphasis upon the training. There is also a great tendency toward an\nincrease in population. So long as such a tendency to increase shall continue, by just so\n\nmuch will the hazard of dissipated effort hinder the progress of the country.\nFourth: It is a well-known fact that the general standards of living are higher in\nIn order to maintain this higher\n\nthis coimtry than in any of the European countries.\n\nstandard of living, it is necessary that the workers in this country shall receive as much\nThus would it become possible for each individual to be more\n\ntraining as possible.\n\nproductive.\nFifth:\n\nHigher standards of living mean greater percentage of luxviries. These\nTo meet then these newer demands\n\nluxuries ofttimes include improved workmanship.\n\na higher class of workmanship will be invoked.\nSixth:\n\nWhether we realize it or not, this nation to maintain itself against the foreign\n\npowers in commercial pursuits will need to utilize her own resources as far as possible. In\norder to do this, vocational education will be necessary.\nSeventh: Vocational education will reduce the number of unemployed, because:\n1. It will be possible to raise those already employed to a higher level of skill, thus\nmaking them able to do better work than formerly. This will give an opportunity for the\n\nunemployed to enter as somewhat skilled employees.\n2. Many persons are not employed because of their inability to perform any special\nThey have a lack of knowledge. Vocational education will tend to decrease the\ntask.\n\nnumber of these persons.\n3.\n\nVocational education and vocational guidance will tend to adjust the individual\n\nin the formative period of his life to the work for which he is best adapted.\n\nEighth: Another economic reason for the introduction of vocational education is\nIn many cases the value of a\n\nto prevent the potential possibilities from going to waste.\n\nlaborer is in direct proportion to his opportimity to express himself.\n\nAlthough vocational education would be fully justified by society for\nthe several reasons previously enumerated upon the economic side, nevertheless it can also find as complete justification upon the social side.\n\nThe\n\ncarrying forward of any plan of vocational education which has for its\n\nultimate purpose the eflSciency of the individual will surely result in large\nbenefits to society as a whole.\n\n"} {"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "VOCA TIONAL EDUCA TION AND VOCA TIONAL GUIDANCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nSTJ\n\nAmong the many reasons for such justification, the following are\nmentioned as peculiarly adapted to this discussion:\nFirst:\n\nBy making it possible for the semi-skilled worker to take his place in a higher\n\noccupation, thereby permitting the employment of more workers from the field below, it\nwill be possible to reduce the number of \"ne'er do wells\" and socially inefficient citizens,\n\nwho have up to this time had no chance to show their capacity for a better job.\nSecond:\n\nBy utilizing the energy of these individuals it will become possible to reduce\n\nthe amoimt of crime in a large measure.\n\nThis, in turn, will tend to lessen the necessity\n\nfor penal institutions.\n\nThird: There are certain social assets inherent in the individual the improvement of\nwhich may be conditioned upon the proper training of the individual.\nFoiurth: With proper vocational education, the individual worker will be able to\nprove to this employer his actual worth. The employer will of necessity recognize this\nworth by the payment of an equitable wage. In most cases this will tend to a solution of\nthe problems for which the minimiun wage idea has arisen.\nFifth: An added advantage to be derived by society from the introduction of vocational education will be the reduction of the social evil due in many cases to ill adjustment\nof the individual to his work, to his unemployment, to his retardation in school and in life,\nand to improper home training.\nSixth: The tendency of vocational education will be to bring about a co-operation\nbetween labor and capital in such a way that they may unite in some plan for the maintenance of the craft.\nSeventh: Only thru training will the efficiency of the individual in any task become\nincreased. Such efficiency will inevitably result in the maintenance of a suitable standard\nof living.\n\nEighth:\n\nNot the least of the reasons for vocational education on the social side is the\n\nnecessity for the preservation of the national welfare by a continuance of our commercial\nprosperity, and this can be safeguarded only by a practical, vocational education.\n\nWhile the social and economic aspects of vocational education somewhat overlap each other, and while each series of facts would be sufficient\nin themselves to justify the establishment of vocational education, there is\nstill\n\nanother side of the question which to educators may seem somewhat\n\nmore important.\n\nOur question must be: To what extent can vocational\n\neducation be justified from the educational side ?\nIt will be agreed by practically every serious-minded school man or\nwoman that any education which shall extend its courses to meet the needs\nof those for whom provision has not been made will find a sufficient ground\nfor its existence.\n\nIt is well known that for the individual who of necessity\n\nmust take up life's burden at a tender age our present education does not\nprovide.\nFirst:\n\nVocational education aims to reach just this class of individuals, hence, the\n\njustification for vocational education from the standpoint of an educator is the extending\n\nof education to reach groups hitherto neglected.\n\nSecond: It has been impossible up to the present time to give those pupils a sufficient\n\nFor this reason any work\nwhich wiU take the boy or girl beyond the period of the grammar school and continue his\neducation until he or she shall have reached the age of eighteen years will find ample\n\ngeneral education to satisfy the needs of a higher citizenship.\n\njustification in the extending of the general education of the individual.\n\n"} {"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n578\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThird: Soon after the introduction of the kindergarten in the schools of the country,\nthere were noted somewhat radical changes in the thinking and attitude of those engaged\nin educational work toward the pupils under their control.\nIn fact, it is not too much to\nsay that not one of the educational movements within the past fifty or one hundred years\n\nhas failed to leave its stamp upon the educational systems of the country. In most cases\nhave the public schools gathered from these movements those things which were worth\nwhile and adapted to the conditions, and allowed the other matters to take their natural\ncourse. If we base our conclusions upon such conditions, it is certain that another\neducational advantage to be derived from vocational education will be the improvement\nand change which is bound to result in the methods of general education.\nFourth: Until within a very few years it has been the established custom of the\npublic school to provide a higher education for only a select few who by chance were able\nto pass regularly thru the grades or who received a standard ranking upon certain examinations.\nThis whole plan was in reality a process of selection by the elimination of the\nso-called \"imfit.\"\n\nThru vocational education it will be possible to make the selection of\n\nthese individuals thru a process of training rather than thru a process of elimination.\nFifth:\n\nMost persons will agree that in every hmnan being there is a certain amount\n\nof stored energy in some form or other.\n\nThis energy is capable of almost infinite growth,\nprovided it is once discovered and made use of, and provided also that other forces do not\n\ncome in to thwart its growth.\n\nVocational education, by opening up different and various\n\nopportunities for the expression of this what we may term potential power, or potential\n\nenergy, will bring about a broader development of the individual.\nSixth: It requires no argument to estabUsh the fact that there are certain persons\nattemptmg to receive the advantage of an education who cannot do this abstractly. It\nmust be done in terms of the concrete. Hence, another educational reason for the establishment of vocational education is that it enables the pupil to learn to do by doing.\n\nSeventh: Not longer ago than a quarter of a century did the idea of interests gain its\nfirst foothold in educational activities.\n\nSince that time it has come to be widely regarded\n\nas somewhat fundamental to the whole process of learning.\n\nInterests have been variously\n\nclassified as immediate and remote, as those which add directly to the student's power in\n\nsolving a diflficult problem, or as those which he may use at a future period.\n\nMost writers\n\nare agreed that the interests which serve best our educational purposes are those which\n\nneed not be postponed too far into the future.\n\nVocational education is therefore more\n\nnearly in accord with this idea of interests than is any other form of education.\nthis field that the pupil is enabled to see the end almost from the beginning.\n\nIt is in\n\nThis furnishes\n\nus with a seventh educational reason for the establishment of some form of vocational\neducation.\n\nQUESTIONS AND ISSUES FOR FINAL REPORT\n\nAs the question of vocational education is somewhat recent in its\ndevelopment, naturally there arise almost innumerable series of topics\n\nwhich should be discussed by those interested in educational work in whatever field. This conunittee has determined to place some of these questions\nbefore this Association. It is proposed that these questions, as well as\nsimilar questions, be considered in the final report of the committee to the\nAssociation.\n1.\n\nWhat is vocational education ?\n\nShould this Association use the definitions already\n\nestablished concerning vocational education and related topics ?\n2.\n\n3.\n\nWhat relation does vocational education bear to elementary education?\nWhat relation does vocational education bear to general education as found in the\n\nhigh school ?\n\n"} {"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n4.\n\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE\n\n579\n\nWhat is the relation of vocational education to technical education and the\n\nmechanic arts in the high school ?\n5.\n\nWhat dififerent kinds or classes of vocational education may be said to exist?\n\nThese are to be defined and careful illustrations of each are to be given.\n6.\n\nDefine and show the relation between vocational education and manual training.\n\n7.\n\nWhat is included in the term \"pre-vocational education\" and what is its relation\n\nto vocational education ?\n8.\n\nWhat is the relation of vocational education to the practical arts?\n\n9.\n\nWhy are certain forms of education, as professional education, vocational ?\n\n10. What are examples of and varieties of commercial education, that is to say, the\n\nshort commercial course, the extended commercial course, correspondence courses, etc. ?\n11.\n\n12.\n\nWhat are the examples and varieties of agricultural education with illustrations?\nWhat is the difference between academic agricultural education and vocational\n\nagricultural education ?\n13. Is instruction designed for the duties of the home vocational ?\n14.\n\nWhat are good examples of vocational schools ?\n\n15.\n\nHow should the field of vocational education be Hmited? That is to say, for\n\nthis report shall it be made to include professional schools, nautical schools, and the like ?\n16.\n\nWhat varieties of vocational education have come under pubhc control and\n\nsupport, with illustrations of each ?\n17. Which of these fields of vocational education are likely to be discussed in the\nhandbook which is to be prepared by this committee ? Shall it include vocational education, preparation for household duties, preparation for the various trades, and be Umited\n\nonly to such fields ?\n18.\n\nWhat are the reasons for eliminating the other fields or types of vocational\n\neducation ?\n19.\n\nWhat are the different varieties of vocational commercial education that now\n\nexist, with illustrations ?\n\n20. In considering commercial courses, what should be excluded as non-commercial ?\n21.\n\nWhat are the different types or varieties of vocational agricultural education,\n\nwith illustrations ?\n22.\n\nWhat other types of agricultural education are now regarded as vocational by\n\nthis handbook ?\n23.\n\nWhat are the types of household arts education which may be considered, with\n\nillustrations ?\n24.\n25.\n\nWhat are the non-vocational household arts courses or schools ?\nWhat are the types of vocational education that have proven feasible ?\n\nAmong\n\nthese which are to be considered by this committee there are all-day schools, part-time\nschools, and evening schools.\n26.\n\nWhat types of all-day industrial or vocational schools are feasible: (a) on the\n\nbasis of the industry served; (b) on the basis of sex;\n\n(c) on the basis of the extent to which\n\nthey actually prepare for the industry?\n(i)\n\nCharacter of school in determining its relation to the industry.\n\n(2)\n\nCharacter of industry, as carpentry, millinery, etc.\n\n27.\n\nWhat are types of part-time education that are feasible? These may be half-\n\ntime plans or less than half time.\n\nThese types will be classified: (a) on the basis of the\non the basis of the responsibility of the school; (c) as to\nthe supplementary character of the school; (d) on the basis of the industry served.\ntime given to the school;\n28.\n\n(b)\n\nWhat are types of evening schools that are feasible, with illustrations?\n\nfollowing classification of evening schools will be considered:\n\nshort imit courses, with illustrations;\n\n(b)\n\n(a)\n\nThe\n\nthe general course and\n\nevening schools for given industries;\n\n(c)\n\nvoca-\n\ntional supplementary to the industry served and vocational non-supiJlementary to the\n\nindustry served.\n\n"} {"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n58o\n29.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWhat are the types of vocational all-day schools still in the experimental stage?\n\n30. To what extent should the National Education Association assist in the work of\n\nvocational education ?\n31. Should some of that work consist in critidsms and suggestions bearing upon the\nwork proposed or already established? If so, how may such criticisms and suggestions\n\nbe made operative ?\n32. How, and thru what agencies, should the pubUc-school system assimie and best\ndischarge its responsibihty to pupils, parents, and the public?\n\nWill such a program\n\ninclude vocational education ?\n33.\n\nShould this Association thru this committee attempt to determine anew what\n\nconstitutes the essentials of a common education ?\n34. According to pupils the full benefit of natiu-e's laws regarding bodily rest, what\n\nhours of the remaining twenty-four should be devoted to obtaining vocational or academic\neducation ?\n\nShould this time be spent in day continuation schools or evening schools ?\n\nAfter due consideration of the extent of this work, your committee wish\nit distinctly understood that this report for the year 1913 must be regarded\n\nas merely a preliminary statement.\n\nThe purpose of this is to outline a\n\npossible report upon vocational education that might be made in another\n\nyear by this or another committee.\n\nThe committee desire to state their conviction that the final report\nsuggested in this preliminary statement is of a character that would require\n\nmore than volunteer service in preparation. The members of this committee, therefore, while recommending that such report be prepared, feel\nthemselves willing, if the National Education Association should so desire,\nto continue as members of the coromittee for that purpose only on the\n\ncondition that the National Education Association equip it with adequate\n\nfunds to do the work properly.\n\nThe presentation of the final report should be delayed until such time\nas it can be done in a highly satisfactory manner.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nRobert J. Fuller, Chairman\nDavid Snedden\n\nArthur D. Dean\nR. W. Htmelich\nCharles H. Winslow\nCommittee ^ W. B. Prescott\nA. Lincoln Filene\n\nWalter D. Sayle\nJulia Lathrop\n\nOwen P. Lovejoy\nCharles A. Prosser\n\n"} {"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nART AND AMERICAN LIFE\n\nDepartmentl\n\n58\n\nART AND AMERICAN LIFE\nROBERT B. HARSHE, ASSISTANT CHIEr, DEPARTMENT OF FINE ARTS, PANAMAPACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nThe phenomenon which we call art did not spring, as did Aristotle's\npolliwog, alive and wriggling from the dead mud.\n\nnothingness\n\n—\n\nwas not even created over\n\nit\n\ncrude indeed.\n\nIt did not arise out of\n\nnight.\n\nIts beginnings are\n\nFrom the first rough sketch on the caveman's wall to\n\nMichelangelo's Sistine Chapel, from the first rude implement to Cellini's\ncoffer, progress has been retarded and slow.\n\nSlowly traditions were formed,\n\nand slowly grew. Bit by bit the patient decades advanced and bore with\nthem problems met and overcome, as glaciers inevitably bear the stupid\nbowlders which impede their progress. This is the curve of art which, for\nany country, any engineer can trace: its beginnings in borrowed tradition,\nits gradual rise, the grip of its roots in native soil, its independent growth,\n\nand, finally, the fine flower of its perfection when its great men blossom\nforth.\n\nthis rule.\nIt was peopled by pious,\nby Puritans who held that the studio was the\ndevil's workshop, by Virginian cavaliers busied with agriculture, by Dutch\nburgers too occupied in clearing forests and in gathering pelts to remember\ntheir artistic heritage.\nThe country was new, and, as in all new countries,\nthe need was great for pathfinder and for pioneer; aesthetic cravings waited\non the instant demands of industry and commerce. The Indians possessed,\nindeed, some small store of artistic traditions, and these, if they had been\nappreciated by the colonists, might have formed the foundation for a veri-\n\nAmerica was no exception to\n\nintrospective Quakers,\n\ntable native art.\n\nWe are told that captive Greece made captive her rude\n\nconqueror, but our forefathers too heartily despised the defeated Redskin\nto give serious consideration to his chitdTsh representations or to his interesting crafts.\n\nThen came a short space when the country paused for a deep\n\nbreath, and one or two timid spirits, who had felt the call, ventured forth.\n\nBy this time England was dominant in the New World, so that West and\nCopley and Stuart were drawn to London, and absorbed and handed down\n\nThese were the men\nThey broke the virgin soil, they fought\n\nthe traditions of the great EngUsh portrait painters.\n\nwho blithely faced the unknown.\n\npoverty and ignorance and lack of appreciation.\nthose days.\n\nThere were giants in\n\nMany, among them the best minds of the time, were forced\n\nby stress of circumstance into other professions. Robert Fulton turned\naside from painting and invented steamboats and submarines. When\nSamuel Morse installed his telegraphic instruments in the basement of the\nCapitol at Washington he found there the torso of his Hercules, for which\n\nyears before in London he had been awarded a medal of gold.\n\nThen followed the Landscapists, the group known as the Hudson River\nSchool, without traditions, without technique, influenced individually by\n\n"} {"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nDusseldorf and\n\nby Constable and by Claude Lorrain. They were, as\nThey faced nature with rever-\n\n[Manual Training\n\na whole, ignorant of what had gone before.\n\nence in their hearts, like so many worshipful cameras, and transcribed her\nliterally, photographically, with all her accidents, with all her imruly imper-\n\nfections.\n\nAll honor to Durand and Cole and Kensett, and to the men whom\n\nthey made possible, Inness and Wyant and Homer Martin!\n\nThey who\n\nwere first to show a national spirit, to look at America thru American eyes,\nare, from our standpoint, worthy of all praise.\nAfter the Hudson River School came the Munich influence, and Chase\n\nand Duveneck returned to pass on the traditions of direct brushwork and\nsound drawing. Already the American art student, who went abroad, was\nselective, and the work of these men shows more the influence of Rembrandt\nand Velasquez and Hals than of their Mimich teachers. This characteristic ability to absorb the best, to keep true to individual and American\nideals, has lasted thru the legacy of the Barbizon men, thru Turner, thru the\nImpressionists, down to our own time.\n\nToday from the technical standpoint all art is cosmopolitan.\n\nA certain\n\nadvance is made in one direction or another and it at once becomes common\nproperty. Whistler rediscovers Velasquez, and one-focus painting becomes\nthe rule instead of the exception. Chevreul and Rood suggest to Monet\nthat it may be possible to divide a color passage into its elements, and as a\nresult we have the Luminists, the Divisionists, the Pointillists, the broad\n\nand square patches of the Munich Secessionists; the embroidered streaks\nof Segantini and his followers, and our own superb craftsmen Tarbell and\nDewing subtly inlaying the precious mosaic and matching touch against\ntouch with such accurate color values that the eye is not sensitive to the\ndivision edges, but only to the resultant glow of color.\nIt would be interesting to trace the technical parentage of an American\nartist of\n\ntoday as we trace in an Old World picture gallery the features\n\n—^now nose, now eye, now mouth—possessed\n\nin common by some noble\n\nfamily; but this would require more time than we can well afford.\n\nTake the Japanese influence alone in its various manifestations.\n\nWe\n\ncan see it in the landscapes of Dearth, Lie, and Eaton, in the decorations\nof Blum and Robert Reid; in the illustrations by Falls, Bull, and John\nScott Williams;\n\nin\n\nDodge MacKnight's water colors, in the design and\n\ncrafts teaching of our schools.\n\nHokusai is apparent in Whistler's \"Batter-\n\nUtamaro in \"Rosa Corder,\" all the Ukiyoye School in PenThis influence, like the\nnell's etchings, Sesshu in Homer's \"Fox Himt.\"\nsea Bridge,\"\n\nImpressionist influence, has been healthy.\n\nJust as, on the one hand, we\n\nadvanced in the direction of purer color and light, so here we have acquired\nnotan the charm of flat masses of color, the ability to tie together, in new\n\n—\n\nand interesting ways, the various elements of the canvas.\nJust now we are having some new words added to our vocabulary:\nPost-Impressionist, Cubist, Futurist, and some worthy gentlemen are\n\n"} {"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "ART AND AMERICAN LIFE\n\nDepartment]\n\ngreatly\n\n—\n\nagitated\n\n^just\n\nas\n\n$83\n\nRuskin was agitated by Whistler's \"Falling\n\nRocket,\" just as the French Romantic School agitated the Classicists.\n\nOur overwrought friends can see nothing here but a four-dimensioned perversion of nature, a sort of union of pre-Adamite ideals and fricasseed\ngeometry. It may be true, as William Henry Curtis says, that we are all\noffended by novelty, but this idea of synthesis is not new. Inness and\nTwachtman had it, and joined to it beautiful color and a sense of form. The\nwork of Matisse and Gauguin, for instance, need give no shock to teachers of\ndrawing in the lower grades. Nature seen thru a temperament, a naive\noutlook on life, and the possession of an X-ray eye can be found, not only\namong the Post-Impressionists, but way down in the room where they\nsing: \"Good Morning Little Stranger, Good Morning to You!\"\nSo we\nneed scarcely think this movement, as some would have us, the fearsome\nbogie, the studio-bom terror which stalks with menacing tread thru the\nfair field of art.\nMany of these men are sincere and worthy, much of their\nwork holds promise of development. Furthermore, our painters are too\nwell balanced, too sane to be led away by false gods. We have been\naccused of lack of passion by Latin critics and we admit the charge.\nIndeed, it is just this lack that is our saving grace. Our emotion is no less\nreal because it is restrained.\n\nThis elemental conservatism has not only\n\nsaved us from extravagance, but it has, in combination with some mysterious alchemy, helped us in the inexplicable processes of selection\n\nand\n\namalgamation which are the keynote of our national life and art. Just as the\nchildren of the third generation whose ancestors are foreign born show in\nour country scarcely a trace of their origin or nationality, just as skullstructure and facial angle change toward the virile, nervous American type,\n\nand French, German and\nhave been fused into something that is coherent, that is marked\nby well-defined traits. These definitive characteristics persist in spite of the\ncomparatively vast geographical area of our country, and the incredible\nnumber of influences, local and extra-national, tending to prevent unijust so the various artistic elements, English\nItalian,\n\nformity.\n\nA certain spiritual quality is common to all great art, not only in such\nobvious creations as Rembrandt's \"Supper at Emmaus\" and the Venus of\n\nMelos, but in Vermeer's interiors, and in Whistler's nocturnes.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nas\n\napparent in \"Two Copper Pots and an Onion \" by Chardin as in \"The Little\nGirl Saying Grace\" in the Louvre;\n\nthe Birds\" than in \"The Angelus.\"\n\nit is\n\nmore apparent in Millet's \"Feeding\n\nThis reverent attitude toward nature,\n\nthis intangible spiritual infiltration, is a dominant characteristic of American\n\nAdirondack vistas of Wyant, it is felt in the\ngreat sounding fugues of Homer's marines, in the calm strength of Thayer's\nvirgins, in the sculpture of St. Gaudens, Adams, and French.\nAllied to\nthis spiritual element, there is a strain of the subtlest poetry threading thru\nall our painting.\nGo to any exhibition and you will find canvases that\n\nart.\n\nIt breathes thru the\n\n"} {"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n584\n\n(Manual Training\n\nbring to you the hush of the still forest, the silent majesty of the desert, the\nsilver glint of the brook behind the rustling birches, the glow of the golden\n\npool as the sun, poised above the tree tops, falters for a moment.\nhave,\n\nagain,\n\na great group echoing\n\nWe\n\n—sometimes protesting against\n\nAmerican conditions; preachers in paint, unconscious of pulpit, bent on\nuncompromising realism ^reflecting the hopes and fears, the suffering and\nthe joy of our time, and thus doubly effective. No gray printed words, no\nvivid oratory, can deal the sledge-hammer blows for social reform that\ncome from the canvases of Glackens and Sloan, Bellows and Jerome Myers.\nThis art of ours, so varied in its manifestations, can be defined only by\nantithesis.\nCompared with its strength, English art is saccharine and\npretty; measured with its spirituality, French art is chic and soulless;\nseen beside its energy and virility, Italian art seems lifeless and dead; in\ncontradistinction to its optimism, German art is dyspeptic and meta-\n\n—\n\nphysical.\n\nwhat in my childhood the geography\n\"Great American Desert,\" and I noticed for the first time a\ncurious plant. I asked the conductor about it. \"Sure,\" he said, \"that's\nthe tumble-weed.\nShe grows up there in the sand and alkali, and when\nit gets too dry for her she pulls up stakes, root, seeds, flowers, and all,\nand she hunches herself into a ball and goes bumping around looking for\na wet spot.\" This seemed to me to parallel, in remarkable detail, the\nprogress of American art. Like the tumble-weed, our painters in the past,\nlacking inspiration and sustenance at home, were compelled to wander\nabroad. Thus they strayed, blown about gathering experience and\nbumps; learning how to tumble and alight so that by the time the\nAmerican oasis held forth promise of nutrition, the tumble-weed was ready,\nI crossed yesterday a part of\n\ncalled the\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nToday\nThe desert is being reclaimed and the pioneers\n\na sturdy independent plant, ready for growth, eager to expand.\nthere is more irrigated land.\n\nin the reclamation service are the self-sacrificing, devoted, and underpaid\n\nsupervisors and teachers of the manual arts.\n\nThe artist builds on the past and he is recruited from his fellows, the\ngreat body of artisans and craftsmen.\n\nWhistler's statement that there\n\nnever was an artistic period, that an artistic nation never existed, is, of\ncourse, untrue.\n\nA nation of men who have, themselves, tried to create is\n\nneeded to appreciate, to further, to make possible the occasional master.\nGreece and Japan and mediaeval Europe had this background and every\nit.\n\nIn our country we have until\n\nrecently lacked this essential element.\n\nThis age of industry and the\n\nculminating period of art possessed\n\nmachine has starved out the handworker; we have not yet learned how to\nmake beautiful things with machines, and we have not yet learned to feed\nthe craftsman who fights against the machine.\n\nThe solution of these prob-\n\nlems lies primarily with you, thru your insistence in your classes in applied\ndesign that machine-made things are not necessarily bad, that the cheap\n\n"} {"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "ART AND AMERICAN LIFE\n\nDepartment!\n\n585\n\nneed not be ugly. That the craftsman starves today because people do\nnot pay him enough for his wares is self-evident, and I feel that in this\ndirection, that of educating an appreciative public, a public which will\n\npay for what it knows to be good, you have already accomplished much.\nBut you need to do more. You must play your part, and that is a most\nimportant one, in the great movements leading toward civic and social\n\" New lamps for old \" is everywhere\nbetterment. The old order changes.\nthe cry. The little red schoolhouse has passed away and with its passing\nhas come the whir of the Jacquard loom, the rumble of the automobile,\noverhead the hum of the aeroplane, and underfoot the roar and clatter of\na complex industrial system. Men no longer spread over the fertile fields\nand live near the good brown earth. They hive in cities; they huddle in\nteeming tenements; they breathe dust and smoke and cotton lint and\n!\n\njute fiber, their food sometimes refuse, their clothing shoddy.\n\nWhat can we expect of a people who must lie flat on their backs to see\nWhat of a people whose capacity for the appreciation of\n\nthe blue sky?\n\nbeauty has atrophied?\n\nLet the London Hooligan, the Parisian Apache,\n\nthe gun-man and gangster of New York's East Side make answer.\n\nWe\n\nwe are\nlearning why Corot and Chopin could not have come from slums, we are\nare beginning to understand the interlocking of cause and effect;\n\nbeginning to feel that the halt, the blind, and the insane are not halt, and\nblind, and insane wholly thru unworthy parentage, but thru environment\n\nas well;\n\nwe are beginning to ponder with William Morris the discrepancy\n\nthat exists between the fields where the beasts live and the streets where\n\nmen live.\n\nThe state, indeed, has suddenly come to the conclusion that it\nwould be a good thing to eliminate the elements which make asylums and\nalmshouses necessary. We are moving toward a great era of civic reform,\nand civic reform means civic beauty. But reform is slow. We must begin\nwith the children; we must center their education around the manual arts;\nwe must surround them with beauty and, in the last analysis, we must consider the individual child.\n\nThe most potent influence upon American life and art has been that of\nthe great international expositions.\nvisual education.\n\nHere our people have received their\n\nStandards of beauty and efficiency have been set before\n\nthem and they have been quick to absorb and learn.\n\nIn these great\n\nclearing-houses for thought, in these great laboratories where the fine gold\nis smelted and the slag refused, in these great granaries where the ephemeral\n\nchaff is winnowed, American art has been tested and proved.\n\nThe Philadelphia Centennial showed American artists their technical\nweaknesses, but it also gave them better technical methods and a mighty\n\nHere, too, the great school of American illustration had its start,\nand all that we know under the general term of manual training had\nstimulus.\n\nits\n\nAt the Chicago World's Fair our teachers saw for the\ntime the Swedish Sloyd system, our painters the canvases of the\n\nbeginnings.\n\nfirst\n\n"} {"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n586\n\nImpressionist School and native mural painting;\n\nWhite City\n\n(Manual Training\n\nour architects a Great\n\n—wonderful as the Mystic City of Astolot.\n\nThe Louisiana Purchase Exposition was more intimate.\n\nHere were\n\nrealized the harmonies of interior decoration, the meaning of the words\n*' applied design\" and \"handicraft.\"\nWe understood then what William\nMorris stood for in England, what Arthur Dow was teaching in our own\n\ncountry.\n\nAmerican painting and American sculpture had advanced by\n\nleaps and bounds and such continental critics as Dr.\n\nBode of the Berlin\nMuseimi even gave to it the first place.\nTen years have passed and great influences have been at work. The\nAmerican Federation of Arts has sprung into existence; state and national\nart commissions have been appointed; state and municipal civic societies\nhave been formed; museums by the score have grown up all over the\ncountry; Mr. Freer and Mr. Evans have made a national art gallery possible, and the duty on works of art has been, in part, removed.\nThe owner\nof masterpieces no longer hoards his canvases for his own miserly pleasure.\nElbert\n\nHubbard says that the picture-owner who builds a barbed-wire\n\nfence about his collection does not shut the public out, he merely shuts\n\nhimself in;\n\nand this new attitude is gradually being adopted, the selfish\nTwo years ago, I had\n\njoy of ownership is merged in the ideal of service.\n\nthe very great pleasure of planning the preliminary loan collection for the\nFine Arts Department of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,\nvisiting the museums and private galleries and asking for loans of excep-\n\ntional canvases.\nAt St. Louis, after three years' work the Fine Arts\nDepartment secured an available group of about six hundred and fifty canvases from which to make selection. In one summer, I was so fortunate\nas to have promised to us no less than one thousand canvases. Please\ndo not think that I claim credit for this. The attitude of the picture-owners\n\nhas changed, they are not only willing but eager to take part in this great\neducational campaign.\n\nThe Fine Arts Department of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition hopes to take an attitude toward the public and the arts that will be\n\nmore than merely passive.\n\nWe do not feel that our work is over when the\nWe are hoping that we may\n\ncanvases are hung, the sculpture installed.\n\nshow a close connection between our work and your work and in doing this\nbe of real service to the cause of art education in America.\n\nTHE SCHOOLS AS ART CENTERS\nTHOMAS A. MOTT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, RICHMOND, IND.\nSchools are becoming more and more the social centers of the community life, and this fact doubles the importance of the work of beautifying\nthe schools and creating within them conditions that will exalt the aesthetic\nand ethical life of the people. In hundreds of schools splendid work is\n\n"} {"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE SCHOOLS AS ART CENTERS\n\nDepartment]\n\n587\n\nbeing done in school decoration, in courses in drawing, and in arts and\n\nand also by art associations in placing works of art in the schoolPerhaps the hope of a truly American art, *'for the people and by\nthe people,\" is more likely to be found in the art movements of small towns\nthan in the most exclusive art clubs of large cities. This hope is not without promise of fulfilment in many places little known, where the art work\nis native, natural, and expressive of the life of the people.\nEspecially interesting are the art associations of some of the small communities where it\nseems more possible to reach all the people and awaken a common desire\nIdeals of beauty held in common, a common knowledge of the\nfor art.\nprinciples of artistic expression, a common wonder and joy and appreciacrafts,\n\nrooms.\n\n—these are necessary to that art atmosphere\n\ntion for a new production in art\n\nso essential to the development of a national art.\n\nWherever people want more beauty in their public life, and are trying\nto do something, at first hand, to bring the pleasure of art to all the people\nof their community, in\n\nand thru the public schools, the story of the art\n\nassociation of Richmond, Ind., will be interesting and helpful.\n\nIn 1897 the art department of the schools, in co-operation with three\nor four artists of the city, and a few interested citizens, conducted in a\ncentrally located school an exhibit of school art work, of the work by local\nartists, and a collection of paintings loaned from a few of the best homes in\n\nthe city.\n\nMuch real interest was taken by the city in this exhibit. At its\n\nclose, at a meeting of teachers and citizens, the Richmond Art Association\n\nwas formed.\nThis association is sixteen years old.\n\nA few citizens started it, and a\n\nfew have been its vital force; but the number has grown steadily.\nits first organization this association brought together all\n\nIn\n\nthe forces in the\n\ntown that could be helpful in maintaining a public art movement.\n\nThese\n\nforces have held together and have been so successful in arousing a com-\n\nmimity interest in beauty and art that this has become an inspiration to\nother towns. The association is now an incorporated body, and is acquiring by purchase and donation a permanent collection of works of art, all\nof which are kept in the schools.\nThe membership of this association represents between three and\nfour hundred of our citizens. Their annual exhibits have contained, besides\na display of the art work of the schools, a large collection of the best painting of both local and foreign artists, and valuable exhibits in many departments of arts and crafts.\nThe expenses of the association have always been borne by its members\nand its exhibits have been free to the children of the school and all the people.\nThe work of the association has been purely educational. Not only has it\ngiven a steady support and strong impulse to the art work in the schools,\nbut it has built up a true and lasting art sentiment thruout the city.\nFor fourteen years the exhibits were all held in our Garfield School,\ncentrally located and adequately lighted. The use of this building, with\n\n"} {"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n588\n\n(Manual Training\n\nample lighting for the evenings, has been given free of charge to the art\nassociation by a school board which believes in the educational value of\nart exhibits, and in the school as the educational center of a community.\n\nFor ten years the common council of the town deemed the art exhibit of\nimportance to justify the appropriation from the town\ntreasury of $ioo annually for the exhibition expense fund. This is a significant and hopeful example for those who believe that the people ought\nto have public beauty at public expense.\nAll the children of the public schools visit these annual exhibits with\ntheir teachers, as do the children and teachers of three large parochial\nsufficient civic\n\nTo make the exhibit better imderstood by the chil-\n\nschools of the town.\n\ndren, explanatory talks are given to them in several of the rooms.\n\nThis\n\nassociation has been able to work out its ideals with a freedom from traditions and conventions that many art clubs could not know.\n\nBefore the\n\nWestern Art Association sent out arts and crafts with its exhibition of\npaintings, and before Mr. Ives, chief of the art department of the World's\nFair at St. Louis, declared that \"there should be made no distinction\nbetween what has been commonly considered as 'fine art' and that which\nhas been termed 'industrial art,' \" the Richmond Art Association displayed,\nalong with the oils and water colors, exhibits of textiles, ceramics, leather\nwork, bookbinding, basketry, cabinet work, etc.\n\nThe association has been greatly assisted in securing the work of the\nbest artists by having the Daniel G. Reed purchase fimd, an annual fund\nof $500, given by a former Richmond man, to be used for the purchase of\n\npictures exhibited in the annual exhibitions, the pictures to become the\n\nproperty of the association and to be kept as a part of its permanent collection in the school.\n\nWe sometimes call the art exhibit our most beautiful pubHc charity.\nIt is gratifying to find how many people want to help a cause that is for the\n\nbenefit of everyone in the community.\n\nflowers to beautify the building, a piano\n\nOur florists send plants and cut\ncompany of the town each year\n\nduring the exhibition gives a complimentary concert to the association, the\ncity band and orchestra play without charge when invited to do so,\n\nand\n\nour daily papers always give us any amount of courteous and helpful publicity.\n\nFour years ago, when the city erected a new high-school building at\na cost of one-quarter of a million dollars, a beautiful art gallery was built\non the second floor. This gallery consists of three large rooms lighted\nfrom the ceiling. They are provided with properly arranged electric lighting for evenings, and with space for hanging from one to two hundred paintings.\n\nThis gallery\n\nis\n\nconnected with the regular art classrooms of the\n\nand students have access to the same when they desire it. The\nmanagement of this gallery is in the hands of the directors of the art assoThe gallery is open to\nciation, and all exhibits are under their direction.\n\nschool,\n\n"} {"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE HOME AND ART INSTRUCTION\n\n589\n\nthe public at all times during school hours, and evenings and Sunday after-\n\nnoons during special exhibits.\n\nThe permanent art collection owned by\n\nthe association, consisting now of thirty beautiful paintings, hangs in the\ngallery at all times.\n\nDuring the last year six special exhibits have been hung in the gallery\nfor a month each and the visitors to these exhibits numbered over eleven\n\nthousand.\n\nThe close association of the public schools with the exhibits has given\nEach of the schools of the\n\nopportunity for better schoolroom decoration.\n\ncity during the past sixteen years has taken great interest in securing a\ncollection of pictures for purposes of study and decoration.\n\nThe ten school\n\nbuildings of Richmond now own over one hundred canvases in oil or water\ncolor, and over five himdred beautiful reproductions of masterpieces.\n\nIt is difficult to estimate the educational influence of these exhibitions.\n\nOne noticeable result is the progress Richmond painters have made in their\nwork. It cannot be said that these artists are without honor in their own\ntown.\n\nTheir work always hangs in the exhibition, and the citizens take a\n\ngenuine interest in it.\n\nThis opportunity for exhibiting their own pictures\n\nand for studying the work of other artists has been the inspiration of their\nprogress during the past sixteen years.\n\nIn such native development among\n\ngroups of artists elsewhere thruout our country, in a similar appreciative\natmosphere, lies the beginning of hope for a truly American art.\n\nThru the exhibitions our people have become acquainted with American\nThe standard of taste in the city has been elevated; and at least we have been set thinking about things beautiful. The\npainters and craftsmen.\n\nworks of art brought to our city furnish to our people a high kind of pleasure\nwhich otherwise would be left out of their lives.\nAt the close of this paper, fifty stereopticon views were shown, illustrating schoolroom decoration and use of school buildings for art exhibits, together with views of the\nart gallery and art collection of the Richmond Art Association.\n\nTHE RELATION BETWEEN THE HOME AND ART INSTRUCTION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nMAY GEARHART, SUPERVISOR OF ART, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nThis subject\n\nis\n\nopen to various interpretations.\n\nDo we mean the\n\npresent home of the child, or the home of the next generation made fine and\nbeautiful because education has stimulated a desire for better things ?\n\nDo\n\nwe wish to discuss the influence of the school on the home or is the question\nWhat does the home offer to the school ?\" Undoubtedly the school should\n*'\n\nlead, and yet the home, providing as it does the most important ingredient\n\nof the whole affair, the children, is a factor of no mean importance.\n\nThe\n\nschool should be tolerant enough to encourage the child to bring his interests\n\nwithin its doors and in every way to promote a strong interaction with his\n\n"} {"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "^A. TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n590\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWe are told that art in order to be successful must savor of the soil.\nThis is a fimdamental principle that applies to painting, to architecture,\n\nhome.\n\nand to the art of the j&rst-grade child.\nMay I tell of a school in which the needs of the individual and the community are both being served with due regard for the possibilities of art in\npractical affairs ? The foreign children who attend this school come from\nsqualid homes where often the bare necessities of life are wanting. To\ndevelop within the child an appreciation of a human home as opposed to a\nmere retreat is the first consideration. Each child is given a wooden box\nthat he may convert into a house. As the game progresses he makes\nwooden furniture, merrily tacking it together with his little hammer. He\n\nhunts for different-shaped pieces of wood in the cupboard, choosing what-\n\nHe makes\nand paints his house. His vocabulary grows rapidly.\nThe child says: \"I have a box. I cut windows. I made a house.\" These\nsentences are written on the board by the teacher. They are given to the\nadvanced class in tj^ewriting and these older pupils rejoice in helping to\never he needs, as no two houses need be furnished just alike.\ncurtains and rugs\n\nmake a reading-book. The typewritten sheets are returned to the small\nfolks, who seize them with all the joy of popular authors and bind them into\nlittle books.\nHow they love to read them over and over! The older\nchildren do not play the game of keeping house but really enter into the\nand dressmaking, making furniture\nand rugs, bathing babies in the day nursery, or trimming hats.\nSchools in the poor quarters are perhaps more fully equipped for\nserious problems of cooking, sewing,\n\nteaching home-keeping than those of richer districts, but even the poor little\nrich child has his opportunity for experience along practical lines that are\ncultural.\n\nThe value of the work of the agricultiu*al department in estab-\n\nlishing school gardens cannot be overestimated.\n\nBeautiful, vigorous rows\n\nof growing things constitute a living lesson in art.\n\nThis work has justified\n\nitself\n\neconomically, pedagogically, and artistically.\n\nThe drawing depart-\n\nment was invited to help promote the potato industry. The children drew\npotatoes, carefully placing the eyes and learning stem end and bud end.\nThey drew a potato sliced in two in the scientific way ready for planting.\nFinally drawings were made of the growing plant and leaf, and illustrations\nshowing the class hoeing, weeding, or watering the garden.\n\nThis series of\n\npapers was bound as a little book with an appropriate cover design.\n\nProud\n\nchildren escorted me over a splendid garden and told me its history.\n\nneighbor loaned several empty lots to the school.\n\nA\n\nThe transformation from\n\nweeds and dust to green things growing was so gratifying that she said the\nboys might remove an old fence so that the gardens might come on into the\nnext lot. Finally with her approval the gardens marched right into her\nyard and the cottage was soon surrounded by an army of beets and cabbages,\nexcept in the lawn in front. On the other side were two homes with unlovely\nside yards but when the school gardens came marching in orderly rows up\n\n"} {"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nTHE HOME AND ART INSTRUCTION\n\nDepartment]\n\n59\n\nto these premises the owners hastily improved conditions, borrowing cuttings\n\nfrom the school children to extend the flower borders, and making their\ngrounds harmonize with the gardens. Dr. Denman Ross says: \"We aim\nat order and hope for beauty.\" Possibly he was not thinking of a vegetable\ngarden when he wrote this, but does it not apply to cabbages, onions, or\nbeets marching in self-respecting rows across the landscape? Ask the\nDutch painters. Surely they have convinced us that the uncombed wilderness is not the only source of beauty. The interest in the school garden\nusually results in the making of a home garden, the fruits of which are often\nproudly displayed at school and carefully labeled \"Home Products.\"\nWe are sure that the slow, steady, continuous emphasis in school on the\nsimple, orderly, and harmonious will have its effect.\n\nIt is useless for us to\n\nattempt to force our standards on the pupils when they do not recognize the\nvalue of our suggestions.\n\nFreedom of choice is absolutely necessary if the\n\nchild is to develop initiative.\n\nOne does not like to give the festive fly credit for establishing a common\ninterest between school and home, but certainly he visits back and forth.\n\nThe \"swat-the-fly\" campaign required endless posters and in the drawing\nclasses we labored earnestly to give Mr. Fly a permanent place in art while\nopenly encouraging the populace to destroy him. The nature-study\ndepartment again proved to be a valuable aid to art by establishing \"live\nboxes\" at school.\n\nDelightful pets were always available for drawing\n\nand as the interest in the study of animals grew so did the art\ndepartment flourish. When the supervisor of nature-study announced an\nexhibit of pets, pictures, and posters, boys and girls worked with tremendous\nenergy to prepare pictures of Rover, My Dog, A Friend, Mr. Rooster, Our\nHouse, and various other members of the family of home pets. Studies by\nWilliam Nicholson, Ernest Thompson-Seton, and Charles Livingston Bull\n\nlessons,\n\nwere consulted for suggestions in handling drawings to be executed at home\nand brought to school for criticism. The exhibit was an unqualified\nsuccess.\n\nHome interests, nature-study, and art were one. We all appreci-\n\nate the joy of illustrative drawing which gives opportunity for the child\nto tell in picture-writing of his home and friends, his pets, his games, and\n\noccupations.\n\nIn planning a course of study, we must be on the alert to discover the\nrelation between school and outside interests.\nlies\n\nin\n\nthe unexpected.\n\nOur\n\nfinest\n\neffects\n\nThe charm of teaching art\nunpremeditated. One\n\nare\n\nWe must renovate\nA course of study is a formula of an outlived doctrine.\nOnly that course lasts which is capable of reinterpretation. We announce\n\nformulates a\n\nnew system at the end of each year.\n\nsteadily to grow.\n\nthat our course in art will be closely connected with the child's interests.\n\nWe like to say, \"Education is life,\" but often, quite contrary to our theories,\nwe endeavor to construct a perfect machine, not giving sufficient leeway for\nthe unexpected which is the inevitable.\n\nIt is the living mechanism that\n\n"} {"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n592\n\n(Manual Training\n\n—that incalculable human factor about which we cannot prophesy.\n\ncounts\n\nA spirit of inquiry and investigation is better than a formula. We cannot\nspeak with certitude of our accomplishments in this combining of home and\nschool, because the thing in the process of construction we know least about,\n\nand only when it is outlived can we formulate it.\nIn speaking of art as related to the home, I have not confined my\nremarks to the work of the drawing department. It would be quite\nimpossible to keep within such limitations because so often the art teacher\n\nMany new fields of effort opened up\nfew years offer much in a practical way for developing the\n\nis working with other departments.\n\nin the last\n\naesthetic side of the home.\nfields fruit to gamer.\n\nthe foreground.\n\nThe art department must find in all these new\n\nIt matters little whether art, science, or history is in\n\nThose who are able to utilize art principles for the best\n\nsoul development will determine the line of advance, but if art be, as its\ndisciples claim, a leading-up to the highest places, here is its opportunity.\n\nWe will scorn nothing because it is humble or useful but we will rise above\nthe sordid and servile.\n\nThe art teacher must be a Post-Impressionist avoid-\n\ning the morbid emotionalism of Cubist and Futurist, but ever striving for\n\nthe fresh unhackneyed expression of individualism.\n\nRURAL SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITY NEEDS\nPERRY G. HOLDEN, DIRECTOR, AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DEPARTMENT,\nINTERNATIONAL HARVESTER CO., CHICAGO, ILL.\n{Abstract)\n\nProfessor Holden, in a wonderfully interesting extemporaneous address,\n\nurged the need of adapting the work in the rural schools to the local com-\n\nmimity needs.\n\"Education,\" he said, \"if it is to be a preparation for life must be an\nactual experience in\n\nlife.\"\n\nHe pictured the depressing and deadening\n\ninfluence of the instruction that he had seen again, again, and again as he\n\nhad visited rm-al schools, and urged the necessity of teaching real things\nand teaching them in a live way, and added, to further illustrate his point,\nthat he thought to teach about real things in a dead way was even more\ndisheartening than to teach about dead things or those of little consequence\nin a thoroly interesting and vital way.\n\nProfessor Holden illustrated his address with ears of corn, samples of\nseed, hitching ropes, and other objects familiar on every farm, and showed\n\nhow many interesting things there were about each, and how many lessons\nof real importance could be associated with each; and how a boy's or a\ngirl's chest could be made to puff out with pride when he or she had acquired\nsome really useful piece of information about them or similar things that\ncould be used at home to lighten labor or increase the family's production.\n\n"} {"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nRURAL SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITY NEEDS\n\n593\n\nProfessor Holden also illustrated his address with a number of charts\n\nsuch as he uses on his agricultural extension lecture tours.\n\nOn each were\n\nplotted in a graphic way a large number of facts vital to every boy or girl\ninterested in\n\nfarm life, so related as to make their meaning instantly\n\napparent and their significance easily remembered.\n\"Agriculture, domestic science, or manual training,\" he said, \"trains\n\nthe whole boy or girl.\n\nIt may be possible to train our heads without train-\n\ning our hands, but we can never train our hands without also training our\nheads.\n\nThese studies motivate and hence vitalize all school work.\"\n\nThe following are a few of Professor Holden's introductory charts:\nTRUE MEANING OF THE PRACTICAL IN EDUCATION, OR WHY TEACH AGRICULTURE, DOMESTIC SCIENCE, AND MANUAL TRAINING?\n1.\n\nThe whole body should be trained.\n\n2.\n\nWe must teach in terms of the child's life.\n\n3.\n\nLife is made up of problems.\n\n4.\n\nWe should motivate school work.\n\n5.\n\nGives strength thru doing something worth while.\n\n6. Vitalizes all\n\nschool work.\n\n—and interest\n\n7.\n\nDevelops interest\n\n8.\n\nTeaches to think in terms of action.\n\n9.\n\nMakes better citizens\n\n10.\n\nEducation is that training which fits for the duties of life.\n\n—morally,\n\nis\n\nessential to best growth.\n\nintellectually, economically.\n\n—\n\n\"Study things not books. If agriculture is to be taught as algebra\nwe had better continue teaching algebra. Begin with something\nsimple, easy, and immediately practical so that results can be readily seen;\nthen proceed slowly and gradually to the more difficult. Don't make agriculture a subject all by itself; correlate it with the language, arithmetic,\ngeography, and spelling work.\"\n\"Scientific courses in agriculture and domestic science are not expected\nis taught,\n\nof rural schools, nor\n\ndo rural teachers need special training along these\n\nlines before beginning the work.\n\nDon't try too much.\"\n\nDon't try to teach everything.\nDon't try to teach all the pupils.\nDon't use too much time.\nDon't teach names names.\nDon't begin with the school garden.\nDon't begin with the curious and fanciful.\nDon't think you must know everything.\n\n—\n\n\"Our schools, as usually organized, benefit most those who are training\nfor the professions, or only 4 per cent of all engaged in gainful occupations.\n\nThis educational system will be greatly changed within the next fifty years.\n\n"} {"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n594\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWe will not cease training for the professions, but we will provide means\nfor the training of the 96 per cent engaged in other occupations.\"\n\n^I\n\nPERSONS ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS\nToiAL IN United States\n\n29,300,000\n\n10,500,000\n\nP*'centage\n\n^HHIHHHHH^HHHH^HHHIHHHIHIH\n\nAgkicultukal\n\n7,000,000\n\nManittactuking and Mechanical\n\n5,700,000\n\nHHHHHHHHHHHHHi\n\nDokestic\n\n4,800,000\n\nTrade and Transportation\n\n16\n1,300,000\n\nProfessional\n\n4\n\n\"Take up something closely connected with the life of the community,\nand stay by this one thing until it is thoroly understood, and made practical\nand vital. Then begin another line of work.\"\nSOME THINGS TO TEACH\nBegin with the useful:\n\nCorn\n\nPotatoes\n\nBread\n\nWeeds\n\nInsects\n\nSoil\n\nRotation\n\nSewing\nSpraying\n\nDairy-\n\nKnots\n\n•\n\nClover\n\nAid to sick\n\nGarden\n\nRemoving stains\n\n\"Education is fitting the boy and girl for the duties of life.\n\n—the\n\nboys and girls learn to use their heads\n\nLet the\n\ngirls in making homes, the boys\n\nThe way to do this is to let them study\nLet them tell of the corn, the weeds, and the\n\nin a man's work about the place.\n\nthe things about them.\n\ninsects in their language work.\n\nLet the boys learn how to germinate seed\n\nand the girls how to prepare wholesome food.\"\n\"A practical education makes efficient citizens citizens who are able\nto think in terms of action, citizens who can meet and solve problems\nbecause all thru their school course they have been receiving training in\nmeeting and solving problems.\"\n\n—\n\nAgain, he illustrated his address with simple experiments of a kind that\nhe said school-teachers everywhere ought to use to teach the great truths\nof nature, in but a few minutes of time, and in a way that never could be\n\nTo refer to a typical one, he placed upon the bottom of an\noverturned tumbler a few drops of water, and from a fountain pen added\nforgotten.\n\nto the water on the bottom of the tumbler a drop or two of ink so that it\n\ncould be seen in all parts of the hall.\n\nThen he took a lump of common\n\nloaf sugar and on the top of it placed a little heap of ordinary powdered\n\nconfectioner's sugar, and asked his audience to watch the result carefully\n\nas he placed it in the few drops of ink-stained water on the tumbler.\n\nWith\n\nsurprising rapidity the discolored water was sucked up until it reached the\n\n"} {"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "''LIFE, TOO, IS\n\nDepartment]\n\nAN ART\"\n\n595\n\ntop of the lump of loaf sugar, and then it was suddenly checked almost as\n\ntho it had reached an impenetrable division between the loaf sugar and\nthe finely powdered sugar that had been placed above it.\n\nA fraction of a\n\nsecond, or at the most a second or two, was all that was required to traverse\nthree-quarters of an inch in the crystalline loaf sugar; but in the ten or\nfifteen minutes that followed the stained water had not progressed even an\n\neighth of a,n inch into the finely pulverized sugar on top.\n\nThis experiment. Professor Holden declared, a boy could so easily appreciate and remember that as long as he lived he would imderstand why it\n\nwas important to cultivate and pulverize the soil at the surface when it was\ndesired to husband the moisture within for the benefit of the crops. And\nthis experiment illustrated as well, he said, the great principle that underlies\n\nthe science of dry farming which has done so much to reclaim great areas of\n\nwaste land in many western states.\n\n''LIFE, TOO, IS\n\nAN ART''\n\nCAROLINE BARTLETT CRANE, SOCIAL AND SANITARY EXPERT, AND INVESTIGATOR OF MUNICIPALITIES, KALAMAZOO, MICH.\nI grant that life is not an art for all, and cannot be, until newer ideals\nof civilization arise\n\npublic school\n\nis\n\nand embody themselves in law and custom.\n\nBut the\n\nthe nursery of this ever-bettering civilization, tho failure\n\nto establish close relations\n\nbetween knowing and doing has cost our\nManual training and art are designed\n\nschools untold wealth in ejficiency.\n\nto bridge that hiatus in our educational system.\n\nIts leaders are attacking\n\nthat poisonous fallacy in education that the school years are a season of\n\n\"preparation for life,\" instead of a most vital part of life itself. We look\nforward hopefully to the time when the child will express himself as\ndefinitely in the business of study as in the business of play, where he is\n\nmaking life an art, because he is striving to actualize his ideal.\nclouds of glory doth he come\" to the schoolhouse door.\n\n\"Trailing\n\nWhy is it that\n\nso soon these clouds \"fade into the light of common day\" ?\n\nIs it because\n\nthe child is there met by the teacher who has never beheld the vision which\nforbids her to call any day \"common or unclean\" ?\n\nThis is the teacher in whom the tentative attitude of school days persists;\n\nwho still refuses to see that \"life\" has arrived; who treats the pres-\n\nent as a negligible period of transition and puts up with unworthy and\nundignified makeshifts of surroundings and behavior that have less than no\n\nacknowledged place in her radiant \"scheme of life.\"\n\nTake the teacher of household science and art.\n\nHer vocation intro-\n\n—into the seat of\n\nduces her into the holy of holies of this world\n\nlife.\n\nThat every public teacher of household science\nwould strive to know the environment, domestic and civic, of her pupils,\nI could wish two things:\n\n"} {"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n596\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAnd then, that\nevery teacher, like many a settlement worker, would put her knowledge\n\neven as the successful settlement worker knows her field.\n\nand character to the test by creating, out of the simplest elements and in a\nnot too favorable environment, a true little home, where, with no advantage above her neighbors except that of knowledge and character, she should\nlive her daily life as she thinks life ought to be lived.\nHer daily life first,\nthose fimdamental, elemental things which are the very staples, as it were,\nof the art and science which most of you teach, the beautiful ordering of the\nhome itself, and all the processes and activities of life therein. Unless we\nare mistress of our physical conditions and surroundings, life is cluttered,\nhurried, irritating, no matter how much we know about the arts of life.\nLet us never postpone simple, clean, dignified, wholesome daily living as\nphysical beings, whose bodies are worthy of this respect and will reward our\nspirits in manifold ways.\nIt is my belief that more irritability, depression,\nincompetency, and spiritual malaise in women arise from lack of mastery\nof their in^nediate physical environment than from any other one cause.\nAnd yet most of our schools of \"higher education\" for girls have no time\nor place for household science. All the more must the primary and secondary schools, and the higher co-educational schools, do their duty toward the\nwomen and the homes of tomorrow.\n\n—\n\nThe great lesson to be learned is simplicity.\n\nLife, doubtless,\n\ncan be\n\nlived as an art amid costly tapestries and inlaid ivories and sumptuous fare;\n\nbut life can much more easily and surely be an art without them.\n\nIt takes\n\na great gift for perspective, under these circumstances, to keep the mere\n\"things of life\" from crowding the foreground.\n\nI think the woman who\n\ncould do it most successfully would be that one who, first, \"in a Dakota\nclaim shanty,\" thirteen feet by nine, could look life in the face and write:\n\nAnd I the priestess ? Ah! I would\nThe gifts and grace were mine\nTo be the priestess that I should\nIn a house thirteen by nine.\n\nGranted that we each live life as an art on the physical basis, may I say\na word to you, as women and teachers, concerning the conquest and enjoy-\n\n—\n\nment of countless factors of happiness now not postponing our appreciations and our best undertakings any longer.\nDo not let Lowell's words\nbe true of us:\n\n.... Now ain't jest the niinute\nThat ever fits us easy while we're in it.\n\nNow is life. And life is a cup running over with blessing for most of us\nwe have sense and sensibility to know it. A physician told me of visiting\na woman who had been so injured that one leg must be amputated. She was\nif\n\nand he tried to console her as best he could. \"O,\nme!\" she exclaimed. \"You don't understand. It\nisn't so much that I have lost a leg.\nIt is that for forty years I have had\ntwo good legs and never gave them a thought!\"\n\nhorribly unhappy,\n\nplease don't talk to\n\n"} {"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSOME IDEALS IN HOME ECONOMICS TEACHING\n\nDepartment!\n\n597\n\nI hope, in the end, this poor woman will come out of her trouble like\n\nthe woman who lost an eye.\n\nShe had always been rather sour and disagreeShe suddenly became sweet and charming. She said she had found\nout that it was a great thing to have one eye!\nYou have real troubles and handicaps? K your trouble is that you\nable.\n\n—\n\ndon't like to teach, I never would do it\n\n^it\n\nis\n\ninjustice to yourself and to\n\nAnd in this day of varied activity for women, it is quite\nunnecessary. But any art that we would teach, we should also live.\nAs to handicaps, much of the best work of the world has been done\nunder handicaps. It was a deaf-dumb-blind girl who wrote the world's\nyour pupils.\n\nclassic on \" Optimism.\"\nIf someone hadn't thrown a piece of dry bread into\nyoung Prescott's eye and caused his blindness, he was of opinion that he\nnever would have concentrated to write his great histories. Darwin's\nSometimes he could\nfriends thought his invalidism possibly helped him.\nwork only two hours a day so he worked. His son said he was the only\nperson he ever met who 'appreciated the difference between fifteen and\nten minutes.\" My young friend, a teacher of physical culture, was a\nfairly good teacher till she began to lose her hearing.\nShe has had a terrible\nstruggle has had to learn lip-reading as her hearing went and she has\ndeveloped, from a \"good\" teacher, into a pre-eminently good one, probably\nthe best and most famous in her state. She is a radiant kind of woman\nnow; she was not so before the handicap which roused the utmost of her\nmental and spiritual resoiurces.\n\n—\n\n*\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—crowding impudently into the forefront\n\nThe greatest handicap is self\nand spoiling the picture.\n\nLife is not an art except the \"values\" are cor-\n\nrect as we can make them.\n\nWe all had hopes and expectations in our youth\n\nwhich have not come true.\n\n(That is what makes youth hold its head so\n\nWe perceive that we can't build that glittering mansion of oiu:\n\nhigh.)\n\ndreams.\nshed.\n\nThe cynic bids us gather what materials we can and build a wood-\n\n—not yours, or mine, but ours\n\nO, yes, we can build the mansion\n\nthe mansion of the future for the children of today; and we are building it,\n\nhour by hour, as we live sincerely and bravely before their eyes the life that\nis ours\n\nto live.\n\nSOME IDEALS IN HOME ECONOMICS TEACHING\nALBA BALES, HEAD OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, LEWISTON NORMAL\nSCHOOL, LEWISTON, IDAHO\nThere is at the present time a great awakening among women as to\ntheir own capabilities.\n\nThey are looking for larger lives, broader education,\n\nand a greater development. Woman's development in all the ages, it\nmust here suffice for us to say, has been thru education of the most practical\nnature; her influence has always been of the conservative type. Her\ndisposition has been to settle down, to congregate, to unify, and to develop\n\n"} {"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nSQS\n\nthe industrial spirit.\n\n(Manual Training\n\nThe first stable society was a mother and her help-\n\nless infant.\n\nIn the transition from savagery to civilization, women have continued\nto go on housekeeping, doing the same things as women did of old, only\n\nmaking use of better appUances. Doing the same things and thinking\nthe same thoughts, from generation to generation, change bodily activities\nand mental processes into semi-automatic habits. As commonly expressed\ntoday, homemaking is largely an instinct. Because of this prevalent belief,\nespecially among women, it is often thought that the problems of the home\nmay readily be solved by the woman after she has a home of her own.\nThis is a terrible mistake. The girl of today must be trained for her lifework.\n\nHome economics, when it comes into its own, will be a great factor\nin the fields of both elementary and higher education.\n\nIt will make pos-\n\nsible for girls the training that is necessary for the richest individual and\n\nfamily life, and also for the enlarged social life that our democracy requires.\n\nThe true home economist does not wish to take away from a single woman\nany phase of broad intellectual training.\n\nShe hopes only to indoctrinate such\n\nstudies of the family institution and of home science as best fit the girl\nfor the stimulating profession of housekeeping and give her an apprecia-\n\ntion of the art of homemaking.\nIf Latin and Greek mean more than real\nmental discipline, and if the thoughts of the classic immortals illumine\n\nand enrich and sweeten life, they, too, are valuable in the girl's training.\nMany misleading articles have been written in our best magazines\nagainst the influence of technical education as compared with the refining\ninfluences of the so-called cultural courses.\n\nA woman who holds a pro-\n\nfessorship in a classical college, expressing her views of domestic science in\n\nan article written in the Atlantic Monthly makes these statements:\nj\n\nThere is absolutely nothing in domestic duties themselves, or in any form of manual\nThe idea that\nlabor, which develops the mind or elevates or broadens the character.\nevery woman needs practical instruction in housekeeping as a part of her education is as\nabsurd as would be the claim that every man needs to be taught in school to plant corn\nor milk a cow. If there accrues to woman as much mental and spiritual development\nfrom learning to do well all things connected with domestic life as from the study of books\n\nwhy, I ask, does not the fanatic on industrial education intrust the entire rearing of his\nchildren to his Irish nursegirl ? Why does he not marry his cook ?\n\nSuch expressions show what entirely imfair and extremely narrow views\nare still held of training in domestic science.\n\nWhen the renaissance in\n\nhomemaking has dawned, and the majority of homes are\nmaintained by women who put intelligent thought into their work, the\nschools may not need to duplicate the girl's home training. At present\nmost homes do not teach the processes of food preparation and garmentmaking. The public schools are trying to meet the need in the girl's\neducation. When the homes and the public schools working together can\ngive every girl a fair chance to learn the use and handling of the food\nprofessional\n\n"} {"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "SOME IDEALS IN HOME ECONOMICS TEACHING\n\nDepartment]\n\n599\n\nmaterials of the family and how to make the simple clothing necessary\nfor the comfort of the family, home economics training for college women\ncan be based on dignified courses in artistic, economic, scientific, and\nsociological studies of the home.\nWithout question, among the most important courses for advanced\n\ntraining in\n\nhome economics are the science courses, particularly those\n\nconcerning physiology and the hygiene of nutrition.\n\nPhysiology is the\n\nfoundation of hygiene, and an intelligent study of the himian body must\n\nbe preceded by the sciences of physics, chemistry, general biology, and\nzoology. After such introductory study the student is ready for definite\ninstruction in anatomy.\n\nGod created the human body and called it his greatest work. Should\nwe remain in ignorance of the care of this creation ? Our religious creed\nmight well be based upon personal hygiene. One of the most important\nphases of personal hygiene is that of nutrition. The subject should be\napproached thru a study of the physiology of digestion followed by a study\nof the service of foods in the body.\n\nElementary physiological chemistry\n\ngives the students definite conceptions of the chemical problems involved\nin metabolism,\n\nand they should gain enough knowledge of chemistry to\n\nenable them to appreciate its bearing on their work, and to realize the\ndignity of the technical subjects in home economics.\nIf, however,\n\nwe are to place the study of cookery on a higher plane, the\n\ncollege student who works with foods must have a thoroly scientific point\n\nof view. The importance of this viewpoint to the housekeeper is apparent\nwhen her responsibility in the nourishment of her family is realized. Energy\nfor bodily growth, for play, and for clearness of the brain, is all produced\n\nfrom food.\n\nThe problem is not only to ascertain the right amount of\n\nnourishment, but also to preserve the bodily equilibrium by supplying it\n\nwith the right proportions of the various food principles.\n\nMany children\n\nhave low vitality, many are backward in school, and many more are morally\nweak because mothers do not know the principles of nutrition. The\nmentality and the morality of an individual, therefore, are also governed\nto a great degree by his nutrition. How grave is the responsibility of the\nwoman in the home, and how great, to the intelligent observer, is the\ncontrast between the so-called \"cook\" and the trained home scientist.\nWell-planned and well-organized science for young women is providing\ninstruction which is assisting greatly in the decrease of infant mortality,\nin the promotion of longevity, and in the betterment of social conditions.\nThe household is the unit of social progress. It embraces the three\ninstitutions marriage, the family, and the home.\nSociology, the science\nwhich attempts to explain human experiences in social living, is most\nclosely related to household science.\nThe sociologists are prone to say\nthat household science is but an application of their ideas. The home\neconomist realizes the importance of this relation in household education\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n600\n\n[Manual Training\n\nand appreciates the fact that the sanctity of the home will not be lessened\nby a larger and more sympathetic relation between family life and the\nlarger social life.\n\nCourses in sociology, therefore, are becoming popular\n\nto the student of household science, and have a far-reaching interest.\n\nThe\n\nlarger views of social life and ethics which such study presents should aid\n\nwomen in many ways, especially in rightly viewing, if not in solving, the\n\"servant problem.'*\n\nThis problem cannot be fully solved imtil the right\n\nrelation exists between household employer and household employee.\n\nIn considering the ideals of home economics, we cannot overlook the\narts of homemaking.\n\nhouse-furnishing.\n\nOne of the most important of these is the art of\n\nThis requires earnest study if the product is to be a\n\nFine furnishing is not so much a question of money\nThe home should be a place in which the soul can\ngrow; and growth of soul is retarded when lack of harmony disturbs the\nfiner sensibilities.\nIt is the peace of mind that comes from beautiful\nreally beautiful home.\n\nas of right thinking.\n\nsurroundings that makes the aesthetic side of homemaking of universal\ninterest.\n\nIn this experimental stage of industrial education, our ideals in the\nteaching of home economics are still expanding.\n\nThe world never ojBFered\n\ngirls such opportimities to study live and fascinating problems of the social,\n\npolitical, and industrial world as now.\n\nThere never was an age of greater\n\nAnd if\nwe keep girls healthy and asking \"Why ?\" and set them free in this cosmos\nof our social order, they will develop into women with intellectual powers\n\nachievement in really cultural education than the present one.\n\nand aspirations, citizens prepared to do their part, and trained workers\ncompetent to perform such service as will justify their existence in the\n\nhomes of our country and in the social groups of which they form a part.\n\n"} {"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—^Agkes Benson, supervisor of music, public schools\nVice-President—^Wnx Earhart, director of music, public schools\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\n\nSecretary—EuzABETB Casterton, supervisor of music, public schools\n\nRochester, N.Y.\n\nPresident\n\nChicago, HI.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 9, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order in the First Congregational Church at 2 30 p.m., by\n:\n\nWilliam A. Wetzell, supervisor of music, public schools. Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, the chair appointed Lucy K. Cole, supervisor of\nmusic, pubUc schools, Seattle, Wash., secretary pro tempore.\n\nThe following musical program was then given by the Springville High School\nChorus, Springville, Utah, under the leadership of Mark Robinson, supervisor of music,\nSpringville, Utah.\n\nWater Music\n\nOffenbach\n(Paraphrased from orchestral intermezzo in \"Tales of Hoffmann\")\n\nEnsemble (From \"Chimes of Normandy\")\n\nPlanquette\n\nSweetest May\nPraise Ye^the Father\n\nEvans\nGounod\n\nThe chair changed the order of the program scheduled for the day by introducing\nby Albert E. Winship, editor. Journal of Education, Boston, Mass., entitled\n\"Music and Ethics.\"\nLucy K. Cole, supervisor of music, public schools, Seattle, Wash., then gave a paper\non \"Music and the Sodal Problem.\"\nA paper entitled \"Music That Pays Dividends\" was next read by Alice Louise\nReynolds, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nfirst the paper\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 10, 1913\nSupervisors' Round-Table Conference\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m.\n\nWilliam A. Wetzell, supervisor of music, public schools, Salt Lake City, Utah, read\na paper entitled \"Hints to Supervisors.\"\n\n\"The Report of the Committee on Terminology\" was then read by William B.\nKinnear, supervisor of public-school music, Lamed, Kans.\n\nA discussion followed resulting in a motion that the matter be referred back to the\ncommittee for a more definite and clear statement. Motion carried.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was then given by the chairman:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President Agnes Benson, supervisor of music, public schools, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-President ^Lucy K. Cole, supervisor of music, public schools, Seattle, Wash.\nFor Secretary Glen H. Woods, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nThe report was accepted and the officers unanimously elected.\nFrances E. Clark, public-school educational department, Victor Talking Machine\n\nCompany, Camden, N.J., gave a talk on the use of the victrola in the schools.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nLucy K. Cole, Secretary pro tempore\n601\n\n"} {"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o2\n\n[Music\n\nTfflRD SESSION— Friday Afternoon, July ii, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 30 p.m.\nA paper on \"The Voice\" by Evan Stephens, director of Tabernacle Choir, Salt Lake\nCity, Utah, was read by William A. Wetzell.\nA demonstration of music in the high schools was then given by classes from the\n:\n\nSpringville High School, SpringvUle, Utah, under the direction of Mark Robinson.\nIt was moved and carried that the Committee on Terminology be continued.\nhad been overlooked at the meeting on Thursday forenoon.\nThe program was dosed by songs from the Springville High School Chorus.\n\nThis\n\nWilliam B. Kinnear, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nMUSIC AND ETHICS\nA.\n\nE.\n\nWINSHIP, EDITOR, \"JOURNAL OF EDUCATION,\" BOSTON, MASS.\n\nWhy teach music in public schools ? Why not have that as a luxury to\nbe taught at the expense of parents ?\n\nAs a vocation it has claims in this vocational age but that does not\nAs a social grace, as the least expensive culture adjunct\n\nconcern us now.\n\nto the home, it is significant, or would be if there were not such a shudder\nwhenever the word culture is mentioned, but that does not now interest us.\nAs a hygienic function much can be said of music, its rhythm and its cheer,\nbut we pass that by also. Has music an ethical value ? Can school music\nbe made to contribute to the safety of our girls, and, possibly, our boys ?\nJust now the one noble fad, if a fad can be said to be noble, is a literary,\nphilanthropic, and semi-political crusade which is certain to wipe from all\nAmerican cities the disgraceful professionally bad restricted districts. If\nschool music can be shown to have a distinct and unquestioned positive or\npreventive moral force, its universality and its permanency are established\n\nbeyond question.\nIt is no part of a teacher's business as a teacher to engage, directly or\nindirectly, in a campaign against vice in New York, Chicago, or elsewhere,\nbut rather to deal with the tendency of life, with starting children right.\n\nThe vice commissions have made clear that even in the most extravagant\nclaims only a trifling proportion of the thirty million women and girls,\nwithin the zone of liability, are bad, and that most of those few have had\nto be kidnapped into their present\n\nlife.\n\nWhatever the school does for\n\nmorals, therefore, must have in mind the broadest possible view and deal\n\nwith the trend of thought and emotion.\n\nEducation\n\nis\n\nstarting children in the right direction.\n\nThe ethical\n\nThat is heaven.\nFear as a habit of mind is the\n\nmission of the school is to establish hope as a habit of mind.\n\n\"The kingdom of heaven is within you.\"\nother place. \"The other place is within you.\"\n\n"} {"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC AND ETHICS\n\n603\n\nMusic is the sunlight of hope, the purifying ripple of the water of life,\nBut there\nis music and music, just as there are water and water, sunlight and sunlight,\nair and air.\nA sunstroke is the worst mental collapse, stagnant infected\nwater means a scourge, contaminated air means an epidemic.\nthe eliminating vigor of pure air in us and over us and about us.\n\nMorally there is music of the lower world, the ragtime of the street,\nthe voluptuous new swing of the dance hall.\n\nThese are not music in its\n\nsweetness and purity, in its nobility and vitality, any more than a smirk is\n\na smile, or than giggling is laughing, or than the idiot's grin is the joyous\nillumination of a father's greeting of his first born.\n\nOne mission of the school is to throw over every child's life in school years\nall that is best, purest,\n\nnoblest in music.\n\nI know an orchard neighborhood that is waging an expensive warfare\n\non the blue Canadian thistle, and it looks like a hopeless struggle.\n\nA few\n\nmiles away there are 144 acres of the world's best orange orchards and not\n\na blue Canadian thistle is there.\n\nThe proprietor knows full well that this\n\nparticular pest cannot thrive in soil that is not aciduous and he tests his\nsoil several times a year for acid and when he finds it, on go the chemicals\n\nor fertilizers that make it alkaline.\n\nRagtime music is a symptom. It is a revelation of social or individual\nYou might as well fight the blue Canadian thistle with\nresolutions in a kindergarten convention as to campaign against ragtime by\ndenunciation in a church prayer-meeting or a Christian Endeavor conven-\n\nsoil conditions.\n\ntion.\n\nSchool music is not for the teaching of facts about the staff and clefts,\npitch and tone, sharps\n\nand flats.\n\nIncidentally important, but, stopping\n\nthere, it is as characterless and hopeless as a deserted mining camp with a\nlot of debris-filled cellars abandoned before anything was built thereon.\n\nDiscrimination between the noble and ignoble in music is walking along\nthe highways of the celestial city.\n\nAppreciation of good music is worth\n\ninfinitely more than the ability to read the notes technically and lifelessly\n\nin an ''exercise.\"\n\nWhen a teacher of music says to her class, \"We will sing on page 23,\"\nWhen she says, \"We will sing Juanita,' \" and the\nclass turns to it instinctively, I know that I am in a different world.\nBut\n\nI know what to expect.\n\n'\n\nwhen Mrs. Parsons with her seventy boys in the Polytechnic High School of\nLos Angeles does neither, but merely touches the keys of the piano, and\nevery boy's face lightens and brightens as he turns to the song, it is entirely\ncertain that there is music in the air.\nMusic must be lifted heaven-high above the multiplication table and the\nspelling-book before America can reap the social and moral effects of the\npossibilities of the ethical power of school music.\nMorals are but the fruitage of manners. If you see anyone cleaning his\n\" Isn't it better\nfinger-nails in public you know the quality of his manners.\n\n"} {"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o4\n\n(Music\n\nto clean them in public than to have them go uncleaned?\"\nSurely, but\nwhoever cleans them only when he sees that they need it cares more for his\nreputation than for his character. Every personal matter is for private\nattention and public attention is vulgar. Morality like manners must be a\nhabit of mind, and must be established in the mind-habit-forming years.\n\nAppreciation of masterpieces in music, vocal or instrumental, make it\nas impossible for one ever to seek pleasure in a dance hall as for one trained\nin gentle manners to sit with his hat on in a private parlor.\n\nThere are personal and social morals.\n\nNo morality is high and noble\n\nthat does not project itself into the public life of the individual.\n\nThe conflict of the ages is at its height just now, here and everywhere.\nWhat is one's relation to the public ? Shall I be individually a nonentity\nand do as others do everywhere, regardless of my life convictions and habits ?\nShall one be a sport when with sports and partake of the Lord's Supper when\nthe guest of a prelate ?\n\nOn the other hand, shall one be a social nuisance and intrude his personal\nA man brought up on the seashore,\n\nviews upon everybody everywhere ?\n\nwith a lifelong admiration for the roaring of the surf, is a public nuisance if\neverywhere and with everybody he whines because the Mississippi has no\nsurf, because the Rockies have no ocean view.\n\nThere is no more morality\n\nin being an individualistic crank than in being an individual nonentity.\n\nMorality is uniformity and universality in social masterpieces as\n\nit\n\nwere.\n\nThere is a disk for the victrola that cost six thousand dollars; that is,\nfour of the world's great vocalists were paid six thousand dollars to sing\ntherefor.\n\nNo other such a quartet is known—one that can sing with such\n\nperfect skill and at the same time with such high art and become eternal\n\nthru this mechanism.\n\nSo morality is only noble when it harmonizes with\n\nthe social world in a register that will make it inmiortal.\n\nMUSIC AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM\nLUCY K. COLE, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH.\n\nMankind at work is thoroly moral.\n\nDuring working hours, brain and\n\nsinew are keenly and intensely active, but during leisure hours emotional\nThis is particularly true of that class of laborers whose\nlife asserts itself.\n\nwork admits of little or no emotional activity.\n\nIt would seem, therefore,\n\nthat our social problems are largely the result of the way in which society\nuses its leisure, or rather, the manner in which society satisfies or expresses\nits emotional life.\n\nSociety seems perfectly willing to pay enormous sums annually for the\n\nmaintenance of a large police force, ample prison accommodations, insane\nasylums, orphanages, penitentiaries, divorce courts, etc., all of which\n\n"} {"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMUSIC AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM\n\ninstitutions are the direct result of misused, unrestrained,\n\n605\n\nuneducated\n\nemotional life.\n\nWould the pubHc be put to any greater expense in furnishing definite,\nsystematic education for emotional life than it is at present in the mainte-\n\nnance of these institutions ?\nas well as for work ?\n\nWhy should not our schools educate for leisure\n\nIf we would solve our present social problems,\n\nwe\n\nmust come to it. It may not be practicable for the schools to undertake\nthis new educational phase at present, but it must be carried out in some way\nat pubUc expense and under educational rather than political supervision.\nWe educate too much for getting a living and not enough for living.\nToo much stress is put upon how to earn the dollar and not enough on how\nbest to use it when earned.\nIn the mind of the general public, industrial education is regarded as\na succcessful and as a permanent factor in our educational scheme. Some\nof our best educators, however, regard it as still in the experimental stage.\n\nEnormous sums of money have been spent in this educational experiment\nin the past fifteen or twenty years.\nif\n\nWho can estimate the value to society\n\nthe same sums were spent annually on systematic education for leisure\n\nor emotional life ?\n\nEmotional life is only indirectly and remotely touched\n\nin our present system of education.\n\nMuch more could be gotten out of\nThere are many\n\nthe study of history and literature than is at present.\n\nphases in our curriculum where emotional life could be touched most ejffectively if attention were directed in that way.\n\nThe only amusement sanctioned by the school authorities is athletics.\nThese sports minister largely to physical life, and are participated in by so\nfew of the general student body that they can hardly be said to be a part\nof the educational system.\n\nWe hear so much nowadays about the low standard of morals among\nSmall wonder that young\nhad\nlittle\nor no guidance either at\nemotional life goes wrong when it has\nhigher\nemotional\nlife\nis\nnot given constant and\nhome or at school. If the\nour upper grammar- and high-school students.\n\nsatisfying activity from childhood to maturity, it is not surprising that the\n\nlower emotional life becomes active.\n\nThe habit of responding to the higher\n\nemotional life should become\n\nand strong during childhood.\n\nfixed\n\nTalks\n\nThey instruct as to the\nimpulses.\nThe only way\nfollowing\nthe\nlower\nemotional\nterrible results of\nto eradicate an evil is by substituting an equally attractive good. We\n\nand lectures on social hygiene are not enough.\n\nshould provide wholesome and refined mediimis of emotional expression for\n\nMusic and the various forms of dramatic art are the\nThe hearing of good music\nand drama and the reading of good fiction are not enough. The actual\nperformance of music or drama is what is necessary to yoimg emotional\nour young people.\n\nuniversal medimns of emotional expression.\n\nlife.\n\nIt is the desire to express the surging, throbbing, new emotional life\n\nwhich must be satisfied.\n\n"} {"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o6\n\n(Musk\n\nRight here comes the great moral value of instrimiental study for\nNothing is more valuable\nto a boy during this age than the ability to play some one of the orchestral\n\nchildren and pupils during the adolescent age.\n\ninstnmients, these one-voiced instruments being given the preference over\n\nthe piano, because of their use of melody, which is the emotional side of\n\nmusic and hence furnishes a more satisfying medium of emotional expression.\nThe English school authorities have taken a most coromendable stand\nalong this\n\nline.\n\nIn most of the\n\ncities\n\nof the British Isles, the school\n\nauthorities furnish violins at factory prices to all children desiring to learn\n\nto play this instnunent.\n\nThey also furnish instruction in classes of not\n\nmore than ten.\n\nIn London alone there are over four hundred of these\n\nviolin classes.\n\nIt is estimated that over half a million children thruout\n\nthe British Isles are receiving instruction in these classes.\n\nLast July, in Alexandra Palace in London, was given a most wonderful\nexhibition of the results of this work in the playing of four thousand children\nin violin ensemble.\n\nConsider for a moment the effect of such work upon\n\nthese four thousand children themselves.\n\nSimply being a part of such a\n\nperformance brings an uplift and impetus toward art development that\n\ncannot be estimated.\n\nThese children, while practicing on their violins,\n\nare kept off the street, their music brings a new cultural element into the\n\nhome and imparts to the whole family a deep feeUng of pride and self-respect.\nIts value toward good citizenship for England's future generations cannot\n\nbe measured. Such an educational movement is a distinct national asset\nand should be fostered and encouraged by government as well as school\nauthorities.\n\nIt is a beginning in the right direction and if carried out more broadly\nwill go far toward solving some of England's many social problems.\n\nThe\n\nmovement, as you know, originated in the little town of Maidstone, England, and was started for the purpose of stimulating a love for orchestral\nmusic. The idea was soon seized upon by an enterprising business firm\nThis firm, Messrs. Murdock\n\ndealing in orchestral instnmients.\n\n& Co.,\n\noffered to provide instruments and, if desired, a teacher to any pupils wish-\n\ning to learn to play the violin.\n\nWhen the educational value of the plan\n\nbecame evident the school authorities took it up with the results above\nmentioned.\n\n—the education of emotional\n\nThis is as it should be\n\nlife\n\nthru\n\na refined mediiun of expression at public expense.\nAn American adaptation of the Maidstone movement has been carried\nout in six of the public schools of Boston this past year by one of the assistant supervisors of music, Dr. Mitchell. Wonderful results have been\nobtained with these classes in just one year.\n\nWe have something similar to this English movement in America in the\nschool music settlements of our large cities.\nis\n\nIn these schools instruction\n\ngiven at a very small tuition and many who could otherwise have no\n\nmusic instruction get it here.\n\n"} {"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "MUSIC AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM\n\nDepartment!\n\n607\n\nBut these schools are all under private management and are made\nAll this should be provided\nby our public education fund. It should be carried on as a part of the educational system as one of the branches in the department of education for\npossible by the generosity of wealthy citizens.\n\n—\n\nleisure.\n\nBut America is drawing on its public funds for the musical education\nof its people otherwise than thru its public schools.\ncess of municipally controlled music in\n\nThe wonderful suc-\n\nNew York and other eastern cities\n\nhas opened a new field of responsibility for our civil authorities and has\n\nshown us also, in this short time, the great value of music as a sociological\nThe moral results upon the masses are sure to\nfollow, as is shown by the following incident which occurred at one of the\nfirst concerts given under municipal management in New York.\nAt the\n\nfactor in community life.\n\nclose of the concert, a few stalwart representatives of the people approached\n\nthe conductor with this remark:\n\nand plenty of it.\nof it.\"\n\n\" Say, boss, cut it out.\n\nWe want ragtime\n\nWe're tough and we want to stay tough and we're proud\n\nThis recognition of the character of the music played and its moral\n\neffect upon them was a most powerful argument in favor of the continuance\n\nof just such programs.\n\nIt is reported, however, that this conductor there-\n\nafter kept some ragtime selections at hand to be used in case of emergency,\n\nand it is further stated that by the close of the sunomer this audience had\ncome to really enjoy the programs of good music. At present, however, this\nmunicipally controlled music is confined to the summer-park music, except\nin a few of our large cities.\nIt should be carried on thruout the whole year.\nDuring the winter months, the saloon, the dance hall, and similar places\ntake the place of the parks in summer. What kind of music do we find in\nthese places? Usually ragtime of the lowest type, coon songs, and the\nThe saloonkeeper and dance-hall proprietor\nso-called \"suggestive music.\"\nare neither musicians nor psychologists but they know from experience\nthe kind of music that promotes their business.\nThe large majority of our pupils leave school between the ages of twelve\nand sixteen to enter factories, stores, etc. Those who have played in\nschool orchestras have not acquired suflSicient technique to enable them to\nbelong to orchestras composed of adult professional musicians. With no\nincentive to practice, the instrument is often laid aside.\n\nIt will be five or\n\nsix years before these boys and girls are old enough to enter adult choruses.\n\nDuring these years they are likely to lose their interest in this phase of\nWhen they leave school and enter business life, we lose track of\nthem and they are soon forgotten. But they, on the other hand, sorely\nmusic.\n\nmiss the influences of the schoolroom, the sympathetic smile of the teacher,\nthe cheer of companionship, and all that goes to make up the joy of school\nlife.\n\nJust here is where the saloonkeeper and the dance-hall proprietor step\n\nin and in their ignorant and wholly commercial way meet the needs of these\n\nyoung people\n\n—the need\n\nof entertainment and opportunity to meet socially.\n\n"} {"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6o8\n\n[Music\n\nCould not the needs of these young people be met in an extension course\nin music and art, carried on under public-school supervision and at public-\n\nschool expense ?\n\nPupils love to return to their school after leaving to go\n\nto work and would return gladly for evening or Sunday classes in music\n\nor dramatic art if these were provided at their school buildings.\n\nThis idea\n\ncould be carried out easily in cities where evening schools are maintained.\n\nThis year in Seattle we have had sight-reading classes and chorus work in our\nevening schools\n\n—also some very interesting concerts. The Amphion Club,\n\na male chorus of some sixty voices with fine soloists, gave one concert which\n\nwas greatly enjoyed by the evening-school students. The Donner Orchestra, thirty-five pieces, also gave a most interesting program.\nThese concerts were given by these societies complimentary to high-school students,\nbut were given at the high-school buildings and on the night when evening\nschools were in session so that the programs could also be attended by\nevening-school students.\n\nIf\n\nour evening schools could only offer courses\n\nwhich would lead to the right use of leisure; courses which would teach all\nforms of music and dramatic art expression and thus create a desire for\nhigher standards in theatrical and musical performance!\n\nCould we not have a national organization among our musicians which\nshall do for the people musically what the Drama League is doing dramati-\n\ncally? With a national organization of this nature we could accomplish\nwonders for the musical education and uplift of the common people. With\n\na central national organization and associated working centers all over the\ncountry, systematic study clubs could be organized, people's choruses conducted, bands and orchestras maintained among the non-professional, and\nfestivals and pageants given by the laboring people.\n\nAt present the thought seems to be largely to provide amusement and\nentertainment for our young wage-earners, but there are many among them\n\nwho would gladly embrace any opportunity offered for self-improvement\nalong cultural as well as industrial lines.\n\nThe schools work constantly toward good taste in music, art, and literaThe pupils are just beginning to understand and appreciate their\nefforts when they leave for the commercial world.\nThis same commercial\nture.\n\nworld offers them amusement and entertainment and they accept what is\noffered, not having gone far enough in school to have formed fixed habits\n\nand a taste for better things.\nare gone.\n\nSoon the impressions of their earlier training\n\nIf the needs of these young people could be met by public-school\n\nextension courses, much social evil would be prevented.\nDefinite and concerted efforts should be put forth by the musicians of\n\nthe country toward the extermination of the so-called \"suggestive song\"\n\nwhich is doing more harm among our young people at present than possibly\nany other one thing. The almost universal use of these songs on the dance\nprograms is most deplorable. Our young people are finding the conventional waltz and two-step monotonous and lacking in variety.\nThis is\n\n"} {"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "MUSIC THAT PAYS DIVIDENDS\n\nDepartmentl\n\n609\n\nundoubtedly due to the almost universal use of folk dancing in our schools.\nWhy should these same dances not be introduced into the social dance\n\nprograms of our boys and girls?\n\nThe ultimate outcome of their use in\n\nschool should be the creation of some truly American folk dances.\nPossibly it is unnecessary to form a new national organization similar\nto the Drama League in order to accomplish the desired ends.\nthis work can be done thru the National Supervisors*\n\nPossibly\n\nConference or thru\n\nsome branch of the Federation of Musical Clubs or thru the Department of\nMusic Education of the National Education Association, or the Music\nTeachers' National Association. But strong, concerted, national effort\nshould be put forth toward securing more definite systematic education for\nleisure in the schools of the country; more educational rather than commercial provision for and supervision of our amusements; more definite and\nsystematic effort toward providing means for cultural improvement for\nthe young wage-earners; toward exterminating the 'suggestive song\";\ntoward providing a better class of music for our dance programs.\nWe shall be entirely satisfied when as much is spent annually from our\npublic funds for education toward the right use of leisure as is at present\nspent in defending the public against the wrong use of leisure.\nWhen musicians, educators, and philanthropists work together in this\ngreat upward movement we shall see marvelous changes in our social conditions and the great problems of today will be materially lessened if not\ndone away with entirely.\n*\n\nMUSIC THAT PAYS DIVIDENDS\nALICE LOUISE REYNOLDS, BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY, PROVO, UTAH\n\nRobert Browning called music the greatest of the arts.\n\nHe pointed\n\nout that while architecture, sculpture, literature, and painting produced\nmasters of the first order in comparatively early times, the names of our\ngreatest musical composers are nigh unto our very door.\nthis, as\n\nThe reason for\n\nBrowning saw it, lay largely in the superiority of music over the\n\nother arts.\nI make a plea for a class of music that I choose to describe as music\n\nthat pays dividends.\n\nSome music will pay small dividends, other music\n\nfair dividends, and yet another class large dividends.\n\nSeveral years ago I listened to a well-trained choir, in a normal school,\nsinging the \"Pilgrims' Chorus,\"\n\nthat attracted me.\n\nfrom \"Tannhauser.\"\n\nIt was the music\n\nI had never heard that music before;\n\nI asked the conductor about\n\nit.\n\nso afterward\n\nHe told me that it was the music of\n\nRichard Wagner, and that the chorus was from \"Tannhauser.\" Of\ncourse I had heard of Wagner and of \"Tannhauser,\" but knew nothing of\nthe opera at that time.\n\n"} {"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\n/\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6io\n\niMusic\n\nThat afternoon I went in search of material, and made the story, with\nwhich everyone is familiar, my own.\nLater, when I foimd myself in Germany, one of my first impulses was\nto visit the scene of this story.\nto Eisenach.\n\nOur little party made its way directly\n\nThere, among the loveliest of German hills, stands the old\n\ncastle of the Wartburg, where Martin Luther was confined and protected.\n\nIt is a palace overlooking the black forest of\n\n—a\n\nGermany\n\nforest\n\nmost\n\nattractive.\n\nVery soon we were inside the palace.\n\nSuddenly we came to a room\n\nin blue and gold, and our guide remarked:\n\n\"This is the hall of contest.\"\n\nI peopled that hall as best I could; I placed therein Elizabeth and Tannhauser, for I had not yet seen the opera.\n\nA few weeks later, I witnessed in the opera house in Berlin a performance of \"Tannhauser.\" I shall never forget the satisfied feeling I had\nwhen the curtain was raised, and I saw first an exterior view of the\nWartburg, in all the luxury of its green foliage, and later the hall of\ncontest, realistic to the blue paper on the wall.\nI felt that I had suddenly been transported to that lovely spot.\n\nOne year ago, at the National Education Association in Chicago, I\nsat in the auditorium hall and listened to the organ prelude, which chanced\n\nto be the march from \"Tannhauser.\"\n\naway\n\nQuickly the auditorium hall passed\n\n— was in the opera house in Berlin, watching that wonderful group\n^I\n\nof mediaeval ladies and gentlemen as they passed along keeping step to the\nstirring music of the march.\n\nThe \"Pilgrims' Chorus\" can never again be to me merely a musical\nThe first act of the opera must always arouse for me all the\nbeauty and sensuality of pagan Greece, while bound up with the famous\nselection.\n\nprocession of the pilgrims\n\nis all\n\nthe Christianity and self-abnegation of\n\nour mediaeval world.\nLater, walking thru the rooms of the famous art gallery of Dresden,\nI noted a number of paintings that had drawn material from the various\n\nlegends extant, relating to Saint Elizabeth.\n\nBefore leaving Dresden, I\n\nsaw Hofmann, the painter of \"The Christ Child in the Temple.\" The\nvenerable artist had passed his eightieth year, and was then at work on\nwhat was perhaps his last great painting. We were not a little surprised\nto find, after all of his devotion to biblical subjects, that he was working\non what promised to be a most gratifying portrayal of Saint Elizabeth.\nThat which every seeker after knowledge knows to be true is that any\ninformation paves the way for adding to our information. Knowledge is a\nmagnet that attracts knowledge. Having learned the story of Tannhauser,\nand having gone to Thuringia, it was quite natural that we should come in\ncontact with other legends associated with Saint Elizabeth.\n\nFranz Liszt took as the subject of one of his great oratorios \"Saint\nElizabeth,\" being deeply interested in the church, and finding in the story\n\n"} {"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "MUSIC THAT PAYS DIVIDENDS\n\nDe^rtment]\n\n6ll\n\nof Elizabeth excellent material for his great oratorio, thru which he desired\nto manifest the power of the church.\n\nWagner was not attracted by the\n\nreligious significance of the story; all its great dramatic possibilities appealed\n\nto him,\n\nand wherein it was lacking, he supplied, by the aid of his great\n\ninventive genius, in a truly marvelous fashion.\n\nThe version of the story, made use of by Liszt, runs much as follows:\nElizabeth of Pressburg, a princess of Hungary, married the Landgrave\nof Thuringia,\n\nwhose palace was at the Wartburg.\n\nSome time after his\n\nmarriage he was called forth to war, and was compelled to leave his wife to\nthe not very tender mercies of her mother-in-law and the court. She often\nmet the poor people in the forest and often gave them bread. Complaint\ncame from the court that she was making a draught on the resources of\nthe palace, and plans were made to thwart her.\nOne day she was met in the forest, and inquiry was made of her concerning the contents of her apron. \"Roses are what I carry,\" she replied,\nbut being pressed to show, she changed and said: \"I have bread and wine,\"\n\nbut as her apron fell only roses fell therefrom.\n\nWhen the Landgrave returned\n\nhis relatives complained most bitterly of her conduct, and he, too, chided\n\nher severely.\n\nShe continued to be the victim of misunderstanding and\n\nabuse, and was finally driven forth into the wilderness to die.\n\nRose Monday, observed by the German nation as a national holiday,\ncommemorates this legend.\nElizabeth, the beloved wife of Franz Joseph, emperor of Austria, who\n\nwas assassinated some fifteen years ago, is associated with Saint Elizabeth\nin the minds of the Austrian people.\nLiszt's famous oratorio has been adapted to opera, a beautiful and\nfitting climax having been added.\nEvery year on the anniversary of the\nempress' birthday, and only on that day, this opera is presented in the\nroyal opera house in Vienna.\n\nI believe this particular opera\n\nis\n\nnever\n\npresented elsewhere.\n\nOne of the newest and most beautiful palaces in all Europe is the HunNeither money nor talent\n\ngarian palace, overlooking the blue Danube.\n\nof architect or artist has been spared in the erection of this truly magnificent\n\nbuilding.\n\nOne room in particular, Hungarian thruout, is of interest to us.\n\nOn a side wall of that room is a mural painting of Elizabeth\nlong to be remembered\n\n—as she stands there in\n\n—a painting\n\nall her saintly loveliness, with\n\nthe roses falling from her apron.\n\nLet us turn back now, for an instant, to that which first called attention\nto the legend.\n\nthat morning.\n\nSuppose Professor Lund's choir had sung anything else\nSuppose it had been something pretty, tuneful, good, but\n\nDo you think I should have reaped such a harvest ?\nwhat my loss would have been.\n\nnot the best.\n\nThink\n\nNow forever my gratitude is extended that we were given the best.\nA brief story; it took only a little while to read it, but it has been enriching\n\n"} {"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6l2\n\n(i^sic\n\nmy life ever since, and making plain to me much that would othemise\nbe obscure.\n\nSuch is the music that pays dividends.\n\nThe National Federation of Musical Clubs is putting forth great\nenergy and many inducements to encourage the production of American\nopera.\n\nAmerica has its legendary backgroimd infinitely rich. Others have\ndrawn attention to what the native music of the Negro may mean to future\nI pause one brief moment to speak of the Indian\n\nmusical art in America.\nlegends.\n\nSuperb in color, freighted with the loveliest of romances, charged with\na mysticism deep and of tremendous import, slowly and surely it is passing\n\naway.\n\nThe young brave refuses, absolutely, to learn the songs and dances\n\nof his elders, so eager has he grown to adopt the manners and customs that\nlie all about him.\n\nWhere is the magician, the transformer ?\n\nWho shall embalm this mys-\n\ntery and beauty to a life beyond life ?\n\nLast year Mrs. R. T, Bounim, a full-blooded Sioux, a graduate of the\n\nNew England Conservatory of Music, and at one time a teacher at the\nCarlisle Indian School,\n\nand Mr. William F. Hansen, of Vernal, Utah, a\n\ngraduate of one of the foremost music schools of this state, collaborated\n\nand produced the \"Sun Dance.'*\n\nMr. Hansen has spent his life near the\n\nIndian, and, with much of the ardor of a Scott and an Irving, has gained\n\nthe good will of the Red Man and wrimg from him many of his priceless\nlegends.\n\nThis production was received most heartily by the people in and near\nthe Indian reservation, the Indians themselves showing the keenest interest.\n\nThe issue of April 26 of Musical America devotes some space to this venture.\nWhatever may be the fate of this most laudable imdertaking, it is a step\nin the right direction.\n\nSome day music will make use of this material. When that thing shall\nbe achieved, we shall have opera with stage setting comparable to that\nand A'ida; love stories ravishing and mysterious;\naccompanied by music weird and wonderful.\nSuch music shall add only to that long list of compositions that Italy,\nFrance, Germany, and Austria, and, in some instances, England and\n\nin the Queen of Sheha\n\n—\n\nAmerica have given us ^music replete, suggestive, ennobling, and exalting.\nSuch music pays dividends.\n\n"} {"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "—I\nHINTS TO SUPERVISORS\n\nDepartmcntl\n\n613\n\nHINTS TO SUPERVISORS\nWILLIAM A. WETZELL, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE\nCITY,\n\nUTAH\n\nThe subject assigned to me is not a subject for a paper, but is rather\na subject for a free, open-for-all discussion at a round-table meeting, and\nsince this is\n\nmy idea of the subject, in this manner will I treat it.\n\nHints to music supervisors,\n\nmagnitude.\n\nmany or few.\n\nIt is a subject of great\n\nIt may be discussed for hours and then only slightly touched.\n\nHints or suggestions may be given along many lines of our work.\n\nI might\n\ngive a few suggestions as to the music supervisor's literary or scholastic\ntraining, but this I shall not do for I assimie that this feature presents itself\n\nprominently and forcefully to all who would assume the responsible position of training the young.\n\nIt may be said with great emphasis that a\n\nmusic supervisor should possess at least the rudiments of an English education.\nHe should have more than a passing knowledge of the subjects\nusually required of the grade teacher, and above all he should be able to\nexpress himself in good, clean English sentences, stripped of all verbosity.\n\nHe should be able to give instruction in a language fit for the children's\nIt should be of the purest diction and free from slang.\n\nimitation.\n\nI might take much time in discussing the supervisor's special equip-\n\nment for the work of giving instruction in music to the children in our\nBut again it may be assumed that this special teacher\nhas given much study and careful thought to this equipment along this\npublic schools.\n\n—\n\nTo be ignorant of the verbiage of music\nline of schoolroom work.\nmean such language as is used in discussing the various phases of the subYou\nject is unpardonable, with all the music literature we have today.\nwill all agree with me that the supervisor who told the pupils of his high\n\n—\n\nschool one morning that they were about to sing a song the general movement of which was adago, but not the dagos that work on the railroads and\nin the mines, was lamentably ignorant or criminally careless. Now, the\nvery book in the hands of that supervisor and his pupils contained the\nusually accepted pronimciation of all the music terms used in the book.\n\nWe might discuss the subject from a pedagogical standpoint, and this\nis\n\na feature of no little consequence and importance.\n\nThe cause of much\n\n—of the failure in teaching the special subjects in the schoolroom\n\nvery much\nis\n\na lack of a knowledge of pedagogical principles and their application to\n\nthe teaching of these subjects.\n\nHave you studied how to present a subject\n\nso as to get the greatest amount of intellectual effort from the children ?\n\nThis is really the keynote to most efficient work with children and should\nreceive closer attention and deeper consideration than it does from supervisors generally.\n\nI might take the time allotted me for this paper in considering the\n\nplanning and arrangement of a course of study, or an outline of work for\n\n"} {"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6i4\n\n[Mvsic\n\nThis is a matter of the utmost importance and one\nupon which depends the efficient and successful work of the department.\nThe average grade teacher is not a musician, and must be instructed and\nI might profitably dwell upon this feature of our work, at this\ndirected.\nthe grade teacher.\n\npoint, but will refer to it later in the discussion.\n\nHave I been logical in the naming of the subjects that might profitably\nbe discussed by supervisors ? Let us see. Literary training, special training, pedagogical knowledge or teaching principles, and ability to outUne,\nplan, specifically direct.\n\nThe man or woman who possesses these attributes\n\ncannot fail to accomplish wonders with children in the realm of music, if\n\nhe or she possesses the God-given qualities of aptitude and adaptability.\nNow, for a few suggestions. First, have down deep in your hearts an\nabiding faith in music as a power for good, and that it has immeasurable\nvalue from intellectual and cultural standpoints.\n\nTherefore,\n\nit is\n\na fit\n\nTake advantage of every opportunity\npresented to speak of its power and influence upon the minds and hearts\nDon't sermonize about it. Don't harangue.\nof children, men, and women.\nsubject for schoolroom instruction.\n\nJust give a simple, plain, practical common-sense talk.\n\nSecond, be a general, a leader\n\n—not dogmatically but persuasively.\n\nStudy texts, that is, music literature. Become familiar with the very best\nOutline a system of instruction. Prepare specific plans. Isof the day.\nsue these in a series of letters. Be specific and clear in all your directions\nor suggestions.\n\nRemember the grade teacher.\n\nTake a stand by her side\nShe will have more\n\nand try to see things and conditions thru her eyes.\n\nconfidence in you and will try harder to carry out your plans.\n\nGenerally\n\nshe is not a successful teacher of music, but will do fairly well under skillful\n\nSeek out your new teachers early in the year. Learn of their\nmusical equipment. Visit these teachers early and conduct a type lesson\nsupervision.\n\nTake up the lesson for the day and show just how you would\nGrade meetings and institutes are very\ncan\nsuch\nmeetings\nyou\ngo over the work outlined for a month.\nhelpful.\nAt\nThe teachers will soon become good readers, and will have a fairly good\nfor them.\n\nlike the instruction to be given.\n\nknowledge of music in all its phases.\nThird, consider your relations with superintendent, principal, and\nteachers especially with the teachers who are to assist you in carrying\nout your scheme of music instruction. It is assumed that your relations\nwith the superintendent are pleasant and agreeable, for he has recommended you for your position. Never go thru a school building without\nfirst meeting the principal and explaining to him just what you have planned\n\n—\n\nto do at this visit.\n\nIf your visit is for the purpose of testing your eighth\n\ngrade in sight-singing, tell the principal so and invite him to be with you\nas much as possible.\n\nYou all know that generally the principal is quite as\n\nshort in musical knowledge as many of the teachers, and has but little or\n\nno insight into your course of study, outlines, and plans of work.\n\nBy\n\n"} {"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "HINTS TO SUPERVISORS\n\nDepartment!\n\n61$\n\nencouraging him to visit with you he becomes interested in the work, and\nfamiliar with what you are trying to do.\n\nteacher in what you wish her to do.\n\nBe sympathetic with the grade\n\nExpress an interest in her work other\n\nthan the music instruction. Be neither assuming nor presuming. Show\nby every act and word that you desire to be helpful. As the teacher regards\nand respects you so will the children.\nFourth, be sure to get acquainted with the studio musicians in your\n\ntown or city. Explain to them your scheme and plans of instruction.\nTry to show them how you may be helpful to them, and how they may\nhelp you. Show the piano teacher that you can be helpful to her by making\nthe children familiar with the piano keyboard so that they may know where\nto introduce sharps or flats to make the scale intervals come just right in\nthe various keys, or how to read on the piano keyboard from the staff\ndegrees.\n\nShow the piano teacher how such instruction will eliminate the\n\ndrudgery from her work.\n\nYou may also be helpful to the teacher of the\n\nBut the work of the music supervisor in the schools\nTherefore, you must not fail to get acquainted with\nis primarily vocal.\nthe vocal teachers. You must show them that your work with the children\nwill in no way injure their voices, but that it will rather make them free,\nYou must make them understand that you\nfull, round, pure, sweet, holy.\nnot\nusing\nstudio\nmethods\nfor\ndeveloping the voice that such plans\nare\ndestructive\nof\nthe\nends\nsought.\nThere are so many, many things\nwould be\nthat may be done by the diplomatic supervisor to secure the sympathy,\nencouragement, and co-operation of the studio and other local musicians,\nthat I cannot discuss them further now. If there is a musical society in\nviolin, the cornet, etc.\n\n—\n\nyour community, join it, but don't be obtrusive.\n\nIf there is no such society,\n\nsuggest to some of the leading musicians the value of such an organization,\n\nbut be modest about it.\n\nBe helpful in all musical matters in your field of\n\nlabor.\nFifth, now we must secure the encouragement and co-operation of the\n\nparents and other school patrons.\n\nThis may be most successfully done\n\nthru the means of exhibitions of the regular schoolroom work;\n\nby the children;\n\nconcerts\n\nrecitals in which local musicians are requested to partici-\n\npate; contests in sight-singing between classes of the same grade; contests\nin song-singing between different schools.\n\nTo all of these affairs extend\n\na spirited invitation to parents and friends.\n\nLet everything be done well.\nLet nothing be done indifferently. Nothing will discredit your work so\nquickly as carelessly prepared and indifferently executed music programs.\nSixth, encourage the study of musical instruments.\ntras, violin clubs, mandolin clubs, etc.\n\nOrganize orches-\n\nIf you have not the time to attend\n\nto such organizations, then look for some teacher, or some pupil in the\n\nupper grades, who has a good knowledge of music and possesses leadership\nability.\n\nGive such person power, with the consent of the principal, to put\n\ntogether such material as may be foimd in the school.\n\n(We have eighteen\n\n"} {"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n6l6\n\nsuch organizations in the schools of this city.\n\n(Mmic\n\nFrom these we selected an\n\norchestra of fifty-one pieces for a concert given the 23d of May.)\nI have said that the work in music in the schools is primarily vocal, but\n\nI believe the time has come for us to make our music instruction more com-\n\nprehensive, and to that end we should make the children familiar with the\n\nThis may be done by giving a short history\n\nvarious musical instrvunents.\n\nof the instrument imder consideration, explaining its construction, power,\n\nShow the difference between such instnunents as require an\n\nand value.\n\naccurate ear and those that\n\nmay be played by the deaf.\n\nExplain the\n\nstringing of such instruments as the violin, and if possible show how they\n\nare tuned.\n\nExplain why the piano is so popular as a musical instrmnent,\n\nand keep before the children of the third, fourth, and fifth grades a drawing\nof not less than two octaves of the keyboard.\nEmploy every legitimate\nmeans to interest the yoimg in the learning of musical instruments.\nIn this city we have a scheme for arousing interest in the study of\nmusical instruments.\nyou.\n\nPeriodically\n\nIt\n\nworks charmingly.\n\nIt\n\nmay be of interest to\n\nwe take what I call a \"musical instnunent census.\"\n\nThat is, we ascertain, in all grades from the second to the eighth inclusive,\nhow many children are taking, or have taken, lessons on some musical\ninstrtunent, and the length of time they have given to the study of such\n\ninstnunent. The information thus obtained is interesting and instructive.\nThe first census of this character was taken about eight years ago. The\nlast was taken the last week of school this year.\nI sought the information\nfrom twenty-six schools, but owing to the unusual amount of work imposed\nupon principals and teachers at this time, only eighteen responded to my\nrequest. On the day this census was taken there were present, in the\ngrades named, 8,567 children. Of this niunber 2,408, or 28.1 per cent,\nwere taking lessons on some musical instrument. The eight schools not\nreporting would have greatly increased this percentage. I will give a\n\nsummary of the data obtained:\nPiano students, 1,612. Of this number 1,138 were girls and 474 boys. The fifth\nand sixth grades showed the greatest number of piano students.\nViolin students, 486. Of this number there were 337 boys and 149 girls. The\ngreatest number of violin students were found in the fourth and fifth grades.\nComet, 32. Boys 28, girls 4.\nClarinet, 13 boys.\nCello, 7.\nBoys 5, girls 2.\nTrombone, 5 boys.\n\nGuitar, 33.\n\nMandolin, 121.\nHarp, 5.\n\nThere are many interesting features connected with this census.\n\nThe\n\nhighest point of the music wave is reached in the fifth and sixth grades.\n\nIn piano the girl students greatly outnumber the boys.\n\nIn stringed instru-\n\nments without frets the boy students outnumber the girls.\n\nIn the stringed\n\n"} {"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nHINTS TO SUPERVISORS\n\nDepartment]\n\ninstruments with frets the girl students outnumber the boys.\n\n617\n\nIn wind\n\ninstruments, both brass and wood, the boys greatly outnumber the girls.\n\nknow that a thing is worth while, keep it\nbut in a way to arouse\nthem\nthoroly to a knowledge of its value and importance. Upon this idea we\nbase our work with the children. At the opening of the schools in the fall\nI shall make a summary of the reports received in Jime, and distribute\nIf you would have people\n\nbefore\n\n—\n\nnot in a way to harass or offend,\n\ncopies to the various schools.\n\nThis will arouse thought and discussion on\n\nthe part of principals, teachers, and children, and the result will be increased\n\nstudy of musical instruments.\n\nNow, I have done all I promised to do, and that in a very commonplace\nI have given you a few hints, but I have told you nothing new\n\nway.\n\nnothing that you have not thought of and perhaps exploited to your satisfaction, and to the advantage of the children under your instruction.\n\nOur work is a grand one, and we have not yet entered into the full,\nA singing nation is a happy\nnation.\nSinging children are happy children. Therefore, let the children\nsing with their hearts and souls and minds and bodies.\nradiant glory of this wonderful realm of song.\n\n"} {"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nCalistoga, Cal.\nPresident—TnouAS L. Brecheen, high school\nVice-President George F. Roach, commercial department, Ogden High School. .Ogden, Utah.\nSecretary W. A. Sheaffer, commercial department. West Division High School\n\n—\n\n—\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Forenoon, July 7, 1913\nThe first meeting of the Department of Business Education was called to order at\n9:30 A.M. in the Elks' Club, by President Brecheen.\nThe first paper was the president's address, entitled \"A Review of the Past and a\nForecast of the Future of Commercial Training in High Schools.\"\nThis was followed by a paper by Frances Effinger-Raymond, Pacific Coast Manager,\nGregg Pubhshing Company, San Francisco, Cal., entitled \"If I Were a Teacher of English.\"\nDiscussion: R. R. Stuart, head of commercial department, high school, San Jose,\nCal.; Earl J. Glade, head of commercial department, Brigham Young University, Provo,\nUtah; W. S. McICinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.; Margaret MacVichie,\nhead of commercial department, high school, Salt Lake City, Utah; Thomas L. Brecheen,\nhigh school, CaHstoga, Cal., and others.\n\nR. R. Stuart, head of commercial department, high school, San Jose, Cal., then read\na paper on \"Specially Prepared and Incidental Business Training.\"\nDiscussion: W. S. McKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.; T. L. Brecheen,\nhigh school, Calistoga, Cal.; Frances Effinger-Raymond, Gregg Pubhshing Company,\nSan Francisco, Cal. and Earl J. Glade, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n;\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 10, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order in the Colonial Theater.\nE. Morris Cox, assistant superintendent of city schools, Oakland, Cal., read a paper\n\non \"Proper Certification of Commercial Teachers.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Typewriting\" by C. V. Oden, manager of educational department, Underwood Typewriter Company, New York, N.Y.\nFive championship typewriting contests were then held under the direction of J. N.\nKimball, New York, N.Y., with the following results:\nAmerican Championshif (30 Minutes)\n\nMachine\n\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\n\nName\nBessie Friedman\n\nRose Bloom\nBessie Linsitz\n\nGross\n\nErrors\n\nPenalty\n\nNet\n\nWords per\nMinute\n\n3.653\n3.679\n3.543\n\n61\n73\n73\n\n30s\n36s\n36s\n\n3,348\n3,314\n3,177\n\nno\n\n619\n\n113\n\n106\n\n"} {"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n620\n\n[Business\n\nWxsTERN Championship (30 Minutes)\nMachine\n\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\n\nName\n\nGross\n\nBessie Linsitz\n\n3,542\n\nJessie Pinney\nClarence Hifi\n\nErrors\n\nPenalty\n\nNet\n\n36s\n\n3,177\na,3Si\n2,127\na,ii7\n1,87a\n\nIt\n\nDon Root\nA. S. Crowther\n\na.aS7\n\n77\n\nWords per\nMinute\n106\n79\n71\n\nUtah State Championship (20 Minutes)\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\n\nJessie Pinney\nClarence Hill\n\n1,869\n\nMabel Rhengren\n\nRemington,\n\nEmma Anderson\n\n1,494\ni,S66\n1,487\n1,741\n\n1. 544\n\nA, S. Crowther\n\nNorma Curtis\n\n56\n20\n24\n49\n\nil\n\n380\n100\n120\n245\n175\n435\n\n1.589\n1,444\n1,369\n1,321\n1,312\n1,306\n\nUtah State Schooi, Championship (is Minutes)\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\nUnderwood\n\nMabel Rhengren\nInez Woodhurst\nHelen Roberts\nLorenzo Summerhays\n\n1,120\n\n19\n\n1, 04s\n\n27\n\n1,078\n\n35\n42\n\n873\n\n95\n135\n175\n210\n\nI,02S\n\n910\n903\n663\n\nNational School Championship (15 Minutes)\nH, O. Tanner\nMabel Rhengren\n\nUnderwood.\nUnderwood.\nUnderwood.\nUnderwood\n\nG. W. GaskiU\nHelen Roberts\n\n1,340\n1,120\n1,379\n1,078\n\n19\n19\n74\n35\n\n95\n95\n370\n\n1,245\n\n175\n\n903\n\n1, 02s\n\n1,009\n\nThe president then appointed the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\n\nW. S. McKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.\nE. H. Holt, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.\n\nW. H. Coppedge, Henagers Business College, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nR. R. Stuart, high school, San Jose, Cal.\nMargaret MacVichie, high school. Salt Lake City, Utah.\nG. F. Roach, high school, Ogden, Utah.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July ii, 1913\nRound-Table Discussions\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m.\nThe first feature of the session was a demonstration of stenotypy by Mrs. N. M.\nMoore, of the Universal Stenotype Company.\nThis was followed by an Edison dictaphone demonstration by Etta Rich, of the\nOregon Short Line Railway Company.\nThe merits of the dictaphone and the stenotype machines were discussed by J. N.\nKimball, E.\n\nJ.\n\nGlade, Frances Eflanger-Raymond, Margaret MacVichie, E. H. Holt,\n\nG. F. Roach, and T. L. Brecheen.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions then submitted the following resolutions which were\nadopted:\nResolved, That as commercial teachers we arc proud of our vocation, that we are in\nthis work because we want to be and not because we have to be, and that we regret\n\na\n\n"} {"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "IF I WERE A\n\nDepartment]\n\nTEACHER OF ENGLISH\n\n621\n\ntendency on the part of some teachers to enter commercial teaching as a mere steppingstone to other high-school work.\nResolved, That at future meetings of this section, a cordial and urgent invitation be\nextended a large nimiber of college and university instructors, bankers, and accountants\nto offer ten-minute discussions on the articulation of the high-school commercial course\n\nand college courses.\nWhereas, Some of the appointees to the Committee on Research, Standardization,\nand Correlation of Commercial Subjects have been imable to take part in the work of\nthe committee, therefore, be it\nResolved, That the chairman of said committee be empowered to fill such vacancies;\nand, further, to invite specialists as associate members, and others of experience as advisory\nmembers, to assist in the work of said committee.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\n\n—\n\nFor President Earl J. Glade, head of conmiercial department, Brigham Young\nUniversity, Provo, Utah.\nFor Vice-President (To be filled later by the president.)\nFor Secretary Margaret MacVichie, head of commercial department, high school.\nSalt Lake City, Utah.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe report was imanimously adopted.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nE. H. Holt, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nIF I WERE A TEACHER OF ENGLISH\nFRANCES EFFINGER-RAYMOND, PACIFIC COAST MANAGER, GREGG PUBLISHING\nCOMPANY, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nIf I were a teacher of English I should never talk about salesmanship\n\nhad never sold anything; I should never try to teach advertising if I\nhad never written an advertisement; I should refrain from telling young\n\nif I\n\npeople how to file letters, do effective correspondence, operate the many\noffice appliances, use correct and forceful business language, if I had not done\nall\n\nthese things, used all these inventions, and held positions from that of\n\ntelephone girl and first aid to an injured office, up to and including the\n\nmanager's desk.\nIf I did\n\nnot possess a trunkful of rejected manuscripts, \"regretfully\n\nreturned,\" and if I had not corrected and edited and written everything,\n\ngood and bad, from adolescent \"Poems on the Grand Passion\" and\n\"Death,\" to mature essays on the \"Cost of Living,\" and well-paid ads for a\ncertain country sausage, and a successful conomercial school, I should not\n\ntry to teach these subjects.\nIf I were a teacher of English, or of anything, for that matter, I should\n\nknow my business before I tried to persuade others it was a good one, and a\ndesirable and valuable and remunerative one.\nIf I were a teacher, again, I should forget all this set program talk\nabout \"giving the pupils ideas to express\" ^I should try to have ideas of my\n\nown first, and expression will come\n\n—\n—then I should try to train and guide\n\nthat crude expression and let the ideas alone.\n\nI should not hide behind the\n\n"} {"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONALlEDUCATIONfASSOCIATION\n\n622\n\n(Business\n\nshop-talk that English cannot be taught successfully because Johnny and\nSusie have no \"ideas\"\n\n—they are\n\nfull of\n\nListen to the boys in the\n\nthem.\n\nvacant lot when a baseball game is at its height;\n\nlisten to them\n\nwhen they\n\nare with their cronies, with persons and things that they understand, and\n\nthat understand them\n\n—those boys have ideas that fight for expression\n\n—\n\nAnd the Susies, ditto did you ever know a woman\nwho didn't have pronounced and I'11-say-the-last-word-or-die ideas ?\nI should try to remember, if I were a teacher, again, that we are not to\ngive ideas per se, we are to train expression that is our business and by\ntraining I don't mean grafting on the language of the textbook, but simply\nthe cultivation of the language we are born and bred in, the spraying of the\ntrust the \"Johnnies.\"\n\n—\n\nfirst blossoms and fruit so the final harvest\n\n—\n\nmay be free of blemish, sound to\n\nthe core, and warranted to sell at the highest market price.\nI have stood at the brink of Niagara Falls many different times, and\n\nby the side of tourists from all around the world, and I have heard cultured,\npoetic, sentimental, and soulless superlatives that even a Turk-Baker\ncould not criticize from the standpoint of correct English; but these same\nwell-clothed ideas lacked half the force of what I heard an enraptured-faced,\ntender-voiced little bride say to her proud young man.\n\nLooking into his\n\nresponsive eyes she cried, in a tone of reverent prayer, \"0, ain't it fierce!\"\n\nWe all breathed an \"Amen\" of understanding.\n\nDidn't she have ideas?\n\nDidn't she have expression ?\n\nCould a teacher who has no knowledge of reading or numbers, of short-\n\nhand or bookkeeping, devise suitable methods for presenting these subjects ?\nSurely the teacher cannot teach what he does not know, be the subject\nEnglish or astronomy.\nOriginality, individuality, attractive personality, courage, confidence,\n\nand\n— these are good, better,\n—but how about adding a thoro knowledge of business? of\n\nease of manner, firmness, tact,\n\ninitiative\n\nall\n\nbest\n\noflSce\n\ntraining ?\n\nThere has been a marked step forward in practical co-operation between\nschool authorities and business men, between the man who can say \"what\n\nshould be done,\" and the man whose business it is to say \"how it shall be\ndone.\"\n\nIn my mind there is an important element in the successful opera-\n\ntion of this whole scheme which has been overlooked; namely, a corps of\n\nteachers who by their own associations with business can bring into the\n\nclassroom the spirit and atmosphere of the business world.\n\nI am convinced\n\nthat a commercial teacher cannot shut himself away from all outside interests and do effective work.\n\nIt is impossible for him to bring the atmosphere\n\nof a business office into his classroom imless he keeps in touch with actual\n\nbusiness and business men.\n\nIt is impossible for him to prepare pupils for\n\nbusiness unless he knows what the demands of the business office are; the\n\ncommercial teacher cannot do his best work unless he keeps abreast of the\nchanges that are constantly taking place in business and business methods.\n\n"} {"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "IF I WERE A\n\nDepartment!\n\nTEACHER OF ENGLISH\n\n623\n\nHow can a teacher be positive, be magnetic, be dynamic, when he is full\nand naught else? There are\nEmerson got his by\nloitering in a library, but Emerson was not a business man; Newton got his\nby observing an apple, but Newton didn't look at his apple from the same\nviewpoint as we do, did he ? Lincoln got his by observing everything, and\nwhile we revere that great and good man, he was not a business man;\nRoosevelt and Hetty Green and Rockefeller got theirs by hustle, by cooperation, by combinations, by compromises, by watching men and markets\nand they are business personified.\nSome teachers have an incommunicable communion with business, and\nour schools today are largely what they have made them.\nWho teaches the English in your school? Confess, is it not your\nassistant bookkeeping teacher? or your student-teacher of stenography?\nor the janitor? Isn't it usually left-over work to be taken up by the\nteacher who isn't too busy, or who uses it to fill in his time ? I have known\nmanagers to demand, over and over again, that their bookkeeping or\nstenographic or penmanship teacher should be able to handle the English\nclasses, and I have never known a case where the individual applicant, or\nthe agency who acts for the manager unable to choose his own teachers,\nof a negative, prepared, detached textbook\n\nmany ways of securing this training, this education.\n\n—\n\nhas failed to state that \"sure, he can teach English all right\" (and generally\n''all\n\nright\" is misspelled).\n\nEnglish isn't receiving its full share of attention in any schools unless\n\nwe except the English departments in our colleges and universities.\n\nIf there\n\nis a class to be left to the tender mercies of a subordinate, or to a heart-to-\n\nheart talk from the school principal, it is the English class.\n\nIt catches all\n\nthe advice of the day, it is the place where announcements are made, and\nits period is the one always appropriated for the class meetings, etc.\n\nIf the teacher is attractive,\n\nif\n\nthe subject-matter is vital, if the text-\n\nbook is current events, there is no difficulty in arousing and holding the\nattention, in awakening and locating the interest of the students. The\nteacher, however, must be efficient, not sentimental; co-operative, not\nindividualistic; professional and dignified.\nDon't mistake me. If I were a teacher of business English, I should not\ngo to the other extreme and believe that it is enough that our pupils talk and\nmake themselves understood, no matter how poorly their sentences are\nconstructed. They should learn the necessity of good English. They\nshould be taught to conform to the rules of grammar and the dictates of\ngood usage. Our language has a grammar, even if we are beginning to shy\nat that word otherwise it would not be a language.\nTo send forth well-equipped students demands teachers who themselves\ncan do what they try to teach others. Textbooks will always be needed but\nthey do not take the place of the real teacher, and they quickly drop out of\n\n—\n\nuse when the pupil enters the battle of business.\n\nBusiness English is a\n\n"} {"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n624\n\n(Business\n\nsubject-matter which is not fixed, but has a constantly changing material,\n\nand any textbook is absolutely valueless unless taught by one who knows\nmore than the book. I know that in many of our schools English is taught\nby teachers who are not only uneducated but inexperienced.\nwere a teacher, again, I should use the textbook as a reference\n\nIf I\n\nbook.\n\nI should read it over carefully in class, and have the students read\n\nit aloud.\nit\n\nIf the lesson is not learned, the reading is careless.\n\nagain and get the point.\n\ndents:\n\nThen read\n\nI should take a lesson from my foreign stu-\n\nObserve a Swede, German, Dane, Frenchman, Spaniard, or Greek\n\nin his study of his own language\n\n—\n\n^he\n\nmust know his grammar first. He does\n\nknow it.\nIf I were a teacher, again, I should not look for results to the neglect of\n\nthe means.\n\nI should try to teach an English that will develop in\n\nmy stu-\n\ndents the power of effective oral and written expression; that will inspire,\nwill urge, will lead\n\nthem to become masters of their native tongue.\n\nI\n\nshould try to give them a healthful liking for books and to create in them a\nhabit of using them.\n\nThere is no danger of the instructor having too much\nhe may have too much learning.\n\nculture or too much business instinct;\n\nAn authority in English is often a very poor teacher; the best instructor is\nthe man who has been world-educated, not book-crammed. The best of\ninstruction is the ultimate power of the pupil over himself and over his\n\nThe spoken work, the written work, these are familiar tools.\nThe language one uses is always that which he hears and reads, and you and\nI make language; our culture, our eagerness to develop this power in ourselves and in others, will measure its advancement. Never mind the results\nenvironment.\n\nlanguage is a means, not an end, and the results are sure to repay the world\n\neven if the eager, earnest, watchful, determined teacher should prove a\nvicarious sacrifice.\n\nYou and I may not be scholars in the sense that Emerson and\nwe may never have had a collegiate, academic, or highschool education, but if we use words which convey the business idea perfectly we are inevitably true to the best scholarship.\nGladstone were;\n\nCorrectness of spelling, grammar, and punctuation is absolutely essential to enable a business letter or advertisement to do its work of conveying\n\na business idea perfectly. The methods that business men have found effective in studying English for their own immediate use should be the English\nwe study and we teach. Every business demands scholarship; every business demands practical, effective teaching of English for business purposes.\nIf I were a teacher I should take the trouble to learn to spell, to use\ncapitals, to intersperse my sentences with commas, and to separate them by\nperiods and colons; to obtain facility in the vernacular of the business world.\n\nLanguage is the dress of thought, and this age, like every other, makes its\nestimate on the basis of appearances. The man whose clothes seem\nstrangers to iron and sponge, and whose shoes are guiltless of f>olish or brush.\n\nfirst\n\n"} {"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nIF I WERE A\n\nTEACHER OF ENGLISH\n\n625\n\nmay be indispensable to his employer, but he isn't the kind of teacher I\nshould select for my girl or your boy.\n\nThe girl attired in a semiworn\n\nreception gown and French heel shoes, and adorned with numerous cheap\nrings, bracelets, lockets, and pins, isn't irrevocably debarred from being a\n\n—\n\nbut I don't want my girl to start with such a\nThen there is the girl of the iridescent hair but words fail me!\nWhat has this to do with business English ? Did you ever hear a bleachedhair conversation by a semi-demi-brunette ? Well, I'm writing some and\nyou may read them some day.\nPerhaps if there is a study worth while for its own sake it is English,\nvaluable stenographer\n\n—\n\nhandicap.\n\nbut neither the best writers nor the most entertaining talkers are those\nwhose grammar is ever before them. We are interested in those who\n\nhave something different to say, a new point of view to present, gained\nor, infinitely better, from first-hand experience.\nA\nperson whose mind is shut up to all but one approach can furnish very few\nperhaps from books\n\nlive ideas.\n\n\"Just my creed,\" says the enthusiast, \"I have always disapproved of all\nGive the pupils ideas and the rest\n\nthis formal, artificial English teaching.\n\nwill take care of itself.\"\nAvoiding the Scylla of formalism they are wrecked\nupon the Charybdis of incoherency. As well say, give your children a\nnotion of music and they will sing and play naturally. This is a pleasing\ntheory but it will not work any better on English than on music. While the\ngreat writers did not construct paragraphs by rule, they spent years in per-\n\nfecting their art.\n\nIf the musician rises superior to five-finger exercises, it is\n\nonly because he has mastered the technique of his art and can use it to express his ideas.\n\nRossetti was a failure as a painter, for tho he possessed\n\nimagination and sense of color he had no skill as a draughtsman, and he\n\nwould not take the trouble to learn the mechanics of art.\nspoils much of his writing.\n\nThis same fault\n\nNo abundance of words will atone for want of\n\nideas, and no idea, Whitman to the contrary notwithstanding, but is wor-\n\nthy of all possible trouble to find the proper words to express it.\n\nSuppose that we never intend to write anything more literary than\nof what importance is all this to us ?\nMost of us talk more or less,\n\nletters\n\n—\n\nand while the public may read or not, as it chooses, somebody is usually\nobliged to listen when we talk. Stevenson says there can be no fairer ambition than to excel in conversation.\n\nPerhaps this attainment isn't within\n\nthe reach of everybody; but surely, by taking time and doing some thinking,\n\nwe may make our language something more than a mismated association of\nadjectives and nouns joined to a verb served to express a dozen related ideas\n\n—a paragraph whose ideas are without sequence and are loosely hung\ntogether by the first connective we could lay hands on.\n\nThere is this objection, that if we are always thinking of our language\n\nwe won't have anything to say.\n\nProbably the intellectual loss to the world\n\nwouldn't be irreparable if this were true, but it isn't.\n\nThe exercise of the\n\n"} {"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n626\n\n[Business\n\npower of speech is like that of any other faculty, and what is done awkwardly\nand self-consciously at first soon becomes mechanical.\nTo repeat, I am firmly convinced in my own mind that the reason the\ncommercial schools are not successful in their business English course is\nnot because the subject cannot be made interesting;\nabsolutely essential;\n\nis\n\nis not because it is not\n\nnot because the students do not \"take\" to it, but\n\nfor the reason that the commercial schools do not teach business English.\n\nI believe to do this many things are necessary, the most vital of which is:\n\nTo get a Teacher.\nTo get an English teacher who can teach English, and finally, my\nbrethren, to get a teacher of English who can teach business English.\nBusiness English requires a teacher, not a lecturer\n\n—a\n\nsystem and not a textbook course of instruction;\n\na utilitarian, a voca-\n\nit is\n\nloose-leaf ledger\n\ntional subject, not a cultural, an occupational pursuit.\nIt is wonderful to be a teacher.\nA true\nA true teacher can never die except the death\n\nOh, it is great to be a teacher.\nteacher can never grow old.\n\nbe within.\n\nThink what it means!\n\nYour whole life is spent with Youth:\nThink what it means to throw\n\naggressive, progressive, suggestive Youth.\n\nyour greatness round their incompleteness, round their restlessness, your\nA perpetual benediction of\nrest!\nIt is a divine privilege to be a teacher!\n\nYouth to be a teacher!\n\nSPECIALLY PREPARED AND INCIDENTAL BUSINESS\nTRAINING\nR. R. STUART, HEAD OF COMMERCIAL\n\nDEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL,\nSAN JOSE, CAL.\n\nI think it is a perfectly obvious fact that one of the best places to learn\n\nbusiness is in the business office, just as a very good place to learn farming\nis on the farm;\n\nlumbering, in the woods; mining, in the mines, etc.\n\nOf course, theory and practice must go hand in hand. Practice by itself\nis misleading and confusing; theory without practice becomes xminteresting\nand tiresome.\nBusiness training, so far as the high-school teacher is concerned, may be\n\ndivided into two general classes:\nincidental.\n\nfirst, specially prepared, and second,\nUnder the first of these would be included all budgets, systems,\n\nand schemes the object of which is to arrange make-believe transactions,\nassignments, etc., under as nearly real conditions as possible.\n\nSPECIALLY PREPARED BUSINESS TRAIiaNG\n\nIn San Jose we have our work so arranged that a year is spent on the\nelementary part of a subject, five months on the specially prepared office\npractice, and the remaining five months of the course on incidental business\npractice.\n\n"} {"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSPECIAL AND INCIDENTAL BUSINESS TRAINING\n\n627\n\nConsidering the fact that there are so many interesting and important\n\nadvantages in office practice, which will, no doubt, be considered by the\nnext speaker, I shall mention only one, namely, the training to write accurately\n\nand rapidly negotiable instruments and all forms of commercial\n\npaper.\nAbility in the preparation of negotiable instruments,\n\n—In a semi- theory\n\nsystem of bookkeeping, a student is requested to write a check on a fictitious\nbank account, to pay a fictitious individual from whom he secures a fictitious\nbill of merchandise.\n\nHe is instructed to prepare the check following Rule\n\n723, Form 639, and file it in a package marked \"cash paid out,\" \"outgoing\n\nvouchers,\" or something else.\n\nI have had occasion in examining one of these\n\nsystems to discover that in one or two instances the student was instructed\nto place the check in two different envelopes at the same time.\n\nIn fact,\n\nthere is danger of there being so much make-believe, that the student comes\nto the conclusion that the whole proposition is fiction.\n\nAgain, unless the teacher has the time to examine very carefully every\n\npaper which the student prepares, no one ever sees the check again.\n\nI\n\ncontend that for the average teacher it is entirely out of the question to\n\nexamine every business paper which is prepared by his students. Still,\nthere must be some means to check this work and to check it in an effective,\nprogressive,\n\nand businesslike manner.\n\nOffice practice offers this desired\n\nopportimity.\n\nLet me trace, for convenience, the history of an ordinary check in our\nA student, John Smith, issues this check against a definite\naccount which he has with the High School National Bank. He makes the\ncheck payable to a certain business house, and actually delivers the check\ndepartment.\n\nto the sales clerk of that office in return for a bill of merchandise.\n\nNow the\n\nan advanced student and one of his important duties is to\nexamine carefully every paper he receives. If there is any defect whatever,\nhe refuses to accept the check and the student on the floor is obliged to\nsales clerk is\n\nrewrite the paper.\n\nA little experience of this kind is bound to develop\n\naccuracy, neatness, and speed in the execution of every form which he\nprepares.\n\nLet us suppose, however, some hidden flaw escapes the notice of the\n\nEach day the manager of the office prepares a report of his\nbusiness for the teacher in charge of the business exchange and deposits at\nthe bank all cash on hand. The honor and responsibility of the office\ndepends upon the manager. His advancement in the department and his\nchances for a position on the outside are dependent upon the character of\nhis work as manager.\nNine cases in ten he detects the error. At the bank,\nthe check is again carefully scrutinized by the receiving teller an advanced\nsales clerk.\n\n—\n\nstudent selected for the position because of his special ability in detecting\nerrors of this nature.\n\nFrom the receiving teller, the check goes to the\n\nbookkeeper and is by him entered as in actual business.\n\nThis check will\n\n"} {"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n628\n\n(Business\n\neventually return to John Smith, thus passing thru the hands of from four\nto six students during its lifers history.\n\nAside from the students who must have seen and examined the check,\nthe teacher finds as many opportunities as before.\n\nWhat is true of checks is likewise true of every business form which the\nstudent prepares.\n\nI consider that this sort of training is absolutely essential.\n\nWe have no right to graduate a student from our commercial courses who has\nnot had a lot of practical experience of this nature.\n\nINCIDENTAL BUSmESS TRAINING\nIt seems to me, however, the greatest opportunity for business training\n\nmay be foimd in the special conditions which govern each particular locality.\nThis training may be termed incidental, for usually the business practice\nis\n\nmerely an important by-product.\n\n—\n\nThe commercial museum. ^In San Jose, we have foimd the conmiercial\nmuseimi one of the institutions which presents an excellent chance to\ndevelop this kind of training.\n\nWe started the museum a year ago.\n\nfirst exhibit consisted of eleven\n\nten-ounce bottles of crude and refined oils\n\nfurnished\n\nby the Standard Oil Company.\n\nOur\n\nFrom that small beginning,\nwe have more\n\nthe proposition has developed until, at the present time,\n\nthan fifteen hundred exhibits occupying a floor space of over a thousand\n\nYet these exhibits have been secured and the museum operated\nwithout a cent of expense to our board of education other than the bare\nsquare feet.\n\ncost of maintaining the rooms.\n\nWe have at the present time collections from nearly every part of the\nworld.\n\nThey range from crude Para rubber, the cocoa bean, and a mag-\n\nnificent collection of spices from the tropics, to the grains and grasses of\n\nnorthern Alberta and the minerals of Alaska.\n\nThe Hawaiian Islands\nhave furnished us an excellent collection of woods and lava, while scores\nof manufacturing firms thruout the United States have sent us complete\n\nexhibits of their particular products.\n\nFor the commercial library which is used in connection with the museimi,\n\nwe have secured thousands of booklets, pamphlets, maps, lantern slides,\npostcards,\nconcerns,\n\nand other information from chambers of commerce, industrial\nand railway and government officials.\n\nOf course, the primary object in securing this material is for its invaluable assistance in teaching industrial and economic geography.\n\nWere\n\nthat the subject of my paper, I should consider the particular manner by\n\nwhich this material is made use of by our students in geography.\nIt is because of its incidental business training value, however, that I\nmention it in this connection. A large percentage of this material is secured\nas a direct result of courteous, carefully written requests. Our classes in\ncommercial English prepare and study the composition of all requests and\ncompare and criticize all replies. The training and experience in preparing\n\n"} {"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSPECIAL AND INCIDENTAL BUSINESS TRAINING\n\n629\n\nwhich will bring results could hardly be obtained in any other\nmanner. The criterion of excellence is no longer the arbitrary opinion of\nthe teacher, but a public discriminating, no doubt, but impersonal and\nletters\n\n—\n\nimpartial.\n\nNext the classes in shorthand and typing secure an excellent training in\nthe actual execution of these ideas by writing the hundreds of letters which\n\nwe send out each semester.\n\nWhen the material is received, our classes in advertising and salesmanship make a particular study of each collection from the viewpoint of the\nadvertiser.\n\nThe material is then turned over to a committee that is\n\nempowered to arrange the exhibit in the museum. The printed material is\ninmiediately delivered to our classes in filing and indexing and is here carefully arranged, classified, indexed and cross-indexed, and placed in the\nmammoth files which have been provided for this purpose.\nIn other words, we are attempting to link every phase of our commercial\n\nwork seciurely together by a common interest in our commercial museum.\n\nThe incidental business training thus secured is not only invaluable, but is\nfeasible in almost any school, since the plan can be developed on any scale\n\ndesired.\n\nThe junior chamber of commerce.\n\n—^The jimior chamber\n\nof\n\nanother feature which offers an incidental business training.\n\ncommerce is\nLast January\n\na score of our boys got together for the purpose of organizing such an institution.\n\nOther bodies have used the name, but their functions have usually\n\nbeen negative: '^formed for the purpose of keeping the youngsters out of\n\nwas the way a publicity man in New York put it. These\nwant a kindergarten proposition they wanted to do real\npublicity work, or they didn't want to organize.\nmischief,\"\n\n—\n\nfellows didn't\n\nConditions were particularly favorable for the organization of such a\n\n—a valley unsurpassed on the entire western coast in\n\nbody\n\nfertility\n\nand\n\nenvironment; just far enough inland to avoid the disagreeable fogs which\nwaft their chilly forms about the Golden Gate and yet near enough the\ncoast to escape the scorching blasts which kill off the Japs in such profusion\nin the San Joaquin Valley;\n\nland and water transportation\n\nfacilities\n\nthe\n\nvery best; the world's markets at our very door, and yet, despite all these\nfacts, a citizenship which is just beginning to awake to the possibilities and\n\nopportimities of the Santa Clara Valley.\n\nOf course, the primary object of\n\nthe organization is to take part in the waking-up process.\n\nIts incidental\n\nbusiness training value, however, cannot be overlooked.\n\nThe work of the organization is carried on thru a dozen or more committees, among which may be mentioned the following:\ntorical, geographical, exhibits, advertising,\n\npublication, his-\n\nprogram, and reception.\n\nOne of the first efforts of the publication committee was to issue a pubThe paper was twice its ordinary\n\nlicity number of our high-school weekly.\n\nsize and four thousand copies were mailed to all parts of the United States\n\n"} {"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n630\n\nand Canada.\n\n(A few copies of\n\nthis issue\n\n[Business\n\nwere then distributed.)\n\nTo\n\nprepare even the crude publicity articles which this paper contains requires,\nI think you will admit, considerable study on the part of high-school boys.\nThis committee is planning to issue a more pretentious booklet during the\nfall.\n\nOur historical committee began the important work of locating points of\nHere again, we are particularly fortu-\n\nhistorical value thruout the valley.\n\nnate, inasmuch as Pueblo San Jose de Guadalupe was a flourishing village\n\nabout the time Washington was inaugurated president, and there still\nremain many landmarks of those early days. Next fall, the junior chamber\n\ncommerce will have prepared, in our arts crafts department, suitable\nwill be placed with appropriate exercises to commemorate and mark these historic events and places.\nOur geographical committee is securing and arranging information con-\n\nof\n\nbronze tablets which\n\ncerning crops, weather conditions,\n\nthruout the valley.\nhome-seeker.\n\nsoil\n\nanalyses, labor conditions, etc.,\n\nThis information is of real worth to the investor and\n\nThe committee, while securing these statistics, is working\n\nunder the supervision and with the co-operation of the California Develop-\n\nment Board of San Francisco.\nThese few suggestions may have given an idea of the work our jimior\nchamber of commerce is doing. It seems to me that in securing knowledge\nof one's own section, in co-operating with one's fellows in projects of civic\n\nimprovement, in meeting men and working with men, a business training is\noffered the boy that will be an invaluable asset during his entire life.\n\nThe high-school hank.\n\n—^The high-school bank\n\nwhich, tho by no means novel,\n\nis\n\nis\n\nanother institution\n\nbeing used to develop this incidental\n\nOur bank was organized the eleventh day of last April.\nDuring the three months since that time, over five thousand dollars has\nbeen deposited in the savings' department and nearly one-half of this amount\nwill remain on deposit during the summer vacation.\nThe bank is so arranged\nthat students take complete charge of the work. These students, with a\nfaculty member who is president, are under surety bonds and are obliged\nto make a very strict accounting of all money received and paid out.\nNext fall a commercial department will be added to the bank and the\n\nbusiness training.\n\nstudents encouraged to start checking accounts.\n\nWe shall further extend\n\nthe banking system to include every grade school in the city.\n\nThis exten-\n\nsion alone will furnish work for nearly a dozen advanced students.\n\nThe advantages of a high-school bank are manifold: it develops a habit\nof saving among the students, it trains those who operate the bank in the\n\nmethods and\n\nresponsibilities of\n\nactual business,\n\nits\n\nchecking accounts\n\nschool in accuracy and methodical habits, and finally, it affords an excellent\nfinancial center which benefits every activity and student in the institution.\n\n—\n\nThe travel school. Another proposition which ought to be developed by\ncommercial departments is the travel school. By this, I mean regular\n\n"} {"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "SPECIAL AND INCIDENTAL BUSINESS TRAINING\n\nDepartment]\n\n631\n\nannual excursions to points of commercial and industrial importance in\none's particular section of the country.\n\nThese trips should range in length\n\nfrom a month to ten weeks and should accommodate from twenty-five to\nthirty Senior boys.\n\nTo make the proposition clearer, I will suggest a pro-\n\nposed itinerary we are working on for our school.\n\nAt least three special cars would be required, one of which should conand complete information regarding our city and valley.\n\ntain exhibits\n\nA general outline of the trip itseK would be about as follows: from San Jose\nSan Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, and\nfrom Vancouver to Calgary; from Calgary to Lethbridge and\nback thru the Crow's Nest Pass to Spokane; from Spokane to Salt Lake City\nvia Walla Walla, Pendleton, and Pocatello; and from Salt Lake City to\nSuch a trip would take one\nsouthern California and return to San Jose.\nthru the six great western states and the provinces of British Columbia\nand Alberta. It would include nearly every industrial center of importance\nto Vancouver, B.C., via\n\nVictoria;\n\nin the West.\n\nFirst-hand investigations, therefore, could be\nindustry.\n\nIts farms, its mines, its fisheries, its\n\nmade of almost every\n\nwoods,\n\nits\n\nshipping and\n\n—\n\nall\n\nthese could be\n\ntransportation facilities, the character of its citizenship\n\nHarbor improvements, irrigation and reclamation\nand conservation problems might be investigated. The single\ntax, municipal ownership of public utilities, and many other economic\nquestions could be studied to advantage, particularly while the party was on\nCanadian soil. At least four hours each day should be spent in definite\nstudied at close range.\n\nprojects,\n\npurposeful investigations, and, incidentally, the boys should be given credit\nfor this time on the same basis as regular school work.\n\nI imagine I hear you say:\n\ntion?\"\n\n\"Yes, but who will finance such a proposi-\n\nIn reply, I would suggest what we all know, i.e., that millions of\n\ndollars are spent each year in publicity work thruout the country.\n\nMight\n\nnot such trips be of considerable publicity value, both to the home section\n\nand to every section visited ? There is no more economical way in which a\ncommunity could advertise its opportunities than to demonstrate them to a\nscore or more of bright, active young fellows the direct representatives of\na community of fifty thousand. I need hardly suggest that the boys themselves should advertise their home community to an even greater extent.\nWork of this nature would surely be business practice of a superior\ntype.\nBack from a trip of this kind, the boys would bring ideas from every\n\n—\n\nvalley.\n\nMany of these could be put into operation in our own\nSome of the boys would locate later on in the various sections\n\nvisited.\n\nIn general, the trips could not but promote the mutual interests\n\npart of the West.\n\nof all the communities and lead to a better understanding of the wonderful\npossibilities of the entire\n\nWest.\n\nIndeed, I am bound to believe that a\n\nten weeks' trip, rightly conducted, would\n\ngraduate than a whole year of college work.\n\nmean more to a high-school\n\n"} {"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n632\n\n[Busmess\n\nWhat I have said regarding our attempts in San Jose could be duplicated\nfor scores of other schools thniout the land.\n\nCommercial teachers are\n\n—\n\nawakening to a realization that, not in textbooks only, but in business in\nwe shall find the greatest lessons for our boys and girls. Some\nlife, itself\npeople believe that the commercial course deals merely with the material.\n\n—\n\nThey spurn it because it is a \"bread-and-butter\" proposition.\n\nI want to\n\nWe are not commercial\nteachers because we must be, but because we want to be. We are proud\nsay to these people that they are greatly mistaken.\n\nto be able to teach these subjects and in doing so we feel we have as much\nof a God-given mission as the teacher of\n\nany other subject.\n\nThe great\n\nobject of oiu* work is efficiency, and efficiency means prominence, advance-\n\nments, responsibilities.\nitself\n\nIt often\n\nmeans much more:\n\nhealth, virtue,\n\nlife\n\ndepends, ofttimes, upon the ability to do well the work one has\n\nto do.\n\nThat is our mission, and only the slums of a great city and the\n\noutcasts of eternity reaHze how great it is.\n\nTYPEWRITING\nC. v.\n\nODEN, MANAGER OF EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT, UNDERWOOD TYPEWRITER COMPANY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe subject of typewriting should appeal not only to every educator,\nbut to every business man as well, because the t5^ewriter has doubtless\ncontributed more to the wonderful commercial progress in the world's\nwork, during the last quarter of a century, than any other modern office\nIn fact, it has made most of the other office devices not only\ndevice.\npossible,\n\nbut necessary.\n\nIn support of this statement, I believe you will\n\nagree with me when I say that the removal of the typewriter from the business world for just one week would send millions into idleness, bring a\nprotest from every quarter of the civilized globe,\n\nand effectually block\n\ntwentieth-century business progress.\n\nThe typewriter has a paradoxical effect on business.\n\nIt lessens labor,\n\nat the same time increases it. It has taken the place of the pen in business\ncorrespondence, yet good penmanship was never in greater demand than it\nis\n\ntoday.\n\nIt magnifies mistakes in composition, spelling, capitalization,\n\nand punctuation, and as a result leads to their correction, hence, its value\ncannot be overestimated from whatever angle it may be considered.\nAuthentic records show that the germ of typewriter genius first manifested itself just about two hundred years ago, when, in the year 17 14,\n\nHenry Mills, an English engineer, patented a writing machine, which he\nsaid he had \"brought to perfection at great pains and expense\"; yet it\nwas more than a century and a half thereafter before the first practical\ntypewriter was built, and the evolution of genius and public opinion began\nto get together.\n\n"} {"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "TYPEWRITING\n\nDepartment!\n\n633\n\nThere are four fundamental features in the construction of a typewriter,\nfirst, the type bar, its connection\nand action, which makes the impression; second, the escapement, which\nto which all others are supplemental:\n\npermits the carriage to go forward, thus providing\nsucceeding character;\n\nnew space for each\na new line, at\n\nthird, the carriage retiurn, to begin\n\nthe same time automatically feeding the paper to a uniform line space;\nfourth, and last, the ribbon movement, the means by which the coloring\n\nmatter for the impressions is properly distributed.\nIt is said, and it is true, that inventors first design the type bar, arrange\nits\n\nconnections, adjust its action,\n\naround it.\n\nand manufacturers build the machine\n\nAnd for this reason the type bar is rightly termed the heart\n\nand soul of the typewriter.\n\nTherefore upon the simplicity, strength, and\n\naction of the type bar depend the speed, accuracy, and stability of the\n\nmachine, the combined qualities which make it most valuable.\n\nThere are certain laws of nature with which you are familiar and with\nwhich manufacturers must conform in order to produce the best results.\nThese are action, reaction, gravitation, and friction. The action of the\ntype bar toward the printing point is no more essential than its return.\nIn fact the value of a typewriter for speed and accuracy does not consist\nso much in the forward action of the type bar as it does in its reaction or\nreturn.\n\nThis is for the reason that the forward action depends upon the\n\nskill and force applied by the operator, while the reaction or return is wholly\n\nthe result of the principle embodied in the construction of the machine.\n\nThe type bar must return instantly in order to prevent clashing of the\ntype, and the escapement must take place immediately after the impression\n\n—in other words, when the\n\nhas been made to prevent the piling of letters\n\ntype bar, in its return, is at the shortest possible distance from the printing\npoint.\n\nGravitation aids materially in the return of the type bars and the action\nof the carriage, and is therefore an important feature to be considered in\n\nthe operation of a typewriter.\nFriction\n\nis\n\ndesirable, as well as undesirable.\n\nFor example,\n\nfriction\n\nshould be eliminated from the active working parts of a type bar combination, the\n\nescapement and movement of the carriage, as much as possible,\n\nbut when the tabulator is used, friction is necessary to prevent the jamming\n\nand jarring of the carriage in jumping from one point to another.\nIt will be understood that the type bar movement and the carriage\nescapement are so closely associated in the operation of the machine that\n\nthere must be absolute harmony of action between the two.\n\nThe escapement of all type bar typewriters is controlled by the universal bar, and\nthere are only three methods by which universal bars are operated: first,\nby the finger-key lever beneath the machine; this causes a division of\npower, lost motion, and greater liability of misadjustment; second, by the\nconnecting linkjjbetween the finger-key lever and the type bar; by this\n\n"} {"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n634\n\n[Business\n\nmethod there is also a division of power and lost motion in operating the\ntype bar and the universal bar; third, the type bar comes in direct contact with the universal bar, and there can be no lost motion, lack of harmony\nin their operation, or liability of misadjustment.\nDivided power is less\neffective, while concentration of force always produces the best results.\n\nThe touch of the finger-key, which actuates the t5^e bar, the carriage,\nand the ribbon movement, is of the most vital importance, and a light,\nloose, yielding touch is deceptive and is not desirable.\nIt is not conducive\nto the best results, because it often means simply taking up the slack or\nThe touch should\nlost motion in the type bar and universal bar action.\nbe short, sharp, and snappy, quick to act and react; and to obtain the most\nsatisfactory touch, each key should be individually adjustable to suit any\nThis feature facilitates touch typewriting the\nfinger of any operator.\nonly method by which the best results can be realized more than any\n\n—\n\n—\n\nother feature of the machine.\n\nThe purpose of the typewriter is speed and accuracy.\nto a natural demand for more and better work.\n\nIt is the response\n\nIt is a forward stride in\n\nthe eternal march of progress, and while its original scope of usefulness\nwas limited to correspondence, it is now equally adapted to all kinds and\ntabulating, billing, adding, bookkeeping, etc.\nclasses of work\nin fact\n\n—\n\n—\n\nthere is a t)^ewriter for every commercial requirement.\n\nMiss Wilson, holder of the international typewriting record, 117 net\nwords a minute, maintained for one hour, struck the keys more than 38,000\ntimes during the hour, not deducting the time consumed in the insertion\nof paper, the reverse of the carriage, the use of the shift key for capitals,\n\nthe turning of the pages of the copy, etc.\n\nThis means that she struck the\n\nkeys more than 10^ strokes a second for 3,600 consecutive seconds. I\nrelate this fact and desire to direct your attention to it as forcibly as possible,\nbecause it illustrates the possibilities of touch typewriting.\n\nThe value of t3^ewriting has not heretofore been properly appreciated,\nbut I believe business educators are beginning to realize the fact that the\ntranscript, or the typewritten copy of his dictation, is of greater importance\nthan note-taking or shorthand, for the reason that the business man is not\nresponsible for the possible inaccuracies in shorthand, but when he attaches\nhis signature to the typewritten copy of his dictation, he assumes all responsibility for\n\nevery statement, blur, blot, and blunder contained therein,\n\nexcept he be of the doubtful class who signs a letter and stamps it \" dictated\n\nbut not read.\"\n\nSuch a man reflects discredit both on himself and on his\n\nstenographer, by trying to sidestep the responsibility which his signature\n\nshould convey.\n\nThe taking of notes concerns the stenographer only, while\n\nthe transcript becomes a personal representative of the man whose signature\nit\n\nbears, and a record of his business transactions.\n\ntherefore, cannot be given to correct typewriting.\n\nToo much attention,\n\n"} {"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "TYPEWRITING\n\nDepartment!\n\n635\n\nThe student should not only be educated to write by the touch method,\nbut he should understand the necessity of striking the keys sharply and\ngetting away instantly, because the machine cannot respond until it is\nreleased.\n\nHe should also be taught to hold his hands as close to the key-\n\nboard as possible, because time is lost in lifting the hands too far from the\nkeyboard, and mistakes are made in getting them back. The position of\nthe typist at the machine should be erect, and the chair adjusted so that\nhis feet set squarely and firmly on the floor, thus supporting and balancing\n\nthe body.\n\nWhen these things have been taught, it is the duty of the teacher\n\nto instil into the minds of the student the necessity of constant, continued\npractice, because the world's fastest typists have not acquired their speed\n\nand accuracy by wishing, but by working.\nIt is said that as a man thinketh in his heart, so is he, but unfortunately\n\ntoo many men, including many business educators, allow the current of\n\nthought between the mind and heart to be intercepted by the pocketbook,\n\nand dollars rather than conviction dominate their decision. In other words,\nthey are influenced by price rather than merit, and I want to state clearly\n\nmy personal conviction with reference to this matter. Men who are in\nbusiness for themselves have the right to consider price rather than merit\nif\n\nthey desire, because their acts are personal and their losses their own.\n\nBut this is not true with the teacher.\n\nHis acts are not personal, for they\n\nmay influence the student's work, either for good or bad, thru the whole\ncourse of his future career. You are bending the twig.\nThe first consideration of a teacher should be the welfare of his students.\n\nHe should not only give them the best of his ability as an instructor, but\nhe should give them the benefit of his honest conviction in selecting teachers,\nmethods, and materials.\n\nIf\n\nyou are not doing this, you are doing both\n\nyourself and your students an injustice.\n\nYou should not introduce ideas into your school, or employ a corps\nof teachers, or buy an equipment of typewriters or other materials, merely\n\n—the best,\n—and you should not allow others to\n\nbecause they are cheap, but let it be because they are good\naccording to your\n\nthink for you.\n\nown judgment\n\nInvestigate for yourself\n\nand exert your\n\nindividuality.\n\nDo not accept a principle that is covered with moss, mold, or mildew.\nDon't spend your money at the \"bargain counter,\" lest you find some\ndefect in your purchase.\n\nThere is a reason for such a \"counter.\"\n\nDon't\n\nRemember that character is\nmore valuable than reputation, and that name is not always synonymous\n\npermit price to be paramount to principle.\nwith fame.\n\n"} {"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident—W. A. Jessup, dirpctor, School of Education, State University of Iowa\n\nIowa City, Iowa\nVice-President\n\n—F. B. Dresslas,\n\nspecialist in school hygiene. Bureau of Education\n\nSecretary—AmtA I. Jenkins, director of Roosevelt Kindergartens\n\nWashington, D.C.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Forenoon, July 7, 1913\nThru the courtesy of the National Council of Education, the Department of Child\nHygiene met in joint session with the Council in Barratt Hall. The papers and discussions of the morning will be found in the proceedings of the Council.\nAt the close of the session this department joined the Council in a resolution requesting\nthe proper authorities to place the sum of $1,500 at the disposal of the Joint Committee\non Health Problems in Education, as this committee is continued for further work.\nThe chairman of the Department of Child Hygiene announced the appointment of\nthe following Committee on Nominations:\nLeonard P. Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.\nJ. G. Collicott, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nA. O. Hugart, Coffeyville, Kans.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND session—Wednesday Forenoon, July 9, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jessup at 9:30 a.m., in the Lafayette\nSchool Assembly Hall.\n\nThe subjects presented for consideration at this session were: \"The Special Problems\nof School Hygiene in Rural Schools,\" by Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical\n\neducation, Columbia University,\n\nNew York, N.Y.; and \"Sex Instruction,\" by T. W.\n\nGalloway, James Millikin University, Decatur, 111.\n\n(For Dr. Wood's paper see papers\n\nof National Council of Education.)\n\nThe discussion following Dr. Wood's address was opened by Linnaeus N. Hines,\nsuperintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\n\nW. H. Smiley, superintendent of schools,\n\nDenver, Colo., and R. W. Corwin, M.D., Pueblo Colo., also took part.\nThe discussion of Mr. Galloway's paper was opened by Martha B. Jennings, dean of\n\nwho was followed by R. W.\nMary Elizabeth Bates, M.D., Denver, Colo.; Dr. Beatty,\nhead of Utah State Board of Health; Anna I. Jenkins, state chairman of kindergartens,\n\ngirls,\n\nSalt Lake City High School, Salt Lake City, Utah,\n\nCorwin, M.D., Pueblo, Colo.;\n\nCalifornia Congress of Mothers, Pasadena, Cal., and others.\n\nUpon motion of Superintendent Smiley, the following resolution was unanimously\nadopted:\nResolved, That it is the belief of the Department of Child Hygiene that the rules of\nthe Indiana State Board of Health for insuring healthful conditions in schools, as quoted\nby Superintendent Hines, bear such stamp of careful preparation in the light of the best\nscientific knowledge of healthful conditions in school buildings and their surroundings,\n\n637\n\n"} {"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n638\n\n[Chfld Hygiene\n\nthat we request our United States Commissioner of Education to consider whether they\nare not worthy of special publication by our government, that they may be at the service\nof all schools in all states.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, July 10, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order by President Jessup at 2:30 p.m.\nThe topic under consideration was \"The Administration of Health Departments.\"\nUnder this topic the following subjects were presented for consideration: \"The\nAdministration of Educational Hygiene,\" by Louis W. Rapeer, Department of Psychology\nand Education, New York Training School for Teachers, New York, N.Y.; \"The\nAdministration of Health Departments ^The Colorado Plan,\" by R. W. Corwin, M.D.,\n\n—\n\nPueblo, Colo., professor of surgery, University of Colorado; and \"Child Hygiene and the\n\nParent,\" by Anna I. Jenkins, director of Roosevelt Kindergartens, Pasadena, Cal.\nDiscussion: Martha B. Jennings, Salt Lake City, Utah; Mary Elizabeth Bates, M.D.,\n\nDenver, Colo.: Susan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.;\nM. P. E. Groszmann, educational director. National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children, Plainfield, N.J.; and R. W. Corwin, M.D., Pueblo, Colo.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was adopted and the following persons\nelected as ofl&cers for the coming year:\n\n—^W. C. Bagley, professor of education, University of\nUrbana,\nFor Vice-President—Helen C. Putnam, M.D., Providence, R.I.\nFor Secretary—Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nFor President\n\nni.\n\nIllinois,\n\nThe meeting adjourned.\n\nAnna Irene Jenkins, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF SCHOOL HYGIENE IN\nRURAL SCHOOLS\nTHOMAS D. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, COLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nIn discussing this problem. Dr. Wood followed the lines of his report as\nchairman of the Committee on Health Problems in Education, which report\nwill be found with the papers of the National Council of Education.\n\nDISCUSSION\nLinnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.—The problems\nof school hygiene in rural as well as urban schools may be classified and stated as follows:\n1. Securing a teaching body that knows what it ought to know of school hygiene\nand that is willing to apply and enforce all the laws of correct living in the schoolroom.\n2. Developing in the community adjacent to and supporting the individual school an\nunderstanding of and sympathy with the attempts of the school authorities to secure\nproper living conditions in and about the school building.\n3. Developing on the part of those that control the school finances a willingness to\n\nspend whatever money is necessary to secure proper arrangements in regard to heating,\nlighting, and other things Uiat go toward making up proper surroundings for the pupils.\n\n"} {"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSPECIAL PROBLEMS OF SCHOOL HYGIENE\n\n639\n\n—\n\nsites that are elevated,\n4. The selection of the right kind of sites for school buildings\nwell drained, and big enough to serve the immediate and remote needs of the pupils in their\nschool capacity.\n5. The securing of a supply of water that is free from all impurities and that may be\nfurnished fresh to the pupils at all times.\n6. The location of outhouses and toilet-room conveniences so that neither the air nor\nthe water about the school will be contaminated and no offense against the finest sensibilities will be committed.\n7.\n\nThe securing of schoolrooms with the proper amount of floor space and air space\n\nper pupil.\n\nThe proper lighting of schoolrooms.\nThe proper heating of schoolrooms and with this the introduction and distribution\nof the proper amount of air free from impurities of all kinds.\n10. The providing of clean, well-ventilated extra rooms where the pupils and teachers\n8.\n\n9.\n\nmay eat their lunches.\n11. The providing of proper and adjustable seats and desks for the pupils so that no\nbodily ailments may come from the pupils' having to sit in cramped and unnatural posi-\n\ntions.\n12. The making of the school so nearly perfect in a sanitary way and so attractive\nthat the pupils will want their homes to be like the school.\n13. The teaching of all the laws of health and proper living so that the children from\ninfancy may know how to conserve their health.\n\nWhat is needed first of all in the rural school is proper financial and living conditions\nso that teachers may devote their lives to the rural-school problem and not be placed as\n\nthey are now so that they must get out of the teaching business altogether or teach in the\ncities in\n\norder to save a little.\n\nThe rural teacher ought to have a well-kept and com-\n\nfortable home near his school, and his tenure of his position and his pay ought to be such\n\nthat he can afford to devote his life for a period of years to the school in hand.\n\nHe will\n\nthen go to the problem of the proper living conditions for his pupils in a different way and\n\na different spirit.\n\nHe may, perhaps, be inspired to make his school the model for all the\nHe can afford to pre-\n\ncountry round in regard to sanitary and health-giving conditions.\npare himself better for his work.\n\nIn short, the key to the whole problem lies in the char-\n\nacter and quality of the teacher.\n\nIf he is the right sort, he can convert those that control\n\nHe\nHe can work\n\nthe school finances to the idea that the pupils ought to have their health conserved.\n\ncan influence his community so that it will want what is proper and best.\nrevolution where all was stagnation and indifference.\n\nThere are country teachers here\nand there that are doing these things but more are needed. The teacher can make the\nschool in sanitary as well as other matters. That better day is coming when all these\nthings will come to pass!\nAnother important phase of the question in hand is the appointment of competent\nand energetic township or coimty health officers and medical examiners. Give such\nofficials sufficient power and they will accomplish wonders in even the slowest communities.\nIt is true that they will meet much opposition from people who think the old way is good\nenough. Ridicule will be employed by those that think any kind of a building kept in\nany way will do for a school. The taxpayer who thinks the greatest crime committed\nby a public official is to add a cent to the tax levy will stoutly oppose any expenditure that\nmeans an increase in the rates. However, a health officer with a stout heart and the wisdom that comes from the desire to do the right thing for the coming generations will attain\nhis ends in some way.\nSuch an officer backed up by a teacher who also knows the truth\nand wants to see it exemplified in the manner of living of the children in his charge will\nbe able to ride over all objection and finally enlist in the cause even the folks that were\nthe surest the \"cranks\" were going to ruin the school.\n\nThe first great element in the rural-school problem, as suggested above, is the teacher.\nThe second, as indicated, is the health officer. The third is an intelligent public interest\nthat wants the best. With these three in any rural community, as well as in any urban\ncommunity, eveiy problem of school hygiene will be promptly solved.\n\n"} {"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n640\n\nIChUd Hygiene\n\nR. W. CoRWiN, M.D., Pueblo, Colo., professor of surgery, University of Colorado,\ntook up the discussion of the typical or unit plan of school building. He criticized a\nschool board and public that devotes more time to the architecture of a building than to its\nconvenience, safety, sanitation, and utility.\n\nHe said that there were still boards and\n\nschool districts which felt that the piling high of brick, stone, and mortar constituted the\n\nmodem art and sanitation; but that fortunately two stories as a\nTnaTimnm had become the rule. He advocated the plan of single-story, detached school\nbuildings and if more than one story must be had, the substitution of the incline for\nDr. Corwin conmiended to their investigation the unit plan of building. His is\nstairs.\nbest expression of\n\n—\n\nthe application of a group system.\n\nBeginning with a central hall, or auditorium, the\n\nneeds of the community are met by the addition of new buildings on either side of this\nAdditions are made to meet the requirements of the situation.\nhall, from time to time.\n\nThe nimiber of schoolrooms may be made always to meet the demand, which is not the\ncase with a building of many rooms. The many-roomed building is usually ahead or\nbehind the needs of the district; there are vacant rooms intended for future requirements\nor crowded rooms waiting for the school board to build. Under the imit plan there is less\nwaste room; there is less chance of fire, and, in case of fire, there is less chance for loss of\nproperty or damage by water; the danger to pupils is reduced to a minimum; light and\nventilation may be obtained from any direction; there are no large hallways to accumulate\ndirt; there is less work for the janitor and no sweeping of dust and other refuse from one\nfloor down upon another; recess\n\nmay be taken out of doors at any time without disturbing\n\nother classes; there is greater field for individuality on the part of both teachers and pupils;\nthe view from the ground floor is more attractive to children, being nearer to nature. The\nimit plan is no longer in the experimental stage, school plants of this type being in successful operation in Pueblo, Colo., and other districts in and out of the state.\n\nSEX INSTRUCTION\nT.\n\nW. GALLOWAY, JAMES MILLIKIN UNIVERSITY, DECATUR, ILL.\n\nIt is the purpose in this paper to dwell briefly on three points related\n\nto the proposition that we shall give our young people definite instruction\nin respect to sex: (i) the meaning and content of sex education; (2) the\n\nneed of it and the promise it offers in improving present conditions; and\n^both of the transient\n(3) certain limitations that are on the enterprise\n\n—\n\nand of the more permanent sort.\n^The oncoming of the public conscience\nI. The scope of sex instruction,\nin this matter has been somewhat belated, but it is pretty well agreed in\n\n—\n\nprogressive circles today that we cannot properly trust to chance or to\nsinister influences the education of youth in a department of life that lies\n\nso close to its foundations.\n\nThis conviction as to the necessity of sex education has been developed\nby several diverse groups of thinkers and workers. In the first place, there\n\n—\n\n—\n\nhas been a group of people reformers sensitive to the hideous aspects of\nthe social evil, such as commercialized prostitution, white slavery, venereal\ndiseases, and all the accompanying physical, social, and moral degeneration\nthat characterizes the perversion of sex. In attempting to meet and stem\nthe dirty flood of pathological symptoms these people have reached the\nconclusion that the youth of the land must be brought to know the dangers\n\n"} {"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSEX INSTRUCTION\n\n641\n\nand be guarded as far as knowledge and right incentives can guard from\nthe pitfalls of sex indulgence. This viewpoint is urgent and compelling,\nand must cut a large figure both in the quality and in the spirit of the\ninstruction.\n\nIt must be remembered, however, that this point of view with all its\n\nintensity of importance is a narrow and partial one, inasmuch as its motive\nlies in\n\nabnormal and pathological aspects of the subject.\n\ncrime are not the chief problems of\n\nlife.\n\nDisease and\nSound development, perfect\n\nadaptation, and sane living are rather the real problems. The caring for\nwounded soldiers and even the prevention of sickness are not the prime\nwork of any army. At best these are but incidental and tributary to the\nmain problem of fighting. In quite the same way sex education looked at\nmerely or primarily as a means of removal of sexual excesses, abnormalities,\nand diseases, important as they are, is not broad enough to meet the real\n\nhimian problem.\nIn the second place, another group of students have been approaching\nthis interesting subject\n\nfrom an angle as far removed from that of the\n\nsensitive men and women who are our social reformers as it is possible to\n\nThese are considering the subject from the biological and\nTheir interests have centered in the possibilities of race\nimprovement thru better breeding thru heredity. These students are\ncalled eugenists.\nThey are not moved by sensitiveness to the social and\nmoral abuses of sex, as are the reformers mentioned above. They think\nrather in terms of the loss of present and future social and industrial efficiency thru the hereditary transmission of incompetence and criminal\ntendencies, sexual and otherwise.\nIn other words, sex and reproduction\nbecome to these students a powerful means, when understood, of improving\nthe quality of the himian stock.\nThis manifestly extends the scope of the\neducative matter and manner; and the intensity of conviction as to need\nof education is scarcely less than that of the reformers, altho the program\nmust necessarily be more vague, awaiting as it must fullness of knowledge.\nFinally, a third stream of influence has still further broadened the\nimagine.\n\nscientific side.\n\n—\n\nscope of this educational impulse.\n\nAmong thoughtful educators there\n\nhave been many who have felt an increasing consciousness that reproduction and sex are among the most important human functions and\nqualities; that the impulses connected with them are not primarily low\nand vicious, but are as natural and clean as any possessed by us; that\nthese impulses are as general and almost as imperious as the selfish ones\nof thirst and hunger by means of which the needs of the individual body\nare met, and that their imperiousness is a measure of their importance in\nlife; that they are at bottom socializing impulses and lead to the ongoing\nand welfare of the species; that such vital and universal impulses cannot\nfail to furnish most valuable avenues and constructive materials for positive\neducational work.\n\n"} {"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n642\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nIn a word, these students hold that the powerful native impulses that\n\nhave played so important a part in racial history must be able to make more\ncontribution to individual education and development than merely to\nfurnish an arena for fighting against abuses and perversions. Therefore,\nin failing to use positively and constructively the phenomena of sex and the\nfacts arising out of them in the education of the child, we are neglecting\n\none of the most potent educational instruments that we have.\nIt will readily be seen that these groups of contributors to the idea of\nsex education have brought a progressive broadening of the idea, and that\ntheir contributions are supplementary;\n\nand therefore that all three must\n\nbe respected and included in any catholic handling of the problem.\n\nThe reformer would educate in respect to the facts of reproduction and\nsex in order that youth may be pure and that he may escape the diseases,\n\npersonal and social, that grow out of vice.\n\nThe eugenist would educate\n\nin matters of reproduction and sex (which means heredity) in order that\n\nwe, as a race and as individuals,\n\nmay secure better matings and more\n\nperfect offspring and thus build up the stock.\n\nThe educator would seek\n\nto use the facts and instincts and impulses of reproduction and sex in their\n\nproper order to stimulate the right and sound personal development of\nthe whole individual.\nSex, as we well know, contributes biologically in a very profound degree\nto normal individual development.\n\nThe physical, mental, temperamental,\n\nand spiritual differences between men and women exist because of the\nfundamental influence of sex development and functioning upon the whole\ncourse of life. These things are not related to sex in a merely incidental\nor mystical way, but are directly and causally related. It cannot fail to\nbe true, therefore, that a knowledge of the meaning of sex and its allied\nimpulses will contribute equally to the proper adaptation of the child to\nthe existing social structure so much of which is directly dependent on the\nfact of sex and its consequences.\n\nIn advocating sex instruction thru the home and school and other\nwe are not meaning primarily that the young\n\navailable social agencies,\nshall get\n\nsuch knowledge of the pathological conditions and the dangers\n\nas shall repel them into lives of cleanness, tho this is one of the most powerful agencies of restraint.\n\nNor do we mean merely that they shall under-\n\nstand those laws of inheritance which may enable them to mix judgment\n\nwith the process of falling in love, to mate well, and to contribute sound\nand healthy offspring to society. We mean rather that they shall have\nsuch clean and reliable knowledge and training in all the constructive and\ninspiring facts of sex that they shall properly sense its mental and spiritual\n\ncontributions to full and normal life.\n\nThese upbuilding possibilities of sex lie chiefly about such facts and\nideas as manliness, womanliness, purity, chivalry, love, marriage,\n\nhome\n\nand family life, fatherhood, motherhood, parental care, filial devotion, and\n\n"} {"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "SEX INSTRUCTION\n\nDepartment!\n\nall\n\n643\n\nthe higher individual, social, moral, and religious impulses and ideals\n\nthat have in the history of the race arisen out of reproduction and sex.\n\nFor best education the idea of sex must be redeemed and must carry the\ncontent suggested in the preceding sentence, rather than the perversions\nand abuses usually suggested by it. Thru emphasis on the pathological\nfacts we have cut ourselves oflF from a free use of a most vital and influential series of himnian states.\n\nThe scope of the present movement for\n\nredeem the idea of sex and place it in a position to\nmake a contribution to normal, consciously controlled development instead\nof being allowed thru neglect or misuse to work havoc in character.\nsex instruction\n\n2.\n\nis\n\nto\n\nThe need and promise of sex instruction.\n\n—^The sex instruction\n\nindi-\n\ncated in the preceding paragraphs must come to the boy and girl thru the\n\nhome, the school, the church, or some of the less well-organized agencies of\ninstruction.\n\nAll thinkers are agreed that as much as possible should come\n\nfrom the parents in the home. Some, resenting the disposition gradually\nto place on the teacher more and more of the proper duties of the parents,\ndeny that this important and difficult task should be imposed upon the\nteacher and the school. One cannot fail to have sympathy with this\ncontention; and yet it remains true that the children do not get the needed\ninstruction in the home. They come to the schools, for the most part,\nwith no knowledge or with a stock of half-knowledge and vulgar misinformation which is very difficult to overcome.\nThe failure of parents to do this work for their children is due to several\nthings.\nThere are some who still insist that children should be kept in\nignorance of such matters as long as possible, on the theory that ignorance\nmeans innocence and safety. The real reasons in the great majority of\ncases are that they are indifferent and cowardly, or they feel that they do\nnot know what to say and how and when to say it.\n\nThe speaker has for a number of years given a separate series of lectures\nto the young men and young women of the Christian associations of Millikin\n\nUniversity on the subject of sex and its connotations.\n\nAt the close of\n\nthese talks a list of questions was submitted to them and the young people\n\nwere requested to give anonymous answers. A brief statement of the\nresults will serve to show something of the need of education in the home.\n\nAmong the young men it was found that 58 per cent had information\nabout sex matters before the close of the tenth year, sufficient to make a\n\npermanent impression on them.\n\nAbout 50 per cent of the girls had received\nsuch information by the close of the eleventh year. Nearly 70 per cent of\nthe boys and 60 per cent of the girls received their early knowledge from\nslightly older or more sophisticated companions.\n\nMore than 90 per cent\n\nof the boys who were coached by their boy companions were taught at an\n\nearly age.\n\nWhen the parents gave the information it came between the\n\neleventh and the fourteenth years chiefly.\n\nAt the latter age 98 per cent\n\nof the boys had already had their information.\n\n"} {"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "^^ TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n644\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nOf the boys who got their chief knowledge from boy companions,\nabout 70 per cent expressed the conviction that they had been injured by\nOnly about 50 per cent of the girls similarly instructed thought it had\nit.\nbeen of injury to them.\n\nOf the boys who had been instructed by parents,\n\nor similar teachers, 90 per cent thought the information had been a positive\n\nhelp to them.\n\nAmong the girls about 80 per cent felt they had been\n\nbenefited.\n\nThe\"Jyoimg people were practically unanimous in the opinion that\nproperly given instruction would have been of value to them in making\ntheir personal adjustments to this class of facts, and in the mental states\n\nand social relations growing out of them.\nWhile, in the nature of the case, these questions and answers could\n\nnot be definite and exact enough to give the statistics any scientific finality,\nthe results are doubtless broadly representative of the conditions in the\npicked homes from which the body of college students come.\nthings are suflSciently manifest from them.\n\nSeveral\n\nIt is clear that those parents\n\nand teachers who insist that children shall be kept in ignorance and innocence in respect to the subjects do not really have a choice between ignorance\nand information. The only choice open to us is whether the early and most\nimpressive information of our children shall be sound, with pure and wholesome associations and connotations, or shall be partial, inaccurate, and\nfreighted with vulgar and degrading suggestions. It is very clear, furthermore, that the schools do not get the children early enough to give them\ntheir first needed instruction which is to render them immime to that which\ncomes in subterranean fashion, and that parents must do this work; that\nparents are not giving it in most cases, and when they do it comes too late\nto be of most value.\nFrom the whole situation it is suggested that one of our most urgent\nneeds is to convince parents of the necessity that the home take an active\npart in the early sex education of the children, and to prepare parents\nto do this work effectively.\nIn simmiary, the urgent need for organized and systematic sex instruction lies in the dangers ^physical, social, and moral which modern society\n\n—\n\noffers in this\n\n—\n\nrealm to the ignorant, the inexperienced, the misinformed,\n\nand imperfectly motived young; in the strong downward pull which\ncommercialization of lust and vice furnishes; in the fact that there is nmning along from youth to youth at an early age, concurrently with our\nmaturer efforts to educate, a whole series of vulgar and vicious interpretations of the meaning and place of sex, together with a vocabulary that does\n\nmuch to inhibit the possibility of our later instruction in these matters.\nThe promise which sane sex instruction holds out is this: the order of\nthe universe seems to put a premium on real, sound, adequate knowledge.\n\nIgnorance or false views about vital matters never in the long run solved\n\nany of the questions relating to them.\n\nIn other words, there is a positive.\n\n"} {"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "SEX INSTRUCTION\n\nDepartment!\n\n645\n\ntho not a complete, correlation between knowledge and behavior.\n\nEvery-\n\nthing else being equal the person who knows right is more likely to do right\n\nMere knowledge of the horrible series of\n\nthan one who does not know.\n\ndangers to health, life, happiness, and morals that lie about sex indulgence\nwill do something to establish internal inhibitions that will aid the external\n\nconventions to meet and check the imperious demands of the sex impulse\n\nKnowledge of the important part which normal sex development and sex control contribute to manly and womanly perfection, to say\nnothing of moral and social satisfaction, will do still more.\n\nin youth.\n\nImportant, however, as knowledge is in the ordering of life, it is necessary to remember, here as elsewhere, that information is not the whole of\nthis task of sex instruction.\n\nThe greatest promise of the movement is\n\nnot that our children shall know a few facts about their reproductive and\nsex processes, about the diseases and misery that attend sex license, nor\n\neven about the marvelous way in which the phenomena of sex contribute\nto the quality of individual and social life at every point;\nthis:\n\nbut rather in\n\nthat we are coming to understand that we may use the sex motive\n\ndevelopment of children provided we are wise\nenough to use it purely and loftily. In order to do this we must bring to\ntheir attention, step by step in a perfectly graded way, the best things\nthe race has discovered by which appeal may be made to the desire to consafely in the educative\n\ntrol these impulses.\n\nIn brief, we must motivate self-control in matters of\n\nsex by appealing to such instincts, impulses, and ideals as the desire for perfect, normal manhood and womanhood; to chivalry; love for parents; sense\n\nof duty;\n\nadmiration for purity; to the sense of the fairness in the single\n\nstandard of sex behavior; to confidence in the conventions which the race\n\nhas worked out respecting marriage and the home\n\n;\n\nto the moral and religious\n\nThe child must be inoculated\nwith these ideas in time to render him immime to the indulgences of the\nanimal impulses and ingenious human perv^ersions of them. In a word,\nthe hope of sex education as a means of human improvement consists in\n\nsocial sense which bulks large in adolescence.\n\ngraded instruction on all matters of reproduction and sex that bear on\nphysical and mental welfare, plus all the possible reinforcement of personal\n\nand social morals and religion.\n\nThe promise lies in the richness of the\n\nappeals that can be made in the interest of proper sex development and\nsex control.\n3.\n\nThe limitations of sex instruction.\n\n—The most important and perma-\n\nnent limitation under which we labor is in the fact that the correlation\n\nbetween knowledge and conduct is not perfect.\nget perfect conduct even with perfect knowledge.\nsuggested in the preceding section\n\n—\n\n^give all\n\nWe may never hope to\nEven if we do what was\n\nnecessary information, as we\n\nmust, at the right time and by the right persons and in a perfectly graded\n\nway; and add to this the best of all the incentives which the race has gained\nto inspire, to encourage, and to furnish ideals and standards of social\n\n"} {"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n646\n\n[Chad Hygiene\n\nvirtue, of chivalry and respect for women, of devotion to right conventions,\nand of any other kind that may serve to give both internal and external\ncontrol of these profoundly valuable and powerful impulses, we shall still\nfind that the correlation between instruction and behavior will not be\n\nThe impulses of sex are too powerful to allow us to hope for\nbut we may nevertheless hope for vastly improved conditions.\n\n100 per cent.\nthis;\n\nThere are certain temporary limitations, however, which at present\nconcern us much more than this.\n\nChief among these are:\nThe present state of public opinion among both parents and teachers\nmust be made favorable. As was suggested above, there are many parents\nwho are not convinced apparently even of the necessity or desirabiUty that\na)\n\nthey should give any careful or systematic attention to the subject in the\n\nhome.\n\nMany others, who feel that parents should give their children\n\ninstruction,\n\ndo not feel that the schools should take part in it, but that\n\nit should be left wholly to the home.\n\nPubUc opinion, while it has progressed\n\ngreatly on this subject in the last fifteen years, probably is not to the point\n\nwhere it would sustain the introduction of instruction in these delicate\nBefore we can do much else we\nmust educate public opinion to the point where it will not merely allow but\n\nmatters generally in the public schools.\n\nwill insist that the instruction in the school shall closely articulate\n\nthat which is done in the home;\n\nwith\n\nand where none is done in the home that\n\nthe school or some other agency shall supply the deficiency.\nh)\n\nNo matter how good their intentions and in spite of the fact that\n\nthe parent is in the best position of all teachers to do this work well, especially in the earlier years, it remains true that the average parent is least\n\nfitted both as to information and as to pedagogical method to do the teach-\n\nOne of the first tasks is to convince parents of their duty.\nThe next is to help them get possession of the matter and the method.\nThis task of equipping the parent is one of the duties of our schools. Thru\n\ning effectively.\n\nmothers' clubs, parents' and teachers' associations, and any other organizations of earnest adults, our schools must gradually equip the present genera-\n\ntion of parents to do at least that portion of the training which ought to\n\ncome before the school period.\nc) Even if the way were perfectly clear for the introduction of sex\nteaching into the schools, we are at present limited by the fact that we do\nnot now have teachers who are fitted to do this teaching tactfully and\neffectively.\n\nIt is quite as important for good results that this subject be\n\npresented to youth wisely and convincingly as that it be presented at all.\n\nGood intentions on the part of the teacher are not enough.\ntask requires more than good intentions and information.\n\nIndeed the\n\nThis is peculiarly\n\na venture the success of which depends on the personality of the teacher\nas well as on his knowledge. A few overzealous and underequipped teachers\nin each community can now by ill-advised activity impair the whole move-\n\nment for years.\n\nIt is essential just now that we shall not move too fast.\n\n"} {"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "SEX INSTRUCTION\n\nDepartment]\n\n647\n\nSince the teacher must take a large part in fitting present-day parents\nto do their duty and must learn to articulate properly his own work with\n\nwhatever the parents are able and willing to do, it follows that we must,\nwhile public opinion is moving toward positive action, prepare a generation\nof teachers fitted both by education and by personality.\n\nIn fitting teachers\n\nboth to move and to move slowly there is an important work to be done by\nteachers' institutes, normal schools, departments of education in our\nuniversities\n\nteachers.\n\n—indeed by\n\nall of our higher institutions\n\nthat have to do with\n\nWe are past the hysterical stage and we need sober preparation.\n\nd) Finally, there is at present no well-organized program of instruction\n\nto which we can point with certainty as having been tested long enough\n\nThere are, to be sure, several in the process of\nThey have necessarily been built up\ntesting which give good promise.\non theoretical grounds. We must institute in many sorts of places many\nsanely projected tests, and by extended trial and elimination of error find\nthe very best way. We are sure that it must be thoroly graded to meet the\nProper grading, both in matter\ninterest and development of the youth.\nand in method, is much more important where we are seeking to modify\nbehavior from within than where we seek merely to get mental mastery.\nHere is a task for the expert student of biology, psychology, education, and\nsociology.\nWe are dealing with an enormously complex problem demanding\nthe practical application of elements from all of these fields to the actual\nprogressive needs of boys and girls. This work ought to be done under\nthe guidance of our normal schools and departments of education in the\n\nto insure its excellence.\n\nuniversities.\n\nThese last-mentioned limitations are important and cramping;\n\nbut\n\nwe may confidently believe that they are temporary and will yield to\nThis confidence is much strengthened by two facts:\nintelligent treatment.\n(i) by the great progress the race has made in a few centuries in the control\nof the imperious sex impulses in the interest of the higher things in human\nlife and relations (this statement is made in full appreciation of the woeful\nfailures that we still show); and (2) by the rapidity with which society\nnowadays throws itself enthusiastically and effectively into the teaching\nof what it is convinced is worth while.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMary Elizabeth Bates, M.D., Denver, Colo. —Mr. Galloway's paper is sane and\n\nWe now realize that standards of right thinking and right living in social\nmust be taught not only to men and women, but to boys and girls and even\nto little children. But I have noticed in all of this movement, from its inception to the\npresent time, in every phase of it, that most of the effort has been expended upon the\nPapers published, lectures given, plans proposed, all dwell\ngirl, the woman, the mother.\nupon the province and duty of the female and her responsibility to her children, her\nhusband, and the comjnunity. The boy and the man receive some share of attention,\nto be sure, but the emphasis is on the female.\n\nsatisfying.\n\nrelations\n\n"} {"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n648\n\n(Chad Hygiene\n\nYet in life, as a matter of fact, it is the attitude of the male that determines the sex\nIt is the man's attitude, the boy's attitude that is fundamental,\nand whatever of sex hygiene or sex health you may teach the female, it is in practice\nstandards of the world.\n\nlargely wasted because she cannot alter the sex standards of the male, for only in exceptional cases, if she be married, can she control the situation, if her husband wills otherwise.\nShe should but she doesn't.\nIn the vast majority of cases the wife receives her practical sex training from her\nhusband. She usually learns nothing that is wholesome and healthy, sacred or beautiful,\n\nand when she has children and should teach them the majesty and dignity, the responrights, and privileges of their sex, she has nothing beautiful or\n\nsibilities, obligations,\n\nhelpful to tell them, but she has, at least, the decency to keep still.\n\nWith a few fine exceptions we have no homes that are competent to teach the children\nin it; there are no schools, no Sunday schools or churches that even approach this part of\n\nmore to do with the health and happiness and progress of men and women\nand children than any other thing in life.\nThe Mormon church is one fine exception, and I have always held the Mormons in\nhigh respect because of it. They have established and carried out a regular system of sex\ninstruction for their own people. Missionaries, in pairs, go from home to home and teach\nthe parents, telling them what and how to teach their children to achieve sex morality.\nTo train a boy effectively, he should be taught early, even from the cradle. In my\nlife, which has\n\nlong medical experience, I have learned that the right appeal at the right time is effective\nin some degree with almost every man, if made by the right person.\n\nNo man wants an\n\nBut it is folly to instruct the wife, and expect her to go home and teach her\nhusband. He refuses to be taught by her. He knows more than she does or ought to, so\nhe thinks. He must be told by someone to whom he will listen and in whom he has\nconfidence. Therefore I tell my wives to have their husbands come to me, or their\nintended husbands come to me, and that I will mstruct them, and I do. And it must\ncome to him directly from the physician, he will not accept his wife's translation, and even\nresents her knowing that he does not know all that he should know about taking sex care\nof her and about what he should teach his children.\nWe have found in Colorado that the most active and powerful opponents to the\nteaching of sex hygiene are the Christian Scientists. They are not only determined to\nremain in silence on matters of sex health themselves, but they are determined that\nthose who are not on their plane shall not be enlightened or trained in sex morality. So\nvery fearful of this being done and so determined to prevent it are they, that they discover\nthe intent to teach sex hygiene where none exists, and so afraid are they that it will be\ninvalid wife.\n\nsneaked in under cover of other laudable teaching that they go to the lengths of preventing\nall proposed\n\n\"ethical and humane education\" legislation.\n\nDuring the legislative session\n\nof 191 1 a bill was introduced in the Colorado legislature providing for the compulsory\n\nteaching of \"moral and\n\nhumane education\" in\n\nthe public schools.\n\nThe Christian\nAt the\n\nScientists defeated it on the ground that it was proposed to teach sex hygiene.\n\nnext session, 1913, 1 suggested to the framers of the bill that the word \"moral\" appealed\nat once as secular or sex morals\n\nand therefore excited opposition.\n\nIn my own unso-\n\nphisticated innocence, I advised the use of the word \"ethical\" in place of \"moral,\" and\n\nthe suggestion was adopted.\n\nStraightway the Christian Scientists declared that \" ethical\n\nwas the very latest style of cloak for the intended teaching of sex hygiene Therefore they\nopposed it strenuously. When it was passed by the house, it went to the Committee on\nEducation, the chairman of which was our one woman senator, Mrs. Helen Ring Robinson.\n!\n\nIn deference to the desires of the Christian Scientists, our senator kept the bill in her\ncommittee safely pigeonholed until too late for it to reach a final passage thru the senate.\nHow very suspicious and fearful these particular opponents of such teaching are can be\njudged by the fact that this bill proposed to teach children, and have teachers taught to\nteach children, \"the principles and practice of justice, honesty, kindness, moral courage.\n\n"} {"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE\n\nDepartment]\n\n649\n\nand good conduct,\" and that amendments were passed or accepted to provide \"that this\nact shall not be construed to include religious or sectarian teaching\" and that \"nothing\nin this act shall be construed to include the teaching of sex hygiene.\"\n\nThe f ramers of the bill were sincerely anxious to have taught everything in the way of\nright thinking and right living, and were willing to take what they could get, and teach\n\nthe great lessons that are not inclusive of secular or sex training. Of the sincerity of the\nopponents of the bill who still insisted that sex hygiene was to be taught, you can judge.\n\nYet some way must be found to impress upon the boys who are to be men and fathers\nof men the true greatness and power of a normal sex endowment; to teach them reverence\nfor motherhood and fatherhood in all creatures;\n\nto teach them to cherish their manhood\n\n—\n\nas a divine possession, to realize that sex power is the creative power of the world\n\nthe\nkind of force that took Columbus over the ocean and has pioneered and builded the world\nin art and architecture,\n\nmusic and literature, and social progress\n\n—and to\n\nfeel\n\nthat its\n\nresponsibilities make it a sacred power to be conserved for life here and for the generations\n\nto come hereafter.\n\nTOPIC: THE ADMINISTRATION OF HEALTH DEPARTMENTS\nA.\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE\n\nLOXnS W. RAPEER, DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION, NEW YORK\nTRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS, NEW YORK, N.Y.\nI.\n\nTHE PROBLEM\n\nLooking at the big problems of our country in a broad, sociological\nmanner, probably most statesmen and students of public questions will\nagree with the four following generalizations, namely:\nFirst, there is an enormous amount of individual and national loss in\n\nthis coimtry due to reasonably preventable\n\nand postponable deaths, pre-\n\nventable serious illness, and preventable lowered vital efficiency issuing\n\nfrom a multitude of minor ailments and physical defects.\nSecond, health knowledge and medical science possessed by the few\nhave advanced far beyond health practice in the provinces of both personal\nand public hygiene.\nThird, an enormous amount of public health opinion has developed in\nthis coimtry which has found more or less adequate expression in an unusual\nvariety of public health agencies, especially in the public schools.\n\nPlay\n\nand playgrounds, medical inspection of school children, open-air schools,\ndental, surgical, and medical clinics, better school santitation, public health\neducation\n\n—\n\nall\n\nthese are evidences of the renaissance of the physical con-\n\nscience of the race and the more or less vague desire to make specialized,\n\nprivate knowledge actual public health practice and living.\nFourth,\n\nall\n\nthese heterogeneous elements which have been pushed or\n\npulled into the schools at various times, by various agencies, and for various\n\nhealth and development purposes, are, as yet, in a relatively chaotic,\nuncorrelated, and inefficient condition.\n\nThey have not been made an or-\n\nganic unity centered upon the solution of the school and national health\n\nproblem.\n\n"} {"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n650\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nThe problem of the efficiency of the public-school health agencies is\nAs a part of a three years' investigation/ the\n\nthe problem of this paper.\n\nand studied the school health provisions of forty cities.\nOut of the investigation and previous experience in this field there has\ngradually come an appreciation of what the administration of educational\nwriter visited\n\nIn the short time here allotted me, I thought I could\ndo no better than to bring together some of the chief practical recommendations of the study for your consideration and criticism.\nhygiene should be.\n\nSOME SUGGESTIONS IN REGARD TO A TENTATIVE STANDARD PLAN FOR\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE, WITH SPECIAL\nREFERENCE TO MEDICAL INSPECTION\n\nn.\n\nI.\n\nThe correlation of school health agencies.\n\n—The heterogeneous and\n\nisolated elements of educational hygiene in state and local school systems\n\nvery much need integration in a single department headed by one who is\nboth a physician, well versed in children's normal and pathological conditions, and also a physical-educator with knowledge and experience in the\n\nother divisions of the problem.\n\nThese divisions of educational hygiene\n\nwe may well agree upon as those first suggested, I think, by Dr. Thomas\nD. Wood, of Teachers College, Coliunbia University, but in other terms\nnamely:\n1.\n\nMedical Inspection\n\n2.\n\nSchool Sanitation\n\n3.\n\nPhysical Education\n\n4.\n\nTeaching Hygiene\n\n5.\n\nHygienic Teaching\n\nThe term \"medical inspection\" is a misnomer for a number of reasons,\nbut chiefly because the school medical service is reaching out far beyond\nmere inspection. The name is, however, relatively fixed, and the more\ndesirable term, \"medical supervision,\" including both inspection and\nexamination as well as clinical, preventive, and follow-up work, will probably have little chance of gaining headway, while \"health supervision\"\nwould not do because this indicates the work of the whole department of\nhygiene and may, moreover, easily lead to confusion with the local health\ndepartment of the city.\nThe last term, \"hygienic teaching,\" is usually termed the \"hygiene of\ninstruction,\" but since in this coimtry and abroad this term, \"instruction,\"\nis gradually taking on the narrower meaning of the \"pouring-in process,\"\nin contrast to real educative teaching, we naturally avoid it, altho Professor\n\nMcMurray has not hesitated to use it in his new book on Elementary\nSchool Standards.\n\nWhat we need, then, is men who can integrate all these isolated and\nlargely undeveloped elements\n\nand center all toward the solution of the\n\n»Two books have been published giving the results of this investigation, entitled, School Health Administration\n\nand The Administration of Medical Inspection: A Tentative Plan, the latter a reprint from the former:\n\npublished by Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\n"} {"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE\n\nschool health problem.\n\n651\n\nAfter some search, I have found that men pos-\n\nsessmg this all-round knowledge of the science and practice of educational\nhygiene are actually now available and can be procured for state, city, and\nrural-district school\n\nsystems as supervisors of hygiene at salaries ranging\n\nfrom about $2,000 up to and beyond $4,000. They are comparatively few\nin number and somewhat expensive, and yet, as I have attempted to show\nin other places, they will not necessitate much addition to current school\n\nexpenditures in a locality where school health provisions have already been\nestablished.\n\nThe new, reorganized system need cost little more than the\n\nold unsupervised, uncorrelated, and wasteful system.\n\nSuch a physician-\n\nphysical-educator can, for example, do the work of two to four or five\n\npart-time medical inspectors and of one or two elementary teachers, or super-\n\nHe can direct athletics and summer playground\nHe\ncan direct the nurses in such a way as to make it possible in many places\n\nvisors, of physical training.\n\nwork, evening recreation centers, and public-school athletic leagues.\n\nto eliminate attendance, or truant, officers, as is now being done in several\n\nHe can make the work of the whole health and development corps\nmore efficient, eliminating waste, testing results, cutting down exclusions\nand illness-absence, and consequent retardation, non-promotion, and elimination. He can be the health leader of the schools and frequently of\nthe community, and can quite largely be held responsible for the health of\nthe pupils and teachers of the public schools.\nWhat we need is full-time workers, special qualifications, broad and\nscientific supervision, health leadership and experimentation, and, finally,\na complete reorganization and integration of all the heterogeneous features\nand phases of educational hygiene.\nplaces.\n\n2.\n\nOfficers of edticational hygiene.\n\nvillages,\n\n—In every state there are many\n\ncities,\n\nand rural districts that are desiring skilled help in promoting\n\nhealth ends.\n\nIt has been a matter of constant surprise to note the almost\n\npainful anxiety of many nurses, school officials,\n\nand medical supervisors,\n\nin the places I have visited, to learn the best methods that have been worked\n\nout by other localities and what can be done to put into operation or to\nmake more efficient their school health provisions. With adequate leadership in each state it would not be long until most progressive communities\n\nhad risen to the modern hygienic standards, and the backward ones had\nbeen powerfully stimulated to move in the inevitable direction. The\nschools and the states want health leadership. This important service\ncan be performed by no less a person than a state supervisor of educational\nHis function will be to\n\nhygiene, in the state department of education.\nvisit,\n\nstudy, plan, inspire, revitalize, and co-ordinate\n\nall\n\nschool health\n\nagencies in the state, and his department may well be divided into the five\ndivisions above mentioned.\n\nPresent school officers do not have the special\n\nmedical and hygienic knowledge, the interest, or the time\n\nskillfully to\n\nmanage this great, many-sided developing instrument for making healthy,\n\n"} {"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\niChOd Hygiene\n\nvigorous, and happy the lives of our developing citizens.\n\nThis is the work\n\n6^2\n\nof the supervisors of hygiene.\n\nWe have already mentioned the need of the local supervisor of hygiene\nfor a city, a group of small cities, or for a rural region, say a township or\n\nA city as small as ten thousand population can easily afford such\n\ncounty.\n\nhealth leadership.\n\nAs cities increase in size the possibility for such leadership\n\nbecomes greater and greater.\n3.\n\nOrganization of edticational hygiefie.\n\n—^The supervisor of hygiene\n\nis\n\npaid, let us say, $2,500 for his services for the beginning year or years.\n\nFor two hours or more each day he may medically examine the school\nWith two hours a day he can in the school year examine a maximum of about three thousand pupils and make such inspections (anything\nless than the annual routine physical examination once a year of each pupil)\nas prove necessary, apart from the examinations. Some cities now have\ntwo or three part-time physicians for this number of pupils. For each\nother group of three thousand pupils the supervisor will, at first, need a\npart-time physician. The latter should be paid from $40 to $60 a month\nof forty hours, on the average, for two hours' daily service in examining\npupils and making a few necessary inspections of urgent cases referred to him\nby the nurse or teachers. He should make examinations in but one school\na day, perhaps five different ones a week, or ten in two weeks, depending\nchildren.\n\nupon the number of schools necessary to furnish the required nimiber of\npupils, thus eliminating the great losses of time due to traveling about from\n\nschool to school each day on tours of inspection\n\ning to the nurse.\ninspector.\n\n—^work legitimately belong-\n\nThe physician is a medical examiner principally, not an\n\nHe has as his assistant a school nurse who helps at examinations,\n\nrefers to him difficult cases, makes most of the inspections,\n\nand does part\n\nThe number of assistant physicians, or medical\nexaminers, can roughly be determined by subtracting from the number of\n\nof the follow-up work.\n\npupils, elementary and high, three thousand for the supervisor, and dividing\n\nthe remaining number by three thousand.\n\nDining the remainder of his day the supervisor of hygiene can devote\nhimself to the supervision of the work of the nurses, the assistant physicians, the hygienic aspects of new and old buildings, the school clinic or\nclinics,\n\nif\n\nany, play and playgroimds, athletics, and the other work of\n\nphysical education.\n\nHere, as suggested,\n\nmay be another large saving\n\ntoward his salary, for in many places the present poorly trained elementary\nphysical training teachers, with salaries ranging from $500 upward, may\nbe enturely eliminated. We have now in their place one who knows not\nonly the field of hygiene, and physical education, but vastiy more in the\nfield of preventive and curative medicine.\n\nA number of other such savings\n\ntoward his salary will be apparent to many superintendents when the idea\nWhere, of course, cities or other\nis applied to their own school systems.\nlocalities have done littie or nothing toward meeting the health situation.\n\n"} {"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE\n\n653\n\nhave few or no teachers of physical education, have no nurses, no physicians,\nno clmics, little or no expenditures for the improvement of the health and\nenergy of their charges, then to make modern hygienic knowledge general\nschool and conmiunity practice will mean money, from 2 to 3 or $ per cent\nBut even here a 3 per cent increase, say,\nof current school expenditures.\nwill not mean permanentiy increased ouUays for the simple reason that\nbad health conditions unremedied and unprevented have been, already,\na large and insidious means of waste. Health is the greatest economy a\nschool can purchase;\n\nand preventive education must make large use of\n\npreventive medicine.\n\nAt the beginning, there should be at least one nurse to each physician,\nincluding the supervisor.\n\nIn most localities, however, there will probably\n\nsoon be provided one nurse for, at most, each two thousand pupils enrolled.\n\nA system with six thousand enrolled elementary and high-school pupils\nwould thus have a hygiene supervisor, two assistant physicians two hours\na day, and three nurses. The latter would be on full-time, about forty\nhours a week, thus giving four times the number of hours to the service as\nthe assistant physician.\n\nWhether there need be any elementary teachers\n\nof physical training, or more nurses or physicians, or any other changes,\n\ncan be determined thru intelligent investigation by the supervisor and\nsuperintendent after the system is started.\n\nThe present directors of physical education in the high schools, with\ntheir\n\ngymnasiimis and regular physical education work,\n\nwill\n\nperhaps be\n\nkept, a man and a woman for each large high school or group of high schools.\n\nSuch persons, however, should have medical training in order that they\nmay, to a large extent, carry on the work of medical inspection for the high\nschools and do the best work as physical educators.\nNot having such\nequipment for their work, they should be given necessary medical training by the supervisor; and they should also attend summer colleges, for\nthat purpose. Each pupil in the high schools should be examined once a\nyear by the physicians, male and female, if possible, while the inspections\ncan be carried on by the teachers, nurses, and physical training teachers.\nSince the latter see all the pupils each week, they should bear most of this\nresponsibility.\nWhen trained, they may, with the help of the supervisor,\nbe able, perhaps, to make unnecessary any visits to the high schools by\nnurses and assistant physicians.\nBoth the supervisor and at least part of the nurses should work eleven\nmonths in the year, the latter in relays to bridge over the sunmier months,\nsome in July and some in August, in order to carry on the much-needed\ninspection of children in summer schools and playgrounds, the home visits\nnecessary for new cases and for obtaining cures for old cases left over\nuncured from the school year, the instruction of mothers in the prevention\nof infant mortality, and the home care of the children soon, if they live, to\nbecome members of the schools.\n\n"} {"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n654\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nThe salary for the nurse should not be less than $75 a month for eleven\nmonths, but paid twelve times a year the same as other school officials.\nInexperienced nurses may be started at a lower salary and a higher maxi-\n\nmiun should be established, while all should be on a definite salary schedule,\nthe same as teachers.\nIt is possible that all part-time work for the assistant physicians may\nbe eliminated in many places. It is a problem yet to be worked out.\nPart-time services are undoubtedly only a temporary makeshift. The\narguments that such work keeps the physician in touch with his profession,\nand that it prevents his \"going to seed\" in routine seem to be of very little\nforce.\nThe right kind of supervisor will win the respect and co-operation\nof the medical fraternity of the community and will keep his assistants in\ntouch with the developing science of their profession and general medical\nsociology; while physicians who would \"go to seed\" in the manifold phases\nand developing opportunities of this new work in the field of state control\nof the health of the young are such as would \"go to seed\" in any system and\nany kind of work, and should be eliminated as soon as possible. No school\nofficial of the right type can today get very much out of touch with actual\nlife and scientific and social progress.\nThe assistant physicians may give three hours each morning to the\nwork but it is doubtful whether it would be wise to require them to do the\nwork the two or three hours of the afternoon also. They might be employed\nto teach hygiene in the high schools, to help supervise the physical training,\netc., but they would require a salary two or three times that of nurses, and\n\ndoubtful whether it would not be better to eliminate the physicians\nand employ only specially trained nurses and continue their training in\nit is\n\nservice.\n\nDiminishing returns with the increase of salary of physicians\n\nspeedily bring in the school nurse, often more efficient generally than are\n\nPerhaps the solution of part-time will be made in this direc-\n\nphysicians.\n\nThe weak link is the need for a\namount of medical education for the nurses before and while in\n\ntion as it is in Oakland, Cal., at present.\nlarge\n\nservice.\n4.\n\nThis, too, furnishes a very definite problem.\n\nzation clinic:\n\n—\n\na) The preliminary standardiof medical inspection.\nThe supervisor of hygiene should meet the physicians and\n\nThe method\n\nnurses at the beginning of the year and with them examine a number of\nchildren.\n\nTeachers and principals may also be present.\n\nthe development of\n\nTheir object is\n\ncommon standards and good teamwork.\n\nTeachers\n\nshould be instructed as to their large and important part of the work in\nreferring children for inspection and in seeing that cures are obtained;\n\nand\n\nsymptom charts and medical inspection handbooks such as Hoag's Health\nIndex of Children (Whitaker & Ray-Wiggin Co.), or Comell's Health and\nMedical Inspection of School Children (F. A. Davis Co.) should be furnished\nthem thru the school libraries. Dresslar's new book on School Hygiene\n\n(Macmillan) is valuable for most phases of school hygiene.\n\nDitman's Home\n\n"} {"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE\n\n655\n\nHygiene and Prevention of Disease (Duffield), Lippert and Holmes's When to\nSend for the Doctor, and What to Do Before the Doctor Comes (Lippincott),\nand Hutchinson's Handbook of Health (Houghton Mifflin Co.) are three\nnew, very simple, and very practical books for teachers, nurses, and parents.'\nHolt's Diseases of Childhood and Infancy (Appleton) is authoritative,\nencyclopedic, and technical, but exceedingly interesting to those devoted\nto the whole child, and very enlightening as a general reference.\nThe present lack of agreement in the kind of work done by physicians\nand nurses in the way of exclusions, degrees of defects to be referred for\ntreatment, co-operation with teachers, methods of recording and reporting,\netc., can be largely done away with by such preliminary and other meetings.\nh) The September room inspection of all pupils: The nurse and physician working as a team, the latter inspecting and the former helping and\nrecording, can medically inspect an ordinary room full of pupils in a halfhour.\n\nAt the beginning of each year they should make a rapid room\n\ninspection of their three thousand pupils in the first two weeks of the term.\n\nOnly the most serious and the infectious ailments should be referred for\ntreatment, since all pupils will be given a careful examination in turn before\nthe end of the year anyway, and the object here is to get the children in\ngood shape for their year's work and to prevent any possibilities of epidemics. Detailed directions for all this work I have given in the volumes\nmentioned at the beginning of the paper. Briefly, the pupils file past the\nphysician as he stands with his back to a good light at the side of the room\nwhile the nurse records ailments, by the use of the code numbers of a weekly\nreport form, on each pupil's cumulative health record card.\nc)\n\nOccasional room inspections:\n\nSpecial, or occasional,\n\nroom inspec-\n\ntions will be made by the nurses thruout the year as they find it necessary.\n\nIn case of an impending epidemic both doctors and nurses may make a\n\nroom inspection of several or all schools to eliminate carriers and other\ninfected children.\nd) Individual inspections:\n\nIndividual inspections will be made by the\n\nnurses of pupils entering that school for the first time after the September\n\nroom inspections, of pupils absent for more than three days, of pupils\nreferred by teachers each day, etc.\nThe physician will inspect such children, especially urgent cases referred to him by the nurse or teachers, in the\nsingle school he visits each day.\nWork that the nurse can do as well should\nbe left for her as much as possible. If possible, the assistant nurse should\nbe at the school before the physician's arrival each day to eliminate all but\nthe most technical inspection of cases puzzling to her. The extra niurse,\n» Cruikshank's School Clinics has since been published by the National League for Physical Education\nand Improvement, 4 Tavistock Square, W.C, London, England; Terman and Hoag also have a new volume\nentitled Health Work in Schools, published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass.; and the writer has\none forthcoming by a large group of specialists entitled Educational Hygiene, as well as a smaller volume,\nespecially for teachers, entitled School Health.\nLina Rogers Struthers, the first municipal school nurse of\nAmerica, and supervisor of school nurses of Toronto, probably has published by this time a much-needed\nvolume on The School Nurse.\n\n"} {"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n656\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\non the two-thousand-pupils basis, can daily visit each school not visited\nby the nurse and physician who work as a team, and can help with the home\nvisiting.\ne)\n\nExaminations:\n\nComplete, routine, physical examinations of\n\npupils in the school system should be made each year.\n\nall\n\nThey will begin\n\nimmediately after the September room inspections and last thruout the\nschool year, each physician having sufficient children to keep him busy all\n\nThe doctor and assistant nurse will work together in the medical\nThe\nnurse will make the examinations for sight and hearing, make records, fill\nyear.\n\ninspection room and begin with the children of the lowest grades.\n\nout notices, and calm the children and get them ready for the more strictly\n\nTen or more children can thus be\nexamined in an hour, twenty in the physician's two-hour day, or a hundred\nas a minimum a week. The number will vary with the amoimt of consultation over puzzling cases, the age of the children, and the character of the\n\nmedical examination by the physician.\n\nneighborhood.\n\nNo routine height,\n\nweight,\n\nchest\n\nexpansion,\n\nor other\n\nThey are little used when\nThey take up much time, and most\n\nanthropological measurements need be made.\n\nmade and are of little practical value.\n\nsupervisors will find that they can be eliminated without loss.\n\nAll health\n\nrecords will be placed on the individual health record card, and all other\n\nrecords and reports will be made out by the nurse, thus eliminating the\n\ngreat loss of time thru having physicians, at greater expense to the system,\n\ndoing such work.\n\nMost individual record cards and most reporting sys-\n\ntems are at present seriously defective.\n\nI have tried to devise a system\nwhich will eliminate many of the weaknesses. The report is made for each\nday and sent in weekly on Saturday afternoons when all the home visiting\nhas been done. The extra nurse who does not work with a physician will\n\nmake a report of her own inspections and home visiting.\n\nWe greatly need a tentative standard classification and terminology\nOne worked out by the\nby which to systematize and compare the ailments foimd in the\n\nfor all the ailments of children of school age.\nwriter,\n\ntwenty-five cities especially studied, is here offered, along with an estimate\n\nderived by much study of the probable number of children among each\n\nthousand pupils of all grades, who will be found to be rather seriously\naffected during a school year.\n\nThey are only rough and average figures\nThe actual sum of ail-\n\nwithout deviations and based upon poor records.\n\nments for the twenty-five cities showed that pediculosis (lice) was most\nfrequent, while defective teeth took second place.\n\nThis classification should probably be studied, modified, and made a\nworking standard by a representative committee of the National Education\nAssociation in order to promote efficiency\nresults.\nfield.\n\nand inter-city comparison of\nAt present we are practically without standards in this whole\n\n"} {"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE\n\nDepartment]\n\n657\n\nTentative Standard Classification and Terminology of School Ailments for\nSchool Records and Reports with the Probable Number of Referable\nAilments to Be Found in Any School Year among 1,000 ElementarySchool Children of All Grades\nI.\n\nNon-communicable Ailments\nA\n\nA.\n\nT»i-\n\n•\n\n1\n\n-rx\n\nf\n\n^\n\nPhysical Defects\n\nNumber of Serious Aaments among 1,000\nElementary Pupfls\n\n1.\n\nAdenoids, nasal obstruction, etc\n\n50\n\n2.\n\nAnemia\n\n10\n\n3.\n\nDeafness, defective hearing\n\n5\n\nDental\n5. Enlarged tonsils\n\n660\n60\n\n4.\n\n6.\n\nEyesight\n\n70\n\nEyes crossed, strabismus, squint\n8. Glands enlarged, adenitis\n9. Heart defects\n10. Lungs very weak, not tuberculosis\n7.\n\n7\n\n10\n9\n5\n\n11. Malnutrition, debility, indigestion, general condition\n\n20\n\n12. Mentality, defective\n\n10\n\n13.\n\nNervousness, chorea, habit spasm, nervous exhaustion\n\n2\n\n14. Palate defects\n\n2\n\n16. Spine: curvature, posture, round shoulders, etc\n\n8\n\nSpeech: stuttering, stammering, lisping, etc\n\n9\n\n17.\n\nB.\n\n7\n\n15. Skeleton, orthopedic defects (flat-foot, club-foot, etc.)\n\nCommon Ailments\n18. Abscess, boils, etc\n19.\n\nS\n\nAcute sore throat, cough, etc\n\n2\n\n20. Bronchitis\n\ni\n\n20\n\n21. Cleanliness needed\n22. Catarrh, rhinitis\n\n10\n\n23. Colds, coryza\n\n30\n\n24.\n\nEar discharge, otitis media\n\n15\n\n25. Ears: ear wax (impacted cerumen), foreign bodies, etc\n\n5\n\n26.\n\nEczema\n\n27.\n\nEyes: \"sore,\" blepharitis, styes, iritis, etc\n\n20\n\n28.\n\nHeadache (a symptom), migraine, neuralgia\n\n15\n\n7\n\n29. Laryngitis\n\n2\n\n31. Pharyngitis, chronic sore throat\n\n3\n\n32.\n\nRheumatism\n\n33.\n\nSex ailments and habits\n\n34. Skin ailments, minor: herpes, seborrhea, acne (black-heads), etc.\n\n35. Stomatitis, mouth ulcers, \"canker sores\"\n36.\n\nWounds, sores, sprains, poison-ivy, chilblains, \"first-aid,\" etc\n\n37. Urinary ailments, incontinence of urine\nII.\n\n5\n\n30. Nose-bleed, epistaxis\n\ni\n\n10\n.\n\n15\ni\n\n150\n2\n\nCommunicable Ailments\nA.\n\nParasitic and Minor Infectious Ailments\n38. Conjunctivitis, \"pink eye,\" etc\n\n30\n\n39. Favus, yellow scalp sores\n\ni\n\n40. Impetigo, infectious sores\n\n20\n\n41. Influenza, grippe, infectious colds of a serious character\n42. Pediculosis, head Uce and vermin\n\ni\n\n50\n\n"} {"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n658\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nTentative Standard Classification and Terminology op School Ailments for\nSchool Records and Reports Continued\n,^\n^,\n\n—\n\n,\n\n.\n\nNumber of Senous Ail-\n\nn.\n\nCommunicable hUMEiiTS—Continued\n43.\n\nB.\n\nElemlnuiy1»Jp'£°\n\nRingworm, body and scalp\n\n4\n\n44. Scabies, itch\n\n5\n\n45. Tonsilitis, quinsy\n\n10\n\nInfectious Diseases\n46.\n\nChicken pox\n\n6\n\n47. Diphtheria\n\n2\n\n48.\n\nMeasles\n\n49.\n\nMumps\n\n4\n4\n4\n\n50. Scarlet fever\n51.\n\nTrachoma, \"granulated eye-lids\"\n\ni\n\n52. Tuberculosis of the lungs\n\ni\n\n53. Tuberculosis of the bones and other parts of the body\n\ni\n\n54.\n\nWhooping cough\n\n2\n\nTotal\n\n1,409\n\nm.\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nThis country is far behind several European countries in the provisions\n\nOur death-rate is too high, our morbidity\ncommon, many parasitic and infectious diseases\nstalk abroad over the land, and the hygienic knowledge of our teachers,\nand consequently of our children and citizens, is very meager and entirely\ninadequate. The vast field of medical research has brought to the schools\na wealth of health knowledge and many new agencies and instruments for\ngovernmental and community control over the health destinies of our people.\nAlong with the problem of adequate vocational education and guidance\nfor school and national hygiene.\n\nis\n\ntoo widespread and\n\nfor our \"nation of sixth-graders,\" the health problem stands out as one of\n\nthe great and pressing problems of life and the public schools.\n\nThe fundamental method of adjusting the schools to the situation is,\nfirst,\n\nto get specialized intelligence at\n\nwork on the problem; second, to\n\nstudy and investigate health needs of pupils and community;\n\nthird, to\n\nstudy the relation of the school to other health agencies in order to determine its supplemental function; and fourth, actively and energetically, with\nstate aid and conmiunity co-operation, to go forward\n\nand make the health\n\nknowledge now possessed by the few the actual health practice of the\nmany. Preventive medicine and preventive education must go hand in\nhand. The goal is economy, efficiency, national vitality, and national\nhappiness.\n\n"} {"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nB.\n\nR.\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF HEALTH DEPARTMENTS\n\n659\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF HEALTH DEPARTMENTS—\nTHE COLORADO PLAN\n\nW. CORWIN, M.D., PUEBLO, COLO., PROFESSOR OF SURGERY, UNIVERSITY\nOF COLORADO\n\nThe following is the school law of Colorado:\nPhysical Examination:\n\nThe state superintendent of pubUc instruction shall prepare or cause to be prepared\nsuitable test cards, blanks, record books, and other needful appliances and supplies to be\n\nused in testing the sight, hearing, and breathing of pupils in the public schools, and the\nnecessary instructions for their use; and shall furnish the same free of expense to every\npublic school in the state.\n\nThe teacher or principal in every public school, or, where there is no principal, the\ncounty superintendent, shall, during the first month of each school year, test the sight,\nhearing, and breathing of all pupils under his charge, such examination to be made by\n\nand without coming in contact with\nand keep a record of such examinations according to the instructions furnished,\n\nobservation, without using drugs or instruments,\nsaid child;\n\nand make a written report of such examinations to the state superintendent of public\ninstruction as he may require.\n\nEvery teacher in the public schools shall report the mental, moral, and physical\ndefectiveness of any child under his supervision, as soon as such defectiveness is apparent,\n\nto the principal, or, where there is no principal, to the county superintendent.\n\nSuch\n\nprincipal or county superintendent shall promptly notify the parents or guardian of each\nchild found to be defective of the child's defectiveness,\n\nand shall recommend to such\n\nparents or guardian that such child be thoroly examined as soon as possible by a competent\nphysician or surgeon with special reference to the eyes, ears, nose, throat, teeth, and spine.\nIf the parents or guardian of such child shall fail, neglect, or refuse to have such examina-\n\ntion made and treatment begun within a reasonable time after such notice has been given,\n\nthe said principal or superintendent shall notify the state bureau of child and animal protection of the facts; providing, however, that whenever it shall be made to appear to the\n\nsaid principal or superintendent, upon the written statement of the parent or guardian of\n\nsaid child, that such parent or guardian has not the necessary funds wherewith to pay the\n\nexpenses of such examination and treatment, the said principal or superintendent shall\ncause such examination and treatment to be made by the county physician of the district\n\nwherein said child resides, and it shall be the duty of such county physician to make such\n\nexamination and treatment, and if he be unable to properly treat such child he shall\nforthwith report such fact to the county commissioners of the county, with his recom-\n\nmendation.\n\nThe state auditor is hereby directed to draw his order for such sums and at such\ntimes as the state superintendent of public instruction may require to carry out the\nprovisions of this act.\n\nThe total expenses under this act shall not exceed one thousand dollars in any biennial\nperiod ending November 30.\n\nI can do no better than to quote parts of \"Health and the Schools\"\nfrom the last report of the state superintendent of public instruction, 191 2:\nHealth an Asset:\n\nNo heaping-up of wealth, no amount of culture will avail unless, as a people, we\nhave health. Even from the standpoint of mere financial need, health is what the entire\nbusiness world is demanding, and as a business asset it behooves us to develop the health\n\n"} {"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n66o\nof our children;\n\nfor health\n\n(ChUd Hygiene\n\nand reliability of character go hand in hand, and reliability\n\ncommands a high price in the markets of the world. If we argue from the standpoint of\nindustrial efficiency alone, we shall find that ill health is not only a barrier to development,\nbut an enormous dog to our social progress.\nEvery man, woman, and child in the United States should be taught the laws of health\nand the simple measures needed for protection. Not imtil our country becomes educated\nwill control of disease become possible; for the solution of this problem lies in prevention,\nand prevention is education. This education must come thru the children. We are\nbeginning to realize that our public schools are a trust, and that children, while under\nthe supervision of the school authorities, should be safe from harm. We are also beginning\nto realize that efficiency rests not alone on education and intelligence, but is equally dependent on physical health and vigor. The state must broaden its interest and responsibility,\nand, if intellectual training is compulsory, make training for physical soundness no less so.\nIt must also teach children the measures necessary to avoid disease, if our national health\nis to be preserved; and from the lowest to the highest grades in our schools the laws of\nhealth should be taught; for the child of today is the citizen of tomorrow. And, as\n\nhealth is fundamentally a moral as well as a physical question, we should see to it that\n\nproper emphasis is laid upon the care of the body, teaching children that it is not a thing\nof evil, to be subjected to harsh discipline, but is the home of the mind;\nis to develop and\n\nand if the mind\ncome into its own, the body must be nourished and cared for.\n\nOne of the first requirements in our schools should be teachers who realize the relation\nof the child's physical condition to its school efficiency; for it is clearly demonstrated that\nfailure in studies, nervousness, apathy, dullness,\n\nand much viciousness on the part of\n\nchildren are the direct results of ailments that are easily curable.\n\nIn general, the medical inspection of our schools aims, first, to detect conmiunicable\ndisease;\n\nsecond, to discover the physical defects of individual children.\n\nAnd it is an\n\nestablished fact that in communities where special attention is given to physical examination in schools the work is of high standard, the general health is greatly improved, and\ninfectious diseases are reduced to a minimum.\n\nIn 1910-1911 the examination was incomplete, only 42 counties reporting.\n\nThese counties make the following report:\nNumber of pupils enrolled\nNumber of pupils examined\nNumber of pupils with defective eyesight\n\n13,879\n\nNiunber of pupils with defective hearing\n\n4i87i\n\nNumber of pupils with defective breathing\nNumber of pupils mentally deficient\n\n3,070\n\n70,015\n\n4^,279\n\n1,519\n\nIn 1911-1912 the examination was conducted in 55 counties, with the\nfollowing results:\n\nNumber of pupils enrolled.\nNumber of pupils examined\nNumber of pupils with defective eyesight\nNumber of pupils with defective hearing\nNumber of pupils with defective breathing\nNumber of pupils mentally deficient\nNumber of pupils morally deficient\nNumber with defects other than enumerated\n\n130,948\n118,875\n16,536\n4,599\n6,884\n1,504\n\n494\n2,521\n\nThe State superintendent of public instruction issued the following\nletter form regarding physical examination:\n\n"} {"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION OF HEALTH DEPARTMENTS\n\n66l\n\nSTATE OF COLORADO\nNotice to Parent or Guardian\n\nTown\n\nCounty\nDate\niQi\nYour child\nhas been examined according to Sections 68 and 69, School\nsight, hearing, breathing, seem to be\nLaws Annotated, 191 2, and it is found that\ndefective, and we advise you to take the child to a competent physician for examination\nand treatment.\nI hope you will give this matter attention and send to us a satisfactory report from\nthe physician employed, as we are obliged to work under the provisions of Sections 68 and\n69, School Laws Annotated, 191 2, and need your earnest co-operation.\nSchool\n\nMr\n\n»\n\n•\n\n•\n\nIn case of contagious disease, it will be necessary to exclude the pupil from school in\naccordance with the rules of the state and local boards of health, in order not to spread\ncontagion.\n\nPrincipal\n\nCounty Superintendent\n\nCOMMENTS AND CRITICISMS\n\nAny teacher can make a report; the teacher best tramed in this work\nmake a more complete report; the expert trained in test-making will\nmake a valuable report; the reports as given are of worth, but not imtil the\n\nwill\n\nstate can afford to employ expert examiners will the best, most trustworthy,\n\nand really serviceable reports be secured.\n\n—\n\nThe law has been of value\n\n^not\n\nonly has it ascertained the condition\n\nof children but it has instructed the teacher and taught the parent;\n\n—that\n\nparents learn there is hope\n\n—\n\nteaching now be right\n\nwhen\n\nwill come with the next generation if the\n\n^but real progress cannot come imtil the public learn\n\nand observe.\n\nMany now know and understand but are lacking in the very mental qualifications that make for good and best;\n\nnot imtil there is progress in moral\n\nmentality can there be racial improvement.\n\nImproved environment has accomplished much but there is much more\nWe must begin\nback of environment; environment is not sufficient in these days of dissipation, degradation, and misguided sentiment.\nGreater effort must be made to enlighten the ignorant, to bring the\nindifferent to a sense of realization, and to stimulate the educated to greater\nto be accomplished that is not controlled by environment.\n\nactivity.\n\nNever has the world been confronted with more difficult problems: Dr.\nJordan has said that charity creates more misery than it relieves. Our\ncountry pours out its wealth lavishly for charity and does the very things\nthat create misery.\n\nWe spend $32,000,000 annually upon the insane and encourage them\nwe expend immense\nsums upon the feeble-minded, keep them under control when harmless, and\nto multiply their kind by giving them their liberty;\n\n"} {"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n662\n\nfChild Hygiene\n\nturn them loose to reproduce more fools when of the age to become parents\nin like manner we deal with the criminal, the epileptic, the alcoholic, and\n\nthe prostitute, who are mental and moral defectives, permitting them to\n\npropagate their type!\n\nThe buyer of intoxicants is punished instead of the seller.\nment legislates in favor of foods but never against liquors.\n\nThe govern-\n\nWe preach but do not practice.\nWe teach the child economy and set an example of extravagance.\n\n—\n\nMothers play cards, drink tea, and grow nervouis and fathers commercially\ndissipate ^at the expense of the living and to the detriment of the unborn.\nWe teach environment and neglect heredity. We are a success at\nfeeding but a failure at breeding.\nHealth to the pupil is of more importance than mental development;\nif so, teach and cultivate health, and give it more importance than any\n\n—\n\nother study in school.\n\nThe value of environment cannot be overestimated\n\n— should be taught\nit\n\nin every grade and by expert teachers, especially prepared;\n\nimportance is the teaching of the science of heredity.\nthe beginning,\n\nit is\n\nstructure of life.\n\nbut of more\n\nHeredity begins at\n\nthe foimdation of existence; environment, the super-\n\nWe should teach better heredity—eugenics; every school\n\nand every grade should have instruction in heredity and eugenics.\n\nThe\n\ncause of feeble-mindedness, criminality, epilepsy, alcoholism, pauperism,\n\nand prostitution should be known and the prevention imderstood.\nThe cure cannot be brought about thru environment; upon eugenics\nrests the salvation of the race.\n\nC.\n\nCHILD HYGIENE AND THE PARENT\n\nANNA IRENE JENKINS, DIRECTOR OF ROOSEVELT KINDERGARTENS,\nPASADENA, CAL.\n\nThe cause of child hygiene has attracted to its standard the expert\ninvestigators from the entire range of living sciences.\n\nThese experts have\n\npresented an appalling collection of data as to conditions and habits of\nlife, offsetting these with an interesting array of scientific facts with regard\nto the laws of life and development.\n\nAll of these data are becoming avail-\n\nable thru bulletins, magazine articles, books, and lectures.\n\nTheir figures\n\ndo not always tally, neither are they imanimous as to the details of solution,\nbut there are certain points of common agreement; i.e., that permanent\nimprovement and development must come to the race by living in obedience\nto the laws of health; that you and I and our neighbors on both sides must\nourselves knoWy and practice what we know;\n\nand that the chief responsibility\n\nfor imparting the knowledge of nature's laws and their proper observance\nfalls upon the shoulders of the parent and the teacher.\n\n"} {"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD HYGIENE AND THE PARENT\n\nDepattmentl\n\n663\n\nNow in taking up the phase of the problem before us today, let us sum\nup our assets and liabilities.\n^There is: (a) a small percentage of mature, keen\n1. The parent.\nmothers who have studied long and experimented intelligently, and who\n\n—\n\nare going forward with the assurance of ultimate success;\n\n(fi)\n\na much\n\nlarger percentage of mothers just awaking to a need in themselves, anxious\n\nto be shown how to use intelligently this information which they are told\nexists;\n\n{c)\n\na great mass of unawakened womanhood immersed in a search\n\n—\n\nand for daily bread dwellers in palace and cottage; (d) a\ndawning appreciation that a father is a parent; (e) a progressive awakening\nalong social and civic lines. What was once delegated to private philanthropy now becomes civic duty in preserving and improving the citizenship\n\nfor diversion,\n\nof the land.\n2.\n\nThe school.\n\n—With regard to the school we have:\n\n(a)\n\nan educational\n\nsystem which has done excellent service in its day and generation, but\n\nwhich in parts seems to have outlived its power of adjustment to changing\nconditions; (6) a shifting angle of vision as to the fimction and power of\neducation; (c) an educational teaching force, overburdened in time, in\nduties, physically, and in mental demands and requirements; {d) a lack of\nappreciation on the part of the majority of teachers as to their individual\nsocial responsibility toward the community that employs them.\n{a) A fast accumulating number of books,\n3. Hygienic data and tools.\nmagazines, bulletins, expert investigators, foundations, state and national\ndepartments are all seeking a solution of the various phases of the problem;\n(6) housing and equipment of such multitudinous variety that they can\nnot only serve for every phase of model sanitation but also as horrible\nexamples of what not to do and how not to live are in evidence.\n\n—\n\nWhat now of the teacher who is to become the interpreter of hygienic\nShe must first have a sense of her own social responsibility toward\n\nliving ?\n\nthe conamunity which has employed her.\n\nThen will she study carefully\n\nher community; really become acquainted and make friends with its people;\nsee its needs and its possibilities.\nIt\n\nis\n\nthru example, precept, and organized\n\neffort\n\nthat the teacher's\n\nknowledge reaches her people:\n\nThe example, first of all, of her own daily life and habits; and also the\nexample of her room its \"atmosphere,\" its ventilation, and its cleanliness.\nNow with regard to precept, counsel, personal touch, district visiting,\nwhat you will Last winter, W. H. Allen, of the New York Bureau of Muni-\n\n—\n\n!\n\n\"Modern School Problems,\"\nAt the close of the address he said: \"There is only one way to solve these\nproblems. The time is coming when a portion of school time will be set\naside for the teacher to visit the home of the student.\" The time wasted\nover the misunderstood child could be put to much better advantage by\nboth teacher and child thru the knowledge of needs and advantages secured\ncipal Research, spoke to a teachers' club on\n\n"} {"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n664\n\n[Chnd Hygiene\n\nby the personal study of the child's home and neighborhood environment.\nBut the parent, you say, how does this help the parent ? That depends on\nthe parent, and on the tact and common-sense of the teacher. It may be a\ncase of simple direct statement of hygienic law and practice needed in that\nhome or by that child; it may be the recommendation of a magazine or a\nbook; it may be the bringing-about of a meeting with some other parent\nwhom you have found to have solved the same problem; or it may be just\nthe cheer and confidence which w ill come into a timid mother's heart thru\na purely friendly visit. The most infallible entering wedge for reform in\nchild hygiene, among the ignorant and the foreigners, is the firm beUef,\non their part, in the teacher's personal interest and sympathy.\nAs for organized effort, we know that organization, as already referred\nto, brings a combined study by the parenthood of the district of the problems\nof that district\nthe needs and development of the child, the care of the\n\n—\n\nschool, of the home, of themselves, especially as this relates to the offspring;\n\nthe protection of their home and family, secured only by a strict administration of law; for what real protection, if you please, has your home from\ndisease even when your own premises are scrupulously kept if your next-\n\ndoor neighbor break every law of sanitation in the decalog ?\n\nYes, it is to\n\nreach this goal that you organize: an awakened community with a well-\n\nequipped parenthood, a civic consciousness, and a thirst for righteousness.\n\nBut do not expect all this to come at once nor, in a city community,\nentirely thru your own organization, for your local parent-teacher association, or whatever you\n\nchance to call it, plays the part of incubator and\n\nbrooder, or, to change the simile, of the kindergarten of the parental training school.\n\nWhen this fact is lost sight of, one is likely to grow discouraged\n\nin the work.\n\nAnd so there are certain things we keep in mind in the conduct of our\nThe first aim is to get acquainted, parents and teachers,\n\norganized work.\n\nand parents with each other, for just as it is vital to the teacher to have\npersonal knowledge of the home and neighborhood environment of her\npupil, it is equally vital to the parents to\n\nknow the atmosphere of the\n\nschoolroom which their children breathe; the children with whom their\nchildren associate;\n\nand the parents of these playmates.\n\nThen, too, from this acquaintance comes the exchange of ideas, the\npersonal experiences, and the mutual help which brings to light the general\n\nand particular problem of that individual district and the resources at\nhand to bring to bear in solving it.\nAssuming more work or widening the scope of the work necessitates\nmore machinery in the conduct of the business. Guard certain things here.\nYour timid mother will shy at machinery. Keep it well oiled and out of\nsight.\nThen remember that machinery is installed as a means to an end\nit is not an end in itself.\nWhen any individual or organization becomes\nso enamored with watching the wheels go round that the cause is sacrificed\n\n"} {"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD HYGIENE AND THE PARENT\n\nDepartment!\n\n665\n\nto keep the fittings burnished, then the usefulness of that individual organi-\n\nzation has ceased.\n\nThe place of the teacher in this organized work is not necessarily that\nThe teacher\n\nof visible leadership, especially after the work is well started.\n\nshould always be fully alive to what is being done, available for counsel\nand sympathy, and ready to do her share of the work, but her share of the\nactual work is that of every individual member. An association run by\nthe teacher alone or by the parents alone fails to accompUsh that for which\nit is organized.\n\nWhen a need is to be brought before the club, it should be presented in\na simple forceful way, when possible with concrete illustration or demonstration, not by fulsomely worded generalities.\n\nimproving the school plant say\nrespond.\n\nThey always have.\n\nso,\n\nIf the teacher feels a need of\n\nand show why.\n\nThe parents will\n\nOn the other hand, if the parents feel a\n\nneed, or do not understand, they should be trained to realize that it is\ntheir privilege and duty to say so.\n\n—\n\nThen as to the meetings never let them resolve into a social function;\nbut a cup of tea and a cracker, accompanied by friendly chat, have often\nopened the heart of a timid or careless mother.\n\nBy all means have your\n\nexpert lecturers; but there are occasions and needs much better met by a\n\nsimple home-written paper or a \"conversation\" started with a remark or\nstatement, reinforced with busy fingers and a mending basket.\n\nThe world is at its best, I feel\n\nA triumph in the work I do;\nWith every turning of the wheel\nI add a little that is new:\nThe masses shapeless thru the past\nI\n\n—even I—give shape. I bring\n\nFrom silent uselessness, at last,\nThe pleasing, useful thing.\nAll that has been since first the light\n\nShot out across the gulfs of space\n\nWas that my crowning labor might\nPut something in its ordered place.\n\nThe sound the toiling thousands make\nIs earth's sublimest symphony,\n\nAnd I, a worker, proudly take\nThe part assigned to me.\n\n"} {"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident—VfiLLiAii E. Day, DesereCGymnasium\nVice-President—W. J. Monilaw, University of Chicago\n\nSecretary—^Mabel M. Wright, Carl Schurz High School\n\nSalt Lake'City, Utah.\n\nChicago, EU\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 9, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by the president.\nW. R. Tyndale, M.D., Salt Lake City, Utah, presented the first paper on \"Blood\nPressure as an Indication of Condition.\" The paper was discussed by C. L. Shields, M.D .,\nSalt Lake City, Utah.\n\nThe second paper, on \"The Effect of Altitude on Health,\" was given by A. J. Ridges,\nM.D., Salt Lake City, Utah. Jakob Bolm, of the University of Utah, Salt Lake City,\nUtah; Thomas D. Wood, M.D., Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; Baroness Rose\nPosse, president of the Posse Normal School of Gymnastics, Boston, Mass.; and Eugene\nRoberts, Brigham Yoimg University, Provo, Utah, contributed to the discussion.\nThe last paper on the program, \"Physical Training in the Rural School,\" was presented by Orson Ryan, superintendent, Jordan School District, Midvale, Utah. The\ndiscussion was led by Adam Bennion, principal. Granite High School, Salt Lake City,\nUtah. Others participating in the discussion were Thomas D. Wood, M.D., Columbia\nUniversity, New York, N.Y.; Jakob Bolin, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah;\nand Joseph S. Wright of the Francis W. Parker School, Chicago, lU.\nProfessor Bolin then moved that the chairman be instructed to offer the following\namendment to the resolution on \"Child Hygiene and the Rural School,\" as submitted\nby the Committee on Resolutions at the annual business meeting of the active members\nof the National Education Association on Thursday, July 10:\n\"8. Gymnastics, with the object in view of furnishing an all-sided physical activity\nunobtainable without this means and necessary particularly for the prevention of school\ndeformities.\"\n\nMotion carried.\n\nThe following nominating committee was appointed:\nEugene Roberts, athletic director, Brigham Yoimg University, Provo, Utah.\nJ. A. Pipal, physical director. Occidental College, Los Angeles, Cal.\nG. Long, director, physical education, public schools, Everett, Wash.\n\nMay\n\nSECOND SESSION—Fkiday Afternoon, July ii, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order by the president.\nProfessor Bolin reported that the amendment as proposed by himself at the Wednesday meeting was declared out of order by the Committee on Resolutions.\nThe first paper of the afternoon, on \"Present Needs of Physical Education in the\nPublic Schools,\" was presented by Baroness Rose Posse, president of the Posse Normal\nSchool of Gymnastics, Boston, Mass.\n\nThe discussion was lead by Charlotte Stewart, supervisor of physical education,\npublic schools, Salt Lake City.\n\nProfessor BoUn, of the University of Utah, and Eugene\n\nRoberts, of Brigham Young University, added to the discussion.\n\n667\n\n"} {"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n668\n\n[Physical\n\nThe second paper of the afternoon on \" Gymnastics as an Orthopedic Prophylactic\nin the School,\" was presented by Jakob Bolin, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\nThose contributing to the discussion were Baroness Rose Posse, president of the Posse\nNormal School of Gymnastics, Boston, Mass.; Joseph S. Wright, Frances W. Parker\nSchool, Chicago, 111.; Eugene Roberts, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah; Charlotte\nStewart, Salt Lake City, Utah; J. A. Pipal, Occidental College, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report:\n\n—Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gymnastics,\nFor Vice-President—^W.\nMonilaw, University of Chicago, Chicago,\nFor Secretary—Orson Ryan, superintendent, Jordan School District, Midvale, Utah.\nFor President\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\n111.\n\nJ.\n\nThe report was accepted and the nominees declared elected.\nThe chairman ordered that a vote of thanks be extended to those who contributed to\nthe success of the program by presenting papers, and to the secretary.\n\nMabel M. Wright, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nBLOOD PRESSURE AS AN INDICATION OF CONDITION\nW. R. TYNDALE, M.D., SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\n\nThat blood, in being propelled from the heart thru the arteries into the\ncapillaries and back again by way of the veins to the heart, flows under a\n\ncertain pressure is self-evident.\n\nIf blood flows it must flow under pressure.\n\nThis force or pressure has been studied and measured in physiological\nlaboratories for years, but it is only recently, by means of the perfecting of\n\nsimple, accurate, and inexpensive instruments, that physicians have been\n\nable to make any practical application of this knowledge.\n\nAnd as phy-\n\nsicians we are surprised daily at the number and importance of the facts\n\nthat the sphygmomanometer, the blood pressure instrument, reveals to us.\nIt has become absolutely indispensable to every well-informed, up-to-date\n\nphysician,\n\nand it is the purpose of this paper to show that it is equally\n\nindispensable to the physical director of any gymnasitmi.\nInstructors and teachers in physical culture seeing daily the benefit to\nlarge numbers in graduated exercises and systematic gymnasium work are\n\napt to grow to believe that exercise can help, if not cure, all the ills that flesh\nis\n\nheir to.\n\nThis is a dangerous tendency which the physician combats\n\nvigorously because he knows that rest more than anything else is the cure\nfor many applicants who seek to enter upon regular gymnasium work for\n\ntheir ailments.\nif\n\nSuch individuals derive harm only, and some serious harm,\n\nallowed to go on with exercise.\n\nA rigorous physical examination by a\n\ncompetent, trained physician ought to be accorded every applicant to the\ng)manasium, but inasmuch as this is not possible at present, great good may\n\nbe accomplished by any layman with a sphygmomanometer.\n\nIts use can\n\nbe learned in a few moments, and its findings are so accurate that every\n\n"} {"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "BLOOD PRESSURE AN INDICATION OF CONDITION\n\nDepartment]\n\n669\n\nphysical director will come to rely upon it as his greatest guide and boon in\n\ngiving advice to\n\nmen and women regarding their physical needs and\n\ncondition.\n\nThe normal blood pressure between the ages of eighteen to thirty years\ncauses a column of mercury to rise from 100\n\nmm. to 120 mm.\n\nBlood\n\npressure increases with age normally as follows: from thirty to forty years, it\n\nshould range from 115 mm. to 145 mm.; from forty to fifty years, 120 mm.\nto 150 mm.; from fifty to sixty years, 125 mm. to 155 mm.\n\npressure\n\nis\n\nnearly 10\n\nIn men, blood\n\nmm. greater than in women. The increase with\n\nage is due to a gradual hardening of the arteries.\n\nThe blood pressure in\n\nnormal individuals is influenced by various factors other than age. Emotion\nand psychic excitement generally cause an increase in blood pressure. A\nheated argiraient may raise blood pressure 40 mm. in a short time.\nfirst reading of\n\nThe\n\nblood pressure in any individual may be 5 to 20 mm. too\n\nhigh, due to the nervousness of the patient over the new apparatus.\n\nlowers blood pressure and it\n\nis\n\nSleep\n\nalways lowest during the first hours of\n\nnatural sleep, rising slowly during time of waking.\n\nMuscular exercise\n\ncauses a rise in blood pressure in proportion to the work done up to 50 nma.,\nfalling rapidly upon cessation of working, reaching normal in from 20 to 30\n\nminutes.\npressure;\n\nIn work the greater the conscious effort, the greater the blood\nwork without voluntary effort may have no influence on the\n\nblood pressure.\n\nThe preceding statements have all been preliminary to my real purpose\nwhich is to show you the practical everyday value of blood pressure determinations in the gymnasium. The finding of a blood pressure reading above\n160 mm. in any applicant should result in the consultation of the family\nphysician. It will almost always mean arteriosclerosis or chronic interAny man with\nstitial nephritis, the commonest form of Bright's disease.\nsuch a blood pressure should take only the mildest forms of gymnasium\nwork under the closest observation. And many times he should avoid the\ngymnasium altogether.\n\nIn order to maintain his high blood pressure his\n\nheart is already doing a great deal of overwork, perhaps is being strained\nto its utmost capacity.\n\nThe additional strain of gymnasium work might\n\nresult in cardiac collapse, or heart failure so called.\n\nLow blood pressures, that is below 90 mm., are also serious. They\nmean a run-down, weakened condition; they occur in convalescence from all\nsevere illnesses, and, when persistent, usually mean damaged heart muscles\nor a seriously deranged nervous system. The persistent low blood pressure\ncase should also be sent to the physician.\n\nThere can be no qualification of\n\nthe following statement, that any man or woman with a blood pressure of\n\n90 mm. or less, or 160 mm. or more, should be sent at once to his physician.\nThe observance of this rule alone would accomplish great good and\n\nwould repay a thousand fold for the cost of the instrument and the time\ntaken to ascertain such facts, but the sphygmomanometer will tell the\n\n"} {"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n670\n\nphysical director much more than this.\n\n[Physfca\n\nHe may easily leam whether any\n\nexercise is too much for any individual or whether actual progress is being\n\nmade in producing a condition of health and restored vitality.\nThe effect of vigorous exercise upon the blood pressure has been carefully\nworked out. At first, exercise in any normal individual causes a rise in\nblood pressure, the height of which depends upon his condition and the\nseverity of the exercise. If the exercise be kept up or increased in severity,\n\na fall in blood pressure begins which soon becomes subnormal, to return to\nnormal at a shorter or longer period of rest.\nLowsley, an authority on the subject of blood pressure, says:\n\nWhen the subnormal phase returns to normal within 60 minutes, the exercise may be\nconsidered as lying well within hygienic limits for that individual; while a return that is\ndelayed beyond 120 minutes may be regarded as exceeding these limits.\nDr. E. O. Otis took the blood pressure of 59 men, 6 boys, 3 young women,\nat three periods as follows: just before gymnasium work, immediately after,\n\nand then a little later after a short rest or after the usual bath.\n\nHe came\n\nto the conclusion that if immediately after exercise the blood pressure is\n\nsubnormal and remains so for some time, even if the exercise is moderate\nand not long continued, then for that individual, or for his condition at the\ntime of taking the exercise, we may consider the exertion too strenuous or\ntoo prolonged. The effect of systematic training can be well shown by the\nblood pressure curve.\n\nIn a number of cases as tested by Otis, the blood\n\npressure would rise high, then fall to subnormal, to return to normal after\nrest.\n\nIf this same exercise were persisted in day after day the rise in blood\n\npressure would usually be lower and often at the end of the exercise would\nstill\n\nbe normal or above normal, showing that the point of fatigue now was\n\nnot reached.\n\nDr. C. Ward Crampton, director of physical training and athletics in the\npublic schools of New York, has elaborated a method which may be of\ninestimable value to physical directors and athletic trainers of all sorts in\n\ndetermining the condition of contestants immediately before severe athletic\ncontests, showing both what men should contest to attain best results and\nalso when to spare a man from a contest which might injure him.\n\n\"This\n\ntest consists of a comparison of the systolic blood pressure and the heart\n\nbeat in the reciumbent position, with the blood pressure and the heart beat\nwhen standing.\" If the blood pressure rises when the subject stands and\nthe heart rate increases little or none at\nexcellent.\n\nTo\n\nunderstand exactly\n\nmethod of the test in detail.\n\nall,\n\nthe subject's condition\n\nis\n\nwhat this means let us go into the\n\nAnd perhaps we shall do well to use the words\n\nof the originator of the method. Dr. Crampton:\n\nThe patient is directed to lie down flat upon a couch with no headrest.\nof the blood pressure instrument is then placed around the upper arm.\n\nThe armlet\n\nThis should be\n\narranged so that it bears the same relation to the heart lying as it will when the patient\n\n"} {"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": ",\n\nDepartment!\n\nBLOOD PRESSURE AN INDICATION OF CONDITION\n\nis standing, so that no hydrostatic error will be included.\n\n671\n\nAbsolute quiet is insisted upon\n\nrelaxation of the muscles is necessary, and all emotional disturbances should be guarded\n\nThe pulse rate is then taken by quarter-minutes for at least four successive\nThese should be recorded until we arrive at a plateau in which the heart is\nsteady, the indication of which may be taken to be the point where four records show no\nagainst.\n\nquarters.\n\ndecrease.\n\nThese four records forming a minute's record shovdd be noted for comparison\nWithout releasing the grip on the radial artery, the systolic\n\nwith the standing rate.\n\npressure should be taken.\n\nThis should be taken twice, and if any large difference is noted, a third time, and the\nIf there is any considerable variation noted it may be due to several\ndisturbing factors, such as an imcomfortable position, emotional disturbances, nervous\naverage struck.\n\nmuscular contractions, holding the breath, etc., all of which should be eliminated.\n\nThese\n\nitems recorded, the patient is allowed to stand and the same records taken in the same\n\nway with the same precautions.\nIt is important that the pulse rate should be allowed to fall to its standing normal\n\nafter rising, for it is accelerated by the muscular act of getting up.\n\nThe blood pressure\n\nalso rises considerably at first (altho it may fall), but it strikes a balance as a rule a little\n\nbefore the pulse rate does.\n\nWe may now compare our results and arrive at a conclusion\n\nas to the condition of the individual.\n\nThe whole test takes less than five minutes.\n\nIt has been found that individuals up and around, that is in ordinary\nhealth, show a variation in blood pressure from plus 10 to minus 10, and an\n\nDr. Crampton in trying to determine\n\nincrease in heart rate from o to 35.\n\nthe relative value of these two factors assumes \"that the respective limits\nof their total ranges coincide, and divides each total range into fractional\n\nparts each of equal significance, and of balanced importance.\"\n\nFrom this\n\nhe devised the following scale:\nBlood Prsssxtre Increase\n\ns\n12\n\nIncrease in heart rate\n\n+10\n\n+s\n\nA\n\nB\n\nC\n\nB\n\nC\n\nC\n\nD\n\nD\n\n20\n28\n\nD\n\n.35\n\nE\n\n-s\n\n—10\n\nD\n\nE\nF\n\nE\n\nE\n\nF\n\nE\n\nF\n\nG\n\nF\n\nG\n\nH\n\nG\n\nH\nI\n\nIn order to demonstrate the use and meaning of this scale I have here\nthe results of two tests on my overworked assistant.\n\nThe first reading was\n\ntaken after an exceedingly hard day's work without much sleep the preceding\nnight, showing, as we shall see, a deplorable condition, and demonstrating\n\nto what lengths an ambitious brain may drive a tired body.\n\nRate\n\nL3dng\nSfandinpr\n\n66\n86\n\n+20\n\nPressure\n\nno\n100\n\n— 10= Condition G\n\n"} {"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n672\n\n[Physical\n\nThe heart rate has increased 20 beats and the blood pressure has fallen\n10 mm. This shows, by the scale, condition G. Two days later, after a\ngood night's rest and less trying work, the reading was as follows:\nRate\n\nLying\nStanding\n\n72\n8S\n\n+13\n\nPressure\n\nno\nii\"?\n\n+5 = Condition C\n\nThis latter condition, C, is probably normal for this yoimg physician in his\npresent position of overwork.\n\nExperience has shown the practical value of this test, \"and athletes\n\nabout to enter contests who have been tested by this method, even tho\nignorant of the meaning of the test, have invariably and fatally carried\nout predictions.\"\nDr. Crampton gives numerous illustrations like the following:\n\n—\n\nF, coach of track team; fair athlete; \"in fine shape.\" Test at 10: 30 a.m.\ngave index of F, with increase of rate +20 and pressure —7. A few hours later ran a\n220-yard dash; this was followed by a mild case of collapse and vomiting.\nCase VI. T, teacher, aged thirty-two years; weight 190 pounds; athlete. Had six\nhours' sleep, hurried breakfast, \"fair shape\"; one of the twenty best tennis-players in\nthe United States, gave a record of +27 rate, and +6 mm. pressure at 3 p.m., both equal\nto E index. Played tennis from 4: 15 to 6: 15 with a very much inferior player; won the\nfirst two sets at 6-0, 6-3; lost the next three 6-8, 3-6, 0-6; demonstrating very clearly\nhis lack of \"staying quahties\" on this particular occasion.\n\nCase VII.\n\n—\n\nThe other day I tested two players just before they engaged against each\nother in tennis.\n\nMiss B, a stenographer, age eighteen; good tennishad been to dance the evening before.\n\nplayer, \"feeling fine\";\n\nRate\n\nPressure\n\nLying\n\n90\n\n100\n\nStanding\n\n120\n\nlos\n\n+30\n\n-h 5 = Condition E\n\nenographer. age twenty-six, indifferent player, \"fee\n\ngood.\"\nRate\n\nPressure\n\nLying\n\n76\n\nno\n\nStanding\n\n86\n\n116\n\n+ 10\n\n+6 = Conditions\n\nThe yoimg ladies knew nothing about the nature of the test, or the\nfindings.\n\n"} {"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBLOOD PRESSURE AN INDICATION OF CONDITION\n\n673\n\nMiss B had invariably beaten her opponent, Miss N; but on this day the\n6-3, 6-8, 4-6; that is, Miss B lost two out of three\nsets, and was so much used up from the game that she consulted me the next\nday, when I discovered a mild valvular heart disease with evidence of a\nbeginning break in heart compensation. On the other hand. Miss N, on\nthis occasion, altho not feeling apparently as well as Miss B, played an\nexceptional game as might have been predicted from the test.\nDozens of similar cases have been cited by Dr. Crampton, who believes\nsets were as follows:\n\nthat he has shown conclusively that estimations of poor condition are\naccurate, and that the estimations of good condition are equally accurate.\n\nOne might go on giving example after example.\n\nIf enough have been\n\ngiven to stimulate you, my hearers, to try out the test each for himself, my\ntask is complete.\n\nThe physiology behind this test is most interesting, and involves a nerve\nmechanism which was called into action when man assumed the erect\nposture, namely, the splanchnic vasomotor mechanism.\n\nThe splanchnic blood vessels, veins especially, which supply the digestive\norgans are capable alone of holding\n\nall\n\nthe blood in the body.\n\nvessels must be kept in a certain state of tension.\n\nThese\n\nWhen a person stands\n\nup, gravity tends to drain the blood into these great vessels.\n\nThis tendency\novercome by the splanchnic vasomotor nerve mechanism causing a contraction of the splanchnic vessels and a consequent rise in blood pressure.\n\nis\n\n\"The efficiency of this mechanism is essential to life; upon its successful\nworking depends the blood pressure in the brain, on the maintenance of\nwhich depends not only consciousness but the working of every function of\nthe body, and even life itself.\"\n\nSwooning or fainting is a familiar example of a temporary inefficiency of\nthis mechanism, which is very easily wearied by lack of sleep, by hard work,\n\nEven the routine of our daily life\nThis must evidently be so because\neven when we are completely tired out we know that our organs are strucIt is our nerves that are exhausted.\nturally as sound as ever.\nThe impairment of the functions of this nervous mechanism leads, as we have seen, to\nor by\n\nany unhygienic performance.\n\nexhausts it to a greater or less extent.\n\nthe accumulation of blood in the abdomen.\n\nFor this reason the tired man\n\nat night likes to read his paper with his feet elevated.\n\nThe compression\n\nof the abdomen thus brought about mechanically forces back toward his\n\nhead the blood that his tired nerves cannot control.\n\nThe condition called\n\nshock consists largely of the partial failure of this vasomotor nervous\n\nmechanism.\n\nIts\n\ntotal\n\nfailure\n\nis\n\nfollowed\n\nthe blood in the abdomen, and death.\n\nby\n\nthe accumulation of\n\nall\n\nTherefore, to use the words of\n\nDr. Crampton:\nIt is a very fair presumption that the working of this most important function,\nupon which depends blood pressure, the distribution of the blood, and the working of the\nbrain, will be an indication of the condition of the body as a whole, and an index to its\n\ngeneral efl&ciency.\n\n"} {"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n674\n\n(Physical\n\nAs far as my own rather limited experience goes, I feel convinced that\nDr. Crampton has proved his point and given the worid a new and valuable\ntest.\n\nI trust that physical directors, trainers, and physicians everywhere\n\nwill give it a thoro trial.\n\nIn conclusion, I beg your patience, in urging still further the adoption\nof the sphygmomanometer in the gymnasium.\nIts use would go far in banishing the more or less conscious antagonism\nbetween physicians and physical directors regarding the relative value of\n\nrest\n\nand exercise.\n\nObservation of the rule that any adult with a blood\n\npressure below 90 mm. or above 160 nun. be sent to his physician would\n\nalmost eliminate a class foimd at present in every gynmasium; namely,\nthose who need rest and not exercise, and diminish greatly the possible\n\nharm that exercise brings when rest is needed.\nAfter determining better and easier than any known method what\napplicants might expect to derive benefit from graduated exercises, this\n\nsame wonderful instrument is the best guide to the kind and degree of\nand is the best judge of the progress and success each\n\nexercise to take\n\nindividual derives therefrom.\n\nDISCUSSION\nC. L. Shields, M.D., Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\n—Dr. T3aidale has shown beyond a doubt\n\nthat blood pressure as an indication of condition is of great value to the gymnast, the\nphysician, or the physical director; however, a great many things outside the body influ-\n\nence blood pressure.\n\nEven climate and weather have a definite relationship to it.\n\nIt is\n\nlower in the sununer than in the winter, and it may be presumed that a great host of\ndiseases coming with high blood pressure may be greatly aggravated by living in northern\nclimates.\n\nThere is very little chance for the ordinary individual in the gymnasiiun to\n\ndiscover that he has a high or low blood pressure imless this useful little instrument, the\n\nmanometer, be systematically used in all institutions for physical training. A test by\nthis instrument should always be made before any individual undertakes athletic training.\nThe great insurance companies have adopted this system, as have also many of the\ngreat industries which take men's lives in their hands. The physical educator, with the\nlives of so many young people in his care, should not be the last to grasp the value of the\nsphygmomanometer.\nBut there is another point which ought to be emphasized here\ntoday. It is this. If we believe that all that Dr. Tyndale has told us is true, then should\nit not be used thruout all our educational as well as the commercial systems ?\nThe child or student may look well, may seem to be the very embodiment of health,\nyet when the blood pressure is taken there may be revealed the beginning of a disease of\ngreat danger. Is it not possible that the problem of slowness in the classes or other\nmental apathy may be easily solved by the use of this system ? Is it too much to hope that\nall the gymnasiums in the near future may bring forth an opportunity to all individuals\nfor a more systematic physical examination, the first step of which shall be the taking of\nthe blood pressure by this valuable little instrument, the sphygmomanometer ?\n\n"} {"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON HEALTH\n\nDepartment!\n\n67$\n\nTHE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON HEALTH\nALFRED J. RIDGES, M.D., SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\nAll that is definitely known about the effects of altitude on the human\n\nbody might be recorded in a very small volume.\n\nThere have been vague\n\nnotions and general impressions taken for granted without careful investigation; but when these are subjected to keener analysis, we find that these\n\npopular notions are not well foimded in many instances.\n\nThat the physical factors of climate and their relations to life are modiby altitude we know. Atmospheric pressure and altitude are, of\ncourse, closely related; and winds, which owe their origin primarily to\nfluctuations in the barometric pressure brought about by unequal heating\nof the earth's surface, are also modified extensively by the variations in\nfied\n\nhmnidity, which is again closely related to altitude.\n\nThe absorption of the sun's heat by the atmosphere depends almost\naltogether upon the watery vapor and the impurities suspended in\n\nit.\n\nThese elements, especially the latter, decrease as the altitude increases.\nConsequently, air temperature decreases in intensity as we ascend above\nthe sea-level; hmnidity and air impurities decrease also; and these factors,\naside from their bearing on winds and other climatic variations, have some\neffect on hmnan life.\nWe may very well approach the subject from the standpoints of\nphysiology and pathology.\nFirst, then:\n\nPhysiologic influence of altitude.\n\n—We know that the respiratory pro-\n\ncesses demand a certain oxygen pressure in the air, and that the absorption\nof oxygen by the blood depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen in the\n\nAt sea-level, the\nOf this, one-fifth, or about\n152 mm., is the pressure of the oxygen. Experiments on the blood of the\ncow and the dog have shown that when the oxygen pressure falls to 60 mm.,\nthe gas ceases to be absorbed but begins to be given off. The oxygen\nair without any relation to the pressure of the nitrogen.\n\nbarometric pressure is 760 mm. of mercury.\n\nis 60 mm. when the barometer registers 300 mm. of mercury.\nThis corresponds to an altitude of about 17,000 feet.\n\npressure\n\nThe vital effects of ascent above sea-level are really felt at a much\nlower level than this, however, and do not seem to be due to the failure of\n\noxygen supply.\nPathological effects\n\nof altitude.\n\n—Mountain-climbers describe a very\n\npeculiar acute disorder, shown by disturbances of the cardiac, respiratory,\n\nand gastric functions, when they ascend to about 10,000 feet.\n\nThe breath-\n\ning becomes difficult; there is weakness of the legs; the movements of the\nheart are painfully felt; there is faintness and nausea and dizziness; eating\n\nbecomes impossible;\n\ndrowsiness and confused mental activity follow;\n\n"} {"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n676\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n—\n\n/\n\n——\n\nthere is swelling of the veins of the face, arms, and hands;\n\n[Physical\n\n4\n\nand tlien bleed-\n\ning from the eyes, nose, mouth, and bronchi, with severe headache and\ncoldness of the extremities.\n\na recimabent position.\n\nThese symptoms all abate when one rests in\n\nIt has been said that oxygen inhalation helps to\n\nrestore the normal condition.\n\nThis mountain sickness has been a favorite fi^ld for speculation. It\nwas called Acapnia by Mosso, who showed that it is due to the decrease of\nCO2 in the blood, caused by an over aeration of the tissues. We may\neasily produce the typical efifects by vigorous exercise and rapid breathing.\nAbout three years ago, Henderson, of Yale, aroused great interest when he\nstated that mountain sickness and surgical shock are the same thing in the\nfinal analysis, both being due to a lowered CO2 content of the blood.\nAnd\nhe produced the condition of shock by forced breathing and by opening\nthe abdomen of animals, exposing the mesentery and passing a current of\nwarm, moist air over it, by which method the CO2 in the blood was much\ndecreased.\nIt seems to be generally believed now that mountain sickness is not\ndue to any important change in the oxygen content of the blood, or even\nto any serious deficiency of CO2; but it is a temporary derangement of the\nvascular mechanism and faulty circulation of the blood to the vital centers.\nNewcomers to an altitude of one mile or more complain of mild symptoms,\nwhich quickly disappear. Little or nothing is heard of mountain sickness\n\nin its extreme forms, at least, in the high altitudes of Colorado; for Leadville\nis\n\na thriving city more than 10,000 feet above sea-level; and thousands\n\nof people annually ascend Pike's Peak to an elevation of more than 14,000\nfeet.\n\nThe blood is capable of absorbing all the oxygen that the body needs at\npartial pressures far lower than man is ever called upon to endure.\n\nBut our\n\nphysiologic mechanism is adjusted to work under a limited range of atmos-\n\npheric pressure, and the disturbances reported are chiefly those of a vascular\n\napparatus suddenly removed from a lower to a higher altitude.\nIt is admitted that rates of pulse and respiration are increased for a\n\ntime after one removes to a higher altitude, but these are gradually adjusted\nto the new conditions.\naltitude.\n\nThe chest and its power of expansion increase with\n\nGardiner and Hoagland weighed and measured one thousand\n\nchildren at Colorado Springs and compared the findings with those from a\nIt was found that the children\nfrom the mountains had greater girth of chest, and possessed greater\nweight and height. Races living in moimtainous parts are generally possessed of greater chest capacity than those living in low countries. It\nwould seem that greater expansive power is required for those who breathe\n\nsimilar number of children in St. Louis.\n\nthe rarer air.\n\nWith respect to the composition of the blood, all observers agree that\nthere is an increase of the cellular elements, as found by the ordinary blood-\n\n"} {"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE RURAL SCHOOL\n\n677\n\ncounting methods, in those who go to higher altitudes. In Peru, Viault\nfound an increase in the red cells to 8,000,000 from 5,000,000, in ascending\nto 14,000 feet.\n\nThis occurred in about three weeks.\n\nProfessor Zimtz, by\n\nprolonged observations in the Alps, proved beyond all doubt that there is a\n\npermanent increase in the number of the blood cells following residence in\nhigh altitudes.\nFollowing along these lines, Webb, of Colorado Springs, undertook to\nshow that there is an independent increase of the number of the white cells\n\nAnd he believes that this is\ndue to some stimulation of bone marrow by the high-pressure conditions,\nand that such is favorable to the treatment of tuberculosis. Since it is so\nof the blood in those who go to higher levels.\n\nwell known that the leucocytes play the chief part in the fight against the\n\ntubercle bacillus in the body, it is at once evident that anything which can\nincrease the number and efficiency of these Uttle soldiers is greatly to be\ndesired.\n\nWebb's contention does not seem, however, to be very well\n\nfoimded.\n\nAs to the conditions of blood pressure in high altitudes, there is little to\nThere seems to be a temporary rise in those who climb mountains\nor ascend in balloons; but this is soon adjusted. Mosso found that his\nblood pressure was the same at Mount Rosa, 14,000 feet, as it was at Turin.\nJaneway and Crile both found that blood pressure fell when animals were\nplaced in chambers where the barometric pressure was lowered; and vice\nbe said.\n\nversa.\n\nIt seems fair to conclude, therefore, that the\n\npermanent effects of\n\nchanging one's altitude are not so great as has been generally supposed.\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE RURAL SCHOOL\nORSON RYAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF JORDAN SCHOOL\nDISTRICT, MIDVALE,\n\nUTAH\n\nA too common opinion regarding physical training in the rural school\nis\n\nthat while it is necessar}^ and desirable, yet, it presupposes, in schools\n\nwhere it is taught, that there shall be a teacher or director especially trained\n\nand prepared for this work and that a gymnasium must be provided.\nI grant that a well-trained competent instructor is desirable and that a\nwell-equipped gymnasium would not necessarily be an incumbrance; but\nthey are not absolutely necessary and if provided would by no means give\nassurance that all rural-school children would receive efficient physical\ntraining.\n\nI do not wish to be imderstood as being opposed to the specialist in\n\nphysical training or to the gymnasium, but I do contend that efficient\nphysical training in the rural school may be had without either.\n\nAnd I\n\nbelieve that it can never be attained if these are necessary requirements, for\n\n"} {"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n678\n\nthe simple reason that their cost makes them prohibitive.\n\n'\n\nIPhysical\n\nBoth are better\n\nadapted to congested communities where they are of course most desirable.\n\nWhat is necessary for physical training in the rural school is organized,\nenthusiastic, co-operative effort of the superintendent and teachers plus as\n\nmuch technical knowledge, skill, and apparatus as can be secured.\n\nEnthusi-\n\nasm, co-operation, organization, and common-sense will achieve wonders,\n\nand they are fimdamental.\n\nThe organization necessary should provide for:\nFirst: Supervised play\n\n'\n\nSecond: Class or group athletics\nThird: Standards of physical efficiency\nFourth: Folk dancing and indoor games\nFifth:\n\nFormal or corrective g3minastics.\n\nThe best and most efficient education is that which utilizes and extends\nThe natural activity of the child is play. This may be\nutilized and extended by intelligent supervision and is attainable under\nnatural activity.\n\nany conceivable school condition.\n\nSupervised play should, therefore, be\n\nthe basis of any scheme of physical training for school children.\n\nBecause of the misuse of the term \"supervision\" perhaps the word\n\"organization\" would be better, yet I prefer the former because when not\nperverted its meaning conveys the correct idea, while the latter must be\n\nmade to convey a meaning not inherent.\n\nIn fact, organization is a neces-\n\nsary foundation for supervision.\n\nSupervised play means simply intelligent, sympathetic leadership by a\nteacher who plays because she loves to play and sees in play the greatest\nfactor in the child's development.\n\nThe first and perhaps the only absolute requirement for successful\nplayground activity in the rural school is that every teacher and every\npupil shall leave the building and be upon the playground during recess.\nAuthorities are practically agreed, and actual experience shows, that the\nschool life of the child divides itself into four periods which mark different\nstages of development, each period having certain dominant characteristics\n\nand needs.\n\nThe grouping most commonly used\n\nis:\n\nGroup\n\ni\n\n—children whose\n—\n\ndevelopment is represented by six or seven years of age; Group 2 children\nwhose development is represented by seven, eight, or nine years of age;\nGroup 3 children whose development is represented by ten, eleven, or\ntwelve years of age; and Group 4 children whose development is repre-\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsented by thirteen years of age and above.\n\nWhile this most excellent division is of assistance to the teacher, it is\nnot best arbitrarily to group the children according to it. But if the playground work is properly handled and there are established as many gravitating centers of play activity as there are groups of children, they will\n\nunconsciously divide themselves according to their natural characteristics\n\n"} {"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE RURAL SCHOOL\n\nand development.\n\n679\n\nSuch a \"self-division\" is the ideal to be striven for and\n\nmay be attained by establishing four centers of play activity which, like\npowerful magnets, shall attract and hold the children whose development\n\nand characteristics respond to that particular activity.\nIn two short years of experiment along this line in the Jordan schools,\nwe have become convinced that such an arrangement not only affords an\noutlet for the child's energies, thus supplying one great means of growth\nand training, but it also places him in a proper social relation with his schoolmates and brings him into conscious contact with the world about him.\nIt has a marked effect for good upon his language and demeanor; does\naway with the playgroxmd \"bully,\" and the traditional playground \"clique\"\nwith their many evils; and best of all it drives the pinched, careworn,\nfaded, forlorn look from the teacher's brow and replaces it with the luster\nTeachers and pupils come to know each other\nof health and happiness.\nas they can at no other time or place. Perplexing problems of discipline\nand development are solved, for instead of being a taskmaster the teacher\nbecomes a friend, companion, and playmate of the pupil. She develops a\nnew dignity and power while inspiration and a larger life are imparted to the\npupil.\nOf course, as Dr. Henry S. Curtis says:\nSupervised play will not make angels of street arabs^ but it cuts out almost altogether\nthe vicious and willful disorder and makes the sentiment of the school the strong ally of\nthe teacher.\n\nThe teacher's business upon the playground is not that of a military\ncommander, a sentinel, a spy, an overseer, or even a director. She is a\nsympathetic, co-operating, constructive leader, assisting in the development\nof the child's natural tendencies.\nShe should follow the same principles as\nin teaching anything else, play with the children when a new game is intro-\n\nduced, and keep up the desire and interest until it has been thoroly mastered.\n\nThe process of learning a game is not usually interesting; the real interest\nand pleasure come with a good knowledge of the game and ability to play it\nwell.\n\nApproached from this point of view, the recess period becomes the\nmost important period of the day and the teacher who once becomes suflBidently acquainted with its workings and effects will rather absent herself\nfrom or neglect any other period.\nIt is often contended, because of the opportimity afforded the country\nchild for free activity\n\nand play, that he does not need more play.\n\nMy\n\nobservation and personal experience has been that tho the country child\n\nmay have an abimdance of leisure he does not play enough. Especially\ndoes he lack in organized and co-operative games. He knows but a few\ngames and these, as a rule, are \"degenerates\" and individualistic in their\nnature.\n\nClass or group athletics is simply a form of competition by which every\nboy physically fit may enter any athletic event, and, if he does his best, feel\n\n"} {"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n68o\n\n[Physical\n\nthat he is helping his class to win, even tho he may not be good in the event\nin which his class has entered.\n\nIn this form of athletics, a trophy is won, or\na record made, not by the individual record of a boy, but by the average of\nthe individual records of the boys in a class or school.\n\nThis plan does away with the objection often raised that athletics\nprovides for the expert only.\n\nIt reaches the boy who does not usually take\n\npart, and class spirit forces him to train conscientiously and to do his very\n\nbest to win. Because it reaches not only the few athletically inclined boys,\nbut may be extended to the whole mass of boys and girls in the public\nschools,\n\nit is given second place\n\nin our scheme of physical training.\n\nNo restrictions are placed upon the boys except physical fitness and no\npupil is exempt from participation except for physical inability.\n\nPupils\n\nrefusing or neglecting to take part are placed in the Ust with a record of zero,\n\nthus discouraging the individualistic isolated effort so often found among\ncoimtry children and encouraging co-operation and commimity effort.\n\nEvents may occur at any time.\nfollows:\n\nIn the Jordan District they occur as\n\nthe pull-up, in February; the standing broad jump, in March;\n\nrimning in April; and the shot-put in May.\n\nThe class record is foimd by adding the individual records and dividing\nby the number of boys entered.\nIn running there has been some difficulty in taking the individual records\nof the boys.\nThe following method will be used next year\nCarry a Message to Garcia. The boys are lined up in two groups 50 yards apart.\nThe timekeeper, who acts also as starter, stands by the finishing-Une. When ready he\ngives Boy No. i The Message to Garcia (a soft roll of paper i to i J inches in diameter and\n10 or 12 inches long); at a given signal Boy No. i runs and as he finishes passes the\nmessage (roll of paper) to Boy No. 2 who carries it back to Boy No. 3, and so on. As the\nlast boy crosses the finishing-line the time is taken.\nThe record is found by dividing the\nelapsing time by the number of boys that nm.\n\nLady teachers are not afraid of this form of athletics.\n\nIt is not how\n\nfar the boys can jump, it is getting them to want to jump that is success.\n\nThis a lady can do as well as a man, perhaps better.\n\nThe value of class athletics, as previously stated, lies, not in the special\ndevelopment of a single boy, but in the general development of all the boys.\nThe boy who cannot jump is encouraged to jump; the boy who cannot or\ndoes not care to run is induced to take part in that activity and so receives\nthe particular development which he most needs.\n\nIn the Jordan District\n\nthis year, 562 boys took part in the standing broad jump.\n\nIn the final test\neach boy was allowed to jump three times, making a total of 1,686 jumps.\n\nThe average jump was approximately 6$ feet, a total distance of io,S37i\nfeet, which is but 22 J feet less than two miles.\nThat all the boys should\njump a distance of two miles, each boy contributing his portion, is, to me,\nof far greater importance than that one boy should break any number of\n\nstate records, or perform a \"stunt\"\n\nwhich would be lauded in glaring\n\nheadlines on the sporting page of every \"daily\" in the land.\n\n"} {"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE RURAL SCHOOL\n\nDepartment]\n\n68i\n\nThe establishment of prescribed standards of physical efl&ciency suggests another form of competition, generally known as the \"Athletic Badge\nTest,\" differing distinctly from all other kinds of athletics, in that it is not\n\nWhile this is one of the most\nform of athletics, it is not necessarily the most\nvaluable one. The opportimity afforded each boy to discover his own'\npowers and possibilities and the encouragement to bring himself to the\nprescribed standard of physical efficiency must appeal to all. In this form\nnecessary to defeat someone in order to win.\ndesirable features of this\n\nof athletics every boy who can bring himself to the prescribed standard,\n\nand who is doing acceptable work in the school, may win an athletic badge.\nWhile a perfectly fair classification of the boys taking part would be\nsomewhat difficult and might prove impractical, the division suggested\nby Mr. Lee F. Hanmer, of the Russell Sage Foundation, would, I believe,\nmeet present needs and give general satisfaction. He suggests that the\nboys be divided into two classes:\nFirst:\n\nBoys under thirteen years of age with the following standards: sixty-yard dash\n\nin 8f sec; pull-up 4 times; standing broad jump, 5 ft. 9 in.\n\nSecond: All other elementary school boys with the following standards: sixty-yard\ndash in 8 sec, or, one hundred-yard dash in 14 sec; pull-up 6 times; standing broad\n\njump, 6 ft. 6 in.\n\nThe advantages and desirability of this form of activity are so obvious\nand numerous that they scarcely need comment. The fact that they may\nbe used in a school of only one pupil or in the largest school in our nation\nwith like results is at once attractive, while the opportunity afforded every\n\nboy to measure his strength and ability utilizes and extends a natural\ntendency, thus giving the best kind of education. For these reasons\nstandards of physical efficiency should have a prominent place in the\nphysical training in the rural school.\n\nDuring inclement weather folk dancing and indoor games should be\nIn general, they should be\napproached from the point of view outlined for play activity. Their\nbenefits, like those of play, are primarily organic and social and offer the\nbest kind of training for the boys and girls who are to be the men and\nwomen of our great democracy of tomorrow.\nFormal or corrective g)minastics demands a place in our rural schools\nfor the same reason that it is given in the city school, to counteract the\nevils due to schoolroom posture and conditions, and to prevent the tendency\nof our youth toward atavism in standing and walking habits, and to make\nsubstituted for the playground activity.\n\ncorrect posture habitual.\n\nBecause Swedish gymnastics is well adapted to present schoolroom\nconditions and requires no apparatus and but very little floor space, the\n\nformal work should be based upon the Swedish Day's Order.\n\nThe contention that necessary activity, play, or athletics will secure the\ndesired development and prevent unhygienic posture is not well founded\n\n"} {"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n682\n\n[Physical\n\nIn addition to the phases of physical education mentioned, the aesthetic\n\nAs this phase of physical development is not\ngoverned by knowledge but by feeling or emotion, it is subjective and its\nshould not be neglected.\n\ndevelopment must come from within.\n\nIt can and should, therefore, be the\n\nresult of actions impelled by a desire to express a feeling, an emotion, or an\nidea.\n\nThis result, by intelligent direction, can often be obtained from the\n\nplay activity, the folk dancing, and the formal gymnastics, but it should\nalso be developed thru reading, singing, and dramatization.\n\nA desirable course of physical training for the rural school should, then,\nconsist of:\nFirst: At least fifteen minutes of enthusiastic organized outdoor play\neach day, provided that folk dancing and indoor games may be substituted\n\nduring inclement weather.\n\nSecond: Class athletics in at least four events for all boys above the\nfourth grade.\n\nThird: Standards of physical efficiency in at least three events for\nall boys.\n\nFourth: Formal Swedish gynmastics in all grades, beginning with two\nperiods of one minute each in the first grade and gradually increasing to\n\ntwo periods of six minutes each in the eighth grade.\nFifth: Such informal games and aesthetic activities as may be an outgrowth of the studies provided in the curriculum, especially nature-study,\ngeography, the industries, history, music, and literature.\nWith such a coiurse well organized and enthusiastically administered it\nis but reasonable to believe that physical training would greatly assist in\nsolving the problem of education in our rural conmiunities.\n\nDISCUSSION\nAdam Bennion, principal, Granite High School, Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\n—A phase of\n—that\n\nthe subject of physical training in the rural schools has as yet not been discussed\n\nHere two very serious difficulties are encountered\n\nof physical training in the high school.\n\n(perhaps they are met with in the dty)\n\n:\n\nFirst, that physical training is so often construed\n\nas meaning the maintenance of the various athletic teams on which the boys who really\n\nneed physical development are never seen; second, that many high schools seem to exist,\nat least at certain seasons of the year, that these teams may carry on their operations at\n\n—\n\na very great sacrifice of scholarship the real reason for the existence of any school.\nI do not wish to be imderstood as opposed to competitive athletics; they have a\nplace and that a very important one. But I do contend that no high school should\nbecome competitively ''topheavy.\" The professional idea that each school should have a\nwinning team at any price has resulted in a system of vicarious exercises wherein those\nwho need little physical training indulge in what often becomes physical straining for\nthe amusement of those who really need to be on the athletic field.\n\nAs to a solution of these difficulties:\nFirst: Every rural school should have a campus\n\n—\n\n^not\n\nonly a piece oi land, which\n\nevery school can easily possess, but a plot of groimd made into a camp-^\"^ that invites\nphysical activity. No one feels particularly athletic at the sight of a sand pile or a weed\npatch, but every boy has a \"Ty Cobb\" inclination when he sees a well laid off diamond.\n\n"} {"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartmentl\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n683\n\nLet the school main tarn such an athletic field that everybody wants to get out on it. And\nAny school, if it have the enthusiasm, can fence a field, can level that\nfield, can shape a gridiron, can lay a track, and give the whole field an athletic appearance\nto do these things is not a little physical training and all the students can be made to\nenjoy and be proud of it.\nSecond: More than one man, the coach, should be interested in getting the boys\nto participate. The faculty, to be an inspiration, ought to have physical vigor and they\n\nit is easily done.\n\ncan get it at the same time that they are stimulating an interest in all the students.\nThird: There should be a regularly specified time when all the students should be\nencouraged to be on the field and suflScient sport should be provided so that they may all\nfollow their natural aptitudes rather than stand around to see the heroes play a game\n\nthat is too complicated and difficult for them to engage in.\n\nStudents who are weak or defective\nNot nearly enough corrective work is done ^it\n\nFourth: There should be regular gymnastics.\nshould be given special consideration.\n\n—\n\ncan't be xmtil we cease giving all our time to \" the team.\"\n\nIn the four years of high school,\npractically any defect of posture or lack of co-ordination of muscle activity can be remedied\n\nby systematic corrective exercises.\nAll high-school students should be required to take gynmastics for at least one year\n\nand preferably for two.\n\nCountry boys are usually strong but their strength lies in par-\n\nThe inability of most country boys who have done heavy farm work\nto straighten the arms indicates that they have strengthened some parts of the arm at\nthe expense of others. Gymnasium work should aim to develop the whole body.\n\nticular muscles.\n\nHigh-school boys are still boys and with all their physical training the element of\nfun should be prominent.\n\nGymnastics should never be allowed to become monotonous\nBoxing, wrestling with a determined effort\ntogether with countless other games and sports, offer physical\n\n—\n\nor laborious but should be given variety.\nto keep down the pugilistic\n\n—\n\nopportunities for all the boys of any school.\n\nIn conclusion, then, let the aim of high-school physical training be not physical\nstraining or the developing of a team which shall determine the atmosphere of the school,\n\nbut let it be an effort to build a strong body for every student and to offer activities that\nshall exdte the interest of the whole student body.\n\nPRESENT NEEDS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS\nBARONESS ROSE POSSE, PRESIDENT, POSSE NORMAL SCHOOL OF GYMNASTICS,\nBOSTON, MASS.\nIt is gratifjdng to find America well abreast of other countries in her\n\nappreciation of scientific forms of physical training.\n\nA recent canvass has\n\nshown that while many schools teach every variety of g3manastics, only\nabout 20 per cent disclaim any knowledge of Swedish work; 70 per cent\nof the schools where statistics have been procured show that either the\nwork is purely Swedish or that this method forms the basis of the exercises.\nIt is to be remembered that the Swedish principles of arrangement of exercise are the Swedish system, a system which recognizes as valuable any\ngood exercise if used in its rightful place, and it is so practical and so well\nadapted to the needs of growing children that it has been an easy matter\nto introduce it into the public schools.\n\nThe German system has its many\n\nardent adherents, and in some sections of the coimtry this form of physical\n\n"} {"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n684\n\nexercise is taught exclusively.\n\n[Physical\n\nIn some schools we find work which was\n\nonce known as \"American,\" tho\n\nit had no distinctive features except\nmovements connected with a few pieces of special apparatus.\nIn some private schools and colleges, we find only dancing and games\n\ncertain\n\nBut, however varied\n\ntaking the place of regular systematized exercise.\n\nthe kind of work, it is a gratifying fact that gymnastics of more or less\nutility are being taught more and more extensively with every passing year.\n\nIf we ask for criticism so that we may improve our work, we shall find\nmany things which call for betterment. In this paper I will merely name\n\na few of the most important.\nFirst, we shall never obtain the best results from exercise unless at the\n\ntime the surrounding conditions are favorable.\nout-of-door exercise.\n\nThere should be more\n\nAll thru the winter, except on the coldest days, the\n\ngymnastics should be taken in the school yard or on the roof, where, under\ncertain restrictions, a suitable place may be prepared.\n\nIn this way a more\n\nperfect oxygenation of tissue will be produced and even short periods of\nexercise may be used to great advantage.\nThe best results are obtained\nwhen the period of exercise lasts from thirty to forty-five minutes. Dur-\n\ning the time the pupils are exercising, the schoolrooms\n\nmay be thoroly\n\nventilated and reoxygenated, so that when the pupils return they may go\n\nback to their mental exercise under the most favorable conditions.\nSecond, the teacher of physical training should classify his children\naccording to their degree of gymnastic ability, rather than by school grades.\n\nBy this method the more advanced gymnasts would be placed in Grade A,\nwhere all would be of about equal proficiency, so that no time would be\nlost waiting for weaklings to catch up, and progress could be made as rapid\nas the strength of the pupils would permit, resulting in a sustained interest\nin their work.\n\nThe members of Grades B, C, etc., would have an incen-\n\ntive for improvement in order to obtain promotion, and at the same time\n\nthey would not be forced to do exercises that were beyond their limit of\n\nendurance in order to keep up with the stronger pupils in their group.\nThe weakest pupils, say in Grade E, being grouped together would have as\n\nmuch time as they required to overcome their difficulties and they could be\ngiven exercises which would be of little value to the more virile pupils\n\nbut which would be of the greatest benefit in increasing the vitality of the\nweak. In this group would be placed pupils who were more or less defective,\n\nbut pupils having abnormalities, deformities, or dullness of intellect\nFor this plan to be\n\nshould be given to a special teacher for treatment.\n\ncarried out properly, the gymnasium should be large enough for several\nclasses to exercise at one time, then the different groups may be handled\n\nby the director and his assistants, much as the games are supervised in\norganized recess work.\nThird, is it wise to give so much attention to athletics among growing\n\nboys and girls ?\n\nIt is reported that a movement is on foot to standardize\n\n"} {"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n685\n\nthe athletic sports of school children, and one or more meetings have been\nheld for this purpose.\n\nBefore the high-school age is reached this seems\n\nobjectionable, as it gives too great a prominence to the idea of contests\n\nand awakens in many children a precocious appetite for applause and\nChildren, while allowed in a quiet way to have sports and even\ncontests, should be discouraged from anything which brings them into\nundue prominence before the public. Even if the excitement and artificiahty of the pubUc events were not physically overstimulating, the\nmoral effect of forcing the child thus early into a position where his vanity\nand self-consciousness are awakened would seem sufficiently unwise, while\nhis early introduction to the methods of professionals is unquestionably\nharmful. Moreover, if the child acquires a taste for the immoderate\nnotoriety.\n\nexcitement of contests, he loses interest in the less spectacular specific\nexercises\n\nwhich lead to health and strength.\n\nFourth, provision should be made for the application of medical gymnastics in connection with the work of the physical training\n\ndepartment\n\nin oiu: pubUc schools.\n\nThe medical gymnast is a new feature in our schools.\n\nHis work is\n\nunlike that of the medical director or of the teacher of physical training,\n\nand it is very different from nursing. The medical gymnast must treat\ncases requiring a special mode of manual and gymnastic treatment. He\nshould be competent to treat various conditions arising from defects of\ncirculation, digestion, locomotion, etc., such as anemia, dyspepsia, consti-\n\npation, hysteria, neurasthenia, synovitis, rickets, CoUe's fracture, dislocations, sprains, torticollis, chorea,\n\nand infantile paralysis (after the acute\n\nstage has passed and deformity is present).\n\nHe may give a special kind of\n\ntreatment in heart affections, he may give specified exercises for disorders\nof the chest,\n\nand he may improve the general health in cases of epilepsy.\n\nHis best efforts will be required in the orthopedic cases.\n\nThe treatment\n\nof all tuberculous diseases depends largely on the prophylaxis.\n\nstrength is the best weapon with which to defy the onslaught.\nical\n\nPhysical\n\nIf the phys-\n\nstrength increases, the vitality will increase and the germs may suc-\n\ncumb.\n\nGymnastics is one of the best of the prophylactic agents.\n\nThat the materia gymnastica of the department of hygiene or the\ndepartment of physical training of our public schools may be complete, the\nschools must be provided with a room fitted up as an infirmary, where\na medical gymnast may take charge of cases requiring his skill. If not\npossible, for financial or other reasons, to have an expert specially engaged\n\nfor each school, one operator could be employed by several schools, each\n\nschool being visited for two or three hours three times a week.\n\nIn small\n\ntowns and in private schools the director of gymnastics should be one whose\ntraining has included the necessary instruction to render him competent\nnot only to teach gymnastics to the healthy pupils, but to treat cases\nrequiring medical or, as\n\nit\n\nsometimes is called, therapeutic gymnastics.\n\n/\n\n"} {"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n686\n\n[Physical\n\nIn every case the one who gives this special treatment should have the\ndiagnosis either of the school doctor or, in the absence of such an official,\nof any good physician.\n\nHealth, like salvation, should be free to all.\n\nIt is an acknowledged\n\nfact that there are only a few doctors of medicine who know anything about\n\nthe treatment of diseases by corrective gymnastics. Even if they have\nsome knowledge of the subject they do not make the work a specialty\nbecause of the amoimt of manual work required. And unless these physicians have studied gymnastics they will still be forced to have assistance\n\nfrom teachers of physical training in order to obtain certain results in their\nwork.\n\nThus it will be seen that the work of the medical gymnast does not\n\nconflict with that of the physician, but is closely allied to it, as well as with\n\nthat of the physical trainer, and yet is distinctly separate from either, and\n\na department of school hygiene to be effective must have the services of\nall three experts.\n\nIn closing, let me emphasize the point that the physical training profession should acquaint the body of school educators with the fact that if\n\nthere is a question of choice between two teachers of physical training, one\npossessing a college degree and the other a diploma from a special school\nfor training teachers of gymnastics, the college degree should not out-\n\nweigh the special diploma unless its holder has had a technical course\nfitting him to teach gymnastics.\n\nThe physical training profession should take steps to make its position\nclear and definitely to settle its standing in the educational field.\n\nEducators\nhave a tendency to weigh all goods by the same standards. It goes without saying that a teacher of mathematics or history or French is better\nfitted for his work by his college course and the degree confers distinction.\n\nBut the schools wherein teachers of physical training are prepared are\nplanned on college lines, and the studies taught are all in advance of highschool courses, and some are equivalent to those of the medical schools.\n\nSuch schools give specific knowledge for the training and development of\nthe human body.\n\nUnless a candidate for supervisor of physical education\n\nhas had a thoro course in the special normal schools of physical training,\nor its equivalent, he should not be considered eligible for such a position,\n\neven tho he be a graduate of several universities or medical schools.\n\n\\\n\nMembers of the physical training profession should lose no opportunity\nto impress upon educators the fact that their first duty to the child is to\n\nKnowledge\nmust be considered secondary to health. The nation that saves its citizens\nby enabling them to live a life of usefulness is performing one of the greatest\nfeats in modem education and one of the highest services to humanity as a\nwhole. And we must show that to accomplish this result what is needed\nprovide him with the strength necessary for the battle of life.\n\nin our schools is not the production of a few overdeveloped athletes, but\n\nan all-round physical training, which should increase the vital capacity\n\n"} {"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n687\n\nand promote the bodily development of every child in the school, so that\nhe may enter into the fullness of life and know the joy of living. Only\nthen will physical training deserve to be called physical education.\n\nDISCUSSION\nCharlotte Stewart, supervisor of physical education, public schools, Salt Lake\nCity, Utah.\n\n—A cursory glance from kindergarten to\n\ncollege reveals a deplorable lack of\n\ngrading and definite placing of the materials of physical education.\n\nA rational, reason-\n\nable grading must be done, either within each system itself, or finally with the consensus\nof several systems, toward the making of a national standard.\n\n—adaptability\n\ncational must be flexible\n\ncause must have its spinal structure.\n\nThis standard to be edu-\n\n—\n\nis the fimdamental principal of growth\n\nbut every\nSuch a grading must be based upon the physio-\n\nand periods; the educational correlative capacities of\nHerein come the advising\nand the sociological development of mankind.\npower and staying hand of the expert. But if children or adults delight in, enjoy, and\nlogical condition at certain ages\n\nchildren;\n\nwithout stimulation seek a certain activity, there is a cue for classification.\n\nIn planning\n\nthis work consideration must be given as to just where and when certain games, sports,\n\ndances, or gymnastics will best fit into the normal development, for just there will the\ncoefl&dent of virility be highest.\n\nIn the selection of material for the proposed structural course of study the field is\nEvery individual cannot attain the development of the expert in every line, and\nbesides, the problem of the school is to open up to pleasing view the worthy avenues of\nlife and to give with that view an inspiration for progression that each individual may\ncome into his own. Therefore, in physical work there should be a wealth of physical\nenvironment, gymnasiums, open fields, playgrounds, public swimming-pools, all under\nwise direction. There should be, in fact, enough opportunities in all phases of work to\n\nlarge.\n\npresent material for selection.\n\nTwo simple, yet inclusive, purposes of physical education in the public schools are\n(i) to conserve in every way possible the health of the nation's citizens;\n\nand (2) to create,\n\nestabUsh, and maintain the highest type of recreative activity.\n\nOne problem of the day and one not neglected by this convention is \"education for\nToday, as statistics reveal, the average citizen spends eight hours at work,\n\nleisure.\"\n\neight at sleep, and the remaining one-third of his time is for leisure.\n\nAs the school pre-\n\npares him for work so must it prepare him and that too for productive, not destructive,\nleisiure.\n\nRecreation does not mean rest by inaction, but rest by reaction.\n\ngreat functions of physical education is to prepare for that leisxire.\n\nOne of the\n\nSocial evils can best\n\nbe reformed by a formatory, not a reformatory. The best formatory is the public school.\nSocial insufficiencies and evih must be controlled by substitution, never by elimination.\nLove for pleasure, proper dancing, clean sport, wholesome activity, and courteous\nbehavior, must be instilled into the fiber of the rising generation.\nNo subject in the curriculum can as adequately meet this demand as physical training in its amplifications. Right thought depends on right action, and a clean mind in a\ndean body, coiutesy, and fairness are proper social relations. The making of citizens\ncannot be intrusted to the street or even the public playground. The public school in its\ndassroom, corridor activities, or out-of-door play is pregnant with leadership, sportsmanship, character-forming, and law-abiding material that may be made real in its\nperformance.\n\nNor must outlines, courses, standardization, or grading for one moment deaden the\nThey are for the teacher who must endow her system^\n\nlife, the activity, the joy in play.\n\nher ideality, with good wholesome realities, making practicalities idealistic and romance\npractical.\n\n"} {"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n688\n\n(Physical\n\nEven so must all educational factors join forces to lead the youth into a true knowledge of life that they may play the \"game of life\" fairly and squarely to the end\nor lose.\n\nwin\n\nTo this the profession must pledge its heart and its hand.\n\nGYMNASTICS AS AN ORTHOPEDIC PROPHYLACTIC IN\nTHE SCHOOL\nJAKOB BOLm, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\n\nThe duty of the school to prevent impairment of the child's physical\nefficiency and to employ means to counteract whatever deterioration may\n\nresult as\n\nan incident to school life, so that the child may return to the\n\nparental home enjo)dng at least that amount of physical power which it\n\npossessed when entering the school, augmented by the growth and develop-\n\nment that is natural to its years, is axiomatic, and may be taken for granted.\ndemand that we can make upon the schools from a\n\nIt is the very least\n\nhygienic viewpoint.\n\nNo words need be spoken before this audience on the well-established\nand well-recognized fact that many unhygienic influences are at work\nduring school life, and that among these are forces which slowly but surely\nact upon the skeletal frame in such a manner as to give rise to certain well-\n\nknown school deformities.\nThe school endeavors to minimize these evils by attention to proper\nseating, which includes appropriate distances from blackboards, maps, and\n\ncharts; proper relation to the sources of light; proper sitting posture while\n\nreading, writing,\nsimilar means.\n\nand listening; properly adjusted furniture; and other\nThis is orthopedic work, even tho negative in character.\n\nBut it does not suffice, as is well testified by the increasing prevalence of\nthe school deformities in each succeeding grade. A positive attack must\nbe made by which one-sided fatigue may be avoided, the normal mobility\nof the skeleton maintained, its normal growth stimulated, and the neuromuscular tone developed. The only means serving this purpose at all\nadequately is supervised physical activity and particularly that formal\nartificial kind known as gymnastics in the narrower sense, properly conceived and properly executed.\nThe purpose of gymnastics is by no means solely orthopedic. He who\nThere are general physiological\nso conceives it makes a very grievous error.\nand pedagogic functions of gymnastics which extend far beyond the orthopedic field. But he who forgets his orthopedic mission when teaching\ngymnastics fails in one of the essentials, because there is no other single,\npositively acting orthopedic prophylactic in the school and it is because of\nits general\n\nneglect that school deformities exist and increase in frequency\n\nwith each succeeding school year.\n\nAnd the chief blame for this deplorable\n\ncondition must be placed upon the physical directors themselves and the\n\nhost of teachers of gymnastics for whom the term signifies but a con\n\n"} {"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGYMNASTICS AS AN ORTHOPEDIC PROPHYLACTIC\n\n689\n\nglomerate of athleticism, acrobatism, imregulated play, and soul-killing\ndrudgery.\n\nI make this charge, well aware of its serious import.\n\nWere I\n\nnot fully convinced of the absolute necessity for a reform in conunon\n\ngymnastic practice, I should refrain from making it now, as I have done in\nthe past, in the hope that matters should slowly adjust themselves.\n\nBut\n\nthe process is too slow, and the time has come when the United States,\n\nalready occupying an honorable position in several branches of physical\ntraining, should no longer be allowed to trail behind as one of the very last\n\nIt is apparent that Americans must\npay attention to gymnastics as a distinct but integral branch of physical\ntraining and that bold words are necessary to attract such attention.\nWe must not suffer a condition to exist much longer whereby school\nof nations, gymnastically speaking.\n\ndeformities are not only not prevented but actually created, to be taken in\n\nhand by the orthopedic surgeon when they are practically incurable.\nThere is a vicious attitude of mind abroad, according to which orthopedics\nbelongs in the field of therapeutics, belongs to the surgeon, when as a matter\nof fact most of the orthopedic work ought to be counted as part of school\n\nhygiene.\nIf gymnastics are to fill the function of an orthopedic prophylactic, it is\n\nnecessary that each single posture and each single movement shall in its\n\nform correspond to the normal skeletal development, shall be based upon\nthe normal articular amplitude, shall reflect an orthopedic ideal.\nTo recognize the exact anatomical limitations and to watch carefully\nthat these are never exceeded is the prime duty of the teacher of gymnastics\nas an orthopedist. To combine the postures and the movements into\nproper sequences, to give them the necessary strength, duration, speed,\norder in which to follow each other both in the individual lesson and in the\ncourse planned for a longer period, to fit them to the intellectual and moral\nas well as to the physical powers of the pupil, to attach to them the interest\n\nwhich is requisite for their fullest value, all these things are duties that fall\nto him as a pedagog and psychologist, if you please.\nIt is to the former aspect that I wish to direct your attention.\n\nTo illustrate my meaning I shall refer to a single example of mismanagement common in our gymnasia, viz., the care of the knee joint.\nGymnastically speaking, we may consider it as a simple hinge joint\ncapable only of flexion and extension but no abduction or adduction. But\neveryone having any experience whatever with gymnastics of our day or,\nfor that matter, of physical education in its broader aspects, knows that\nthere are everywhere flagrant examples of knees powerfully adducted\n\nduring exercises, which are apparently unnoticed by the teacher or at least\n\ndo not call forth a correction.\n\nI see it in almost every gymnastic class I\n\nvisit, it is\n\na common attitude of pitcher and of catcher, in boxers and\n\njumpers.\n\nAmong women taking any form of activity it is the rule rather\nAn adducted knee violates our aesthetic ideals.\n\nthan the exception.\n\n"} {"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n690\n\n[Physical\n\nCountenancing it is a pedagogic mistake, because it leads to lack of precision and stability in all activities where a solid base is desirable.\n\nAs long\n\nas the weight does not fall upon it, no appreciable physical harm results.\n\nBut if the weight be sustained upon an adducted knee, it cannot be upheld\nby the muscles but by the internal part of the capsule, which, according to\nits passive nature, gradually yields and lengthens, jeopardizing the integrity\n\nWe need not be specially concerned about such accidental\ntraumatisms as sprains and dislocated internal semilunar cartilages. They\n\nof the joint.\n\nare not occurrences of every day, even tho they are more frequent than we\n\nshould like to see them.\n\nOf far greater consequence\n\nis\n\nthe resultant\n\nrelaxation of the joint, which adapts itself to the unnatural movement and\nfinally becomes capable of a considerable degree of adduction, a condition\n\nwhich, once initiated, becomes emphasized as a necessary result of the\n\nfemoral convergence every time\n\nwe stand and walk. And the vicious\nThey are carried downward, causing\n\nresults are not limited to the knee.\n\npronation of the foot, abduction of its anterior part, and a descent of the\nIt is the lack of attention to a simple anatomical fact which\n\ntarsal arch.\n\ncreates simultaneously knock-knee\n\nand flatfoot, not the use of a certain\n\nfoot angle, upon which so much printer^s ink has been spilled, but which, in\nspite of everything, remains a perfectly natural posture for a Caucasian foot.\n\nIt is carelessness in the transmission of the weight in lunges, jumps, vaults,\n\ndances, and like activities that causes the mischief.\n\nIncorrectly executed,\n\nand similar forms of activities are the chief deforming influences\nacting on the lower extremities. Correctly executed, on the other hand,\nthey become orthopedic means of the highest order. It goes without\nthese\n\nsaying that it is among the girls that the use of these exercises shall be\n\nsiUTOunded with most care and the progression be particularly slow, because\nof their smaller muscular power and great femoral convergence.\n\nLet us now turn to another matter of even more importance, the\nmaintenance of an erect carriage and the prevention of the common\ncomplex deformity of drooping head, round shoulders, flat chest, and\nprotruding abdomen, which may be truly called the school deformity par\nexcellence.\n\nIt is the exaggeration of a normal resting posture arising out of\n\nschool life, because school life engenders fatigue\n\n—fatigue, not because of the\n\nquantity of physical labor performed, but because of the cne-sided character\nof that labor, because it is concentrated in a few regions instead of being\n\ndistributed over the whole body.\n\nSome parts are overworked,\n\nothers\n\nBoth suffer. The child's nature demands movements in\nlarge quantities, not movements which necessitate sustained efforts but\nthose in which the activity is constantly shifting from one part to another.\nLnmobility, whether as rest or in strained postures maintained by prolonged\n\nunderworked.\n\nmuscular effort, is equally deleterious to the child.\n\nIn school we confine\n\nthe child, however, to a seat for hours at a time and demand more or less\n\n"} {"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmcntl\n\nGYMNASTICS AS AN ORTHOPEDIC PROPHYLACTIC\n\nabsolute stillness in a given posture.\n\n691\n\nThe inevitable result is fatigue and\n\nlessened tone in muscles which should hold the skeletal parts in proper\n\napposition to each other, but which, when exhausted, yield and allow the\n\nweight to fall upon the passive tissues.\n\nThese in their turn change their\n\nstructure, becoming elongated on the side of the strain and correspondingly\n\nshortened on the opposite side.\n\nWith the prevalent work in front of the\n\nbody, we have a general shortening of all the tissues in front of the shoulders\n\nand chest, while those on the hind aspect of neck and upper back, including\nthe retractors of the scapulae, lengthen. Thus the head and the shoulders\nfall forward, and the spine curves in the same general direction.\nThe\nstatic relations are thus\n\nchanged and, to maintain the equilibrium, the\n\nweight is necessarily shifted backward by increased lumbar flexion and\nhyperextension in the hips.\n\nThis is the typical development of the most\n\ncommon of all the school deformities and the one which at the same time\nFor a time the child may coris most detrimental to the normal health.\nrect it at will, but there soon comes a time when no effort of the length-\n\nened and toneless muscles can even temporarily overcome the shortened\nanterior tissues.\n\nThe deformity has grown fixed, and from now on it will\n\nrequire the hardest kind of prolonged labor on the part of the child, well\n\nand patiently directed by the teacher, to conquer it.\nTo prevent this condition, there need be introduced in the curriculum\nnot only exercises to supply the quantity of activity necessary to maintain\nthe child's general health, his organic vigor, but such as are specially\ndesigned for this particular purpose. In other words, whatever value we\nmay ascribe to play, we must recognize that, after all, play is in its nature\n\nvery largely imitative of present or ancestral activities, and consists, like\nthese, to greatest extent, of efforts directed forward, and therefore unsuitable\n\nfor the purpose we have in mind.\n\nTo prevent unhygienic skeletal develop-\n\nment there is required a form of activity which necessitates the greatest\ncontraction in the muscles of the hind aspect of the spinal column and the\nadductors of the shoxilder blades, and these in such postures as to prevent\nrelaxation of the abdominal wall and extension of the anterior ligaments of\n\nthe capsule at the hip.\nIt is true that play forms have been invented to serve this purpose to\nsome extent (for instance archball), but I believe that we can all agree that\nthe very nature of play means freedom and spontaneity, and that the value\nof any exercise as a play is in inverse ratio to its orthopedic effect. Nothing\nsuffices for our purpose but gymnastics in its narrow sense.\nAnd to serve,\ngynmastics must be introduced from the very beginning of school life. It\nis argued that play forms are the only physical training suitable to the lower\n\ngrades.\n\nI take issue with this opinion.\n\nThe evils of which we here speak\n\nbegin to make themselves noticeable from the time the child enters the\nschool, from the time that it is confined to a chair or bench, and the warfare\n\n"} {"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n692\nagainst\n\n[Physicar\n\nthem must be carried on from the beginning, and must be con-\n\ntinued right straight thru kindergarten, grammar grades, high school, and\n\nAs it is at present, the damage has been done long before formal\n\ncollege.\n\ngymnastics are introduced, with the result that at the upper stages work\nmust be done which belongs to the orthopedic therapeutist rather than to\nthe orthopedic hygienist, if you will allow me those expressions.\n\nWe must\n\neven in college repeat and re-repeat exercises suitable for the mental\ndevelopment of the eight-year-old child and which quite naturally are not\nonly unsuitable to the adolescent but abhorrent to him, which explains\n\na good deal of the lack of interest of which complaint is made.\nproper introduction of formal gymnastics in the lower stages,\n\nBy a\n\nwe shall\n\nendeavor to make the formality more and more unnecessary at the upper\nThe applied forms shall in the upper schools have the dominant\nstages.\nposition.\n\nSimplicity must of course be the keynote from the beginning.\n\nLet the\n\nkindergartner receive such instruction as will enable her to recognize the\nessential external features of the erect posture.\n\nLet her devote one to two\n\nminutes three times a day to teaching this posture and its maintenance in\nsimple forms of exercise, and this without curtailing the time set aside for\nplay.\n\nLet the grammar teacher build upon this foundation, and we may\n\nbe reasonably sure that the pupils issuing from the eighth grade either to\nbusiness or to high school will do so without deformity. This I hold to be\nthe chief orthopedic function of gymnastics in the lower grades, far more\n\nthey have been\n\nimportant than the\n\nefforts to correct deformities after\n\ncreated by neglect.\n\nThe great obstacle for this conmion-sense application\n\nof gymnastics lies in the prevalent opinion that the orthopedic value of\n\ngymnastics can be secured at any time by means of one or a few brief\n\nweekly lessons.\n\nThis is a chimera.\n\nAssuming a school year of thirty-six weeks, I would demand that for\nthe first week three daily periods of one or two minutes each be devoted to\naccustom the pupils to assume rapidly and orderly an open formation in\nranks. This can easily be done as a play. During this and the next\nsucceeding week the very worst errors of postures should be corrected by\nhelp of hand whenever necessary.\n\nParticular attention should be given\n\nto avoidance of sway-back and strain in the shoulder girdle.\n\nIn the second week there should be begun practice in swaying forward\nso that the weight is carried on the soles of the feet, and this exaggerated\nposture should be maintained for\n\nits\n\ncorrective influence three to five\n\nGradually it should be made clear that the\nfundamental standing posture should include a moderate degree of such\nseconds before rest is given.\n\nforward swaying to be assumed on the\n\ncommand \"attention,\" tho the\n\nteacher may even later for correction give an occasional admonition to\n\n\"sway.\"\n\n"} {"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGYMNASTICS AS AN ORTHOPEDIC PROPHYLACTIC\n\n693\n\nIn the third week I would add an arm-raising sideways with particular\nattention to the avoidance of sway-back and ducking of the head.\n\nFrom now on the nimiber of the periods may very properly be decreased\nto two or one a day and the length gradually increased to four, five, up to\n\nten minutes as new exercises are introduced.\n\nIn the fourth week we may teach the placing of the hands upon the\nhips without pushing the shoulders upward, the hands resting solidly on\n\nthe iliac crests.\n\nFor the fifth week the new work should be heel-raising, and the next\nweek there should be introduced foot-placings sideways with a complete\ntransfer of the weight.\n\nA combination of this foot-placing with the hand-\n\nplacing on the hips, variations in resuming the fundamental posture in one\n\nand in two counts, feet-changing, and such other changes as suggest themselves to the teacher will, if the prime condition of good form be insisted\non, occupy the class for some three weeks more.\nAbout the tenth week we may try standing hand-turning, to be\nsucceeded during the next few weeks by bending the elbows after the arms\nhave been raised sideways, this bending first to be done slowly but soon to\nbe increased in speed so as to constitute a real arm-flinging, of course with\ninsistence upon the immobility of the upper arms and head.\n\nThis should\nbe followed or alternated with arm-bending upward and arm-bending\nforward, with and without combinations of foot-placings.\n\nIn the second semester there should be added arm-stretching sideward\nafter\n\nthe arms are previously bent upward, head-bending backward,\n\ntrunk-bending forward, trunk-turning while sitting astride a chair.\n\nIn other words, at the end of the kindergarten year, the pupils should,\naccording to this plan, be capable of executing a little g)annastic program,\nlike the following, and to do this with quite a good deal of vim and vigor.\n\nAnd if they can do this, they have postponed the initial stages of the\ncommon school deformities. They have at the same time acquired a control of their bodies\n\nwhich imder present conditions it takes the college\n\nstudent without previous training nearer two than one month to acquire\n\nby work that is, and necessarily must be, disagreeable to him.\nPbogram\nFormation\nStanding arm-raising sideways\nStanding hand-placing on the hips with foot-placing sideways\nWing-stride-standing feet-changing\n\nStanding head-bending backward\nStanding arm-stretching sideward\nStanding heel-raising\n\nYard (c) -standing arm-flinging with and without foot-placings\nWing-stride-standing trunk-bending forward\nWing-stride-sitting trunk-turning\n\nStanding arm-raising sideways with heel-raising\n\n"} {"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nIt may be noticed that in this program there is no marching, no running,\nno jimiping, no dancing, no play. The chief reason is of course that these\nforms are supposed to be and are abundantly used in the kindergarten.\nThey may well be interpolated in the above program and should most\ncertainly be used outside it both out of doors and inside.\n\n"} {"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident\n\n—\n\nL. Terry, state high-school inspector\n\n^H.\n\n—\n\nVice-President\n\nT.\n\nMadison, Wis.\n\nF. Woodhull, professor of physical science, Columbia University\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nHighland Park. HI.\n\nSecretary—JzssK L. Smith, superintendent of schools\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 9, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order by President Terry at 9:30 a.m. in the First Congregational Church.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, H. T. Clifton, high school, Pasa-\n\ndena, Cal., acted as secretary pro tempore.\n\nHelen C. Putnam, M.D., chairman of the Committee on School Hygiene of the\nAmerican Academy of Medicine, Providence, R.I., presented the \"Report of the Committee on Janitor Service.\"\nAfter the reading of this report, upon motion it was voted to continue the committee\nand to investigate the possibility of having the outline of their report printed and distributed.\n\nThe following papers were next presented:\n\"Nature and Content of Science in the Rural School and Its Relation to Secondary\n^Josiah Main, professor of agriculture, State Normal School, Hays, Kans.\n\"Danger of Overspecialization in Work in Science\" J. H. Worst, president, State\nAgricultural College, Fargo, N.Dak.\nScience\"\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe Conmiittee on Nominations, which had been previously appointed by the\npresident, presented the following report:\n\n—\n\nFor President George R. Twiss, high-school visitor, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President B. Schmick, Iowa State University, Iowa City, Iowa.\nFor Secretary ^A. A. Upham, normal school, Whitewater, Wis.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe report was accepted and those named by the committee declared elected as\nofficers for the ensuing year.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nH. T. Clifton, Secretary pro tempore\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, July 10, 1913\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Secondary Education\nand the Department of Manual Training and Art Education and was called to order in\nAssembly Hall by J. G. Collicott, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nThe following program was given:\n\n\"What the Schools Can Do to Meet the Demands of Both Industry and General\n\n—Ernest O. Holland, superintendent of schools,\nKy.\n\"\n—\nBent to Meet the Needs of\nChicago\nVocations\n^William B. Owen, principal\nNormal School, Chicago,\n\"Report of Committee on the Improvement of Physics Teaching\"— A. Randall,\nhead of Department of Physics,\nScience\"\n\nLouisville,\n\n\"How Far Should Both Academic and Manual-Arts Courses in the High Schools Be\nSpecific\n\nof\n\n?\n\n111.\n\n^J.\n\nPratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\nIt was moved and seconded that the first three sections of the report of the Com-\n\nmittee on the Improvement of Physics Teaching be accepted and further that it is the\n\n69s\n\n"} {"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n696\n\n[Science\n\nsense of this meeting that the plans set forth therewith should be carried out, and that the\n\nExecutive Committee of the National Education Association should provide funds to\nsupport these plans, including the circulating of blueprints, direction sheets, etc., the\nissuing of a series of monographs, and an exhibit of scientific, conmiercial, or other objects\n\nhelpful to the advancement of science teaching to be presented by the committee in con-\n\njunction with the Panama-Pacific Exposition.\n\nThis motion was unanimously passed.\n\nArthur L. Williston, Boston, Mass., then made the following motion which was\nseconded:\n\nThat the fourth section of the report in reference to action to substitute a quality\ncompetition in science equipment for the present price competition be accepted and\nreferred to a special committee to be appointed by the incoming president of the Department of Science Instruction.\nAfter some discussion as to the powers of the committee, it was agreed that no\nfurther instructions should be given, but that such a committee could not take any action\n\nbinding upon the National Education Association without reporting to the department\n\nand receiving definite authority.\nThe motion was unanimously carried.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nIea M. Allen, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON JANITOR SERVICE\nThe Committee on Janitor Service was appointed by the Department\nof Science Instruction at the\n\nBoston meeting of the Association, 1910,\n\nfollowing the discussion of a paper on \"The Practical Application of Biologic\n\nScience in School Administration:\n\nThe Problem of Janitor Service,\" since\n\npublished in the volume of Proceedings for that year.\n\nThe committee had the privilege of providing the program for one\nHere Professor C.-E.\n\nsession of the department at San Francisco in 191 1.\n\nA. Winslow, of the College of the City of New York, gave a paper on \"The\nScientific Basis for Ventilation Standards\"; Professor Frost and Miss Arm-\n\nstrong of the University of Wisconsin reported interesting studies under the\ntitle \"Bacteriological Tests of Methods of Cleaning\";\n\nand Professor Frost\n\noutlined his brief course for janitors at the University, not yet at a stage to\n\nbe estimated.\nThe committee believes that there is no occasion for asking for appropriations for any exhaustive study of janitors' work.\n\nIt is well known that:\n\n1.\n\nJanitors are given no opportunity for training in sanitary methods.\n\n2.\n\nSome janitors are required to have engineers' licenses.\n\n3. Their salaries often equal and frequently exceed those of teachers,\n\nsometimes of principals and of other workers who are carefully trained and\ntested.\n4.\n\nThe details of dustiness, temperature, himaidity, air currents, cleanli-\n\nness in schools, on which largely depends health of school population and,\n\nthru it, of the nation are in the hands of these untrained housekeepers and\ntheir untrained supervisors.\n\n"} {"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartmcntl\n\n5.\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON JANITOR SERVICE\n\n697\n\nThe unstandardized details of this housekeeping have helped develop\nwe mean\n\n\"occupational diseases\" called \"school diseases,\" by which\n\nanemia, adenoid and catarrhal conditions, disorders of the nervous system,\nall especially predisposing to tuberculosis, as well as to the contraction of\nother diseases and to their more serious results.\n\nThe committee further decided that its object would be best served by\npresenting at this time suggestions so brief as to invite reading, so practicable as to invite adoption,\n\nand designed to lead to a general definite\n\nstandardizing of janitors' work.\n\nTo secure effective and intelligent co-operation of school officials\n\n—in sanitary living at school\n\npolitical, educational, janitorial\n\npensable that actual as well as desirable conditions be known.\n\nit\n\nis indis-\n\nThe first\n\nstep in improvements in any direction is to collect the facts.\n\nEvery building, as every room in it, has its own conditions to be learned\nand controlled. They can be learned, and some of them in some places more\nor less controlled, with least expense and greatest effectiveness when children's co-operation is enlisted.\n\nThe expense is comparatively negligible.\n\"Effectiveness\" is along three lines, as follows:\nPractically constant supervision such as all good housekeepers find\n\n1.\n\nnecessary in their homes.\n2.\n\nPreservation of permanent records of sanitary details for inspection\n\nby school officials and others, to take the place of our present guesses and\nopinions as a basis for establishing conditions more favorable for health.\n3. The interest of future voters and makers of homes and of communities in sanitary details by training in regulating them and by habituating\nto desire them.\n\nThe method proposed for securing pupils' co-operation has already in\none or other of its phases been observed in successful operation at some\ntime during the last ten years in individual schools.\n\nThe committee recommends that for each room used in a building,\nincluding corridors, basement, assembly rooms, a group of children be\n\nappointed as health officers to serve for a time so limited that every pupil\nshall have a term of service, perhaps a fortnight or month, during each year.\n\nIn elementary grades this office may be a part of \"nature-study,\"\nIn high schools it may\nbe connected with physics, chemistry, biologic science, home economics, or\n\"physiology and hygiene,\" \"domestic science.\"\n\nphysiology and hygiene.\n\nThe sanitary details to be reported by these health officers are temperature, dustiness, relative humidity, air currents, and cleanliness.\n\nFor corri-\n\ndors and basement, relative humidity does not need to be regularly reported.\n\n—\n\nTemperature. The proper place or places for thermometers shall be\ndetermined by the officers, and instruments shall be occasionally standardized\n\nby them.\n\nThe officers shall read them periodically (hourly intervals\n\nare advised for classrooms), record the readings in a substantial book, and\n\n"} {"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n698\n\n[Science\n\nchart them on a blackboard reserved for this purpose (after the manner of\nnurses' cb'nical charts), so that pupils, principal, janitor, and visitors can\nsee perhaps a week's record at a glance.\n\nWhen conditions permit, health officers shall readjust heating sources\n(registers,\n\nsteam pipes, stoves, etc.), ventilators, or windows to maintain\n\nproper temperature, which, when\n\nartificial\n\nheat\n\nis\n\nused, should never\n\nChildren as yoimg as nine years can usually do all\n\nexceed 68° Fahrenheit.\nthis acceptably.\n\nDustiness.\n\n—In high schools where there\n\nis\n\nan efficient department of\n\nbiology or of home economics, dustiness can be measured or estimated by\ncultures or\n\nby the sugar method recommended by the Committee on\nThe standard is 2,000\n\nStandard Methods for the Examination of Air.\n\nparticles (visible imder a two-thirds inch objective) to a cubic inch of air.\n\nIn elementary schools the method suggested for the present is that of the\n\ngood housewife, wiping surfaces with a clean cloth. If dusting is properly\ndone nothing is wiped off. Floor, woodwork, and furnishings should be as\nimmaculate as in the best-kept home or hospital. This test should come\nat the beginning of the session daily. For purposes of investigation,\ndustiness may well be re-examined at a later hour.\nHealth officials should be responsible for the moist erasing of chalk,\nbut pupils should not be required to dust rooms. Officers should record\nsweeping of rooms or corridors while pupils or teachers are obliged to use\nthe rooms.\n\nSevere penalties for this violation of personal rights should\n\nbe enforced by school boards.\nElementary pupils over eight years of age can do this work, including\nrecord-keeping.\nStirring up dust by either sweeping or dusting should not be allowed\n\nwithin an hour before school opens, nor while duties require pupils or\nteachers to be in the building, nor with closed windows or other omission of\ncross-drafts to carry it outside.\n\nExceptions to this rule may be made only\n\nin accordance with examinations of dustiness.\nRelative humidity.\n\n—\n\nOfficers over eleven years\n\ncan be taught to use\n\nsafely the whirling wet-dry bulb thermometer recommended by the United\n\nStates Weather Bureau.\n\nThe danger of breaking is lessened by tying to\nOne instru-\n\nthe back a stick projecting a few inches beyond the bulbs.\n\nment is enough for an ordinary building.\nRelative humidity should be recorded and charted about a half-hour\nafter the session opens.\n\nIt can well be repeated later also.\n\nofficers shall readjust artificial\n\nsteam pipes,\n\netc.),\n\nWhere possible,\n\nsources of humidity (evaporating pans,\n\nor windows, to maintain relative humidity as near\n\n50 per cent as possible.\n\nAir\n\ncurrents.\n\n—When ventilating or\n\nfresh-air flues\n\nhave no current\n\nindicators of their own, officers should measure currents with an anemometer\n\n(one is enough for the usual building), or estimate them with candle or joss\nstick.\n\nPupils over eleven can use them, perhaps yoxmger.\n\n"} {"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "2\n\n2\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON JANITOR SERVICE\n\nDepartment!\n\n699\n\nThe effectiveness of air currents is best learned by comparing the smell\nof schoolroom air with that out of doors\n\n—the standard of freshness. Air\n\ncurrents and freshness should be recorded at least once at the middle of each\nOfficers should make such readjustments of windows or ventilators\n\nsession.\n\nas are indicated.\nCleanliness.\n\n—Cleanliness of wash-bowls, water-closets, possibly of other\n\nDirt on\nwindows sometimes diminishes illumination one-quarter to one-third,\nmeasured by a photometer. The instrument is costly, and until a less\nexpensive method is devised the opinion of health officers can be given.\nDirty windows are important in rooms that are badly ventilated or specially\nexposed to smoke and dust. Such windows sometimes need washing once\nin two weeks.\nPupils over eleven, possibly yoimger, can do this reporting.\nGeneral suggestions. Health officers from older grades can be appointed\nfor service in rooms where pupils are too young for any special detail.\nWhen a fault is found beyond pupi 3' function to remedy, it should be\nparts of building or yard, shovdd be recorded once each session.\n\n—\n\nreported immediately to the proper aut.iority, probably the principal.\n\nIt\n\nwise never to \"interfere with the janitor.\" This report and the result\nfollowing should be stated in \" Health Officers' Permanent Record.\"\n\nis\n\nSome, if not all, of these exercises in practical sanitation can be imdertaken quietly at any time by any teacher in charge of any room.\n\naccumulated data will prove invaluable.\n\nThe\n\nIt is the practical first step in\n\nreducing ''school diseases\" and tuberculosis, which increases all thru school\nyears (except in open-air schools), and up to thirty or thirty-five years of\nage, and among teachers has a mortality rate higher than among the general\npublic.\n\nsoon\n\nIt proves so useful and interesting where begun that other rooms\n\nfall in line.\n\nThese facts will help demonstrate that school house-\n\nkeepers like others must be trained in sanitary methods.\n\nIn addition to the references already mentioned the committee advises\nas supplementary reading:\n\n\"Report of the Committee on Standard Methods for the Examination of Air,\"\nAmerican Journal of Public Healthy iQiOj 191\nHill, \"Stuffy Rooms,\" Popular Science Monthly 191\nPutnam, School Janitors, American Academy of Medicine Press, Easton, Pa.\nChapin, Sources and Modes of Infection^ Wiley and Sons\n^\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nHelen C. Putnam, Providence, R.I.\nCommittee George R. Twiss, Columbus, Ohio\n\nFred H. Cowan, Boston, Mass.\nAdvisory expert in sanitation:\nC.-E. A. Winslow, associate professor of biology. College of the City\n\nNew York; curator of public health, American Museum of NaNew York State Commission on Ventilation, New York, N.Y.\n\nof\n\ntural History; chairman,\n\n"} {"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nNATURE AND CONTENT OF SCIENCE IN THE RURAL SCHOOL\nAND ITS RELATION TO SECONDARY SCIENCE\nJOSIAH MAIN, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nHAYS, KANS.\nIt is the purpose of the high school\n\nScience is organized knowledge.\n\nBelow the high school, nature subjects should be\npresented in a concrete and unorganized form. The scientific method\nconsists of several distinct steps, beginning with observation and closing\nwith generalization. Only the first of these is appropriate to the nature\nwork below the high school. Therefore, elementary science, being disassociated, lacks the cohesion that will make logical development possible\nto organize knowledge.\n\nin a paper of this character.\n\nFortunately there is a unifying principal fiu*-\n\nnished by genetic psychology, which we call the cultiu*e epoch theory.\n\nUse\n\nwill be made of this theory as a means of treating this subject.\n\nThe genetic psychologist recognizes three distinct phases of development during the school years: first, the transition, second, the formative,\nleading up to the adolescent, the third. The first includes the primary\ngrades, the second the intermediate grades, and the third the grammar and\nhigh-school grades.\n\nIn the first the child represents an early period in race\n\nhistory, in the second more recent, and the third is prophetic of the future\nracial development.\n\nThese phases may be represented by three adjacent faces of a rectangular solid. In the case of nature subjects, this solid represents a limited\nhigh-school sciencesS\n\nEN T I F I C\n\nC t\n\nd\n\n^^ y\n*\n\nprimary and\n\n<\n\nlnterm«d«ate\n\ngraded\nI\n\n-\n\nV\n\ny\n\nU\n\n/\n\n'\n\nb\n\n'\n\n/\n\n•\n\n/\n\nportion of nature, and the three faces correspond to three points of view\n\nwhich may be had. During the transition stage it is viewed much as our\nearly ancestors viewed it, and the economic present cannot be appreciated.\n\nThe purpose of nature teaching in these years is cultural.\nAmong the lowest organisms, thought is motion. With infants thought\nmust be accompanied by motion. Later life may teach us to inhibit motion\nand substitute mere muscular tonus, but man thruout life thinks with his\nmuscles. Therefore, to educate his mental powers we must supply appro-\n\n"} {"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE IN THE RURAL SCHOOL\n\npriate muscular exercises,\n\n701\n\nand the appropriate exercises are those which\n\nbuilt up the brain which the infant has inherited from his remotest ancestors.\n\nThese exercises pertain to his struggle for existence, and include more particularly the earlier vocations which supplied him food, clothing, and shelter.\nHence we use nature-study and the school garden as a means of his early\nmental development.\nscience material.\n\nEarly vocations, therefore, dictate the appropriate\n\nCarlyle had this in mind when he said:\n\nProperly speaking thou hast no knowledge but what thou hast got by work, all else\nis\n\na mere semblance of knowledge, a thing to be argued in the schools, a thing floating\n\nin the clouds till we try and fix it.\n\nEarl Barnes in his Studies of Children's Interests corroborates this when\n\nhe finds that before adolescence children define objects, not in terms of\nIn\nstructure, but in terms of what they can do, or what they are used for.\nadolescence they prefer to define by terms of structure.\n\nMost of these\n\nearly racial experiences come under the term agriculture, and as the useful\nof one age is outlived in the next, its value, necessary for educational pur-\n\nposes, is cultm^l rather than economic.\n\nThe second face of the solid, the economic, covering grades six, seven,\nand eight, represents later formative and early adolescent stages. The\nchild reaches a kind of early maturity and the most active years of his life.\nHe is interested in all local utilities, and were he to choose a vocation it\nwould ordinarily be a handicraft or manual vocation. He is interested in\nall the utilities of his environment, and properly to be trained in science\nwork he should be made a producer. And the study of the best way to get\n\nthe product and where its merits reside, plus side excursions of youthful\ncuriosity, form the strongest incentives for science work in grades six, seven,\n\nand eight. With the rural child this will be largely biological, with the\nurban, more physical.\nThe following exercises are planned to illustrate what should be done\nin the science work in the rural school at this stage:\nFirst, we have a corn plant growing in nodes and internodes, with the\nThe upper bud or shoot\nleaf at each node, in the axil of which is a bud.\n\n"} {"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ngrows to form an ear.\n\nThe top of the stalk produces a tassel.\n\nisdencc\n\nThe former\n\ncomposed of pistillate flowers, the latter of staminate. Should the buds\nat the bottom of the culm develop they will form suckers, the only natural\ndifference between the sucker and the ear being in the origin.\nThe sucker\ngrows in intemodes terminated by an ear which ends in a tassel. By\nbreeding, we have developed a plant that produces two ears, rather than\none ear and a worthless sucker. Compared with wheat, we find some internodes of the latter greatly reduced in length, so that the buds all develop,\nforming what we call the stool a primitive condition to which the suckering of the com relates. Thus, we not only teach the botany of the com\nplant, but get an intimation of what man was doing during the prehistoric\nages that must have elapsed while the com was being bred up to its\npresent perfection. While the rural early adolescent is hopping clods\nbehind a cultivator that had locomotor ataxia during the hot days of June\nis\n\n—\n\nhe has the right to this knowledge.\nWhy is he plowing com? First, to conserve moisture, a matter of\nphysics, which should illuminate his work.\n\nSecondly, to kill weeds, and\n\nin the study of the worst weeds which he must find we get representatives\nof eight or ten of the commonest plant families, each of which is also repre-\n\nsented by plants of the greatest economic value.\n\nThus, like ourselves,\n\nthere is a black sheep in every family, and there are undeveloped possibilities in every weed.\n\nAmong insect pests of corn also may be found representatives of five of\nthe seven Linnean orders of insects, whose control depends on the knowl-\n\nedge of their life history, locomotion, and mouth parts.\nSimilarly, structure of seeds\n\nand seedlings and how seeds come up,\n\nwhile matters of economic importance to him, are fundamental to his cor-\n\nWhere plants take food, as\nrect science work later in the high school.\nshown by a staining solution, where the root grows in length, the parts of\nthe root, osmosis, as shown in a cut potato or dandelion stem, explain how\nthe com plant is nourished. The starch which fills the kemel may be\nidentified by the iodine test, which will also show its origin in the green\nWith starch as a basis we have the origin of the energy-giving nutrileaf.\nents and open the whole question of rations and digestion.\nThus the corn plant may be made the means of giving concrete information in physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and physiology. In a\nsimilar way the study of the horse is an excellent means of teaching the\nbones, tendons, and ligaments, defects of which constitute most of the ills\nto which horseflesh is heir. The study of the cow gives us physiology of\nthe skin, of milk secretion, and introduces the subject of nutrition again.\n\nThe cuts of beef form excellent material for teaching muscle structure,\nsince marbling, texture, and tenderness arc factors of quality in beef which\nrelate to the infiltration of fat into the muscle and the hardening of the con-\n\n"} {"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOVERSPECIALIZATION IN WORK IN SCIENCE\n\nnective tissue due to age, exercise, improper development,\n\n703\n\nand\n\ninferior\n\nbreeds.\n\n:^^\nSCJBNTlriC\nWith this foundation we are prepared to go to the scientific organization\nof high-school science as indicated by the third face of the cube.\n\nIt is of the\n\ngreatest importance that we keep within the cube, or that we use as far as\npossible the same materials thruout the primary, the intermediate, grammar,\n\nand high-school grades. To try to teach an unfamiliar scientific principle\nby the use of unfamiHar scientific materials is like trying to find the value\nof two unknown quantities from a single equation. K x-{-y=ii, the only\nvalue we can get for x is ic= 11— >', and the only thing we have learned is\na meaningless formula. There may be some materials outside the common\nmass, such as pussy willow for cultural purposes, alfalfa for economic\npurposes, and Huxley's crayfish for scientific purposes, necessary for proper\n\nteaching of the three phases, but a closer correlation of agriculture with\nscience is necessary to the salvation of sciences to the high school.\n\nDANGER OF OVERSPECIALIZATION IN WORK IN SCIENCE\nJ.\n\nH. WORST, PRESIDENT, STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, FARGO, N.DAK.\nIt is not\n\nmy purpose to discuss this subject from the viewpoint of the\n\nscientific enthusiast.\n\nIt is a well-known fact that a single branch of some\n\nparticular science is sufficient to occupy the lifetime of the earnest investi-\n\ngator who may die at last with his work but scarcely begun.\ntedious work, at best.\n\nResearch is\n\nOnce demonstrated, however, scientific facts not\n\nonly illmninate and enrich the imderstanding but their application to the\nindustries of life facilitates labor and cheapens production.\n\nThe body of\n\nscientific knowledge has become so vast and simplified and its usefulness so\n\nimiversally recognized that its\n\nmore general dissemination among the\n\nmasses is demanded.\n\nA distinction must be recognized, however, between the investigator,\nas such, and the teacher, for the investigator should not be discouraged from\n\n"} {"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n704\n\nthe most intensive specialization.\n\n[Science\n\nThe average student, on the other hand,\n\nand for\nFor students in general, therefore, the instructor\nshould teach science in usable form; that is to say, in the form that will best\nserve the student's vocational needs that will connect the student with\nlife.\nAnd as most young men not preparing to enter college will, by\ndesires a knowledge of science, as a rule, for practical purposes\n\nimmediate consumption.\n\n—\n\nforce of circumstances, piu*sue some productive calling, the science subjects\n\nthat bear directly upon their vocational problems should take precedence\n\n—should certainly be given equal emphasis with—subjects merely\n\nover\n\ncultural or formal.\n\nThe world's work must be done and in so far as science\n\ntraining enables men and women to become more skillful and hence more\nuseful, it has a mission in general education.\n\nThere is little danger of overwhere the\n\nspecialization where the training points toward manual utility;\n\npmpose to fill some industrial position with efficiency is clearly understood,\nand the desire to enjoy both the labor and the results of labor is the\ncontrolling impulse.\n\nThe new spirit of democracy is demanding of the public schools men of\ncharacter who also are able and willing to give an equivalent for what they\n\nwould possess.\n\nThe public is beginning to recognize that intellect applied\n\nto grading a roadbed, managing a loom, or operating a dairy plant is as\ndignified\n\nand quite as respectable as when exploited for the purpose of\n\nclearing a known criminal from the penalties of the law or giving advice\n\nthat enables predatory concerns to loot the public without being caught.\n\nBut where the theoretical teacher clouds the student's understanding with\ntechnicalities and impracticable classifications for want, himself, of experi-\n\nence in practical world-affairs, there the danger lies. As well devote the\nmajor part of a student's education to ancient history and the dead languages as to scientific research that has no bearing upon his aptitudes and\nno relation to his future interests. Chemistry as chemistry is one thing,\n\nbut chemistry as applied to practical agriculture or other industrial pursuits\nquite a different thing. And chemistry as imderstood for practical\nusefulness might not, on examination day, admit of a passing mark, while\n\nis\n\nanother's chemistry would pass at loo per cent and yet have but little\nvalue, save as a mental acquisition.\n\nThis is true of science in general.\n\nThe chief danger of overspecialization lies in the fact that too many educators\n\nand textbook authors have such slight acquaintance with practical\n\nthings, with creating wealth from original sources, or with the mode of life\n\nthat most people must live.\nScience in the public schools, therefore, should be emphasized to the\n\nextent that its application will meet the particular industrial needs of the\n\nWhat is applicable to one community, however, may be out\nThe laity, the common people, the men\nand women who must perform the community work, whatever may be its\ncommimity.\n\nof place in another community.\n\ncharacter, are the ones to be considered rather than the views of the peda-\n\njj?\n\n"} {"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\n\\\n\nOVERSPECIAUZATION IN WORK IN SCIENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\ngogical theorist.\n\n705\n\nThe science taught should be of the kind that can be\n\napplied to meet the demands of the locality, whether it be agricultural,\n\nmanufacturing, or what not.\n\nLocal conditions and not tradition should\n\ngovern if the public schools are to serve local community needs.\nThere are certain general considerations, however, applying to the\nchoice of subject-matter,\nsubjects,\n\nits\n\nquantity, the particular facts organized in\n\nand methods pursued\n\nin the curricula of secondary schools,\n\nespecially with reference to industrial and scientific branches.\n1.\n\nThe intensive\n\nThe nature of the adolescent is to be considered.\n\nstudy of science at the high-school age is doubtless less desirable than a\nbroader and more human study of the aspects of nature.\n\nIt is held, for\n\nexample, that there should be very slight use made of the microscope and\nscientific classifications, these being uninteresting to youth of high-school\n\nage and more properly to be given in the college or imiversity\n\n.\n\nIt is believed\n\nthat science in our high schools has become altogether too differentiated,\n\ntoo technical, and too destitute of real attractiveness for secondary- school\n\nSuch students are not so much interested in exact measurements\nand rigid demonstration as in the uses of things and the living and open\naspects of nature. While there is not likely to be too much science of\nthe usable and interesting variety, there is believed to be altogether too\nmuch in the high schools of that science which would appeal more par-\n\npupils.\n\nticularly to the specialist.\n2.\n\nWe have come to a point in the evolution of our public-school\n\nsystem when perhaps the paramoimt need is a stricter evaluation of the\nfacts offered.\n\nIt has been altogether too readily assumed that the separate\n\nitems of knowledge given in the various sciences are intrinsically valuable.\n\nAs a matter of fact, there are the widest differences among facts as to their\nvalue in helping the individual to adjust himself to his environment.\n\nMany facts which are logically a part of the extended sciences have but\nslight or no actual value in the life of the individual.\n\nIt accordingly comes\n\nabout that a student who receives 100 in a given subject in school may\nstand zero when confronted with actual situations out of school. The\nmisfit information of the older classical institutions became notorious, but is\n\nthere not as great a misfit when a person who has studied the tadpole, or\n\nthe interior structure of the cat, for months, is unable to distinguish breeds\nof cattle or judge the value of work horses that pass on the street ?\nis\n\nAnd\n\nnot this disappointing aspect of science teaching the result of applying\n\ncollege methods to high-school conditions ?\n\nIs not disappointment due to\n\nwhat might be called the classical idea in science ?\n\nIs there not, therefore,\n\nneed of going thru our various offerings in science in the secondary schools\nand winnowing out such material as does not meet tests of applicability in\nthe home, on the farm, or in the factory ?\n3. There remains the large social question of what proportion industrial\nand scientific studies should bear to the total fund of knowledge offered in\n\n"} {"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7o6\n\nthe public schools.\nfor producing wealth.\n\n[Science\n\nand industrial branches prepare especially\nOur civic, political, and social sciences bear especially\n\nScientific\n\nupon the distribution of wealth; while the fine arts, ethics, literature, etc.,\npromote the interests of the individual as a consumer. Any degree of\noverspecialization in the high school which disregards the social setting of\nthe student in his after-life is evidently unfortunate. While the production\nof wealth is a paramount social aim and the ability of the citizen to perform\nhis individual task with efficiency and pleasure is an important function of\nthe public school, yet the importance of discriminating and alert citizenship\nand well-ordered home and comimunity life must at the same time be given\ndue consideration.\nScience teaching in the public schools, moreover, can readily be made\nto serve the double purpose of developing general culture and promoting\nefficiency in vocational occupations.\n\nScience, therefore, should not be\n\ntaught in secondary schools primarily for the purpose of imparting scientific\n\nknowledge for its own sake or for gratifying the students' curiosity.\n\nWhere,\n\nfor instance, economic plant growth is the end sought, an accurate knowledge\nof the physiology of plants, their development, diseases, natural enemies,\n\nand the effect of fertilizers and methods of tillage required for their production, etc.,\n\nis\n\nthe chief consideration.\n\nThis knowledge may be con-\n\nsidered superficial, from the scientific viewpoint, yet for the average student\nin the country high school or consolidated school it is about all that can be\n\ngiven within the time that may be allotted to the study of botany and do\njustice to other subjects of equal importance.\n\nOn the other hand, begin-\n\nning with the study of algae and proceeding to the consideration of osmosis\n\nand cellular structure, and making free use of the microscope are calculated\nto awaken keen interest, yet the student is apt to overlook the plant as a\nwhole, and its economic production as well, on account of being absorbed\nin the study of its structure and its theoretical relationship to other plants.\n\nOne of the purposes of introducing science in the public schools is to\nlead the student into a love of nature; to create an interest in neighbor-\n\nhood phenomena.\nFor agriculture, and especially for elementary agriculture, as adapted\nto the public schools, I question whether it would not be better to teach\nthe subject direct rather than by strict classification, separating agriculture\ninto botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, geology, etc., and presenting each\n\nsubject not only separately, but at different periods of time and by different\ninstructors.\n\nThe temptation is always present, even then, for the imprac-\n\ntical teacher to specialize on some particular branch of science, usually the\n\nbranch which he likes best and about which he knows most. By so doing\nthe relation that one science bears to others is not so well understood and\nthe student too often fails correctly to correlate, for real usefulness, the\nscientific\n\nknowledge he attains from several sciences.\n\nThis is more es-\n\npecially noticeable when they are taught as separate and distinct subjects\n\n"} {"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEMANDS OF INDUSTRY AND GENERAL SCIENCE\n\nDcpartmcntl\n\nby different teacheis.\n\n707\n\nFor subjects like agricultural science depend upon\n\npractically all of the sciences, and they cannot so well be taught separately\nin the public schools by different teachers.\n\nThese matters are not being urged upon academic grounds but, instead,\nbecause of the fact that so small a part of the science teaching in our schools\nis designed to enhance the usefulness of the pupil or enlist the enthusiastic\n\nsupport of the school patrons.\n\nThe number of teachers qualified to teach science from the standpoint\nand the\nmachinery for their production wholly inadequate. The\ninstructor fresh from the college laboratory rarely imderstands or is in\nsympathy with the social and vocational needs of common, everyday life.\nToo often the instruction offered is adapted for students having college\nambition but barren in service for the many who must immediately engage\n\nof the efficiency of the student seems to be lamentably small\n\neducational\n\nin industrial pursuits.\n\nBut few schoolgirls can hope to obtain a college education. A comparatively small number can hope to complete a secondary education.\nFor such, however, the secondary instruction should not gorge them with\na mass of knowledge that has no application to the lives they are to live.\nThe scientific facts embodied in home economics, touching as they do the\nvarious duties that fall to the lot of wife and mother, will not only lighten\nthe burden of labor but at the same time substitute interest and pleasure\nwhere otherwise would be drudgery. No amount of language grind,\nhistory, or higher mathematics will relieve the situation as will the science\n\nthat bears upon homemaking.\n\nTo make the necessary room for science in the public schools, many\ntraditional preparatory subjects, however, may be abridged with profit by\n\neliminating much that is obsolete or mere surplusage.\n\nIn doing this, it\n\n—\n\nwould not be amiss for the teacher to get the viewpoint of the laity to\nget close up against the specific problems to which modern education\nshould be made applicable in order to meet fairly the demands of modern\ncivilization.\n\nWHAT THE SCHOOLS CAN DO TO MEET THE DEMANDS OF\nBOTH INDUSTRY AND GENERAL SCIENCE\nE. O.\n\nHOLLAND, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOUISVILLE, KY.\n\nAll of US will agree that no secondary school of the country can be\nsaid to\n\nfulfill its\n\nhighest fimction if it does not develop in the students\n\nsound and high ideals of character and citizenship. But these ideals are\nnot sufficient; they must be reinforced by the ability of the high-school\ngraduate to take his place in the world's busiaess activities.\n\nAlready the American high schools have tried indirectly to adapt\ntheir\n\nwork to the demands of the community by increasing the number\n\n"} {"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nof electives, thereby permitting the students to select those subjects which\n\nare especially adapted to their ability and future needs. However, as I\nhave indicated above, this was not sufficient. With the exception of the\ncommercial branches, manual training, and household economics, the\nsubjects were so taught that it was difficult for a child to make any application to his\n\nown environment and life.\n\nEven in the more practical\n\nsciences the instruction tended to become formal;\n\na definite set of facts\n\nwas presented by the teacher, but only the most inquiring pupil could\ndiscover any connection between these facts and the large world outside\nthe schoolroom, in which each individual would soon be compelled to take\nhis place.\n\nBecause of the insistent demands and criticisms of the industrial world\nand a realization on the part of the school men that things were not right,\nwe now have the beginning of an attempt on the part of many of the leading secondary schools to modify their science courses, in order to give better\npreparation to the students\n\nwho expect to enter the industrial world.\n\nFor instance, the secondary school of the Kansas Agricultural College\noffers but one term (five months) of a course designated as introduction\nto science. Immediately after this course has been given, the girls of this\nhigh school take up the study of household physics and chemistry, and the\n\nboys agricultural physics and industrial chemistry.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\ninteresting to\n\nknow that Professor E. L. Holton, director of this secondary school, is\nfirmly convinced that the boys and girls taking work in the applied sciences\nlearn more of pure science than they would if the instruction were entirely\ntheoretical in character.\n\nHe believes that the theoretical side can be\n\nacquired at the time the practical application is made.\n\nYet even in this\n\nschool, an integral part of an institution of higher learning, it is assimied\n\nthat the graduates will not go to college, tho the teachers in this school\nbelieve that the graduates of this secondary school are as well equipped\nfor college work as are the graduates from the high school which devotes\n\nmuch time to the traditional courses in the various sciences.\n\nAll of us\n\nwill be interested in watching this experiment.\n\nThe instructors in chemistry in the Louisville (Kentucky) manualtraining and male high schools have been trying during the past three or\n\nfour years to encourage a practical application of the facts obtained in the\n\nchemistry laboratory.\n\nThe theoretical courses in this subject are still\n\ngiven, but a small group of students have an opportunity in the laboratory\nto do special work which will prepare them to take positions in some of\n\nthe factories in the city requiring the services of young men with a practical\n\nknowledge of chemistry.\nI think a still better illustration of the practical use to which a knowledge of chemistry can be put can be cited in the case of the interesting and\nsignificant work which has recently been done in the chemistry laboratory\n\nat the Westfield (Massachusetts) normal school.\n\nTo many of you this work\n\n"} {"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment!\n\nDEMANDS OF INDUSTRY AND GENERAL SCIENCE\n\nis already quite familiar.\n\nWith the assistance of the instructor of chemistry\n\nthe normal-school students have\n\nand drugs.\n\n709\n\nmade many analyses of food products\n\nThis has been of great value in enforcing the pure food act,\n\nsince it has aroused the people to a realization of the tremendous impor-\n\ntance of this law.\n\nMoreover, the young women attending this normal\n\nschool will be able to better living conditions in the various commimities,\nsince their teaching will be more practical and their pupils will be able to\n\nadapt themselves more quickly and effectively to the demands of the various\nindustries\n\nwhen they take positions in the factories and shops of that\n\nstate.\n\nThruout the country a practical application of several of the sciences\nchemistry, physics, and botany\n\n— being made in the rural high schools\nis\n\nwhere the elements of agriculture are taught. It is true that the college\nprofessor of chemistry might say that the amount of time devoted to the\ninstruction in chemistry is too meager; that in turn would be the complaint\nof the teachers of physics and botany; but after all, the instruction the\nstudents receive in the subject of agriculture will probably be of immensely\nmore economic and social value to the various communities concerned\nthan if much more time were devoted to the formal instruction in the\nseparate sciences.\n\nSuperintendent Boynton of the public schools of Ithaca, N.Y., has\n\narranged a number of science courses in his high school, which aid the\npupils to meet the industrial\n\ndemands of that community.\n\nThe pupils\n\nenrolled in these courses are encoirraged to visit the manufacturing plants\nof that city, in order to see what practical application is made of the sciences\n\nwhich they are studying.\n\nFurthermore, the courses in physics and manual\n\ntraining provide for the drawing of plans and the erection of a miniature\n\nhouse and the electric wiring of the structure.\n\nAfter the pupils have taken\n\nthese courses, they are able to do the ordinary electrical repairing needed\n\nat home, and occasionally a boy imdertakes the installation of the wiring\n\nLater it is possible for him to take\nemployment in one of the electrical supply houses and make that kind\nof work his permanent vocation.\nIn a number of other high schools in this country there is a tendency\non the part of the authorities to encourage the boys and girls to take posi-\n\nsystem for a residence in that city.\n\ntions in the various industries for the summer months.\n\nOccasionally, too,\n\na number of the teachers in these high schools take up work in some of\nthe shops and factories in the city in order to see what practical application can be made of the science courses they have been presenting to the\nboys and girls in the local high school, during the regular school term.\nOf course, all of this is experimental in character and a good many mistakes\nwill be made, but in the end it indicates that a number of the leading high\nschools in the country are dissatisfied with the present high-school cur-\n\nriculum, and believe that such changes should be made as will enable the\n\n"} {"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n710\n\n[Science\n\nboys and girls attending these schools to prepare themselves more thoroly\nfor the work that they will do at the end of their school life.\n\nFrequent\n\nconferences should be held between the teachers and the managers of\nfactories\n\nand shops in order to see precisely what the schools can do in\n\norder better to prepare boys and girls for their life's work.\n\nBy such means,\n\nthe high-school curriculum will become vitalized, attracting more pupils\n\nand thereby adding to the economic efficiency of the boys and girls who\nleave the classroom for the shop or factory.\n\nAt no time will these courses of study become fixed or crystallized.\nThat must be clearly imderstood. As the life of the community changes\nand the demands of the industries are modified, additional changes must\nbe made in these courses of study, and I believe that we can agree that the\nscience courses in our schools can meet as fully as they have in the past\nthe requirements of our institutions of higher learning and at the same\ntime more adequately meet the practical demands of our industrial life.\nIn no sense of the word will these courses be looked upon as preparing\nstudents simply to meet college requirements or to do work that has been\nsubordinated to the petty demands of any special industries. They will\nbe fundamental courses that are sufficiently scientific and theoretical in\ncharacter to give the students the outlook into the science itself, and, upon\nthe other hand, practical enough in character to enable the students to\nadapt themselves in an intelligent way to the general demands of industry.\nPossibly I can summarize the point of view I have when I say that the\nscience courses in our high schools should provide the following for their\n\ngraduates:\n\nfirst, an imderstanding on the part of the students of the funda-\n\nmental facts of science, and second, some skill in the application of what\nthey have learned to the demands of the industrial world.\n\nThe illustrations I have given of attempts to modify the science work\nto meet the demands of industries have been drawn entirely from the fields\nof secondary and higher education.\n\nHowever, we have yet to deal with\n\nthe more complex problem of modifying the science work in the upper\ngrades of our public schools in order that the thousands of boys and girls,\n\nwho will never be able to enter the secondary schools, can be given better\npreparation to meet the vocational demands of today. The experiments\nthat are being conducted in the upper grades, looking to better adjustments\nbetween the schools and life's demands, are to be found on every side.\nMost of us are familiar with what is being attempted by Commissioner\nDavid Snedden, of Massachusetts. Because of tiie tremendous mortality\nin the school enrollment of that state at the end of the compulsory age\nperiod, the Massachusetts Board of Education is conducting a scries of\nexperiments in a radical modification of the upper-grade work. In these\nexperiments, as we know, some of the schools are developing a part-time\n\nscheme, such as is to be foimd in Fitchburg, Mass., while other schools\nare working simply with a modified course of study, where the boys and\n\n"} {"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMANDS OF INDUSTRY AND GENERAL SCIENCE\n\n711\n\ngirls are in attendance every day until they leave school to take up work in\n\nthe shops or factories.\n\nI believe that I am right in stating that Commis-\n\nSnedden is convinced that a radical modification of our course of\nstudy must be made for all children after they reach the age of twelve,\nregardless of where they may be in their school work. This of course is\nto apply especially to children v/ho have decided to leave school at the\nsioner\n\nearliest possible moment.\n\nAt the beginning of the next school term in Louisville, Ky., and in\nco-operation with a special committee of the Consumers' League, we hope\nto conduct an experiment with forty or fifty boys and girls who are at\nleast\n\ntwo or three years over-age for their grade and who will probably\n\nremain in school for but one or two more years.\n\nWe shall offer rather\n\npractical work to these boys and girls in bookbinding and printing and we\nshall have a teacher so to modify the ordinary course of study that it will\nbe best adapted for this pre-vocational work. The work in English and\narithmetic, for instance, will apply definitely to the problems that arise\n\nWithin a year or two we shall be able to collect some data\nwhich will enable us to work more intelligently hereafter with retarded\n\nin the shop.\n\nchildren,\n\nand with those who believe that they cannot afford to take up\n\nhigh-school work.\n\nThis experiment in some respects is no more radical than the experiments that were tried in the western part of Indianapolis, Ind., eight or\nten years ago. In this school it was discovered that a large number of the\nboys and girls did not complete the elementary-school work. Furthermore,\nit was discovered that these boys and girls entered various industries, with\nno practical skill in the work that they were called upon to do. At once,\ndouble the amount of work in manual training and domestic science was\noffered the boys and girls in this school.\nFurthermore, additional prevocational work was offered them in bookbinding and printing. Instruction\nin the requirements of the printer's trade was provided by getting one\nof the leading members of the Printers' Union to assist the supervising\nprincipal in directing the pupils in this special work.\n\nQuite naturally some of the boys and girls doing this pre-vocational\nwork discovered at last that they desired to finish the elementary school\nand take up studies in one of the high schools of that city. The record\nmade by these pupils in the secondary school seems to prove conclusively\nthat these pupils were as well prepared to meet the demands of the ordinary\nhigh school as were the pupils who had devoted much more time to the\ntraditional subjects of the elementary-school curriculum.\n\nThe foregoing discussion shows that the schoolmaster must go out\nlife of a commimity and learn at first hand what is\nexpected of the young people when they leave the schools. Then he must\nhave suflicient courage and initiative to do two things: first, make such\n\ninto the industrial\n\nchanges in the course of study as will give better preparation to the children\n\n"} {"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n712\n\n[Science\n\nwho must enter the vocations at an early age; and, second, make possible\nfor any child to continue uninterruptedly his course thru the grades, the\n\nhigh school, and the university.\n\nWe must not\nAmerica\nare distinctly\nforget that the economic and social conditions in\nother foreign\nGermany,\nand\ndifferent from those in England, France,\ntraining\nwhich have\nvocational\nThe\nin\ncoimtries.\nsuccessful experiments\ninteresting\nsignificant,\nbut\nare\nand\nbeen made in the European countries\nmodisuch\nexperiments\nand\nmake\nown\nin the end we must conduct our\nfications in our methods of instruction and courses of study as will be\nFinally,\n\nmay I venture one additional suggestion?\n\nespecially adapted to our own needs.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF\nPHYSICS TEACHING\nJ.\n\nA. RANDALL, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, PRATT INSTITUTE,\n\nBROOKLYN, N.Y., CHAIRMAN\nIt\n\nseems particularly fortunate that this preliminary report is to be\n\ngiven before this joint session of the Departments of Secondary Education, Manual Training and Art Education, and Science Instruction of the\n\nA most important portion of the plan\nwork depends for its ultimate success upon the co-operation of the\n\nNational Education Association.\nof\n\nmanual-arts teachers with our secondary science teachers.\n\nThis meeting\n\naccordingly brings together all the interested groups of teachers.\nIt is also especially appropriate to present this preliminary report at\n\na time when Mr. Arthur L. Williston is president of the Manual Training\nSection, since it was largely due to his clear, farsighted vision and advice\nthat this work was initiated and carried on.\n\nThe plan of this work is in full harmony with the general spirit of protest\nat the inadequacy of papers\n\nand talks as a means of effecting genuine\n\nreform or progress in educational matters.\n\nNeither this association nor\n\nany other like it will hold the attention of all of the teachers all of the time\nif its chief fimction is to conduct meetings devoted to literary papers and\norations. What the mass of the thinking and working teachers want is\norganization for the purpose of gaining those advantages which come from\nco-operative attack upon common problems. Teachers meet to unite\nin the interests of greater service and we have discovered that papers\ndo not satisfy this demand any better than the lecture in itself constitutes an adequate method of student instruction. The aims and theory\nof education which should govern physics instruction are being stated by\nanother committee. This committee, the Committee on the Improvement\nof Physics Teaching, is therefore devoting itself to helping teachers realize\n\nthe aims and ideals.\n\nIn forming judgment as to the value and adequacy\n\n"} {"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deportmentl\n\nREPORT ON IMPROVEMENT OF PHYSICS TEACHING\n\nof the plan of work which is being presented, it should\n\n713\n\nbe remembered\n\nthat it is proposed to devote the energies of the committee to doing things\n\nthat will reach the physics teachers and help them to improve the spirit,\n\nWe have turned from the usual plan of\ncommittee work, and hope to postpone the customary report until our\nrecomimendations have been tested and found successful in a large number\naims, and methods of instruction.\n\nof schools.\n\nSECTION\n\nI\n\nThe conmiittee is acting as a bureau of exchange of new laboratory\ndirection sheets and new designs of equipment for the physics laboratory\n\nand lecture table.\n\nThese designs are in every case developed with the\n\nexpectation that the article will be constructed in the school shops from\nmaterial that is easily obtainable.\n\nDuring the last year, over 10,000 blueprints and 14,000 direction sheets\nThe plans and some of\nthe recommendations of the committee have become known to a much\nlarger number of teachers thru such meetings as this and thru published\nwere distributed to about 800 physics teachers.\n\narticles in current magazines.\n\nBefore the joint committee was organized. Professor M. Thomas\nFuUan, of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, had placed the following\nplan in operation in several southern states to enable some of the small\nschools to secure, cheaply, physical equipment; and your committee has\nadopted it. This plan consists of testing all sorts of common, everyday\ncommercial articles and models of commercial articles as objects of instruction.\nif\n\nWe have hoped that we might thus vitalize teaching by giving it,\n\nnot a vocational motive, at least an atmosphere more suggestive of\n\nworkaday life than of the research laboratory.\nUntil yesterday I had not intended to read you any of the letters,\nscores of which have come to me from teachers, expressing appreciation of\nour work, but I shall include a single typical one which was forwarded to me\nhere.\n\nDear Sir:\nI received the blueprints and was able to use some of\n\nin\n\nthem to splendid advantage\n\nmy work. They are a great help and put life into the work. The students took\n\ngreater interest in them than in their textbook work.\n\n\"It seems more like doing some-\n\nthing worth while,\" one boy said.\n\nNo other justification of this work than that offered by two hundred\nsuch letters should be necessary.\n\nSECTION 2\n\nThe committee proposes to edit a series of monographs written by\ntechnical and industrial men who are manufacturing instruments, machinery, or other equipment,\n\nwhich may be used as objects of instruction in\n\n/\n\n"} {"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n714\nthe schools.\n\n(Science\n\nThe purpose of this series is to give the teachers as far as\n\npossible the benefits of a visit to the factory of the manufacturer and the\nbenefits of an acquaintance with the business men who are operating the\nfactories.\nA copy of \"Monograph B-2,\" printed by the Western Electric\nInstrument Company, of Newark, N.J., will accompany the Proceedings\n\nand copies are available for all who are present.\n\n\"Monograph B-i\" is\n\nissued and states the plan of the series.\n\nThe following monographs are in course of preparation:\nNo. 3.\nNo. 4.\nNo. 5.\n\nThe Edison Storage Battery.\n\nThe Edison Storage Battery Co., Orange, N.J.\nThe Gould Pump Co., New York, N.Y.\n\nHydraulic Devices and Machinery.\n\nMechanics of Sewing Machines.\n\nSinger Sewing Machine Co.\n\nWe purpose to extend the series as fast as time permits.\nSECTION 3\n\nYour committee desires the approval of the association of a plan to\nan exhibit at the Panama-Pacific Exposition under the auspices of\nWe are interested in showing\nhow teachers have successfully used real things and models of real things\noffer\n\nthe Department of Science Instruction.\n\nas objects of instruction.\n\nOur acquaintance with manufacturers is such\n\nas to make us believe that not only all of these concerns who are publishing\n\nmonographs imder our direction, but nimibers of others, will co-operate.\nManufacturers welcome opportimities to develop a full appreciation of\nthe scientific knowledge associated with their product; even with such\nsimple articles as a hammer, weighing devices, and sewing machines,\netc., as much as with more complicated instruments and machinery.\nSECTION 4\nIt is a well-known fact that the laws or the rules of local school boards\n\nmake it the usual practice to purchase scientific apparatus and school\nequipment imder a system of competitive bids.\n\nWhile this system may be\n\nnecessary as a matter of public policy, it has had a very harmful effect upon\n\nthe quality of goods delivered.\n\nThe price competition leaves wide latiThe\n\ntude to the various makers to deviate in details of construction.\n\nresult has been to cheapen construction to a point where a large portion\n\nof the equipment purchased is unsuited to the purpose for which it was\noriginally intended.\n\nThe articles which we use in our physics laboratories should exemplify\nthe best current standards of commercial construction and design.\n\nIn\n\nthemselves they should represent the best technical practice and also be\n\nrugged enough to wear well with continued use over a period of years.\n\nThe school boards are now receiving the cheapest things which are capable\nof bearing the name of \"student galvanometer,\" \"pressure piunp,\" \"jack\nscrew,\" etc., far more often than they receive articles which compare in\n\n"} {"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT ON IMPROVEMENT OF PHYSICS TEACHING\n\n715\n\nquality with those purchased by private citizens or by commercial laboratories.\n\nYour committee has not yet been able to agree upon a remedy. The\nmajority favor a plan of afl&xing a tag to manufactured articles which are\nguaranteed to be up to a quality standard set by the committee.\n\nThis\n\ntag plan is modeled after the well-known plan of the \"Fire Underwriters\"\n\nwho have thereby greatly improved the quality of building materials,\nequipment, and types of building construction entering into insured structures.\nThe minority, consisting of those members residing in or near\nChicago, have voiced their objection in a minority report, which follows:\n\nWe, the members of the Committee on the Improvement of Physics Teaching whose\nnames appear below, feel compelled to dissent from certain recommendations made by\n\nWe approve the plan of collecting and\nWe approve also the monograph plan as a means of\n\nthe chairman of the committee in his report.\ncirculating designs and exercises.\n\nplacing valuable information in the hands of the teachers.\n\nWe dissent from the recommendation of the chairman that the \"tag plan\" or some\nother effective method of establishing a minimum standard of quality for apparatus\nfor the schools under the bid system be placed in operation.\nfrom this recommendation are as follows:\n1.\n\nOur reasons for dissenting\n\nWe believe that the purpose of the committee should be solely to become an\n\neffective national medium for the exchange of ideas and the collecting and distributing\n\nof information relating to the improvement of physics teaching.\n2.\n\nWe believe that the purpose of the so-called \"tag plan,\" namely, that of improv-\n\ning the apparatus used in the schools and encouraging the use of apparatus involving\n\ncommercial applications of the principles of physics, can be accomplished more effectively\n\nby means of bulletins of information.\n\nThe bulletins should be issued by the committee\nwith the aid of the National Education Association and the United States Bureau of\n\nEducation, and in the columns of such educational journals as may open their pages for\nthis purpose.\n\nThe bulletins should contain the results of laboratory tests and instruc-\n\ntions for experiments with such forms of apparatus as the committee finds educationally\nefl&dent, together with such other information as the committee may deem of suflScient\nimportance to justify its publication in this form. Such bulletins should be sent to boards\n\nof education as well as to teachers.\n3. We believe that the best interests of physics teaching demand, first of all, initiative\non the part of the teacher, not excepting the teacher in the small school. Any form of\n\nstandardization tends to crush the initiative of the teacher.\n\nWe oppose, therefore, any\n\nplan intended to standardize apparatus.\n4. We believe that the publication by a manufacturer of a certificate issued by this\ncommittee would place the committee in a false light as favoring one manufacturer above\nanother, whereas the conmiittee desires only to improve conditions in physics teaching\nand welcomes the effort of any manufacturer to adapt his product to the real needs of\n\nthe schools.\n5. In our opinion the proposed \"tag plan\" is not within the jurisdiction of the\nNational Education Association, since it deals with manufacturers and not with teachers\n\nand, therefore, is not an educational propoation.\n\nThe history of the National Education\n\nAssociation confirms our view that it is, to say the least, unwise for such an organization\nto make selections of textbooks or apparatus, that is to select the output of certain publishers ox manufacturers.\n\nIn other words, it is unwise for the National Education Asso-\n\nciation to enter the commercial field.\n6.\n\nA committee authorized by the National Education Association to carry out the\n\n"} {"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "7i6\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nproposed scheme would be individually and personally liable for the results of their\nactivities on the ground of being agents in producing unfair competition.\n\nThere is the\n\npossibility of the members of the committee becoming involved in serious legal difl5culti«s.\n\nE. E. Burns, Chicago, 111.\n\nWood WORTH, Chicago, HI.\nW. E. Tower, Chicago, 111.\n\nP. B.\n\nG. A. Works, Madison, Wis.\n\nUnder the circumstances, it would seem wise to refer this matter of\nimproving the quality of apparatus to a new committee. It must be re-\n\nmembered in this connection that the present conditions are so pernicious\nthat no mere recommendation of a conmiittee campaign of publicity, or individual action on the part of teachers, will appreciably remedy conditions.\n\nA very strong positive measure is needed.\nIn conclusion, the committee wants to thank the hundreds of teachers\n\nand the citizens who have given the committee their support, morally and\nfinancially.\nWe hope that our year's work without financial aid from this\nassociation will merit your still more generous support next year.\n\n"} {"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—\n\nH. Francis, superintendent of schools\nVice-Prestdent\nC. A. Watt, president, Board of Education\nSecretary—Frah^ M. Bruce, publisher, American School Board Jourtuil\nPresident\n\n^J.\n\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\n—\n\nDecatur, 111.\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Forenoon, July 9, 1913\nThe meeting of this department was called to order in Bishop's Building by M. C.\nBettinger, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\n\"Rural-School Organization and Administration\" was the first topic, which was\ndiscussed by Mark Keppel, superintendent of county schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Rural-School Finances\" read by Edward Hyatt,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal.\n\nA general discussion on the rural-school problem concluded the program.\nAt the close of the meeting the chair appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\n\nP. C. Tonning, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, St. Paul, Minn.\nR. F. Asplund, chief clerk, State Department of Education, Santa Fe, N.M.\nEdward Hyatt, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal.\nMeeting adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 9, 1913\nJoint Session with Department of School Patrons\nThis meeting was called to order in the Lafayette School by Mrs. William S. Hefiferan,\nNational Congress of Mothers, Chicago, 111,, and president of the Department of School\nPatrons.\n\nThe president with the assistance of Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women,\nSan Francisco, Cal., outlined the aim of the joint session and the work of the Department\nof School Patrons.\n\nThe secretary next read a communication from Francis G. Blair, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Springfield, 111., touching upon the \"School Revenue and the Rural\n\nSchools\" announced as his subject upon the program.\nL. R. Alderman, superintendent of city schools, Portland, Ore., closed the program\n\nwith a discussion of \"Co-operation of Home and School.\"\n\nMeeting adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July ii, 1913\nThe meeting was called to order by M. C. Bettinger, assistant superintendent of\nschools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\nThe nominating committee reported as follows:\n\n—W. R. Hodges, president. Associated Minnesota School Boards,\nFor Vice-President—\nD. Sena, president. Board of Education, Santa Fe, N.M.\nFor Secretary— Frank M. Bruce, publisher, American School Board Journal^ Mil-\n\nFor President\n\nSleepy Eye, Minn.\n\n^Jos6\n\nwaukee, Wis.\n717\n\n"} {"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7l8\n\n[Administration\n\nMoved by J. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio, to accept the\nreport.\n\nMotion carried.\n\nThe program was opened by Frank L. Glynn, director of trade instruction, public\nschools. New Haven, Conn., who talked on \"Trade Schools in the Public-School System.\"\nMeeting adjourned with announcement that the next session of the department will\nbe called for Richmond identical with the Department of Superintendence following a\nmotion adopted at Chicago one year previous.\nMeeting adjourned.\n\nFrank M. Bkuce, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nRURAL^CHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION\nMARK KEPPEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF COUNTY SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nThe rural school is not capable of exact definition; conditions vary so\nmany exceptions. The\n\ngreatly that a fixed classification will have too\ndefinition of\n\na rural school as a school which does not have city school\n\nadvantages is probably as far as one may go in defining such a school.\n\nThe most serious handicaps of the rural community are sparseness of\npopulation, the excessive distances between homes, and the poverty of the\npopulation.\n\nSelf-help lies at the foundation of all success.\n\nWhere people\n\nare so poor that they can scarcely secure proper shelter, food, and clothing\nfor themselves they are not in a condition to make an effective effort for\n\ncommunity progress.\ngeometric ratio.\n\nOur economic system centers wealth in the cities in\nThe rural dweller of ambition and initiative moves to the\n\ncity and as soon as his increasing prosperity will warrant such action calls\nhis relatives and friends to the scene of greater opportunity.\n\nThe city is\n\nruthless in its competition with the coxmtry and in\n\nhardness greater than in school affairs.\n\nno particular is the\nThe city buys the service of every\n\nreally great teacher, using its wealth to\n\nmake rural conditions worse.\n\nShould those who plan the organization of a rural-school system imitate\nthe city system or should they attempt the organization of a different\n\nsystem?\n\nThe school system of a county should be uniform as far as\nThe ideal system would put all the schools of a\n\nconditions will permit.\n\ncounty under one management.\n\nSuch an arrangement would solve many\n\nharassing difficulties, but it would run counter to local pride and would\ncall for leaders of high administrative ability.\n\nIf the schools of the entire\n\ncounty were under one management, the\n\nresponsibility of the strong for the weak would be unquestioned and would\n\nbe a duty and not a charity.\n\nSuch problems as consolidation of schools\nand transportation of pupils would yield readily to wise administration.\nThe salary schedule would be piiform according to years of service and up\n\ni\n\n"} {"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nRURAL-SCHOOL FINANCES\n\nDepartment]\n\n71^\n\nto a certain number of years of service the most rural school could have the\n\npresence of the ablest teacher just as readily as the central city school.\n\nThe objections to this system are probably insuperable.\n\nLocal pride\n\nwill oppose it everywhere, and leaders of affairs believe that such an adminis-\n\ntration would be ineffective because of the lack of capable administrators.\n\nTherefore we must approximate toward the ideal.\n\n»v*:'\n\nThe first need is such a conviction that education is a state concern\nrather than a local one as will provide adequately for the financial needs of\n\nthe rural schools.\n\nThe second need is for a uniformly graduated system\n\nof salaries based on years of service, so that for at least five years the most\n\nrural school would pay its teacher the same salary as is paid in the most\n\ncentral of city schools. The third need is for adequate rural supervision.\nThe fourth need is for reasonable consolidation of rural schools. The fifth\nneed is for a course of study suited to the needs of each community. The\nsixth need is for a conception of education as that system of training which\nwill link mind and occupation in harmonious union so that the worker shall\n\nfind joy in his work.\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL FINANCES\nEDWARD HYATT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nSACRAMENTO, CAL.\n\nMoney makes the mare go, in rural schools as well as in other spheres\nof human activity.\n\nTherefore, money is our song.\n\nIt is highly desirable to have a part of the funds for the schools come\n\nfrom the pockets of the local people who live in the district.\n\nIt is well for\n\nthem to feel an occasional pinch on the pocketbook nerve. It is good for\nthem to know that they have a share in the schools and that they are\nresponsible for them. They value their schools at a higher figure and appreciate them more highly if they must pay for them ^pay real money for\nthem. No one is indifferent toward the things that his own hard money is in.\nNow it is one of the strongest and most desirable characteristics of our\n\n—\n\nAmerican schools that the people are not indifferent to them, but are keenly\ninterested in them, alive to them, responsible for them.\nIt would be a bad policy that would remove entirely the burden of their\nfree public schools from the backs of the local people, in order to have it\n\n—more\n\ncarried more smoothly\n\nefficiently, if\n\nauthority apart from the people.\n\nand a less efficient people.\n\nyou please\n\n—by some central\n\nThis tends to a more efficient system\n\nGerman bureaucracy is not an instrument for\nLet me repeat this sentiment German\n\nproducing a free American people.\n\n—\n\nbureaucracy will not thrive on American soil.\n\nOn the other hand, it is highly desirable for some outside authority to\ngive some assistance, to supplement and equalize and standardize the efforts\n\n"} {"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n720\n\nof the people in the homes.\n\n(Administration\n\nIt is necessary to guarantee to every com-\n\nmunity the money for a standard school.\n\nThis is something that cannot be\n\nleft entirely to local poverty, local stinginess, local ignorance, local preju-\n\nWhen so committed, it works very ill, for it gives some children short\n\ndice.\n\nterms, some schools inferior teachers, some peoples bad schoolhouses, some\n\ncommunities indecent conditions.\nWherefore, the state or the county should work with the people of the\nlocal school district, those who furnish the children.\n\nLocal initiative and\n\nlocal interest should be carefully fostered and preserved\n\n—\n\nand every community shotdd be guaranteed a standard school.\nThe details of working this problem out in the different states of the\nUnion are as various as the states themselves. I do not venture to enter\nupon a field so vast at this time. I am familiar with the scheme of only\none state, the one in which I live and it will be sufl&cient for me to give you a\nnotion of that, without trying to tell of the others about which I do not know.\nThe basal plan of our school system was shaped less than forty years\nago, when the Constitution was adopted in 1879. New communities are\nfortunate in their schools. They are dwarfs, but they are perched on the\n;\n\nshoulders of giants.\n\nThey are not hampered, restricted, tied down by\nThey are brought forth by the\n\nstingy precedent or by narrow convention.\n\n—the timid, the\n—they stay at home to\n\nyoung and the aggressive and the enterprising\nreactionary do not go to a new country\n\nold, the\n\nsit on\n\nthe\n\nA new neighborhood, with a brand new school, has a grand oppor-\n\nlid.\n\ntunity to discard many of the bad customs and restricting conventions that\n\nding to the older communities like an Old Man of the Sea.\nWe were fortunate in another way:, in having at that time for state\nschool superintendent a yoimg Massachusetts schoolmaster with courage,\npromptness, activity. His name was John Swett and he still abides with\nus, a venerable sage whose white hairs are to us the symbol of wisdom.\nThe Constitutional Convention gave him free rein in framing the educational laws of the state.\nHe went ahead, writing into the laws of the land\nthe things that looked good to him and leaving out the things he thought\nwere bad. I shall try to give you the broad outlines of his plan for ruralschool finances, after nearly forty years of trial.\n1.\n\nA permanent state school fund is provided, chiefly by the sale of\n\nland, which is invested in school bonds.\n2.\n\nThe interest on this permanent fund, plus the poll tax, plus a portion\n\nof the inheritance taxes, plus a certain portion of the general tax on corporations, amounting to $13 per child per year, constitutes the state school fund,\napportioned to the counties twice a year by the state superintendent and\n\nin turn to the districts by the county superintendent.\n\nThis yields more\n\nthan half the running expense of the schools.\n3.\n\nThe county adds to its general tax levy a rate suflScient to make $550\n\nper teacher when added to the state tax; provided, that this county tax\n\n"} {"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dcpartmentl\n\nTRADE SCHOOLS IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\n721\n\nmust not be less than a minimum amount of $13 per pupil. This county\ntax is added to the state tax and apportioned to the districts by the coimty\nsuperintendent of schools. Thus is furnished the other half of the money\nto run the rural schools.\n4,\n\nEverything else than the actual rimning expenses of the standard\n\nschool must be furnished by the individual district by means of a tax or a\n\nbond upon itself, voted by itself.\n\nThe district must build its own school-\n\nhouse, furnish its own site, improve its own grounds, supply its own equip-\n\nment. If it wants an extra long term or an extra high-priced teacher or\nsome extra frills of manual training or domestic economy or art or agriThus the character of\nculture, it must tax itself further for the purpose.\nthe school really rests with the local people\n\n—the architecture, the enter-\n\nprise, the up-to-dateness, the style reflect the people of the neighborhood.\n\nBut the state and the county, strong and free from local strings, insure\nto every school, no matter how small, how remote, how poverty-stricken,\n\nhow backwoodsy, a minimum fund of $550, a minimum term of eight\nmonths, and a teacher with the same qualifications as those of the city and\nwith a minimum wage of $65 a month for 9 months.\n\nThis generous pro-\n\nvision for the remote and starveling school is unique.\n\nA district is organ-\n\nized wherever fifteen children over five and under seventeen years of age\nare found residing two miles from another school;\n\nand it continues so long\n\nas an attendance of five is maintained.\n\nThese financial provisions of our laws, so easily enumerated, we have\ngrown familiar with as time has gone on until they have become a matter\nof course, a natural condition that always was so and always will be so.\nIt\nis only when I compare notes with my fellows from other parts of the\nnation that I see what great and unusual blessings these are or how grateful\n\nwe ought to be to the fathers who built the foimdation for our schools.\nI shall close as I began by sajdng that the financial responsibility of the\nrural schools should be so divided between local and general authority as to\nfoster\n\nand generate local initiative, responsibility, and interest so far as\nany school to fall below a standard level of\n\npossible, without allowing\nefficiency.\n\nTRADE SCHOOLS IN THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\nFRANK L. GLYNN, DIRECTOR OF TRADE INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\n\nNEW HAVEN, CONN.\nRecently there has been a great deal of discussion as to the whys and\nwherefors of the teaching of manual arts, homemaking, and vocational\npursuits of an industrial nature in our public-school systems.\n\nFor any\n\nreality of worth or effectiveness it has mainly ended with mere discussion\n\nwhen considered from the point of view of specific trade training for\nindustrial purposes.\n\n"} {"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n722\n\nlAdministration\n\nThe state of Connecticut stands as a leader in this field, having passed\nover the discussion stage and dealt immediately with the actual solution.\nIts beginning was thru the efforts of Mr. Charles D. Hine, the commissioner\n\nof education for the state, thru whose investigatiojis the state legislature\n\nmade a special appropriation for the establishment of experimental schools,\nhis idea being that the best method of working out a system was by actually\nattempting it rather than merely by analyzing from a purely theoretical\nThere were two experimental schools established in the\nand the other at\nBridgeport. Both of these schools have been operating under the same\ngeneral plan, with the purpose in view of offering specific training in\npoint of view.\n\nstate a little over three years ago, one in New Britain,\n\nselected trades, covering in so far as possible the equivalent of the old\n\napprenticeship, which has of late years been entirely lost.\nthis instruction covers\n\ntraining.\n\nThe course for\n\na period of 4,800 sixty-minute hours of approved\n\nThe time devoted covers an eight- to nine-hour day, five and\n\none-half days a week, fifty-two weeks a year, allowing two weeks of vacation each year for apprentices, foremen, and other teachers, known by the\n\nfactory term of employees.\n\nThe ideals of the school are to maintain a complete factory organization,\nengaging men who are primarily skilled mechanics, rather than certificated\ngraduates from pedagogical or other training schools.\n\nNot that the teacher's\n\ntraining is of no value by any means, but that primarily the preference\n\nshould always be given to the man who has an accurate and skilled working\nknowledge of his trade, rather than to one who has a smattering of it with\n\na broad educational appreciation.\n\nIn order to have a man or woman teach\n\nto advantage, he or she must have a working knowledge of the trade to be\ntaught.\n\nThe work covers the following departments:\nDay school\nContinuation school\nHalf-time school\nHigh-school co-operative\n\nEvening school\nVacation school\nSpecial courses\n\nIn the day school, several trades allied with manufacturing, building,\ncontracting, graphic arts, and textile occupations are taught.\n\nThe relation\n\nof the purely academic training to the actual trade instruction is 25 per cent\nfor the former and 75 per cent for the latter, the academic work consisting\n\nof mathematics, drafting, science, and general cours es in industrial develop-\n\nment, while the trade training consists of the allotted time covering the\nentire period of the course.\n\nThe general plan of organization is that the shop teachers are provided\na unit of fifteen to eighteen apprentices, who receive entire instruction from\n\n"} {"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTRADE SCHOOLS IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\n723\n\nthem personally, rather than that teachers be specialized by departments,\ncausing the apprentices to go from one department to the other in a sort of\n\npiece-work production in a factory way.\n\nIt is necessary for each teacher to\n\nrelate his academic instruction with the trade processes which he is teaching, and his trade instruction must be provided by a thoroly systematized\n\ncourse of actual commercial production, which has the regular market\n\nvaluation upon its sale or acceptance by the customer.\n\nFor instance, in\n\nthe carpentry trade, boys are taught carpentry, not by exercises, or model\n\nwork, such as a penholder, a chair, a bookcase, or an ironing board, but\nrather they go out into the city and build a five- to six-thousand dollar\ndwelling.\n\nThis has already been done, and the house built last year in\n\nBridgeport in a restricted section of the city has been sold, and is at present\noccupied, the boys being engaged in the building of another.\n\nFrom this\n\nproduction the entire scheme of academic training must be evolved, and\ndaily the apprentices may be seen studying their mathematics sitting at a\nlumber pile, or in the half-finished porch of the building, a steel square or\nthe framing of the house as their textbook, entirely related with the\n\nexperiences of the day.\n\nThis could be enlarged upon greatly, as the other trades are also taught\nin the same fashion.\n\nApprentices are in machine-shops building machinery\n\nfor the market, and taking job work from factories, the printers are doing\n\nwork for people in the city and municipal departments, while the girls are\nengaged in making hats and dresses for the open market. The proceeds\nfrom the sale of these products are turned over to the maintenance of the\nschool and amount to approximately eight to twelve hundred dollars per\nmonth, covering the entire expense of maintenance outside of teachers'\nsalaries.\nIt is hoped that in the near future considerable of these earnings\n\nmay be turned over to the apprentices according to a regular apprenticeship wage scale.\n\nThe graduates have fulfilled entirely the expectations of\n\nmanufacturers, superintendents, shop foremen, and associate workmen.\n\nThe big difficulty with our school system as at present organized is that\nthe student may leave school at the age of fourteen, and yet he is unable\nto enter any occupation until sixteen years of age.\n\nThis trade school\n\npermits any boy or girl who is fourteen years of age or over to enter any\n\nday in the year from regular employment, or from any grade in the entire\nOne finds the fifth-grade boy rubbing shoulders with the\nhigh-school graduate, the one being as good and skillful a producer as\nschool system.\n\nthe other.\n\nThe continuation school is a course of theoretical instruction related to\nthe trade followed, which\nfactory employment.\n\nis\n\noffered to apprentices already engaged\n\nattendance is voluntary on the part of the apprentice.\nis\n\nm\n\nIt is entirely optional on the part of the factory, and\n\nThe school training\n\noffered one-half day a week to each individual, with different grades of\n\napprentices attending from different factories at different periods.\n\nThe\n\n"} {"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\ntraining offered\n\nis\n\nin applied mathematics, drafting,\n\n[Administration\n\nand shop science.\n\nThe instructor has also to visit the factories at regular periods, so as to be\nin touch personally with the work in which the apprentice is engaged, so\n\nthat he may better relate the school training with the individual needs of\nthe apprentices.\n\nThe half-time course consists of \"week-about\" work of the apprentice.\nOne week he is in the factory, the other week in the school as a regular day\napprentice. Alternate weeks he is replaced by an alternate apprentice,\ntwo boys representing a pair, each one being a \"running mate\" to the\nother.\n\nThis course is open to boys after they have completed 2,400 hours\n\nof the regular day trade-school course.\n\nThere has also been a fully roundedout apprentice course established in the factory, covering a period of time\nin each department of production, thru which the half-rime boy must go\n\ngradually.\n\nThe main point, however, of this course is that the boy's\n\nactual employment in the factory is entirely under the supervision of the\nschool.\n\nThe high-school co-operative course consists of an extension of the\ntrade-school facilities during the time when trade-school apprentices are\n\nengaged in academic training to regular high-school students in the city\n\ndepartment who are taking the high-school industrial courses. This economizes their time, uses the equipment to its fullest efficiency, and puts what\notherwise would be merely manual training on the high standards of trade\n\nrequirements and production.\n\nThe evening school, which is open six nights a week, offers training to\nall\n\npersons employed in the trade which they wish to study, for a period\n\nnot longer than three evenings a week to each individual covering two\nyears.\n\nThis consists entirely of extension training, and is designed to meet\n\nthe immediate needs of the applicant, regardless of the \"course of study\"\n\nwith which many of our systems are limited and enshrouded.\nVacation school is open during July and August for any student in the\ngeneral public-school system who wishes to attend for any period of time\n\nconvenient.\n\nIn addition to these regular courses and departments, special work is\ngiven for all who wish to enter for any special purpose.\n\nFor instance, a\n\nman may enter at any time for a two months' or a three months' course in\nmachine-shop, carpentry, printing, or whatever he may wish, while the\nwomen may take a special course in dressmaking. Special extension work\nis\n\nalso offered in stationary 5team engineering,\n\nwhich consists of evening\n\ninstruction, only, in the school, while the engineer in charge is given ample\n\ntime for supervision of those attending in their factory employment.\n\nThe success of this institution may best be shown by the fact that this\nentire plan and organization has only recentiy been adopted by the city of\n\nNew Haven, which is to pass over the experimental stage, and build\nupon the cumulative experience of the Bridgeport experiment. It repre-\n\n"} {"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTRADE SCHOOLS IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\n\n725\n\nsents the most unique plan which up to the present has been developed in\n\nAmerica.\n\nIt is not, however, to be misunderstood as a place for consigning\n\nwho are undesirable for the\nThe aim is to create a school, as in Bridgeport,\n\npeople, or for conmiitting those students\n\ngeneral elementary schools.\n\nwhere boys and girls will really want to be, with plenty of opportunity for\nphysical, mental, and creative activity, all pointing toward increased\nearning efficiency and advancement over apprenticeship.\n\nThe first year of the girls' training will be intensified along the lines of\nhomemaking. The second year will be devoted to the special trade,\nwhether it be cooking, plain sewing, dressmaking, costume design, ladies'\ntailoring, embroidering, lace-making, candy-making, jewelry, or such other\n\ntrades as are adapted to girls;\n\nor for boys, machine-shop, woodworking,\nand decorating, paper-hanging, sheet metal\nwork, etc. It will also have a continuation department for all trades in\nthe city covering 145 different industries, not to mention the smaller handworkers' occupations. Extension work will also be offered for girls engaged\nin office, commercial, or factory employment, pointing toward increased\nefficiency in homemaking, while special courses will be offered on a unit\nbasis for persons ahready engaged as homemakers and housewives, where\nprinting, plumbing, painting\n\nthey can learn to make children's clothing, plain sewing, pastry cooking,\ncanning, preserving, or such other specialized lines for which a\n\ndemand\n\nmay arise.\nThe whole purpose of the movement in New Haven, which has already\nreceived the indorsement of labor leaders, unions, manufacturers, master-\n\nemployers, business men, and educational leaders, is to establish a large\ncentral institution of industry in which anybody at any time may receive\n\ninstruction in any occupation he may desire.\n\n"} {"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nLIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—Mary E. Hall,\nGirls High School\nVice-President—^Jahes V. STxmGES, principal, State Normal School\n—\nSecretary ^Etfib L. Power, supervisor of children's work. Public Library\nPresident\n\nlibrarian,\n\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\nGeneseo, N.Y.\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Forenoon, July 7, 1913\nThe meeting of the Library Department was called to order in Unity Hall, Salt\nLake City, by the president.\nIn the absence of the secretary, Elizabeth C. Smith, librarian, Utah Agricultural\nCollege, Logan, Utah, was appointed secretary pro tempore.\n\nAfter a few words of welcome Howard R. Driggs, library secretary, state board of\neducation. Salt Lake City, Utah, spoke on the topic, \"Connecting the Public Schools\n\nwith the Public Library.\"\n\nJames F. Hosic, head of the English department, Chicago Normal College, Chicago,\n111.,\n\nthen read a paper on \"The Conduct of a Course in Literature for Children.\"\n\n\"The Library Hour in the School\" was the subject of a paper read by Harriet A.\nWood, school librarian. Library Association, Portland, Ore. This paper was discussed\nby Joanna H. Sprague, public library. Salt Lake City, Utah.\nMiss Wood then conducted a \"book symposium\" on \"Notable Recent Books for\nChildren.\" The books on exhibition were discussed by the following persons: Frances\nJenkins, supervisor of elementary grades, public schools, Decatur, 111.; Jessie Goddard,\n\nhead of the English department, Lincoln High School, Portland, Ore.; Howard R. Driggs,\nlibrary secretary, state board of education. Salt Lake City, Utah;\n\nand Ludle F. FargOi\n\nNorth Central High School, Spokane, Wash.\nTwo committees were appointed by the president as follows:\n\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\nHoward R. Driggs, hbrary secretary, state board of education. Salt Lake City, Utah.\nEsther Nelson, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nJoanna H. Sprague, public library, Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nHarriet A. Wood, public library, Portland, Ore.\nLudle F. Fargo, North Central High School, Spokane, Wash.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION\n\n^Wednesday Afternoon, July 9, 1913\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation. The meeting was called to order in the First Presbyterian Church by E. C.\nBishop, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\n\nO. S. Rice, state library clerk for Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., read a paper on \"RuralSchool Libraries: Their Needs and PossibiUties.\"\nA paper on \" The Influence of the Agricultural College on the Farmer's Use of Books \"\n\nwas presented by William M. Hepburn, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.\npaper was read by Anna Price, of Lincoln, Nebr.\n\nThis\n\n\"Libraries for Rural Communities\" was the subject of an address by Philander P.\n\nClaxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n\n727\n\nThis topic was\n\n"} {"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "3\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n728\n\n[Library\n\ndiscussed by E. M. Phillips, state commissioner of rural schools, St. Paul, Mimi., Arthur\n\nC. Monahan, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C., and others.\n\nMeeting adjourned.\n\nEuzABBTH C. Smith, Secretary pro tempore\n\nTHIRD SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July ii, 191\nRound-Table Conference\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Unity Hall by the president.\n\nEsther Nelson,\n\nlibrarian of the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, was appointed secretary pro tempore.\n\nIda M. Mendenhall, library school. New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.,\nchairman of the Committee on Normal-School Libraries, presented the report of that\ncommittee. This report was discussed by W. J. Hawkins, president of the Normal School,\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nMr. Hawkins offered a resolution that the report be accepted and that copies of it\nbe printed by the National Education Association and distributed to all normal schools.\n\nThe resolution was unanimously adopted^\nLucile F. Fargo, librarian,\n\nNorth Central High School, Spokane, Wash., read a\n\npaper on \"Training High-School Students in the Use of the Library.\"\n\nA general dis-\n\ncussion followed this paper.\n\nThe nominating committee reported as follows:\n\n—\n\nFor President Willis H. Kerr, librarian, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.\nFor Vice-President Philander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nFor Secretary Harriet A. Wood, public library, Portland, Ore.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe report was unanimously accepted and the oflBicers declared elected.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was adopted\nand placed on file:\nResolved, That the thanks of the Library Section are hereby tendered to Esther\nNelson and the other members of the local committee for their many courtesies and\ncordial entertainment of the members of the Library Department.\nResolved, That we express our appreciation of the exhibit materials so generously\nlent or given by the League of Library Commissions, public libraries, high-school and\nnormal-school libraries, and so carefully arranged and explained by Joanna H. Sprague,\nchairman of the local exhibit committee.\nResolved, That we extend our thanks to the presidents of the Normal and Rural\n\nand Agricultural Departments for co-operating so heartily in joint sessions and for the\nadmission of library topics on their programs.\nResolved, That this department deplores the present frequent appearance of slovenly\nwritten and carelessly edited children's books, and recommends to authors, editors, and\npublishers more careful consideration of the following points:\na) Such simplicity of diction as will put the books within easy grasp of the children\nfor whom they are written.\nb) Accuracy and simplicity of sentence structure.\nc) In general, the use of such beautiful, accurate, and appropriate language as will\naid, rather than hinder, the boys and girls of this country in the formation of a correct\nliterary taste.\n\nYour committee also makes the following recommendations:\n1. That a committee on rural-school libraries be appointed by the incoming president.\n2. That the Library Department hold a session at the midwinter meeting of the\nDepartment of Superintendence, or be represented on the program of the Department\nof Superintendence by a speaker.\n3. That the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association be\nrequested to include definitely in their resolutions the idea of the library as an educational\ninstrumentality.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nEsther Nelson, Secretary pro tempore\n\n"} {"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmcntl\n\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND THE PUBLIC LIBRARY\n\n729\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nCONNECTING THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS WITH THE PUBLIC\nLIBRARY\nHOWARD R. DRIGGS, LIBRARY SECRETARY, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION,\nSALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\n\nA public library is bounded by its reading circle.\n\nIts influence is to\n\nbe measured by the number and character of those who use it.\n\nThe chief\n\nbusiness of the library is to widen that reading circle, to cultivate among\nits patrons the right book habits.\n\nThe surest way for any library to broaden its influence, the quickest\nway for it to develop in the community the proper reading-habits, is to\nblend its work closely with the schools. The great problem before the\nlibrary workers now is: How can we best establish the connection between\nthe two institutions ?\n\nThe first thing necessary is to make the school people face the problem\nThey have never yet done so. Teachers must be brought to\nrealize that their duty is not half done when they have merely taught the\nchild how to read. It is their business to train in him a discriminating\nsquarely.\n\nlove of good books.\n\nNo teacher should be permitted to teach till she has\n\ntaken a course that gives her such an acquaintance with children's books\nas will enable her to direct wisely the reading-habits of her pupils.\n\nThe library must become an integral part of the public-school system.\nThe movement to make our schools social centers, to equip them with\nreading-rooms, gymnasiums, and other means of recreational and social\nuplift, is rapidly\n\nWe must adjust our work\ndream of a time when every school\n\nsweeping over the country.\n\nto meet the demands of progress.\n\nI\n\nwill either maintain a public library or contain a branch of one, when every\n\nschool board will purchase regularly all the supplemental reading-books\n\nneeded by boys and girls, when every teacher will be an assistant librarian\n\nand every librarian a teacher-librarian, when every elementary school, high\nschool, and college will give courses that train boys and girls to use a library\nintelligently,\n\nwhen every community will have efficient book leaders to\n\ndirect the reading-habits of both parents and children.\n\nIn Utah the law places the public library and the public schools under\none head.\n\nThe library is thereby recognized legally as an integral part of\nThe Utah library laws provide:\n\nthe public-school system.\n\n1. That the state board of education shall also be the library commission of the state,\nand shall have power to appoint a library secretary, library organizers, and such other\n\nassistants as may be needed to carry forward the work.\n2.\n\n3.\n\nThat any state or town may estabhsh a library and levy a tax to maintain it.\nThat every school district, except those of cities of the first and second class, must\n\nspend fifteen cents per capita for children within school age for the purchase of library\nbooks chosen under the direction of the state board of education.\n\n"} {"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n73©\n4.\n\n[Library\n\nThat any school board may open the school library to the public under such\n\nregulations as the board may prescribe.\n5.\n\nThat the school district and the city may co-operate in maintaining a public\n\nlibrary and bear the expense between them.\n\nAs an effect of the example thus set by the state, most of our commimities are working out the problem of close correlation between the\npublic library\n\nand the public schools in the same way.\n\nThe board of\n\ntrustees usually includes the school officers.\n\nin\n\nAn even closer connection of the library and the schools has been effected\nsome commimities which have adopted the plan of the co-operative\n\nlibrary.\n\nThe school board in such places pays part of the expenses, or\n\nprovides a room, or regularly expends its library fund for books, and supplies\nthe library with them.\n\nThis provision for the co-operative library has made\n\npossible a public library in even the smallest of our incorporated towns.\n\nThe closest correlation between the library and the school, however,\nis\n\nto be foimd in the school public library.\n\nThis type of library, as its\n\nname indicates, is simply a school library opened under certain regulations\nto the public.\n\nSeveral distinctive advantages have come from £his plan.\n\nIt extends the influence of the school thru providing for directed reading\n\nduring the vacation period, it connects the home more closely with the\nschool by distributing books among the patrons, it takes the place of the\ntraveling library, which, because of the peculiar geography of our state,\n\nwas always difficult to distribute, and it enables every hamlet to have the\n\nMany very effective school libraries are now\nAn effort is now being made to train teacher-librarians to\n\nadvantages of the library.\nin operation.\n\ntake charge of them.\n\nThe hope and promise is that within a very few years\n\nevery city, town, and hamlet in our state will be provided with a library\nof one of these three types, the mtmicipal library, the co-operative library,\nor the school public library.\n\nBut whatever the type, the library will be\n\ndeveloped in close connection with the public schools.\n\nThis we feel\n\nis\n\nabsolutely essential to its fullest success.\n\nTHE CONDUCT OF A COURSE IN LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN\nJAMES FLEMING HOSIC, HEAD OF THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT,\nCHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL.\nFor a number of years it has been my privilege to give to teachers in\nand parents in their clubs a coiurse in the\nIn fact, I may\nchoice, adaptation, and presenting of children's literature.\ntraining, teachers in service,\n\nfairly claim to be one of the pioneers in this field, particularly as regards\n\nemphasis upon the sources from which reading for the immature should be\ndrawn. What I have to say, therefore, will be based directly upon experience, and, while not new, may at least serve to enforce certain principles\n\nwhich can hardly be given too great weight and importance.\n\n"} {"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA COURSE IN LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN\n\n731\n\nIn common with others who have come to be identified with this subject, I have been repeatedly urged to make out lists of books which\n\nmay\n\nbe confidently offered to children, in the belief that they will both please\nand benefit them. There appears to be no other responsibility involved in\nthe care and training of the young which seems more difficult of discharge\n\nthan that of selecting books for them.\n\nParents are especially eager, often\n\npathetically so, to be told precisely what to do and how to do it.\n\nWould\n\nWhat would I do if a child behaved thus and\nLike others, too, I have made out certain lists, particularly lists for\n\nI recommend such a book ?\nso ?\n\nuse LQ the schools, and I have faith that the selection and grading were\n\n—\n\nmainly good, but after all what is needed is not lists but principles\n\n^prin-\n\nand principles of teaching.\nWhat I have to say may very well be summed up under those heads, for a\ncourse in children's Uterature which deals faithfully with each of these\nciples of literature, principles of child growth,\n\ncannot fall far short of its object.\nFirst, then, we may inquire what is meant in this connection by prin-\n\n—not,\n\nciples of literature\n\nlet\n\nme hasten to say, the history of English litera-\n\nThat has been somewhat persistently taught in high school and\ncollege now for a good many years, but, while it is informing and even\nindispensable to the seeker after knowledge and culture, it is comparatively\nture.\n\nvalueless to those who are to deal with children.\n\nComparatively, I say,\n\nWhat that something\nmay be roughly indicated by reference to those general studies in the\n\nbecause something else is so much more important.\nis\n\nsciences which we are in the habit of calling the elements of the subject or\nan introduction to it. Such studies are intended to reveal the genesis of\nthe subject and its chief outlines and methods. Similarly students may\napproach the art of literature, define its peculiar purposes, set up its boundaries, and learn how it serves as an expression of the human spirit.\nThat most persons, even the favored, have never done this, I can confidently assert.\nThey have read many books, perhaps, but they have not\nidentified their methods, have not learned to interpret them or to evaluate\nthem. Hence they often find Uttle pleasure in literary masterpieces and\nhave but a meager insight into the meaning and beauty of great books.\nMuch less have they distinguished the types and species into which litera-\n\nture differentiates in the course of a nation's history or discovered the\n\nwonderful uniformity with which the savage dance becomes the mature\n\ndrama, and the rude rhythmic cries of the same early period the exquisite\ntone pictures of a modern lyrist.\n\nIn short, ignorance of the real nature of\n\nand of the fascinating story of its evolution from savage thru\nbarbaric and autocratic to modern states may fairly be assumed by him\n\nliterature\n\nwho plans to give a course in literature for children.\nTo me knowledge of these matters seems fundamental.\n\nNo one can\n\nteach what he does not understand, and the understanding of Uterature\ninvolves acquaintance with such basic principles as those at which we have\n\n"} {"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n732\njust glanced.\n\n[Library\n\nHow shall students be most readily and thoroly orientated\n\nin these matters?\n\nMy answer\n\nis,\n\nby discovering and formulating for\n\nthemselves the main principles of literary art and by examining for themselves specimens illustrative of literary evolution.\n\nFortunately this can\nbe done without loss, inasmuch as the pieces to be passed in review may\n\nbe largely those of importance in the other phases of the work.\n\nA good beginning may be made by placing in the hands of the group\na collection of poetry made up of the good, the bad, and the indifferent;\n\nsome of it adapted to children, the remainder unsuited or doubtful. Let\nthe student face the questions: Is the piece before me good poetry ? Why\ndo I think so? What interest or experience seems to have inspired the\nwork? What effect is it fitted to produce? Have I read anything like\n\nHow did it differ from this? Was it better or worse?\nThose of my hearers who have never tried this experiment with\na class of imiversity graduates who have taken only the required courses\nin EngUsh have a striking experience awaiting them.\nThe perfect helpthis before?\n\nWhy?\n\nlessness of\n\nmany such when obliged to decide for themselves as to the\n\nand purpose of a literary selection and its merits as a composition\nare a speaking conomentary upon a civilization and a system of education\nin which art is ignored because it doesn't pay. We modems worship the\nbrute /^/ and have no eyes for the more elusive truth which it is the business\nAs the work proceeds, confidence grows, criteria\nof literature to express.\nemerge, impressions are identified and referred to their sources, and, by and\nby, the class will succeed more or less adequately in making an intelligent\nand just interpretation of the spirit and purpose of each selection, and will\nshow gratifying progress in the power to separate the wheat from the chaff.\nLet no one suppose that I think it possible to arrange a machine by\nwhich poems may be sorted, as apples are, into Ai, middling, etc., by\nsimply passing them along until they come to the right aperture and drop\nReading poetry, thank heaven, is still an individual affair. Yet\nthru.\nthere are matters of taste which are fairly beyond dispute. At all events,\nit is better to have some objective standards of judgment, and skill in\nspirit\n\napplying them, than not to be able to judge at all.\nAfter the volume of poetry may\n\ncome examples of various literary\na collection of ballads, a translation of Homer, some early plays,\n\n—\n\ntypes\n\n—until the\n\nhave organized and\nmade available all the knowledge which they possess of the structure and\nappeal of these different methods of artistic expression, and of the meaning\nShakespeare, a novel, a few essays\n\nclass\n\nand use of the numerous devices such as imagery, tone quality, suggestion,\nsuspense, contrast, etc., which writers employ in securing the desired effect.\nGeneralizations should be made cautiously and modestly, and the substitution of hearsay evidence gathered by prowling about among library\nreferences on criticism should be regarded as unfair play and a cowardly\ndodging of the issue.\n\n"} {"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "A COURSE IN LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN\n\nDepartment]\n\nOur second body of principles relates to children.\n\n733\n\nWith the flood of\n\nbooks and articles on child-study which we have witnessed in the last two\ndecades in mind, we might be justified in assuming that the members of\nour class are well informed on this head.\nexperience.\n\nThis has not, however, been my\n\nIn the case of parents and older teachers there is frequently\n\nto be found a good deal of shrewd observation, but rarely has this resulted\nin any rational policy.\n\nthe\n\nway of\n\nThe child-study specialists have done something in\n\nrecording and generalizing concerning literary tastes and\n\ncapacities, but unfortunately the scientific training necessary to becoming\n\na psychological specialist generally unfits a man for dealing with questions\nof taste, even if he had predilections toward art to begin with.\n\nIt is much\n\neasier to find out when a child's lower extremities usually elongate most\n\nrapidly than when he is likely to take to hero tales or poems of nature.\n\nIndeed, the haK-knowledge which has been put forth and accepted as\nscience in education presents a problem of clearing away misconceptions\n\nwhich is nearly the first which we must attack in this connection. I may\ncite, for example, the work called Organic Education, which was written\nwith large faith in recapitulation literally interpreted and which provided\na stage of civilization, sometimes two, for each school year. In this way\nmodern civilization was reached and compassed in the eighth grade. The\nhigh school, I suppose, was intended to be a sort of anticipation of the\nheavenly future.\n\nThere are certain things which a class interested in children and literaFirst, they can recall and interpret their own experience with\nbooks. I know how diflicult this is, but since judgments will be based upon\nexperience whether or no, it seems best to make the most and best of it.\nSecond, the members of the class may be set to experimenting and observLet various stories and poems be tried on the younger ones at home\ning.\nture can do.\n\nand in the neighborhood. If the selections are made with the approval of\nthe teacher and handled according to his suggestions, each pupil will have\nThirdly, the class\nfirst-hand contact with the subject in a most vital way.\n\nmay survey by reading, discussion, report, and lecture the not very extensive literature bearing upon the human instincts to expression, the social\ninstincts, the sense of\n\nbeauty in the young,\n\netc.\n\nIf this is\n\nconstantly\n\nillustrated from the material gathered by introspection and observation and\nif\n\nthe whole body of ideas is carefully worked over and arranged with\n\nproper perspective, the result will be real orientation.\nIt is particularly important that at this point the studies in literature\n\nThe first set of studies\nmind many typical facts concerning folk life and folk thought.\n\nand the studies in children be brought together.\ncalled to\n\nThese may now be enlarged upon, particularly with regard to the literary\nThe striking\ncharacteristics of the folk tale, the myth, and the legend.\nlikenesses and diflferences between folk ways and child ways will stand out\nplainly, and a clear conception of these is invaluable in determining the\n\n"} {"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "'\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n734\n\nchoice of literary material for younger ones.\n\n[Library\n\nThe \" Mother Goose Rhymes,\n\n'\n\n\"Cinderella,\" \"The Three Pigs,\" \"Little Red Riding Hood,\" \"Pandora,\"\n\n\"The Golden Fleece,\" \"Robin Hood,\" and many more should be passed in\nreview. What are the literary characteristics of these ? What elements of\npermanence do they possess ? Why are they popular ? What interests of\nchildhood do they minister to ? What values do they contain ?\nHere the question of version will arise.\n\nNo doubt the class have\n\nlearned (they ought to handle the volume) about Miss Cox's remarkable\ncollection of 345 variants of the Cinderella motif.\n\nThey may profitably\n\ncompare a number of versions of several other old tales. \"The Three\nBears,\" for instance, \"Johnny Cake,\" \"Little Red Riding Hood,\" \"Sleeping Beauty,\" and that masterpiece of English dialect, \"Tom Tit Tot.\"\nThe pupils will discover how completely the old tales may be garbled, how\nthey may grow by accretion of familiar formulae and stock incidents, and\nhow completely some moralist or pedagog may transform an artless human\ntale into a stupid high-flown sermon or a staccato reading-lesson.\nThe\nvalue of this part of the work will be greatly enhanced by having the class\nas a whole compare three or four standard collections, such as those of\nJacobs, Dasent, Perrault, and the Grimms, and afterward make reports\nindividually on volumes of tales from various nations, Japan, Italy, Russia,\nThe expense of equipping the library for such work is not\nAfrica, etc.\nvery great and the results amply justify it. Of course the myths and\nlegends should receive their share of the same treatment. The net result\nwill be not only a notion of what the problem of choice of literature for\nchildren involves, but also a very considerable addition to general knowledge, culture, and acquaintance with methods of study.\nWith such a foundation the class will approach lists and courses with\ncritical intelligence and should now be instructed with regard to currfent\npractice in this field. Each should compile a general bibliography, including books and articles, and also a more exhaustive bibliography of some one\nphase of the work. Such treatment of the King Arthur stories would\ninvolve the proper entering of the sources of the stories, the most important\nhistorical and critical references, the versions which are adapted to children,\nand the most useful accounts of the value and presentation of the stories\nto children. Each entry should be in due library form and should be\nbriefly annotated.\n\nWith such a body of concrete material freshly in mind, the class may\nbe trusted to consider the presentation of literature with some degree of\nindependent judgment. Naturally, in the course of the preceding lessons,\nmuch has been said incidentally about story- telling, reciting poems, etc.,\nand the discussion of literary selections has required quotation, reading\naloud, rehearsing of incidents, outlining, summarizing, and kindred activities.\nThe whole problem may now be viewed vertically and horizontally,\nthat is, children of different ages require different treatment, while pieces\n\n"} {"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "A COURSE IN LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN\n\nDepartmentl\n\n735\n\nof different sorts will best be assimilated if handled each according to its\n\npeculiar nature and method.\n\nAlice in Wonderland, for example, will be\n\nread lightly, the teacher or older friend reading the subtler parts and\n\nmaking those suggestive comments which may help the duller to kindle\nand catch the humor without spoiling it for any by stupid questions or\nexplanations which cannot explain. Robinson Crusoe, on the other hand,\nwill stand a lot of mauling.\nRobinson presents a puzzle problem in overcoming the elementary difficulties of human existence. Children like to\nhear about him before they can read Defoe's book, and they enjoy dwelling\non his exploits, guessing what he did next or how he provided for some new\n\nThey like to see pictures of his stockade, of his house, of his\nThe tale-teller may well dwell a little on this\nstory, illustrate with crayon or pencil, and build up bit by bit the picture\nnecessity.\n\nmeeting with Friday, etc.\n\nof Crusoe's\n\nchosen.\n\nlife.\n\nPerhaps the famous ride from Ghent to Aix has been\n\nThe form is narrative poetry\n\n—a galloping meter, a kaleidoscopic\n\nsuccession of scenes, a hundred devices to\n\nmake the reader breathlessly\n\neager for Roland to arrive with the \"news.\"\n\nObviously no child will be\n\nlikely to get the full effect until he has heard the poem well read.\n\nolder friend must do.\n\nThis his\nThen, with comments opening the way, he should\n\nbe skilfully led to notice the telling suggestions by means of which Browning\ngradually communicates to the reader his own feeling of suspense and tri-\n\numphant admiration.\n\nIndeed, it will be found of profit to lead the children\n\nto discover some of the ways in which the poet has played upon our feelings;\n\nby describing the hot sun, the falling-away of two of the three horses, and\nthe amazing gift of the \"last measure of wine\" by the phlegmatic burgesses.\nOr, to take one more illustration, our selection may be a play, or at least a\nstory full of action and dialog. Here it will be well to make sure that\nall are clear as to what happened and why.\nWho wanted to do something ?\nHow was he opposed ? Did he succeed or fail ? Why ? This will require\nthat the pupils read rapidly thru the piece, noting as they go the chief\nincidents and the chief traits of the characters.\nlittle.\n\nThen we may sum up a\nWhat are the bad?\n\nWhat are the good qualities of our hero?\n\nHow did he look and act?\n\nThis suggests the dramatizing or dramatic\n\nreading of selected scenes.\n\nSlight\n\nsuggestion to the imagination will\n\nEmphasis and intonation must do the rest.\nIf the class can see such work done, or better, actually do it themselves\nunder the direction of those with skill born of experience, they will add\nimmensely to the value of their course. There is not much to be said, I\nThey\nfear, for the device of having the members practice on each other.\nshould, however, be required to master completely a number of pieces of\nvarious kinds suitable for various ages, and they should be given as much\nopportunity to recite, read aloud, tell stories, and arrange versions and\nsuffice for the stage.\n\ndramatizations as the time at disposal will allow.\nObviously, to cover the ground which I have marked out will require\n\n"} {"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n736\nseveral\n\nmonths\n\nleast a year.\n\n—in the case of\n\nclasses\n\nnot aided by parallel courses, at\n\nThe time will be well spent.\n\ncontent or wider range of interests.\n\n[Library\n\nFew courses offer a richer\n\nOf training in non-literary material\n\nfor children's reading I have not spoken, nor of the handling of periodicals.\n\nThose topics properly belong in a general consideration of children's reading\nand the guidance of it, but they do not fall within the scope of this paper.\n\nTHE LIBRARY HOUR IN THE SCHOOL\nHARRIET A. WOOD, SCHOOL LIBRARIAN, LIBRARY ASSOCIATION,\nPORTLAND, ORE.\nPeople know how to read and they are reading.\nlargely accidental.\n\nWhat they read is\nThe news-\n\nIt is natural to follow the easiest course.\n\nstand and the street furnish most of the mental pabulum upon which they\nfeed.\n\nParents, careful about their children's physical food, are careless\n\nabout their mental food; but \"no degree of proficiency at inserting calories\nin correct numbers into Little Sally's stomach can atone for lack of skill\nin leading Little Sally herself thru the Child's Garden of Verses with trowel\nin hand to dig up the gayest plants and reset them in the memory.\"\n\nThe\n\nnever-ending series, the unspeakable joke-book, and the Sunday supplement\n\nThe magazines most widely read are not found in\nThat reading in itself is a virtuous and an uplifting\n\ncontinue to flourish.\npublic libraries.\n\nprocess is a fallacy.\n\nLearning to read provides children with a powerful\n\ntool that may prove their undoing.\n\nAdults control the contacts of little children, who are open-minded and\neager to play the game of knowledge.\n\nIt is their right to learn to know the\n\ngood from the evil, the worth-while from the commonplace. Alert teachers\nand parents have long been aware of the importance of creating an appetite\nfor good books. They are developing the intelligent readers who support\nA taste for the best things in art, in music, and in literature\nfree libraries.\nOutlook is needed more than technic. The\nis the result of cultivation.\ngroimd must be prepared and the weeds kept out. Dr. Berle in his illuminating little book. The School in the Homey reiterates this thought:\nThere must be a mind fertilization which is at the same time a sterilization against\nThere must be the arousing of interests which by their fire and picturesqueness and enjoyment will make the rest seem tame and listless. There must be\nsuch a linkage of real knowledge, and the process of gaining it, with delight and pleasure,\nas will make the senseless and idiotic things offered to rational beings for amusement\nseem an insult to the mind. There must be such a co-operation between the home and\nother things.\n\nthe school as will secure the continuous education of parents in the education of their\nchildren, that will make for the enrichment of the mental life of the household.\n\nThe librarian as the keeper of the books desires to make his wares\nThose who come in contact with the children at home and at school know their needs and possi-\n\navailable to parent and teacher at every step.\n\nm\n\n"} {"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\nTHE LIBRARY HOUR IN THE SCHOOL\n\nDepartmentl\n\nbilities far\n\nbetter than any librarian.\n\n737\n\nThe librarian must for the most\n\npart remain in the background, responding to requests for the right book\nat the right time.\n\nThe library and the school must be so closely knit\n\ntogether that the world's experience recorded in books sheds light upon\n\nevery hour of the school day.\n\nThe librarian must be familiar with the\n\nbooks that strengthen and enliven the course of study and solve the problems of the school. The teacher must be familiar with the resources of\nthe library, especially the library to which the pupils have access. Hand\nin hand the librarian arid teacher must lead the pupils from the intelligent\n\nuse of the classroom library to the larger opportunities of the public library\n\nand to the selection of their own private libraries. When and by what\nmethods this is to be done are the questions before us.\nThere is a woeful lack of self-organization in the adult today. \"If\nyou wish it in the life you must put it in the school\" runs an old German\nadage.\n\nThe organized playground, the vacation schools with their gardens\n\nand manual training herald the new day. They provide an outlet for the\nThe library is the servant of them\nactivities of the body and of the mind.\nall.\nAfter the children have worked off their surplus physical energies,\nthey gather around the \"library teacher,\" who tells a story or reads a\npoem that makes them eager to read others from the books in the traveling library.\n\nProperly directed to the books of games and outdoor pastimes,\n\nthey learn the joy of entertaining themselves and others.\n\nThe book that\n\nthe teacher says is good is always popular.\n\nThe teachers in the manual-training centers have a wonderful chance\nEach center\n\nto open up books to the earnest little workers at the benches.\n\nhas its traveling library of live books not only dealing with the shop but\nleading out into the world.\n\nThink of the impetus that the lives of William\n\nMorris and Ruskin and Edison will bring to the ambitious boy craftsman\n\nRequests for interesting points about books and libraries come from the\nmanual-training teacher who is preparing the background for the lesson on\nthe bookcase.\n\nHe is glad to learn that the library has a valuable collection\n\nof incimabula and rare books, some still bearing the marks of the mediaeval\n\nchains, and plans to bring his pupils to see them.\nIt is fitting that the special teachers of art, music, and sewing should\n\nintroduce pupils to the literature of their subjects.\n\nStatements about\n\nbooks should be provided for teachers by supervisors, so that every subject may\n\nhave its library hour.\n\nA vast field yet remains for the grade\n\nThe course of study furnishes the necessary background for\nbooks that are worth attention. The electric current is of value only when\nthe circuit is complete. The teacher must be saturated with the literature\nteacher.\n\nof her subject and watch for the psychological moment.\n\nReading aloud seems to be the most popular form of library hour\nA few general principles\nshould govern the choice of material.\njudging from the demand for suitable books.\n\n"} {"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n738\n\n[Library\n\nWhat to choose:\nBooks that have stood the test of time.\nBooks that are strong enough to make an impression.\nBooks that are too diflacult for the child to read silently.\nBooks that need the voice to bring out the beauty of the language.\nBooks that provoke discussion.\nBooks that uphold virtue, honesty, self-sacrifice, benevolence, courage, kindness\nwithout self-consciousness, industry.\n\nA complete short story from a collection, or a striking incident from a longer story\nso that the child may desire to read more.\n\nA poem that tells a story.\nA poem that sings a song.\nA poem that paints a picture.\n\nWhat to avoid:\nCommonplace books.\nBooks that can be read easily by the children.\nBooks filled with slang, illiterate expressions, and dialect.\n\nThe children's time is too precious to waste on trash.\n\nThe fine things\n\nin our literature and national life are crying out for a chance to be heard.\n\nKenneth Grahame's Wind in the Willows\n\nhighly enjoyed\n\nis\n\nboys of nine or ten who get little out of it alone.\n\nand the Jungle Books;\n\nby young\n\nKipling's Just So Stories\n\nLucretia Hale's Peterkin Papers^ Andrews' Per-\n\nEdward Everett Hale's Man Without a Country^ Seaman's\nJacqueline of the Carrier Pigeons^ and Stein's Gabriel and the Hour Book\n\nfect Tribute^\n\ngain effectiveness from reading aloud.\n\nThe hour when the hands are busy may be a period for broadening\nthe outlook of our girls, so that their conversation and their lives may be\n\nworth while.\n\nWe are fortunate in having a teacher of millinery in our\n\ntrade school who sees the value of the sewing-hoiu- as an opportunity to\n\nopen up the beauties of her native France and to create a desire to visit\nthat wonderful country.\n\nThe girls are thrilled by the tragic life of the\nThey are fascinated by the sound of the\n\nunfortunate Marie Antoinette.\n\nFrench language and are ambitious to go to Paris as buyers. When they\ndo they will not be absorbed by the shops.\nMiss Reynolds, of Cheney, Wash., writes of a geography library hour\n\non adventure and exploration in cold waters.\n\nBoys in the sixth grade\n\nreviewed Peary's Snow Baby, Nansen's Biography, Finland from Peeps at\nMany Lands, and Dr. Grenfell's Adrift on an Ice-Pan. Such books and\nhero tales, especially of northern lands, inspire vigorous manhood.\n\nMaterial\n\nfound in biographies. An acquaintance with\nEllen H. Richards, Alice Freeman Palmer, and Helen Keller would rouse\n\nfor vocational guidance is\n\nthe most thoughtless.\n\nThe history of a word may be a story.\n\nDr. Berle's children enjoyed\n\nthat chapter in Kingsley's Water-Babies dealing with the professor's ail-\n\nments, with Bumpsterhausen's blue\n\nfollicles\n\nand the doctor's diagnosis\n\n"} {"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE LIBRARY HOUR IN THE SCHOOL\n\nDepartment]\n\nof his case with its long words, medical and surgical.\n\n739\n\nThe dissection of\n\npolysyllabic words is a fascinating game in verbal analysis that strengthens\n\nthe vocabulary.\n\nThe delight of classes brought to the library to see the marvelous\nAudubon bird pictures emphasizes the possibilities of the finely illustrated\nbook. The Curtis Indian pictures capture the imagination of all the boys\nand many of the girls. The history of the book illustrated at each step\nby facsimiles and pictures concentrates attention upon the library showcase\nfor days afterward.\n\nBelieving that books are tools in the hands of the teacher for the intellectual and social uplift of the home, the public library of Portland supplies\n\nevery schoolroom with classroom and traveling libraries.\n\nAll books may\n\nbe issued for the home reading of pupils, parents, and teachers.\nfurnish wholesome pleasure\n\nand prepare the mind\n\nChildren will never again have as much free time.\n\nThey\n\nfor higher studies.\nIf properly directed,\n\nThe school lessons inspire pupils to enlarge\nThey must be shown the best books and taught to use\n\nright tastes will be formed.\ntheir knowledge.\n\nthe tables of contents, indexes, and library catalogs.\nfor each grade,\n\nSimple lessons, two\non the care and use of books are a part of the course of\n\nstudy issued by the public schools.\n\nLibrarians give these lessons in the\n\nschool and in the library, the teacher supplementing them.\n\nThe plan includes the essentials in the care, use, and enjoyment of\nbooks.\n\nMany of the points have been adapted from the more elaborate\n\ncourse prepared\nfirst\n\nby Mrs. Englander\n\nprinciple emphasized.\n\nof\n\nCincinnati.\n\nCleanliness\n\nis\n\nthe\n\nFresh, clean books come back bearing ample\n\nevidence of the insanitary conditions in the home and the lack of respect\nfor public property.\n\nof Grubbylea.\n\nWe need more \"Clean Peters\" to wash the children\n\nThe Goops are very prominent members of juvenile society.\n\nThe children are taught that returning books on time is only fair play and\nthat paying for lost books is a practical application of the principles of the\nVillage Blacksmith, who\n\nLooks the whole world in the face\nFor he owes not any man.\n\nThey become so interested in the authorship of their books that they stop\nthe librarian in the street to display their new knowledge. One boy wept\ncopiously because he didn't know where the public library was. The\ncatalog and classification are taught by games and exercises in the school\nand the library. The make-up and the history of the book and the collecting of private libraries are brought out. The Senior class in the grammar\nschool spends an hour in the reference room of the central library so that\nevery pupil may feel at home there. The use of dictionary, atlas, and\nencyclopedia is thoroly explained.\n\nHow to judge a book may be learned early, therefore, in the second\nlesson, talks are given on the individual books in the classroom libraries,\n\n"} {"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n740\n\n[Library\n\nemphasis being placed on nursery rhymes, poetry, humor, heroes and biography, travel, music and art, history, and standard fiction in successive\ngrades.\n\nWhether it is best to have a regular time for the library hour is a quesNew York City sets aside the\nlast hour on Friday afternoon of each week.\nWhen the librarian gives\nthe work, it is often necessary to go from room to room thruout the day.\ntion to be determined by local conditions.\n\nIt is certain, however, that in planning the curriculxun reasonable time\n\nshould be allowed for the literature of each subject and the means of getting\nat it.\n\nAs no subject is complete without its bibliography, a few references\nare added to articles, books, and lists that furnish material and suggestions\nfor endless library hours.\n\nReferences\nBlack,\n\nJessie\n\nE.\n\nUniversity of\n\nLiterature for Children.\n\nChicago,\n\nCorrespondence-\n\nStudy Department.\nEly, Mary. \"The Book That Teacher Says Is Good,\" Public Libraries, April, 1913.\nEnglander, Mrs. Esther. \"Course of Study on the Use of the Library from the Second\nto the Eighth Grade,\" Public Libraries, February-March, 19 13.\n\n\"Library Hour.\"\n\nSchool Library Bulletin.\n\nNew York City, November, 191 2.\n\nThe Children's Reading. Houghton.\nOregon Library Commission. A Child's Library What the School Library Means.\nRawlinson, Eleanor V. \"The Use of the Library in the Grades,\" Library Journal,\nOlcott, Frances.\n\n—\n\nApril, 191 2.\n\nSmith, Mary.\n\n\"Library Instruction in Schools.\"\n\nWisconsin Library Bulletin.\n\nSeptem-\n\nber-October, 191 1.\n\nWaterson, Helen M.\n\n\"The Library and History Teaching,\" Public Libraries, April, 1913\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES: THEIR NEEDS AND\nPOSSIBILITIES\nO. S. RICE,\n\nSTATE LIBRARY CLERK FOR WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS.\nSTATUS OF RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nIn answer to a questionnaire on school libraries recently sent to state\nsuperintendents, only eighteen of the thirty-four replies received give the\ntotal number of books in school libraries, and only about half of these give\n\nthe number of books in one-room school libraries, or figures from which\nestimates could be made.\n\nFrom the replies received, it can safely be concluded that, for the\ncoimtry at large, the average nimiber of volimies in the libraries of one-room\nschools is considerably less than fifty;\n\nand furthermore that a large per-\n\ncentage of such schools do not have any library books whatever.\n\nEven\n\nin view of the remarkable recent development of school libraries it becomes\n\nevident that one of the most pressing needs is such legislation as will make\n\n"} {"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\n741\n\nsure of rapid increase in the number of rural-school libraries and in the\n\nnumber of volumes in the libraries already established.\nThirty-nine of the states have enacted laws relating to school libraries.\nOf these states twenty-two grant state or county aid for their establishment and maintenance. With the exception of eight states, however, aid\nis dependent upon the raising of money for the library by the friends and\npatrons of the school or by local taxation. It would seem that this condition is likely to prevent the establishment and growth of school libraries\nin many of the very communities which most need them. It is likely that\nthe best residts would be attained if every rural-school district were each year\nto receive unconditional aid for library purposes and then receive additional\naid in case local funds were also raised. So far as I am aware, no state at\nthe present time has such a provision in its laws relating to school libraries.\n\nTRAVELING LIBRARIES\n\nThe supplementing of rural-school libraries by means of traveling\nlibraries sent out by the state, the county, or by local public libraries can\nbe made an effective agency in rapidly improving present conditions.\nOregon reports: \"Numerous school districts thruout the state are [state]\ntraveling library stations.\" In New York \"demands [by rural schools]\nfor loans [of state traveling libraries] are increasing from scores to hundreds\n\na year.\"\n\nThe county libraries being\nresults in this direction.\n\nestablished in California promise good\nIn the school code of Washington state we find\n\nthe provision that \"the county superintendent of each county may establish a circulating librarj'- for the use and benefit of the pupils of the common\n\nschools of each coimty.\"\n\nInformation regarding the practical working\n\nof this law was not at hand when this paper was prepared.\n\nIt seems reason-\n\nable, however, that the county superintendent's office can, if sufficient and\nefficient help is provided, be made an effective rural-school library center.\n\nThe selection of books for these libraries, the repair of books, and the\nsending-out of traveling libraries are among the activities that might well\nbe centered in that office.\n\nWith the exception of isolated instances, principally in the eastern\npart of the country, local public libraries as yet seem to provide but little\nhelp in the way of supplementing rural-school libraries.\n\nA good example\n\nof the possibilities of this relatively neglected library field is furnished by\n\nthe rural-school extension work of the public library which has been carried\non at Dover, Me., for the past ten years in co-operation with the district\n\nsuperintendent of schools.\n\nThe public library sends sets of books to from\n\ntwelve to fifteen rural schools.\n\nSuperintendent Sturtevant reports:\n\nLast year 1,500 of our best books were issued to homes in these rural districts from\n\nIn addition, there were books upon biography, history, travel,\nand nature work, which were not charged on the regular slips, in almost constant use\nthese school libraries.\n\nin many of these schools.\n\n"} {"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n742\n\n[Library\n\nEXCHANGE OF LIBRARY BOOKS\nExchange of library books seems a reasonable arrangement for increasing the number of books available in rural schools.\n\nThis year's legislature\n\nin Wisconsin enacted a law providing for such exchanges.\n\nThe county\n\nsuperintendent, with the consent of the district boards,\n\nmay arrange\n\nexchanges, tho the exchanges may be made without his intervention.\n\nSELECTION OF BOOKS.\n\nSTATE LISTS\n\nEvery precaution should be taken that school libraries shall consist\nThe achievement of this result will be greatly\nfacilitated if a list of books is issued by the state from which list books\nmust be selected in order to entitle school districts to special library aid.\nIt is gratifying to be able to say that already twenty-six of the states issue\nlists of books for school libraries, some annually, some biennially, and others\nof well-selected books.\n\nat longer intervals.\n\nAnother advantage of a state list is that substantial discounts from list\nprices can thus be made certain, and this means, in the aggregate, a much\n\nlarger\n\nnumber of books in school libraries.\n\nNineteen of the twenty-six\n\nstates which issue such lists have made definite arrangements for reduced\n\nprices on school library books.\n\nIn Wisconsin the average discount to school\n\ndistricts on books on the state list is 31,7 per cent.\n\nUSE OF SCHOOL LIBRARY.\n\nTHE TEACHER'S PREPARATION\n\nWhat books are in the hands of the pupils and for what purpose are as\nimportant questions as what books are in the school library. Here the\nmain reliance must be placed on the teacher, his education and training\nin the use of the library himself, and in securing such use of the books on\n\nThe teacher untrained in the use of hooks and other\nIn the answer\nto\nstate\nand\ncounty\nsuperintendents\nquestionnaire\nrecently\nsent\nthe\nto a\nof\nrural-school\nsecure\neffective\nuse\nlibraries\nwas\nof\nteachers\nto\ntraining\nmentioned more often than any other need. Normal schools are beginning\nto respond to this demand by including some library training among required\nsubjects in their courses of study. However, the subject will not be given\nthe part of the pupils.\n\nreading-matter is the weakest link in the school library chain.\n\nits proper place until it\n\nranks at least as high, for instance, as algebra, in\n\nregard to time and compulsory requirements.\n\nCandidates for teachers'\n\ncertificates should be examined in library methods and knowledge of chil-\n\ndren's reading.\n\nAll candidates for county teachers' certificates in Wiscon-\n\nsin must, after January i, 191 5, pass such an examination, according to a\n\nlaw recently enacted.\n\nCARE AND REPAIR Of BOOKS.\n\nREBINDING\n\nClosely connected with the use of school libraries is the care and repair\nof the books, for\n\nan array of books in good condition and attractively\n\n"} {"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartmentl\n\n743\n\nbound will increase by many per cent the amount of reading voluntarily\ndone.\n\nIf the teacher has\n\nbeen properly trained, he can, with the aid of\n\nthe pupils, easily do the simple repairing which is advisable.\n\nBut rural-\n\nschool teachers seldom suggest to their boards that books be sent to the\nbinder.\n\nIn five hundred one-room schools in Wisconsin, containing over\nIn view of this condi-\n\n80,000 volumes, only 225 books had been rebound.\n\ntion a law was this year enacted providing that at the close of the school\n\nyear the teacher shall set aside the library books which in his judgment\nshould be rebound and the district board shall, at its next meeting, formally\ntake action regarding the rebinding.\n\nA state committee is provided for,\n\nwhich is to prepare and distribute annually a list of approved bookbinding\nfirms to which books may be sent for rebinding at stipulated prices.\nWISCONSIN RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARY LAW\nIt will be in harmony with the purposes of this paper to describe the\n\nrural-school library plan being carried out in one particular state.\n\nFor this\n\npurpose I have chosen the state with whose school libraries I have some\nconnection and to which reference has already been made.\n\nThe constitution of Wisconsin provides that:\nThe income of the rural-school fund shall be applied to the support and maintenance\nof common schools in each school district, and in the purchase of suitable libraries and\n\napparatus therefor.\n\nAltho this constitutional provision went into effect in 1848, up to 1887\nonly 30,000 volumes had accumulated in school libraries outside of cities\n\nunder city superintendents. In the latter year, however, a school-library\nlaw was enacted which with various amendments is, in substance, so far\nas they relate to rural-school libraries, as follows:\n\nThe county treasurer each year retains from the state school fund\napportioned to the various school districts a sum amounting to ten cents\nfor each person of school age in the towns and villages of his county.\n\nFor\n\nthe smns thus retained school library books are purchased, each school\ndistrict\n\nbeing entitled to books in value proportional to the number of\n\nchildren of school age in the district.\n\nBetween April i and September i, books for the various districts are\nordered by the county superintendent from a firm which holds the contract for supplying them.\n\nThe county superintendent must select the\n\nbooks from a list prepared under the direction of the state superintendent\n\nby the state library clerk.\nSuperintendents are required by law to keep complete lists of the\nbooks in the school libraries under their jurisdiction. For further aid in\nselection they may, and many of them do, ask principals and teachers to\nsuggest what books they desire to have added to their school libraries.\n\nThe books thus selected and ordered are sent by the contractor to the\ntown clerk who distributes them to the various school districts of the town,\n\n"} {"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n744\n\nas directed in a list of books sent him by the county superintendent.\n\n[Library\n\nUpon\n\nreceipt of the books in good condition the town clerk notifies the county\n\nwho draws an order on the county treasurer for their payment.\nThe book fimd is thus carefully safeguarded. Transportation charges are\npaid by the town.\nAs a result of this school-library law, there are about one and a third\nclerk,\n\nmillion books in Wisconsin school libraries outside of cities under city\n\nsuperintendents.\n\nOver 80,000 volumes are being added to these school\n\nlibraries annually, at a cost of about $50,000.\n\nConsiderably over half of\n\nthese additions go to libraries in one-room schools.\n\nSPECIAL LIBRARY POSITIONS IN STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION\n\nThe Wisconsin law, in common with that of most of the states, makes\nthe state department of education the center of school-library work in the\nstate.\n\nWith suflSicient office and field force provided, state departments of\neducation would seem to be in the best strategic position to supervise\n\nwhich furthermore falls as naturally within their\nSo far as I have been able to learn,\nhowever, Minnesota, New York, and Wisconsin are the only states which\nhave thus far provided special positions within the state department of\nschool-library work,\n\nprovince as any other school activity.\n\neducation for the supervision of school-library work.\n\nConsidering the vast\n\nimportance of school libraries, it seems reasonable to conclude that, if state\ndepartments of education are to justify their control of such libraries, they\n\nmust build up strong library divisions.\n\nA reasonable degree of permanency\n\nof tenure in such positions, however, is essential to the success of the work.\n\nINTERSTATE PUBLICITY AS AN AID TO FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF RURALSCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nEven a cursory study of library conditions in the various states impresses\none with the remarkable recent development of rural-school libraries. But\none is also impressed with the great unevenness of this development, both\n\namong the states and within the states.\nIt is one of our advantages as a nation that one state in solving its own\n\nproblems can learn from other states which have similar problems to solve.\nI am afraid that this advantage is far from being fully utilized with respect\nto libraries for rural schools.\n\nThe library section of the National Education\n\nAssociation will serve an important cause by acting as a clearing-house of\n\ninformation for the rural-school library movement. If the states would\narrive at some degree of uniformity and completeness with regard to\nstatistics of\n\nsuch libraries, the United States Bureau of Education could\n\nbe supplied with figures which would be made available to all if published\nin its annual reports.\n\n"} {"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartment!\n\n745\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARY MOVEMENTS\nMilKons of books, in the aggregate, are in the libraries of rural schools\nwhere there was scarcely a book less than a generation ago. The activity\nwhich has brought this about needs to be organized into as definite a movement as any of those which are now revolutionizing education. I refer\nto industrial education, consolidation of rural schools, medical inspection,\n\nplay and playgrounds, social centers, and other movements clearly defined\nin the popular mind.\n\nTo none of these does the rural-school library\n\nmovement yield in possibilities and importance, and among the agencies\nwhich have for their object the betterment of coimtry life it holds a foremost place. And when this movement shall have attained its end we shall\nhave an adequate and growing library in every rural school, with a teacher\ntrained to stimulate and direct into right channels the reading of the pupils\nand of the community and to take advantage of every aid offered by the\nstate, by the county, and by local public libraries.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nE. M. Phillips, state commissioner of rural schools, St. Paul, Minn. There are\n7,000 rural schools in Minnesota, and 6,500 of these are provided with some kind of a\nschool library.\n\nIn these 7,000 schools there are a total of 1,000,000 volumes. The\nThen there are an average of 4 library books for each\n\nschools enroll 250,000 children.\nchild.\n\nTo state it another way, for each school enrolling 25 pupils, there is, in general,\nNumerically, we think that is a good showing for a young state.\n\na library of 100 volimies.\n\nThese books have been paid for, half by the state and half by the school district.\nThis policy of state library aid, begun in 1888 and still in vogue, accounts for anything\n\nphenomenal in the extent to which our rural schools have established libraries.\n\nAn intimate investigation of rural-school libraries revealed the fact that Grote's\nGreece, Gibbons'\n\nRome, Macaulay's England, and Motley's Dutch Republic were very\n\npopular titles among the rural-school authorities who are intrusted with the selection of\nlibrary books. One such dignitary defended his selection on the ground that they wear\nlonger than other books.\n\nAn investigation proved that his position was imassailabie.\n\nPurchased in 189 1, the volumes were in every respect as good as new in 191 1.\n\nhad the leaves been cut.\n\nNot even\n\nA good record for twenty years.\n\nRecent inquiry together with some rather daring speculation left doubts as to whether\nthe hundred-volume library for a school of twenty-five held more than an average of\nseventy-five volumes which were ever used, and more than fifty which were widely read.\n\nThis was not primarily due to very poor lists but rather to unwise selection. Legally the\nright of selection is vested in the school board, and the right has commonly been asserted\n\nby them.\n\nHence the nature of the average collection of books.\n\nOccasionally the author-\n\nity to select has been delegated to the teacher, with slightly better results.\n\nIn rare\n\ninstances county superintendents of ability have asked for and received permission to\ndirect the entire matter of Ubrary purchases, and in such counties excellent collections\n\nhave been made. However, the task is too formidable for county superintendents genBriefly, we have\nerally, and quite impossible where special Ubrary training is lacking.\nformulated at the end of a quarter-century what at its beginning we knew fairly well but\nprovided for indifferently, that there can be nothing but waste and inefficiency in establishing\n\nand upbuilding school libraries unless the function of selection be exercised by persons thoroly\ntrained to the work.\n\n"} {"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n746\n\n[Library\n\nRecent legislation and educational practice in Minnesota are in co-operation to bring\nIn 191 1 the legislature created the ofl&ce of supervisor of public-school\n\nthis about.\n\nlibraries in the Department of Public Instruction.\n\nMiss Martha Wilson, of Cleveland,\n\nOhio, a trained librarian with excellent qualifications for this special work, has now given\n\ntwo years' splendid service, the results of which are patent.\n\nThe nominal authority for\n\ncompiling the library Ust has been transferred from the normal-school presidents to the\nVirtually, the list now in preparation will be solely Miss WilAnd that disposes of the first difficulty of selection. The list from which\n\nstate high-school board.\n\nson's work.\n\nrural schools must select books will be the best available.\n\nTo secure wise selection by districts is a larger problem. A collection of good books\nmay be a very worthless school library. We need a balanced ration. This there is an\nThe supervisor has prepared a\n\neffort to provide thru state interference in local affairs.\n\ntwo hundred volumes which, in her judgment, will make a very usable school\nlibrary.\nEach rural district, as a condition for our quite liberal state aid, is required to\n\nlist\n\nof\n\ncontinue the investment of a certain minimum amoimt annually in library books, until\nthe entire two hundred volumes have been secured.\n\nIt\n\nmay purchase as much as it\n\npleases outside of this list, but the annual minimiun investment remains as a condition\nfor state aid imtil each district has provided\n\nwhat the authorities consider a standard\n\nlibrary of two hundred volumes.\n\nIn furtherance of the plan to improve conditions as to both selection and use of the\nlibrary, instruction is given in every teachers' training agency in the state, from the normal\n\nschools down thru the college of education to the summer schools and institutes.\n\nEverywhere that two or three rural teachers, coxmty superintendents, or rural-school officers\nassemble, there is the supervisor of school libraries in their midst, instructing and exhorting.\nThe acquaintance thus secured brings many inquiries concerning the choice and use\nof books.\nAs a consequence, the assistance of a professional librarian is placed at the disposal of the remotest rural district.\n\nThere are, of course, some principles of selection applicable to all school libraries.\nIt is equally important that special community needs should be regarded in the process\nof selection.\n\nA rural-school library needs special consideration here. Minnesota's aim\nWe seek to have collected with every\n\nis to equip every rural teacher to meet this need.\n\nrural-school library, properly labeled and arranged for accessibility, such bulletins and\n\nother agricultural publications of the national bureau and our own and other institutions\nas have an important bearing\n\nupon local agricultural activities and interests.\n\nThe\n\nteacher finds, in her surroundings, strong incentive to famiharize herself sufficiently with\nthis material to be able to furnish, to any interested patron of the school, really valuable\n\nNo other recent activity has done so much to\nmake our rural schools the centers of community interest, and to encourage their liberal\n\ninformation from the best authorities.\nsupport.\n\nTo make the Ubrary thus accessible for community use, a separate room is a necessity.\nAs many new buildings are\n\nA number of the newer buildings make such provision.\n\nyearly erected, the state aid \"club\" will be used to encourage districts to provide a\nlibrary room.\n\nAll consolidated schoolhouses are so equipped.\n\nThe sixty-five consoli-\n\ndated schools in operation this year report a total of twenty-five thousand volumes of\nstandard library and reference works, and in addition, each one has begun the collection\n\nand indexing of informational material specially adapted to the agricultural interests of\nthe community in which the school is located.\n\n"} {"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT ON NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\n747\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NORMAL-SCHOOL\nLIBRARIES\nThe Committee on Normal-School Libraries submits the following\nreport based on a study of existing conditions in the normal-school libraries\nof the United States in 1913.\n\nA hasty look at the primitive normal-school library will prepare us to\nappreciate the marked contrast between then and now as shown by the\ninvestigation of\n\nthe committee.\n\nIn general, the normal-school library\n\nof a generation ago was a small, unclassified, little-used collection of books\n\nThe only normal-school library in New England\n\nbehind locked doors.\n\nhaving at present a trained librarian reports that six years ago a few reference books were scattered thru the assembly room and a few hundred circulating books in brown paper covers were in locked cases, the key of which\n\nwas kept in a teacher's desk at the farther end of the building. These\ncases were unlocked twice a week for an hour or less. About seven years\nago in a normal school of the state of New York, wire fencing with an\nopening large enough for handing out books and having a barbed wire on\ntop was stretched in front of the bookstacks and charging desk. An\nattendant kept the library open two hours a day, but when outside reading for classes was required the boys in desperation scaled the fence for\nbooks.\n\nOne of the now best organized libraries of Pennsylvania reports\n\nfor thirty years ago a library of a few books with uncut leaves in a glass\n\nbookcase in the president's ofl&ce, and a few hundred circulating books in\nthe society libraries dispensed once a week in great state by a student.\n\nIn 1 89 1 the libraries were consolidated into one room which was kept open\nan hour or two daily by one of the teachers. Twenty-five years ago the\nnormal-school Ubraries of Wisconsin were small and xmorganized collections of from 1 ,000 to 2 500 books.\n,\n\nThe largest collection was behind locked\n\ndoors and open half an hour on Friday afternoons.\n\nWhen in 1891-92 the\n\ncataloger employed to classify and organize these libraries asked to have\n\n\"No, we had three books stolen last\nShe assxmied personal responsibility for the books and the cases\nwere left open that year, and, in her own words: \"You never saw anyone\nin your life so grateful as those students were to get a chance to use the\nbooks.\" To show what an innovation the card catalog was at that time\nin school work, she says that a nature-study class was sent to the new\ncatalog to find the difference in size between the eggs of the humming\nbird and ostrich, and a geography class to find the average elevation of\nEurope. The oldest normal school in California reports practically no\n\nthe cases unlocked the reply was:\nyear.\"\n\nlibrary in its early history.\n\nTwenty-five years ago, a student kept the\n\nlibrary open during intermissions and a short time at the close of the school\n\nday, while the catalog of 19 13 says that the library ranks first among the\n\nworking tools of the school.\n\nOne library reports that the untrained young\n\n"} {"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n748\n\n[Library\n\ngirl in charge about ten years ago was often found in tears because of the\n\nmany demands made upon her and her utter inability to meet them.\nThe early efforts of these libraries toward organization is most interesting\nreading and furnishes material itself for an entire paper. The pioneer\neffort toward the organization of normal-school libraries seems to have been\n\nthat in Wisconsin about twenty years ago.\n\nIllinois,\n\nMichigan, Iowa, and\n\nMinnesota report organization beginning a few years later, while the schools\nof the South and far West report that their organized Ubraries have come\ninto existence since 1900.\nSince 1907, twenty-two libraries have been\norganized according to modem methods, and nine within the past two years.\nEXISTING CONDITIONS IN NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES OF THE UNITED STATES\n\nA questionnaire covering the training of the librarian, the administration of the library, instruction of students in the use of books, and library\n\nco-operation has been sent, since January, 1913, to 213 normal and city\ntraining schools over the country, and the following report of conditions\nis based upon the replies received from\n\n—\n\n155 of these schools.\n\nThe normal-school librarian. Fifty-one graduates of library schools\nare distributed as follows in the normal schools of the United States: Maine,\nNew York, 3 (two of these being in the New York City and Brooklyn\nI\n;\n\ntraining schools);\nIllinois, 7;\n\nNew Jersey, i;\n\nOhio,\n\ni;\n\nPennsylvania, 3; Iowa, 2;\n\nMichigan, 3; Wisconsin, 6; North Dakota, 2 ; South Dakota, i\n\nNorth Carolina, i; South Carolina, i; Georgia, i; Alabama, i; Oklahoma, i; Arizona, i; Idaho, 2; Washington, 2; Oregon, i; Kansas, 3;\nNebraska, 3; Colorado,!.\nSeventeen librarians have had a summer course, eighteen the experience\nof a school or public library, and a very small number report having had\n\na correspondence course or private lessons from a trained librarian.\n\nMany of these librarians have had college training and teaching experiMost of the librarians\nmodern organized libraries have the rank of a teacher, tho one\n\nence in college, high school, normal school, or grades.\nin the\n\nreports \"socially, but not otherwise.\"\n\nOne librarian has the rank of\n\nand a small number rank as grade teachers. The\nsalaries reported range from $750 to $2,500 a year, most of them being near\n$1,200, and tho the librarian has faculty rank, she has in most cases not\n\nassistant professor,\n\nthe salary of the heads of departments.\n\nThirteen libraries reporting are in charge of a teacher, clerk, or student?\n\nand it would seem that the large number of schools leaving this question\nunanswered are provided for in the same way.\nTwelve assistant librarians are graduates of a library school, distributed\nas follows: Indiana, i; Illinois, 2; Michigan, i; Iowa, i; North Dakota,\ni;\n\nIdaho,\n\n2;\n\nWashington,\n\ni;\n\nKansas, 3;\n\nNebraska,\n\ni.\n\nSeveral of the\n\nassistants have had experience in a school or college library, and a few are\ncollege graduates with teaching experience.\n\nIn Wisconsin most of the\n\n"} {"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT ON NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\n749\n\nassistants have had the summer library course at Madison, and in Illinois\n\ntwo assistants have had one year in the Illinois library school.\n\nSix assist-\n\nants in Emporia, Kans., have had the course of library training offered by\nthat normal school and three are library-school graduates.\n\nThe majority of\n\nthe libraries report student help paid by the hour, or no help at all.\n\nIn one\n\nschool practically all the work of the library is done gratis by a teacher.\n\nAdministration of the normal-school library.\n\n—The majority of normal-\n\nschool libraries are still small, containing less than 10,000 volumes, but a\n\ngreat growth in nimiber of volumes has been made within the past ten\n\nThirty-eight schools contain more than 10,000 volumes, and five\n\nyears.\n\nMost of the libraries in California and Illinois are\nThe Indiana state normal-school library is the largest, having\n60,000 volumes, housed in a modem and completely equipped new building.\nTen schools have no library tho one of them has 125 books from the educamore than 30,000.\n\nlarge.\n\ntion department at Washington, and no shelves on which to put them.\n\nIn former years, there was\n\nlittle\n\nor no opportunity in the normal\n\nschool for the student to become familiar with children's literature.\n\nThe\n\nschools now report collections of from 200 to 500 children's books, and the\nlargest schools more than 1,000.\n\nThese are, in most cases, not books for\n\ncirculation among the children but are for the use of students in their\n\nstudy of children's Uterature and for pupU teachers for the preparation of\nlessons in the grades of the training school.\n\nThe amoimt spent annually for books varies from $50 to $500, and in\nthe largest schools from $1,000 to $5,000.\n\nThe circulation of books in a school library cannot be recorded accurately, as the books are taken out for use mostly over night and for study\n\nperiods.\n\nMany libraries have kept no record of the circulation of books\n\nor of the daily reference n^\n\n*\n\nof the library.\n\nThe smaller and unorganized\n\nlibraries report a circulatiCL of 10 to 20 books, while the libraries showing\n\ngreatest use have a daily circulation of 200 to 300 books.\n\nThe Iowa State\nThe\n\nTeachers' College reports -an average daily circulation of 800 books.\n\ncirculation of books has greatly increased in those libraries recently organized.\n\nOne librarian says that since lessons have been given in the use of\n\nthe library the circulation of books has doubled, and a teacher in another\nschool says that the use of the library has increased 400 per cent since the\n\nappointment of a librarian.\n\nThe seating capacity varies from 40 to 200, the Iowa State Teachers'\nCollege having a seating capacity of 208 and a daily reference use of 1,000,\n\nand Tuskegee Institute a seating capacity of 215 and a daily reference\nuse of 500 students.\n\nIn several schools the library is used as a study-hall\n\nby students, a plan of which the librarian disapproves as the room is too\ncrowded for the best reference use of the library.\n\nThe classification used in the libraries is almost uniformly the Dewey,\ntho a very small number use the Cutter, and two or three report an original\n\n"} {"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n750\n\nclassification begun several years ago.\n\n[Library\n\nA few schools have found it neces-\n\nsary to enlarge and adapt the classification of psychology, child^study,\neducation, and children's books, to fit the needs of the school. The libraries\n\nhaving made most changes are the Brooklyn Training School for Teachers,\n\nand the state normal schools\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nof\n\nGeneseo, N.Y., Emporia, Kans., and\n\nLibrary instruction in normal schools.\n\n—^Lessons in the use of the library\n\nare given in fifty-three schools, the number of hours required varying from\n\none to sixty, and the number of lessons in children's literature varying from\none to twenty.\n\nPractice library lessons given by students are required\n\nin only six schools, and only five schools report lessons given in the grades\n\nof the\n\nmodel school.\n\nTwenty-nine schools require practice work in the\n\nlibrary in connection with this instruction.\n\nWisconsin and Idaho are the\nonly states having a law requiring library instruction in the normal schools.\n\nIn Wisconsin, library questions are included in the teacher's examinations\nfor all certificates except third grade.\n\nIn\n\nIllinois,\n\nthe subject library\n\nmethods is on the course of study, required by the state normal board, as\nan elective. Tho not required by state law, the course on library methods\nis\n\nrequired for graduation by most of the fifty-three normal schools, tho\n\ncredit is not always given for the work.\nis\n\nThe time for these library lessons\n\nprovided for by periods taken from the school economy, pedagogy, or\n\nEnglish classes.\n\nThe librarian of Cheney, Wash., takes the recitation\nwho are away from school giving institute lectures.\n\nperiods of teachers\n\nOne librarian, just appointed to a normal school in Pennsylvania, has\ngiven weekly talks at chapel on classification, etc., which she supplemented\n\nby a library number of the school paper. Several schools not included\namong the fifty-three give instruction incidentally or to individual students\non the use of the library.\nIn addition to lessons on the use of books and on children's literature,\nseveral schools give an elective course for teacher-librarians with the aim\nof preparing a few teachers to administer a small school library in addition\n\nto part teaching.\n\nGeneseo, N.Y., is an example of a school giving the\n\nteacher-librarian course.\n\nCommissioner Draper, in his report of 191 1 for\n\nthe education department of New York state, says that the teaching fimction of the librarian in the schools must be recognized, and he urges the\nappointment in the small school libraries of teacher-librarians trained to\nselect and organize the school library and to train teachers and pupils in\nits use.\n\nIn New York state, Geneseo was designated as the normal school\n\nto introduce the teacher-librarian course with the purpose of providing\nfor the small school library that can never afford as librarian the graduate\n\nof a library school.\n\nThis course requires one period a day during the two\n\nyears' course either in recitation or in practice work, and especial attention\n\nSummer courses in many of the schools meet the needs of teacher-librarians in\n\nis given to children's literature and to practice lessons with children.\n\n"} {"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nDepartment]\n\nREPORT ON NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nthe small school libraries.\n\n75\n\nIn Michigan, the State Board of Library\n\nCommissioners offers an elective course during the summer session receiving\nsix to twelve weeks' credit.\n\nWith a few exceptions, library instruction has been introduced within\nAt least one school in Wisconsin, Illinois, and Minnesota has given this work for twelve years, one school\nin New York, South Carolina, Massachusetts, and the summer session\nof Michigan for seven years, one in Kansas for eleven years, one in North\nthe last five years into the normal schools.\n\nCarolina for nine years.\n\nFifteen schools have introduced library methods\n\nwithin the past two years, and several schools are investigating the work\n\ndone by other schools in preparation for a course during the summer sessions of 1913 or next year.\n\nTwo or three librarians recently appointed have felt it necessary to\norganize the library before attempting any instruction in its use.\n\nThree\n\nor more schools have reported that the courses of library instruction have\n\nbeen crowded out because of a change of principal or course of study or an\n\novercrowded schedule, but in each case the work is to be introduced again,\nas soon as possible.\n\nIn reply to the topic \"Effect of This Instruction on School Work,\" the\nschools without an exception say that interest in the library is stimulated,\nreference work is made easy, students' attitude toward research work has\n\nchanged, there is more joy in study, and time is saved for reading.\n\nOne\n\nlibrarian says that if a special student does not get into this course she regrets\nit.\n\nAnother says that reference work is done in one-half the time since\n\nstudents have been taught how to use the library.\n\nEFFECT OF LIBRARY METHODS ON THE SCHOOL LIBRARIES AND SCHOOL\nWORK IN THE STATE\n\nSome librarians say that this instruction has been given too short a\ntime to report any effect, others already notice results.\n\nA librarian of\n\nPennsylvania says that judging from letters and reports the effects are\n\nMore school libraries are being organized and more interest\nthem by teachers, and students are being prepared to use\nthe public library. In Illinois the school libraries are improving in number\n\nfar-reaching.\n\nis being taken in\n\nand quality and graduates often write for information about book buying.\nIn some cases school boards have offered $100 for a library when they\ndiscovered a teacher who could organize and care for it. The school superintendents in Wisconsin report improvement in school libraries and their\nIn Idaho there is an increasing number of requests from graduates\nuse.\nfor assistance in organizing school libraries.\n\nThe librarian of Cheney,\n\nWash., sent letters to graduates who had taken library methods, asking\nThe reports showed that teachers were buying\nfor reports of their work.\nschool libraries and were enthusiastic over their work.\n\nIn South Carolina\n\nthe greatest good has come from the organization of libraries of 100 to 200\n\n"} {"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n752\n\nvolumes in schools all over the state.\n\n[Library\n\nEmporia, Kans., furnished the first\n\ntrained high-school librarian in the state, and supervised the normal\n\nstudents in organizing the high-school library of Emporia.\n\nAt least seven\n\nlibrarians in Kansas have had the training of the normal-school course in\n\nThe organization of school libraries and a recognition of the\nneed of library instruction in grades and high school has also resulted in\nKansas from the library instruction of the normal school.\n\nlibrary work.\n\nTHE NEEDS OF NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nThe greatest needs of normal-school libraries as reported by their own\nlibrarians are as follows:\n\nThirty-one libraries are in need of more room.\n\nThirty-three are crying for more books, the greatest book needs being\n\nbound magazines, children's books, duplicates, late indexes and reference\nbooks, and late works in general literature.\n\nThirteen schools give money\n\nas the greatest need of the library and as money will supply the demand\nfor more room, a trained librarian, more books and equipment, it can be\n\nsaid that all of the libraries are in need of greater appropriations.\n\nschools report the need of more assistants;\n\nEighteen\n\neight, of organization;\n\na small\n\nnumber, of a trained librarian and of required lessons in the use of the library.\nOne Ubrarian says that the greatest need is a state board that can appreciate the work of the library; another, less red tape in connection with the\n\nstate board of education;\n\nanother, continuation of past support and staff\n\nby the new state board of educational administration. Since the libraries\ngenerally seem to be outgrowing their present rooms it is encouraging that\nten schools announce new buildings or library rooms for another year.\nORGANIZATION OF NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIANS\nAltho the problems of the normal-school library have been presented\nsince the organization of the Library Department of the National Education\n\nAssociation, in 1896,\n\nby normal-school principals and librarians, also in\n\nmany associations of teachers, until within the past two years librarians have\nnot met together to discuss their problems either in states or in sections\nof the country.\n\nThe first movement toward the organization of normal-\n\nschool librarians was a conference in Wisconsin, held at Oshkosh in October,\n1911.\n\nAbout twenty problems of normal-school library work were dis-\n\ncussed, and three of the resolutions adopted were that assistant librarians\n\nbe made members of the school faculty, that the course of library readings\nbe reinstated, and that teacher-librarians should be employed in those\ncommunities needing more effective library work.\nIn Pennsylvania a paper giving the results of an investigation of\nnormal-school libraries of that state was read in 191 1 before the library\nsection of the Keystone Library Association. A resolution was sent to the\nBoard of Principals of Normal Schools and a meeting of normal-school\nlibrarians was called at Harrisbiu*g in connection with the Library Commis-\n\n"} {"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT ON NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\n753\n\nsion.\n\nA course of library lessons was outlined and all the schools went to\n\nwork.\n\nThe librarian of Tempe, Ariz., writes that she had hoped to organize\n\na library association but that distances are so great it is a difficult problem.\nThru the efforts of Mr. Kerr, of Emporia, and Miss Ovitz, of Milwaukee,\nthe normal-school librarians of the Middle West met in Chicago in January,\n1913, at the time of the midwinter meetings of the American Library AssoEighteen normal\nciation Council, and the college and imiversity librarians.\n\nschools in eight states were represented and a committee was appointed to\n\ncontinue the organization and co-operate with other library interests.\n\nThe first national conference of normal-school librarians was held at\nthe Hotel Kaaterskill, in the Catskills, during the meeting of the American\n\nLibrary Association in June, 1913.\n\nProblems were discussed and a com-\n\nmittee appointed to arrange for a similar meeting next year. A second\nnational conference is planned in connection with the meeting of the\n\nLibrary Department of the National Education Association.\n\nOBSERVATIONS DRAWN FROM THE YEAR'S STUDY OF THE NORMAL-SCHOOL\nLIBRARY SITUATION\nFirst:\n\nThe moving spirit in every center of great activity is the\n\nlibrarian or a teacher with an understanding of the modern library.\n\nAny\n\naccount of the normal-school library movement would be incomplete without mention of the services of the pioneer workers who have not been\nroutine librarians working schedule hours, but real educators with the\ninsight and courage of the reformer.\n\nOne of these pioneers, a Wellesley\n\ncollege graduate teaching in a normal school in Maine, realized the possibilities of school work with the library as a working laboratory, and took a\n\nlibrary course in preparation for organizing her own normal-school library.\n\nShe has since been responsible for the organization of both the normalschool library and a new public library, doing a great part of the work\nduring summer vacations without pay, or nights after a day of teaching.\nHer inspiring efforts have reached the entire state, thru talks at\nteachers' institutes, summer library courses at the normal schools, and\ntalks\n\nbefore the State Teachers' Association and State Federation of\n\nWomen's Clubs.\nThere are a score of such pioneers who are working in this way, making\nand money. At great personal expense\nthey attend state and national meetings to help in the organization of\nschool librarians, and the tremendous recent advancement in school library\nwork is due to their unceasing efforts.\nThe recent school library awakening of the South is due largely to\nthe efforts of Mr. Louis R. Wilson, who in 191 1 outlined before the Southern\nreal sacrifices in time, strength,\n\nEducational Association a plan for the betterment of school\n\nlibraries.\n\nSince then he has been asked by the state authorities to prepare a state-\n\nment of means of increasing the effectiveness of school libraries, also to\n\n"} {"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n754\n\n[Library\n\nsubmit plans for teachers' library courses for the new Peabody College of\nNashville, which is to be the normal school for the entire South.\nIn Kansas, Mr. Kerr by means of a carefully prepared and explained\nexhibit for the State Teachers' Association secured the indorsement of\ntheir movement for a library organizer in that state.\n\nSchool-library exhibits have been sent to several state teachers' associations and have been very much enjoyed and appreciated.\n\nIn Maine,\n\nNew York, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Washington, and California papers\non normal-school library work have been read at the state teachers' associations.\n\nIn Tempe, Ariz., the librarian. Miss Wright, met the education committee of the Senate soon after the meeting of the first state legislature, to\nexplain the\n\nwork of library commissions of other states.\n\nShe has also\n\nserved as a bureau of information to which teachers write for help.\nCal.,\n\nChico,\n\nand other normal schools supply the needs of rural-school libraries\n\nin the near vicinity.\n\nThe normal-school library in these cases and many others has been a\nreal educator, contributing toward the library betterment of the state.\n\nSecond:\n\nFrom the unorganized condition still existing in many normal-\n\nschool libraries, it would seem that school men have still to be convinced\n\nthat the library is an educational institution and a fimdamental need greater\nin importance than any other working laboratory of the school.\n\nThe prob-\n\nlem of convincing the school men of the importance of the school library belongs fundamentally to the college and university. The educators and\nleaders in thought of the school world are trained in the university and\nnormal college. Mr. Wilson, of the University of North Carolina, insists\nThe unithat, at least in the South, the universities must lead the way.\nversities of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee are\nnotable examples of schools giving teachers' courses in library instruction\n\nworthy the attention of university students, and officially recognized in\nthe university catalog. Such courses, on an equal footing, so far as\ncredits for a degree go, with every other subject, give the idea of library\n\ninstruction value thruout the educational public of the state.\n\nOther means of reaching the educational leaders in the interest of school\nlibrary work are normal-school library committees appointed by the state li-\n\nbrary association, appeals to the state commissioners of education by\nthe library commissions, and the efforts of state and national organizations of normal-school librarians.\n\nThird:\n\nTime is wasted in the normal schools because of the preliminary\n\nlibrary instruction now necessary on the use of the catalog and of books\n\nwhich should have been given in the graded or high schools.\n\nIn the years\n\nto come students should enter the teachers' training school equipped by\n\nthe high school to use the common tools of the library.\nschool can offer its own legitimate courses on\n\nThen the normal\n\nspecial reference books for\n\n"} {"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT ON NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nteachers, children's literature, practice\n\n755\n\nwork in giving library lessons to\n\nchildren, and elective technical courses for teacher-librarians.\n\nAnother observation upon the library instruction given in normal\nschools is that the weakest points of the present library course are the lack\nof practice lessons taught by the student and of Ubrary lessons given in\n\nthe grades of the training or model school.\n\nUnless the normal student is\n\nrequired to give practice lessons in the grades or high school, she is not\nlikely to give such lessons in her own school.\n\nAs one normal-school librarian\n\nsays:\n\nWe can instruct the normal students until Doomsday, but unless we outline a course\nfor the grades and show the prospective teacher just\n\nhow the work is to be presented,\n\nfew will have the initiative or originality to give it to the pupils they are to teach.\n\nIt is not enough that the coming teacher sees such lessons given by the\nlibrarian, she must try them herself while in the training school.\n\nAnother\n\nlibrarian says that the lessons most promising of results are those in which\n\nstudents handle children's books and get interested in the importance of\n\nbooks in the schools in which they are to teach.\n\nIn the beginning of library\n\ncourses in the normal schools, too much emphasis was placed on technical\ninstruction.\n\nThe later courses have been based upon the greatest need\n\nof teachers which all schools heretofore have failed to supply, knowledge\n\nand bibliographical aids for teachers. School-library\nwork is becoming less technical and more human.\nFourth: There is need of a handbook outlining courses of library\ninstruction and giving lists of best articles and helps in normal-school\n\nof children's books,\n\nRequests from libraries now being organized are constantly\ncoming to the schools already giving library instruction. More than thirty\nschools have sent with their replies to questionnaires t3^ewritten or printed\noutlines of their courses in library methods.\nA handbook combining the\nlibrary work.\n\nbest points in all these courses and in addition containing down-to-date\nlists of best articles and helps would tend to unify and organize school-library\n\nwork.\n\nRECOMMENDATIONS SUBMITTED FOR THE BETTERMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL\nLIBRARIES\n1. That of first and prime importance is the appointment in every\nnormal and teachers' training school of a trained librarian having rank\n\nand salary of the head of a department.\n2. That library lessons should be given in the grades and high schools\nin order that normal schools may specialize on library courses for prospective\nteachers.\n\nThat normal colleges and state imiversities should give library instruction to the end that the leaders of the educational world may recognize\n\nthe value of the school library.\n\nThat normal schools in their required library lessons should place the\n\n"} {"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n7S6\n\n[Library\n\nemphasis on children's literature and practice lessons given by the prospective teachers and that technical library instruction be reserved for elective\n\nteacher-librarian courses.\n3.\n\nThat a handbook be compiled and an effort made by the organized\n\nnormal-school librarians of the United States to secure\n\nits\n\npublication\n\nand free distribution among normal schools by the education department\nat Washington.\n4.\n\nThat an effort be made to secure the publication in educational\n\nmagazines of some of the best articles on normal-school library work.\n5.\n\nThat an effort be made to bring about centralized supervision of\n\nschool libraries thru a school supervisor for each state and for the whole of\n\nthe United States.\n\nCommittee\n\nIda M. Mendenhall, Tomkins Cove, N.Y., Chairman\nMary C. Richardson, state normal school, Castine, Me.\nO. H. Bakeless, state normal school, Bloomsburg, Pa.\nLouis R. Wilson, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill,\nN.C.\nDelia G. Ovitz, state normal school, Milwaukee, Wis.\nWillis H. Kerr, state normal school, Emporia, Kans.\nMargaret Dold, state normal school, Chico, Cal.\nRuth M. Wright, state normal school, Tempe, Ariz.\nMabel M. Reynolds, state normal school, Cheney, Wash.\n\nTRAINING HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE USE OF THE\nLIBRARY\nLUCILE\n\nF.\n\nFARGO, LIBRARIAN, NORTH CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL,\nSPOKANE, WASH.\n\nThe history of library work, like Gaul, may be divided into three parts.\nOr better, it may be considered as having three epochs, each characterized\nby certain distinct ideals, each closely related to the educational ideas of its\ntime, each fragrant with culture and the devotion of the booklover.\nThe first of these I may call the scholarly epoch, the time when the\nlibrary was a carefully clothed, a carefully housed, and a carefully guarded\ncollection of books.\nAs the Old Librarians^ Almanac says:\nKeep your Books behind stout Gratings and in no wise let any Person come at them to\nHave in Mind the Counsel of Master Enoch\nSneed (that most Worthy Librarian) who says: It were better that no Person enter the\n\ntake them from the Shelf except yourself.\n\nLibrary (save the Librarian Himself) and that the Books be kept in Safety, than that one\n\nBook be lost, or others Misplac'd.\nDuty.\n\n—\n\nGuard well your Books\n\nthis is always your foremost\n\n... So far as your Authority will permit of it, exercise great Discrimination\n\nFor the Treasure\nHouse of Literature is no more to be thrown open to the ravages of the xmreasoning Mob,\nthan is a fair Garden to be laid unprotected at the Mercy of a Swarm of Beasts.\n\nas to which Persons shall be admitted to the use of the Library.\n\n"} {"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmcntl\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS AND USE OF THE LIBRARY\n\nThe second epoch came.\n\nFree schools were established.\n\n757\n\nPublic high\n\nand academies. The first\nfree public libraries were organized. Then began a period of marvelous\nlibrary development a sort of Lady Bountiful period, in which buildings\nand equipment multiplied and the library became a missionary and went\nout into the highways and byways to carry free books to the lumberman in\nthe mountains and the foreigner in the slums. We are still living in that\nperiod a time when the public library comes to the school with its classroom collections, its lists of books for summer reading, its duplicate reference sets for high-school students, and even its briefs for the high-school\ndebater, signed, sealed, and delivered, with a bibliography attached.\nBut we are beginning to catch a still larger glimpse of the possibilities\nschools began to take the place of seminaries\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe third period is in its infancy, but it has begun.\n\nof library work.\n\nI\n\nhesitate to use a word which to many minds means only teachers' examinations and perspiring hours spent in the pursuit of knowledge via White's\n\nSchool Management.\n\nBut the third epoch is the pedagogical one.\n\n\"The\n\nlibrary the people's university\" is a phrase that slides easily from the pen of\n\nthe reporter.\n\nAnd so readily does it write itself that only a few are seeing\n\nits real significance.\n\nThe library as an educational institution demands the recognition of\nestablished educational principles.\n\nThis is no more true of the school library\n\nthan of the public library, but we are just now considering the needs of the\nhigh school and I^am glad to have an opportimity to point out what seem to\n\nme to be some of those underlying principles.\nFirst of all there is the preparation of the librarian.\n\nAs long as the\n\nstorehouse idea prevailed, there was no good reason why the librarian shoidd\n\nbe anything more than a clerk.\n\nBut if the school library is to be an active\n\neducational agent, its presiding genius must be a specialist, and a thoroly\n\nprepared one.\ncollege degrees.\n\nHigh schools require their teachers to be the possessors of\nThe librarian comes into vital touch with the entire teach-\n\ning force and the entire student body.\n\nHave not school authorities a right\n\nto demand of her the same broad education plus adequate technical train-\n\nAnd if this is demanded, it follows that the high-school librarian must\nbe granted the salary of a teacher rather than that of a clerk. I am positive\ning ?\n\nthat only as she is recognized as the peer of the teaching force in every way,\nin training and salary , will she be able to make of the library what it really\n\nought to be\n\n—a department of the school as the college library\n\nis\n\nof the\n\ncollege.\n\nA man who has had long experience as an educator said to me\n\nrecently:\n\n\"If I were a school superintendent again with a faculty of\n\nten in the high school, I would insist that one of the ten must be a librarian.\n\nAnd I would do it on the principle that a properly administered and active\nlibrary was an essential element in the work of the school.\"\n\nThe proper location and equipment of the school library are also vitally\nimportant points.\n\nMay the study-hall profitably be combined with the\n\n"} {"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n75^\nlibrary ?\n\n[Library\n\nIs the location of books in a near-by branch of the public library a\n\nsatisfactory arrangement, pedagogically considered?\n\nThese are questions\n\nto be considered by school and library officials in view of local conditions.\n\nBut granted a library in the school building, there must be adequate acconunodation for books and readers. There must be careful selection of\nbooks, for a school library cannot afford to store dead wood. There must\nbe proper equipment in the way of catalog cases and fiUng cases, if the\nbooks and other material are to be put to the best use.\nGiven the books, given some sort of adequate accommodation and\nequipment, and given a librarian who is familiar with library methods,\nwhat still remains ? Surely the application of pedagogical principles.\nI think most high-school librarians are already adepts in the art of\nsuggestion and the arousing of interest.\nWe all put pictures on the walls\nand plants in the windows in order to make the room the most attractive\nplace in the building; we all get up posters and lists, and scatter fascinating\nvolimies here and there on the tables in the hope of tempting the taste of the\nunwary pupil we get the economics class to furnish clippings for the bulletin\nboard in the hope of arousing interest in current events; we drop remarks\nabout \"that splendid story I read in the Atlantic last week by the same\nauthor as you have there you must be sure to read it.\" And still a large\npart of our Ubrary work with boys and girls misses fire.\nHigh-school boys and girls like best those things which they do for\nthemselves. If John can be taught to use the card catalog and find his\nown books on the shelves he will use twice as many books, for he isn't afraid\nof \"bothering\" and besides, the feat of locating a set or a volume on the\nshelves, or finding material on a certain topic thru the index to magazine\narticles, is as good as a game.\nMoreover, it gives him a pleasant feeling\nof importance when Professor White says to him in the civics class, \" Now\nthere's that matter of the judicial recall I wish you would go down to the\nlibrary before tomorrow's recitation and make an abstract of such articles\nas you can find in favor of it and report to the class.\"\nBut it is telling only half the story to say that high-school boys and girls\nlike to do library work for themselves.\nIt is a part of their education for\nthem to learn to do it. Where, better than in the library, can the pupil\nlearn to judge and to discriminate ? Where is there a better chance for him\nto develop initiative and to pursue those lines of thought and study that\nreally interest him ?\n;\n\n—\n\n—\n\nMy plea, then, is for a library training course in every high school.\nSuch a course should teach the student the intelligent use of library tools\nIt should\nlike the card catalog, the periodical indexes and bibliographies.\nmake him familiar with at least a small group of books of ready reference\nthe Statesman's Yearbook, the almanac, the gazetteer, the encyclopedias,\n\nboth general and special, dictionaries, and debating aids.\n\nIt should require\n\n"} {"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment!\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS AND USE OF THE LIBRARY\n\n759\n\nhim to make practical use of his knowledge in as many ways as possible\nby the preparation of bibliographies, by frequent reference assignments\ninvolving the use of indexes and cross-references.\nI am aware that the chief obstacles in presenting such a course in any\ngiven high school are the already crowded condition of the course of study\n\nand the lack of time on the part of the librarian. May I tell you how\nthese obstacles have been overcome in the school which I represent ?\nWe have made a sigries of library lessons an integral part of the English\ncourse, the lessons being given by the English teachers with the exception of\none or two. For instance, the Freshmen B's spend several days investigating the standard encyclopedias and dictionaries. Sample pages of\nthese have been obtained from the publishers in large numbers so that it is\npossible for each member of the class to have in hand an actual page of the\n\"big\" dictionary while he and his teacher talk about the arrangement of\nmaterial, definitions, synonyms, derivations, obsolete words, and slang\nphrases. These same Freshmen B's spend at least one recitation period in\nthe library early in the semester. After a lecture from the librarian on the\nuse of the catalog and the arrangement of the books on the shelves, they all\ntry their hand at hunting up a volume for themselves. Then their teacher\nassigns each a subject for a bibliography, and this they work out carefully\nand hand in as an exercise, or perhaps as the basis of next week's theme. A\nlittle later they are introduced to the Reader's Guide, back numbers of which\nare sent up to the classroom if the teacher so desires. Somebody, or perhaps\nthe whole class, will be asked, to prepare a list of the magazines subscribed\nfor\n\nby the library.\n\nReports on the merits and characteristics of these\n\nperiodicals will later be given as oral themes and again will come the prepa-\n\nration of a bibliography, this time on a subject that necessitates the use\nof the Reader's Guide as well as the card catalog.\n\nI cannot go further into details.\nOther lessons give the pupils a handto-hand acquaintance with certain other standard reference books and\nsets,\n\nsuch as books of quotations, almanacs, gazetteers, atlases, Shake-\n\nspeare concordances, Warner's Library of the World's Best Literature,\nBliss's Encyclopedia of Social Reform, and Larned's History for Ready\nReference.\nlibrary.\n\nThere is one lecture on the choice of books for a personal\nThis is usually given to the Seniors by the librarian. At first we\n\nspread out the work thru the entire four years of the English course.\nLately we have come to the conclusion that this was a mistake. We\nwant the pupil to know at the very outset of his high-school course how to\n\nmake the best use of his high-school library and the public library.\nso the formal instruction\n\nis\n\nAnd\n\nlargely given in the Freshman year, with the\n\nimderstanduig that advanced classes are to be kept constantly in practice\nthru reference assignments, debate work, and the frequent preparation\nof bibliographies\n\nEnglish.\n\n—\n\nall\n\nin connection\n\nwith the regular classroom work in\n\n"} {"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "76o\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nCan the English teachers do the work?\n\n(Library\n\nSome of them have had\nThose not so fortunate have\nmade good use of aids like Ward's Practical Use of Books and Libraries^\nand such t)^ewritten exercises and courses of study as we could secure\nfrom other schools. Best of all, the almost universal verdict has been that\nthis was the most suggestive, the most interesting, and the most useful form\nof English work possible.\nThe great cry in the modern high school is for the practical. Library\ntraining makes of the school library a laboratory and a workshop, putting\ninto the hands of the pupil the necessary tools for further achievement in\nhis chosen field.\nAt the same time nothing is lost on the\nIt is practical.\nside of culture.\nWe can still make the school library the most beautiful,\nthe most alluring spot in the building, we can encourage the boy who likes\nto browse and the girl who has taste. We shall have time to do so, for in\nlearning to help themselves our boys and girls will have made it more\nnormal-school preparation for just such work.\n\npossible for us to help them.\n\n"} {"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—Carrie B. Levy, supervisor of\n\nPresident\n\nclasses for the blind, public schools. .Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n—Harris Tayi.or, priacipal. Institution for the Improved Instruction of\n\nVice-President\n\nDeaf Mutes.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.New York, N.Y.\n\n—M. P. E. Groszicann, educational director. National Association for the\n\nSecretary\n\nStudy and Education of Exceptional Children\n\nPlainfield, N.J.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 9, 1913\nThe department was called to order in Whitney Hall at 2:30 p.m. with President\nCarrie B. Levy in the chair.\nThe chair then appointedjthe nominating committee.\nThe general topic of the session was \"The Special Child—The Need of Prevention\n\n—the\n\nof Bringing into the World the Defective, Exceptional, Abnormal, At3T)ical Child\n\nBlind, the Deaf, and the Cripple.\"\n\nUnder this topic, the following program was given\n\n—\n\n\"Causes of Deafness\" Frank M. Driggs, superintendent of the School for the Deaf\nand Blind, Ogden, Utah.\n\"Saving Sight and Saving Citizens\" Edward M. Van Cleve, superintendent of\nOhio State School for the Blind, and membei of the Board of Directors of the American\nAssociation for the Conservation of Vision, Columbus, Ohio.\n\n—\n\nThis lecture was of a most informal character a.xd was illustrated with excellent\nmotion pictures and other lantern slides collected from various parts of the United States.\nThe Volta Bureau, Washington, D.C., had an exhibit of charts, etc., showing work\nfor the education and promotion of the general welfare of the deaf, including especially\nthe studies of Alexander Graham Bell. A representative of the Volta Bureau explained\nits workings to the department.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Friday Afternoon, July ii, 1913\nThe department met in Whitney Hall at 2:30 p.m., and was called to order by the\npresident.\n\nThe following program was given:\n\n—\n\n\"Exceptional Children: Why ? \" ^Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, educational director.\nNational Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children, Plainfield,\nN.J.\n\"Fit and Unfit Matings\" C. B. Davenport, Carnegie Institute of Washington, director of Department of Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, Long\n\n—\n\nIsland,\n\nN.Y.\n\nDiscussions.\n\nThe president stated that in 191 1 a committee was appointed to collect data relative\nAt the 191 2 meeting, as no one was present\nto report, the committee was continued and asked to make a preliminary report at the\n1913 meeting. MaximiUan P. E. Groszmann, as chairman of the committee, then stated\nto the legal status of exceptional children.\n\nthat the committee, as ordered, had placed itself in communication with the United\nStates Bureau of Education, which had made an effort to compile the data required from\n\nChanges in the personnel of the bureau and lack of funds, however, made\nDr. Groszmann asked to continue the committee so that it\nmight make further efforts. It was so ordered.\n\ntheir records.\n\nfurther work impossible.\n\n761\n\n"} {"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n762\n\n[Special\n\nThe president further reported that at the 191 2 meetmg the secretary was instructed\nto request the United States Bureau of Education to publish for distribution the report\nof the Committee on Prevention of Blindness and Conservation of Vision.\n\nThe secretary communicated with J. C. Boykin, of the Department of the Interior*\nWashington, D.C., and ascertained that the Bureau of Education wished to combine the\nreport with one being prepared by F. B. Dresslar, specialist in school hygiene and sanitation, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\n\n—\n\nFor President Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, educational director. National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children, Plainfield, N.J.\nFor Vice-President ^John B. Curtis, supervisor. School for the Blind, Chicago, 111.\nFor Secretary ^W. E. Taylor, superintendent, Idaho School for the Deaf and Blind,\n\n— —\n\nGooding, Idaho.\n\nThese nominations were unanimously accepted and the officers duly declared elected\nfor the ensuing year.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nCAUSES OF DEAFNESS\nFRANK M. DRIGGS, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF AND\nBLIND, OGDEN, UTAH\n\nA study of the causes of deafness brings forth the fact that the census\nreports and the information obtained thru the schools for the deaf are\n\nThe census enumerators have undoubtThe heads of the various schools have been\n\nincomplete and far from accurate.\nedly done\n\ntheir work well.\n\nThe primary cause of the inaccuracy is due to the fact that many\ndo\nnot know the real cause of the deafness of their children, or if\nparents\ndo\nknow\nthey fail to give the desired information. It is often imposthey\nobtain\nfrom parents, or guardians, any reliable information, any\nsible to\nactual cause of deafness, or any accurate knowledge of their ancestry with\ncareful.\n\nor without reference to defects in either side of the family tree.\n\nthe causes given are absurd and unsatisfactory.\n\nVery often\n\nWe can, however, from\n\nthe census figures and from other reports obtain sufficient data so as to\n\ndraw some interesting conclusions.\nDr. G. Hudson Makuen, an eminent authority on deafness, causes and\nprevention, says:\nDeafness is a symptom and not a disease, and just as long as the hiunan organism\nis subject to disease, just so long will there be the symptoms or results of disease, of which\n\ndeafness is a type.\n\nThere are two kinds of deafness, viz., that which is a part of the inheritance of the\nchild, or congenital deafness, and that which is the result of disease later on, or acquired\n\ndeafness.\n\nThis is a more or less arbitrary division, for nearly all deafness is acquired\n\neither before or after birth and the child inherits merely a tendency to the acquisition of\n\ncertain morbid conditions which result in deafness and which may be of either prenatal\n\nor postnatal development.\n\n"} {"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "CAUSES OF DEAFNESS\n\nDepartment!\n\nWe have then this classification:\n\n(i)\n\n763\n\nthe deaf, meaning the whole\n\nclass of deaf people, (2) the congenitally deaf, those who are born deaf or\n\nlose their hearing in very early infancy and are thought to have been so\n\nborn, and (3) the adventitiously deaf, those who acquire deafness after\nbirth, usually in early childhood.\n\nThere are various degrees of deafness, from the person who is slightly\nhard of hearing to the one who is totally deaf.\nFrom a report by Dr. E. A. Fay, an authority on the causes of deafness, we learn that the census reports from fifteen countries of Europe give\n\nmore cases of congenital than acquired deafness.\n\nThe census reports of\n\nthe United States of 1880 give a similar report, yet the difference is not so\n\nIn the same statistics we find that the reported cases from twenty\nEuropean and seventeen American schools for the deaf show an excess of\n\ngreat.\n\nacquired deafness.\n\nFrom my own figures from reports received from schools for the deaf\nyear and including more than eight thousand deaf children, 32 per\n\nthis\n\ncent are reported as congenitally deaf, 14 per cent with no known cause,\n\nand the rest, 54 per cent, as being adventitiously deaf.\n\nA complete sum-\n\nmary of the causes as reported will be given later.\n\nNow as to the causes of deafness:\nDr. G. Hudson Makuen says that about 50 per cent of congenital\ndeafness is the direct product of consanguineous and deaf-mute marriages.\n\nDr. E. A. Fay and Dr. Alexander Graham Bell both agree that there\nis a hereditary tendency toward\n\ndeafness thru consanguinity and that the\n\npossession of deaf relatives is a most important element in determining the\n\nproduction of deaf offspring.\n\nMr. Stoddard Goodhue in a recent issue of the Cosmopolitan has this\nto say:\n\nThere is danger in cousins marrying. Consider this complication. A young man\ncousin; and they ignore the fact that one of their common grandparents was deaf. The two cousins marry and have four children, of whom two are bom\nfalls in love with his\n\ndeaf.\n\nHere the hereditary defect skipped two generations, and there is reason to suppose\nthat it would not have reappeared but for the union of cousins.\n\nThe justification for this\n\nbeUef is found in the fact that deafness may be due to a good many different conditions,\nso the marriage of unrelated deaf-mutes resulted in deafness in only about one-fourth of\n\nthe offspring.\n\n(Other authorities give a lower percentage than\n\nparents are related\n\nthis.)\n\nBut when the\n\n—belonging therefore to the same type or strain of deafness—the\n\npercentage of marriages yielding deaf children increases in proportion to the closeness of\nrelationship of the parents.\n\nIn one case where the marriage partners were nephew and\n\naunt, 75 per cent of the children were deaf.\n\nThe very fact that the marriage of persons having the same defects\nintensifies those defects in the imion of the strains that carry them makes it\n\nseem imperative that congenitally deaf persons should not marry other\ncongenitally deaf persons. Especially is this true where there is a positive\nhereditary tendency toward deafness.\n\n"} {"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n764\n\n(Special\n\nThere are in Utah quite a number of deaf married couples, perhaps\nIn three instances both partners are congenitally and\nhereditarily deaf. In about twenty cases one of the partners is congeniTwo-thirds of these thirty couples have children and in only\ntally deaf.\none instance is there a deaf child. In this one instance there is a deafness\nin the families of both parents.\nthirty such unions.\n\nDr. Fay says:\nWhile the principle of heredity is clearly established as an indirect cause of deafness,\nit is a curious fact that, in a great majority of cases, the defect is not transmitted\n\nparents to their children.\nchildren,\n\nby deaf\n\nStatistics have shown that many married deaf have not deaf\n\nand that, with deaf parents as with hearing parents, hearing children are the\n\nrule, deaf children the exception;\n\nbut they also show, especially when a large number of\n\nsuch cases are brought together, that the proportion of these exceptions with deaf parents\n\nYet the proportion of deaf children to the whole\nnumber of such children is greater than the proportion of the deaf to the whole population.\n\nis far greater than with hearing parents.\n\nScrofula seems to have an indirect effect, or to be a cause of deafness\nin many cases.\n\nThe fact that many deaf children show traces of scrofula\n\nleads many authorities to consider this a cause of deafness.\n\nThe principal\n\ncauses of acquired\n\ndeafness are from diseases and\n\naccidents.\n\nIn a report in the American Annals (1888), by Dr. E. A. Fay, we find\nout of 9,209 reported cases the following:\nMeningitis\nScarlet fever\n\n2,856\n2,695\n\nMalarial and typhoid fever\n\n571\n\nMeasles\nFevers non-malarial\nCatarrh and catarrhal fevers\nOther inflammations of the air passages\n\n448\n381\n324\n\n—\n\nFalls\n\nTeething\n\n142\n323\n54\n\nMumps\n\n51\n\nSmallpox and variola\n\n47\n36\n32\n\nErysipelas\nFright\nWater in the ear\n\nSxmstroke\nNoises and concussions\n\nTumors\n\n25\n21\n21\n11\n\nWhooping cough\n\n10\n281\ni9S\n\nNervous affections\n\n170\n\nScrofula\n\n131\n78\n74\n72\n7°\n63\n10\n\nChickenpox\nAbscesses\n\nQuinine\n\nBlows and contusions\nInflammations of the ear\nDiphtheria\nHydrocephalus\nStruck by lightning\nForeign bodies in tiie ear\nSalt rheum\n\n9\n3\n\nMalformation of the ear\n\n2\n\nSyphilis\n\n2\n\nConsumption\n\ni\n\nTotal\n\n9,209\n\n"} {"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\n,\n\nCAUSES OF DEAFNESS\n\nDepartmentl\n\n765\n\nFrom the United States Census (1900), Table XXXVIII and Diagram\n33, we obtain from the classified cases the following principal causes:\nScarlet fever\nDisease of ear\n\n7,424\n4,210\n2,469\n1,776\n11,702\n3,074\n1,636\n3,991\n2,013\n2,055\n\nMeasles\nInfluenza\n\nCatarrh\nColds\nMalarial fever and quinine\nMeningitis\nBrain fever\n\nTyphoid fever\n\n40,350\n\nMinor Causes\n\n7,617\n\nAggregate classified\n\n47,967\n\nAnd from Diagram 34 we get from the unclassified cases the following\nCongenital\nOld age\nMilitary service\nFalls and blows\nSickness\n\n14,472\n3,361\n3,242\n2,243\n2,143\n1,436\n\nFever\nHereditary\n\n909\n27,806\n3,399\n\nMinor causes\nAggregate unclassified\n\n31,205\n\nThe following table gives the causes as given in the recent reports\nI have received from the superintendents of a number of schools for the\n\ndeaf of America:\nUtah\n\nCongenital\n\n2,570\n1,119\n\nUnknown\nMeningitis\nScarlet fever\nBrain fever\n\nMeasles\nAccidents\n\nTyphoid\nWhooping cough\nCatarrh\nDiphtheria\n\nGnppe\nMiscellaneous.\n\n851\n629\n372\n233\n210\n158\n152\n140\n61\n\n47\n.\n\nTotal\n\n1,514\n\n0.319\n\n0.32\n\n•139\n.105\n.078\n.046\n.028\n.027\n.019\n.019\n.017\n.007\n.006\n\n•193\n•13\n.07\n\n.028\n.025\n.019\n.019\n.012\n.016\n.009\n\n0.19\n\n0.159\n\n8,056\n\n1. 000\n\nFrom the census reports, statistics, and tables, and from the authorities already quoted I find the following interesting facts:\nFirst: The largest proportion deaf from the classified causes is found in Maine, New\nHampshire, and Vermont.\nSecond: The largest ratios of congenital deaf are found in a group of states comprising Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and North Carolina, also Maine.\nThe largest\n\npercentage is found in the state of North Carob'na.\n\n"} {"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n766\nThird:\n\n[Special\n\nA strange coincidence is that those sections having the least sunshine have\n\nthe largest ratios of deafness from affections of the middle ear.\n\nFourth: The congenitally deaf form the mass of those who lost hearing before the\n\nage of two years, and among the non-congenital cases scarlet fever, disease of ear, measles,\nmeningitis, and brain fever seem to predominate over other causes assigned.\n\nBetween the ages of two and five we find that scarlet fever and meningitis\nDiseases of the ear and brain fever are next in\nimportance. Sixty-five per cent of the cases due to brain fever occur before the age of\nFifth:\n\nare the principal causes of deafness.\n\nfive.\n\nSixth: Scarlet fever is the leading cause of deafness between the ages of five and ten.\n\nSeventh:\n\nNo single cause seems to predominate between ten and fifteen.\n\nEighth: Catarrh becomes the leading cause of all deafness after fifteen years of age.\n\nNinth: Congenital deafness occurs exclusively at birth or in early infancy. Prac90 per cent of all deafness from scarlet\n\ntically all deafness from catarrh comes in adult life;\n\nfever, meningitis, and brain fever, more than 75 per cent of deafness from measles, and\n\n65 per cent of deafness from diseases of the ear occur in childhood.\nTenth: One-third of all deaf children have some deaf relatives.\nEleventh: The percentage of bom deaf and deaf from \"hereditary\" causes is greater\namong those who have deaf relatives than among those who have not.\nTwelfth: The percentage of congenitally deaf is nearly three times as great among\nthose whose parents were cousins as among those whose parents were not.\n\nWithout wearying you with more data and other figures I shall present\n\nmy conclusions.\n1.\n\nThere is much need of the study of eugenics, the gathering of data\n\nconcerning the presence of deafness in the ancestry of the children in schools\nfor the deaf.\n\nThere is need of more careful records of the causes of deafness.\nis need of careful records of the marriages of deaf persons\nThere\n3.\n2.\n\nand of their offspring.\n4. There is need of laws preventing the marriage of persons where both\nfamilies have the same defective strains, or defective hereditary tendencies.\n5. There is need of more careful selection of the parents of our children\nif we would prevent congenital and hereditary deafness.\n6. There is need of more scientific nursing and medical attention with\nthe children who contract the diseases that frequently cause deafness.\nFinally, my friends, I believe we are at the beginning of a period when\nmore attention is to be paid to the study of eugenics, and to the breeding\nThe day is dawning when there shall be\nof more perfect human beings.\ngreater co-operation between the teachers and the doctors in the study of\nchildren, causes of defect, prevention of disease, and hereditary tendencies.\nMay we not rejoice in the coming of this day in the hope that it will bring\nto the children of tomorrow fewer sorrows, fewer handicaps, and fewer sins\nfrom generations of yesterday and today, and leave as our heritage a more\n\nperfect race, a better world ?\n\n"} {"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN: WHY?\n\nDepartmentl\n\n767\n\nEXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN: WHY?\nMAXIMILIAN P. E. GROSZMANN, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY AND EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL\nCHILDREN, PLAINFIELD, N.J.\n\nEven after these years of careful study of many classes of exceptional\nchildren, the terminology and classification employed are loose and arbitrary.\nall\n\nIt is true that the term \"exceptional\" as a general term, denoting\n\nkinds of deviations from what has been called the ordinary average,\n\nhas recently been adopted by many after it had been suggested by the\nwriter of this paper as long as ten years ago.\n\nBut there is still much con-\n\nfusion and imcertainty in diagnosis and terminology.\n\nIn order that this paper may be of value, its terminology must be\nunderstood.\n\nI can only refer to my repeatedly published Tentative Classi-\n\nfication of Exceptional Children^ which, in its crude form, as early as 1903, was\n\nfavorably commented upon by Cesare Lombroso, and which, in its revised\nform, was first presented to the American Academy of Medicine in 1909.\n\n\"Abnormal\"\n\nchildren, in this classification, are those\n\ntinctly feeble-minded, insane, or\n\nwho are dis-\n\nmoral imbeciles and perverts, and will\n\nneed custodial care thru life, being unfit to live independently in modem\n\nhuman society. The nimaber of these has been greatly overrated. Any\nindividual who did not easily respond to more or less superficial testing\nhas been grouped low, and thus our census figures are no doubt exaggerated.\n\nEven the more scientific methods of testing are still crude. It is conwho believe in the eflSicacy of the Binet-Simon\n\nceded even by those\n\nMeasuring Scale that it has the tendency of ranking children too low.\n\nAt best, this scale is one of intelligence alone; it does not give any reliable\nclue to all the other faculties of the mind which enter into wholesome\nmentality and enable an individual to compete with his fellows in a suitable\nsocial environment.\n\nBut even using the scale, the results in different localities differ widely\nas to numbers and percentages. While Dr. Goddard maintains that about\n2 per cent of all school children are distinctly feeble-minded, and goes\neven so far as to believe that many children thought merely backward\nare really feeble-minded, the figures obtained in New Orleans show that\nless\n\nthan i per cent are abnormal mentally.\n\nAnd in Raleigh, S.C, only\n\n28 out of 3,800 children were found to be feeble-minded.\n\nThis would show\n\nthat we cannot attempt to generalize too readily on the basis of a limited\n\nnumber of\n\ntesting opportunities,\n\nand that conditions may\n\ndiffer\n\nvery\n\nmuch in different localities.\n\nA great deal has been said recently about the large percentage of\nfeeble-minded among our criminals and prostitutes.\n\nWhile it cannot be\n\ndisputed that weak-minded persons are very likely to drift into delin-\n\nquency and moral\n\nlooseness,\n\nand while every reformatory and prison\n\n"} {"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n768\n\n[Special\n\nhas its quota of feeble-minded inmates, it must also be conceded that their\nnumber is not excessive or even preponderating, and the feeble-minded\ncriminal\n\nis\n\ncertainly not so dangerous to society as the clever one, he\n\nwho has high intellectual and volitional potentials, but whose career was\nthwarted in the beginning by misdirection, thru economic and other causes,\nso that he became anti-social instead of social.\n\nEven the percentage of\n\nmoral imbeciles is not so large that it would swell the ranks of the criminals\nunduly.\n\nCrime has many other causes.\n\nMany a criminal, for that matter,\n\nis not a genuine imbecile, but merely a primitive man, an atavistic type,\n\nperfectly normal under primitive conditions, but imsocial in the higher\n\nand more complex social organism of the present day.\nSpeaking of the causes leading to abnormal development, there has\nalso been too much alarmism and overemphasis of obscure and insufficiently\n\nproven data. The part heredity plays has certainly been overstated.\nOf course, outspoken degeneracy, physical and mental, and positive defects\nDeaf-mutism, for example, is\nSo are idiocy and imbecility. The hereditary\nsequence of transmission can easily be traced when we are dealing with\na single or a small nimiber of units. Black parents will have black children,\nare apt to be transmitted to the offspring.\ndistinctly\n\nhereditary.\n\nand white parents will have white offspring. But when we mix types\nand multiply units, we are confronted with many possible combinations\nof transmitted traits which it is difficult to foretell, and the number of\nwhich increases in geometric proportion. Even a marriage between black\nand white, or mulatto and white, allows of quite a nimiber of variations.\nIt has been shown that the number of units transmitted from one human\nbeing to another, including physical, emotional, mental, and other traits,\nmust be coimted by the thousands. It is, therefore, entirely impossible\nto state whether a certain mixture of types will produce this or that result,\n\nand whether defects in the parents may not be overbalanced by transTo say that a criminal father must\nhave a criminal son is preposterous; the son may become a benefactor\nof mankind.\nDelinquent children are only too often victims of circumstances, and\nmany children who give the first impression of feeble-mindedness and\nmitted and accimiulated excellences.\n\nanti-social instincts may be saved to useful citizenship.\nIt is too often a\nmatter of unfavorable environment, and lack of opportunity for proper\neducation and training, not to speak of inspiration toward the awakening\n\nof mental effort and social instincts.\n\nEven inebriety and venereal diseases, much harm as they have done\nand are still doing, must not be held responsible for more than their share\nAfter all, if they were so potent an evil as they are represented\nof influence.\nto be, we should now be a race of imbeciles and criminals. Drunkenness\nand lues were much more common in the past than now; there were times,\nnot far off, when it was considered a test of valiance to serve Bacchus,\n\n"} {"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nEXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN: WHY?\n\n769\n\nGambrinus, and Cupido to exhaustion. Our forefathers were heavy\ndrinkers, and no lady even of the royal court would seek her nightly pillow\nwithout having had a nightcap of singular strength. And licentiousness\nwas common in the highest places, and in ancient times a kind of prostitution was connected with religious rites. One who studies the history of\nvenereal disease will admit that we have made progress. And, in spite\nof our tainted heredity, we are after all a virile race, and are following an\nupward trend.\nSeemingly hereditary conditions are often due to imitation in early\nchildhood, and to the workings of similar life conditions. Weakened constitutions in parents, and a transmission of weakened conditions may be\novercome in the children by proper attention and treatment medical,\nsocial, and mental.\nThese remarks must not be construed as if they were intended to\nEugenics is a most valuable science,\ndiscredit the study of eugenics.\nyoung and incomplete as it is, and the time has come when children must\nmake up their minds to select better parents for themselves. Seriously\nspeaking, the warning issued by the eugenists should be heeded everywhere.\nBut we must not be too hasty to crystallize these warnings in the form of\nlaws, which are Hkely to do more harm than good, if they go farther than\nto regulate the most obvious things. Our data are still meager, and the\ncollection of data is very difficult, as we have no vital statistics to speak of,\nand those who try to gather information as to the family history of indi-\n\n—\n\nviduals will find their path beset with almost unsurmountable obstructions,\nespecially when it is desired to obtain scientifically reliable facts about the\n\nmental and physical condition of ancestors and relatives. It is for this\nreason that a great many of the family charts prepared in various places\nare of doubtful value.\n\nQuoting from my recent article on \"Sane Eugenics\":\n\nHow little we are justified in making offhand assertions in regard to the effect of\nphysical and neural diseases upon the status or social efficiency of an individual is evident\n\nfrom a study of genius* debt to disease. Genius has often been compared with insanity,\nand sometimes has been called closely related to feeble-mindedness and mental defect.\nNevertheless, if all mankind were of the average animal and neural health so vigorously\nadvocated by some students of eugenics, we should possibly be without some of those\nwonderful minds who have given to the world the loftiest thoughts, the finest art, and\nthe highest emotional stimulus. Dr. Charles B. Reed comes with the theory that the\nworld is indebted for many of its literary masterpieces to the presence of disease-produced\npoisons in the author's blood.\n\n\"We are not prepared at present to insist that toxins\n\nare essential to achievement, nor that an obscure toxin will convert mediocrity into\ngenius, but rather to suggest that the presence of such a substance in the circulation may,\n\nand does in many instances, accelerate and intensify the expression of existent intellectual\ntendencies,\" writes Dr. Reed in the Forum, In support of his theory he cites the instances\nof Macaulay, Gibbon, Lytton, Landor, Milton, Defoe, Heine, J. Addington Symonds,\nStevenson, and many others. But it has been shown long ago that the human race would\nhardly be what it is at present if it had not been for its neurotics. A highly sensitive\n\n"} {"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "'\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n770\n\n[Specia\n\nnervous organism has certainly its drawbacks for the individual and for his immediate\nfamily, but the world at large is the gainer by individual unhappiness and by the sacrifice\nof individual eugenics.\n\nBroadly speaking, it must be admitted that it is the effect of environmental conditions and influences that has developed the hmnan race\nfrom barbarism to civilization. In this process, physical and mental\nhygiene and education may be called the conscious elements.\nSocial and economic conditions have been responsible for a vast amount\nof \"exceptional\"\n\ndevelopment of the imdesirable order.\n\nA study of the\n\ncauses of retardation of school children must include a study of their home\n\nenvironment and economic standing.\n\nA survey of the stockyards district\n\nof Chicago has revealed the most astounding facts as to why the children\n\nattending school there became retarded and grew up to be failures in life.\n\nMiss Jane Addams, of Hull House, has forcibly shown the disastrous\nSecretary C. Loving Brace, of the New York\neffect of economic pressure.\nin one of his reports:\nAid\nSociety,\nstated\nChildren's\nPoor and insufficient food, noise, confusion, excitement day and night, have favored\namong the young, of St. Vitus' Dance. Poor food, little sleep, and\nlong hours of confining labor are having the deleterious effect to be expected upon the\nthe development,\nolder children.\n\nThe number of homeless children is astounding, and any study of the\ncauses of delinquency and dependency of children will convince the student\nthat neglect and maltreatment are only too frequent causes.\n\nThese are\n\nonly a few of the most potent factors leading to unfortunate \" exceptional'\n\ndevelopment.\nAgain, there are racial differences, and the various types of inmiigrants\n\nadapt themselves with different degrees of success to our economic conditions.\nOtu: life-conditions are becoming more and more strenuous, and\nin this struggle for existence the social strata, representing different levels\nof civilization, are becoming more and more clearly defined, in terms of\n\neconomic success and social value. Our population, even omitting the\nimmigrant portion, is by no means culturally homogeneous; the \"mountain whites,\" the \"white trash,\" and similar types represent bygone stages\nof civilization. Those who have kept pace with the rapid advance are\nrelatively at an advantage in the race for success, and the backward types\nfail in the merciless competition.\n\nThis naturally affects the children in their\n\nendowments for education and in their chances for self-betterment. In these\ncases, it is not always a problem of the individual, but of generations.\n\nOf the physical causes of retarded and impaired development, much\nBut let us\nremember that we must observe those danger signals in the development\nof a child which signify that we must beware. Well-organized systems of\nmedical inspection of school children and of preventive school hygiene\nhas been said, and it is hardly necessary to go into details.\n\nwill do much to alleviate conditions of this kind.\n\n"} {"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nDepartment!\n\nEXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN: WHY?\n\n77\n\nIn fact, school sanitation will relieve much of the strain which now\ncauses so much havoc in the lives of our growing children.\n\nIt will relate\n\nnot only to proper lighting, seating, and things of that kind; but even\nmore effectively to programs and courses of study. Many a child goes\nastray or falls behind because the conditions under which he works are\n\nown individual nature. It was an interesting step to take\nwhen a certain school system introduced \"schools for the discontented.'*\nWhittier's \"Barefoot Boy\" ought not to have been written in vain. The\ntruant is not necessarily a bad boy.\nThe daily program must be adjusted to the fatigue curves of the daily\nThe course of study must be more elastic, so as to\nefficiency of a child.\nagainst his\n\nrecognize the measure of human efficiency.\n\nThere should be less formality\nand less looking for \"average\" results or mechanically determined percentWe must realize that there are different types of mind which\nages.\nrequire differentiated training and stimuU. The grading of the work must\nbe based upon a clear understanding of the laws of mental development.\nPsychological tests of the work required in the different classes of the\nordinary graded school have revealed the fact that much of the material,\n\nmany of the tasks required of the children, are entirely unsuited to the\nstage of intellectual growth to which they are appUed.\n\nThis suggests\n\nthat we must revise our school standards most thoroly upon the foundation of psychological facts.\n\nThe individualization of instruction which\n\ntakes into consideration the different mental and emotional attitudes of\n\nthe pupils will lead to a rational recognition of an early vocational training\nand vocational guidance. All in all, we need a humanization of instruction.\nA class of children which is even more neglected than handicapped and\n\nretarded children is that of exceptionally bright children.\n\nAnd yet they\n\nbecome the leaders of our race in intellect, in culture, in\nconstructive activity, in commerce, in politics, and in the uplift of civilization generally. As it is, few have the blessing of being understood in their\nspecific needs, and are treated educationally either as if they were like the\naverage, or even as sinners. For repressed or misguided energy and virile\nimpulse will have to find an outlet somewhere and somehow, and if it\nfinds no legitimate task to perform, it will break the bounds and explode\nin some form. Thus, those who might have become leaders for good\nmay become our criminals, our misleaders, our selfish demagogs. What\nmight have been a power for good, and a blessing to humanity, turns into\na power for evil and a curse to tJbe race. We need schools for those who\nare destined to\n\nare to be the pioneers of the future, the captains of our nation in the battle\nfor higher culture and civilization.\n\nAnd in the training of the social instincts which must make for betterment, we must not forget the training in self-control.\n\nSplendid examples\nhave been given in a number of educational institutions by the introduction of systems of pupil self-government. This feature deserves much\n\n"} {"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n772\ncareful attention.\n\n(Special\n\nWith a proper development of this democratic method\n\nof the training of the will and of the social nature of the child, many pitfalls will be avoided into which the untrained mind of our youth is apt to\n\nIt will give to the growing child a new appreciation of his responsi-\n\nfall.\n\nbility;\n\nand especially in the adolescent period, when altruistic sentiments\n\narise with particular force, battling, however, with the rising sense of self,\n\nof individual rights and privileges, a training in pupil self-government will\n\ngo far to strengthen the social instinct and to curb the antisocial tendencies\n\nThe problem of the exceptional child is the problem of how we may\nsave the frightful himian waste which is going on all the time.\n\nIt is, put\n\nin a different way, the problem of failure or success in education.\n\nSays Helen Keller in a recent letter to the writer:\nIt is of the utmost importance to give every child the best education of which he is\n\ncapable.\n\nNo effort, no money, no sacrifice should be spared. The more severely a\n\nmore precious is whatever equipment is given him for the\nLet the public once realize how far such children can be helped, and\nnothing will be left undone to prevent the fearful waste of hvunan minds which lies heavy\nupon our civilization. This is true conservation the saving of valuable himian faculties\nfrom neglect and unskillful teaching.\nchild is handicapped, the\n\nstruggle of life.\n\n—\n\nFIT AND UNFIT MATINGS'\nC. B.\n\nDAVENPORT, CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF WASHINGTON; DIRECTOR,\nDEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION, COLD SPRING\nHARBOR, LONG ISLAND, N.Y.\n\nThere comes a time in the life of most thoughtful, cultured people when\nthey realize that they are drifting toward marriage and when they stop\nto consider\n\nif\n\nthe proposed union will lead to healthful, mentally well-\n\nBut however much such a person may take advice\nbooks or friends, he will find such a lack of definite knowledge that,\n\nendowed offspring.\nof\n\nshutting his eyes to possible disaster, he decides to take the chances.\n\nWere\n\nour knowledge of heredity more precisely formulated, there is little doubt\nthat many certainly unfit matings would be prevented and other fit matings, that are avoided thru false scruples, would be happily contracted.\n\nI\n\npurpose briefly to consider what is the present state of our knowledge of the\ninheritance of various characteristics.\n\nThe limitations in the scope of this article must be made clear at the\nAs a biologist, not a physician, I shall not consider many acquired\n\noutset.\n\n(jovemments spend\nand establish rigid inspections to prevent\n\nconditions which render people imfit for marriage,\nscores of thousands of dollars\n\nthe spread of the coitus disease of the horse but the spirochete parasite\nthat causes the corresponding disease in man and entails endless misery\n\non hundreds of thousands of innocent children may be disseminated by\n*\n\nCopyrighted, xgio, by C. B. Davenport; published by Heory Holt & Co.\n\n"} {"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nFIT AND UNFIT MATINGS\n\n773\n\nanybody, and is being disseminated by scores of thousands of persons in\nthis country, unchecked, under the protection of the \"personal liberty\"\nflag.\n\nAlas! that so little thought is had to the loss of liberty of the infected\n\nMarriage of persons with venereal disease is not only unfit;\na hideous and dastardly crime; and its frequency would justify a\nmedical test of all males before marriage, innocent as well as guilty. Forchildren.\n\nit is\n\ntunately there exists for syphilis, at any rate, a test so simple that there can\nbe no more objection to it on any sentimental ground than to vaccination.\nNor do I propose to consider in any detail the effects of drugs on germplasm. The matter awaits further investigation. Meanwhile experience\nindicates that the marriage of alcoholists certainly, and probably users of\nany drug to extremes, is associated with defective development of offspring\nand is, in so far, unfit. Also the class of cases in which, as in tuberculosis,\na weakened person is quickly finished by the drain of reproductive processes\nbears on marriage fitness but does not belong to my topic in the narrow\nFor my topic deals rather with the result of union of two\nlimits I assign it.\n\nuninfected germ-plasms with their inherent peculiarities.\n\nUnder these limitations, then, I may say that recent developments in\ncommonly associated with the name of Mendel,\nenable us to formulate more precisely than hitherto the working of heredity.\nThree fundamental principles are to be kept clearly in mind. The principle\nthe study of heredity,\n\nof independent unit characters, the principle of the determiner in the\n\ngerm-plasm, and the principle of segregation of determiners.\n\nThe principle of independent unit characters states that the qualities\nor characteristics of organisms are, or may be analyzed into, distinct units\n\nthat are inherited independently.\n\nIt follows that the characters of a parent\n\nor a particular relative are not inherited as a whole but each individual is\n\na mosaic of characters that appear in a variety of relatives.\n\nThe principle of the determiner in the germ-plasm states that each unit\ncharacter is represented in the germ by a molecule or associated groups of\n\nThese determiners are transmitted in the\ngerm-plasm and are the only things that are truly inherited. It is a corol-\n\nmolecules called a determiner.\n\nlary of the theory of inheritance from the determiner that we do not inherit\nfrom our parents, grandparents, or collaterals, but related individuals have\nsome common characteristics because developed out of the same germplasm with the same determiners. A child resembles his father because he\nand his father are developed from the same stuff. Both are chips from the\nsame old block. In relation to determiners some characteristics are positive, depending directly upon them; while others are negative and depend\nupon the absence of a determiner. Thus a brown eye depends on an\nenzyme that produces the sepia-colored pigment, while a blue eye depends\nupon the absence of such an enzyme. It is not always easy to anticipate\nwhether a given characteristic is positive or negative. For instance, long\nhair, as in angora cats, sheep, or guinea-pigs, is apparently not due to a\n\n"} {"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n774\n\n(Special\n\nfactor added to short hair but rather to the absence of a determiner that\n\nstops growth in short-haired animals.\n\nThe principle of segregation of determiners in the germ-plasm states\nthat characteristics do not blend;\n\nthat if one parent has a characteristic\n\nwhile the other lacks it, then the oflFspring get a determiner from one side\n\nonly instead of from both sides and when the germ-cells are formed in such\noffspring half of them have the determiner and half of them lack it.\nis\n\nThere\n\nthus a segregation of presence and of absence of the determiner in the\n\nThe characteristic in the offspring that\n\ngerm-cells of the mixed offspring.\n\ndue to a single (instead of the normal double) determiner is called a\nsimplex characteristic. Such a characteristic is frequently distinguishable\nfrom one that is due to the double determiner by its imperfect development.\nThus the offspring of a pure black-eyed and a blue-eyed parent will have\nis\n\nbrown eyes.\nIt is a corollary of the foregoing that if the individual with a simplex\n\ncharacter be mated to one lacking the character, half of the offspring will\nlack the determiner and half will be simplex, again, in respect to the charIf in both parents the character is simplex, then two like determiners\n\nacter.\n\nwill meet in one-fourth of the imions of egg and sperm, the two will both be\n\nabsent in one-fourth of the unions, and one only will occur in half of the\nimions\n\n—such\n\nwill be simplex again.\n\nIf one parent have the characteristic\n\nsimplex and the other duplex, then half of the offspring will have it simplex\n\nand half duplex.\nStarting with the principles just enunciated, we reach at once the most\n\nimportant generalization of the\n\nmodem science of heredity: When a\n\ndeterminer of a characteristic is absent from the germ-plasm of both parents\n(as proved by its absence from their bodies) it will be absent in all of their of-\n\nspring.\nfirst, to\n\nIn order to predict the result of a particular mating it is necessary,\nknow what similar unit characteristics both the parents lack, what\n\nthey both possess, and in which characters they differ, and, secondly,\nto know for each characteristic whether it is due to the presence of a deter-\n\nminer or to its absence.\n\nThis can, in part, be determined experimentally\n\nor inferred from pedigrees.\n\nNevertheless our knowledge of determiners\n\nprogresses slowly; for here, as in other branches of science, nature's secrets\n\nhave to be forced from her.\n\nTo illustrate the precision with which the characteristics of offspring\nmay be predicted in the best-studied cases, I may refer to eye color. Blue\neyes are due to the absence of brown pigment.\n\nIf there is a determiner for\n\nbrown iris pigment in the germ-plasm it will produce such pigment in the\nbody that arises from that germ-plasm. The absence of iris pigment is\nproof of the absence of the pigment determiner from the germ-plasm.\n\nIf\n\nboth parents lack brown pigment their offspring, being devoid of the\ndeterminer for brown pigment, will all lack brown pigment. As a matter\nof experience two parents both with pure blue eyes will have only blue-\n\n"} {"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nFIT AND UNFIT MATINGS\n\n775\n\neyed offspring. Similarly, if the hair of the parents be flaxen, that is evidence of the absence of a hair-pigment determiner in their germ-plasm.\nIn the united germ-plasms of two flaxen-haired parents there is no deter-\n\nminer for hair pigment and all children will have flaxen hair. This agrees,\nFor the same reason parents both lacking curliness\nagain, with experience.\nor waviness of hair will typically have only straight-haired children.\nHair and eye color are characteristics which serve well to illustrate the\nprecision of the modem science of heredity, but they are ordinarily con-\n\nsidered to be immaterial to well-being.\n\nBut if it is true, as Major C. E.\n\nWoodruff maintains, that pigmentation protects individuals from the\ninjurious effects of the tropical sun's rays, then one\n\nmay say that the\n\nmarriage of two blue-eyed persons in the tropics would be an unfit marriage.\n\nOn the other hand, the marriage of the blond with a brunette would be\nfit, for the darker consort\n\nwould bring into the combination the determiner\n\nfor pigment and insure a dark progeny.\n\nIn the tropics, then, the marriage\n\nof light with dark or of two dark persons is, by hypothesis, a fit mating,\n\nwhile that of two blonds is unfit.\n\nWe may now extend the study of the method of inheritance to cases\nof abnormalities and diseases, and we shall see that just as it is hard to draw\n\nthe line between these two sorts of characteristics so they show no differ-\n\nence in their general method of inheritance.\n\nA typical example of an abnormality is that of brachydactyly or shortfingeredness, a condition in which each digit comprises only two phalanges\n\n—the\n\nfingers are all thumbs.\n\nof the\n\nThis result seems to be due to an inhibition\n\nnormal growth process.\n\nnormal will beget\n\nAn abnormal person married even to a\n\nloo per cent or 50 per cent abnormal, according to cir-\n\ncumstances, and such a marriage is unfit; but two parents who, tho derived\n\nfrom brachydactyl strains, altogether lack the inhibitor of growth will have\nonly normal children, for normality implies entire absences of the determiner\nthat stops the growth of the fingers. Such a union is entirely fit.\nThe rule that the abnormal condition is induced by something, so that\nnormal parents never produce abnormal offspring, holds for many abnormal\nconditions such as presenile cataract; the congenital thickening of the skin\n\nknown as keratosis; xanthoma, in which the skin acquires yellow patches;\nhypotrichosis congenita familiaris, or early absence of hair, and other\n\nabnormal conditions of skin and hair whose inheritance has been analyzed\nby Gossage. Probably the same is true of diabetes insipidus and stationary night blindness, according to Nettleship. In all these cases the intermarriage of normal descendants, even of abnormal ancestry, is entirely fit;\nbut abnormals will reproduce their peculiar condition.\nIn another class of cases the abnormal or diseased condition is due to\nthe absence of a characteristic or quality. Thus albinism is due to the\nabsence of pigment and two albino parents have only albino children.\nNormal offspring of an albino and a pigmented parent may transmit the\n\n"} {"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n776\n\n(Special\n\nand the marriage of a pigmented male of an albinic strain\nwith the pigmented female of another albinic strain or with a pigmented\nalbinic condition;\n\ncousin is unfit.\n\nDeaf-mutism is due to a great variety of causes; any one of a variety\nBut in dijQferent individuals of the same family\nthe chance is large that it is due to the same defect. This defect is frequently recessive, hidden in the normal children. Two such normal\nchildren who are cousins and from deaf-mute stock tend to have oneof defects may produce it.\n\nquarter of their offspring deaf-mutes.\n\nThe proportion of congenitally deaf\nThe\n\noffspring is thrice as great among cousin-marriages as among others.\n\nconclusion of Fay, based on extensive statistics, deserves to be widely\n\nknown:\nUnder all circumstances it is exceedingly dangerous for a deaf person to marry a\nblood relative, no matter whether the relative is deaf or hearing, nor whether the deafness of either or both or neither of the partners is congenital, nor whether either or both\nor neither have other deaf relatives besides the other partner.\n\nSuch a marriage has proved to be unfit.\nPassing next to the group of mental diseases, we find several forms\n\nwhich seem to be due to the absence of some simple unit, so that when both\nparents exhibit the abnormality all of the children do likewise.\n\nAs a first\n\ncase may be taken imbecility.\n\nThat imbecility is due to the absence of some definite simple factor is\nindicated by the simplicity of its method of inheritance.\n\nTwo imbecile\n\nparents, whether related or not, have only imbecile offspring.\n\nus such data as the following from his experience.\n\nBarr gives\n\nA feeble-minded man\n\nof 38 has a delicate wife who in 20 years has borne him 19 defective children.\n\nA feeble-minded epileptic mother and an irresponsible father have 7 idiotic\nand imbecile children.\n\nThe L family numbers 7 persons, both parents and\n\nall s children imbecile.\n\nAmong the \" Family Records\" I have been collect-\n\ning, there occurs the\n\nR family where A (insane) marries in succession two\n\nmentally weak wives and has 13 children, all mentally weak (A 4).\n\nIn a\n\ncase described by Bennett, a defective father and imbecile mother have 7\nchildren all more or less mentally\nfar as I\n\nand morally defective.\n\nThere is, so\n\nam aware, no case on record where two imbecile parents have\n\nproduced a normal child.\n\nSo definite and certain is the result of the marby an imbecile\nunder any conditions, that it is a disgrace of the first magnitude that\nthousands of children are annually born in this country of imbecile parents\nto replace and probably more than replace the deaths in the army of about\n150,000 mental defectives which this country supports. The country owes\nit to itself as a matter of self-preservation that every imbecile of reproductive age should be held in such restraint that reproduction is out of the\nquestion. If this proves to be impracticable then sterilization is necessary\n^where the life of the state is threatened extreme measures may and must\nbe taken.\n\nriage of two imbeciles, and so disastrous is reproduction\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "FIT AND UNFIT MATINGS\n\nDepartment]\n\n777\n\nManiac-depressive insanity seems likewise due to a defect, in any case\nit is especially apt to occur in families in which both parental strains show\n\nthe disease.\n\nI give a few cases (A 2,\n\nA 3).\n\nWhile, on account of the complexity of nervous diseases,\n\nall of\n\nthe\n\nchildren even of two neurotic parents are not always neurotic, the chances\nof this resxilt are much increased when the parents are related.\n\nThis is\n\nHUNTINGTON'S CHOREA-DEATHS\n\nip\n\nb ^4660\n\nAll not yet dead in last generation\n\nMANIAC-DEPRESSIVE\n\nIMBECILE\n\n6ra@E^\n\nlluibecile\n\nmanicE\nd£\\pres|\n\nin8an.\n\nNEUROTIC (KARPAS)\n\n5\ninsane\ncousins\n\n__^\n\nnev^m\nsuicide\nPp.\n\nfthb'r\n\n[ffi^ffi^^gS)\nSquares, males ; circles, females ; shaded or lettered, liable to given\ndisease, odm., adenoids ; ho., boils; Bri. dis., Bright's disease;\ncatr.,\n\ncatarrh ; diab., diabetes ;\n\nitis; pn.\n\nitis ; tub'r, tuberculosis.\n\nsome abnormal sons.\n\ndrop..,\n\ndropsy\n\n;\n\nmasfd, mastoid-\n\nor pneu., pneumonia; rheu., rheumatism\n(18),\n\n;\n\ntrack., trach-\n\nage.\n\nBut, in general, the marriage of females belonging\n\nto hermaphrodite (hypospadic) strains is unfit, while normal males of such\nstrains may marry females from normal strains (A 6).\n\nThe case of Huntington's chorea is a striking one of inheritance of disThis is a form of chorea that leads to dementia and death. A. S.\nHamilton has worked up the pedigree of many cases. The mating of two\nease.\n\n"} {"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "FIT AND UNFIT MATINGS\n\nDepartmentl\n\n779\n\nparents with chorea is obviously highly unfit and should not be permitted\n\n(Ai).\nLet us now consider the hereditary behavior of some of the commoner\ndiseases, including those which, while not fatal or apt to incapacitate a\nperson, nevertheless interfere\n\nmuch with his happiness.\n\nHEART DISEASE-DEATHS\n\nKnowledge in\n\nheadaches\nmerv.\n\nh 6m5fc\nHEART DISEASE\n\n9\n\nDtO q<\n\n-\n\n•\n\n-\n\nsuicide\n\nsuicide\n\n(lissctlute\n\nneurotic\n\nrestive\nsailor\n\nSquares, males\n\n;\n\ncircles, females ;\n\nindicate number of normals.\nchitis;\n\nH. D., heart disease\n\n;\n\nshaded, affected. Figures in circles\nbron., bronAstig., astigmatism\n;\n\nnerv., nervous.\n\nthis field is less precise, altho the general teaching is not less clear.\n\nAs a\n\nsource of information I rely chiefly on the records of health and other\n\ntwo hundred families by members of\nThese are largely representatives of professional\ncircles, but include also farmers and people in commercial life.\nIn the pedigrees that follow nothing is more evident than that usually\ncharacteristics fiurnished for over\n\nthe families concerned.\n\nspecific diseases are\n\nnot inherited but only a condition of liability or\n\n"} {"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n78o\n\n[Special\n\nOften an entire organcomplex is thus non-resistant.\nA good example of inheritance of general weakness in an organ is sometimes found in the case of the mucous membranes.\nIn the\nfamily the principal diseases to which there is a liability are\nnon-resistance to a particular class of disease.\n\nN\n\nlocated in the mucous membranes of the nose, throat, ear, and bronchia\n\n(B3).\n\nD\nASTIGMATISM\n\nDt^-^^DP\n(^?§d655561£\nUtb\n\nMIGRAINE\n\nam DtO\n\n3\n\nQO Dt©\n\n[5ffifcA\n\nffiS)\n\ntO t'lifO\n6d66(^ti66\n—\nand\n•'\n\nstrong\n\nWell\n\ndi.-.\n\nBLADDER & KIDNEY\n\no\n'\n\nQO DtO\n\nODODD660\nHEART DISEASE\n\nDr\n\n+ angina\n\npectoris\n\n6\nSquares, males\nindicate\n\n2\n\napoplexy\n\n;\n\n;\n\ncircles,\n\nfemales\n\nor 3 normals\n\n;\n\nshaded, affected. Figures in circles\nApop.,\nt 8, t 8, t 39, age at death.\n;\n\ntub^r, tuberculosis.\n\nIn the D family the center of susceptibility is more specific, being nearly\nconfined to the nose and throat (B 4).\n\nIn the E family the center of weakness is the ear (B 5).\n\nIn the\n\nN family the trouble seems to spread from the throat (B 6).\n\nIn the\n\nM family the susceptibility\n\n(B 7)-\n\nis\n\nmore nearly confined to the limgs\n\n"} {"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nFIT AND UNFIT MATINGS\n\nDepartment!\n\n781\n\nIn another family the skin seems to be the weak organ; boils and\nIn still another, tubercles and abscesses seem\n\neczema are common (B i).\nto be associated (B 2).\n\nIn other families the kidneys will be the seat of incidence.\n\nIn one it\n\nwill take the form of Bright's disease and dropsy (B 9) ; in another uremic\n\npoisoning and ** rheumatism\" (B 8).\n\nHeart disease is a very general term; there is no doubt about its inheritance, altho the precise natiu*e of the weakness is varied (C i, C 2).\n\nNervous disease reappears as\n\nparalysis,\n\nneurasthenia, nervousness,\n\nheadaches, and stomach trouble, and migraine appears in successive generations (C 3, C 10;\n\nD 2).\n\nLooking over these pedigrees, one is impressed by the fact, first, that\nthe incidence of diseases is not haphazard nor, in any large family, do the\nvarious causes of death occur in the proportions given in the census tables\nfor the population as a whole.\n\nTuberculosis of the lungs is the cause of\n\nmore than 10 per cent of the deaths in the United States, but it would not\nbe difficult to pick out of my collection ten families comprising about one\nhimdred deceased persons, among whom, instead of the expected ten, not\none died of consumption. Similarly there are many families in which no\nnervous disease has occurred in three generations; others without kidney\ndiseases, and so on.\n\nOn the other hand, in other families 40 to 50 per cent\n\nor even 80 per cent are attacked by lung and throat troubles or nervous\ndefects.\n\nThese differences cannot be attributed chiefly to environment,\n\nbecause they occur in families of which the members are widely dispersed\n\nand have varied occupations.\n\nThey indicate fimdamental differences in\n\nthe protoplasm.\n\nBut, it may properly be urged, how about environment? Are not\nmany of these examples of occurrence of disease in one family due to infection or to similar untoward conditions ?\n\nI do not doubt that they all are.\n\nThe controversy between heredity versus environment has no good basis and\nit is fallacious to emphasize the distinction.\nAs well might one ask whether\npoor seed or poor climate is the more important in determining poor crops;\n\nboth are important.\n\nNevertheless, emphasis must be laid on the fact that\n\nwhile poor climate brings heavy losses, there are strains that you can hardly\nkill\n\nby frost, nor by drought, nor by poor soil, nor by the wilt parasite\n\nthere is such a thing as resistance in the blood as well as, on the other hand,\nsusceptibility of particular organisms to poor environment or to infection.\n\nUnfavorable environment collects its toll first from those who are, by heredity, least resistant.\n\nGranting the fundamental fact of the diversity in resistance or liability\nto disease of the different protoplasms, it remains to be considered how these\nfacts are to be applied in selecting consorts so as to secure healthy children.\n\nIn some cases at least definite rules may be laid down. The fundamental law is, as already stated: Whenever the same unit defect exists in\n\n"} {"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n782\n\n[Special\n\nThe \"unit\ndefect\" is not, as already pointed out, easily determined, nor is a given gross\n\nboth parental protoplasms it w^l appear in all the offspring.\n\ndefect probably identical in the parental strains unless the parents are\ncousins.\n\nDespite these diflSculties in its application, the rule holds, by and\n\nlarge, as a valuable first approximation.\n\nOf unit defects the weakness of mucous membranes seems to be a good\nillustration.\n\nIf\n\nboth parents are subject to colds, catarrh, bronchitis,\n\nasthma, or lung-tuberculosis, all or nearly all of the children are liable to\nthese diseases.\n\nThe same is true in some forms of nervous disease and\n\nappear in any child it is probably\nbecause the child died too early, or is still very young, or has been able thru\nrheimiatism.\n\nIf the disease fails to\n\nexceptionally favorable environment to avoid the incidence of the disease\nor, by strengthening other means of defense, to hold it down or eliminate\nit,\n\neven after attack.\n\nThe expectation that is usually realized, however, is\n\nthat all shall show a weakness to the same disease as their parents.\nIf liability to the disease is found in the protoplasm of both parental\n\nstrains but is shown in the soma of one only of the parents, then it will\n\nprobably occur in one-half of the offspring.\n\nExamples are found in the\n\nfamilies whose pedigrees are given in the diagrams (C 5, B 3, C 4, C 7, C 10,\n\nC 8, C 9). The total of the last generation in these examples gives 18 subject to the specific disease and 23 non-subject,\n\nexpectation.\n\nwhere 20J and 20^ are the\n\nThe excess of the non-subject may be explained on the same\n\nground as the exceptions to complete incidence of disease referred to in the\npreceding paragraph.\nIf both parents belong to strains having the same unit defect, even tho\n\nthey have it not themselves, we may expect either that one-quarter or none\nof the children will have the defect, depending on earlier ancestry.\nrule is illustrated in some of\n\nThis\n\nmy cases (D i, D 3).\n\nIf one parent belongs to a strain\n\nwith a imit defect while the other\n\nstrain is without the defect, then the children will be without the defect.\n\nThis is illustrated by many examples (D 2, D 4, D 5, D 6, D 7).\n\nTo the rule that a strong characteristic from one strain may overcome\nthe defects of a weak characteristic from the other strain there are some\n\napparent exceptions, due chiefly to the fact that the simplex condition is\nrarely quite as strong as the purely positive condition, so that defects are\n\nnot wholly overcome, and to the fact that the supposed pure positive strain\n\nmay contain a hidden defect and be really only simplex.\nRecognizing these limitations in our knowledge, which it is believed\nfurther accumulation and study of data will overcome, how far can we go\nin advising, in the case of the commoner heredity diseases, what matings\n\nare and what are not conducive to healthy offspring ?\n\nThe foregoing considerations indicate: If (a) the negative character is,\nas in polydactylism and night blindness, the normal character, then normals\n\nshould marry normals and they may even be cousins,\n\n(b) If the negative\n\n"} {"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nFIT AND UNFIT MATINGS\n\n783\n\ncharacter is abnormal, as in imbecility and liability to respiratory diseases,\n\nthen the marriage of two abnormals means probably all children abnormal;\nthe marriage of two normals from defective strains means about onequarter of the children abnormal, but the marriage of a normal of the\ndefective strain with one of a normal strain will probably lead to strong\nchildren.\n\nThe worst possible marriage in this class of cases is that of cousins\n\nfrom the defective strain, especially if one or both have the defect. In a\nword, the consanguineous marriage of persons, one or both of whom have the\nsame imdesirable defect, is highly imfit, and the marriage of even unrelated\npersons who both belong to strains containing the same undesirable defect\nis imfit.\nWeakness in any characteristic must be mated with strength\nin that characteristic; and strength may be mated with weakness.\n\n"} {"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—^Mrs. William Heffesan, National Congress of Mothers\nChicago,\nVice-President—^Mrs. L. L. Blankenberg, General Federation of Women's Clubs\n\nPresident\n\nS.\n\n111.\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nSecretary—Mrs. Loins Hertz, Council of Jewish Women\n\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 9, 1913\nJoint Session with the Department of School Administration\nL. R. Alderman, superintendent of city schools, Portland, Ore., gave a paper on\n\n\" Co-operation of Home and School.\"\n\nSECOND SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 10, 1913\nThe department convened at 9:00 a.m with President Hefferan in the chair. After\nmorning greetings had been extended by the president, the financial statement of the\ndepartment was read by the secretary pro tempore, Blanche P. Taylor.\nMrs. W. S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers, Chicago, 111., then gave the\n\"Summary of Reports of the State Joint Committees and Affiliated Organizations,\n1912-13.\"\n\nMary Elizabeth Bates, M.D., Denver, Colo., gave the \"Report of the Committee\non School Health.\"\nP. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C., pre-\n\nsented a paper on \"The Responsibility of the Community to the Rural School.\"\n\n\"Citizen Co-operation with the Schools\" was discussed by C. E. Beach, superintendent of city schools, Olympia, Wash.\nDiscussion: William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.;\nand W. A. McKeever, Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans.\nAt this point Commissioner Claxton supplemented his previous address by outlining\nhis plan for establishing a Division of Home Education within the Bureau of Education,\nand extended to the Department of School Patrons an invitation to co-operate with the\nBureau of Education and also to contribute suggestions to aid in making the new division\nof service to all.\n\nThe session was closed by Anna I. Jenkins, state chairman of kindergartens, Caliwho spoke, by request, upon the way\n\nfornia Congress of Mothers, Pasadena, Cal.,\n\nwoman's suffrage is progressing in California and especially of the methods employed in\nworking for the passage of measures during the recent session of the legislature.\n\nAmong\n\nthe measures passed at the legislative session was one assuring state recognition of kindergartens.\n\nThe act requires the compulsory establishment of kindergartens upon the\n\npetition of twenty-five patrons.\n\nAnother provision was one making holders of kinder-\n\ngarten certificates eUgible to teach in the first grade.\n\nA limcheon at the University Club followed the second session of the department.\nAmong the speakers at the luncheon were: W. A. McKeever, Kansas State Agricultural\nCollege,\n\nManhattan, Kans.; Lee F. Hanmer, director, Division of Recreation, Russell\n78s\n\n"} {"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n786\n\n[School Patrons\n\nSage Foundation, New York, N.Y.; Mrs. O. Shepard Bamum, California State Board\nand Mrs. W. S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers,\n\nof Education, Los Angeles, Cal.;\n\nChicago, HI.\n\nBlanche P. Taylor, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\n\nSUMMARY OF REPORTS OF STATE JOINT COMMITTEES AND\nAFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS, 1912-13\nThe object of the Department of School Patrons is fourfold:\nFirst, to ascertain from highest educational authorities the needs of the\n\nschools and approved methods of meeting them.\n\nSecond, to transmit this educational message systematically to strong\nvolimteer organizations, national and state and local, which can do tre-\n\nmendous good by such directed and united effort.\nThird, to provide a simple means of giving imity and continuity to\nstate work thru its state joint committees, which comprise one state member for each affiliated organization and members-at-large representing strong\nstate or local associations.\n\nFourth, to collect in convenient form, for mutual suggestion and\n\nencouragement, brief statements of co-operative work accomplished or\n\nunder way.\n\nMost important undertakings require the concerted effort\n\nof the entire community.\n\nWhen it was possible to segregate the work of\n\nindividual organizations from general results in accordance with reports\n\nsent in, specific credit has been given.\n\nThe distinctive function of the Department of School Patrons, and\nthe state joint committees, thru which it works, is not so much to under-\n\ntake independent work as it is to focus volunteer efforts on the point of\ngreatest need; to help all to do one thing thru several years until results\n\nare actually attained.\n\nTwo committees in the Department of School Patrons work along very\nvital lines; these are the School Health and the School Revenue committees.\n\nThe School Health Committee believes that the highest efficiency in\nour public schools can be attained only when the health of pupils and\nteachers is kept at its maximimi.\n\n\"School health\" involves the physical,\n\nmental, and moral welfare of pupils and instructors, and the hygienic\nschool and home conditions essential to its preservation.\n\n\"It is all very well to talk about training the mind, but no one has ever\nThe School Health\n\nyet seen a mind that was not connected with a body.\"\n\nCommittee will endeavor to promote popular knowledge of personal and\nschool hygiene and the adoption of laws for medical inspection. The\nSchool Health Committee of last year Mrs. Maggie Barry, chairman\n\n—\n\noffered at the National Education Association meeting in Chicago the\n\nfollowing resolution which was adopted:\n\n"} {"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUMMARY OF REPORTS\n\nDepartment!\n\n787\n\nWhereas, Our Department of School Patrons ha» been working for personal and\nsex hygiene in all normal schools; therefore be it\nResolved,\n\nThat we request the National Education Association to appoint a com-\n\nmittee of experts to outline an adequate normal course on this subject.\n\nThis resolution was brought before the Council at the meeting of the\nDepartment of Superintendence in Philadelphia in February and sent to\nthe National Education Association in the following form:\nResolved, That the Council recommends to the National Education Association the\nappointment of a committee to devise ways and means by which the subject of sex hygiene\nshall be fitted into the curriculum of the normal schools, in order to equip teachers for\na wise later treatment of the problem in the grades.\n\nPresident Fairchild appointed the following committee:\nWilliam B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\nJessie Phelps, Ypsilanti Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.\n\nThomas M. Balliet, New York University, New York, N.Y.\nZ.\n\nX. Snyder, president, State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo.\n\nW. H. Bumham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nM. V. Barry, North Texas College, Sherman, Tex.\nHelen M. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers, Chicago, 111.\n\nSome very definite results from the work of this committee may be\nexpected in the report to be given at the next session of this department.\n\nThe department sent out two circular letters this year to the state\njoint committees, the first containing this word from President Fairchild:\n\nThe most pressing educational problem today is the betterment of the rural schools.\nThe progress in the last decade in universities, colleges, high schools, and city systems of\ngraded schools has been phenomenal; the increase in enrollment in these classes of schools\nhas reached more than 100 per cent. The whole nation is aware of these educational\n\nThe one weak spot in our system, however, is that of the rural school. Here,\nno such progress can be noted. The lack of trained teachers, of adequate supplies, of\nreasonably good buildings, the shortness of terms, and the low state of public opinion\nare largely responsible for the want of advancement in our rural schools. More than\nhalf of the twenty-five million boys and girls in America attend rural schools.\nOf this\nmagnificent army of some fourteen million boys and girls, less than 25 per cent is completing the work of the grades. Something must be done to better these conditions.\nThe next meeting of the National Education Association will have as its major theme\n\nagencies.\n\n\"The Betterment of the Rural Schools.\"\n\nOn the general program, messages from people who are in genuine\nsympathy with the rural schools and ardently desire their betterment will\nbe given. In every department some part of the program will be dedicated to this great problem. It is hoped that the whole American public\nshall be brought to a realization of the great needs of the boys and girls\nin the country.\n\n—\n\nIn addition to this an interesting circular a message from Dr. Claxton\non the riiral school ^was sent out by the department, with the definite\npurpose of interesting school patrons in rural-school improvement.\nMary Elizabeth Bates, chairman of the School Health Committee, issued\nan interesting and helpful brochure urging medical inspection in the schools.\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n788\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThe attention of the school patrons was called to the latest publication\nof the Sage Foundation, called\n\nSystems in Forty-eight States.\n\nA Comparative Study of the Public-School\n\nThis gives suggestions to each chairman as\n\nto how and where his state stands in educational eflSciency.\n\nOne of the crying needs educationally today is to interest the public\nend that more money may be\nraised for educational purposes. The country at large is demanding an\nin the question of school revenue to the\n\nadjustment of her school system to meet changed conditions.\n\n\"Train\n\nthe child in character, in responsibility, in initiative vocationally\" is the\nslogan of the business men in their attacks upon the educational product\nof our schools.\n\nDo they know that to teach children to read, write, and\n\ncipher can be done with comparatively little cost, but to give vocational\ntraining, to supply the equipment for industrial training, requires money\n\nand a trained class of teachers?\nradically changed as to taxes ?\n\nDo they know their viewpoint must be\n\nA railroad will spend millions developing a section of country; the\nInternational Harvester will spend millions developing agriculture;\n\nthe\n\nConsolidated will spend millions developing mines, and it is never considered\n\na tax.\n\nIt is an investment and is given without a grudge.\n\nHave business\n\nmen studied what they want and what they must pay for ? New demands\nin education mean a higher grade of educator.\nDo those who are demanding much from our schools realize that they, as business men, will pay a\nwoman of ability twice the salary to conduct their business affairs that\nthey will pay her to train their boys and girls?\n\nWe need an awakened\n\nconscience on the subject of more revenue for the schools that we may have\nbetter teachers, equipment,\n\nand buildings.\n\nThe School Revenue Com-\n\nmittee of this department is working toward that end.\nIt is impossible to incorporate in this report the summaries of all the\n\nreports received.\n\nThe necessary omissions are regretted.\n\nI have selected\n\ntypes of work in the several states herein reported.\n\nAlabama.\n\n—At a meeting of the Alabama Joint Committee the follow-\n\ning plan of action was adopted:\n1.\n\nThat the State Joint Committee should not lessen its strength by choosing a new\n\nline of work each year but that it should fire along the same line year in and year out\n\nuntil the laws desired are on the statute books.\n2.\n\nThat a state- wide public-sentiment campaign should precede any appeal to the\n\nlegislature.\n3. That in this campaign compulsory education and local taxation should be taken\nup before the effort to secure a dormitory for women at the state university.\n4. That this campaign be conducted thru the newspapers, by correspondence, and,\nif\n\npossible, thru the moving-picture shows.\n\n5. That all newspaper articles be aimed at the ordinary reading public and that the\ncampaign in general be directed at the average citizen.\n\nThe committee sent out a very strong series of articles on compulsory\neducation and will follow these with a series with the original charts on\n\n"} {"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUMMARY OF REPORTS\n\nDepartment]\n\nlocal taxation.\n\n789\n\nCertain facts from these two series will be put into tabu-\n\nlated form so that posters may be placed in public buildings thruout the\nstate.\n\nThe Alabama School Improvement Association has sent out Sug-\n\nEquipment and Methods of Teaching Cooking, Sewing,\nand Manual Training in the Rural Schools.\nThis association has also instituted a series of health and hygiene lectures in connection with the Birmingham public schools. These lectures are\n\ngestive Outlines for\n\ngiven for the benefit of mothers, by physicians who are experts in their line.\n\n—The Joint Conmiittee worked for vocational training and\nstandardizing rural schools.\nPennsylvania. —The committee worked for school revenue; some\nGeorgia.\n\npractical ways of helping the rural schools;\n\nthe carrying-on of a propa-\n\nganda for improvement in the physical conditions that surround childhood\nboth in the school and in the home; raising the standard of teachers' qualifications and offering better compensation to teachers for efficient work.\nThere are many parent-teacher associations actively co-operating with the\nschools of Pennsylvania; these were organized thru the Congress of Mothers.\nKentucky. The Joint Committee co-operated with the state health\ndepartment in conducting a general campaign of education along health\nlines and have, thru the federated clubs, seen that the \"extension\" work\nof the state university carried lecturers on the subject, and that they also\nhad a place in the teachers' institute programs; this work was carried into\nthe rural schools by the superintendent of school improvement leagues, who\nalso organized tomato clubs for the girls of the country and corn clubs for\nthe boys. Parent-teacher clubs were extended largely in the city schools.\nMichigan. The Joint Committee in Michigan worked vigorously for\ncommission\na\nschool board.\nThe committee worked for better health conditions in the schools for\nbackward children and for industrial and vocational training in the schools.\nIt worked for better school laws and for higher salaries and pensions for\n\n—\n\n—\n\nteachers.\n\nThe committee interested itself specifically in public-school legislation\nand was practically responsible for the law which provides means whereby\nchildren of indigent parents within school age\n\nmay attend school—the\n\nBoard of Education paying, during the school year, to the family of such\na child, a simi not to exceed three dollars a week.\n\nOpposition to state\n\nimiformity in textbooks, but support of free textbooks.\nIllinois.\n\n—The Joint Committee in\n\nIllinois\n\ndevoted its efforts toward\n\nthe passage of a vocational education bill and to an increased state appropriation for educational purposes.\n\nMaine.\n\n—The federated women's clubs have been active\n\nin aid of the\n\npassage of the Maine Teachers' Pension Bill, by which provision is made\nto pay $250 annually to teachers who reach the age of sixty years and\n\nhave taught thirty-five years.\n\nThe State Joint Committee has worked\n\n"} {"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n790\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThru co-operative effort nearly\n\nfor appropriations for vocational training.\n\n$3,000,000 was appropriated by the legislature for common schools this year\n\n$7,000 of this was for teachers' institutes and sunmier schools; $46,000 for\n\nunorganized townships; $120,000 for school supervision in towns; $80,000\n$80,000 for encouraging industrial edu-\n\nfor special aid in poorer towns;\n\ncation; and $250,000 for free high schools.\nA campaign was also carried\non for better health conditions in the schools.\n\nMassachusetts.\n\n—The Mothers' Congress has established many new\n\nparent-teacher associations in connection with the schools and\n\nmany\n\nschools have been opened as civic and social centers.\n\nUtah.\n\n—The State Federation\n\nof Women's Clubs concerned themselves\n\nwith two acts:\n\nOne to raise the tax rate of cities of the second class so that, if they\ndesire, there\n\nmay be funds for public high schools.\n\nThis became a law.\n\nThe second effort was to secure an appropriation of $50,000 for a girls'\ndormitory at the state university. Altho women worked hard for this,\nbecome a law.\nAt the request of School Patrons' Committee an unofficial school board\nentirely of women was chosen by city clubs.\nThis board will serve as a\nit failed to\n\ntraining school for future service, in case women are ever elected to school\n\nboards in Salt Lake City.\n\nThe ten members have visited the grade schools during the year and\nare planning a campaign to secure night schools and schools as social centers.\n\nTwo trained nurses are working imder the direction of the board of\n\nhealth,\n\nand inspection of children in the grades is made to combat con-\n\ntagious diseases.\n\nWisconsin.\n\n—The Mothers' Congress\n\nis\n\nplanning the formation of\n\nparent-teacher associations in thirty counties, emphasizing improvement\nof rural schools.\n\nTexas.\n\n—^The conomittee has continued\n\nits\n\ncampaign for compulsory\n\neducation, and for a special state maintenance tax for the University, the\nAgricultural and Mechanical College, and the Girls' College of Industrial\nArts.\n\nA more comprehensive child-labor bill has had our support as has\n\nalso the establishment of a child-welfare conmiission.\n\nFor school hygiene, besides activity for state regulation of the construction of school buildings, information has been received from all parts\nof the state reporting the installation of sanitary drinking-fountains and\n\nthe exercise of greater care of the drinking-water.\n\nPersonal hygiene has been emphasized thru illustrated lectures to\nschool children, as well as to patrons.\n\nA few subjects were:\n\nThe importance of good teeth and their relation to physical and mental soundness.\nThe eflfect of defective vision upon the nerves and digestion.\nAdenoids and their relation to school work.\n\nFood for the growing child.\nThe lunch basket.\n\n"} {"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUMMARY OF REPORTS\n\nDepartment]\n\n79I\n\nIn several towns a beginning has been made for dental and general\nphysical examination of school children, and the educational campaign\n\nagainst the use of tobacco by boys has been continued thruout the state.\n\nIn San Antonio a few dentists at their own personal expense procured\na moving-picture reel to be used in public schools and in several movingpicture shows to set forth the vital importance of soimd teeth and their\nrelation to health.\n\nComplimentary tickets will be issued to public-school\n\nchildren, and each child attending is to receive a toothbrush and a tube of\n\ntooth paste.\n\nSan Antonio School Board has established retarded rooms, with special\nResults have been so gratifying that other\nrooms will follow.\nThe women's organizations have continued their interest in the kindergarten by establishment of kindergartens and providing scholarships in\nteachers, in ten school districts.\n\nkindergarten training schools.\n\nThe\n\nscholarships in other educational institutions have also been\n\ncontinued.\n\nThis committee carefully distributed a large number of reprints from\nthe Proceedings of the San Francisco meeting of the National Education\nAssociation.\nresults.\n\nLetters received prove that the pamphlets are bringing\n\nWe shall move steadily forward and upward and tho the\n\nmay be slow, Texas must and will rise until her educational\nadvancement equals her commercial growth and the extent and wealth\n\nascent\n\nof her domain.\nCalifornia.\n\n—The California State Committee of School Patrons has\n\nspecialized on support of a bill before the legislature creating a new state\n\nboard of education.\n\nThe bill, as passed and signed by the governor, pro-\n\nvides for a board of seven members, none of whom shall during his term of\noj0&ce hold any salaried educational position.\n\nThe board will appoint three\n\nassistant superintendents, one to be commissioner of elementary schools,\n\none, commissioner of secondary schools, and one, commissioner of industrial\n\nand vocational education.\n\nA kindergarten bill, introduced in the legislature thru the efforts of the\nCongress of Mothers, was indorsed.\n\nThe bill provides that upon petition\n\nof the parents or guardians of twenty-five children between the ages of four\n\nand one-half, and six years, in any school district, a kindergarten may be\nestablished.\n\nThis committee has urged the governor to appoint at least two women\n\nupon the new state board of education.\nSchool health:\n\nWomen's clubs are urging the teaching of sex hygiene\n\nin the public schools, and commend the introduction of this subject as part\nof the curriculum in the state normal schools.\n\nHealth inspection of public schools is established in the larger cities, and\nthe movement is growing.\n\n"} {"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n792\n\n[School Patrons\n\nMothers' clubs, collegiate alumnae, and other organizations have cooperated with school authorities in maintaining dental clinics for the\nbenefit of school children.\n\nSchool revenue: California stands high in the roll of states in the matter\nof school revenue.\n\nWomen's organizations have supported teachers' pen-\n\nsion bills at past sessions of the legislature, and at the session just closed\n\na bill providing for a flat pension of $500 was passed.\nCommunity co-operation: Congress of Mothers reports 250 active\nparent-teacher associations, fifty-five of which have been organized during\nthe year.\n\nSome of these are called mothers' clubs, because a majority of\n\nthe members are the mothers of school children.\n\nDuring the year many of these associations\n\n—^have aided school departments\n\nin\n\n—almost every one of them\n\na material way by providing pianos,\n\nvictrolas, works of art, playground equipment, etc.\n\nIn some places, notably in Los Angeles and Berkeley, they have cooperated with school authorities in maintaining headquarters for the care\n\nand treatment of children's teeth.\nThe California Congress of Mothers aims to have a mothers' circle in\nconnection with every kindergarten and elementary school, whose chief\nobject shall be to study the physical, mental, and moral nature of children\nand to secure in this the aid and co-operation of the teachers.\nRepresentatives of women's clubs assisted in arrangements for the San\nFrancisco Junior Exposition.\n\nThe secretary of the School Patrons Com-\n\nmittee was vice-president of the general committee of this most successful\ndisplay of educational work.\n\nSchool extension:\n\nThe Council of Jewish Women has been instrimiental\n\nin the establishment of night schools for adults in the Russian colony, and,\n\nunder the direction of Mrs. Louis Hertz, has placed a large number of copies\nof the Oath of the Athenian Youth in public schools.\nis\n\nVocational training\n\nreceiving a strong impetus in the schools of the larger cities,\n\nand the\n\nestablishment of centers for such training in the public schools has received\n\nthe strong indorsement of this committee,\n\nand the organizations\n\nit\n\nrepresents.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH\nMARY ELIZABETH BATES, M.D., DENVER, COLO., CHAIRMAN\nThe scope of school hygiene, or school health, is so tremendous, its\nfield so comprehensive, that it would be impossible in this report to define\nits limits or even to enumerate its inclusions.\n\nNot discouraging effort in any of its phases, but encouraging our\nmembers to lend a hand whenever the opportunity presents, the committee\nhas thought it wise to direct its main work along the line of greatest need,\nthat which, happily, gives the most striking benefits in the present and\n\n"} {"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH\n\noffers the greatest promise for the future.\n\n793\n\nI refer, of course, to the man-\n\ndatory examination and care of public-school children, medical inspection,\n\nand correction of physical defectiveness, as usually termed.\nI regret that it will not be possible to present in full the reports received\n\nfrom the state chairmen of this committee. Naturally some are more\nencouraging than others, but they show that women are growing yearly\nmore alive to their responsibilities and their opportunities, to their privileges\nand their rights; that everywhere women are learning lessons and teaching\nlessons in health, our most valuable asset in work and play, in rest and in\npleasure, in food and drink and shelter, in love and life and happiness\nand that everything pertaining thereunto is inextricably interwoven with\nwoman's most sacred obligations and belongs, therefore, to her sphere\nas woman.\n\nCertain features of some of these reports strike keynotes in experience,\n\nand will be of interest.\nMississippi.\n\n—Miss Susie V. Powell, State Department of Education,\n\nCampaigns of education by women's federated clubs\nand teachers against hookworm, t3^hoid, and tuberculosis, and for medical\ninspection and general health. Health leagues among teachers of whom\nspecial training in home and school sanitation is required.\nUse of moving pictures owned and loaned by the Women's Federation\nof Clubs of Mississippi.\nSubjects: \"The Summer Baby,\" several films on\n\"Flies,\" \"Health Day,\" \"Clean-up Day,\" and \"Beautify Day.\"\nMuch instructive literature distributed, samples of which are here for\nJackson, reports:\n\ninspection.\n\nLouisiana.\n\n—Mrs. Annabel\n\nJ.\n\nNathans, chairman.\n\nCouncil Jewish\n\nWomen, New Orleans, reports: Wonderful amount of work done.\nhygiene taught in\n\nfifth,\n\nsixth, seventh, eighth grades,\n\nSchool\n\nhigh school, and\n\nnormal school.\n\nNew Orleans has established a department of Clinical Psychology for\nthe examination, classification, care, and teaching of backward children\n\nby trained teachers.\nMedical inspection, and instruction of children, teachers, parents, and\npublic in schools used as social centers by lectures on health and sanitation.\n\nRapid progress in modern civic and school sanitation.\nWest Virginia. Miss Lucy E. Prichard, chairman. Association of\nCollegiate Alumnae, Huntington, reports: Our greatest need is a modification of the law for the medical examination of school children which will\ncompel the parents to carry out the suggestions made by the examiners.\nEverywhere it is becoming apparent that the permissive physical\nexamination laws are mistakes. The law to be effective and not be a loss\nin time and money must be mandatory both for the examination and\non the parents or the commimity for subsequent necessary and prescribed\n\n—\n\ncare.\n\n"} {"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n794\nMinnesota.\n\n(School Patrons\n\n—Miss Isabel Lawrence, chairman, General Federation of\n—\n—\n\nWomen's Clubs, St. Cloud, reports: Work on defectiveness eyestrain, adehas done more good than anything else attempted.\nnoids, poor teeth, etc.\nOur methods have been constant agitation and concerted action of health\nclubs and health committees of federated clubs.\n\nUtah.\n\n—Mrs. C. T. Van Winkle, chairman. Association of Collegiate\n\nAliminae, Salt Lake City, reports:\n\nWork in Utah has been chiefly along\n\nthe lines of Dr. Putnam's School Janitors, Mothers, and Health.\n\nThe Utah committee has issued an effective circular of advice:\n1.\n\nAscertain needs of public schools.\n\n2.\n\nBring needs before the pubUc.\n\n3.\n\nCo-operation, not scattering effort of state organizations.\n\n4.\n\nCo-operation with school boards.\n\nMaine.\n\n—Mrs. Franklin\n\nJ.\n\nRich, chairman,\n\nGeneral Federation of\n\nWomen's Clubs, Rockland, reports: Growing appreciation on part of\npublic that school work cannot be satisfactorily done under adverse physical\nconditions.\n\nOur women emphasize this in season and out of season.\nThe following is the text of the leaflet issued by the School Health\nCommittee of the Department of School Patrons:\nSchool Health\nPeople are more important than things.\n\nEducation is more important than any mere pecuniary interest or industry.\n\nThe object of education is to develop physical health, encourage economic efficiency^\nand increase intellectual vigor.\n\nIgnorance and intelligence both tend to perpetuate\n\nthemselves; that is why compulsory education is necessary.\n\nIn the school of the future, compulsory education will speU compulsory health\n{Russell Sage Foundation, Bulletin No. 124.)\nChildren are both bom with and acquire certain remediable defects which imcorrected\n\ninstead of compulsory disease.\n\nprevent their education or Umit their capacity to receive it.\nDefectiveness tends to perpetuate itself and thru heredity the numbers of defective\nchildren are multiplied.\n\nCorrection of defectiveness often insures to the child an education not otherwise\npossible.\n\nCompulsory education has been achieved only by the passage and enforcement of\nlaws having that object and effect.\n\nCompulsory school health will be achieved only by the passage and enforcement of\nlaws having that object and effect.\nSchool health depends upon and comprehends the congenital and acquired physical\nand mental conditions of the child, its environment home, school, and civic and what\nand how the child is taught.\nThe child itself is more important than its environment, or what and how it is taught.\nThe physically normal child in a bad environment will be handicapped, but even then\nwill be more susceptible to education than are defective children in good environment.\nDefectiveness not only inhibits or limits education and leads to dependency, disease*\nand death, but, and usually unnecessarily, adds to the time, labor, and expense of parents,\nschools, and states.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nCITIZEN CO-OPERATION WITH THE SCHOOLS\n\n795\n\nThe mere fact of parentage does not confer knowledge or appreciation of the child's\nphysical or mental defectiveness, nor does proof thereof insure the co-operation of parents\nfor its correction.\n\nFor these reasons compulsory school health is necessary.\nOnly eighteen states have laws for the physical examination of school children.\nIn ten of these states the laws are \"permissive\": Maine, Vermont, Connecticut,\nNew York, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, North Dakota, Washington, and California.\nOnly eight states have a mandatory physical examination law: Massachusetts,\nNew Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Louisiana, Minnesota, Utah, and Colorado.\nIn only one state, Colorado, is the care of the child's defectiveness, discovered by\nthe examination, made mandatory upon the parent, or upon the community where the\n\nparents are financially unable to pay for the treatment required to correct such defectiveness.\nis\n\nColorado is also the only state in which the enforcement of all phases of the law\n\nmade mandatory upon a particular executive department of the state government\n\nthe State Bureau of Child and Animal Protection.\n\nWith a few changes the Colorado law could be adapted to any state and made a\nmodel law.\nThe chairman of the School Health Committee will furnish upon application a copy\nof the Colorado statute, together with the instructions, record blanks, etc., and other\ndesirable information about its operation and effect.\nMembers of the school committees are advised to initiate and conduct campaigns\nfor the passage of such laws in those states where none now exist, to make mandatory\nthe \"permissive\" laws of those states having laws but not mandatory, and to encourage\nthe better understanding and enforcement of all laws or \"systems\" where \"systems\" are\nin effect in lieu of laws, which make for the improved school health of children.\nAside from the moral fact that we are our brothers' keepers, the physical examination\nof school children and the correction of their defectiveness is a commimity right upon\nwhich it is our privilege to insist.\nEfforts to improve environmental conditions will be most effective if one or two\nmuch-needed improvements be selected and worked upon until accomplished. These,\ntoo, are community rights upon which we may properly insist.\nEducational propaganda will utilize to best advantage the audiences already provided by church, club, various meetings for other objects, and the press. This should\nprecede, prepare for, and support direct appeal to the powers that be.\nTime and effort should not be wasted on matters of minor importance when the reaUy\nvital things are yet undone.\n\nConcentrate your efforts.\n\nYou can do what you will do.\n\nPlease give one program during the year to the discussion of \"School Health.\"\n\nCITIZEN CO-OPERATION WITH THE SCHOOLS\nC. E.\n\nBEACH, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, OLYMPIA, WASH.\n\nOne of the most healthful and hopeful indications of educational progress\nis\n\nthe deep general interest of every American community in the public\n\nschool in particular and in education in general.\n\nThis is where the Ameri-\n\ncan youth learns the lesson of democracy, the lesson of self-reliance, the lesson of perseverance.\n\nHe may acquire a smattering of history, mathematics,\n\nand science, but that is incidental, or rather, more often, accidental. The\nreally essential things are that he shall feel himself a man among men, shall\nknow that he can take care of himself, and shall have initiative and resource.\n\n"} {"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n796\n\n[School Patrons\n\nAnd this, for the most part, is not imparted in our colleges and universities,\nfor they are not so purely democratic, so directly imder the control of the\n\npeople, and hence do not reflect so much of the real American spirit.\n\nBy\n\npublic school I mean particularly our elementary and secondary schools.\n\nThat the American public school has met the test of efficiency is clearly\ndemonstrated by the report of the Mosley Commission. This commission\nwas appointed to inquire into the reason why American engineers in South\nAfrica were securing all of the best positions open and were so uniformly\nsuccessful and efficient in carrying out the projects intrusted to their engi-\n\nThe report of this commission stated that the secret of this\n\nneering skill.\n\nefficiency lay in the American public-school system.\n\nSince, then, the public school is to reflect truly the spirit of American\n\ndemocracy, a close co-operation between the school and the community is\nhighly desirable as it is inevitable that each should act and react upon the\nother.\n\nThe school must help to hold before the youth those high American\n\nideals of civic duty and responsibility, of industry and well-directed energy,\n\nof clean living and high thinking that have given virility and stability to\n\nour republic, and the public must see to it that the things that the boy\nlearns in school are the things that he will use when he becomes a man.\n\nLest anyone should infer that this statement favors the ultra-utilitarian\nin education, let me say parenthetically that I recognize the fact that the\n\nboys and girls must first rise to a high level of social and moral efficiency\nthat we must first make of the student a civic and social unit and then an\nindustrial unit.\n\nBut the fact remains that the course of study should be\n\nflexible enough to fit itself to the needs of the community and it is necessary\n\nfor the community to see that the school responds to this need.\n\nThe two chief factors which contribute to the formation of character\nare work and play, and it is in these that the school needs the co-operation\nof the whole\n\ncommunity.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nimportant, too, that we secure this co-\n\noperation in the right way and that it should not be dictation instead of\nco-operation.\n\nNor should either the school or the community expect the\n\nother to assume duties and obligations that do not rightly belong to it.\n\nThere has been lately a strong tendency to shift upon the school many\nburdens that rightly belong to the home or the church or the state or the\n\ncommercial world.\nto bear.\n\nwork.\n\nThese the school should promptly and positively refuse\n\nOn the other hand, the school should not ask the home to do its\nToo often pupils are assigned heavy tasks to be performed at home,\n\nthe doing of which would effectually unfit the child for successful work in\nschool on the following day, and failure to perform which would convict\nhim of a violation of the teacher's command, which, if repeated, would\n\neventually lead to contempt for any order of the teacher, or else to dishonesty in the evasion of it.\n\nAnd to those teachers who are accustomed to\n\ntaking home a large armful of written exercises to be corrected and marked,\nI wish to suggest that it is far more important that they and their pupils go\n\n"} {"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCITIZEN CO-OPERATION WITH THE SCHOOLS\n\n797\n\nto school in the morning thoroly rested and sweet and buoyant in spirit\nafter a pleasant evening and a night of soimd, refreshing sleep, than that\n\nevery mistake and omission in those written exercises should be marked and\nreturned to the pupils.\n\nIn fact, I feel somewhat as did Cassius in regard to\n\nhaving \"all my faults observed, set in a notebook, learned, and conned by\nrote, to cast into\n\nmy teeth.\"\n\nI believe that the practice of calling attention\n\ncontinually to mistakes has a bad effect upon the pupil and the habit of\n\nlooking continually for mistakes has a much worse effect upon the teacher.\n\nWhen the teacher leaves the schoolroom she should shut off the current of\nvital energy and see to it that the batteries are recharged for use the follow-\n\ning day.\n\nThe child should have home work assigned to him, but it should be work\nOne of the most\n\npertaining to the home and not pertaining to the school.\n\nimportant factors in the formation of strong and good character is responsibility, and the child should early be given tasks to be performed regularly\n\nand he should assume the responsibility for the prompt and efficient performance of these. Instead of asking the student to solve ten problems in\nalgebra we shall, at no distant date, suggest to him that he shall look after a\npig or calf, that he curry a horse or milk a cow, that he build the kitchen\nfire and split enough wood to last thru the day, and I believe that these will\n\ndevelop as much sound character and perhaps more originality and initiative\n\nthan will the solving of the given number of problems in algebra.\n\nAt any\n\nrate, in some of the school work the boy may bluff his way thru the recitation, but if he should fail to minister to the needs of the calf, the calf will\n\n\"bawl him out,\" or the pig will \"squeal on him.\"\nIn one other way I wish to speak of the need of co-operation in the work\nof the school.\n\nThe daily work of the school is meant to inculcate habits\n\nof regularity, punctuality, industry, and order.\n\nAll of these are cardinal\n\nvirtues in business life and they are also the virtues of the good citizen in\n\nthe larger school of life.\n\nThe discipline of the school instills habits of\n\nrespect for, and obedience to, constituted authority and due consideration\nfor the rights of others.\n\nBoth the daily work of the school and the disci-\n\npline of the school lead to the formation of habits of truthfulness, honesty,\nfidelity, and general trustworthiness.\n\nThe successful commercial or business organization is the one that\nis\n\nable to attract the class of patrons to which it wishes to cater.\n\nis\n\ncalled effective advertising.\n\nIt is well for the school to\n\nThis\n\ndo effective\n\nadvertising and some of the ways in which this may be done are thru the\n\nparent-teacher associations, the women's clubs, chambers of commerce or\n\ncommercial clubs, invitations to the public to attend special programs\nsuch as those for Thanksgiving, Washington's birthday. Arbor Day, and\nChild Welfare Day, and a cordial and oft-repeated invitation to parents\nand patrons to visit the school during its regular sessions and inspect the\neveryday work of the students.\n\n"} {"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n793\n\n[School Patrons\n\nShould the school attempt to emphasize the importance of certain subjects such as spelling and writing, it would\n\nbe well to enlist the interest\n\nof the commimity by means that educators know how to use effectively.\n\nIn introducing a new feature in the curriculum, it is well to discuss the\nmatter before the clubs and organizations before mentioned, seeing to it,\nof course, that the right persons present the salient points, so that when\n\nthe step is finally taken there will be little danger of having to withdraw\n\nfrom a right position because it is in advance of public opinion.\nI have suggested that the two chief ways in which the school needs the\nco-operation of the citizens of the commimity are in work and in play. The\nneed for this co-operation in play is not usually taken so seriously, and yet\nit is frequently more vital than is the need for co-operation in work.\nPlay is the expression of a universal instinct and in order to develop the\nentire child it must be taken into accoimt.\nBooker T. Washington says\nthat he cannot recall that any part of his childhood was legitimately given\nto play, but he says that he believes he would be a more useful man today if\nhe had devoted a portion of his early life to boyhood sports. Horace Mann\nsays that he has but painful recollections of that period which, for every\nchild, should be a golden age to look back upon.\nThe lessons of the play\nfield are just as important as are those of the schoolroom.\nThe wise parent\nrealizes this and makes timely and adequate provision for the play of his\n\nHe interests himself in their recreations, and, so far as it is wise\n\nchildren.\n\nand possible, he participates.\n\nThis should be the policy toward the play\n\nThe fact that the conamunity has provided adequate playgrounds and has equipped them is efficient, but it is not sufficient. It is\nof the school.\n\nnecessary that the public should take a real interest in the sports of the\nschool.\n\nThe public sentiment should be;\n\never win!\n\nMy school team! May they\n\nBut, win or lose, my school team!\n\nSome of the desirable attri-\n\nbutes of character to be developed thru play are: Self-direction, freedom of\nchoice and action, skill, initiative, honesty, fairness, mental agility, accuracy, decision, co-operation or team-work,\n\nand these are the things that\n\nthe business or professional man must have if he is to succeed; these are\nthe things that made American engineers successful in South Africa and in\nother parts of the world; these, in short, are the elements of efficiency.\n\nPermit me to repeat the statement that we need the co-operation of the\ncitizens of the community in the play of the school no less than in the work of\n\nthe school.\n\nIf we should analyze carefully one hundred cases of \"trouble\"\n\nthat have arisen in connection with our high schools in the past few years,\nI venture the assertion that at least fifty of them would be found to have\n\nbeen due directly or indirectly to athletics and to the abuse of athletics, not\nto their proper use usually because the community has placed the emphasis upon the wrong thing, as it frequently does, by exhorting the boys to win\n\n—\n\nand failing to attend the games when the home team is losing.\n\nAs a result\n\nthe boy assumes that the only unforgivable thing in athletics is to lose the\n\n"} {"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\nDepartment!\n\nCITIZEN CO-OPERATION WITH THE SCHOOLS\n\n799\n\nIt is small wonder that he will resort to questionable tactics in order\n\ngame.\n\nto live up to what is demanded of him.\n\nIf the leading citizens will but take\n\nthe trouble to attend the rallies and speak when asked to do so, always\nurging loyalty to school and team, clean sport, pluck, and perseverance as the\n\nends to be attained, the boys will respond nobly. Along this line it is easier\nto secure those personal and valuable virtues, temperance and chastity. If\nthe boy wishes to be strong he learns that he must be clean.\nlie\n\nHerein, too,\n\nthe chief elements of strength of the Boy Scouts and the Knights of\n\nKing Arthur.\n\nThey must be pure as was Sir Galahad who said:\n\n\"My\n\nstrength is as the strength of ten because my heart is pure.\"\n\nSometimes the busy citizen is asked to do something for the school\nin connection either with its work or with its play, and, tho he will assure\n\nthe solicitor of his interest and good will, he will decline because of a lack\nof time, but will salve his conscience by making a subscription to aid in the\nwork or will hire someone to serve in his stead. But \"he gives nothing\nbut worthless gold who gives from a sense of duty.\" We are told that the\nfinest polish upon the lenses of the great telescopes of the world is put on by\n\nthe soft touch of the human hand.\n\nwith boys and girls.\n\nThis is doubly true when we are dealing\nThe finest polish that the citizen can give the char-\n\nacter of the youth of his community must be given thru the personal touch.\nIf you have helped to provide adequate and well-equipped school build-\n\nings, if you have helped to secure an adequate and well-prepared teaching\n\nforce,\n\nif\n\nyou have helped to provide adequate and well-equipped play\n\nfields and athletic grounds, so far you have done well, but \"all this ought ye\n\nto have done and not have left the other undone.\"\n\nIf you have not yet\n\nrealized the importance of these things, it will be well for you to consider\n\nseriously the following lines by Dennis A. McCarthy:\n\nGive them a chance for innocent sport,\nGive them a chance for fun:\nBetter a playground plot than a court\n\nAnd a jail when the harm is done!\nGive them a chance. If you stint them now,\nTomorrow you'll have to pay\n\nA larger bill for a darker ill;\nSo give them a chance to play\n\nSome of the practical and tangible results of citizen co-operation have\nbeen larger playgroimds, more and better equipment and play fields,\nimproved sanitary conditions, shrubbery, walks, musical instruments,\nhot limches in grammar and high schools, the introduction of industrial\ncourses, music, drawing, medical inspection, etc., but always the spirit of\n\nco-operation and the desire to help will transcend the value of any material\n\nimprovements.\n\nThe real strength of Israel under Jeremiah lay in the fact\n\nthat \"the people had a mind to work.\"\n\nSometimes when it has been proposed that the club or the parent-teacher\nassociation aid in securing a certain improvement, someone suggests that,\n\n"} {"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n(School Patrons\n\nas the members pay taxes, the school board order the improvement and\npay for it from the school revenues. But the chief value of the improvement lies in the spirit of unity and harmony and personal interest which\nwill result from having rendered some individual aid.\nIn our psychology\nwe learned that the mind consists of three important factors: intellect,\nThe actions of these are called, respectively, knowing,\nsensibility, and will.\nThe proper development and right direction of these\nfeeling, and doing.\nconstitute education.\n\nWhen the citizens of the conmiunity visit the school\n\nand then say: \"I know better why the school needs a playfield; I feel that\nwe ought to help to secure it for them; I move that we raise a thousand\ndollars to that end,\" we have here the whole process of education demonstrated and in this matter the school is an educational institution for the\nwhole community.\nAll valuable co-operation must be based upon a thoro knowledge of\nfacts, the public conscience must be awakened so that the community will\nfeel right on educational subjects, and the determination to do must be\nThis will touch the whole round of\ncrystallized by the leaders of action.\nintelligence\nactivities\nthe\nmental\nof the community, the feeling of the\nthe\ndetermination\nand\nor will of the community.\ncommunity,\npermit\nme\nto\nparaphrase\nIf you will\na passage from Shakespeare, I wish\nworld's\nthat\n\"all\nthe\na\nschool,\nto say\nand all the men and women merely\nshall\nnot\nhave\nscholars,\" and we\nfinished our course until we have learned\nThat\nlive\nwhen\nwe\nlive\nleast\nthat we\nbest\nfor ourselves and most for others.\nman is richest in soul who has given most to enrich other souls.\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nOFFICERS\n\n—^Ernest E. Balcomb, State Normal and Industrial College\nVice-President—\nW. Howe, Syracuse University\n\nPresident\n\n^F.\n\nGreensboro, N.C.\nSyracuse, N.Y.\n\nAmes, Iowa\n\nSecretary—E. C. Bishop, Iowa State College\n\nFIRST SESSION—Monday Foeenoon, July 7, 1913\nJoint Session with the Nature-Study Society and the School Garden\nAssociation of America\n\nThe joint meeting was called to order in the First Presbyterian Church, Salt Lake\nCity, Utah, at 9:30 a.m.\n\nE. C. Bishop, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, presided at\n\nthe meeting.\n\nThe first paper on the program was on the subject, \"In What Way Can the NatureStudy Movement Be of Assistance to Agricultural Teaching and Social Center Work for\nRural Communities?\" which was presented by J. H. Paul, Department of Nature-Study,\nState Normal School, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nE. C. Bishop, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, then read the \"Report of the Committee on Courses of Study in Agriculture.\"\nA paper on \"How the Adoption of a Course of Study in Agriculture and Related\nSubjects Would Help the Public Schools\" was presented by Josiah Main, professor of\nagriculture for schools, Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.\nAn adjourned meeting of the department was arranged for the traiisaction of business\nat 5:00 P.M.\n\nSECOND SESSION—Monday Afternoon, July 7, 1913\nThe adjourned meeting of the department for the transaction of business met at\n5:00 P.M.\n\nThe following officers were elected for the coming year:\n\n—\n— —\n\nFor President E. C. Bishop, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\nFor Vice-President O. J. Kern, College of Agriculture, Berkeley, Cal.\nFor Secretary ^L. N. Duncan, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala.\nIt was moved and carried that the department request permission to hold a round\n\ntable at the time of, and in connection with, the Department of Superintendence at its\n\nnext meeting.\n\nThe chairman was instructed to present the matter to the Secretary of\n\nthe National Education Association.\nIt was moved and carried that a committee be appointed to investigate and report\non conditions and needs in rural and agricultural education, such report to be made each\n\nyear at the regular meeting of the department.\n\nThe following committee was appointed:\nA. V. Storm, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.\nW. A. Lewis, principal, State Normal School, Hays, Kans.\nJ. D. Eggleston, president, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.\n801\n\n"} {"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o2\n\n[Agricultural\n\nIt was moved and carried that the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education\n\nhold itself in readiness to co-operate with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition\nin carrying out plans in the interests of rural and agricultural education.\n\nE. C. Bishop\n\nwas authorized to communicate with James A. Barr, chief of the Education Department\nof the Exposition, and to carry out the wishes of the department.\n\nTHIRD SESSION—Wednesday Afternoon, July 9, 1913\nThe department met in joint session with the Library Department and was called\nto order at 2:30 p.m.\n\nTopic:\n\nThe Library and the Rural Community.\n\nA paper on \"Rural-School Libraries—^Their Needs and Possibilities\" was given by\nOle S. Rice, state library clerk for Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\n(For this paper see Library\n\nDepartment.)\n\nA paper on \"The Influence of the Agricultural College on the Farmer's Use of Books,\"\nwritten by William M. Hepburn, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., was read.\n\"Libraries for Rural Communities\" was the subject of an address by P. P. Clazton,\n\nUnited States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n\nA discussion followed.\n\nFOURTH SESSION—Thursday Forenoon, July 10, 1913\nThe Department of Rural and Agricultural Education met in joint session with the\nDepartment of Normal Schools. John A. H. Keith, president of the Department of\nNormal Schools being absent, Vice-President William E. Wilson took the chair.\nD. W. Hayes, president, State Normal School, Peru, Nebr., presented a paper on the\nsubject, \"What the Normal Schools Can Do and Ought to Do with the Training of Teachers\n(For this paper see Department of Normal Schools.)\nfor Rural Commimities.\"\n\nA discussion followed.\nFIFTH SESSION—Friday Forenoon, July ii, 1913\nThe department met in joint session with the Departments of Elementary Education and Manual Training and Art Education, and was called to order at 9:30 a.m.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Rural Schools and Community Needs\"—Perry G. Holden, International Harvester\nCompany, Chicago, 111. (For this paper see Department of Manual Training and Art\nEducation.)\n\"Agriculture and Gardening in the Public Schools\" Clayton F. Palmer, supervisor\nof agric^ture, public schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"Some Eliminations in the Content of Arithmetic as a Factor in the Economy of\nTime\" W. A. Jessup, director. School of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa\n(For this paper see Department of Elementary Education.)\nCity, Iowa.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nE. C. Bishop, Secretary\n\n"} {"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATURE-STUDY IN RURAL COMMUNITIES\n\nDcpartmcntl\n\n803\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nIN WHAT WAY CAN THE NATURE-STUDY MOVEMENT BE\nOF ASSISTANCE TO AGRICULTURAL TEACHING AND\nSOCIAL CENTER WORK FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES?\nJ.\n\nH. PAUL,\n\nDEPARTMENT OF NATURE-STUDY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nSALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\n\nmay be made the basis of agricultural work.\n\nNature-study\nadvocate that\n\nshould consist entirely of agriculture.\n\nit\n\nSome\n\nWhether\n\nthis\n\ncourse is adopted or not, the teaching of nature will be made up, very largely,\nof the observation\n\nand doing of certain things which either prepare for,\n\nor give the meaning of, the fundamentals of modern agricultural practice.\n\nThis will be especially true if what is taught as nature-study is a develop-\n\nment course, rather than fragmentary or unrelated lessons.\n\nBut even in\n\nthe latter case, it is not easy to see how nature-study could be presented,\n\nNature-study may be variously presented,\nand it is probably true that there is great variation in what is given under\nthis title in different schools, even in the same section of the country.\nAt\nwithout involving agriculture.\n\nthe School of Education of the University of Utah, a course in nature-\n\nstudy is required of all regular normal students.\n\nThe class is so large\n\nEach student is placed in\nthat section which most closely corresponds with the work of teaching\nwhich he or she expects to do, either kindergarten and primary, or the\nupper grades, or high-school and agricultural work.\nPrimary and kindergarten students take the course that deals primarily\nwith the trees and the forest and with forest life.\nthat it has been divided into three sections.\n\nIntermediate-grade teachers take the course that deals with the local\nweeds, the minerals, and the native bird life of the Rocky Mountains.\n\nThose aiming to teach in higher grades study insect life in the fall,\nrocks and soils in the winter, and plant life in the spring.\n\nEach course bears three hours of college credit, four hours if the laboratory work is taken.\n\nStarred books are used only for reference.\n\nNature i\nFall.\n\ntrees:\n\n—Forest Trees: Kinds,\n\n*Sudworth, Trees of\n\nthe\n\nuses,\n\nand distribution of western timber and shade\n\nPacific\n\nSlope;\n\nSchwappach, Forestry.\n\nLaboratory:\n\nPlanting and care: Blakeslee and Jarvis, Trees in Winter Part I.\nWinter.\n\n—\n\nj\n\n^Plant\n\nResources of the Plateau:\n\nSoils, rainfall,\n\nand tree growth of the\n\nlarger physical \\mits: Paul, Out Of Doors in the West, chaps, xxxiv-xliv; and *Bidletins 71\n\nand 68 of the Soils Bureau.\n\nLaboratory:\n\nConservation of Resources: Gregory, Check-\n\ning the Waste.\nSpring.\nbeneficial\n\n—Forest\n\nLife:\n\nor beautiful:\n\nThe big game and other tenants; types of insects, mostly\nMoth Book. Laboratory:\n\n*Robertson-Miller, Butterfly and\n\nBowman, Forest Physiography, chaps, i-ix, xiv-xx;\nAmerican West.\n\nor Moran, Thru Wonderlands of the\n\n"} {"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o4\n\n(Agricultural\n\nNature 2\nFall.—Weed Pests: Plant devices for survival, illustrated by field study of forty\nLaboratory: Native salt bushes and other\nlocal species: Paul, Out of Doors in the West.\nuseful plants.\n\nWinter.\n\n—Mineral Resources: Properties, uses, and occurrence in the plateau of\n\nthe common metallic, rock-forming, and gem minerals: Miller, Minerals and How They\nOccur.\n\nLaboratory: Selections from *Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States.\nBird Life: Economic value and life-histories of the song and shore birds\n\nSpring.\n\n—\n\nof the Rocky Mountains, with sight identification of 150 species:\n\nWestern United States.\n\n*Bailey, Birds of the\n\nLaboratory: Harmful and beneficial mammals; birds of prey,\n\nand game birds: Fisher, Henshaw, McAtee, Farmers' Bulletins.\n\nNature 3\n\n—Insect Life: Sanderson and Jackson, Elementary Entomology, Parts and\nand Part\nLaboratory: Insect Foes, chaps,\nGeikie, Class Book of Geology. Laboratory: Rock\nWinter.—Rocks and\ni\n\nFall.\n\niv, xi, xiv,\n\n2.\n\n3.\n\nSoils:\n\ndisintegration and mineral waters:\n\n*Clarke, Data of Geochemistry, chaps, iii-vi, and xii.\n\nLaboratory: Bowles, Determination of Common Rocks.\nSpring. Plant Life: Notes on useful and harmful native species with culture of\n\n—\n\nwild flowers: Garrett, Spring Flora of the Wasatch.\n\nLaboratory: Selections from McKane,\n\nInjurious Insects,\n\nMethod is provided for in a separate course.\n\nEach of the foregoing\n\ncourses has three recitations and one laboratory period thruout the year.\n\nBooks which present the same subjects in a manner suitable for grade\nteaching are now in course of publication for use of the schools of Utah.\n\nThese books were adopted in manuscript form last winter.\nThe bearing of courses 2 and 3 on the teaching of agriculture is obvious.\nThey give the fundamentals upon which scientific agriculture is based.\nThey present the subject-matter, of course, from the standpoint of naturestudy, with observation and experiment as the basis. In fact, to ask\nhow such courses would be of assistance to agricultural teaching is like\nasking why the student of engineering should study mathematics or why\nthe student of divinity should look into the Bible. This question suggests\nthat in other parts of the country the courses in nature-study must vary\nwidely from those which the Utah State Normal School gives to prospective teachers.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COURSES OF STUDY\nIN AGRICULTURE\nE. C. BISHOP,\n\nIOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA, CHAIRMAN\n\nIn order that the work of the committee might be facilitated, a territorial\n\napportionment for investigational purposes has been made, as follows:\nNorth Alleghany Division, F. W. Howe.\nSouth Alleghany Division, E. E. Balcomb.\nEast Central Division, B. M. Davis.\nWest Central Division, Josiah Main.\nRocky Mountain Division, Riley O. Johnson.\nGeneral and Foreign Division, E. C. Bishop.\n\n"} {"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT ON COURSES OF STUDY IN AGRICULTURE\n\n805\n\nWork is now under way as follows:\n\nA unified course of study.—One of the chief difficulties in providing the\nmost helpful assistance in the teaching of agriculture, and directing the work\nin the public schools, is a lack of uniformity in requirements.\n\nThis need is\n\nfelt especially {a) in the character and extent of work offered;\n\n{b) in deter-\n\nmining the entrance credit given the work by colleges, and in the certification of teachers;\n\n(c)\n\nin the lack of definiteness of direction, purpose, and\n\nextent in bulletins, circulars, text, and other helpful materials.\n\nThe adoption of a unified course of study in which the divisions of agriculture of general importance thruout the country are outlined as to essential topic development, and in which plenty of latitude for local adaptation\nis given, would result in a short time in the preparation of adapted materi-\n\nals, and in securing teachers trained with more definiteness and adaptability\n\nfor teaching the subject.\n\nDevelopment of project work.\n\n—Agriculture should be taught as an applied\n\nscience, or more particularly as the application of the most valuable phases\n\nof the other sciences to home and the community interests.\n\nTo leave the\n\nteaching of agriculture without effective application thru extension into the\n\nhome and community of the principles taught is fully as great a mistake as\nit\n\nwould be to teach only the theory of reading, arithmetic, spelling, lan-\n\nguage, writing, drawing, and other subjects, which have their chief educational value in application by the pupil to his interests and activities.\n\nAgriculture is not only a business and a profession, but it is also a mode\nof life.\n\nIt is science, plus practice, plus living.\n\nIts values can be secured\n\nonly thru well-planned, carefully directed project work.\n\n—\n\nHome and school gardening. This is a division of work in agriculture\nwhich is potent with great good and inconceivable possibilities. It has in\nmany places been given the kind of direction which has brought results of\nhigh educational value.\n\nFarm management.\n\n—The principles in practice in farm management are\nThere is a great deal\nand applying the principles of farm\n\ncalling for greater recognition in courses of study.\n\nof\n\nhelpful direction in outlining\n\nmanagement.\n\nFarm mechanics.\n\n—The relation of the principles of mechanics to farm\n\npractice is such that the study of farm mechanics should now have a well-\n\ndefined place in the course of study.\n\nIt should appear either as a topic\n\nunder farm management or in the more extended course as a separate\nsubject.\n\nAgricultural booklet work.\n\n—^The making of illustrated agricultural book\n\nlets as a result of school and home work in agriculture has promise of great\n\ngood as a correlative factor in school work.\n\nWhen properly planned, efficiently directed, and rightfully conserved,\nthe agricultural booklet intensifies the interest of the pupil, gives direction to study and investigation, and leads him to definiteness of purpose,\n\n"} {"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o6\n\n[Agricultural\n\nclearness of vision, and care and skill in the selection and use of information, all of which are of a high order of value in the work of agriculture,\nand in the resulting correlative work in language, drawing, arithmetic,\nand other branches.\nCommunity survey work. Surveys for the purpose of securing information in making comparisons, and as a part of topic development work, are\nmost valuable adjuncts to or parts of the course of study in agriculture.\nCrop surveys, farm animal, drainage and soil, farm projects, farm management, and other lines of surveys bringing out a knowledge of community\nfacts may be conducted with most effective results in both grade and\n\n—\n\nhigh-school work.\n\nBoys^ and girls' club work.\n\n—^The work of the various boys' and\n\ngirls* club\n\norganizations, either as an outgrowth of the work in agriculture and home\n\neconomics given in the school, or as an initiatory movement in establishing\nthese courses in the schools, is an important factor in agricultural education.\n\nPreparation of teachers.\nture.\n\n—This\n\nis a vital question in the work of agricul-\n\nThe need of better preparation of teachers is imperative.\n\nThe\n\nattempt of unprepared teachers to seek guidance, refuge, or obscurity, as the\ncase may be, in a textbook in agriculture has done more to defeat the purpose\nof agricultural education thru the public schools than any other one thing.\n\nThe well-prepared teacher does not need a text, hence will not lean on a\ntext, and can be trusted safely to use a text where the same is an advantage.\n\nThe unprepared teacher who does not know the subject well enough to teach\nit without the text cannot be trusted with the text as a dependable prop.\n\nThe question of preparation of teachers in agriculture is a pressing one,\nbecause of the great need of immediate supply, and of the steadily increasing\n\ndemand, and from the lack of adequate facilities for such training.\nUse of the textbook. Your committee reafl&rms its declaration concerning\n\n—\n\nthe use of textbooks with the following modifications:\n1. The textbook in the hands of the pupil should be for reference only,\nand should be used only when necessary, as a means of supplying desired\nreading-matter which cannot otherwise be supplied to advantage.\n2. If only a short simple course is offered, and where the teacher has not\nbeen well trained, a good textbook in the hands of pupils may sometimes be\n\nused to advantage with these cautions:\na)\n\nBooks are merely aids; the study of agriculture is primarily a study\n\nof things, not about things.\nb)\n\nOmit the portions of the text not pertinent to the study of the topics\n\nunder consideration.\nc)\n\nDo not confine the study of the student to reading the material in the\n\ntext only.\nd) Follow the outline prepared for the course in agriculture, and make\nno attempt to follow the order of topics in the textbook.\ne) Have the pupils select from a general supply the reference materials\nneeded after some such plan as indicated in the following topic:\n\n"} {"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT ON METHODS IN AGRICULTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\nMade-up-text and theme-book.\n\n807\n\n— plan which has been very successfully\n^A\n\ncarried out, and which avoids the objectionable features in the use of a text\n\nin the hands of the pupil, is as follows:\n1.\n\nDivide the work of the course of study up into natural subjects, such\n\nas farm crops, soils, farm animals, horticulture, farm management, dairjdng,\npoultry, rural economics, to suit the school term or semester divisions\nof time.\n2.\n\nUnder direction of the teacher, the pupil makes a selected collection\n\nof bulletins, circulars, monographs, and text references bearing on the particular subject to be taken up.\n3. Using the outlines of the course of study as a guide, the pupil studies\nfrom his made-up-text and references, and then writes up the topics on looseleaf paper which is collected under a board cover with shoestring or other\nfastenings into a theme-book. Appropriate illustrative drawings may be\n\nmade a part of the theme-book.\n4.\n\nAt the close of the study of a particular subject, the pupil returns the\n\nreference materials to the school files, adds his reference list to the theme-\n\nbook, makes an attractive cover for it, and retains the same as a permanent\npart of his work.\n\nThe made-up-textbook cover is then filled with new\n\nsubject references.\nCredit for home work.\n\n—^The rapid and favorable development of the plans\n\nhome work justifies the committee in recommending that increased attention be given this phase of the work. The\nwork thus far developed seems in many cases to lack a definiteness of outline and application in grade points.\n\nfor giving school credit for\n\nPersonal hygiene.\n\n—Recognition should be given in the course of study\n\nto all work which has for its object the teaching of the principles of per-\n\nsonal hygiene.\n\nHome and community hygiene.\n\n—Recognition should be given\n\nto, and pro-\n\nvision made for, the teaching of principles and the encouragement of the\n\nbest practices in home and community hygiene.\n\nThis will include a con-\n\nsideration of sewerage, drainage of stagnant pools\n\nand ponds, sources of\n\ndrinking-water supply, and other matters relating to the health of home\n\nand commimity.\n\nSUBCOMMITTEE REPORT ON METHODS IN AGRICULTURE\nE. E.\n\nBALCOMB, STATE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE,\nGREENSBORO, N.C.\n\nOur agricultural high schools should not attempt to be agricultural\ncolleges either in their methods of teaching or in the work they undertake.\n\nThe students they teach are younger, less mature, hence college\nThey should not try to do any con-\n\nmethods will fail to reach them.\nsiderable\n\namount of original experiments.\n\nSuch experiments as are in-\n\ntended to mark real progress in agricultural science can be successfully\n\n"} {"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8o8\n\n[Agricultural\n\ndone only by the agricultural college with its trained experts and more\nample equipment.\nThese high schools will find ample scope for experimental work in\ntrying to adapt the findings of the colleges to the local conditions of the\nschools.\n\nThe most discouraging phase of this whole movement to teach agriculture in our schools is that the teaching tends to become simply academic\nroutine.\n\nThe vast majority of teachers teach this subject in the old regulation\nway in which they were taught arithmetic, history, algebra, Latin, etc.\nThe routine work from the textbook kills all interest any live boy has in\nagriculture.\n\nHe longs to deal with things, not words. He wants to take\n\noff his coat, roU\n\nup his sleeves, and, as he puts it, \"get at the real thing.\"\n\nHe wants to work at a crop that he feels is his own and the net proceeds of\nwhich shall \"jingle in his own jeans.\" Witness the boys' corn clubs, the\ntomato clubs, which have succeeded beyond all expectation; they\nhave frequently prospered and done great good, even where the supervision\nwas very meager.\ngirls'\n\nThe teaching of agriculture in our high schools, and to a limited extent\nin our elementary schools, should in every way lead to a concrete working-\n\nout of the instruction given.\n\nEvery teacher should supervise the work\n\nof each pupil on his home ground to the end that the pupil will make a better\n\ncrop than he has ever made before and than he could have made had he\n\nnot received the benefit of his teacher's supervision.\n\nOur teachers who are not prepared to give this supervision and assume\nthe responsibility of guaranteeing results are not prepared to teach agriculture, and should either prepare themselves or quit putting the teaching\nof this practical subject in the\n\nway of becoming a laughing-stock and\n\nbyword among practical farmers.\n\nHOW THE ADOPTION OF A COURSE OF STUDY IN AGRICULTURE AND RELATED SUBJECTS WOULD HELP\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nJOSIAH MAli^, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE FOR SCHOOLS, OKLAHOMA\nAGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, STILLWATER, OKLA.\n\nOne who begins an investigation of high-school courses in agriculture is\ninmiediately struck with the diversity of opinion as to the proper time and\n\nsequence of presenting the different divisions of that comprehensive subject.\n\nAnd continued investigation, instead of bringing order out of the chaos, only\nresults in compoimding the confusion, until one must conclude that there is\n\nno unifying principle by the application of which the school man can determine in what year and in what order of sequence animal husbandry, or soils,\nor field crops, or a half-dozen others are best given.\n\nIf there\n\nbe such a\n\n"} {"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY OF AGRICULTURE IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n809\n\nprinciple not more than one school of the half-hundred most prominent ones\n\nhas discovered and applied it, for no two of them are alike.\nIt is inconceivable that the highest value for any subject is attainable by\n\nthe teacher who does not know and appreciate the educational value of his\nsubject.\nlittle\n\nWhile educational values constitute a field of investigation as yet\n\ndeveloped, among the values whose existence is recognized must be\n\nincluded the disciplinary or cultural, the sentimental, the theoretical, the\nconventional, the utilitarian, and the preparatory.\nIt is hard to dissociate and classify any subject on the basis of a single\n\nvalue.\n\nMost subjects in the schools are defensible as contributing to several\n\nvalues.\n\nFor the subject agriculture, the values claimed are the utilitarian,\n\nthe preparatory, and the disciplinary.\n\nWhen a human being is offered the choice of an immediate and apparent\ngood or a remote good, less definite because of distance but not less certain\nor necessary, instinct prompts him to seize the immediate and ignore the\nremote. Thus it is with the earliest stages of the race, of infancy, or of any\nunfamiliar social situation or reform. But the time comes when advancing\ncivilization, education, or evolution develops such appreciation of remote\ngood that immediate material gratification is often restrained where it could\nbe had only at the price of more remote good. Preparatory and disciplinary (cultural) educational values are apt to be remote; utilitarian as a rule\nare more immediate. It is therefore to be expected that, in the first stages\nof secondary agriculture, utihtarian values dominate courses of study. This\nis no rebuke to those making such courses since the contract imposed upon\nthem was to \"make good\" from a practical standpoint.\nThe utilitarian purpose in agriculture being a concrete thing pertaining\nlargely to the material environment, to relate the student to local utilities\n\nseemed to be the chief thing necessary in the making of a course of study in\nagriculture.\nSo every school has done what was right in its own eyes at the\nexpense of the disciplinary and preparatory values of the subject. Their\neasy success, and the influence of Old World models, where the sole purpose\nof such schools is avowedly utilitarian, only make more difficult a hearing for\nthe plea that some kind of standardization or unifying principle is necessary\nbefore such schools can be truly disciplinary and preparatory as well as\nutilitarian.\nWhile admitting the fundamental value of such work, no\ncollege can admit its value as preparatory work any more than it can\naccredit the value to youth in terms of percentages and credits of early\nresponsibilities, correct habits, good health, or racial virtue.\nFurthermore, it is impossible to prepare teachers for agricultural high\nschools in the way that they are trained for other subjects until the normal\n\nschool or college defines or recognizes a unit of equipment for a secondary\nagricultural school\n\nand maintains training courses which bring out the\n\npedagogics and the material difficulties of each phase.\n\nWe believe that\n\nthere is a distinct field of secondary agriculture that has never yet been\n\n"} {"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8io\n\n(Agricultural\n\ndefined and that there is a \"best place\" in its course for the presentation of\n\neach agricultural subject.\n\nThe contract of the purely utilitarian agricultural school or college is a\nvery simple one in which success is measured by the value of an agricultural\nproduct; the undertaking of a teachers' training school is a more difficult\none, as\n\nits\n\nultimate products, educated\n\nmen and women, are of slower\n\nattainment, and the factors many and difficult to control.\nyear, it may take a generation to measure its success.\n\nInstead of a\n\nEducational agri-\n\nculture is a very different thing from agricultural education.\n\nThe latter, so\n\nfar as it is investigation, is agricultural experimentation with plots, fertilizers, varieties,\n\nand herds.\n\nThe former, so far as it is investigation, is\n\neducational experimentation, and we are coming to accept the assertion that\nthere is not a subject in the entire curriculum but must be overhauled and\ntested before\n\nwe may be sure\n\nof its\n\neducational value.\n\npractices have heretofore been a matter of tradition;\n\nEducational\n\nonly today is the\n\nscience of education at last getting possession of the tools with which it must\n\nFor such investigation, normal schools\nand teachers' colleges are supported, and training schools for pedagogical\nclinics and practice are necessary adjuncts to all such teachers' courses,\nexercise its investigational function.\n\nwhether kindergarten, elementary, or secondary.\n\nIt may be that the best\n\nplace for experimentation in agricultural education will be the agricultural\ncollege.\n\nConsidering what normal schools sometimes do, I have no preju-\n\ndice for or against the proposition.\n\nBut one thing seems safe of assertion,\n\nthat expert training in any field of agricultural investigation does not\nnecessarily fit the investigator for leadership in educational investigation.\n\nKnowledge of the best ration of an adolescent steer is no warrant of skill in\n\nWhat to the\nmay seem an inferior grade of agricultural experiment may\n\nbalancing the mental pabulum of the high-school ration.\nagriculturist\n\nnevertheless be a superior grade of experiment in agricultural pedagogy.\nIf the agricultural college is to be the training school for secondary teachers\n\nof agriculture, it should take on the whole pedagogical equipment for the\n\ntraining of such teachers, including a high school of agriculture to be used\n\nas a training school for prospective teachers.\n\nSuch a training school would\n\nresult in uniformity and standardization of courses.\n\nOne who reads the works of Darwin, Spencer, and Huxley cannot fail to\ncatch some inspiration of the possibilities of science for the amelioration of\n\nour material hardships and the emancipation of himaan thought. What\nsurprise, then, to note that, since the establishment of the sciences in the high\nschools twenty years ago, their curve has been steadily downward while\n\neach of the other recognized groups has been on the ascendency in percentage of high-school students pursuing them. This seems to be plainly\n\ndue to failure in the method of presentation of the sciences, and the\ndominance of the least defensible of all educational values, the conventional.\nShall this elimination of science continue while tradition and\n\n"} {"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY OF AGRICULTURE IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\noccultism keep thought in bondage ?\n\n8ll\n\nWe do not think so, but we are sure\n\nmeans of emancipation are of very low\nefficiency compared with what they might be, and we are convinced that to\ncorrelate them with the agricultural subjects is mutually necessary to a\ntaat the high-school sciences as\n\nproper high-school presentation of both.\n\nThis calls for a definite standardi-\n\nzation of the sciences.\n\nWhen this is done, agriculture will become the salvation, and apparently\nthe only salvation, of the biological sciences and chemistry to the high school.\nI hold that the disciplinary value of the scientific method is as great as the\nutilitarian value of agriculture in the high school,\n\nand that it is not the\n\nagricultural subjects as such, but the right kind of science teaching, which\ntheir inclusion alone can insure, that\n\nmakes agriculture of the greatest\n\nvalue as a preparatory subject for any college.\n\nWe should, therefore, use\n\nthe economic appeal and stop trying to teach high-school sciences as if they\n\nhad a conventional value.\n\nAnd since we do not want to correlate all of the\n\nagriculture out of agriculture, correlation must come chiefly by modification\nof science teaching.\n\nHeretofore the high-school science student has ordinarily been a passive\nobserver.\n\nWith exercises in agricultural production, he becomes an active\n\nagent in control of the outcome, and thus his science gets into his muscles\n\nand thus contributes the necessary kinaesthetic factor in the learning process\nThis correlation of science and agriculture, which can come\nonly after standardization and uniformity, will also augment the science\nwork by the use of the familiar science materials of the farm.\nof the young.\n\nDifficulties peculiar to high-school agriculture make a discussion of the\n\nmethod of securing a national uniformity pertinent to this discussion the\nnot warranted by the topic assigned me.\nLet an appropriate committee of the National Education Association,\ncomposed of agricultural and educational experts, signify a definite number\nof topics, such as dairying, corn, soil physics, forage crops, etc., comprehensive enough to cover the needs of every state, and prepared as monographs\nof stated length with contents apportioned into as many chapters as there\n\nLet a competent authority in each state\nadopt for use in its high schools such of these monographs as its state\nare natural divisions of each.\n\nagricultural college will prepare agreeable to the specifications, or select\n\nsuitable foreign monographs so as to cover all of the topics appropriate to\n\nthat state.\n\nTo the committee would thus fall the function of indicating its\n\napproval of such monographs as were available or prepared for that purpose,\n\nand directory influence maintained by agreement with such colleges as\nstudents seek to secure recognition from for preparatory work done in\nagriculture.\nState supervision would naturally insure that standards of\ninstruction were maintained, and the elasticity of the system would enable\nany state so to marshal its courses from prescribed and elective monographs\nas to insure a course appropriate to the locality or section, and to present it\n\n"} {"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8i2\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThe writer has used such a system of monograph^\nand has proven to his own satisfaction, with such miscellaneous literature ^\nhe could find in several states, that this method gives latitude for informal\npractical work, permits a seasonal presentation, and obviates the tyranny of\nin a seasonal order.\n\nthe textbook, in addition to the other merits claimed for it.\n\nTo summarize the value of the adoption of a uniform high-school course\nin agriculture:\n1.\n\nIt would make possible the training of teachers in secondary agri-\n\ncultural pedagogics.\n2.\n\nIt would enhance the utilitarian value of high-school agriculture by\n\nthe elimination of freak courses and valueless exercises and the inclusion of\nessentials duly proportioned.\n3. It would\n\nmake possible the accrediting of schools and the evaluation\n\nof agriculture as a preparatory training, and permit the student of agricul-\n\nture to carry to distant schools an intelligible report of work completed\njust as he now may in Latin or algebra.\n4. It would save the sciences and the scientific method to the high school\nfrom which they are in danger of being lost.\n\nAGRICULTURE AND GARDENING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nCLAYTON F. PALMER, SUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nThat industry which feeds, clothes, and shelters the human race must\nof necessity always occupy a prominent place in the minds of all thoughtful\n\npeople.\n\nThe soil must always be depended upon to furnish the raw materials\n\nfrom the use of which alone arises all that is visible in the material prosperity\nMoreover, the less time and energy the race spends in proof the nation.\nviding itself with the fundamentals, the more it has left for developing the\nhigher things of life.\n\nIt therefore is apparent that a nation's first considera-\n\ntion is a well-developed agriculture; and history has amply demonstrated\n\nthe fact that the status of agriculture is a reliable barometer of the rise and\nfall of the welfare of the race.\n\nPubUc-school agriculture is not a fad, and it is time that those who know\nEven the average\nlittle or nothing about it cease attempting to teach it.\nscience teacher is pretty much a failure as a teacher of agriculture, unless\n\nHowever, this subject has now\n\nindeed he be capable of being born again.\n\nsafely passed the stage where it is necessary to demonstrate its adaptability\n\nand value in both elementary and secondary public-school work. The\nspecial need of today is to test our materials and methods, in order to\nlearn which are best suited to the conditions under which our work must be\ndone.\n\nReal farmers are born and not made.\n\nThe farmer boy may, or may not,\n\nbe temperamentally fit for that occupation.\n\nFrequently, he has shown him-\n\n"} {"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE AND GARDENING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nself to be in possession of traits which have\n\nprofession a realization.\n\n813\n\nmade a brilliant career in some\n\nOn the other hand, many a city-bred youth has\n\nnatural qualities, which, under proper encouragement, would enable him to\n\nmake a great success as a farmer.\n\nI therefore contend that agriculture is\n\nas important a subject in the city school as in the country school.\n\nThe\n\ndifferences lie more in the opportunities for carrying on the work, and the\n\noutside experience that the pupils bring to it, than in any innate differences\n\nbetween country and city youths.\nAgriculture, as a public-school subject, has received more attention in\n\nhigh and rural schools than in city schools.\n\nThere are but a few of the\n\nlarge cities of the United States which are conducting the work as a definite\n\npart of their educational system;\n\nand Los Angeles.\n\namong these are Philadelphia, Cleveland,\n\nOne must speak from his own experience, and the writer\n\nasks the indulgence of his hearers to a brief discussion of such phases of the\n\nwork carried on in the Los Angeles schools as appear to be of general interest.\nIf we eliminate the matter of climate, our field is doubtless much like that\n\nto be found in many other cities of the country.\n\nAgriculture, valuable as it may be, cannot be satisfactorily introduced\n\ninto the public schools thru any edict of authority;\n\nit\n\nmust begin thru the\n\nSacrifices will\ninterest of a few teachers, and make a natural growth.\nhave to be made for it by those who really believe in it. Few teachers,\nprincipals, or superintendents realize how much of thought and hard work\nThose who are\nis necessary to make a real success of school gardening.\n\nsucceeding know, and it is to be hoped that their services may be recognized in a way which will encourage other teachers to take up the work.\n\nAgain, it is important that this work be placed in charge of those who know\n\nhow to conduct it under school conditions.\nGardening has been in operation in a number of the Los Angeles schools,\nwith varying degrees of success, for several years.\n\nIt had demonstrated its\n\nvalue, and over a year ago a department of agriculture was formally estab-\n\nThis consists of a supervisor, assistant supervisor, and three special\n\nlished.\n\n—\n\nthree men and two women in all. Each of the four assistants\nwas assigned a definite section of the city to develop. A study was made of\neach school by itself, and the work recommended was based upon local conditions and opportunities.\nWhile assuring all principals of our willingness to\nco-operate with them, we have confined our efforts to helping with the work\nat such schools as seemed most desirous of conducting the gardening. The\nresult was that we had calls to go to other schools faster than we were able\nto respond. Thus the growth has been logical and natural.\nHeadquarters were provided, where we meet teachers in conference and\nfurnish all kinds of seeds and other supplies to a limited extent. Here we\nalso receive and distribute plants, cuttings, etc., using a lath-house to harbor\nsuch materials meanwhile. But the location is in the heart of the city, and\nwe hope soon to establish headquarters on an acre or two of ground, within a\n\nteachers\n\n"} {"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8i4\n\nfive-cent car-ride.\n\n(Agricultural\n\nThere we can have a laboratory, ofl&ce, lath-houses,\n\ngreenhouse, cold-frames, hotbeds, nursery, garden, etc.\n\nground we have in mind\nschools, largely attended\n\nof several other schools.\n\nis\n\nThe piece\n\nc^\n\nwithin easy walking-distance of six lar^e\n\nby little foreigners, and within a short car-ride\nOur plan is to keep at least one agricultural\n\nteacher at this headquarters all of the time, the classes coming therfi for\ninstruction in various phases of the work.\n\nA practical gardener also would\n\nbe an indispensable feature.\n\nThe above-mentioned plant would also serve as a practice center for\nour teachers.\n\nThere is a great dearth of properly trained teachers of agri-\n\nculture, and it looks as tho we should have to train our own teachers as we\n\ngo for some time to come.\n\nWhile anxious to avoid making any remarks\nwhich might discourage some garden teachers, the writer feels that there is\ntoo much tendency to regard a short course as sufficient preparation for\n\nsuch work.\n\nBetter remuneration for the teacher of gardening will greatly\n\nhelp in correcting this error.\n\nDuring the past year, we have conducted\n\nweekly classes in agriculture, under the auspices of the state university,\nwhich, thru our department, established its first \"Extension Course in\nAgricultural\n\nEducation.\"\n\nConference classes also have helped us to\n\nadvance the interests of the work.\nEach assistant in our department goes from school to school, conferring with principals and teachers, and giving instruction to the regular\n\nteacher and her class at the same time. Later on, all go to the garden to\nput into practice such instructions as were given inside. We try to have\nthe gardening assigned only to such teachers as show a willingness to con-\n\nduct it, and an aptitude for it.\n\nIn some schools during the past year, all\nExperience, however,\n\nteachers and all grades have done some gardening.\n\nindicates that it is wiser to specialize in this project in a few grades only,\n\naffording others such other opportunities for keeping up their interest as seem\nfeasible.\n\nGrades four, five, and six seem best adapted to gardening.\n\nThe question of land is one of the most serious ones we have to solve,\nin many cases. We are making use of about forty vacant lots at the present\ntime, and paying no rent for them.\n\nUsually they are situated near the\n\nschool, many times adjoining the grounds.\n\nIn one case, the classes go about\n\na third of a mile to their garden. This garden is being voluntarily cared\nWhen a\nfor this summer by one of the teachers and a squad of her pupils.\nwriting,\nsuitable lot is found, the owner's consent to its use is obtained in\nallowing us the removal of piping, fencing, in fact any improvements, when\n\nthe owner again takes possession of the property.\n\nThe board of educa-\n\ntion makes these improvements for us, and the city furnishes the water free.\n\nDuring the past year, gardening has been done on a considerable scale\nat about sixty schools, and a number of others have been doing a little work\nalong the edges and in the comers of the school grounds. Some of these\n\n"} {"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE AND GARDENING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nwill have larger gardens on vacant lots this coming year;\n\nit is\n\n815\n\na good idea\n\nto let a school test itself in this matter on a small scale to begin with.\n\nThe fertilizer problem must always prove troublesome to city schools;\nwe have changed many acres of very poor ground to fairly good soil by\nthe use of street sweepings.\n\nThis material, freed from papers and other\n\nforeign matter, makes a good fertilizer, and it is obtainable free from our\nstreet department in large quantities.\n\nWe are not usually allowed to stack\n\nand plowed or spaded into the soil, or used\nas a mulch. In such parts of the city as harbor animals, pupils often combine resources and manage to get a team and haul what fertilizer they\nthe sweeping to rot;\n\nneed.\n\nit is spread\n\nIf we are successful in securing headquarters a little\n\nway out from\n\nthe center of the city, we shall plan to compost large quantities of sweepings,\n\nand thus provide ourselves with a sufficient supply of good fertilizer. We\naim to have each school garden provided with a simple compost pit, in\nwhich pupils will be taught to reduce their waste plant materials to fertilizer.\nWe, as a nation, need to learn the lesson of preventing the enormous waste\nwhich characterizes our operations in almost every industry. The public\nschool is a good place in which to carry on this campaign.\nThe problem of proper tools in sufficient number must be solved the\nsame as any other question of necessary supplies for school work. At the\nbeginning, it may be advisable to ask pupils to bring tools from home; but\nas soon as it becomes apparent that the teacher is in earnest, suitable tools\nwill be likely to be provided for the work.\nThe trouble with some of us\nteachers is that we want a full equipment of tools or supplies along some\nline before we have demonstrated our ability and willingness to make the\nbest use of what is at hand. That explains the presence of useless and\nunused materials at so many schools, and why some of the members of our\nboards of education are not more enthusiastic regarding the newer lines of\nschool work.\nIt is a great mistake to provide children with cheap tools.\n\nSuch do\n\nnot command their respect, and as they show little judgment in their use\n\nThe strongest tools, of good material, are the\nmost economical in the long run, and we should give more attention to the\nproper use and care of them. A suitable toolhouse should be provided\nin every instance, where they may be hung up in an orderly manner. We\nneed to remember that the raising of plants, in itself, is not the most important thing in school gardening. It is quite possible to have good gardens,\nand at the same time permit practices which more than offset the good\naccomplished. Our duty is properly to train boys and girls; we should\nbe able to do good gardening as well as make good gardens.\nIdeally, there is little doubt that gardening should be optional with all\npupils and teachers alike. As conditions are at present, we recommend\nthat special consideration be shown one or more of the fourth, fifth, or sixth\nthe breakage is considerable.\n\n"} {"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8l6\n\n[Agricultural\n\nWith fewer grades specializing in this work, it is usually possible\nto secure more time, larger plots, and as there are fewer teachers concerned,\ngrades.\n\nthose supervising the work can more efficiently assist in it.\n\nIt would seem\n\nwise, however, that every child's life be so ordered as to offer him a constant\n\nopportimity to interest himself in living things.\n\nDoubtless most children,\nwould sooner or later develop such an interest, which if properly\nfostered would prove a source of pleasure and profit, enriching life in a way\nno other interest can. I therefore believe that some gardening should be\nif not all,\n\na part of the activities of all of the lower grades, and suggest community\nplots in cases where individual plots are impracticable.\nlittle\n\nOtherwise, these\n\npeople should take frequent trips about the gardens of others, with\n\nthe teacher, thus keeping alive one of their most valuable instincts, and\nnurturing it for more active encouragement later on.\n\nThe fourth grade could add to the interest of the geography work by\nplanting and caring for small plots of the cereals, fiber-plants, forage crops,\nfield crops, etc.\n\nThe fifth grade seems well adapted to the general garden-\n\ning, the sixth grade to floriculture, the seventh to the propagation and care\n\nof fruits and ornamental forms, and the eighth to more scientific agriculture.\nThese indicate the leading motives of the work we are trying to carry on in\n\nthe different grades.\n\nThe floriculture work consists in the raising of peren-\n\nnial flowers in boxes, transplanting into other flats, then into the open ground\n\nor into pots. In this and related phases of work, we are making use of lathhouses or cold-frames at most of the schools where much gardening is done.\n\nAs a rule, it is impossible for a teacher to do good gardening with a class\nof more than twenty pupils at a time.\n\nThis is especially true with younger\n\npupils and at the beginning of the work.\n\nAs most grade classes are at least\n\ntwice that size, some means of division of class is most desirable.\neffected in different ways in different cases.\n\nThis is\n\nThe girls may be attending a\n\ncookery class while the boys are in the garden, and the girls do their gardening while the boys take sloyd, etc.\n\nA serious problem confronting aU schools where much gardening is\nattempted is the care of plants over the long sunmier vacation. It is a mistake to leave the gardens to themselves, resulting in a great loss in educational value to the school.\n\nIn one way or another, schools should and will\n\nfind some way out of the difficulty.\n\nOur board of education has greatly\nencouraged us in this matter by employing janitors to care for their buildings\n\nand grounds, including the gardens, during vacation, on half-pay.\n\nAnticipating this, we planned our spring planting so as to include such vegetables as tomato, squash,\n\npumpkin, corn, cucumbers, etc.\n\nAs a result,\n\nmany of our gardens were at their best at commencement, or later. Moreover, in many cases janitors will be able to profit considerably by harvesting\nsuch crops as mature early in the summer. In several cases, the gardens will\nbe carried along as part of our siunmer courses, and we hope to make this\ncontribute toward the success of these gardens another year.\n\nThere is no\n\n"} {"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nAGRICULTURE AND GARDENING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n817\n\nreason why we in California should not keep our gardens going the year\n\naround, if the project is organized with that end in view.\n\nHome gardening, of one form or another, is a most logical outcome of\nthe school gardening experiences.\nafiforded gardening, to\n\nDuring the past year, Los Angeles has\n\na greater or lesser degree, to more than 25,000\n\nchildren in her grammar schools.\n\nOver 15,000 of these have interested\n\nthemselves in home gardening;\n\nmany have engaged in the work on rather a\n\nlarge scale, for such amateurs.\n\nWe hope another year to be able to offer\n\nthese little gardeners much more encouragement in their efforts to plant and\n\ncare for home gardens.\n\nIt is our belief that such extension work properly\ncomes under the head of legitimate education, and what little has been done\nalong this line, thus far, clearly indicates that it pays a big dividend. In\nsome of our schools, we are employing \"continuation\" garden teachers;\n\nthey receive $25 per month extra for after-school instruction in gardening.\nPart of this time is spent at the school garden, and part in visiting home\n\nThe latter appears to possess the greater value, especially where\nThe neighborhood\nabout one of the schools largely attended by foreigners maintains nearly\nfour hundred of these little home gardens, and their influence upon that\nsection has proven of much benefit. It is no wonder that some of our\ngardens.\n\nthe visits are paid to the homes of our little foreigners.\n\nteachers willingly carry on this work without thought of the financial remu-\n\nneration which such deserves.\n\nThe schools of our city have been holding the exhibits of their work\nat their respective buildings this spring, and in about fifty schools these\n\nhave included both flower and vegetable exhibits from the home gardens\nthat have been planted and cared for by the pupils. Awards of plain\nribbons were made, and both parents and children were greatly interested\nin these events. The school gardens were usually not disturbed, but were\nawarded ribbons as they stood. Such exhibits prove a very efficient means\nof arousing interest in gardening.\n\nAfter carefully comparing the results obtained from various methods of\noperating gardens, under different conditions,\n\nwe find ourselves tending\n\ntoward the adoption, tentatively, of some such plan as follows:\n\nWe advo-\n\ncate, first of all, that a border about three feet wide be left about the garden\n\nfor perennial flowers.\n\nThat width will accommodate a tall growing form\n\nfor the rear and a lower growing one in front of it.\n\nInside of the border,\n\nwe lay out a walk, from two to three feet wide, and also a wide central path,\nunless the garden is narrow.\n\nWe usually have our water hydrants along\n\nthe central path, and it would seem that even in the eastern states, plenty\nof water should be at hand at all times.\n\nA few crosswalks are allowed for\n\nconvenience, but we do not encourage the method in use in some gardens of\nsplitting the space into many small plots.\n\nWe aim to secure rows at least\n\nten feet long, and do not believe that it is desirable to have each individual\nplot separated from its neighbors by paths.\n\nWhere desirable, strings may\n\n"} {"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n8i8\n\n(Agricultural\n\nbe stretched to indicate these plots; pupils working opposite each other may\nbe asked to agree on the crops they plant, and thus make the rows continuous and of the same planting. If pupils wish to plant in fantastic\ndesigns, they should be encouraged to confine such to the home garden.\nWe reserve one plot for perennial garden herbs and vegetables and\nanother for cuttings of grapes, figs, etc., also for raising seedlings to bud.\n\nAnother portion of the garden is set aside for flowers, because we believe\nit is better to segregate them, in order that some sort of color scheme may\nbe employed and that idea taught, than to mix them promiscuously among\nthe vegetables.\n\nIn many cases, desirable effects are secured by planting\n\nborders of flowers along the main walks.\n\nAnother idea that we have come to use largely in our gardens is to have\nour paths raised about two inches above the plots.\n\nStakes are set at promi-\n\nnent points, and by stretching strings along the paths they may be trued at\n\nany time, and kept in good condition. This suggestion applies more, howAgain, it would appear that\never, to warmer sections with light rainfall.\nand\nenergy\nplow\nup\nan entire garden and start\nof\ntime\nto\nit is a great waste\ntime.\nOur\nplan\nis\nlay\nall over again each\nto\nout the garden carefully, and\nthen leave it undisturbed, save for spading the plots thoroly.\n\n"} {"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nGENERAL INDEX\nNames of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.]\n\nAct of Incorporation, i\nAddresses of Welcome (William Spry),\n(Rudolph\n(A. C. Nelson), 27;\n25;\nBlankenburg), 104; (M. G. Brumbaugh), 105\nAdee, John N. ^The Shortcomings of\nNormal-School Graduates, 524\nAdministration of Educational Hygiene\n(Louis W. Rapeer), 649\nAdiministration of Health Departments,\nA (Louis W. Rapeer), 649; B (R. W.\nCoRWDsr), 659; C (Anna I. Jenkins),\n662\nAdministration of Health Departments\nThe Colorado Plan (R. W. Corwin), 659\nAdministration of Higher Education (Edwin Boone Craighead), 502; (C. A.\n\n—\n\nArt and American Life (Robert B.\nHarshe), 581\nArt Centers, The Schools as, 586\nArt Instruction in the Elementary Schools,\nThe Relation between the Home and, 589\nArticulation of High ochools and Colleges,\nThird Report of the Committee on the,\n\n489\nAyres, Leonard\n\nDuniway), 507; (Paul H. Geummann),\nAdvance Movement of Teachers of English\n(James F. Hosic), 91\nAgricultural College to the State Normal\nSchool, The Relation of the, 516\nAgricultural Teaching and Social Center\n\nWork for Rural Communities, In What\n\nWay Can the Nature-Study Movement\nBe of Assistance to ? 803\nAgriculture, Report of the Committee on\nCourses of Study in, 804\nAgriculture and Gardening in the Public\nSchools (Clayton F. Palmer), 812\nAgriculture and Related Subjects Would\nHelp the Public Schools, How the Adoption of a Course of Study in, 808\nAlder, Louise M. ^The Effect of the\nScientific Spirit in Education upon the\nKindergarten in Relation to Materials,\n\n—\n\n435\n\nAlderman, L. R.\n\n—Measuring Results, 64;\n\nSchool Credit for Home Industrial Work,\n178\nAley, Robert J. Secretary's Minutes,\nNational Coimdl of Education (Philadelphia Meeting), 360; (Salt Lake City\nMeeting), 406; Discussion, 414\nAlger, John L. Discussion, 541\nAllen, Ira M. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Secondary Education,\n469; Secretary's Minutes, Department\nof Science Instruction, 695\nApplication of the Principles of Scientific\nManagement (F. E. Spaulding), 259\nArithmetic as a Factor in the Economy of\nTime, Some Eliminations in the Content\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nof, 464\n\n\"Art, Life, Too, Is an,\" 595\n\n819\n\n—\n\nP. The Economy of\nTime thru Testing the Course of Study\nand Time Allotment, 241\nBales, Alba Some Ideals in Home\n\n—\n\nEconomics Teaching, 597\n\nBarnard,\n\nJ.\n\nLynn\n\n—The Teaching of\n\nCivics in Elementary\nSchools, 84\n\nand Secondary\n\n—Report of the\n\nBates, Mary Elizabeth\nCommittee on School\nDiscussion, 647\n\nHealth,\n\n792;\n\n—\n—\n\nCitizen Co-operation with\nthe Schools, 795\nBennion, Adam Discussion, 682\nBest Form of National Aid to State Systems of Instruction from the Viewpoint\nof a County Superintendent (E. M.\n\nBeach, C. E.\n\nRapp), 307\nBest Method of Apportioning and Administering State Aid (David Snedden), 311\nBishop, E. C. Report of the Committee\non Courses of Study in Agriculture, 804;\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of\nRural and Agricultural Education, 801\nBlankenburg, Rudolph Address of Welcome, 104\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nBen How to Measure the\nEfficiency of Teachers, 290; Discussion,\n\nBlewett,\n401\n\nBlood Pressure as an Indication of Condition (W. R. Tyndale), 668\nBoard, Fimctions and Limitations of the\nGoverning, 502\nBolin, Jakob Gymnastics as an Orthopedic Prophylactic in the School, 688\nBradford, Mary C. C. Education as the\nInterpretation of Life, 70; The Heart of\nthe Educational Problem, 200\nBrandenburg, W. A. Discussion, 388\nBringing Vocational Work of the Pub-\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSchools Closer to Business Interests\n(E. E. Scribner), 557\nThe Value of Outdoor\nBrooks, Ada\nlic\n\nMae—\n\nKindergartens, 431\nBrooks, Robert C. Summary of the\nReport of the Committee on Teachers'\nSalaries and Cost of Living, 208\nBrown, J. Stanley—Discussion, 414\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n820\n\nBrown, Samuel W.— Some Experiments\nin Elementary-School Organization, 458\nBruce, Frank M. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of School Administration,\n\n—\n\n717\n\nBrumbaugh, M. G.\n\n—Address of Welcome,\n\nBusiness Training, Specially Prepared and\nIncidental, 626\nBy-Laws, 5\nCalendar of Meetings, 13\nCampbell, William H. The Personal\nElement in Our Educational Problems,\n\n—\n\n45\n\n792\n\n—\n\nCarrington, W. T. Preliminary Report\nof Committee on Normal-School Standards, 542; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Normal Schools (Salt Lake City\n\nMeeting), 544\nCary, C. p.—Team Play between City\nSuperintendent and City, 11\nCauses of Deafness (Frank M. Driggs),\n762\nChancellor, W. E. Some Social Uses of\nEducation according to Nature, 72\nChild Hygiene and the Parent (Anna\nIrene Jenkins), 662\nCincinnati Continuation Schools (Edward\nD. Roberts), 190\nCitizen Co-operation with the Schools\n(C. E. Beach), 795\nCity Superintendent and City, Team Play\nbetween, in\n\n—\n\nCivics in Elementary and Secondary\nSchools, The Teaching of, 84\nClark, M. G. The Selection and Tenure\nof Office of Assistant Superintendents\nand Supervisors, 304\nShould the KinderClaxton, p. p.—\ngarten Be Incorporated as an Integral\nPart of the Public-School System? 426\nCoffman, Lotus D. Mobility of the\nTeaching Population in Relation to\n\n—\n\nWhy\n\n—\n\nEconomy of Time, 234\nCole, Lucy K. Music and\n\n—\n\nthe Social\n\nProblem, 604\nCollege Entrance, The Cosmopolitan High\nSdiool in Its Relation to, 471\nCollege-Entrance Requirements, Report of\n\nCommittee on, 561\nCommittee on Articulation of High Schools\nand Colleges, Third Report of, 489\nCommittee on College-Entrance Requirements, Report of, 561\nCommittee on Courses of Study in Agriculture, Report of, 804\nCommittee on Economy of Time in Elementary and Secondary Education, A\nReport on Progress by the, 217\nCommittee on Grammatical Nomenclature,\nReport of the Joint Committee of the\nNational\n\nEducation\n\nModem\n\nLanguage\nand the\n\nAmerica,\n\nConmiittee on Health Problems in Education, Report of the, 380\nCommittee on Health Problems in Education, Report of the Joint, 416, 418\nCommittee on Improvement of Physics\nTeaching, Report of, 712\nCommittee on Janitor Service, Report of,\n696\nCommittee on Normal-School Libraries,\nReport of, 747\nConmiittee on Normal-School Standards,\nPreliminary Report of, 542\nCommittee on School Health, Report of,\n\nAssociation, the\nAssociation\nof\nAmerican Philo-\n\nlogical Association, 205, 315\n\nCommittee on Teachers* Salaries and Cost\nof Living,\n\nSummary of the Report of,\n\n208\n\nCommittee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost\nof Living for 191 2-13, Statement of the\n\nWork and Proposals of, 408\nCommittee on Tests and Standards of\nEfficiency in Schools and School Systems, Report of, 392\nConmiittee on Uniform Nomenclature\nin English Grammar, Report of the\nNational Education Association, 202\n\nCommittee on Vocational Education and\nVocational Guidance, Report of, 573\nCommittees on Education, Reports of, 202\n\nCommunity\n\nin\nSecondary Education,\nTangible Ways of Using a, 492\nCommunity Needs, Rural Schools and, 592\n\n—^The Home-School\n—^An Experiment in Household\nEduca-\n\nCondon, Randall J.\ntion, 184\n\nConduct\n\nof a Course in Literature for\nChildren (James F. Hosic), 730\nConnecting the Public Schools with the\nPublic Library (Howard R. Driggs),\n729\nContinuation School and Public Education\n(Carroll G. Pearse), 571\nCook, John W. Discussion, 534\nCorson, O. T. Response to Addresses\nof Welcome, 107\nCoRWiN, R. W. Report of the Joint\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nCommittee\n\non\n\nHealth\n\nProblems\n\nin\n\nEducation, 418; The Administration\nof Health Departments ^The Colorado\nPlan, 659; Discussion, 640\nCosmopolitan High School in Its Relation\nto College Entrance (M. H. Stuart), 471\nCourse of Study, the Determination of\nthe Relative Value of Details within\nthe, 279\nCourses of Study for Children between\nTwelve and Sixteen Years of Age,\nDifferentiation in the, 292\n\n—\n\n—\n\nCraighead, Edwin Boone ^The Functions and Limitations of the Governing\nBoard, 502\n\n—\n\nCrane, Caroline Bartlett \"Life, Too,\nIs an Art,\" 595; The School Plant as a\nPublic-Health Asset, 78\nCrissman, George R. Discussion, 376\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nCurriculum, The Unifonn Minimum, with\nUniform Examinations, 131\n\nDanger of Overspecialization in Work in\nScience (J. H. Worst), 703\nDavenport, C. B. Fit and Unfit Matings,\n\n—\n\n772\n\nDavidson, William M.\n\n—How to Measure\n\nthe Efficiency of Teachers, 286\nDeafness, Causes of, 762\nDemocracy, The High School and, 95\nDepartment of Business Education, 619;\nof Child Hygiene, 637; of Elementary\nEducation, 447; of Higher Education,\n501; of Kindergarten Education, 425;\nLibrary, 727; of Manual Training and\nArt Education, 553; of Music Education, 601; National Council, 355; of\nNormal Schools, 523 of Physical Education, 667;\nof Rural and Agricultural\nEducation, 801; of School Administration, 717; of School Patrons, 785; of\nScience Instruction, 695; of Secondary\nEducation, 469; of Special Education,\n761; of Superintendence, 99\nDetermination of the Relative Value of\nDetails within the Course of Study (A.\nDuncan Yocum), 279\nDeveloping a School System (C. S. Meek),\n172\nDeveloping the Co-operation and Initiative\nof Teachers (Charles H. Judd), 149\nDifferentiation in the Courses of Study for\nChildren between Twelve and Sixteen\nYears of Age (S. L. Heeter), 292\nDifferentiation of Courses in Normal\nSchools (Guy E. Maxwell), 536\nDodson, John M. Discussion, 389\nDoRSEY, Susan M. Our High School and\n;\n\n—\n—\n\nIts Girls, 495\n\nDream, The Need to, 159\n\n—Causes of Deafness,\nDriggs, Howard R. — Connecting the PubSdiools with the Public Library, 729\nDuNiWAY, C. A. —Functions and LimitaDriggs, Frank M.\n762\n\nlic\n\ntions of the President, 507; Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Higher Education, 501\nEconomy of Time in Elementary Educa-\n\nA\n\nB. Wilson), 217;\nB\n(Charles H. Judd), 225; C (Lotus D.\n\ntion,\n\n(H.\n\nCoffman), 234; D (Leonard P. Ayres),\n241\n\nEconomy of Time thru Testing the Course\nof Study and Time Allotment (Leonard\nP. Ayres), 241\nEducation, A Report on Progress by the\n\nCommittee on Economy of Time\nElementary and Secondary, 217\n\nin\n\nEducation, The Administration of Higher,\n502\nEducation, The Continuation School and\nPublic, 571\nEducation, The Home-School ^An Experiment in Household, 184\n\n—\n\n821\n\nEducation according to Nature, Some\nSocial Uses of, 72\nEducation as an interpretation of Life\n(Mary C. C. Bradford), 70\nEducation for Freedom (Charles Zueblin), 82\nEducational Problem, The Heart of the,\n200\nEducational Problems, The Personal Element in Our, 45\nEffect of Altitude on Health (Alfred J.\nRidges), 675\nEffect of Kindergarten Work on Children\nin the Grades (Ernest O. Holland),\n452\nEffect of the Scientific Spirit in Education\nupon the Kindergarten in Relation to\nMaterials (Louise M. Alder), 435\nEffect of the Scientific Spirit in Education\nupon the Kindergarten in Relation to\nthe Distinctive Characteristics of the\nMontessori Method (Elisabeth Ross\nShaw), 439\nEffective Ways of Securing Co-operation\nof all Departments in the Teaching of\nEnglish Composition (James F. Hosic),\n478\nEfficiency of Teachers, How to Measure\nthe, 286, 290\nElementary Education, Economy of Time\nin, 217\nElementary-School Organization, Some\nExperiments in, 458\nElliott, Edward C.\nDiscussion, 147, 398\nEnglish, If I Were a Teacher of, 621\n\n—\n\nEnglish,\n\nThe\n\nAdvance\n\nMovement\n\nof\n\nTeachers of, 91\nEnglish Composition, Effective Ways of\nSecuring Co-operation of all Departments in the Teaching of, 478\nEthics, Music and, 602\nEvening Center, The Schoolhouse ^What\nIt Is, What It Costs, and What It Pays,\n58\nExceptional Children: Why? (M. P. E.\nGroszmann), 767\nFaculty, Functions and Limitations of the,\nSio\nFairchild, Edward T. President's Address: The Future of the National Edu-\n\n—\n\n—\n\ncation Association, 31\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFargo, Lucile F.\n\nTraining High-School\nStudents in the Use of the Library, 756\nFavill, Henry Baird\nDiscussion, 420\nFerguson, James Discussion, 415\nFinances, Rural-School, 719\nFiNEGAN, Thomas E. Uniformity of\nStandards in School Administration, 122\nFit and Unfit Matings (C. B. Davenport),\n772\nFox, Mary B. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education,\n425\nFuncrions and Limitations of the Faculty\n(Paul H. Grummann), 510\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n822\n\nFunctions and Limitations of the Governing Board (Edwin Boone Craighead),\n\n502\nFunctions and Limitations of the President\n(C. A. Duniway), 507\nGalloway, T. W. Sex Instruction, 640\nGeaehart, May ^The Relation between\nthe Home and Art Instruction in the\nElementary Schools, 589\nGlynn, Frank L. ^Trade Schools in the\nPublic-School System, 721\nGrammar, Report of the Committee of the\nNational Education Association on Uniform Nomenclature in English, 202\nGranmiatical Nomenclature, Report of the\nJoint Committee of the National Education Association, the Modem Language\nAssociation of America, and the American Philological Association on, 205, 315\nGreen, J. M. Discussion, 402\nGreenwood, Barbara ^Ways and Means\nof Increasing Effective Kindergarten\nSupervision, 427\nGroszmann, M. p. E. Exceptional Children: Why? 767; Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Special Education, 761\nGrummann, Paul H. ^The Functions and\nLimitations of the Faculty, 510\n\n——\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nGwmN, J. M.—The Selection and Tenure\n\nHiBBEN, John G.—The Mechanical Mind,\n198\n\nHigh School and Democracy (Thomas\nJesse Jones), 95\n\nHigh School and Its Girls, Our, 495\nHigh-School Courses (Milton C. Potter),\n48s\n\nHigh School\n\nin Its Relation to College\nEntrance, The Cosmopolitan, 471\nHigh-School Period as a Testing-Time\n\n(Clarence D. Kingsley), 49\n\n—\n\nHines, Linnaeus N. Discussion, 638\nHints to Supervisors (William A. Wetzell), 613\nHoag, Ernest B. ^Discussion, 385\nHoLDEN, Perry G. Rural Schools and\nCommunity Needs, 592\nHolland, Ernest O.—The Effect of\nKindergarten Work on Children in the\nGrades, 452; What the Schools Can Do\nto Meet the Demands of Both Industry\nand General Science, 707\nHolt, E. H. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business Education, 619\nHome Economics Teaching, Some Ideals\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nin, 597\n\n—\n\nHome-School An Experiment in Household Education (Randall J. Condon),\n184\n\nof Office of Assistant Superintendents\n\nHorn, Paul W.—Team Play within the\n\nand Supervisors, 303\nGymnastics as an Orthopedic Prophylactic\nin the School (Jakob Bolin), 688\nHale, William G. Report of the Joint\nCommittee of the National Education\nAssociation, The Modem Language\nAssociation of America, and the American Philological Association, on Grammatical Nomenclature, 205\nHanmer, Lee F. ^The Schoolhouse Eve-\n\nSystem, 116\nHosic, James F. Effective Ways of Securing Co-operation of all Departments in\nthe Teaching of English Composition,\n478; The Advance Movement of Teachers of English, 91; The Conduct of a\nCourse in Literature for Children, 730\nHow Can Supervisors and Assistant Super-\n\nning Center, What It Is, What It Costs,\nand What It Pays, 58\nHanus, Paul H. Improving School Sys-\n\nand Teachers ? (Frederick M. Hunter),\n300\nHow the Adoption of a Course of Study in\nAgriculture and Related Subjects Would\nHelp the Public Schools Qosiah Main),\n808\nHow to Measure the Efl&ciency of Teachers\n(William M. Davidson), 286; (Ben\nBlewett), 290\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntems by Scientific Management\n\n—Under-\n\nlying Principles, 247\n\nHarshe, Robert B.\n\n—Art and American\n\nLife, 581\n\nHayes, D. W.—What the Normal Schools\nCan Do and Ought to Do with the Training of Teachers for Rural Communities,\n\nintendents Render the Most Efl&cient\nService in Their Relations to Principals\n\nHunter, Frederick M.\nvisors\n\n546\nHealth,\n\nReport of the Committee\nSchool, 792\nHealth, The Effect of Altitude on, 675\n\non\n\nHealth Departments, The Administration\nof, 649\nHealth Departments, The Administration\nof ^The Colorado Plan, 659\nHealth Problems in Education, Report of\nthe Committee on, 380, 416, 418\nHeart of the Educational Problem (Mary\nC. C. Bradford), 200\n\n—\n\nHeeter,\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDifferentiation in the\nS. L.\nCourses of Study for Children between\nTwelve and Sixteen Years of Age, 292\n\n—How Can Super-\n\nand Assistant Superintendents\n\nRender the Most Efl&cient Service in\nTheir Relations to Principals and Teachers ? 300\nHurt, Huber W. ^The Vocational Motive\nin College, 514\nHyatt, Edward Rural-School Finances,\n719\nHygiene, The Administration of Educational, 649\nHygiene (Child) and the Parent, 662\nHygiene in Rural Schools, The Special\nProblems of School, 638\nIf I Were a Teacher of English (Frances\nEffinger Raymond), 621\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"} {"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nImproving School Systems by Scientific\nManagement, A (Paul H. Hanus), 247;\nB (F. E. Spaulding), 259; C (A.\nDuncan Yocum), 279\nImproving School Systems by Scientific\nManagement\nUnderlying Principles\n(Paul H. Hanus), 247\nIn What Way Can the Nature-Study\n\n—\n\nMovement Be of Assistance to Agricultural Teaching and Social Center Work\nCommunities? (J. H. Paul),\n\nfor Rural\n\n803\nIndustrial Work, School Credit for Home,\n\n178\nJanitor Service, Report of the Committee\non, 696\n\nJenkins, Anna Irene\n\n—\n\nChild Hygiene and\nthe Parent, 662; Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Child Hygiene, 637\nJenkins, Frances ^The Training of\nTeachers in Service Adjusting the\nNormal-School Graduate to the City\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSystem, 448\nJessup, Walter A. Some Eliminations\nin the Content of Arithmetic as a Factor\nin the Economy of Time, 464\nJohnson, David B. Response to Addresses of Welcome, 29; Discussion, 412\nJones, Thomas Jesse ^The High School\nand Democracy, 95\nJournal of Proceedings of the General\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\nSessions, 19\n\n—\n\nA Seven-Year Elementary School, 225; Developing the Cooperation and Initiative of Teachers, 149\nKendall, C. N. Discussion, 398\nKeppel, Mark Rural-School Organization and Administration, 718\nKeyes, J. J, ^The Relation of Supervisory\nJuDD, Charles H.\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nAssistants to the Superintendent, 299\nKiudergarten Be Incorporated as an Integral Part of the Public-School System,\nWhy Should the? 426\nKindergarten in Relation to Materials,\nThe Effect of the Scientific Spirit in\nEducation upon the, 435\nKindergarten in Relation to the Distinctive Characteristics of the Montessori\n\nMethod, The Effect of the Scientific\nSpirit in Education upon the, 439\nKindergarten Supervision, Ways and\n\nMeans of Increasing Effective, 427\nElindergarten Work on Children in the\nGrades, The Effect of, 452\nKindergartens, The Value of Outdoor, 431\n\nD.—The\n\nClarence\n\nKingsley,\n\nHighSchool Period as a Testing-Time, 49\n\n—\n\nKiNNEAR, William B. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Music Education,\n601\n\n—\n\n^The Need to Dream, 159\nLibraries, Rural-School; Their Needs and\n\nLee, Joseph\n\nPossibilities, 740\n\nLibrary, Connecting the Public Schools\nwith the Public, 729\n\n823\n\nLibrary, Training High-School Students\nin the Use of the, 756\nLibrary Hour in the School (Harriet A.\n\nWood), 736\n\"Life, Too, Is an Art\"\n\n(Caroline Bart-\n\nLETT Crane), 595\nLiterature for Children, The Conduct of a\n\nCourse in, 730\n\nMacdonald, Neil\nSchool, 67\n\nMain, Josiah\n\nC—The New Rural\n\n—\n\n^How the Adoption of a\nCourse of Study in Agriculture and\nRelated Subjects Would Help the Public\nSchools, 808; Nature and Content of\nScience in the Rural School and Its\nRelation to Secondary Science, 700\nMarkley, J. H. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Elementary Education, 447\nMatings, Fit and Unfit, 772\n\n—\n\n—\n\nGuy E. Differentiation\nCourses in Normal Schools, 536\n\nMaxwell,\n\nMcMuRRY, Frank M.\nMinimum Curriculimi\n\nof\n\n—^The Uniform\n\nwith Uniform\nExaminations, 131\nMeasuring Results (L. R. Alderman), 64\nMechanical Mind (John G. Hibben), 198\nMeek, C. S. Developing a School System, 172; Discussion, 398\nMeetings, Calendar of, 13\nMendenhall, Ida M. Report of the\nCommittee on Normal-School Libraries,\n747\nMinimima Essentials, Teaching and Testing\nthe Teaching of, 55\nMobility of the Teaching Population in\nRelation to Economy of Time (Lotus D.\nCoffman), 234\nMoore, Benjamin F. ^Discussion, 378\nMoore, E. C. Discussion, 145\nMoral Values in Pupil Self-Govemment\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n(Henry Neumann), 41\nMost Efficient Service Which\n\nAssistant\n\nSuperintendents or Supervisors Can\nRender, A (Milton C. Potter), 296;\n(J. J.\n\nB (Frederick M.\nC (J. M. Gwinn), 303;\n\nKeyes), 299;\n\nHunter), 300;\n\n(M. C. Clark), 304\n\nMoTT, Thomas A.\n\n—\n\n^The Schools as Art\nCenters, 586\nMusic and Ethics (A. E. Winship), 602\nMusic and the Social Problem (Lucy K.\n\nCole), 604\n\nMusic That Pays Dividends (Alice L.\nReynolds), 609\nNational Council of Education, ConstituOfficers for 1913-14, 357;\ntion, 3ss;\n\nMinutes\nSecretary's\nMembers, 358;\nSecrey (Philadelphia Meeting), 360;\ntary's Minutes (Salt Lake City Meeting),\n^\"\n406\nThe\nNational Education Association,\nFuture of the, 31\nNature and Content of Science in the Rural\nSchool and Its Relation to Secondary\nScience (Joslah Main), 700\n\n"} {"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n824\n\nRapeer, Loms W.\n\nNeed to Dream Joseph Lee), 159\n\n—\n\nNelson, A. C. Address of Welcome, 27\nNelson, Esther Secretary's Minutes,\n\n—\n\nLibrary Department, 727\n\nNeumann, Henky—Moral Values in Pupil\nSelf-Govemment, 41\n\n—The Administration\n\nof Educational Hygiene, 649\n\nRapp, E. M.—The Best Form of National\nAid to State Systems of Instruction from\nthe Viewpoint of a County Superintendent, 307\n\n— I Were\n\nNew Rural School (Neil C. Macdonald),\n\nRaymond, Frances Effinger\n\n67\nNormal-School Graduates, The Shortcomings of, 524\nNormal-School Libraries, Report of the\nConmiittee on, 747\nNormal-School Standards, Preliminary Report of Conmiittee on, 542\nNormal Schools, Differentiation of Courses\nin, 536\nOden, C. V. Typewriting, 632\nOfficers of General Association for 191 2-13,\n15; of Departments, 16\nOrthopedic Prophylactic in the School,\nGymnastics as an, 688\nOur High School and Its Girls (Susan M.\n\na Teacher of English, 621\nRelation between the Home and Art Instruction in the Elementary Schools\n(May Gearhart), 589\n\n—\n\nDorsey), 495\nPalmer, Clayton\n\nF.\n\n—^Agriculture and\n\nGardening in the Public Schools, 812\nPaul, J. H.—In What Way Can the\nNature-Study Movement Be of Assistance to Agriadtural Teaching and Social\nCenter Work for Rural Conununities ?\n803\nPearse, Carroll G. The Continuation\n\n—\n\nSchool\n\nand\n\nPublic\n\nEducation,\n\n571;\n\nDiscussion, 413\n\nElement in Our Educational\nProblems (William H. Campbell), 45\n\nPersonal\n\nPhillips, E. M.\n\n—\n\nDiscussion, 745\nPhysical Training in the Public Schools,\nPresent Needs of, 683\nPhysical Training in the Rural School\n\n(Orson Ryan), 677\nPhysics Teaching, Report of Committee on\nImprovement of, 712\nPoland, A. B. Discussion, 143\nPosse, Baroness Rose Present Needs\nof Physical Training in the Public\nSchools, 683\nPotter, Milton C. High-School Courses,\n48s; The Relation of Supervisory Assistants to the Superintendent, 296\nPresent Needs of Physical Training in the\nPublic Schools (Baroness Rose Posse),\n683\nPresident, Functions and Limitations of\nthe, 507\nPresident's Address The Future of the\nEducation Association (Ed^:, National\nward T. Fairchild), 31\nPublic-Health Asset, The School Plant as a,\n78\nPutnam, Helen C. Report of the Committee on Janitor Service, 696\nRandall, J. A. Report of Conmiittee on\nImprovement of Physics Teaching, 712;\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of\nManual Training and Art Education, 553\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n^If\n\nRelation of Supervisory Assistants to the\nSuperintendent (Melton C. Potter),\n296; (J. J. Keyes), 299\nRelation of the Agricultural College to the\nState Normal School (A. V. Storm), 516\nReorganization of the Teaching Profession\n(Henry Suzzallo), 362\nReport (Third) of Committee on Articulation of High Schools and Colleges, 489\nReport of Committee on College-Entrance\nRequirements, 561\nReport of Committee on Courses of Study\nin Agriculture (E. C. Bishop), 804\n\nReport of Committee (Joint) on Grammatical Nomenclature, 315; Report of\nCommittee of the National Education\nAssociation on Uniform Nomenclature\nin English Grammar (C. R. Rounds),\n202; Report of the Joint Committee of\nthe National Education Association,\nthe Modern Language Association of\nAmerica, and the American Philological\nAssociation, on Grammatical Nomenclature (William G. Hale), 205\nReport of Committee on Health Problems\nin Education (Thomas D. Wood), 380\nReport of Committee (Joint) on Health\nProblems in Education (Thomas D.\nWood), 416; (R. W. Corwin), 418\nReport of Committee on Improvement of\nPhysics Teaching (J. A. Randall), 712\nReport of Committee on Janitor Service\n(Helen C. Putnam), 696\nReport of Committee on Normal-Schoo\nLibraries, 747\n\nReport (Preliminary) of Committee on\nNormal-School Standards (W. T. Carrington), 542\nReport of Committee on School Health\n(Mary Elizabeth Bates), 792\nReport of Committee on Teachers' Salaries\nand Cost of Living, Summary of\n(Robert C. Brooks), 208; Statement\nof the Work and Proposals of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of\n\nLiving for 191 2-13 (Joseph Swain), 408\nReport of Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools and School\n\nSystems (George Drayton Strayer),\n392\nReport of Committee on Vocational Education and Vocational Guidance, 573\n\nReport on Progress by Committee on\nEconomy of Time in Elementary and\n\nJ\n\n"} {"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nSecondary Education (H. B. Wilson),\n217\n\nReports of State Joint Committees and\nAffiliated Organizations, 191 2-13,\n\nSum-\n\nmary of, 786\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome (O. T.\nCorson), 107; (David B. Johnson), 29\nReynolds, Alice Louise Music That\nPays Dividends, 609\nRice, J. M. Discussion, 404\nRice, O. S* Rural-School Libraries: Their\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\nNeeds and Possibilities, 740\n\n—\n\nRidges, Alfred J. The Effect of Altitude on Health, 675\n\nRoberts, Edward D.\n\n—\n\nThe Cincinnati\nContinuation Schools, 190\nRounds, C. R. Report of Committee of\nthe National Education Association on\nUniform Nomenclature in English Grammar, 202\nRound Tables: Superintendents of Larger\nCities, 286; Superintendents of Smaller\nCities, 296; State and County Superintendents, 307\nRural School, Nature and Content of\nScience in the, and Its Relation to\nSecondary Science, 700\nRural School, Physical Training in the,\n677\nRural School, The New, 67\nRural-School Finances (Edward Hyatt),\n719\nRural-School Libraries; Their Needs and\nPossibilities (O. S. Rice), 740\nRural-School Organization and Administration (Mark Keppel), 718\nRural Schools, The Sanitation of, 380\nRural Schools, The Special Problems of\nSchool Hygiene in, 638\nRural Schools and Community Needs\n(Perry G. Holden), 592\nRyan, Orson Physical Training in the\nRural School, 677\nSalaries and Cost of Living, Summary of\n\n—\n\n—\n\nReport\n208\n\nof\n\nCommittee\n\non\n\nTeachers',\n\n825\n\nSchool Systems, Report of Committee on\nTests and Standards of Efficiency in\nSchools and, 392\nSchool Systems and Their Outcome, Some\nExperiments in, 172\nSchoolhouse Evening Center—What It Is,\n\nWhat It Costs, and What It Pays (Lee\nF. Hanmer), 58\nSchools, Citizen Co-operation\n\nwith the,\n\n795\nSchools, The Cincinnati Continuation, 190\nSchools, There Are Many Different Kinds\nof Boys and Girls for\nAre Needed\nMany Different Types of, 567\nSchools as Art Centers (Thomas A. Mott),\n\nWhom\n\nS86\nScience,\n\nDanger of Overspecialization\n\nin\n\nWork in, 703\nScience, What the Schools Can Do to Meet\nthe Demands of Both Industry and\nGeneral, 707\nScience in the Rural School and Its Relation to Secondary Science,\n\nNature and\n\nContent of, 700\nScientific Management, Application of the\n\nPrinciples of, 259\nScientific\n\nManagement, Underljdng Prin-\n\nciples in Improving School Systems by,\n\n247\n\nScribner,\n\nE.\n\nE.\n\n—Bringing Vocational\n\nWork of the Public Schools Closer to\nBusiness Interests, 557\nSelection and Tenure of Office of Assistant\n\nSuperintendents and Supervisors (J. M.\nGwinn), 303; (M. G. Clark), 304\nSelf-Govemment, Moral Values in Pupil,\n41\nSeven-Year Elementary School (Charles\nH. Judd), 225\nSex Instruction (T. W. Galloway), 640\nShaw, Elisabeth Ross The Effect of the\nScientific Spirit in Education upon the\nKindergarten in Relation to the Distinctive Characteristics of the Montessori Method, 439\nShawan, Jacob A. Discussion, 384\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSalaries\n\nShawkey, M. p.—What\n\nable in Teaching, 169\nSchool, A Seven-Year Elementary, 225\nSchool Administration, Uniformity of\nStandards in, 122\nSchool Credit for Home Industrial Work\n\nwith the Single-Room School ? 38\nShields, C. L.\nDiscussion, 674\nShortcomings of Normal-School Graduates\n(John N. Adee), 524\nSingle-Room School, What Shall We Do\nwith the? 38\nSnedden, David ^The Best Method of\nApportioning and Administering State\nAid, 311\nSnyder, Z. X. ^The Training of Teachers\n\nand Cost of Living for 191 2-13,\nStatement of the Work and Proposals of\nthe Committee on Teachers', 408\nSanitation of Rural Schools (Thomas D.\nWood), 380\nSchaeffer, Nathan C. The Unmeasur-\n\n—\n\n(L. R. Alderman), 178\n\nSchool Plant as a Public-Health Asset\n(Caroline Bartlett Crane), 78\nSchool System, Developing a, 172\nSchool System, Trade Schools in the\nPublic-, 721\nSchool Systems, Improving, by Scientific\nManagement, 247\n\nShall\n\nWe Do\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nin Normal Schools and Colleges of Education, 545\nSocial Problem, Music and the, 604\nSome Eliminations in the Content of Arithmetic as a Factor in the Economy of\n\nTime (Walter A. Jessup), 464\nSome Experiments in Elementary-School\nOrganization (Samuel W. Brown), 458\n\n"} {"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n,\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n826\n\nSome Experiments in School Systems and\nTheir Outcome, A (C. S. Meek), 172;\n\nB (L. R. Alderman), 178; C (Randall\n\nD\n\nCondon), 184;\n(Edward D. Roberts), ipo\nSome Ideals in Home Economics Teaching\nJ.\n\n(Alba Bales), 597\n\nSome Social Uses of Education according\nto Nature (W. E. Chancellor), 72\nSpaulding, F. E.—The Application of\n\nthe Principles of Scientific Management,\n259\nSpecial Problems of School Hygiene in\nRural Schools (Thomas D. Wood), 638\nSpecially Prepared and Incidental Business Training (R. R. Stuart), 626\nSpry, William—Address of Welcome, 25\nStandards in School Administration, Uniformity of, 122\nState Aid, The Best Method of Apportioning and Administering, 311\nState Reports of Joint Committees and\nAffiliated Organizations, 191 2-13, Summary of, 786\nState Systems of Instruction, The Best\nForm of National Aid to, from the Viewpoint of a County Superintendent, 307\nStatement of the Work and Proposals of the\nCommittee on Teachers' Salaries and\nCost of Living for 191 2-13 (Joseph\n\nSwain), 408\n\n—\n\nStewart, Charlotte Discussion, 687\nStone, C!. W. Discussion, 531\nStorm, A. V.—The Relation of the Agricultural College to the State Normal\nSchool, 516\n\n—\n\nStrayer,\n\nGeorge Drayton\n\n—Report of\n\nthe Committee on Tests and Standards\nof Efficiency in Schools and School Sys-\n\ntems, 392\nStuart, M. H.—The Cosmopolitan High\nSchool in Its Relation to College Entrance, 471\nStuart, R. R. Specially Prepared and\nIncidental Business Training, 626\nSummary of Reports of State Joint Com-\n\n—\n\nmittees and Affiliated Organizations,\n1912-13, 786\nSuperintendent, The Relation of Supervisory Assistants to the, 296, 299\nSuperintendent and City, Team Play\n\nbetween City, in\nSupervisors, ICnts to, 613\nSupervisors, The Most Efficient Service\nWhich Assistant Superintendents or\nSupervisors Can Render, 296\nSupervisors, The Selection and Tenure of\nOffice of Assistant Superintendents and,\n303, 304\nSupervisors and Assistant Superintendents,\nHow Can They Render the Most Efficient Service in Their Relations to Principals and Teachers? 300\n\nSupervisory Assistants to the Superintendent, The Relation of, 296, 299\n\n—\n\nSuzzALLO, Henry The Reorganization of\nthe Teaching Profession, 362\nSwain, Joseph—Statement of the Work\nand Proposals of the Committee on\nTeachers' Salaries and Cost of Living\nfor 191 2-13, 408\nTangible Ways of Using a Commimity in\nSecondary Education (F. D. Thomson),\n492\n\nTaylor, Blanche P.—Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Patrons, 785\nTeachers, Developing the Co-operation and\nInitiative of, 149\nTeachers, How to Measure the Efficiency\nof, 286, 290\nTeachers for Rural Communities, What the\nNormal Schools Can Do and Ought to Do\nwith the Training of, 546\nTeachers in Normal Schools and Colleges\nof Education, The Training of, 545\nTeachers in Service, The Training of\nAdjusting the Normal-School Graduate\nto the City System, 448\nTeachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, Summary of the Report of the Conmiittee on\n\n208, 408\n\nTeaching, The Unmeasurable in, 169\nTeaching and Testing the Teaching of\nEssentials (Thomas E. Thompson), 55\n\nTeaching of Civics in Elementary and Secondary Schools (J. Lynn Barnard), 84\nTeaching Population in Relation to Economy of Time, Mobility of the, 234\nTeaching Profession, The Reorganization\nof the, 362\nTeam Play between City Superintendent\nand City (C. P. Gary), hi\nTeam Play within the System (Paul W.\n\nHorn), 116\nTenure of Office of Assistant Superintendents and Supervisors, The Selection and,\n303, 304\nBi-\n\nTesting-Time, The High-School Period as\na, 49\nThere Are Many Different Kinds of Boys\nand Girls for Whom Are Needed Many\nDifferent Types of Schools (Arthur\n^1.' Williston), 567\nThompson, Thomas E. Teaching and\nTesting the Teaching of Essentials, 55\nThomson, F. D.—Tangible Ways of Using\na Conmiunity in Secondary Education,\n\n—\n\n^492\n\n—\n\nToRREYSON, B. W. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Superintendence, 99\nTrade Schools in the Public-School 83^tem (Frank L. Glynn), 721\nTraining High-School Students in the Use\nof the Library (Lucile F. Fargo), 756\nTraining of Teachers in Normal Schools\nand Colleges of Education (Z. X.\nSnyder), 545\nTraining of Teachers in Service Adjusting\nthe Normal-School Graduate to the\nCity System (Frances Jenkins), 448\n\n—\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\n—\n\n827\n\nBlood Pressure as an\nIndication of Condition, 668\nTypewriting (C. V. Oden), 632\n^\n\nWhy Should\n\nUiuform Minimum Curriculum with Uniform Examinations (Frank M. Mc-\n\n426\nWilliams, Henry G. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Normal Schools\n\nTyndale, W. R.\nli^^\n\nMurry), 131\nUniformity of Standards in School Administration (Thomas E. Finegan), 122\nUnmeasurable in Teaching (Nathan C.\nSchaeffer), 169\nValue of Outdoor Kindergartens (Ada Mae\nBrooks), 431\nVocational Education and Vocational\nGuidance, Report of the Committee on,\nS73\nVocational Motive in College (Huber W.\nHurt), 514\nVocational Work of the Public Schools\nCloser to Business Interests, Bringing,\n\n—\n\n(Philadelphia Meeting), 523\nWilliston, Arthur L. There Are Many\nDifferent Kinds of Boys and Girls for\nAre Needed Many Different\nTypes of Schools, 567\nWilson, H. B. A Report on Progress by\nthe Committee on Economy of Time in\n\n—\n\nWhom\n\n—\n\nElementary and Secondary Education,\n217\n\n—Music and Ethics, 602\n—The Library Hour\nin the School, 736\nWood, Thomas D. —Report of the Joint\n\nWiNSHTP, A. E.\n\nWood, Harriet A.\n\nCommittee on Health Problems in Edu-\n\n557\n\nWays and Means of Increasmg Effective\nKindergarten\n\nthe Kindergarten Be Incorporated as an Integral Part of the\nPublic-School System? (P. P. Claxton),\n\nSupervision\n\n(Barbara\n\nGreenwood), 427\nWetzell, William A.— Hints to Supervisors, 613\n\nWhat Shall We Do with the Single-Room\nSchool? (M. P. Shawkey), 38\nWhat the Normal Schools Can Do and\nOught to Do with the Training of\nTeachers for Rural Communities (D. W.\nHayes), 546\nWhat the Schools Can Do to Meet the\nDemands of Both Industry and General\nScience (E. O. Holland), 707\n\ncation, 416; Special Problems of School\nHygiene in Rural Schools, 638; The\nSanitation of Rural Schools, 380\nWorst, J. H. Danger of Overspecialization in Work in Science, 703\nWright, Mabel M. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Physical Educa-\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntion,\n\n667\n\nYocuM, A. Duncan\n\n—The Determination\n\nof the Relative Value of Details within\nthe Course of Study, 279; Discussion,\n\n376\nZueblin, Charles\n\ndom, 82\n\n—Education\n\nfor Free-\n\n"} {"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "J\n\n"} {"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n13\n\nN3A13\n1913\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO NOT REMOVE\n\nCARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY\n\n"} {"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}